Cover photographs courtesy of Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. 

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Shared Mobility Primer| i

Technical Report Documentation Page

1. Report No.

FHWA-HOP-16-022 

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle

Shared Mobility: Current Practices and Guiding Principles 

5. Report Date

April 2016 

6. Performing Organization

Code

7. Author(s)

Susan Shaheen (UC Berkeley), Adam Cohen (UC Berkeley), Ismail Zohdy 

(Booz Allen Hamilton)

8. Performing Organization

Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Booz Allen Hamilton Inc.

20 M St. SE, Suite 1000 

Washington, DC 20003 

10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

11. Contract or Grant No.

DTFH61-12-D-00047

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Highway Administration 

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE 

Washington, DC 20590 

13. Type of Report and Period

Covered

October 2014 – March 2016 

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

HOTM

15. Supplementary Notes

The Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative (COTR) was Wayne Berman and Technical Support was 

Allen Greenberg.

16. Abstract

This primer provides an introduction and background to shared mobility; discusses the government’s role; 

reviews success stories; examines challenges, lessons learned, and proposed solutions; and concludes with 

guiding principles for public agencies. The primer provides an overview of current practices in this emerging 

field, and it also looks toward the future in the evolution and development of shared mobility. 

17. Key Words

Shared Mobility, Guiding Principles, 

Transportation Policy, Planning, Operations, 

Carsharing, Bikesharing, Ridesharing, 

Ridesourcing 

18. Distribution Statement

No restrictions

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

Unclassified

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

Unclassified

21. No. of

Pages

120

22. Price

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
Shared Mobility Primer|ii
Shared Mobility Primer|iii

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS

SYMBOL WHEN YOU KNOW MULTIPLY BY TO FIND SYMBOL

LENGTH

in Inches 25.4 millimeters mm

ft Feet 0.305 meters m

yd Yards 0.914 meters m

mi Miles 1.61 kilometers km

AREA

in2 square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2

ft2 square feet 0.093 square meters m2

yd2 square yard 0.836 square meters m2

ac Acres 0.405 hectares ha

mi2 square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2

VOLUME

fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL

gal gallons 3.785 liters L

ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3

yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3

NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3

MASS

oz ounces 28.35 grams g

lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg

T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams 

(or "metric ton")

Mg (or 

"t")

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

F Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9

or (F-32)/1.8

Celsius oC

ILLUMINATION

fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx

fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N

lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa
Shared Mobility Primer|iv

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS (CONTINUED)

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS

SYMBOL WHEN YOU KNOW MULTIPLY BY TO FIND SYMBOL

LENGTH

mm millimeters 0.039 inches in

m meters 3.28 feet ft

m meters 1.09 yards yd

km kilometers 0.621 miles mi

AREA

mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2

m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2

m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2

ha hectares 2.47 acres ac

km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2

VOLUME

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz

L Liters 0.264 gallons gal

m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3

m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3

MASS

g grams 0.035 ounces oz

kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb

Mg (or 

"t") 

megagrams (or "metric 

ton")

1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

C Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit o

F

ILLUMINATION

lx Lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc

cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf

kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per 

square inch

lbf/in2
Shared Mobility Primer| v

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ IX

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1

Background ................................................................................................................................ 1

How to Use This Document ...................................................................................................... 3

Shared Mobility Primer Overview ............................................................................................. 3

Key Terms Used in the Primer .................................................................................................. 4

References .................................................................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF SHARED MOBILITY SERVICES ....................................... 7

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 7

Labor and Consumer Trends ............................................................................................... 7

Technological Trends .......................................................................................................... 8

Shared Mobility Service Options............................................................................................... 9

Membership-Based Self-Service Models .......................................................................... 11

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Service Models ................................................................................... 13

Non-Membership Self-Service Models ............................................................................. 15

For-Hire Service Models ................................................................................................... 18

Mass Transit Services ........................................................................................................ 21

References ................................................................................................................................ 22

CHAPTER 3. SHARED MOBILITY IMPACTS: CURRENT UNDERSTANDING .......... 23

Carsharing ................................................................................................................................ 23

Bikesharing .............................................................................................................................. 25

Ridesharing .............................................................................................................................. 27
Shared Mobility Primer| vi

Ridesourcing ............................................................................................................................ 27

References ................................................................................................................................ 28

CHAPTER 4. THE ROLE OF PUBLIC AGENCIES IN SHARED MOBILITY ................ 31

Health, Safety, and Consumer Protection ................................................................................ 32

Taxation ................................................................................................................................... 35

Insurance .................................................................................................................................. 38

Carsharing .......................................................................................................................... 39

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Carsharing ........................................................................................... 39

Bikesharing ........................................................................................................................ 40

Ridesharing ........................................................................................................................ 40

For-Hire Driver Laws ........................................................................................................ 41

Parking and Rights-of-Way ..................................................................................................... 43

Carsharing .......................................................................................................................... 44

Public Bikesharing ............................................................................................................. 46

High-Tech Company Shuttles............................................................................................ 46

Signage and Advertising .......................................................................................................... 47

Multimodal Integration ............................................................................................................ 47

Planning Processes ................................................................................................................... 51

Data Sharing, Privacy, and Standardization ............................................................................ 52

Accessibility and Equity Issues ............................................................................................... 53

Low-Income Access .......................................................................................................... 53

Older Adult Mobility ......................................................................................................... 54
Shared Mobility Primer| vii

Disability Access ............................................................................................................... 54

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 55

References ................................................................................................................................ 56

CHAPTER 5. LESSONS LEARNED AND CHALLENGES IN THE FUTURE ................. 61

Consistent Public and Private Sector Standards and Definitions ............................................ 62

Developing Metrics, Modeling, Planning Platforms, and Methodologies to Assess the 

Economic and Travel Impacts of Shared Mobility .................................................................. 63

Recognizing Shared Mobility as a Key Component of Transportation Policy and Planning . 65

Encouraging Multimodal Integration ...................................................................................... 67

Ensuring Accessibility to and Equity of Shared Modes for All Transportation Users ............ 68

Insurance Regulations, Availability, and Affordability ........................................................... 72

Balancing Data Sharing with Privacy ...................................................................................... 73

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 74

References ................................................................................................................................ 75

CHAPTER 6. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR PUBLIC AGENCIES .................................... 77

APPENDIX A: TABLES ............................................................................................................. 79

APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................... 101

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................... 105
Shared Mobility Primer| viii

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Core, Incumbent, and Innovative Services .............................................................................. 10

Figure 2. Shared Mobility Service Models ............................................................................................. 10

Figure 3: Helmet Kiosk for the Pronto Cycle Share System in Seattle .................................................. 32

Figure 4. Driver Insurance Periods Impacting Ridesourcing/TNC Operations ...................................... 43

Figure 5. Portland’s Carsharing Option Zone......................................................................................... 47

Figure 6. car2go Bicycle Racks .............................................................................................................. 49

Figure 7. Shift in Personal Driving as Result of Public Bikesharing Use ............................................... 95

Table 1. Total and Component Costs of Highly Taxed One-Hour Carsharing Reservations................. 37

Table 2. Examples of Shared Mobility Multimodal Integration Efforts ................................................ 50

Table 3. Impacts of Roundtrip Carsharing ............................................................................................. 79

Table 4. Demographics of the North American Roundtrip Carsharing Member (N is the sample size) 83

Table 5. Aggregate Shift in Public Transit and Non-Motorized Modes Due to Roundtrip Carsharing 

Use .......................................................................................................................................................... 84

Table 6. Public Bikesharing Impacts (limited to the survey respondents during the data collection 

period) ..................................................................................................................................................... 85

Table 7. Race of Capital Bikeshare Annual Members and Casual Users ............................................... 90

Table 8. Annual/Seasonal/30-Day Bikesharing Member Demographics of Cities Surveyed in Canada 

and U.S. ................................................................................................................................................... 91

Table 9. Public Bikesharing Member Demographics of Mexico City ................................................... 93

Table 10. Ridesourcing Demographics of Survey Respondents in San Francisco ................................. 96

Table 11. Respondent Modal Preference if Ridesourcing (uberX/Lyft/Sidecar) Were Not Available .. 98

Table 12. Ridesourcing and Taxi Trips Travel Times in San Francisco ................................................ 99
Shared Mobility Primer|ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Shared mobilitythe shared use of a vehicle, bicycle, or other modeis an innovative transportation 

strategy that enables users to gain short-term access to transportation modes on an as-needed basis. The 

term shared mobility includes various forms of carsharing, bikesharing, ridesharing (carpooling and 

vanpooling), and on-demand ride services. It can also include alternative transit services, such as 

paratransit, shuttles, and private transit services (called microtransit), which can supplement fixedroute bus and rail services. With diverse options for mobility on the rise, smartphone apps that 

aggregate these options and optimize routes for travelers are also proliferating. In addition to these

innovative travel modes, new ways of transporting and delivering goods are also emerging. These 

courier network services have the potential to change the nature of the package and food delivery 

industry, as well as the broader transportation network. Shared mobility is having a transformative 

impact on many global cities by enhancing transportation accessibility, while simultaneously reducing 

driving and personal vehicle ownership. 

In the context of carsharing and bikesharing, vehicles and bicycles are typically unattended and 

concentrated in a network of locations where information and communication technology (ICT) and 

other technological innovations facilitate the transaction of vehicle or bicycle rental. Typically, 

carsharing and bikesharing operators are responsible for the costs of maintenance, storage, parking, 

and insurance and fuel (if applicable). With classic ridesharing (carpooling and vanpooling) and ondemand ride services, such as ridesourcing (e.g., Lyft and uberX) or “transportation network 

companies” or “ride-hailing” and app-enabled taxi services (e.g., Curb, Flywheel), many providers also

employ ICT to facilitate the matching of riders and drivers for trips. 

A number of environmental, social, and transportation-related benefits have been reported from the use 

of shared mobility modes. Several studies have documented reduced vehicle use, ownership, and 

vehicle miles/kilometers traveled. Cost savings and convenience are frequently cited as popular 

reasons for shifting to a shared mode. Shared mobility can also extend the catchment area of public 

transit, potentially helping to bridge gaps in existing transportation networks and encouraging 

multimodality by addressing the first-and-last-mile issue related to public transit access. Shared 

mobility can also provide economic benefits in the form of cost savings, increased economic activity 

near public transit stations and multimodal hubs, and increased access by creating connections with 

origin points not previously accessible via traditional public transportation. 

This Shared Mobility Primer provides an introduction and background to shared mobility; discusses 

the government’s role; reviews success stories; examines challenges, lessons learned, and proposed 

solutions; and concludes with guiding principles for public agencies. The primer aims to provide an 

overview of this emerging field and current understanding—as in the years to come, shared mobility 

will continue to evolve and develop. In light of this evolution, ongoing tracking and longitudinal 

analysis are recommended to support sound planning and policymaking in the future. 
Shared Mobility Primer|ii
Shared Mobility Primer| 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

Advancements in social networking, location-based services, 

the Internet, and mobile technologies have contributed to a 

sharing economy (also referred to as peer-to-peer sharing, the 

mesh economy, and collaborative consumption). The sharing 

economy is a developing phenomenon based on renting and 

borrowing goods and services, rather than owning them. This 

sharing can occur among peers (e.g., community drivers, 

peer-to-peer carsharing, or bikesharing) or through 

businesses (e.g., a carsharing operator). The sharing 

economy can improve efficiency, provide cost savings, 

monetize underused resources, and offer social and 

environmental benefits. 

Fueled by the Internet, the sharing economy traces its origins to the late 1990s’ dot-com boom. Early 

websites, such as eBay, Craigslist, and PayPal, enabled a marketplace where individual entrepreneurs 

had access to a global clientele. Peer-to-peer (P2P) sharing via file-sharing networks, such as Napster, 

was one of the most prominent sharing models of the early 2000s. Technological advancements 

facilitated changes in consumption and financial transactions. These advancements also more broadly 

facilitated sociological transformations regarding how people view resources. 

Technological advancements coupled with the Great Recession of 2007 to 2009 became a driving 

factor for many individuals and households rethinking resource use. During the late 2000s, numerous 

sharing models emerged, such as P2P marketplaces (e.g., Airbnb), crowdfunding (e.g., Kickstarter), 

and shared mobility (e.g., Getaround). Market valuations for companies in the sharing economy have 

ranged from a few hundred million to billions of dollars: 

• In April 2011, Zipcar, a carsharing company providing short-term (e.g., hourly) vehicle rentals,

raised $174 million in its initial public offering (IPO), giving it a valuation of $1.2 billion (Ovide,

2011). The Avis Budget Group acquired Zipcar for $500 million in January 2013 (Tsotsis, 2013).

• By December 2014, Uber, the ridesourcing platform that provides door-to-door for-hire vehicle

services, was valued at $41.2 billion (Picchi, 2015 ). Between mid-2012 through 2014, the

company grew to more than 160,000 drivers (Hall & Krueger, 2015). Just one year later, Uber was

valued at $70 billion.

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 2

• As of March 2015, Airbnb, a website to list, find, and rent lodging, was valued at $20 billion 

(Saitto, 2015). An average of 425,000 people rent a room from Airbnb every night worldwide 

(Stein, 2015). 

Shared mobility, the shared use of a motor vehicle, bicycle, or other low-speed transportation mode, is 

one facet of the sharing economy. Shared mobility enables users to obtain short-term access to 

transportation as needed, rather than requiring ownership. Shared mobility includes carsharing, 

personal vehicle sharing (i.e., P2P carsharing and fractional ownership), bikesharing, scooter sharing, 

ridesharing, and on-demand ride services. Alternative transit services, such as shuttle services, 

paratransit, and microtransit, supplement fixed-route bus and rail services. Shared mobility also 

includes ridesourcing (sometimes referred to as transportation network companies or TNCs), such as 

Lyft and Uber; ridesplitting (e.g., UberPOOL and Lyft Line) in which passengers split a fare and ride; 

and e-Hail (app-enabled taxis). Finally, courier network services (CNS) or flexible good delivery are 

included in this taxonomy. CNS provide for-hire delivery services for monetary compensation via an 

online application or platform to connect couriers using their personal vehicles, bicycles, or scooters 

with freight (e.g., food, packages). 

In North America, the first carsharing and bikesharing programs launched in 1994. Shared mobility 

services have grown rapidly since then. Some benchmarking data include:

• As of July 2015, there were 20 active carsharing programs in Canada, 22 in the United States, one 

in Mexico, and one in Braziltotaling approximately 1,530,190 carsharing members sharing 

25,574 vehicles in the Americas. These numbers include roundtrip carsharing and one-way 

carsharing operators; they do not include P2P carsharing (Shaheen & Cohen, unpublished data). 

• As of October 2015, there were 30,750 bikes at 3,200 stations across 87 IT-based public 

bikesharing programs in the United States serving three user groups—members (users with an 

annual or monthly membership); casual users (short-term bikesharing users with 1- to 30-day 

passes); and occasional members (users with a key-fob to pay for a short-term pass) (Meddin, 

unpublished data). 

• As of July 2011, there were an estimated 638 ridematching services in North America, based on an 

extensive Internet search. This tally includes both online (most have an Internet-based component) 

and offline carpooling and vanpooling programs. Those located in sparsely populated rural areas, 

which appeared to have very low use, were excluded. Institutions that have their own ridematching 

website but employ a common platform were each counted separately. Of the total, 401 were 

located in the United States and 261 were in Canada (24 programs span both countries) (Chan & 

Shaheen, 2011). 

In recent years, shared mobility has developed rapidly due to advances in technology and evolving 

social and economic perspectives toward transportation, car ownership, and urban lifestyles. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 3

Economic, environmental, and social forces have pushed shared mobility from the fringe to the 

mainstream, and its role in urban mobility has become a popular topic of discussion. 

Recognizing this growing transportation phenomenon, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) 

is pleased to present Shared Mobility: Current Practices and Guiding Principles. Development of this 

primer was made possible by 23 specialists and practitioners that conducted an expert review of this 

primer and participated in a one-day workshop in June 2015. The workshop brought together “thought 

leaders” from across North America to discuss shared mobility and how to help public agencies 

develop supportive policies and programs. It is important to note, however, that this is a rapidly 

evolving field, which requires ongoing tracking and evaluation. This guide presents current 

understanding at the time of this writing. 

HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT

This Shared Mobility Primer will be of value to individuals, public agencies, and communities who 

want to know more about shared mobility and to communities interested in incorporating shared 

mobility into their transportation networks. This primer is a practical guide with resources, 

information, and tools for local governments and public agencies seeking to implement emerging 

services or to manage existing shared mobility services.

The following are some suggestions for the primer’s use: 

• Access shared mobility resources. Review findings from numerous sources highlighting

challenges, opportunities, lessons learned, and best practices deploying shared mobility across

North America. What are key guiding principles for implementing shared mobility? Appendix A

includes tables with key data that can aid in policy development, and Appendix B contains a

glossary of terms. Use this primer for strategic transportation planning. How might shared

mobility impact congestion, air quality, emissions, and parking? How could shared mobility

enhance accessibility and mobility?

• Reference this primer to aid public policy development. What are the risks and opportunities

presented by shared mobility and how can opportunities be leveraged and risks be managed?

SHARED MOBILITY PRIMER OVERVIEW

As noted above, this primer presents an overview of current practices, lessons learned, and guiding 

principles for public agencies to advance shared mobility in transportation planning and programs. The 

primer is organized into the following chapters: 

• Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter provides an introduction to and overview of the primer.
Shared Mobility Primer| 4

• Chapter 2: Overview of Shared Mobility Services. This chapter synthesizes existing literature on

the definitions and types of shared mobility services available, at present.

• Chapter 3: Shared Mobility Impacts: Current Understanding. This chapter reviews North

American shared mobility impact studies including: carsharing, bikesharing, ridesharing, and

ridesourcing.

• Chapter 4: The Role of Public Agencies in Shared Mobility. This chapter presents common

areas in which local and regional governments and public agencies have an impact on shared

mobility. Topics include health, safety, and consumer protection; taxation; insurance; parking and

rights-of-way; signage and advertising; multimodal integration; planning processes; data sharing,

data privacy, and standards; and accessibility.

• Chapter 5: Lessons Learned and Challenges in the Future. This chapter reviews common

challenges, success stories, best practices, and recommendations for shared mobility. Topics

include public and private sector definitions; the government’s role in the sharing economy; shared

mobility as a component of transportation policy and planning; multimodal integration; developing

metrics and models for measuring environmental and economic impacts; accessibility and equity

issues; consumer protection; insurance; and data sharing and privacy.

• Chapter 6: Guiding Principles for Public Agencies. This chapter concludes the primer and

discusses guiding principles for public agencies seeking to incorporate shared mobility into their

transportation networks.

KEY TERMS USED IN THE PRIMER

The following key terms are used throughout the primer. A complete glossary is provided at the end of 

the document. 

Alternative Transit Services: Alternative transit services is a broad category that 

encompasses shuttles (shared vehicles that connect passengers to transit or employment 

centers), paratransit, and private sector transit solutions commonly referred to as 

microtransit. 

Bikesharing: In bikesharing systems, users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for oneway (point-to-point) mobility and/or roundtrips. Station-based bikesharing kiosks are 

typically unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and offer one-way station-based 

service (bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing offers users the 

ability to check out a bicycle and return it to any location within a predefined geographic region. 

Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The majority of bikesharing operators 

cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of less than 30 minutes 
Shared Mobility Primer| 5

are included within the membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization on an annual, 

monthly, daily, or per-trip basis. 

Carsharing: With carsharing, individuals have temporary access to a vehicle without the 

costs and responsibilities of ownership. Individuals typically access vehicles by joining an 

organization that maintains a fleet of cars and light trucks deployed in lots located within 

neighborhoods, public transit stations, employment centers, and colleges and universities. 

Typically, the carsharing operator provides insurance, gasoline, parking, and maintenance. Generally, 

participants pay a fee each time they use a vehicle.

Courier Network Services (CNS): CNS are also referred to as flexible goods delivery. 

They provide for-hire delivery services for monetary compensation via an online 

application or platform (such as a website or smartphone app) to connect couriers using 

their personal vehicles, bicycles, or scooters with freight (e.g., packages, food). Although 

the business models in this realm are evolving, two general models appear to have emerged—P2P 

delivery services and paired on-demand passenger ride and courier services.

Microtransit: This is a privately owned and operated shared transportation system that 

can have fixed routes and schedules, as well as flexible routes and on-demand scheduling. 

The vehicles generally include vans and buses. 

Ridesourcing: Ridesourcing companies (also known as transportation network companies 

(TNCs) and ride-hailing) provide prearranged and on-demand transportation services for 

compensation, which connect drivers of personal vehicles with passengers. Smartphone 

mobile applications facilitate booking, ratings (for both drivers and passengers), and 

electronic payment. Ridesourcing also includes “ridesplitting,” in which customers can choose to split 

a ride and fare in a ridesourcing vehicle (where available).

Scooter Sharing: With scooter sharing, users gain the benefits of a private scooter and/or 

neighborhood electric vehicle (NEV) without the costs and responsibilities of ownership. 

Individuals typically access scooters and NEVs by joining an organization that maintains 

a fleet of them at various locations. Typically, the operator provides power/charging or 

fuel, parking, and maintenance. Generally, participants pay a fee each time they use a scooter/NEV. 

Trips can be roundtrip, one-way, or both.

Shared Mobility: This term refers to the shared use of a motor vehicle, bicycle, or other low-speed 

mode. 

REFERENCES 

Chan, N., & Shaheen, S. (2011). Ridesharing in North America: Past, Present, and Future. Transport 

Reviews, 1-20. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 6

Hall, J., & Krueger, A. (2015). An Analysis of the Labor Market for Uber’s Driver-Partners in the 

United States. 1-27. 

Ovide, S. (2011, April 14). Zipcar IPO Soars 66% Out of the Gate. Retrieved from The Wall Street 

Journal: http://blogs.wsj.com/deals/2011/04/14/zipcar-ipo-soars-66-out-of-the-gate/

Picchi, A. (2015 , January 22). Uber raises $1.6 billion to speed expansion. Retrieved from CBS 

News: http://www.cbsnews.com/news/uber-raises-1-6-billion-to-speed-expansion/ 

Saitto, S. (2015, March 1). Airbnb Said to Be Raising Funding at $20 Billion Valuation. Retrieved 

from Bloomberg: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-01/airbnb-said-to-beraising-funding-at-20-billion-valuation 

Stein, J. (2015, February 9). Some French Guy Has My Car. Time, pp. 33-40. 

Tsotsis, A. (2013, January 2). Car Rental Company Avis To Buy Zipcar For $500 Million. Retrieved 

from Tech Crunch: http://techcrunch.com/2013/01/02/avis-to-buy-zipcar-for-500-million/
Shared Mobility Primer| 7

CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF

SHARED MOBILITY SERVICES

INTRODUCTION

Shared mobility is having a transformative impact on many cities by enhancing transportation 

accessibility, increasing multimodality, reducing vehicle ownership and vehicle miles traveled (VMT) 

in some cases, and providing new ways to access goods and services. Several trends are impacting the 

growth and mainstreaming of shared mobility, as highlighted below. 

Labor and Consumer Trends 

Changing labor trends are impacting the 

transportation and mobility. In recent 

years, a growing number of part-time 

workers are working increasingly 

varying schedules, making traditional 

morning and afternoon peak commutes 

less predictable (McClatchy Tribune 

Services , 2013). Additionally, direct 

changes in travel behavior, such as a 

greater number of workers 

telecommuting, more consumers 

shopping online, and growth in 

telemedicine may represent some of the 

most notable shifts. Advances in 

information technology, such as video 

conferencing, instant messaging (IM), 

virtual private networks (VPNs), 

collaborative scheduling, screen sharing, and cloud computing, are increasing the frequency and extent 

of telecommuting. Similarly, online commerce is growing rapidly and comprising an increasing 

percentage of total retail activity. The U.S. Census reported quarterly e-commerce retail sales for the 

first quarter of 2015 were $80.26 billion, representing 7 percent of all retail sales. New food and 

grocery delivery services, such as those offered by Safeway, Instacart, AmazonFresh, and UberEATS, 

may reduce inner city grocery and food travel. According to the market research firm Packaged Facts, 

approximately three in 10 consumers have ordered items for same-day delivery in the past 12 months, 

excluding food ordered for immediate consumption (Packaged Facts, 2015). Telemedicine is one 

emerging trend that may also alter non-work travel, particularly for non-discretionary trips. 

Telemedicine may reduce the need for some trips through tools, such as video conferencing of doctor 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 8

visits with patients, e-transmission of diagnostic images, remote monitoring of patient vital signs, 

online continued medical education, nursing call centers, and web-based applications.

Additionally, the increased use of for-hire vehicle services (e.g., taxis, ridesourcing, and microtransit) 

and a greater reliance on just-in-time delivery platforms, such as CNS and direct business to consumer 

(B2C) delivery (e.g., Amazon and Ebay), are also impacting travel behavior. Together these 

servicescoupled with real-time information and mobile technologiescontinue to encourage lastminute planning and on-demand or instant modal and delivery selections. 

Technological Trends 

Increasing use of smartphone and Internet-based technologies, the 

prevalence of intelligent transportation systems (ITS) technologies, 

and the mass marketing of connected vehicles can help to improve 

efficiency.

1

 In recent years, there has been a growing use of 

smartphone and Internet-based platforms to facilitate shared mobility 

and multimodal transportation options more broadly. A Pew 

Research study found that as of January 2014, 90 percent of 

American adults had a mobile phone, and 58 percent had a 

smartphone. As of May 2013, 63 percent of American adult mobile 

phone owners used their phone to go online, and 34 percent

predominantly use their mobile phone for Internet access (Pew 

Research Center, 2014). According to this research study, 74 percent

of adults used their phones to get directions or other location-based 

services. Sixty-five percent of smartphone users indicated that they 

had received turn-by-turn navigation or directions while driving from 

their phones, and 15 percent did so regularly. As of April 2012, the 

Pew survey found that 20 percent of mobile phone users had 

received real-time traffic or public transit information using their 

devices within the past 30 days. The increasing availability, 

capability, and affordability of ITS, GPS, wireless, and cloud technologiescoupled with the growth 

of data availability and data sharingare causing people to increasingly use smartphone transportation 

apps to meet their mobility needs. New developments in contactless payment (such as nearfield 

communication, Bluetooth low energy, Visa payWave, and Apple Pay), in addition to a growing 

number of application programming interfaces (APIs) will facilitate a growth in “digital purses” and 

digital wallets (enabled through paperless and joint payment options), as well as multi-modal 

1 ITS is the application of advanced electronics, information and telecommunications technology, and sensors to improve the 

safety, efficiency, and the service level of roadways. Many of these innovations focus on vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and 

vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) connectivity. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, V2V and V2I 

initiatives have the potential to address 80 percent of unimpaired collisions (ITS Joint Program Office, n.d.). 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 9

aggregators, trip planners, and booking systems. Additionally, the use of incentivization (e.g., offering 

points, discounts, or lotteries) and gamification (e.g., use of game design elements in a non-game 

context) are other key factors driving end-user growth of smartphone transportation applications. The 

increasing availability of real-time information (e.g., congestion, parking, and public transportation) 

will continue to impact both mobility choices and routing. Collectively, these tools are leading to the 

advent of “smart mobility consumers”travelers who can combine information from multiple sources 

and make smarter, more informed travel decisions.

These technologies are coming at a time when the existing infrastructure is often at or beyond its 

capacity. Congestion, parking shortages, and frustration with existing for-hire vehicle services are 

causing travelers to search for innovative technologies and services to address these mobility 

challenges. Many of these technologies are being used both independently and in conjunction with ITS 

to achieve travel time savings (e.g., by using high occupancy vehicle lanes) and financial savings (e.g., 

by providing real-time information about low-cost transportation options). 

SHARED MOBILITY SERVICE OPTIONS

Shared mobility has become a ubiquitous part of the urban transportation network, encompassing a 

variety of modes ranging from public transportation, taxis, and shuttles to carsharing, bikesharing, and 

on-demand ride and delivery services. Fundamentally, these services can be categorized into five 

groupings: 1) membership-based self-service models, 2) P2P self-service models, 3) non-membership 

self-service models, 4) for-hire service models, and 5) mass transit systems. Some distinguish among 

the shared services between sequential (use by one user and then another, e.g., bikesharing and 

carsharing) and concurrent models (shared by many at one time, e.g., microtransit, carpooling, 

ridesplitting) (Transportation Research Board, 2015). This chapter synthesizes existing literature on the 

definitions and types of shared mobility services available, as of December 2015. 

Shared mobility includes various service models and transportation modes to meet the diverse needs of 

users. This section shows incumbent and innovative services (Figure 1) and defines the five service 

models and the modes offered within each (Figure 2). Broadly, there are two ways to view shared 

mobility in the larger ecosystem of surface transportation modal options. Shared mobility can be 

viewed as emerging or innovative in contrast to existing core and incumbent services (see Figure 1). It

can also be understood in the context of their underlying service models (see Figure 2). For example, 

shared mobility services may be membership-based, non-membership-based, P2P, or for-hire. Figure 1

and Figure 2 provide a list of incumbent and innovative services and a typology of these categories and 

their included modes, respectively. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 10

Figure 1. Core, Incumbent, and Innovative Services

Figure 2. Shared Mobility Service Models 
Shared Mobility Primer| 11

Membership-Based Self-Service Models 

Membership-based self-service models contain five common characteristics: 1) an organized group of 

participants; 2) one or more shared vehicles, bicycles, scooters, or other low-speed mode; 3) either a 

decentralized network of pods or stations used for departure and arrival for roundtrip or station-based 

one-way services or a free-floating decentralized vehicle network with flexible departure and arrival 

locations typically within the confines of a fixed geographic boundary; 4) short-term access typically 

in increments of one hour or less; and 5) self-service access. 

These models can include roundtrip services (motor vehicle, bicycle, or other low-speed mode is 

returned to its origin); one-way stationed-based (vehicle, bicycle, or low-speed mode is returned to 

different designated station location); and one-way free-floating (motor vehicle, bicycle, or low-speed 

mode can be returned anywhere within a geographic area). In addition to one-way and roundtrip 

service models, membership-based self-service models can be deployed as either “open systems” 

available to the public or “closed community systems” with limited access to predefined groups, such 

as members of a university community, residents of an apartment complex, or employees of a 

particular employer or office park. See descriptions of the range of innovative shared modes included 

in membership-based self-service models below. 

Bikesharing

• IT-based public bikesharing first launched in

North America in 2007 in Tulsa, OK. This was

followed by the launch of SmartBike in

Washington, DC, in 2008 and numerous other

systems shortly thereafter throughout Canada

and the United States. Bikesharing

experienced near exponential growth in North

America in 2011.

• Bikesharing users access bicycles on an asneeded basis. Trips can be point-to-point,

roundtrip, or both, allowing the bikes to be

used for one-way transport and for multimodal

connectivity (first-and-last mile trips, manymile trips, or both). Station-based bikesharing

kiosks are typically unattended, concentrated

in urban settings, and offer one-way stationbased services (bicycles can be returned to

any docking location). Free-floating

bikesharing offers users the ability to check

out a bicycle and return it to any location within

a predefined geographic region.

Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and 

drop-off locations, enabling an on-demand, very 

low emission form of mobility. 

• The majority of bikesharing operators cover the

costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and 

parking. Generally, trips of less than 30 minutes 

are included within the membership fees. Users 

can access bikesharing as members (e.g., 

typically on an annual, seasonal, or monthly 

basis) or as casual users (e.g., generally daily or 

per-trip basis). Bikesharing users can pick up a 

bike at any dock by using their credit card, 

membership card, key, and/or mobile phone (a 

new feature with BCycle and RideScout added in 

October 2015). They can return the bike to any 

dock (or the same dock in a roundtrip service) 

where there is room and end their session.
Shared Mobility Primer| 12

Bikesharing (Continued)

• In addition to the public bikesharing systems 

that are available to the public at large, closedcampus systems are increasingly being 

deployed at university and office campuses. 

These closed-campus systems are available 

only to the particular campus community they 

serve. 

• In addition to these innovations, electric 

bikesharing (also known as e-bikesharing) is 

emerging. Electric bicycles (e-bikes) have an 

electric motor that reduces the effort required 

by the rider. Such bicycles can enable 

individuals to use the system who may 

otherwise have physical difficulties pedaling 

traditional bicycles or others who may be in 

dress clothing and want to avoid perspiring. Ebikes can also extend travel distances and 

enable bikesharing in areas of steep terrain and 

varied topography. 

•

• In June 2015, the City of Seattle applied for a 

multi-million dollar grant to expand the city’s 

Pronto bikesharing program to include some ebikes. Similarly, in September 2015, Canadianbased Bewegen launched e-bikesharing in 

Birmingham, Alabama. The system includes an 

estimated 400 bikes and 100 e-bikes across 40 

docking stations (Staff, 2015). 

• A 2012 survey of 20 U.S. public bikesharing 

programs found the average cost of daily 

passes was $7.77, with all programs offering 

the first 30 minutes free of charge. Twelve 

programs offered monthly memberships, 

averaging $28.09 per month. Eighteen of the 

programs offered annual or seasonal 

memberships, costing an average of $62.46 

(Shaheen S. , Martin, Chan, Cohen, & 

Pogodzinski, 2014). 

Carsharing

• Carsharing launched in Canada in 1994, and 

this was followed by numerous programs 

throughout the United States starting in 1998. 

Individuals gain the benefits of private vehicle 

use without the costs and responsibilities of 

ownership. 

• Individuals typically access vehicles by joining 

an organization that maintains a fleet of cars 

and light trucks deployed in lots located within 

neighborhoods, public transit stations, 

employment centers, and colleges/universities 

and sometimes also using on-street parking. 

Typically, the carsharing operator provides 

insurance, gasoline, parking, and maintenance. 

Generally, participants pay a fee each time they 

use a vehicle. 

• Service models can include roundtrip 

carsharing (vehicle returned to its origin), oneway stationed-based (vehicle returned to 

different designated carsharing location), and 

one-way free-floating (vehicle returned 

anywhere within a geo-fenced area). 

• A 2005 survey of American roundtrip carsharing 

operators found that the average cost to drive 

50 miles for two hours in a carsharing vehicle 

was about $24, which rose to about $28 for four 

hours, $31 for six hours, and $34 for eight 

hours (Shaheen, Cohen, & Roberts, 2006). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 13

Scooter Sharing

• As of September 2015, there were two scooter

sharing systems in the United States: Scoot

Networks in San Francisco, California and

Scootaway in Columbia, South Carolina. Both

of these systems offer one-way and roundtrip

short-term scooter sharing, which includes

insurance and helmets. Scootaway scooters

run on gasoline, which is included within the

price of the rental.

• Scooter users have two pricing options: 1) $4

per every half-hour of use with no monthly fee;

or 2) $19 per month and usage billed at $2 per

hour. Scoot has also recently introduced 10

four-wheeled, two-seater “Twizy” vehicles into

its fleet from Renault (branded as Nissan in the

U.S.), priced at $8 per half-hour of use (Scoot,

unpublished data, 2015). Scootaway, located in

South Carolina, bills at a flat rate of $3 per halfhour of use (Scootaway, unpublished data).

Vanpooling

• Vanpools are typically comprised of 7 to 15

people commuting on a regular basis using a

van or similarly-sized vehicle. Vanpools

normally have a coordinator and an alternative

coordinator.

• Vanpool participants share the cost of the van

and operating expenses and may share the

responsibility of driving. A vanpool could cost

between $100 and $300 per person per month,

although this varies considerably depending on

gas prices, local market conditions, and

government subsidies (Martin, unpublished

data).

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Service Models 

Carsharing and bikesharing have also given rise to peer-to-peer (P2P) systems that enable vehicle and 

bicycle owners to rent their vehicles and bicycles when they are not in use. In P2P service models, 

companies broker transactions among car, bicycle, or other mobility owners and renters by providing 

the organizational resources needed to make the exchange possible (i.e., online platform, customer 

support, driver and motor vehicle safety certification, auto insurance, and technology). P2P services 

differ from membership-based self-service carsharing or bikesharing in that the operator owns the 

private vehicles or bicycles being shared. 

Similar to carsharing and bikesharing, P2P services also have their own niche markets. Spinlister 

(previously known as Liquid) is one P2P bicycle sharing system in North America. Another company, 

Bitlock, sells keyless Bluetooth bicycle locks that can be used for personal use or for P2P sharing. 

Getaround and Turo (formerly RelayRides) are examples of P2P carsharing operators providing 

service in metropolitan markets. Another service, FlightCar, provides vehicle owners with free parking 
Shared Mobility Primer| 14

at major airports in exchange for renting their vehicles to inbound visitors. In return, the vehicle owner 

receives a commission based on the number of miles the vehicle is driven. 

As of January 2015, there were three common deployments of P2P mobility sharing: 1) P2P carsharing 

in urban neighborhoods (where privately owned vehicles are made available for carsharing in urban 

settings); 2) P2P airport-based carsharing (where outbound airport travelers can park and make their 

vehicles available for inbound airport passenger short-term rental); and 3) P2P bikesharing in urban 

neighborhoods (where privately-owned bicycles are made available for bikesharing use). There are 

four types of personal vehicle sharing ownership models: 1) Fractional Ownership Models; 2) Hybrid 

P2P-Traditional Models; 3) P2P Access Model (typically called P2P carsharing); and 4) P2P 

Marketplace. 

Fractional Ownership

• Individuals sub-lease or subscribe to access a

motor vehicle or low-speed mode owned by a

third party. These individuals have “rights” to

the shared service in exchange for taking on a

portion of the expense. This could be facilitated

through a dealership and a partnership with a

carsharing operator, where the car is

purchased and managed by the carsharing

operator. This enables access to vehicles that

individuals might otherwise be unable to afford

(e.g., higher-end models) and results in income

sharing when the vehicle is rented to nonowners.

• At present, fractional ownership companies in

the United States include Curvy Road, Gotham

Dream Cars, and CoachShare. In December

2014, Audi launched its “Audi Unite” fractional

ownership model in Stockholm, Sweden. Audi 

Unite offers multi-party leases with pricing

based on the model, yearly mileage (2,000 or

3,000 km or ~1,240 to 1,860 miles), and the

number of drivers sharing the vehicle that

ranges from two to five. For example, an Audi

Unite A3 sedan can be leased among five

drivers for approximately 1,800 kronors per

month (~$208 USD per driver per month) for

2,000 annual km (~1,240 miles) on a 24-month

lease. Each Audi Unite user is given a

Bluetooth key fob and a smartphone app that

allows co-owners to schedule vehicle use.

Hybrid Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Traditional Model

• Individuals access vehicles or low-speed

modes by joining an organization that maintains

its own fleet, but it also includes private autos or

low-speed modes throughout a network of

locations. Insurance is typically provided by the

organization during the access period for both

roundtrip carsharing and P2P vehicles.

• Members access vehicles or the other lowspeed modes through a direct key exchange or

a combination transfer from the owner or via

operator-installed technology that enables

“unattended access.” Pricing in this model

works similar to roundtrip carsharing.
Shared Mobility Primer| 15

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Access Model

• This model is frequently called P2P carsharing.

It employs privately-owned vehicles or lowspeed modes made temporarily available for

shared use by an individual or members of a

P2P company. Insurance is generally provided

by the P2P organization during the access

period. In exchange for providing the service,

operators keep a portion of the usage fee.

• Members can access vehicles or low-speed

modes through a direct key exchange or a

combination transfer from the owner or via

operator-installed technology that enables

“unattended access.”

• The P2P carsharing operator generally takes a

portion of the rental amount in return for

facilitating the exchange and providing thirdparty insurance. For example, Turo (formerly

RelayRides) takes a 25 percent commission

from the owner along with 10 percent from the

renter. Getaround takes 40 percent from the

owner for its services. With FlightCar, the car

owner is paid $.05 to $.20 per mile, with an

average payment of $20 to $30. There are no

parking fees at the airport, and the vehicle is

washed and vacuumed when the owner picks it

up upon return. There also is a flat-rate monthly

program in which the driver can net a total of

$250 or greater.

• As of May 2015, there were eight active P2P

operators in North America, with two more

planned to start in the near future.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Marketplace

• P2P marketplace enables direct exchanges among individuals via the Internet. Terms are generally

decided among parties of a transaction, and disputes are subject to private resolution.

Non-Membership Self-Service Models 

Non-membership self-service models include rental cars and carpooling. See below for a description of 

these services.
Shared Mobility Primer| 16

Bikesharing

• As previously mentioned, users can access 

bikesharing as members (e.g., typically on an 

annual, seasonal, or monthly basis) or as 

casual users or non-members (e.g., generally 

daily or a per-trip basis). Casual users do not 

have bikesharing accounts, and typically the 

bikesharing operator does not retain 

information on casual users after billing for their 

usage is complete. As of the 2012 season, 

casual users accounted for 85.5 percent of all 

bikesharing users (Shaheen S. , Martin, Chan, 

Cohen, & Pogodzinski, 2014). 

• A 2012 survey of 20 U.S. public bikesharing 

programs found the average cost for a daily 

pass was $7.77, and all the programs offered 

the first 30 minutes of riding free (Shaheen S. , 

Martin, Chan, Cohen, & Pogodzinski, 2014). 

Car Rental

• This is a non-membership-based service or 

company that rents cars or light trucks typically 

by the day or week. Traditional rental car 

services include storefronts requiring an inperson transaction with a rental car attendant. 

However, rental cars are increasingly

employing “virtual storefronts,” allowing 

unattended vehicle access similar to 

carsharing. 

• Historically, rental cars have focused on three 

different service models: 1) airport-based rental 

services located at air terminals (e.g., Hertz, 

Avis, National, and others); 2) neighborhoodbased rental services (e.g., Enterprise); and 3) 

truck-based rental services (e.g., U-Haul, 

Ryder, and Penske). 

• Car rentals are generally priced on a daily or 

weekly basis, often with differing rate structures 

for leisure and commercial use. In addition to 

base rental rates, most car rental companies 

offer ancillary and a la carte charges for a 

variety of products and services, such as car 

seat and GPS rentals and increased insurance 

coverage. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 17

Carpooling

• This is a formal or informal arrangement where

commuters share a vehicle for trips from either

a common origin, destination, or both, reducing

the number of vehicles on the road. Over the

years, carpooling has expanded to include a

number of other forms. Casual carpooling or

“slugging” is a term used to describe informal

carpooling among strangers, which has often

been referred to as a hybrid between commuter

carpooling and hitchhiking. With slugging,

passengers generally line up in “slug lines” and

are picked up by unfamiliar drivers who are

commonly motivated to pick up passengers to

take advantage of high-occupancy vehicle

(HOV) lanes, lower tolls, and similar benefits.

• In addition, the growth of the Internet and

mobile technology has enabled online

ridesharing marketplaces, such as Carma

Carpooling, where users can arrange ad hoc

rides typically on-demand or with minimal

advance notice through a personal mobile

device. Carpooling can include a small

donation to the driver to reimburse costs (e.g.,

gas, tolls, parking), but it cannot result in

financial gain without bringing about insurance

and other regulatory challenges (Chan &

Shaheen, 2011).

• Many public agencies distinguish carpooling

from for-hire service models by permitting

carpool passengers to reimburse carpool

drivers up to the Internal Revenue Service

(IRS) standard mileage rate. In 2015, the IRS

standard mileage rate was $0.57 per mile for

business purposes, which is often used as a

metric for suggesting carpooling cost sharing

caps. Because the driver is not making a wage,

carpool drivers are not required to carry

commercial insurance coverage.
Shared Mobility Primer| 18

For-Hire Service Models 

For-hire service models include pedicabs (a for-hire tricycle with a passenger 

compartment), ridesourcing, taxis, limousines, or liveries that carry passengers for a fare 

(either predetermined by distance or time traveled or dynamically priced based on a meter 

or similar technology). The fundamental basis of for-hire vehicle services involves a 

passenger hiring a driver for either a one-way or a roundtrip ride. For-hire vehicle services can be prearranged through a reservation or booked on-demand through street-hail, phone dispatch, or e-Hail 

using the Internet or a smartphone application. See below for a description of these models. 

Courier Network Services (CNS)

• CNS (also referred to as flexible goods

delivery) provide for-hire delivery services for

compensation using an online-enabled

application or platform (such as a website or

smartphone app) to connect delivery drivers

using their personal vehicles with freight. These

services can include: 1) P2P delivery services

and 2) paired on-demand passenger ride and

courier services.

• For example, Postmates and Instacart are two

P2P delivery services. Postmates couriers

operate on bikes, scooters, or cars delivering

groceries, takeout, or goods from any

restaurant or store in a city. Postmates charges

a delivery fee in addition to a 9 percent service

fee based on the cost of the goods being

delivered. Instacart offers a similar service, but

it is limited to grocery delivery and charges a

delivery fee of between $4 and $10, depending

on the time given to complete the delivery.

Pedicabs

• A pedicab is a for-hire service with a peddler

that transports passengers on a cycle

containing three or more wheels with a

passenger compartment.

• Pedicab pricing can vary widely based on the

pricing model and market served. For example,

New York City Pedicab Company charges

between $3 and $7, per minute, per pedicab

(New York City Pedicab Company, 2015). In

Charleston, Bike Taxi charges $5 per person

per every 10 minutes (Bike Taxi, 2015).
Shared Mobility Primer| 19

Pedicabs

Ridesourcing

• Ridesourcing services launched in San

Francisco, CA, in the summer of 2012 and

have rapidly spread across the United States

and globe since then, meeting both support and

resistance. They provide prearranged and ondemand transportation services for

compensation, connecting drivers of personal

vehicles with passengers. Smartphone mobile

applications are used for booking, ratings

(drivers and passengers), and electronic

payment.

• In the San Francisco Bay area, uberX charges

$3.20 as a base fare (including a “Safe Rides

fee”), $0.26 per minute, and $1.30 per mile

during non-surge times. In the same area, Lyft

charges a base fare of $3.80 (including a “Trust

and Safety fee”), $0.27 per minute, and $1.35

per mile. The prices mentioned are during nonpeak times; prices usually go up during periods

of high demand to incentivize more drivers to

take ride requests (surge pricing).

• Recently, ridesourcing companies have

released new apps that enable riders to share

and split the costs of a fare (or what we call

“ridesplitting”). Lyft Line and uberPOOL

(launched [as beta] in August 2014) attempt to

group passengers with coinciding routes into

carpools. Recently, UberPOOL has been

testing “Smart Routes,” where users can get a

discounted fare starting at $1 off the normal

UberPOOL price in return for walking to a major

arterial street, allowing drivers to make fewer

turns and complete ride requests faster (de

Looper, 2015). Furthermore, in November

2014, Lyft released Driver Destination, which

enables drivers to pick up passengers along

their personal trip routes, for instance, when

they are traveling to and from work. This

product can facilitate more carpooling, higher

vehicle occupancies, and reduced travel costs

and provide first-mile and last-mile connectivity

to public transit along those routes.
Shared Mobility Primer| 20

Taxis

• This is a type of for-hire vehicle service with a 

driver used by a single passenger or multiple 

passengers. Taxi services may be either prearranged or on-demand. Taxis can be reserved 

or dispatched through street hailing, a phone 

operator, or an “e-Hail” Internet or phone 

application maintained either by the taxi 

company or a third-party provider. 

• Since late-2014, there has been a rise in the 

application of e-Hail services in taxi fleets, 

particularly in major metropolitan areas using 

predominantly third-party dispatch apps, such 

as Flywheel and iTaxi. Increasingly, taxi and 

limousine regulatory agencies are developing 

e-Hail pilot programs and mandating e-Hail 

services. 

• In late 2012, the New York City Taxi and 

Limousine Commission approved an e-Hail 

pilot program permitting app developers to test 

their mobile taxi booking, dispatch, and

payment systems in the city. In Washington, 

DC, the DC Taxicab Commission has 

mandated that all district taxicabs use the 

Universal DC TaxiApp. In Los Angeles, the 

Board of Taxicab Commissioners approved a 

mandate that required that the city’s taxis use 

e-Hail mobile apps by August 20, 2015 or pay a 

$200 daily fine. Similar policies are under 

consideration in New York and Chicago. 

• Taxi fares can vary depending on local 

regulations and whether cabs can negotiate a 

rate, use a meter, or both. Many taxi authorities 

employ a metered fare, which typically includes 

an initial charge (generally $1 to $5) and a per 

mile or time rate (e.g., $0.50 per mile or $0.50 

per minute when the vehicle is stopped). Local 

surcharges and fees may apply or be passed 

on to the passenger if permitted by the taxi 

authority, such as tolls and local fees (e.g., New 

York’s Taxi and Limousine Commission’s $0.30 

per ride Taxi Improvement Surcharge used to 

help fund wheelchair-accessible taxicabs).

Limousines and Liveries

• This is a limousine or luxury sedan offering prearranged transportation services driven by a 

for-hire driver or chauffeur. 

• Similar to other for-hire vehicle service models, 

pricing for limousines and liveries can also vary 

widely. Generally, in most markets, these 

services are charged by the hour, starting 

around $50 per hour (and up). Additional 

service charges may apply.
Shared Mobility Primer| 21

Mass Transit Services 

Mass transit systems include public transportation and alternative transit services. A 

description of these services is provided below. 

Public Transportation

• Public transportation includes any mass transportation vehicle that charges set fares, operates on fixed

routes, and is available to the public. Common public transportation systems include buses, subways,

ferries, light and heavy rail, and high speed rail.

Alternative Transit Services

• Alternative transit services comprise a broad

category encompassing shuttles (shared

vehicles that connect passengers to public

transit or employment centers), paratransit, and

private sector transit solutions commonly

referred to as microtransit. Shuttles can include

classic first-and-last-mile connections between

public transit and employment centers as well

as high-tech company shuttles (often, but not

necessarily, free to company employees and

offering WiFi connection).

• Many alternative transit services can include

fixed route or flexible route services, as well as

fixed schedules or on-demand service. These

services can include free shuttles (generally

subsidized by transportation demand

management agencies or private employers)

and paid services, such as microtransit costs,

which typically range between $3 and $7 per

ride.

• In its most agile form (flexible routing,

scheduling, or both), microtransit and

paratransit can be bundled under the category

“flexible transit services.” Flexible transit

services include one or more of the following

characteristics: 1) route deviation (vehicles can

deviate within a zone to serve demandresponsive requests); 2) point deviation

(vehicles providing demand-responsive service

serve a limited number of stops without a fixed

route between spots); 3) demand-responsive

connections (vehicles operate in a demandresponsive geographic zone with one or more

fixed-route connections); 4) request stops

(passengers can request unscheduled stops

along a predefined route); 5) flexible-route

segments (demand-responsive service is

available within segments of a fixed route); and

6) zone route (vehicles operate in a demandresponsive mode along a route corridor with

departure and arrival times at one or more end

points) (Koffman, 2004).
Shared Mobility Primer| 22

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the Transportation Research Board (pp. 116-124). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research 

Board of the National Academies.

Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Chan, N., Cohen, A., & Pogodzinski, M. (2014). Public Bikesharing in North 

America During A Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business Models, Industry 

Trends and User Impacts. San Jose: Mineta Transportation Institute. 

Staff, B. (2015, April 20). Birmingham, Alabama, planning e-bike share system. Retrieved from 

Bicycle Retailer: http://www.bicycleretailer.com/north-america/2015/04/20/birminghamalabama-planning-e-bike-share-system#.VdTpWJedpn0

Transportation Research Board. (2015). Between Public and Private Mobility Examining the Rise of 

Technology-Enabled Transportation Services. Retrieved from the Transportation Research 

Board: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/sr/sr319.pdf
Shared Mobility Primer| 23

CHAPTER 3. SHARED MOBILITY IMPACTS: 

CURRENT UNDERSTANDING 

An increasing body of empirical evidence indicates that shared modes can provide numerous transportation, 

land use, environmental, and social benefits. While impact studies on roundtrip carsharing and public 

bikesharing are fairly extensive, the impacts of newer service models and emerging modes, such as oneway carsharing, P2P models, scooter sharing, on-demand ride services (such as ridesharing and 

ridesourcing), and CNS are less studied and understood. 

This chapter explores the current understanding of the 

impacts associated with several shared modes. 

CARSHARING

Table 1 in the appendix to this primer 

summarizes more than a dozen North 

American roundtrip carsharing studies. 

These include both third-party and 

operator-led evaluations. One of the most notable 

effects of roundtrip neighborhood carsharing is 

reduced vehicle ownership due to either sales or 

deferred purchases. Most of this shift in auto ownership is from single households becoming carless, 

followed by two-car households becoming one-car households. Numerous studies have examined the 

effect of carsharing on overall vehicle numbers and show reductions ranging from 4.6 to 20 personal 

vehicles per carsharing vehicle. Differences can be attributed to a range of methodological approaches 

(e.g., postponed purchases and sold vehicles). 

The most current studies and member survey results released by U.S. and Canadian carsharing 

organizations show that up to 32 percent of carsharing members sold their personal vehicles, and 

between 25 percent and 71 percent of members avoided an auto purchase because of carsharing. A 

2008 research study documented that 25 percent of members sold a vehicle and 25 percent of members 

postponed a vehicle purchase due to carsharing across a sample of approximately 9,500 participants 

(Martin & Shaheen, 2010). Of the participants, more than 80 percent had a bachelor’s degree and 54

percent had incomes exceeding $50,000 USD. Forty percent of respondents were between 18 and 30 

years old, and 55 percent were between 31 and 60. See the Appendix A, Table 2 for a more 

comprehensive breakdown of carsharing member demographics. Variation can be attributed to a 

stated-intention bias, location-specific differences, and business model. Carsharing has also been 

shown to save its members an estimated $154 to $435 annually for U.S. members and $392 to $492 

CAD for Canadian members. 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 24

Additionally, reductions in auto ownership are commonly associated with increased public transit 

ridership, walking, and bicycling modal shifts, as well as reduced parking demand and VMT or vehicle 

kilometers traveled (VKT). Twelve percent to 54 percent of carsharing participants in North America 

walk more often. Studies differ on whether or not carsharing increases or decreases public transit 

ridership. Studies of six individual locations across North American found that between 13.5 percent 

and 54 percent of carsharing participants take public transit more frequently. However, one study of 

approximately 9,500 participants across North America found a slight shift away from public transit 

ridership (Martin & Shaheen, 2010). (See Appendix A, Table 3.) 

In the United States, the average carsharing member’s VMT/VKT is reduced by 7.6 percent to 79.8 

percent. The large variation is likely attributable to differences in location, member use, and survey 

design. Martin and Shaheen (2010) found that VMT/VKT is reduced by 27 percent (observed impact, 

based on vehicles sold) to 43 percent (full impact, based on vehicles sold and postponed purchases 

combined) due to the before-and-after mean driving distance. Along with reduced VMT/VKT and 

vehicle ownership, low-emission fleets also contribute to lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This 

same study found a mean observed impact decline of 0.58 metric tons of GHG per year per household 

(impacts due to vehicles sold) and a full impact reduction of 0.84 metric tons of GHG per year per 

household (impacts due to sold and postponed vehicle purchases) or an average reduction of GHG 

emissions of 34 percent to 41 percent per year per household (Martin & Shaheen, 2010). Several global 

carsharing programs offer additional GHG reductions through partnerships with carbon-offset 

companies. Moreover, many members report an increase in environmental awareness after joining 

carsharing. Carsharing can also provide other beneficial societal impacts, such as the increased 

mobility afforded by one-way service models and access to vehicles for college students and lowincome households. 

Carsharing succeeds because it either provides consumers with better mobility or sufficient mobility at 

a reduced cost. The latter effect drives most of the emission and fuel-use reductions with travel 

substitutions replacing private vehicle use. Carsharing fundamentally changes the cost structure of 

driving from a fixed cost to a variable cost. Carsharing involves substituting “driving with driving” 

(i.e., a private auto with fixed costs versus a shared vehicle with variable costs), the magnitude of these 

changes must be measured to assess the fundamental carsharing impact. This is challenging given that 

we do not know who will join carsharing until after they have enrolled. Among the carsharing member 

population, we need to know: 1) how individuals traveled before and the modal behaviors they 

changed due to carsharing and 2) how individuals would have traveled in the absence of carsharing 

(e.g., postponed vehicle purchase). These effects are nearly impossible to measure without some form 

of member survey, as the best way to understand these shifts is to identify what happened. 

From survey stated response data, researchers can generate an understanding of an individual’s travel 

lifestyle before enrollment, including miles/kilometers driven in personal vehicles, which is often 

challenging to gauge. In addition, the shifts due to carsharing are different for different people. Many 

individuals will invariably drive marginally more, and many do so as a result of carsharing. Others will 

drive substantially less, as they alter their engagement with the private auto to one of necessity rather 
Shared Mobility Primer| 25

than convenience. Measuring this effect through surveys is necessary because only the member can 

truly assess how the carsharing system has changed his/her life. For some, the system’s impact is 

inconsequential, and observed behavioral changes are the result of other unseen dynamics of which 

carsharing is merely a witness. For others, the system plays a central role in facilitating a lifestyle 

change that reduces aggregate fuel consumption and emissions. Although imperfect, the member 

survey is a key instrument for obtaining a before-and-after measure of carsharing impacts. 

It is important to note that the application of data from national and regional travel surveys to the 

evaluation of shared mobility impacts is currently less feasible for a number of reasons. First, these 

surveys are generally snapshots of activity over large areas that may or may not have a robust range of 

shared mobility services. They generally lack longitudinal structure, which spans the period before and 

after a person begins using a system. Second, the subsample of people using shared mobility services 

within large surveys, such as the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS), is small, and the time 

between such surveys can be largespanning years. People are rarely re-sampled in subsequent 

surveys. Because of these factors, use of national and regional surveys to evaluate the household-level 

change in behavior is limited. 

Finally, activity data can only tell us how an individual used a particular shared mode in contrast to 

their total transportation behavior. For this reason, despite advances in technology that improve 

approaches to travel behavior measurement, surveys play (and likely will continue to play) a 

fundamental role in assessing causes of change and providing critical inputs to its measurement. A 

similar discussion is relevant to impact analyses of the other shared modes discussed in this primer. 

BIKESHARING 

Like carsharing, bikesharing offers a number of environmental, social, and transportationrelated benefits. It provides a low-carbon option for the first-and-last mile of a shortdistance trip, providing a link for trips between home and public transit and/or transit 

stations and the workplace that are too far to walk, as well as a many-mile alternative. 

Potential bikesharing benefits include: 1) increased mobility; 2) cost savings from modal shifts; 3) low 

implementation and operational costs (e.g., in contrast to shuttle services); 4) reduced traffic 

congestion; 5) reduced fuel use; 6) increased use of public transit and alternative modes (e.g., rail, 

buses, taxis, carsharing, ridesharing); 7) increased health benefits; 8) greater environmental awareness; 

and 9) economic development. The ultimate goal of public bikesharing is to expand and integrate 

cycling into transportation systems so that it can more readily become a daily transportation mode (for 

commuting, personal trips, and recreation). 

Although before-and-after studies documenting public bikesharing benefits are limited, a few programs 

have conducted user surveys to record program impacts. Table 4 in the Appendix presents a summary 

of these surveys, showing trips, distance traveled, and estimated carbon dioxide (CO2) reductions. The 

emission-reduction estimates vary substantially across studies due to different assumptions about user 
Shared Mobility Primer| 26

behavior, trip distribution, and trip substitution. Key assumptions that influence CO2 reduction 

estimates pertain to public bikesharing trips that displace automobile trips. 

Although casual users (typically bikesharing users with passes for seven days or less) account for the 

majority of bikesharing riders, very limited studies of casual users have been conducted. Many 

bikesharing programs do not collect and retain information on casual users after the billing process is 

complete. As such, collecting demographic data and understanding casual user behavior remains a key 

challenge. One study conducted by Virginia Tech urban planning students documented key 

demographics of Capital Bikeshare casual users. Between September and October 2011, they 

completed an intercept survey at five Capital Bikeshare kiosks. The survey found that Capital 

Bikeshare casual user demographics closely mirrored its annual membership, serving predominantly 

Caucasian riders (Borecki, et al., 2012). Seventy-eight percent of casual users and 80 percent of annual 

members were white, compared to just 34 percent of the district’s population in the Washington, DC 

2010 census. Table 5 in Appendix A compares intercept survey data of Capital Bikeshare’s casual 

users with their annual membership and census data. The survey also found that women were more 

likely to be casual users—52 percent, compared to just 33 percent who were annual members. Age and 

educational attainment were fairly comparable between annual members and casual users surveyed 

(Borecki, et al., 2012). 

In 2012, the Transportation Sustainability Research Center at the University of California, Berkeley 

completed a study of long-term (annual and seasonal) bikesharing members in four areas—

Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Montreal, Toronto, and Washington, DC. This was followed in 2013 by a 

second study of annual and seasonal bikesharing members in five cities—Mexico City, MinneapolisSaint Paul, Montreal, Salt Lake City, and Toronto (Shaheen, et al., 2014). These studies found that 

compared to the general population, bikesharing members tend to be wealthier, more educated, 

younger, more Caucasian, and more male. See Appendix A, Tables 6 and 7, which depict member 

demographics in the United States, Canada, and Mexico City.

At the most basic level, both studies found the availability of bikesharing increased the frequency in 

which a bicycle was used by annual, season, and 30-day members. Furthermore, the majority of users 

in Canada and Mexico use bikesharing at least one to three times per week. Across the cities, 50 

percent of members also drive less frequently due to bikesharing (see Appendix A, Figure 1). The 

results of both studies show an interesting split across cities. Respondents in small/medium-sized cities 

were more likely to use bikesharing in conjunction with public transit. In larger cities, both studies 

showed that bikesharing caused respondents to ride public transportation less. Importantly, the patterns 

are not a reflection of the different countries involved in the studies. Rather, there is an emerging 

distinction of impact arising from the type of cities in which bikesharing is deployed (i.e., larger, dense 

cities versus smaller, less dense cities). For instance, users employ bikesharing more for commuting 

purposes in larger cities and more for recreational purposes in smaller cities.

Both Minneapolis-Saint Paul, MN and Salt Lake City, UT are smaller cities with more limited light rail 

in contrast to the denser networks in Montreal and Toronto. Mexico City is similarly dense. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 27

Respondents in both Minneapolis-Saint Paul and Salt Lake City did not experience any change in bus 

use. In total, 67 percent of respondents in Minneapolis-Saint Paul and 87 percent of respondents in Salt 

Lake City indicated that bikesharing had no impact on their bus use. In terms of reduced bus use, 18 

percent of respondents in Minneapolis-Saint Paul reported using the bus less often, while only 4 

percent in Salt Lake City reported a similar change. In Minneapolis-Saint Paul, 16 percent noted 

increasing bus use, and 8 percent reported increasing bus use in Salt Lake City. Salt Lake City is the 

only city to report a net increase in bus use as a result of bikesharing. In Minneapolis-Saint Paul and 

Salt Lake City, bikesharing is reported to have increased rail use. In Montreal and Toronto, by contrast, 

7 percent to 8 percent increased rail use, while 50 percent to 60 percent decreased rail use. In Mexico 

City, more people are decreasing rail use (17 percent) than increasing it (13 percent), but the difference 

is less. The primary reasons for this shift away from rail in Montreal, Toronto, and Mexico City are

that bikesharing enables users to get to their destination more quickly and can be less expensive. 

Twenty-five percent, 48 percent, and 28 percent of respondents in these respective cities reported using 

rail less because bikesharing offered a lower cost and quicker transportation alternative. Forty percent 

of Salt Lake City respondents stated they took the train less because bikesharing was faster, and 50 

percent of Minneapolis-St. Paul respondents said they used bikesharing because they wanted exercise. 

Finally, in addition to studies that have demonstrated reduced CO2 emissions and a modal shift toward 

bicycle use, evaluations indicate an increased public awareness of bikesharing as a viable 

transportation mode. A 2008 study found that 89 percent of Vélib’ bikesharing users said the program 

made it easier to travel through Paris (Vélib’, 2012). Fifty-nine percent of Nice Ride Minnesota 

bikesharing users said that they liked the convenience of bikesharing most about their program 

(SurveyGizmo, 2010). In 2011, Denver BCycle achieved a 30-percent increase in riders and a 97-

percent increase in the number of rides taken over the previous year (Denver BCycle, 2011). These 

studies suggest that public bikesharing programs have a positive impact on bicycling as a 

transportation mode. 

RIDESHARING

At present, there are few published studies on the impacts of ridesharing (carpooling and vanpooling). 

Empirical evidence indicates that ridesharing can provide transportation, infrastructure, and 

environmental benefits, although the exact magnitude of these impacts is not well understood. 

Individually, ridesharing participants benefit from shared travel costs, travel-time savings from high 

occupancy vehicle lanes, reduced commute stress, and often preferential parking and other incentives. 

RIDESOURCING

Recent innovations in technology are enabling on-demand ridematching services and 

ridesourcing (also known as TNCs or ride-hailing) services where drivers and passengers 

can link-up using smartphone applications. In many cases, passengers can compensate 

drivers for fuel, parking, and other trip expenditures through these applications, including 
Shared Mobility Primer| 28

the driver’s time with ridesourcing applications. Public policy continues to evolve as on-demand ride 

services, such as uberX and Lyft, gain popularity. 

At present, there are few published studies on the impacts of on-demand ride services. A recent study 

of ridesourcing in the San Francisco Bay area found that survey respondents were generally younger 

than the overall population, although this may be influenced by the sampling method. Respondents 

were relatively well educated. Eighty-four percent of customers had a bachelor’s degree or higher, and 

survey respondents matched the income profile of San Franciscans fairly closely, with the exception 

that households making less than $30,000 were underrepresented as illustrated in Table 8 in Appendix 

A (Rayle et al., 2016). 

The trip survey found that uberX provided the majority (53 percent) of rides, while other Uber services 

(black car, SUV) represented another 8 percent. Lyft provided 30 percent of trips, and the remainder 

were other services, which is consistent with anecdotal information on the market share of each 

service. Of all responses, 67 percent were social/leisure (bar, restaurant, concert, visit friends/family). 

Only 16 percent were work, 4 percent were to or from the airport, and 10 percent were to another 

destination (e.g., doctor’s appointment, volunteer). Forty-seven percent of trips began somewhere other 

than home or work (e.g., a restaurant, bar, gym), and 40 percent were home-based. Thirty-nine percent 

and 24 percent of survey respondents in the Bay Area stated they would have taken a taxi or a bus, 

respectively, if the uberX or Lyft were unavailable (see Table 9). Four percent of respondents named a 

specific public transit station as their origin or destination, and almost half (48 percent of trips) 

occurred on Friday or Saturday. Ridesourcing trips with a destination in San Francisco averaged 3.1 

miles (4.9 km) in length compared to taxi trips averaging 3.7 miles (5.9 km). Finally, the study found 

that wait times tended to be substantially shorter than taxi hail and dispatch wait times. This study did 

not examine e-Hail taxi services, as they were not widely deployed at the time of the survey. There has 

been a dramatic rise in the city since then. As of October 2014, 80 percent of San Francisco taxis 

(1,450 taxis) were reportedly using the e-Hail app Flywheel, which brought taxi wait times closely in 

line with those of ridesourcing (Sachin Kansal, unpublished data). See Table 10 in Appendix A for 

more information on this comparison of ridesourcing and taxi trips travel times. 

As noted earlier, the research on shared mobility impacts is somewhat limited and still evolving. 

Several modes have yet to be examined. Both emerging and existing services require further 

investigation, particularly at the city and regional level.

REFERENCES

Borecki, N., Buck, D., Chung, P., Happ, P., Kushner, N., Maher, T., Buehler, R. (2012). Virginia 

TechCapital Bikeshare Study. Blacksburg: Virginia Tech. 

Denver BCycle. (2011). 2011 Season Results. 

https://denver.bcycle.com/docs/librariesprovider34/default-document-library/annualreports/dbs-2011-annual-report.pdf?sfvrsn=2 
Shared Mobility Primer| 29

Martin, E., & Shaheen, S. (2010). Greenhouse Gas Emission Impacts of Carsharing in North America.

San Jose: Mineta Transportation Institute.

Rayle, L., Dai, D., Chan, N., Cervero, R., and Shaheen, S. (2016). “Just A Better Taxi? A SurveyBased Comparison of Taxis, Transit, and Ridesourcing Services in San Francisco,” Transport 

Policy, Volume 45, pp. 168-178. 

Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Chan, N., Cohen, A., and Pogodzinski, M. (2014). Public Bikesharing in North 

America During A Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business Models, Industry 

Trends and User Impacts. San Jose: Mineta Transportation Institute. 

SurveyGizmo. (2010). Nice Ride Subscriber Survey: Survey Report. https://appv3.sgizmo.com/ 

reportsview/?key=102593-416326-6d13ea0276ea0822c9f59f4411b 6c779 

Velib’. (2012, December 20). Un service qui plait plus que jamais!. Retrieved from JCDecaux: 

http://www.jcdecaux.com/fr/Presse/Communiques/2012/Ve-lib-un-service-qui-plai-t-plus-quejamais-! 
Shared Mobility Primer| 30
Shared Mobility Primer| 31

CHAPTER 4. THE ROLE OF PUBLIC AGENCIES 

IN SHARED MOBILITY 

Local and regional governments are the most common public 

partners of shared mobility operators because of their role in 

transportation planning, public transportation, and parking policy. 

Congestion mitigation, air quality improvement, and parking 

management have been long-time goals of local governments. In 

recent years, climate action planning has further raised the 

awareness of local governments about shared mobility. Nine 

common areas that impact local and regional governments and 

shared mobility include: 

• Health, Safety, and Consumer Protection: Local and state 

governments and public agencies have established 

administrative regulations, ordinances, and laws that may 

require insurance, driver physicals, and/or the disclosure of 

factual information to provide transparency about services 

and/or prevent the dissemination of inaccurate or misleading 

information. Another important consumer protection is policies 

that ensure access to services (e.g., Title VI of the Civil Rights 

Act of 1964). 

• Taxation: The role of tax incentives and taxation on shared mobility, such as rental car excise 

taxes, sales taxes, and commuter tax breaks, is a challenging issue for local authorities. 

• Insurance: Insurance limits and requirements for shared modes are key problems for state, local, 

and regional governments, particularly among P2P vehicle sharing and on-demand ride services. 

• Parking and Access to Rights-of-Way: Local and regional governments have been addressing the 

key issue of managing on-street curb space for shared modes, including equity issues pertaining to 

the use of public space for a private business or non-profit purpose, as well as competing operators 

and modes. 

• Signage and Advertising: Local authorities play a key role in regulating the signage and

advertising of shared modes. 

• Multimodal Integration: Local and regional governments determine the role of public transit

operators in advancing multimodal integration with shared modes. Local and regional governments 

also often investigate the role of telematics, fare integration, and public transit discounts in 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 32

mitigating obstacles, such as technological barriers, lack of integration within existing transportation

systems, skepticism regarding multimodality, and age-dependent travel limitations. 

• Planning Processes: Public agencies and local governments have multiple goals regarding 

incorporating shared mobility into municipal and regional planning processes, such as land use and 

transportation plans. These processes often require data to assist public agencies and local 

governments in planning and forecasting the impacts of shared mobility on public infrastructure. 

• Data Sharing, Privacy, and Standardization: It is critical for local and regional governments to 

develop best practices that identify data standards and balance data sharing (open data) and privacy 

among individuals, companies, and public agencies. 

• Accessibility and Equity Issues: Local governments and public 

agencies are impacted by reporting trends in shared mobility as 

they relate to accessibility, including how public agencies and 

shared mobility service providers define, measure, and address 

equity. 

Key opportunities and challenges for government include increased 

competition among operators and modes, determining the legality of 

new service models, defining innovative service models, and 

developing policies that address these issues. The following sections 

provide examples of supportive and unsupportive policies, success 

stories, opportunities, and challenges that highlight the role of 

government in shared mobility. 

HEALTH, SAFETY, AND CONSUMER 

PROTECTION 

Public agencies and local and state governments have established 

recommended guidelines, administrative regulations, ordinances, 

and laws that both impact and regulate shared mobility service 

providers. Health and safety includes laws and ordinances meant to 

protect the safety and welfare of shared mobility users. In addition 

to health and safety laws, consumer protection laws defend consumer interests and ensure fair trade 

practices, open competition, and the accuracy of information in the marketplace. Broadly speaking, the 

purpose of consumer protection laws is to prevent fraudulent or unfair business practices. Some key 

examples of health, safety, and consumer protection laws impacting shared mobility include the 

following. 

• Helmet Laws requiring bikesharing users to wear helmets while riding impact shared mobility. For 

example, King County Washington’s Board of Health maintains a bicycle helmet law that requires 

Source: Susan Shaheen

Figure 3: Helmet Kiosk for the 

Pronto Cycle Share System in 

Seattle
Shared Mobility Primer| 33

all cyclists regardless of age to wear a helmet. The law has been in effect since August 2003 and 

includes the City of Seattle. Pronto Cycle Share in Seattle has maintained compliance with the 

helmet law by allowing users to pick up helmets from boxes adjacent to kiosks. The provision of 

helmets that can be borrowed on the honor system was believed to be operationally easier to 

implement than a helmet dispensing mechanism. 

• Insurance Laws mandating minimum insurance levels for P2P carsharing impact shared mobility. 

This can include requirements for P2P vehicle operators to carry and provide insurance for drivers, 

as well as protections for P2P vehicle owners prohibiting the loss of personal vehicle coverage, if 

they sub-lease their vehicle for P2P rental use. For example, in June 2011, the Oregon legislature 

passed personal vehicle sharing legislation known as HB3149, which requires that a vehicle 

owner’s insurance policy include personal injury protection and uninsured motorist coverage (Auto 

Rental News, 2012). Additionally, the law requires that a P2P carsharing program provide 

insurance coverage for each of the vehicles in its fleets. The law states that if a vehicle owner is 

named as a defendant in a civil action when the owner is not driving the vehicle, P2P carsharing 

programs “shall have the duty to defend and indemnify the vehicle’s registered owner” (Auto 

Rental News, 2012). Finally, HB3149 prohibits the use of commercial vehicles in a personal 

vehicle sharing program. Other laws may protect shared mobility operators from vicarious liability 

(i.e., legal doctrine that imposes liability upon one person for the actions of another). Shared 

mobility operators, namely carsharing providers, have successfully argued that carsharing operators 

should be exempt from vicarious liability under the Graves Amendment for protections that have 

been traditionally afforded to car rental companies. 

• For-Hire Driver Laws requiring driver physicals and minimum insurance for taxis, liveries, and 

ridesourcing impact shared mobility services. For example, many public utilities, taxi, and 

limousine commissions have regulated the business practices of for-hire vehicle services using 

permits, medallions, certificates, and operator licenses. Historically, these for-hire vehicle 

consumer protection laws have sought to protect public safety, regulate fares, regulate the number 

and service quality of operators, and ensure disabled access. In recent years, a number of public 

agencies have implemented ordinances and laws for ridesourcing. For example, the City of Austin 

recently ratified a municipal ordinance regulating ridesourcing, which includes a number of 

provisions such as establishing minimum insurance requirements, requiring driver training, and 

limiting the number of consecutive hours a driver can work, and prohibitions against refusing to 

pick up passengers or charging more for disabled passengers (City of Austin, 2014). See below for 

more details on the City of Austin’s TNC Ordinance. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 34

Austin’s Comprehensive Transportation Network Companies Ordinance

In October 2014, the City Council in Austin, Texas approved one of the most comprehensive 

ordinances defining and regulating TNCs as “an organization whether a corporation, partnership, 

sole proprietor, or other form, which provides on-demand transportation services for compensation 

using an online-enabled application (app) or platform to connect passengers with drivers.” The 

municipal ordinance requires that TNCs enter into an agreement with the city that includes the 

following provisions: 

Insurance Provisions:

• Provide primary commercial automobile liability insurance coverage with a minimum combined single 

limit of $1 million for each occurrence of bodily injury and property damage for accidents involving TNC 

vehicles in transit (defined as the time beginning when a driver accepts a trip and ending when a rider 

departs the vehicle). The insurance must name the City of Austin as an additional insured;

• During the time period when a TNC driver has logged into an app and indicated their availability to 

drive, the TNC will provide insurance coverage of at least $30,000 for death and personal injury per a 

person; $60,000 for death or personal injury per an incident; and $25,000 for property damage. This 

insurance can be provided by either the driver, the company, or any combination of both;

• TNCs are required to submit data to the city on insurance claims and the effectiveness of coverage 

limits annually; and

• TNCs must notify their drivers that there may be a gap in coverage beginning when a driver logs into 

the app.

Public Safety Provisions:

• TNCs must establish a driver’s training program and implement a zero tolerance policy for drug and 

alcohol use among drivers;

• The TNC app must display a picture of the driver, a description or picture of the vehicle, and license 

plate number; 

• TNCs must conduct background checks of drivers. In December 2015, Austin’s City Council amended 

its ordinance to require fingerprinting as part of its background checks. The fingerprinting establishes 

four benchmarks for TNCs to achieve compliance by February 2017; 

• Drivers must be at least 21 years of age; and

• Drivers are prohibited from driving more than 12 hours in any 24-hour period, may not accept any rides 

outside of the online application, and must make reasonable accommodations for service animals.

Consumer Protections:

• Passengers must receive an estimated trip cost and a receipt with the total amount paid after the 

completion of a trip;

• Passengers must be able to consent to dynamic pricing on apps; and

• Dynamic pricing is prohibited during periods of market disruptions.

Access Provisions:
Shared Mobility Primer| 35

Austin’s Comprehensive Transportation Network Companies Ordinance

• Drivers are prohibited from refusing to accept disabled passengers or charging higher fees of disabled 

passengers; and

• TNCs must conduct outreach with low-income communities and organizations with ADA compliant 

vehicles.

Update: In May 2016, Austin residents will be voting on an updated TNC ordinance by referendum. 

If approved, the referendum would repeal the fingerprinting requirements approved by Austin’s city 

council in December 2015. 

Source: City of Austin, 2014; Harrington, 2016

• Pricing Regulations mandating that consumers receive an estimated service cost and receipt for 

services also impact shared mobility. Regulations can include the payment method (e.g., 

acceptance of credit/debit cards); disclosures related to special discounts and surge pricing; and in 

some cases, prohibitions against special types of pricing (e.g., surge pricing during market 

disruptions like natural disasters). 

• Access Laws protecting access for special needs populations and protected classes impacts shared 

mobility services. This can include provisions mandating the Americans with Disabilities Act 

(ADA) access and prohibitions against discrimination against protected classes including race, 

color, religion, national origin, age, sex, pregnancy, citizenship, familial status, disability status, 

and veteran status. Many of these laws not only prohibit discrimination against the end user but 

also shared mobility employees. 

TAXATION

Unclear definitions and service models among shared mobility services, such as carsharing, 

ridesourcing, taxis, and rental cars, have led to confusion among state and local governments about 

taxing these mobility services. Rental car taxes have been particularly popular among politicians 

because the taxes were believed to target visitors, not voters. Taxes commonly applied to shared 

mobility services include rental car excise taxes, sales taxes, convention center surcharges, and 

transaction fees. As of 2009, there were a total of 115 car rental excise taxes that had been enacted in 

43 states and the District of Columbia, many of which were being applied to carsharing (Bieszczat, 

2011). 

A DePaul University study by Bieszczat et al. (2011) compared carsharing reservation prices in 12 of 

13 major metropolitan markets with 50 or more carsharing vehicles to assess the overall impact of 

carsharing taxes. The study documented the extensive impact of carsharing taxes on end-user pricing 

and found that carsharing is being taxed between 1.7 to 2.2 times the rate of general goods and 

services. Using population-based weighted averages, Bieszczat et al. found that one-hour carsharing 
Shared Mobility Primer| 36

reservations were taxed at 17.93 percent and 24-hour reservations were taxed at 14.08 percent

compared to 8.06 percent for general goods and services, at the time of the study. In one example, 

carsharing taxes in Hartford, CT increased the end-user price by 21.5 percent, compared to only 10.5 

percent for a 24-hour reservation. For the first hour, the original $8 user fee increased to $9.72 after 

$0.48 was added for the 6-percent state sales tax, $0.24 was added for a 3-percent state motor vehicle 

rental surcharge, and a $1-per-day state motor vehicle rental surcharge was included. Table 1, from 

Bieszczat et al., presents the total and component costs of a one-hour carsharing reservation in their 

sampled locations that applied the highest tax rates to carsharing.
Shared Mobility Primer| 37

Table 1. Total and Component Costs of Highly Taxed One-Hour Carsharing Reservations

City Total

Cost

Base

Rate

Tax Effective

Tax Rate

Applicable Taxes

Hoboken, New 

Jersey

$14.63 $9.00 $5.63 62.56% 7% sales tax (state)

$5 fee per auto rental (state)

Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania

$14.09 $9.25 $4.84 52.32% 7% sales tax (state & county) 2% 

auto rental tax (state)

$2 fee per auto rental (county)

$2 fee per auto rental (state)

Tempe, Arizona $11.40 $8.00 $3.40 42.50% 9.3% sales tax on rentals (state, county & city) 3.25%

rental surcharge (county), minimum $2.50

Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania

$10.14 $7.25 $2.89 39.86% 8% sales tax (state & county) 2% 

vehicle rental tax (state) 2% 

vehicle rental tax (county)

$2 fee per day per rental (state)

Miami, Florida $9.65 $7.00 $2.65 37.86% 7% sales tax (state & county)

$2 per day auto rental surcharge (state)

Albuquerque,

New Mexico

$10.96 $8.00 $2.96 37% 7% sales tax (state, county & city) 5% 

auto rental tax (state)

$2 per day auto rental surcharge (state)

Colorado

Springs,

Colorado

$10.83 $8.00 $2.83 35.38% 7.4% sales tax (state, county & city) 3% 

auto rental tax (county & city)

$2 per day auto rental fee (state)

Fayetteville,

Arkansas

$9.80 $8.00 $1.80 22.5% 9.25% sales tax (state, county & city) 10%

auto rental tax (state)

3.25% auto rental tax (local)

Hartford,

Connecticut

$9.72 $8.00 $1.73 21.5% 6% sales tax (state)

3% auto rental tax (state)

$1 per day tourism surcharge (state)

New York, New 

York

$13.19 $11.00 $2.19 19.91% 8.875% sales tax (state, city) 6% 

auto rental tax (state)

5% auto rental tax (metro commuter district)

Seattle,

Washington

$12.52 $10.50 $2.02 19.24% 9.5% sales tax (state, county, local)

9.7% auto rental tax (state/local)

Source: Reprinted from Bieszczat et al., 2011

Below are a few examples of supportive tax policies in shared mobility. The figure excludes a former 

policy in Washington State, which exempted carsharing from rental and excise taxes (Bieszczat, 2011). 

In 2007, this exemption was repealed, and the state’s Department of Revenue imposed a 9.7-percent 

car rental tax on carsharing. Despite legislative efforts at developing a definition for carsharing to 
Shared Mobility Primer| 38

exempt it from rental car taxes, the proposed bill failed to gain traction (Bieszczat, 2011). Similar 

legislative efforts in Illinois that attempted to exempt carsharing from the state’s rental car taxes also 

failed to achieve the votes required to advance from committee to the legislative floor (Bieszczat, 

2011). 

Examples of Supportive Tax Policies in Shared Mobility

Supportive Carsharing Tax Policies:

• In 1999, Multnomah County was one of the first jurisdictions to amend its code to exempt carsharing 

from a 17-percent car rental tax.

• In 2005, Boston revised its policy to apply a $10 convention center financing surcharge on the first 

carsharing reservation per an annual membership. Previously, the city had imposed the $10 surcharge 

on every vehicle rental transaction. 

• In 2005, Chicago eliminated the eight percent “Personal Property Lease Transaction Tax” on 

carsharing rentals less than 24 hours in duration. The city defined carsharing as a membership-based 

organization providing self-service access to vehicles with inclusive insurance and no written 

agreement required per rental period. 

Source: Bieszczat, 2011

 

Additionally, taxation of ridesourcing has emerged as a key issue in numerous international 

jurisdictions. Services, such as Uber, have been the target of tax probes in Belgium and India, for 

example, because these users pay through a Netherlands-based shell corporation, Uber BV, and avoid 

paying local taxes (Phys.org, 2014). In March 2015, India’s Finance Ministry amended its 2015 to 

2016 tax rules establishing an “aggregator model” characterization to tax e-commerce services, such as 

Uber and Trip Advisor (Srivastava & Surabhi, 2015). Domestically, taxation policies for taxi services, 

limousines, and ridesourcing are not clearly defined. Questions over whether or not drivers should 

declare and pay taxes, how much, and what taxes to pay have not been clearly answered by local and 

state jurisdictions. In Georgia, proposed legislation would have established a legislative study 

committee to look at methods for taxing for-hire vehicle services; however, this failed to obtain the 

required number of votes for approval. At the federal level, drivers are required to report wages from 

W2s (if employees), from 1099s (if independent contractors), and all other income as miscellaneous 

income as part of a driver’s federal income taxes. 

INSURANCE

This section discusses insurance for carsharing, P2P carsharing, bikesharing, ridesharing, and for-hire 

vehicle services.
Shared Mobility Primer| 39

Carsharing 

Insurance emerged as a key issue following the terrorist attacks of 9/11 in the area of roundtrip 

carsharing. At that time, North American carsharing operators confronted substantially higher 

premiums, which often exceeded $2,500 per vehicle annually, as insurance companies became far 

more risk adverse (Shaheen, Cohen, & Roberts, 2006). The average cost of insuring a carsharing 

vehicle has since dropped to an average of $789 per a carsharing vehicle, according to an insurance 

study of six carsharing operators from 2008 through 2015 (Shaheen, Shen, & Martin, 2016). Although 

insurance has become increasingly available and more affordable for carsharing, insurance challenges 

have emerged with the advent of many innovative shared modes. 

In 2005, Congress passed the Graves Amendment as part of the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st

Century, protecting rental car owners from vicarious liability. In 2009, a driver who was rear-ended by 

a Zipcar vehicle sued both the driver and Zipcar, claiming that Zipcar should be held responsible for 

death, injuries, and property damage resulting from negligence in the use and operation of its vehicle. 

In 2010, the New York Supreme Court ruled that Zipcar was entitled to protections against vicarious 

liability afforded by the Graves Amendment (Auto Rental News, 2010). A similar suit brought against 

car2go in the fall of 2014 involving a collision with a drunk carsharing driver in Florida has not yet 

been litigated (Pacenti, 2014). 

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Carsharing 

Insurance also reemerged as a key issue in the late-2000s with peer-to-peer (P2P) vehicle services. 

Most state insurance laws have not kept pace with the introduction of P2P models. At issue is defining 

when the vehicle owner’s policy ends and when the P2P carsharing operator’s commercial policy 

begins. In California, Oregon, and Washington, P2P vehicle insurance legislation was ratified as part 

of AB 1871, HB 3149, and HB 2384, respectively (Shaheen, Mallery, & Kingsley, 2012). 

Peer-to-Peer Carsharing Insurance Policy in Oregon

Oregon has approved peer-to-peer vehicle sharing legislation that defines and outlines peer-to-peer 

vehicle sharing coverage. Specifically, the law requires personal vehicle sharing programs to 

provide vehicle liability insurance and assumes liability in the event of loss or injury for periods when 

a vehicle is in use by the program. The law also prohibits a motor vehicle owner’s liability insurer 

from cancelling a policy or reclassifying use from a private passenger motor vehicle to a commercial 

use vehicle because of a vehicle’s use in a personal vehicle sharing program.

Source: Auto Rental News, 2012.

California’s AB 1871, which represents the first P2P insurance legislation, has been a key model for 

personal vehicle sharing legislation in other states. All three of these laws classify personal vehicle 
Shared Mobility Primer| 40

sharing as non-commercial use and limit “the circumstances under which the vehicle owner’s 

automobile liability insurance can be subject to liability” to prevent cancellation of primary automobile 

insurance policies (AB 1871, 2010). Personal vehicle sharing programs assume liability when the 

vehicle is rented in a shared capacity, and the owner’s insurance policy resumes coverage once it is 

returned (Shaheen, Mallery, & Kingsley, 2012). In turn, vehicle owners are indemnified for any loss or 

injury that occurs through shared use not resulting from their negligence. Time of use, along with 

initial and final locations of vehicle usage must be clearly delineated through “verifiable electronic 

records identifying” when it is being used as part of a personal vehicle sharing program (AB 1871, 

2010). This prevents premium spikes for primary insurance policies resulting from unverified shared 

use. Vehicle owners who share their autos in states lacking personal vehicle sharing legislation risk 

non-renewal of primary insurance policies, as well as premium spikes resulting from increased use 

(Shaheen, Mallery, & Kingsley, 2012). 

Bikesharing 

In addition to carsharing and P2P carsharing insurance, owners and operators of bikesharing programs 

can be sued if one of their bicycles is involved in a serious collision resulting in injuries, fatalities, or 

property damage. Like carsharing, bikesharing owners and operators can manage risk and limit their 

liability by signing waivers or indemnification clauses, keeping equipment well maintained, and 

educating users about bicycle and roadway safety. Unlike rental cars (and now carsharing), bikesharing 

programs do not have statutory protections against vicarious liability. Also unlike rental cars, 

bikesharing users do not have the ability to purchase insurance at the time of a mobility transaction. As 

such, the user and the bikesharing operator may be held responsible for the conduct and damages 

associated with their program’s equipment. In the case of user liability, home owner and rental policies 

would often cover this. General commercial liability insurance can protect bikesharing operators from 

public and product liability risks that may include bodily injury or property damage caused by direct or 

indirect actions of the insured. Liability insurance is designed to offer protection against third-party 

insurance claims (e.g., someone who suffers a loss either from using a bikesharing system or a loss of a 

non-user resulting from the use of a bikesharing bicycle). Generally, unless self-insured by a sponsor 

or local government entity, most North American bikesharing programs carry some form of liability 

coverage. Although most bikesharing operators maintain insurance to protect against litigation, most 

policies do not protect riders against medical bills and lost wages associated with bicycle collisions 

(Glover, 2013). 

Ridesharing 

Ridesharing programs, which include carpooling and vanpooling, can present a variety of risk 

scenarios depending on the program operation. Typically, employer-based vanpool programs are 

operated using one of three models: 1) employer owns the vehicle and operates the program; 2) 

employees own and operate the program with or without employer subsidies; or 3) a third-party 

contractor owns the vehicles and administers the vanpool program (Business Insurance, 2008). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 41

Employer liability can be a key concern, if the vehicle is involved in a commuting collision. Many 

employers prohibit the use of carpool/vanpool vehicles during the workday for non-commute trips to 

limit this liability. Employers are further reducing their auto liability by outsourcing their 

carpool/vanpool programs to third-party contractors, such as vRide and Zimride. Employers and thirdparty contractors also reduce their exposure through vehicle maintenance and driver screening 

processes that can include physical exams and background checks. In California, statutory provisions 

protect employers from worker compensation claims involving vanpool collisions, if the vanpool is 

sponsored or mandated by a governmental agency. This can include mandates to comply with GHG 

emission reductions, local trip reduction mandates, and spare the air days (Business Insurance, 2008). 

For-Hire Driver Laws 

Safety and insurance risks related to for-hire vehicle services have long been a topic of discussion. A 

comprehensive study of taxicab crashes in New York City completed in 2006 found that taxi drivers 

were involved in at-fault crashes 30 percent less than the general public when compared on a 

VMT/VKT basis. However, the study also noted that when crashes did occur, the bodily injuries of 

those involved were much higher than the accident severity associated with drivers of non-commercial 

vehicles (Schaller Consulting, 2006). Many insurance companies charge premiums based both on 

driver experience and safe operations (Fraker, 2014). However, a review of safety-related incidents 

suggests that established screening methods contain gaps that may negatively impact driver and 

passenger safety. Driver safety from theft and violent crime also represents an insurance risk to for-hire 

vehicle services. For-hire services that employ a social networking component (i.e., rating systems) 

may mitigate some of this risk to the extent that social networking profiles can be verified for a person. 

Insurance re-emerged as a prominent issue in shared mobility policy with the advent of ridesourcing 

services, such as uberX and Lyft. In the fall of 2012, the California Public Utilities Commission 

(CPUC) issued cease and desist letters to Lyft and Tickengo for violating regulatory provisions 

pertaining to “charter carriers.” In the summer of 2013, the CPUC developed the term transportation 

network company or TNC, which was defined as a company that “provide[s] prearranged 

transportation services for compensation using an online-enabled application or platform (such as 

smartphone apps) to connect drivers using their personal vehicles with passengers.” CPUC granted 

ridesourcing interim approval to operate while they reviewed public policies and insurance 

requirements surrounding for-hire vehicle services. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 42

Transportation Network Companies Policy in California

The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) was the first public agency to define transportation 

network companies (TNCs). Its definition is “a company that uses an online-enabled platform to 

connect passengers with drivers using their personal, non-commercial, vehicles.” CPUC established 

a number of requirements for legal operations for TNCs operating in California including:

• AB2293 which took effect on July 1, 2015, supplemented CPUC’s insurance requirements (below)

mandating period 1 insurance coverage (see Figure 4 below). The law requires TNCs maintain primary 

third-party insurance coverage in the amounts of $50,000 per an individual with a total of $100,000 per 

an accident along with up to $30,000 for property damage. 

• Maintaining $1 million in liability coverage when the driver is en route for pick-up and when the rider is

being transported, along with contingent liability coverage of up to $100,000 once the driver has turned 

the app-on, see Figure 4 below); 

• Obtaining a CPUC license to operate;

• Having each driver undergo a criminal background check;

• Establishing a driver training program;

• Implementing a zero-tolerance policy on drugs and alcohol;

• Conducting a 19-point vehicle inspection; and

• Obtaining authorization from airports before conducting any operations on airport property or entry into

any airport.

Source: California Public Utilities Commission, 2015

In January 2014, a driver, alleged to be distracted, was operating an Uber app when involved in an 

accident that killed a six-year-old child. This incident raised national awareness to the issues of 

distracted driving, safety, and insurance periods for ridesourcing. In 2014, CPUC adopted enhanced 

TNC regulations requiring that drivers maintain $1 million in liability coverage along with other 

requirements, such as background checks and vehicle inspections to operate. See below for more 

information on CPUC’s current regulatory requirements for ridesourcing. Three coverage periods are 

included in many ridesourcing policies governing insurance: 1) when a driver is signed-in to an app 

and available to drive; 2) when a driver accepts a ride and is en route for pick-up; and 3) when a rider 

is being transported from an origin to a destination. See Figure 4 for a review of these coverage 

periods. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 43

Source: Transportation Sustainability Research Center (TSRC)

Figure 4. Driver Insurance Periods Impacting Ridesourcing/TNC Operations 

In 2015, a number of private sector insurance providers began offering ridesourcing insurance in select 

markets that require coverage while a driver has the app on and is awaiting a ridematch. For example, 

United Services Automobile Association (USAA) initiated a pilot program in Colorado extending 

members’ existing auto policy coverage and deductibles from the moment a driver’s app is turned on 

until they are matched with a passenger for approximately $6 to $8 per month (Hirsch, 2015). 

Metromile has partnered with Uber, offering a pay-as-you-go insurance option by plugging a “dongle” 

into the vehicle’s on-board diagnostic (OBD) system (Cecil, 2015). By tracking driving and pairing it 

with Uber’s app, Metromile can subtract business miles from personal miles, only charging the driver 

for non-Uber trips. Metromile is currently available in California, Illinois, and Washington. Finally, 

Allstate, Erie, Farmers, Geico Commercial, and Progressive all have insurance offerings in select 

markets for ridesourcing drivers (Cecil, 2015). 

Even with CPUC’s ridesourcing policy, challenges remain in coordinating the policy among state 

agencies. Despite CPUC’s regulatory authority over for-hire vehicle services, the California’s 

Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) recently suggested that drivers must have commercial license 

plates, even if they only pick up passengers occasionally (Hoge, 2015). At present, the matter is under 

review, and multiple state agencies are assessing operator requirements (Costa, 2015). 

PARKING AND RIGHTS-OF-WAY

The allocation of parking and rights-of-way remain a key issue. In the early years of shared mobility, 

on-street carsharing parking was a priority. Philadelphia, Portland (Oregon), Vancouver (British 

TNCs do not provide 

any insurance 

coverage when the 

app is off. Drivers are 

covered by their 

personal insurance. 

TNCs provide 

contingent liability 

coverage when the 

driver's personal 

insurance does not 

provide coverage. 

Typical contingent 

liability coverage is 

$50k per injury, $100k 

total injury and $25k 

for property damage.

TNCs typically provide 

primary commercial 

liability up to $1M per 

accident, uninsured/

underinsured motorist

up to $1M per 

accident and 

contingent collision 

and comprehensive up 

to $50k per accident 

(with deductible). 

TNCs typically provide 

primary commercial 

liability up to $1M per 

accident, uninsured/

underinsured motorist

up to $1M per accident 

and contingent 

collision and 

comprehensive up to 

$50k per accident (with 

deductible).
Shared Mobility Primer| 44

Columbia), and the State of California represent some of the early pioneers of policies related to 

parking and rights-of-way. Increased competition among operators and modes for on-street and public 

space, coupled with the expansion of shared mobility into innovative service models, such as 

carsharing, public bikesharing, and high-tech company shuttles, has created the need for new policies 

to address a different set of challenges.

Carsharing 

In roundtrip carsharing, there are numerous examples of parking policies. For instance, Portland, OR,

developed the “Option Zone,” which is a carsharing parking space designated by an orange pole and 

attached bicycle rack that can be mounted to parking meter heads and curbs. Philadelphia, PA,

developed its own on-street parking policy for carsharing, initially granting on-street parking to nonprofit operators only. Philadelphia was the first jurisdiction to distinguish between for-profit and nonprofit carsharing operators. Vancouver, British Columbia, developed one of the earliest universal 

parking permits, dedicating a permit for carsharing vehicles (in contrast to a parking spot). The 

universal permit enabled carsharing members to park a carsharing vehicle in all 19 of the city’s parking 

zones. Although designed for roundtrip carsharing, Vancouver’s policy set the stage for similar 

universal parking permit policies enabling free-floating one-way carsharing. Finally, California has 

amended its vehicle code under AB 2154 to allow local governments to designate on-street parking for 

carsharing and ridesharing vehicle use. Previously, the designation of on-street parking for these 

functions had been prohibited by the state’s motor vehicle code. 

Option Zones and Parking Auctions in Portland, Oregon

Portland has been well known for developing one of the first on-street carsharing parking policies in 

the early-2000s, which incorporated “Option Zones”–orange poles with bicycle racks that could be 

mounted to parking meter heads to raise awareness of carsharing and encourage multi-modal 

connections. In January 2013, the City of Portland revised its carsharing parking policy and 

established an auction process for carsharing parking. Each year, the Portland Bureau of 

Transportation creates a list of on-street metered parking spaces available for lease to carsharing 

operators. The Bureau of Transportation manages the auction process where carsharing operators 

can bid on parking spaces. The minimum bid is calculated by adding the sum of lost meter revenue 

and the installation, maintenance, and administrative costs associated with leasing the parking 

space for carsharing use. Carsharing operators outside the metered district may apply for on-street 

parking after receiving approval by adjacent property owners. The city has also recognized the 

importance of use. 

Source: Shaheen, Cohen, & Roberts, 2006

Recent public policy amendments and pilot projects have attempted to address competition among 

operators and to provide flexibility for free-floating one-way service models. A pilot project currently 
Shared Mobility Primer| 45

underway in San Francisco established a policy for allocating up to 450 parking spaces among multiple 

roundtrip and P2P carsharing providers. 

Roundtrip Carsharing in San Francisco, California

The San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA) maintains an on-street carsharing 

parking program. City CarShare, Zipcar, and Getaround all participate in the SFMTA on-street 

carsharing parking program that designates up to 450 parking spaces for carsharing vehicles. To 

qualify, SFMTA requires that the following requirements are met: 

• Carsharing operator maintains a citywide network of at least 10 vehicles;

• Vehicles are available 24 hours a day, seven days a week using a virtual storefront (no staff required),

or available during the hours a vehicle is parked in a garage;

• Automobile insurance is provided for each member for the duration of the rental;

• Vehicles are only made available for rental in hourly increments or less;

• Vehicles are made available for at least 75% of any given month;

• Conduct a new member outreach campaign and provide a summary of outreach activities to SFMTA;

• Provide quarterly reports on the number of members in the city by zip code, vehicle locations, trip data,

and operational metrics to SFMTA; and

• Survey carsharing members to gauge changes in travel patterns at the beginning and end of the pilot

program.

Each organization that participates in the program is eligible for 150 parking spaces (0.05 percent of 

the city’s total on-street parking). The SFMTA Board of Directors allocates locations through an 

application process that includes an engineering review, community outreach, and approval. 

Monthly pricing per space varies from $50 to $225, based on three demand zones established by 

SFMTA. Operators must pay a one-time installation fee of $400. Each approved carsharing vehicle 

receives a special parking permit that exempts it from street sweeping, time limits, and other 

restrictions.

Source: SFMTA, 2013

An 18-month parking pilot similar to the San Francisco’s pilot commenced in Boston in September 

2015. In Seattle, the city council has expanded a prior pilot program permitting up to four carsharing 

operators to compete for on-street parking. Unlike San Francisco’s policy, Seattle’s policy permits 

carsharing vehicles to “float,” allowing parking for one-way service models. A number of other areas, 

such as Washington, DC; Austin, TX; and Columbus, OH, have implemented similar policies allowing 

for free-floating carsharing parking (Segraves, 2014) (City of Austin, 2009) (Rouan, 2014). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 46

Free-Floating One-Way Carsharing Parking in Seattle, Washington

Free-floating one-way carsharing created a number of new parking and operational challenges. In 

December 2012, the Seattle City Council approved a one-year pilot program with car2go that 

enabled its vehicles to “float” around the city. Car2go paid the city $1,330 per vehicle per year for 

administrative costs, on-street parking, and residential parking zone permits for 350 vehicles. 

Car2go is required to provide the city with data on how much parking was used and to pay any 

additional parking fees accrued to the city at the end of each year. In December 2014, Seattle 

revised its carsharing policy to permit up to four carsharing operators to each apply for 500 vehicle 

permits (or 750 vehicle permits, if the operator agreed to cover the entire city). The permits costs 

$1,703 per vehicle per year and are estimated to raise $2.2 million in revenue in 2015 and $3.4 

million in 2016. 

Source: City of Seattle, 2015

Public Bikesharing 

In North America, the majority of public bikesharing kiosks are located on public land (typically onstreet in a former parking space or on curbs). Generally, stations are placed on public rights-of-way 

either through a municipal request for proposal (RFP) process granting use of the land in cases of 

public agency program operation, sponsorship, or operator request through informal agreements, real 

estate licenses to use, easements, or memoranda of understanding/agreement (Shaheen S. A., Martin, 

Cohen, & Finson, 2012). 

High-Tech Company Shuttles 

In addition to on-street parking, loading zones have also become a public policy concern for some 

jurisdictions. In San Francisco, SFMTA was having difficulty with high-tech company shuttles 

interfering with its bus options. In January 2014, SFMTA announced a program enabling these shuttle 

services to pay for access to loading zones, if certain guidelines are followed, such as yielding to 

public buses and pulling to the front of the loading zone to make room for other vehicles (San 

Francisco Muncipal Transportation Agency, 2014). State law limits the fee to the cost of operating the 

program. In October 2015, the cost was $3.67 per shuttle, per each stop made (San Francisco 

Municipal Transportation Agency, 2015). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 47

SIGNAGE AND ADVERTISING

Local authorities play a key role in 

setting policies associated with the 

signage and advertising of shared 

modes. This role can range from 

permitting street and curbside markings, 

signs, street fixtures, and wayfinding 

signs and regulating private sector 

signage and advertising. For example, 

in the early-2000s, the City of Portland 

established “Option Zones,” tall orange 

poles where a bike rack could be 

attached to parking meter heads to 

denote carsharing availability (see

Figure 5). Other jurisdictions have 

established curb and street markings to 

identify carsharing parking and hightech company shuttle pick-up and dropoff locations. 

In addition to providing signage and street fixtures to identify shared modes, local governments and 

public agencies have also been instrumental in regulating advertising on public bikesharing hubs. With 

bikesharing in particular, operating costs are typically funded through a combination of user fees, 

advertising, and sponsorships (including naming rights, which can include exclusive equipment 

branding). In a 2012 study of bikesharing, sponsorships and advertising ranked as two of the top three 

funding and revenue sources for operators (Shaheen S. A., Martin, Cohen, & Finson, 2012). At its 

start, Washington, DC, faced a number of challenges in siting its bikesharing stations in light of 

sponsor advertising. The city had an ordinance that prohibited advertising on District-owned property, 

and special legislation had to be enacted to allow bikesharing advertising on public bus shelters 

(Kaplan, 2010). Amending local ordinances to permit advertising can assist shared mobility operators, 

including bikesharing programs, in maximizing cost recovery through various advertising mediums. 

MULTIMODAL INTEGRATION

Public transit agencies can play a notable role in advancing multimodal integration with 

shared modes. Public transit agencies can provide policy guidance and technical assistance 

with information technology, joint marketing, fare integration, and public transit discounts. 

These policies can play a critical role in mitigating obstacles, such as technological barriers 

and lack of integration within existing transportation systems, and in addressing skepticism regarding 

multimodality. 

Source: Reprinted from Millard-Ball et al., 2005 

Figure 5. Portland’s Carsharing Option Zone
Shared Mobility Primer| 48

Historically, most shared modes, such as carsharing and bikesharing, successfully co-located shared 

services on site or adjacent to public transportation. While many airports have adopted ridesourcing 

regulations in the U.S., many have not yet done so. Ridesourcing vehicles often are prohibited from 

operating at airport locations either adjacent to or alongside taxi services. In October 2014, the San 

Francisco International Airport (SFO) amended its ground transportation regulations to permit three 

large ridesourcing service providers to operate on site (Soper, 2014). In February 2015, SFO authorities 

again amended their regulations to permit e-Hail taxi services to operate at the airport (Soper, 2015). In 

March 2015, Orange County California’s John Wayne International Airport also amended its policy to 

permit ridesourcing to pick up and drop off airport passengers (Fleischman, 2015). 

While co-locating shared modes at or near public transportation is a common practice, fare and 

information integration remain notable challenges. Chicago’s joint fare card between the Chicago 

Transit Authority and IGO (now Enterprise CarShare) represented the first integrated shared mobilitypublic transportation fare card in North America. More recent innovations include fare integration 

between HOURCAR and Metro Transit in the Twin Cities and a partnership between BCycle and 

RideScout and its mobile payment subsidiary GlobeSherpa. See Table 2 for more information on these 

and other recent developments. 

Shifts in technological trends may speed the transition to integration. As of 2014, it was estimated that 

more than 90 percent of public transit fare payments were made by “closed loop” fare cards 

administered by public transit agencies (Shaheen & Christensen, 2015). It is forecast that by 2023, 

public transit agency administered fare cards will account for less than 10 percent of public 

transportation fare payments, and the remaining 90 percent of fare payments will be split between bank 

cards and mobile payment systems (Shaheen & Christensen, 2015). Emerging technologies, such as 

Bluetooth low energy and near field communications, coupled with smartphone apps and mobile 

payments, may provide consumers with the ability to access and pay for shared mobility services and 

public transportation using a single electronic device, such as a mobile phone (Bender, 2013). While 

both real-time and open data are becoming increasingly available, incorporating public transportation 

trip planning with private sector modes, notably shared modes, remains a challenge in many 

jurisdictions. The lack of available real-time data and access to APIs2

, as well as reluctance of the 

public and private sector to collaborate, can provide institutional challenges to digital multimodal

integration. 

 

2 APIs are a web programming practice that allows open sharing of content and data among data providers and applications.
Shared Mobility Primer| 49

A number of carsharing operators, such as 

Modo, offer open data on vehicle location, 

vehicle type, current and future availability, 

and pricing as part of their API. Public 

transit agencies can also be instrumental in 

joint planning processes to integrate shared 

modes and lease and sub-lease rights-of-way 

to shared modes for carsharing parking, 

bikesharing kiosks, for-hire vehicle service 

loading zones, and other uses. Table 2, on 

the following page, provides a few of the 

many examples of public agencies 

encouraging multimodal integration. Shared 

mobility operators can also encourage 

multimodal integration in conjunction with 

and independently of public agencies. For 

example, car2go recently installed bicycle 

racks on its Portland carsharing fleet to encourage bicycle-carsharing trip chaining (see Figure 6). 

Source: Bikeportland.org

Figure 6. car2go Bicycle Racks
Shared Mobility Primer| 50

Table 2. Examples of Shared Mobility Multimodal Integration Efforts

EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION

Arlington County’s 

Transit Development 

Planning with Capital 

Bikeshare

In October 2011, Arlington County began a planning process with Capital Bikeshare to 

complete a long-term transit development plan to encourage multimodal integration with Capital 

Bikeshare. Finalized in November 2012, the county’s transit development plan (TDP) 

establishes a strategic blueprint on how to more effectively integrate bikesharing and public 

transportation in Arlington County. Currently being implemented, the TDP has a planning 

horizon through 2018 (Bike Arlington, 2012 ). 

BCycle and RideScout 

Demonstration

In October 2015, BCycle and RideScout conducted a demonstration allowing users to unlock 

and pay for a bikesharing bicycle using the multimodal mobility aggregator app RideScout 

(Marich, 2015). 

Bikesharing at Caltrain 

Stations in the San 

Francisco Bay Area

Many public bikesharing operators co-locate bikesharing kiosks at public transit hubs. Bay Area 

Bike Share is taking a regional approach and has located bicycles at seven stations along the 

Caltrain corridor, spanning nearly 50 miles (80 km) from San Francisco to San Jose (Bay Area 

Bike Share, 2015). 

Carsharing Bike Racks In November 2014, car2go announced that it was installing bike racks on its vehicles as part of a 

pilot program in Portland, OR (Andersen, 2014). 

Carsharing Parking at 

Washington 

Metropolitan Area 

Transit Authority 

(WMATA) Facilities

Numerous public transit authorities, such as WMATA, have offered carsharing parking at rail 

stations and park-and-ride lots. WMATA began offering carsharing parking at its facilities in 

2001. In May 2015, Enterprise CarShare was selected through a RFP process to provide 

carsharing service at 45 metro stations (Zauzmer, 2015). 

Chicago’s Joint Transit 

Card

In 2009, the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) launched the first joint fare card in North 

America. The card enabled a single payment and access system for CTA buses and trains, pace 

buses, and IGO carsharing vehicles (Center for Neighborhood Technology, 2013). 

Dallas Area Rapid 

Transit (DART) 

Partnership with Uber

In April 2015, DART announced a partnership that enables public transit riders to connect to 

Uber through the “events and offers” section of DART’s GoPass mobile ticketing application 

(DART, 2015). A similar partnership also exists between Uber and Atlanta’s Metropolitan 

Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (Jaffe, 2015). 

Hourcar and Metro 

Transit Fare Integration 

in the Twin Cities

In September 2015, HOURCAR and Metro Transit announced a partnership allowing carsharing 

members to use their Go-To transit cards to access HOURCAR vehicles. The new partnership 

will make it more convenient for users to seamlessly connect between public transportation and 

carsharing (Harlow, 2015). 

Kitsap Transit’s Scoot 

Carsharing Program

In Kitsap County, WA, the county transportation authority established SCOOT Car-Sharing,

offering six vehicles. Scoot is the first public transportation operator in the United States to 

establish and operate its own carsharing program (Kitsap County Transit, 2013). 

Loading Zones for 

Ridesourcing at San Jose 

International Airport

In October 2014, San Jose International Airport amended its commercial ground transportation rules and 

regulations to incorporate ridesourcing to provide for-hire vehicle services, such as UberX and Lyft, with 

legal access to airport loading zones (City of San Jose, 2014). 

Option Zones in 

Portland, Oregon

Portland’s option zones identified carsharing with a tall orange pole with a bike rack to 

encourage links between bicycling and carsharing. The poles attach to meter heads and could be 

easily removed or relocated. Option zones are typically co-located in close proximity to public 

transit (Shaheen, Cohen, & Roberts, 2006). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 51

PLANNING PROCESSES

Local and regional governments have multiple goals in incorporating shared mobility into their 

transportation networks. These goals may include mitigating en-route and parking congestion, 

reducing VMT/VKT and vehicle ownership, improving air quality, achieving climate action targets, 

and providing vehicle access to underserved populations (e.g., low-income communities). 

Incorporating shared mobility into municipal and regional planning processes, such as land use and 

transportation plans, may require data to assist in forecasting the impact of shared mobility on public 

infrastructure. Integrating shared planning into municipal general plans and sketch planning tools can 

help to identify opportunities and gaps within the transportation system. Sketch planning can be used 

to estimate the general order-of-magnitude impacts of bikesharing, carsharing, ridesourcing, and other 

shared modes. Some states have ratified legislation that requires transportation land-use coordination 

to meet air quality and climate mitigation initiatives, such as California’s SB 375 (the Sustainable 

Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008). Additionally, planning processes offer public 

agencies and local governments opportunities to solicit feedback from residents, businesses, actual and 

prospective users, and others impacted by shared mobility. 

Public involvement is important when incorporating shared mobility into the urban environment. 

Public involvement can reduce opposition to shared mobility services (e.g., when converting parking 

spaces to carsharing or bikesharing uses) and can address concerns of impacted stakeholders (e.g., 

storefronts adjacent to a bikesharing kiosk or taxi drivers affected by ridesourcing). The particular 

method of public involvement should reflect the unique institutions and policy procedures established 

in each jurisdiction. Some examples of public involvement could include endorsement by 

neighborhood councils; a public comment, hearing, and approval process; or an appointed/elected body 

to develop, comment, or approve public policies. Some jurisdictions have provided city councils, 

public transit agencies, public utilities commissions, and parking authorities with varying degrees of 

authority over shared mobility. Public involvement, through regular meetings and public comment 

periods, has been important in exercising such authority. For example, when Washington, DC initiated 

its carsharing parking policy in 2005, the district adopted a policy where new carsharing parking 

spaces were requested by Advisory Neighborhood Councils and approved by the District’s Department 

of Transportation (DDOT) (Shaheen, Rodier, Murray , Cohen, & Martin, 2010). In New York City, the 

Department of Transportation (DOT) held 159 public presentations and demonstrations, coupled with 

an additional 230 meetings with elected officials, property owners, and other stakeholders to solicit 

public input on the design and operation of the city’s bikesharing program (New York City 

Department of Transportation, n.d.). As part of its outreach effort, the DOT established an online portal 

for the public to make station suggestions and to support already suggested kiosk locations. Finally, 

more than 250 organizations, community groups, and elected officials participated in 14 planning 

workshops for the planning and design of the Citi Bike system (New York City Department of 

Transportation, n.d.). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 52

DATA SHARING, PRIVACY, AND STANDARDIZATION

Public and private partnerships to standardize data, share data, and protect sensitive data can be key to 

understanding shared mobility’s impact on the transportation network and encourage innovation. 

Shared mobility operators typically track several important data points—the origin and destination of 

shared services (e.g., the pickup and return location for a carsharing or bikesharing vehicle or 

ridesourcing passenger), travel time, and trip duration. A number of shared mobility service providers 

have shared data with public agencies either voluntarily or as part of a regulatory mandate. For 

example, as part of Washington, DC’s carsharing parking initiative adopted in 2005, carsharing 

operators seeking on-street parking are required to provide the DDOT with quarterly data to assess the 

impacts of their parking program. In 2012, City CarShare voluntarily shared data with the SFMTA 

during the city’s SFpark pilot to assist planners and policymakers with the development of the 

carsharing parking policy. 

In addition to this data sharing with public agencies, a number of shared mobility service providers 

make data publicly available for download. Bay Area Bike Share, Capital Bikeshare, and Citi Bike are 

a few of the operators that provide some of the most expansive publicly available data including 

information on trip origin and destination (location and time); rider type (e.g., the type of user pass); 

home zip code for annual members; the bicycle number; weather information; and bicycle/dock 

availability at each station. Real-time data on service availability are becoming increasingly available. 

Operators are making these data available on their websites and apps for users and non-users to locate 

services, such as available bikesharing bikes, open docks, and idle carsharing vehicles. In addition to 

providing these data on operator websites, the use of APIs is increasingly creating an open data 

infrastructure with third parties, such as aggregator and trip planning websites and smartphone apps. 

Uber has established an API that allows third-party app integration with other services including 

OpenTable, Trip Advisor, and United Airlines. In January 2015, uberX announced that it would share 

anonymized trip data with the City of Boston on a quarterly basis as part of the company’s new 

national data-sharing policy (Badger, 2015 ). 

In addition to data sharing, data privacy and security remain key concerns among many shared 

mobility consumers. Shared mobility operators maintain highly sensitive data on their users, 

employees, and independent contractors, such as personally identifiable information, trip information, 

and financial information. In 2013, a Citi Bike software glitch mistakenly exposed sensitive personal 

and financial information, including credit card numbers of nearly 1,200 bikesharing users (Mann, 

2013). From 2014 to 2015, a series of privacy scandals involving Uber raised awareness of data 

sensitivity and the importance of privacy and security among shared mobility service providers 

(Canedo, 2014) (Covert, 2015). In 2014, two former Uber employees leaked to the media that its 

corporate employees had wide access to track drivers and customers using an internal company tool 

known as “God View” (Canedo, 2014). In February 2015, Uber announced that a hacker had obtained 

names and driver’s license numbers of approximately 50,000 current and former drivers in a data 

breach that occurred in May 2014. Uber took responsive measures including notifying the impacted 

drivers and providing affected individuals with a one-year free membership in a credit monitoring 
Shared Mobility Primer| 53

service (Covert, 2015). The company views data security very seriously and has since implemented 

measures to ensure tighter data security, along with others in the shared mobility industry. 

Finally, data standardization is critical to ensuring compatibility for a variety of uses and platforms. In 

November 2015, the North American Bikeshare Association announced the adoption of an open data 

standard, pledging to make real-time data feeds available in a standardized format so these data can be 

readily incorporated into smartphone applications (Fried, 2015). More industry-wide standards, either 

through trade associations or governmental regulation, could aid in the development of clear and 

consistent data formats, data sharing protocols, and privacy protections to ensure open data, 

interoperability, and comparability across a wide array of platforms. 

ACCESSIBILITY AND EQUITY ISSUES 

Some of the key challenges pertaining to accessibility issues are the varying requirements and what 

local governments, public agencies, and shared mobility providers measure. Title VI of the Civil 

Rights Act of 1964 states that: “No person ... shall, on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be 

excluded from participation in, be denied benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any 

program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” Over the years, this definition has been 

expanded to include additional protected classes, such as religion, age, gender, pregnancy, citizenship, 

familial status, disability, and veteran status. In addition to these groups, equity issues may involve a 

number of other groups, such as low-income individuals and neighborhoods. Title VI was amended in 

1987, extending non-discrimination requirements for recipients of federal aid to all of their programs 

and activities, not just programs and activities funded with federal funds. Because many shared 

mobility operators receive either direct monetary and non-monetary support from federally funded 

agencies (e.g., free or reduced cost parking from public transit agencies), the non-discrimination 

requirements could extend to shared mobility operators receiving such support. 

As previously discussed in Chapter 3, multiple North American studies of carsharing and bikesharing 

users have shown that carsharing members and both long-term and short-term bikesharing users are 

more likely to be Caucasian, male, between the ages of 20 and 35, and well educated compared to the 

general population (Shaheen S. , Martin, Chan, Cohen, & Pogodzinski, 2014) (Dill, Mathez, Nathan, & 

Howland, 2014). In many cases, shared mobility has previously struggled to gain traction among all 

populations within urban service areas despite the findings of several studies that suggest that shared 

mobility can often enhance the mobility of disadvantaged communities through improved job access 

and cheaper, faster, and more available mobility. 

Low-Income Access 

Access to credit and debit cards by low-income users has been and continues to be a challenge for 

bikesharing use. In Washington, DC, Capital Bikeshare has partnered with financial institutions that 
Shared Mobility Primer| 54

allow users to establish accounts, obtain debit cards, and receive promotional gift cards to offset the 

cost of a bikesharing membership. 

Capital Bikeshare’s Bank on DC Program

A common concern among bikesharing operators and local governments is low-income access to 

bikesharing and the requirement to have a debit or credit card for use. In Washington, D.C., Capital 

Bikeshare partnered with United Bank and District Government Employees Federal Credit Union 

(DGEFCU) to allow users to open up a bank account and obtain a debit card. New account holders 

receive a $25 gift card good toward the cost of annual Capital Bikeshare membership.

Source: Capital Bikeshare, 2015

In Boston, as part of a grant to expand the city’s Hubway bikesharing system, city council members 

have asked city staff to create a written plan for the expansion of the system into underserved areas. In 

the San Francisco Bay Area, City CarShare provides a formal low-income carsharing program that 

includes subsidies for membership and usage fees for low- to moderate-income users. To apply for the 

subsidy, prospective users must be referred by one of six project partners that serve low- and 

moderate-income residents and clients (City CarShare, 2015). 

Older Adult Mobility 

City CarShare is also one of the few shared mobility providers offering services geared directly toward 

older adults through its partnership with NextVillage, a San Francisco-based non-profit working to 

enhance the mobility of older adults. NextVillage pays for a complimentary one-year carsharing 

membership for volunteers who donate 12 hours on a quarterly basis to drive senior citizens to 

appointments and errands (City CarShare, 2014). 

Disability Access 

Disability access is a challenge impacting shared modes. In October 2014, the Austin City Council 

adopted an ordinance regulating ridesourcing, which among other things mandated that ridesourcing

drivers cannot refuse service or charge higher fees to disabled passengers. In Berkeley, CA, non-profit 

City CarShare introduced the nation’s first wheelchair accessible carsharing vehicles in 2008, known 

as AccessMobile. City CarShare has expanded the program to include wheelchair-accessible vans in 

San Francisco. In 2015, Buffalo CarShare (now Zipcar) became the second carsharing operator with a 

wheelchair-accessible van, after acquiring it from City CarShare (Susan Shaheen, unpublished data, 

2015). 

Local governments, public transportation agencies, and shared mobility providers can safeguard Title 

VI compliance by ensuring service access to a wide range of demographic populations (including but 
Shared Mobility Primer| 55

not limited to minorities and low-income users) and incorporating special needs and underserved 

populations into planning processes. 

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Protections for Ridesourcing in Austin, 

Texas

In October 2014, the City of Austin approved an ordinance regulating ridesourcing. The ordinance 

specifically prohibits drivers from refusing to accept or charge higher fees to disabled passengers. 

Additionally, the ordinance mandates that ridesourcing must conduct outreach with low-income 

communities and organizations and have ADA compliant vehicles available.

Source: City of Austin, 2014

CONCLUSION

Local and regional governments play a number of roles that can impact shared mobility 

servicesranging from transportation policy, planning, network operations, congestion mitigation, 

parking management, and compliance with air quality and climate action standards. Areas that involve 

public policy and shared mobility include: 

• Health, Safety, and Consumer Protection

• Taxation

• Insurance

• Parking and Access to Rights-of-Way

• Signage and Advertising

• Multimodal Integration

• Planning Processes

• Data Sharing, Data Privacy, and

Standardization

• Accessibility and Equity.
Shared Mobility Primer| 56

Public-private partnerships with local governments, public transit agencies, developers, employers, 

universities, and transportation management associations are crucial to the growth and success of 

shared mobility. Public-private partnerships can include an array of assistance ranging from financial 

and marketing support to providing rights-of-way and integrating shared mobility into planning 

processes, local ordinances, and public transit. As such, public-private partnerships can play a key role 

in addressing a number of policy challenges that could help to evolve shared mobility to maximize its 

social and environmental benefits. 

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Shared Mobility Primer| 61

CHAPTER 5. LESSONS LEARNED AND 

CHALLENGES IN THE FUTURE

Shared mobility is changing the perceptions of transportation in 

the United States and worldwide, spawning new business 

models and influencing individual transportation choices and 

behavior. These changes are dynamic and evolving. We can 

expect innovations in shared mobility to continue to shape and 

change options for years to come. As with all new disruptive 

technologies and business models, there are challenges to 

shared mobility’s expansion and scaling. This chapter explores 

these challenges, along with success stories, lessons learned, 

and proposed solutions. 

Some of the prominent shared mobility challenges discussed in 

this chapter include: 

1. Recognizing the need for consistent public and private 

sector standards and definitions across a suite of shared

mobility service models that guide public policy and distinguish between types of services for

users

2. Developing metrics, modeling, planning platforms, and methodologies to measure the

economic and travel impact of shared mobility such as VMT/VKT, person miles traveled,

commute travel time, etc., such that local, state, and federal public agencies can incorporate it

as an integral component of land use and transportation planning

3. Recognizing shared mobility as a key component of transportation policy and planning

4. Encouraging multimodal integration

5. Addressing potential accessibility issues as the systems expand and evolve to be inclusive of

all segments of society

6. Understanding insurance issues pertaining to regulation, availability, and affordability across a

wide array of existing and emerging shared business and service models

7. Balancing data sharing (open data) and privacy for individual users and companies providing

the services.

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 62

CONSISTENT PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR STANDARDS AND 

DEFINITIONS

Legal definitions of different shared mobility services are essential for mainstreaming such services. 

Once resolved, they will enable public agencies to clarify policies related to insurance, taxation, rightsof-way, parking, and zoning. In addition to legal issues, there are also challenges related to poor public 

knowledge and understanding. Consumers are often unaware of the true costs of their travel behavior 

and as a result may perceive pay-as-you-go transportation costs that are common with shared mobility 

and unbundled transportation services (e.g., hourly and daily parking charges, per trip fares, and hourly 

usage rates) as more expensive over the longer term than more traditional transportation-related 

purchases (e.g., entailing household automobile purchase costs, hidden parking charges bundled with 

housing costs, and annual insurance premiums), when the opposite is commonly the case. Infrequent 

costs, such as vehicle purchases, insurance, license fees, smog checks, and maintenance, are often 

overlooked as consumers make mobility choices. Personal unfamiliarity with shared mobility services, 

confusion in terminology use among the media, and international discrepancies also contribute to user 

uncertainty. For example, the term “carsharing” in the United Kingdom refers to the American 

ridesharing or carpooling model. Car club (often referring to American Automobile Association 

(AAA) in the United States) is typically used to describe carsharing in Great Britain. 

While a number of definitions of shared mobility have been developed to address a variety of public 

policy issues, there remains no commonly used federal definitions of these services. This results in 

various definitions across the country, often contributing to confusion over service features and public 

policies. Further, the blurring of lines between core transportation services and shared mobility can 

create additional misunderstanding where definitions may need to be developed or revised. For 

example, the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) coined the term transportation network 

companies and developed the following definition: Transportation Network Companies provide 

prearranged transportation services for compensation using an online-enabled application or 

platform (such as smartphone apps) to connect drivers using their personal vehicles with passengers.

This definition captured the market in late-2012/early-2013 when it was developed, but changes in the 

marketplace exemplify how quickly regulations can become outmoded. For example, the Flywheel app 

(e-Hail taxi) enables customers to prearrange transportation services (via a taxi) using an onlineenabled application to connect drivers with passengers. The result is the driver can conceivably offer 

taxi and ridesourcing services depending on the regulatory definition being applied. This can become 

problematic for a variety of reasons, such as taxation and insurance. For example, many jurisdictions 

apply taxes, fees, and surcharges to taxi fares, but unclear regulatory frameworks have created equally 

unclear guidance regarding the taxation of app-based for-hire vehicle services. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 63

Examples of How Public Agencies May Take Action: 

• Develop a Standard Definition for Shared Mobility Modes: The lack of formal definitions can be

substantial barriers to finding partners, encouraging public-private partnerships, and recruiting

early adopters. Public agencies and industry associations can work together to develop clear,

concise, and uniform definitions of shared modes.

• Define Models Around Service Characteristics, Not Technologies: Public agencies and privatesector industry associations can address this challenge by working together to develop common

definitions of service models that are based on service characteristics (rather than technological

characteristics, e.g., apps) of the services being provided.

Sample of Shared Mobility Legislative Definitions 

Cambridge, Massachusetts defines a carsharing organization “as a membership-based entity with a 

distributed fleet of Carsharing Vehicles that charges a use-based fee related to a specific vehicle.” 

Cambridge further defines a carsharing vehicle as “a private passenger motor vehicle that is made 

available to multiple authorized users primarily for hourly or other short-term use through a 

self-service fully automated reservation system, but not by means of a separate written agreement 

that is entered into each time a vehicle is transferred to a customer. A Carsharing Vehicle may be 

owned, maintained or administered by a Carsharing Organization 

or other entity.”

California Public Utility Commission (CPUC) defines transportation network companies (TNCs) as 

“providing prearranged transportation services for compensation using an online-enabled application 

or platform (such as smartphone apps) to connect drivers using their personal vehicles with 

passengers.” 

DEVELOPING METRICS, MODELING, PLANNING PLATFORMS, AND 

METHODOLOGIES TO ASSESS THE ECONOMIC AND TRAVEL IMPACTS 

OF SHARED MOBILITY

Developing data metrics, models, planning platforms, and formal methodologies to measure the travel 

and economic impacts of shared mobility is essential for transportation planners and policymakers. 

Developing these tools will enable public agencies to forecast the economic and travel behavior 

impacts of shared modes and guide public policy development related to urban and spatial planning, 

rights-of-way, parking, and zoning. Two key areas that metrics, models, methodologies, and planning 

platforms can assist with are measuring economic impacts and travel behavior impacts. 

Tracking and forecasting the economic impacts of shared mobility is important because of its potential 

impact on auto sales, fleet savings for governments, monetary savings to individuals and households, 

and broader industry growth (e.g., annual revenues by industry sector and employment figures). 
Shared Mobility Primer| 64

Incorporating shared mobility into Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures is one way to track and 

forecast the economic impacts of shared mobility. 

GDP was adopted as the global standard for measuring national- and industry-level economic activity 

at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. Fundamentally, GDP is an aggregate measure of the total 

value of all goods and services produced by a nation within a given year. Gross domestic productivity 

is undoubtedly increasing, but the nation’s GDP may be underestimated by failing to account for 

shared products and services exchanged through the Internet and the sharing economy. 

How do we capture the productivity gains from new technologies? When an individual makes a 

vehicle available for rent using a P2P service or a homeowner makes a room available for rent on 

Airbnb or Craigslist, the economic activity from these transactions are rarely captured by federal 

agencies, which results in an underestimation in national GDP and sector productivity measures. 

How do we capture the productivity gains associated with ultra-low cost and free products and 

services? The rise of free and freemium service models likely also leads to an underestimation of 

productivity measures. In the 1980s, people purchased and developed film to take pictures and placed 

global calls using a landline. Today, people take digital photos, electronically share them, and 

communicate globally through instant messaging and video chat. These efficiency gains have 

undoubtedly made Americans more productive, but this is largely unmeasurable because of cashless 

products and services. 

Similarly, because shared mobility is not incorporated into the NHTS, policymakers have very little 

data on the origins, destinations, and travel patterns of shared mobility consumers. The result is a 

growing segment of the nation using these services without any way to measure the travel and 

economic impacts of this sector. As such, it becomes extremely difficult to quantify the impacts of 

innovative services including shared mobility. 

The growth of mega regions coupled with emerging social and technological changes are altering how 

people travel. Numerous shared modes, such as carsharing, bikesharing, and on-demand ride services, 

have grown in recent years. Despite this growth, traditional transportation planning methods are unable 

to accurately capture modal share and the impacts of shared mobility on the broader transportation 

network. Early four-step planning models have matured into more advanced activity-based modeling. 

Although planning agencies have embraced activity-based modeling as being more representative of 

the transportation environment, existing activity-based modeling almost always fails to incorporate 

shared mobility. Metrics, modeling, planning platforms, and methodologies are needed to help cities, 

public agencies, and regional governments understand the impacts of shared mobility and better scale 

and deliver these services in a variety of land-use settings. 

An Example of How Public Agencies May Take Action: 

• Incorporating Shared Mobility into Activity-Based Models: Developing activity-based planning

models that incorporate shared mobility can aid public agencies in understanding and responding
Shared Mobility Primer| 65

to the impacts of shared modes. Furthermore, incorporating shared modes into activity-based 

models can help public agencies and local governments reduce capital and operational 

expenditures and harness the beneficial transportation and environmental impacts often 

associated with shared modes.

RECOGNIZING SHARED MOBILITY AS A KEY COMPONENT OF 

TRANSPORTATION POLICY AND PLANNING

Transportation policy and planning is a complex process that is affected by federal, state, and local 

legislation, along with multiple stakeholders and public agencies. At the federal level, Title 23 of the 

Code of Federal Regulations provides guidance for metropolitan transportation planning and identifies 

eight factors that must be considered as part of the planning process: 1) supporting economic vitality; 

2) increasing transportation system safety; 3) increasing transportation system security; 4) increasing

accessibility and mobility; 5) protecting and enhancing the environment; 6) enhancing the integration 

and connectivity of the transportation system; 7) promoting efficient system management and 

operation; and 8) emphasizing the preservation of the existing transportation system. Furthermore, 

regions designated as air quality non-attainment areas have additional planning guidance focused on 

reducing criteria pollutants to achieve attainment across a wide array of air quality metrics. 

Shared mobility modes, such as carsharing, bikesharing, ridesharing, and other services, have not been 

widely incorporated into local and regional planning processes. Because of the private sector’s 

involvement in shared mobility, planning frameworks, such as general plans, often fail to incorporate 

shared mobility even though some jurisdictions have issued RFPs for shared mobility services. 

Many non-profits have begun to incorporate shared mobility into private sector planning processes. For 

example, the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), a private non-profit that promotes sustainability 

in the design and construction of buildings, has incorporated shared mobility into their Leadership in 

Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification program. LEED gives project-level 

certification credits for the incorporation of carsharing, bikesharing, and ridesharing services into a 

development project. This can include integrating measures, such as inclusionary carsharing parking, 

into a building’s design. Incorporating shared mobility into both public and private sector planning 

processes and programs is key to integrating it into the transportation network and recognizing it as 

one of a number of potential transportation options available. 

Examples of How Public Agencies May Take Action: 

• Developer and Zoning Regulations: Local governments may recognize and incorporate shared

mobility into transportation policy and planning through local ordinances, such as: 1) parking

reduction (i.e., downsizing the number of required parking spaces in new developments that

incorporate shared mobility for localities that otherwise insist on maintaining such requirements);

2) incentivizing parking substitution (i.e., substituting general-use parking for shared mobility

parking stalls, such as carsharing parking, bikesharing kiosks, ridesourcing loading zones, etc.);
Shared Mobility Primer| 66

and 3) allowing greater floor-to-area ratios (i.e., developers can build more densely on sites that 

incorporate shared mobility). 

• Public Rights-of-Way: Local governments may recognize and incorporate shared mobility into 

transportation policy and planning through the allocation of public rights-of-way, such as: 1) 

provisions for on-street parking or loading zones dedicated to shared mobility; 2) provisions for 

off-street parking (e.g., carsharing, ridesourcing waiting zones); 3) free or reduced cost parking 

spaces, parking permits, for-hire vehicle permits, and loading zone permits for shared mobility; 4) 

universal parking permits (i.e., carsharing vehicles can be returned to any on-street location); and 5) 

formalized processes for allocating public rights-of-way.

• Incorporating Shared Mobility into Local Planning Models, Plans, and Processes: Incorporating 

shared mobility into local transportation models, circulation schemes, general plans, and planning 

processes is another way local governments can include shared modes in transportation policy and 

planning. 

City of Evanston’s Carsharing Parking Reduction Zoning Regulation: A Case 

Study

The City of Evanston, a north Chicago suburb maintains a carsharing parking reduction clause in its 

zoning code for the inclusion of carsharing at development sites. Specifically, the code permits a 

reduction in the minimum number of required parking spaces for projects that require at least five 

off-street parking stalls and provide at least one on-site carsharing parking space. Developers are 

permitted a reduction of one space for projects requiring five to 10 parking spaces. For projects 

entailing more than 10 off-street parking spaces, a parking reduction of 10 percent is permitted for 

the inclusion of carsharing. To be eligible, the developer must present a long-term lease with the 

carsharing operator and a description of carsharing services provided. Additionally, the property 

owner/developer must record with their deed a document that stipulates: In the event that carsharing 

services are no longer provided, the property owner will be required “to increase the amount of offstreet parking by the reduction granted or be assessed a fee equal to that assessed a project that 

reduced on-street metered parking by that number of spaces in that location.”
Shared Mobility Primer| 67

Case Study of San Francisco’s High-Tech Company Shuttle Pilot Program

In January 2014, the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA) announced an 18-

month pilot to enable participating high-tech company shuttles to share use of a limited number of 

pre-approved Muni (public) bus zones. As part of the pilot program:

• Eight percent (200 of 2,500) of Muni bus stops are shared by Muni and private shuttle operators;

• SFMTA charges the shuttle operator (or employer) $3.67 per shuttle, per each stop made. The fee is

meant to cover the costs associated with the administration and program enforcement;

• Private shuttle providers must comply with agreed-upon guidelines, which include yielding to Muni

buses and pulling to the front of bus zones to maximize boarding zone capacity;

• Each shuttle is issued placards to aid in program enforcement; and

• Shuttle providers must agree to share data with SFMTA to support transportation network

management, planning, and enforcement.

(San Francisco Municipal Agency, 2015)

ENCOURAGING MULTIMODAL INTEGRATION 

Multimodal integrationthe seamless connectivity among different transportation modesis 

recognized as a best practice to support sustainability and encourage public transit ridership. This 

entails integration of mass transportation modes with one another and with first-and-last-mile services, 

such as taxis; walking; cycling; and the shared modes of carsharing, bikesharing, ridesharing, 

ridesourcing, and microtransit. Achieving multimodal integration requires three key components—

infrastructure integration, information integration, and fare integration. 

Infrastructure integration involves the physical and operational connection of modes. In the context of 

shared mobility, this could include co-locating carsharing and bikesharing with public transportation 

stops. Information integration is the incorporation of information systems to provide one-stop 

information sources for service features, such as routing, time tables, and fares. At its most basic level, 

information integration includes multimodal trip planners. More advanced information integration may 

include real-time information services, such as modal connection information (e.g., NextBus). Finally, 

fare integration involves the development of a single fare payment method across multiple modes. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 68

Future Trends Impacting Multi-Modal Fare Integration

In recent years, information integration has also become fairly prevalent. Open source data are 

increasingly allowing mobility consumers to go online or download an app to plan multi-modal 

journeys, compare costs, and obtain a wide-array of real-time information services, such as 

vehicle/bicycle availability and public transit delays. Fare integration continues to remain a key 

challenge. For example, HOURCAR and Metro Transit in the Twin Cities have a partnership that 

allows carsharing members to use their Go-To transit cards to access HOURCAR vehicles. 

Emerging mobile payment technologies, such as Apple Pay, Visa’s PayWave; MasterCard’s 

PayPass; American Express’ ExpressPay; and peer-to-peer cryptocurrencies, such as “Bitcoins,” 

may be able to bridge the multi-modal fare gap alleviating the need for a wallet full of mobility fare, 

membership cards, and key fobs. Many of these solutions provide contactless digital wallet services 

without the need to physically swipe or insert a credit or debit card at the point-of-sale. Bitcoin, a 

peer-to-peer digital currency, enables users to engage in monetary transactions without a central 

intermediary. In the future, strong inter-agency and public-private partnerships will likely be key to 

achieving full multi-modal integration.

ENSURING ACCESSIBILITY TO AND EQUITY OF SHARED MODES FOR

ALL TRANSPORTATION USERS

Shared mobility options that provide first-and-last-mile solutions can greatly improve quality of life for 

low-income households, which are generally disproportionately dependent on public transit. Offering 

convenient, accessible, and affordable shared mobility options may make it easier to meet the mobility 

and accessibility needs of low-income and other disadvantaged communities. Because many shared 

mobility services are provided by the private sector, ensuring service access in low-income and 

minority neighborhoods and ADA compliance for disabled access can be a key concern. (See below 

for a case study on the challenges of ADA mobility in New York City.) As discussed in Chapter 4, 

other innovative programs, such as Capital Bikeshare’s Bank on DC program, aim to develop 

partnerships between shared mobility providers and banks to provide debit card access in addition to 

credit card access, which is currently required for bikesharing use (Capital Bikeshare, 2015). 

It is important that the public and private sector work together to ensure that all people have access to 

shared mobility regardless of race, color, or national origin (Title VI requirements defined by the Civil 

Rights Act of 1964) and disability, age, or income. Everyone should have access to services, the 

opportunity to participate in decisions regarding the placement of these services, and the right to 

participate in a host of related public policy decisions. Public agencies should ensure policies protect 

against “unjustified disparate impact discrimination” or policies and practices that appear to be neutral 

but in effect are discriminatory against protected classes. Public agencies should work toward 

achieving the following key accessibility and social equity goals with respect to shared mobility: 
Shared Mobility Primer| 69

• Encourage fair placement and access to shared mobility across all socio-economic levels and

minority neighborhoods

• Foster the participation of individuals affected by shared mobility services in transportation

planning and decision-making processes

• Encourage access of shared mobility services to minority, disabled, and low-income populations

• Develop policies that bridge the digital divide, either by making digital services more accessible

and affordable to low-income populations or by offering viable alternatives for digital-only or appexclusive services.

Public agencies should also ensure that other vulnerable populations outside of statutory protected 

classes have access to shared mobility. Vulnerable populations may include: 

• Senior citizens

• Populations without access to private automobiles

• Single-parent households

• Populations with housing costs in excess of one-third of household income

• Adult populations without a high school diploma

• Populations that do not speak English.

All of these groups may face mobility challenges for a variety of reasons. 

Challenges of Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Mobility in New York City

In July 2008, New York’s Taxi and Limousine Commission began a two-year pilot program to assess 

demand for wheelchair-accessible taxicabs (Taxi and Limousine Commission, n.d.). Its report, 

published in 2010 includes statistics on the state of ADA compliance in New York City. Key findings 

include:

Subway: In New York City, the Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) operates 230 miles (370 km) of 

rail service with 490 stations. As of 2010, only 16 percent (78 of 490) of stations were fully 

wheelchair accessible and offered features to assist customers with visual, auditory, and mobility 

impairments in compliance with the ADA. Because the majority of subway stations are not 

wheelchair accessible, many wheelchair users in New York City are simply unable to use the 

subway system
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Challenges of Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Mobility in New York City

Bus: MTA also operates 6,000 buses on 300 bus routes throughout New York City. As of 2010, 

MTA’s entire bus fleet was wheelchair accessible, and the majority of the fleet was equipped with a 

kneeling feature (that lowers the bus for easier access and egress) to assist customers with 

impaired mobility. Approximately 94 percent of the city is within 1⁄2 mile (.8 km) of a MTA bus stop.

Flexible Transit Service: MTA operates a flexible transit service, known as Access-A-Ride. As of 

2010, MTA’s Access-A-Ride service provided 7.3 million rides to 142,000 users. However, as of 

2010, only 72 percent of the Access-A-Ride vehicles were wheelchair accessible. The remaining 28 

percent of the fleet was comprised of Crown Victoria sedans.

Taxis: As of 2010, 1.8 percent (240 of 13,237) of the taxis in New York City were wheelchair 

accessible or approximately 1 out of 55 taxicabs. In 2004, the city’s Taxi and Limousine Commission 

began issuing reduced-cost medallions for wheelchair accessible taxis to encourage ADA-available 

taxicabs.

For-Hire Livery Services: As of 2010, only six of the 36,000 for-hire livery vehicles in New York City 

were wheelchair accessible.

Examples of How Public Agencies May Take Action: 

• Employ Multilingual Marketing Materials: Multilingual marketing, apps, and websites are one way

that public agencies and shared mobility providers can meet the mobility needs of individuals and

households with language barriers. Shared mobility operators can also form funding, jointmarketing, risk sharing, and other partnerships with public and private stakeholders. Additional

research can aid public-private partnerships in identifying areas where new services in

disadvantaged communities can be most successful.

• Explore Policies to Mainstream Services: The public and private sectors may work together to

develop policies and programs that mainstream shared mobility to special needs populations.

Examples many include incentives, tax credits, pilot programs, discounts, etc.

• Develop Strategies that Address the Digital Divide: The public and private sectors may work

together to develop mechanisms for addressing the digital divide. For example, the use of kiosks

and screens to aid in routing and to display travel information may be one mechanism for ensuring

populations without smartphones still have access to key travel information.
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Case Study of How Paratransit, Microtransit, and Ridesourcing Can Be 

Applied to Meet the Accessibility Needs of Special Populations

Paratransit services have historically played a critical role in bridging mobility gaps for disabled 

populations. Innovative mobility services, such as Bridj, a shuttle operator that uses real-time 

information to generate shuttle routes, and a variety of for-hire vehicle services, may be able to 

serve special needs populations. For example, Lift Hero in San Francisco allows users to hail forhire vehicle services with specially trained medical professionals, and Shuddle also in San Francisco 

provides paratransit services for children through the use of licensed childcare providers (Wagstaff, 

2014). UberX, a ridesourcing company, has launched services that allow users to request a 

wheelchair accessible vehicle. UberASSIST is another service with specially trained drivers that aid 

riders into and out of vehicles and manage wheelchairs, walkers, and scooters. Taxis also provide 

these services.

A Study of Equity Issues by the San Francisco County Transportation 

Authority (SFCTA)

SFCTA recently conducted an equity analysis that identified three key disparities in San Francisco 

County: 

• Banking: SFCTA found that 5.7 percent of San Francisco households are unbanked and 13.6 percent

of households are underbanked. 

• Technology: The SFCTA study identified that less than half of low-income Californians have a

smartphone; and

• Information and Access: The SFCTA study found that low-income ridesourcing users are

underrepresented in San Francisco.

Source: Shaheen, Christensen, & Tierney, 2015

City CarShare’s Programs for Special Needs Populations: A Case Study

San Francisco-based non-profit City CarShare offers a number of innovative programs meant to 

enhance transportation access to special needs populations. Founded in 2001, City CarShare is the 

nation’s largest non-profit carsharing program with over 60 percent of its fleet located in designated 

low- to moderate-income neighborhoods. In 2008, City CarShare partnered with the City of Berkeley 

to create AccessMobile, the nation’s first wheelchair accessible carsharing vehicle. 

In addition to AccessMobile, the operator’s CommunityShare program offers subsidized membership 

fees and driving costs for low- to moderate-income members referred to City CarShare by one of 

seven local partners. In December 2014, City CarShare announced it would expand its low-income, 

ADA, and electric vehicle programs in collaboration with the Contra Costa Transportation Authority, 

the Bay Area Climate Collaborative, and the Metropolitan Transportation Commission under a new 

program, called CarShare4All.
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INSURANCE REGULATIONS, AVAILABILITY, AND AFFORDABILITY

Insurance remains a key challenge for many shared mobility operators. In the early years of carsharing, 

cost and insurance availability were notable challenges. As carsharing grew, insurance became more 

widely available and affordable. Concerns over the cost and availability of insurance partially focused 

on special populations, such as younger adults (college students). Allowing younger adults (ages 18 to 

25) to use carsharing was critical to the development of the now very large college/university campus 

carsharing market. 

Insurance has been a consistent challenge with the launch of innovative shared modes and service 

models. The advent of P2P carsharing, or short-term access to privately owned vehicles, in around 

2010 brought new challenges. Early P2P vehicle sharing owners confronted the risk of canceled 

personal automobile insurance policies or the reclassification (and repricing) of their policies for 

commercial vehicle use. Three states (California, Oregon, and Washington) enacted legislation to 

address these challenges. As a result, all three states require commercial insurance coverage when a 

personal vehicle is being rented out and prohibit cancellation of (or other lesser consequences related 

to) personal lines of insurance for vehicle owners who sometimes make their vehicles available 

through a P2P carsharing service. For the vast majority of the country, however, these challenges have 

not been addressed by legislation, leaving P2P vehicle sharing owners susceptible to coverage 

cancellation or reclassification. 

Case Study of California Assembly Bill 1871

California Assembly Bill (AB) 1871 prohibits private motor vehicles from being classified for 

insurance purposes as commercial vehicles when used in a personal vehicle sharing program. AB 

1871 also limits the circumstances in which a vehicle owner’s personal automobile insurance is 

subject to liability and prohibits such policies from being canceled, voided, terminated, rescinded, or 

not renewed solely on the basis that the vehicle is made available in a personal vehicle sharing 

program.

Source: Gorenflo, 2010

A number of insurance challenges associated with ridesourcing and P2P carsharing remain. Personal 

auto insurers are often concerned that for-hire and P2P vehicle services translate to increased risk 

from: 1) additional VMT/VKT and/or additional drivers; 2) geographic hazards associated with urban 

locations because ridesourcing and P2P carsharing services are often marketed in high-traffic urban 

centers; 3) unfamiliar roadways (either for ridesourcing drivers or P2P renters); 4) driver distraction 

associated with ridesourcing apps; 5) higher vehicle occupancy translating into more people that can be 

injured, if a collision occurs; and 6) pressure-based risk factors associated with rushing to accept 

matches and pick up passengers (in the ridesourcing context) or to return a carsharing vehicle to avoid 
Shared Mobility Primer| 73

additional time-based fees, although traditional car rental and carsharing include this same risk 

(National Association of Insurance Commissioners, 2015). 

BALANCING DATA SHARING WITH PRIVACY

The lack of data on emerging travel options as part of the NHTS makes it difficult to understand the 

size and impact of shared mobility on the broader transportation network. This lack of understanding 

also makes it challenging to incorporate the services into planning processes and to identify service 

and accessibility gaps in the transportation network. Sharing of shared mobility data (either publicly or 

with public agencies), where such data do exist, is an important strategy that can be used to overcome 

these challenges. 

Shared mobility operators typically track several important key data points—the origin and destination 

of shared services (e.g., the pickup and return location for a carsharing vehicle, bikesharing bicycle, or 

ridesourcing passenger); travel time; and trip duration. A number of shared mobility service providers 

have shared data with public agencies either voluntarily or as part of a regulatory mandate. Chapter 4 

of this primer highlighted a few of these data-sharing efforts. 

Industry-wide research cooperation, either through trade associations or through governmental 

regulation, can aid in the development of clear and consistent data standards, data sharing protocols, 

and privacy protections to ensure open data, protection of consumer and proprietary operator data, 

interoperability, and comparability across a wide array of platforms. 

Case Study of California Assembly Bill 83 Personal Data (Proposed)

In January 2015, California State Assembly Member Gatto introduced an information practices and 

personal data protection bill. The bill (pending as of July 2015) requires businesses to enhance 

privacy standards for the storage of all personal information including: social security numbers, 

driver’s license numbers, financial information, medical information, and geolocation travel 

information. The bill provides specific protections to geophysical location information, including “any 

location data generated to assess the past or current location of, or travel by, an individual, 

including, but not limited to, geographic coordinates, street address, or WiFi positioning system.” 

Finally, the bill also requires that businesses take measures to identify and respond to “foreseeable” 

internal and external privacy risks. As of Summer 2015, the bill has failed to pass California’s Senate 

Judiciary Committee as amended.

Source: Gatto, 2015
Shared Mobility Primer| 74

Case Study of the City of Boston and Uber Data Sharing Agreement

In January 2015, the City of Boston entered into an agreement with Uber to share anonymized 

metadata including: zip code origins and destinations, distance traveled, duration time, and trip date 

and time. Public-private partnerships to share travel data can assist public agencies to better 

understand the impacts of shared mobility and assist local governments with their transportation 

policy and planning.

CONCLUSION 

Shared mobility is a transportation strategy that planners might consider to support municipal and 

regional transportation and land use goals related to congestion and parking mitigation; air quality

improvement and reduction of GHGs, particulate, and criteria pollutant emissions; and “smart city” 

and sustainable design initiatives. Although numerous challenges exist and understanding of the 

impacts is still limited, this chapter covered some of the best practices, lessons learned, and proposed 

solutions from across the United States. 

Key takeaways include: 

• Shared mobility is an emerging area that is continuing to evolve and change. Thus, this primer

represents a starting point in this evolutionary process as typologies and definitions, public policy, 

and best practices will continue to develop. 

• There is a need for consistent public and private sector standards and definitions. 

• Metrics and models should be developed to assess the economic and travel impacts associated with 

shared mobility. 

• It is important to recognize the role of shared mobility in transportation and incorporate it, as 

appropriate, into transportation policy and planning. 

• Multimodal integration is a key strategy for providing seamless transportation options, including 

shared mobility. 

• It is critical to ensure accessibility to and equity of shared modes for transportation users. 

• Insurance is a key component of shared mobility and should be accessible and affordable for 

shared mobility consumers and operators. 

• It is crucial to balance data-sharing needs with consumer protection, while at the same time 

recognizing proprietary considerations. 
Shared Mobility Primer| 75

REFERENCES 

Capital Bikeshare. (2015). Bank on DC. Retrieved from Capital Bikeshare: 

https://www.capitalbikeshare.com/bankondc 

Gatto, M. (2015, July 15). Assembly Bill No. 83. Retrieved from California Legislative Information: 

http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201520160AB83

Gorenflo, N. (2010, September 29). California's P2P Car-sharing Bill Signed Into Law. Retrieved 

from Shareable: http://www.shareable.net/blog/californias-p2p-car-sharing-bill-signed-into-law

National Association of Insurance Commissioners. (2015). Transportation Network Company 

Insurance Principles for Legislators and Regulators. Kansas City: National Association of 

Insurance Commissioners. 

San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency. (2015, October 19). SFMTA Proposes New Shuttle 

Rules. Retrieved December 15, 2016, from https://www.sfmta.com/about-sfmta/blog/sfmtaproposes-new-shuttle-rules 

Tierney, G., Shaheen, S., and Christensen, C. (2015, February 18) Crossing the Digital and Income 

Divide: Making Mobility Innovations Accessible to All. Agrion Smart Cities Series Workshop 

Summary. 

Wagstaff, K. (2014, February 17). Uber for kids: Shuddle wants to shuttle your children. Retrieved 

from NBC News: http://www.today.com/money/uber-kids-shuddle-wants-shuttle-yourchildren-1D80240006 
Shared Mobility Primer| 76
Shared Mobility Primer| 77

CHAPTER 6. GUIDING PRINCIPLES

FOR PUBLIC AGENCIES

Shared mobility enables users to gain short-term 

access to transportation modes on an as-needed 

basis for either passenger trips or goods delivery. 

The advent of carsharing, bikesharing, 

ridesourcing, and other innovative mobility 

services is changing how travelers access 

transportation. In North America, the first 

carsharing and bikesharing programs launched in 

1994. Shared mobility services have grown 

rapidly since then. In addition to carsharing and 

bikesharing, there has been burgeoning activity 

and new launches in P2P carsharing; fractional 

ownership; bikesharing; scooter sharing; dynamic 

ridesharing; ridesourcing; e-Hail taxi services; microtransit; and CNS. 

Numerous studies of shared mobility have documented several environmental, social, and 

transportation-related impacts, such as reduced vehicle use, ownership, and vehicle miles/kilometers 

traveled. Cost savings and convenience are frequently cited as popular reasons for shifting to a shared 

mode. Additionally, shared mobility could extend the catchment area of public transit, potentially 

playing a key role in bridging gaps in existing transportation networks and encouraging multimodality 

by addressing first-and-last-mile issues relating to public transit access. Finally, shared mobility could 

provide economic benefits, such as increased economic activity near multimodal hubs and cost savings 

to users. 

Because of the environmental, social, and transportation-related benefits frequently associated with 

shared mobility, local and regional governments are common partners due to their role in 

transportation planning, public transportation, and parking policy. It is helpful for public agencies to 

recognize several guiding principles when considering the role and implementation of shared mobility 

in a community. It important to note that these principles reflect current understanding at the time of 

this writing, which will undoubtedly continue to evolve. These guiding principles are: 

• Shared mobility impacts everyone, not just users. Because of its impacts on the transportation

network and the environment, shared mobility affects an entire community, particularly at the local

and regional level.

• Shared mobility can be confusing for the public and policymakers. Clear and consistent

definitions can help to clear confusion about modes and service models.

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Shared Mobility Primer| 78

• Public agencies should embrace public and private collaboration. Public-private partnerships 

can lead to a stronger, more robust transportation network that contributes to access, livability, and 

quality of life. 

• Public participation is key. It is important to inform and involve the public in planning processes 

and to listen to the public’s concerns in implementing shared mobility services. 

• Public agencies should collect data and consider compulsory reporting requirements. Data are 

critical to understanding and managing the impacts of shared mobility on the transportation 

network. Public agencies should establish data repositories and collect data to evaluate impacts and 

system performance. Public agencies may consider requiring data reporting by the private sector 

for this purpose. 

• Incorporate shared mobility into transportation planning. Transportation planners and 

policymakers should incorporate shared mobility into models and plans, particularly in light of 

their potential impacts on the transportation ecosystem and land use in the future (e.g., reduced 

auto ownership). 

• Transportation should be accessible and equitable. People are entitled to reasonable access to 

transportation services. Public agencies should ensure social, interregional, and intergenerational 

equity to meet the basic transportation needs of travelers. 

• Shared mobility continues to evolve and tracking these developments and its growth and 

impacts is important in managing these emerging services and developing sound policies for 

managing rights-of-way and public-private partnerships. 

Shared mobility is having notable impacts on many cities by enhancing transportation accessibility, 

increasing multimodality, reducing vehicle ownership and VMT/VKT (in some circumstances), and 

providing new ways to access goods and services. In the future, the growth and mass marketing of 

automated vehicles (AVs) will likely impact all aspects of the surface transportation network. The 

uncertainty associated with AV impacts on user sociodemographics, VMT/VKT, modal shift, and land 

use make these new technologies challenging to model and understand. Although some forms of 

shared mobility (e.g., bikesharing) will likely remain more common in urban environments, shared 

AVs could result in notable growth beyond cities into suburban and rural locations. In the future, AV 

services could also greatly improve road safety and enhance mobility options for special needs 

populations, such as children, older adults, and lower-income populations. While many of the shared 

modes discussed in this primer could address a range of sustainability goals, more research is 

neededparticularly on the city and regional level and across the growing ecosystem of shared 

mobility services. While shared mobility holds promise for addressing a number of social and 

environmental goals, it is important to note that policy challenges remain in mainstreaming these 

strategies and ensuring public safety, adequate insurance, and fair labor practices, depending on the 

service model. 
APPENDIX A: TABLES

Table 3. Impacts of Roundtrip Carsharing1

U.S./CANADA STUDIES AUTHORS, YEAR

NUMBER OF 

VEHICLES 

REMOVED FROM 

THE ROAD PER 

CARSHARING 

VEHICLE

MEMBERS 

SELLING 

PERSONAL 

VEHICLE 

% 

MEMBERS 

AVOIDING 

VEHICLE 

PURCHASE % 

VMT/VKT 

CHANGE 

% PER 

MEMBER

AVERAGE 

MONTHLY 

COST 

SAVINGS 

PER 

MEMBER

PARTICIPANTS 

WALKIN

G MORE 

% 

PARTICIPANTS 

TAKING 

TRANSIT 

MORE % 

SHORT-TERM AUTO RENTAL 

(SAN FRANCISCO, CA) (Walb & Loudon, 1986) 15.4 43.1

ARLINGTON, VA, 

CARSHARING PILOT 25.0 68.0 -40.0 54.0 54.0

ARLINGTON CARSHARING 29.0 71.0 -43.0 47.0 47.0

CARSHARING PORTLAND 

(PORTLAND, OR) 26.0 53.0 154 USD

CARSHARING PORTLAND 23.0 25.0 -7.6 25.8.0 13.5

CITY CARSHARE (YEAR 1) 

(SAN FRANCISCO) 2.5 60.0 -3.0a/-

58.0b

CITY CARSHARE (YEAR 2) 

(Price & Hamilton, 2005)

(Price et al., 2006)

(Katzev, 1999)

(Cooper et al., 2000)

(Cervero, 2003) 

(Cervero & Tsai, 2004) 6.8.0 29.1 67.5 

-47.0A/-

73.0B 

1 Carsharing members have temporary access to a vehicle without the costs and responsibilities of ownership. Individuals typically access vehicles by joining an 

organization that maintains a fleet of cars and light trucks deployed in lots located within neighborhoods, public transit stations, employment centers, and 

colleges/universities. Typically, the carsharing operator provides insurance, gasoline, parking, and maintenance and participants pay a fee each time they use a 

vehicle.

Shared Mobility Primer 79 |
Shared Mobility Primer | 80

U.S./CANADA STUDIES AUTHORS, YEAR

NUMBER OF 

VEHICLES 

REMOVED FROM 

THE ROAD PER 

CARSHARING 

VEHICLE

MEMBERS 

SELLING 

PERSONAL 

VEHICLE 

% 

MEMBERS 

AVOIDING 

VEHICLE 

PURCHASE % 

VMT/VKT 

CHANGE 

% PER 

MEMBER

AVERAGE 

MONTHLY 

COST 

SAVINGS 

PER 

MEMBER

PARTICIPANTS 

WALKIN

G MORE 

% 

PARTICIPANTS 

TAKING 

TRANSIT 

MORE % 

CITY CARSHARE (YEAR 4) (Cervero et al., 2007)

-

67.0a/24.0

b 

PHILLYCARSHARE 

(PHILADELPHIA, PA) (Lane, 2005) 10.8c 24.5 29.1 -42.0 172 USD

TCRP REPORT (NATIONAL) (Millard-Ball et al., 2005) -63.0 37.0 40.0

UC BERKELEY (U.S. AND 

CANADA) (Martin & Shaheen, 2010) 9.0-13.0 33.0 25.0

UC BERKELEY (U.S. AND 

CANADA) (Martin et al., 2010) -27.0 12.0 22.0d 

ZIPCAR (NATIONAL) (Zipcar, 2005) 20.0 32.0 39.0 -79.8 435 USD 37.0 40.0

CANADIAN STUDIES

AUTOSHARE (TORONTO, 

CANADA) (Shaheen, et al., 2010) 6.0–8.0 15.0 25.0 392 CAD

AUTOSHARE (TORONTO) (Shaheen, et al., 2010) 8.0–10.0

COMMUNAUTO (QUEBEC, 

CANADA) (Benoit, 2000) 9.1 21.0–29.0 55.0–61.0

COMMUNAUTO (QUEBEC, 

CANADA) (Dallaire et al., 2006) 4.6c 24.0 53.0 492 CAD 12.0–13.0 26.0–34.0

aReflects existing members’ reduction in vehicle miles traveled/vehicle kilometers traveled (VMT/VKT).

bReflects only trial members’ reduction in VMT/VKT.

cReflects vehicles removed by members who gave up a car.
Shared Mobility Primer | 81

dReflects 13% of respondents who decreased bus usage and 9% who decreased rail usage.

References

Benoit, R. (2000). Potentiel de L’Auto-Partage Dans Le Cadre d’Une Politique de Gestion de La Demande en Transport. Forum de L'AQTR, 

Gaz à Effet de Serre: Transport et Développement, Kyoto: Une Opportunité d’Affaires? 

Cervero, R. (2003). City CarShare: First-Year Travel Demand Impacts. Transportation Research Record, 159-166. 

Cervero, R., & Tsai, Y. (2004). City CarShare in San Francisco, California: Second-Year Travel Demand and Car Ownership Impacts. 

Transportation Research Record, 117-127. 

Cervero, R., Golub, A., & Nee, B. (2007). City Carshare: Longer-Term Travel Demand and Car Ownership Impact. Transportation 

Research Record, 70–80. 

Cooper, G., Howe, D., & Mye , P. (2000). The Missing Link: An Evaluation of CarSharing Portland Inc. Portland, Oregon. Portland: 

Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. 

Dallaire , Y., Lafond , N., Lanoix , C., & Viviani , M. (2006). Le projet auto + bus: Évaluation d'initiatives de mobilité combinée dans les 

villes canadiennes. Montreal: Tecsult Inc.

Katzev, R. (1999). Carsharing Portland: Review and Analysis of Its First Year. Portland: Department of Environmental Quality. 

Lane, C. (2005). PhillyCarShare: First-Year Social and Mobility Impacts of Carsharing in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Transportation 

Research Record, 158-166. 

Martin, E., & Shaheen, S. (2010). Greenhouse Gas Emission Impacts of Carsharing in North America. San Jose: Mineta Transportation 

Institute.

Martin, E., Shaheen, S., & Lidicker, J. (2010). Impact of Carsharing on Household Vehicle Holdings: Results from a North American 

Shared-Use Vehicle Survey. Transportation Research Record, 150–158. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 82

Millard-Ball, A., ter Schure, J., Fox, C., Burkhardt, J., & Murray, G. (2005). Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, D.C.: 

Transportation Research Board. 

Price, J., & Hamilton, C. (2005). Arlington Pilot Carshare Program. Arlington: Arlington County Commuter Services, Division of 

Transportation. 

Price, J., DeMaio, P., & Hamilton, C. (2006). Arlington Carshare Program. Arlington: Arlington County Commuter Services, Division of 

Transportation. 

Shaheen, S., Cohen, A., & Chung, M. (2010). North American Carsharing: A Ten-Year Retrospective. Transportation Research Record 09-

3688, 35–44. 

Walb, C., & Loudon, W. (1986). Evaluation of the Short-Term Auto Rental (STAR) Service in San Francisco, CA. Washington D.C.: Urban 

Mass Transportation Administration. Office of Technical Assistance.

Zipcar. (2005, July 31). Zipcar Customer Survey Shows Car-Sharing Leads to Car Shedding. Retrieved from Zipcar: 

http://www.zipcar.com/press/releases/press-2 
Shared Mobility Primer | 83

Table 4. Demographics of the North American Roundtrip Carsharing1 Member (N is the sample size)

DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTE UNITED STATES CARSHARING CANADIAN CARSHARING TOTAL 

GENDER N = 4229 N = 2024 N = 6253

Male 44% 46% 45%

Female 56% 54% 55%

AGE CATEGORY N = 4201 N = 1996 N = 6197

30 or Younger 38% 31% 35%

30 to 60 57% 64% 59%

Older than 60 6% 5% 6%

EDUCATION N = 4235 N = 2028 N = 6263

Graduated High School 2% 4% 3%

Some College or Associates Degree 13% 21% 16%

Bachelor’s Degree 43% 39% 42%

Graduate or Professional Degree 41% 32% 38%

Other 1% 3% 2%

INCOME (PER HOUSEHOLD $ US) N = 4247 N = 2034 N = 6281

Less than $50,000 34% 33% 34%

$50,000–$100,000 34% 40% 36%

$100,000–$150,000 13% 12% 13%

More than $150,000 10% 4% 8%

Decline to Respond 9% 10% 9%

Reference: Martin, E., & Shaheen, S. (2011). The Impact of Carsharing on Public Transit and Non-Motorized Travel: An Exploration of 

North American Carsharing Data.. Energies. doi.10.3390/en4112094 

1 Carsharing members have temporary access to a vehicle without the costs and responsibilities of ownership. Individuals typically access vehicles by joining an organization that 

maintains a fleet of cars and light trucks deployed in lots located within neighborhoods, public transit stations, employment centers, and colleges/universities. Typically, the carsharing 

operator provides insurance, gasoline, parking, and maintenance and participants pay a fee each time they use a vehicle.
Shared Mobility Primer | 84

Table 5. Aggregate Shift in Public Transit and Non-Motorized Modes Due to Roundtrip Carsharing1 Use

MODE

AVERAGE HOURS PER WEEK BY SURVEY 

RESPONDENTS ROUND TRIPS PER WEEK BY SURVEY RESPONDENTS

DECREASED NO 

CHANG

INCREASE

D

WILCOXON SIGN 

RANK TEST 2

 

DECREASED

NO 

CHANG

INCREASED Wilcoxon Sign Rank 

Test 

2

RAIL 589 (9%) 5198 494 (8%) 0.001946 a 571 (9%) 5226 484 (8%) 0.007395a

BUS 828 (13%) 4721 732 (12%) 0.007537 a 783 (12%) 4794 704 (11%) 0.02025 b

WALK 568 (9%) 4957 756 (12%) 1.19 × 10−7 c 559 (9%) 5046 676 (11%) 4.35 × 10−4 c

BIKE 235 (4%) 5418 628 (10%) <2.20 × 10−16 c 219 (3%) 5480 582 (9%) <2.20 × 10−16 c

CARPOOL 99 (2%) 5893 289 (5%) <2.20 × 10−16 c 86 (1%) 5932 263 (4%) <2.20 × 10−16 c

FERRY 13 (0%) 6262 6 (0%) 0.05415 14 (0%) 6259 8 (0%) 0.1004

a One-tailed Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, Decline Statistically Significant at 99%; b One-tailed Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, Decline Statistically Significant

at 95%; c One-tailed Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, Increase Statistically Significant at 99%.

Reference: Martin, E., & Shaheen, S. (2010). Greenhouse Gas Emission Impacts of Carsharing in North America. San Jose: Mineta 

Transportation Institute

 

1 Carsharing members have temporary access to a vehicle without the costs and responsibilities of ownership. Individuals typically access vehicles by joining an 

organization that maintains a fleet of cars and light trucks deployed in lots located within neighborhoods, public transit stations, employment centers, and 

colleges/universities. Typically, the carsharing operator provides insurance, gasoline, parking, and maintenance. Generally, participants pay a fee each time they use a 

vehicle.

2 The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used when comparing two related samples, matched samples, or repeated measurements 

on a single sample to assess whether or not their population mean ranks differ. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 85

Table 6. Public Bikesharing1 Impacts (limited to the survey respondents during the data collection period)

PROGRAM AUTHORS, YEAR PROGRAM 

LOCATION

YEAR OF 

DATA

TRIPS 

PER 

YEAR

KM*106

PER 

YEAR

CO2

REDUCTION 

(KG PER 

YEAR)

BEFORE/AFT

ER MODAL 

SHARE (%)

SURVEY 

RESPONDENTS 

DRIVING LESS 

OFTEN 

CHANGE IN 

VEHICLE 

OWNERSHIP

(%)

BICING (Romero, 2008)2 Barcelona, 

Spain 2008 0.75/1.76

BIXI 

MONTREAL

(Houle, 2011) 

(Shaheen et al., 

2012)3

Montreal, 

Canada 2011 4,174,9174 36.30% -3.60

BIXI TORONTO (Shaheen et al., 

2012)5

Toronto, 

Canada 2012 25.40% -2.00

1 Bikesharing users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip tripmaking. Station-based bikesharing kiosks are typically 

unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and offer a one-way station-based service (bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing offers users the 

ability to check-out a bicycle and return it to any location within a predefined geographic region. Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The 

majority of bikesharing operators cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of less than 30 minutes are included within the 

membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization on an annual, monthly, daily, or per-trip basis. 2 Sample Size Unavailable 

3 Sample Size: 3,322

4 Based on usage from 40,000 members and 125,831 casual users 

5 Sample Size: 853
Shared Mobility Primer | 86

PROGRAM AUTHORS, YEAR PROGRAM 

LOCATION

YEAR OF 

DATA

TRIPS 

PER 

YEAR

KM*106 

PER 

YEAR

CO2

REDUCTION 

(KG PER 

YEAR)

BEFORE/AFT

ER MODAL 

SHARE (%)

SURVEY 

RESPONDENTS 

DRIVING LESS 

OFTEN 

CHANGE IN 

VEHICLE 

OWNERSHIP

(%) 

BOULDER 

BCYCLE

(Boulder BCycle, 

2014)1 Boulder, U.S. 2014 43,143 36,560

CAPITAL 

BIKESHARE

(Shaheen et al., 

2012)2

Washington, 

DC 2012 41.0% -2.10

CITI BIKE (Citi Bike, n.d.)3 New York 

City, NY 2014 8,231,907 22.1 3,513,051

DENVER 

BCYCLE

(Denver BCycle, 

2014)4 Denver, U.S. 2014 377,229 1.3 674,169

HANGZHOU 

PUBLIC 

BICYCLE 

PROGRAM

(Hangzhou 

Program 

Manager, 

Unpublished 

Data, 2009)5

Hangzhou, 

China 2009 62,780,000 376.7 69,715,000

 

1 Based on usage from 1,561 members and 9,998 casual users

2 Sample Size: 5,248

3 Sample Size Unavailable

4 Sample comprised of 3,980 annual members and 70,332 casual users. 

5 Sample Size Unavailable 
Shared Mobility Primer | 87

PROGRAM AUTHORS, YEAR PROGRAM 

LOCATION

YEAR OF 

DATA

TRIPS 

PER 

YEAR

KM*106

PER 

YEAR

CO2

REDUCTION 

(KG PER 

YEAR)

BEFORE/AFT

ER MODAL 

SHARE (%)

SURVEY 

RESPONDENTS 

DRIVING LESS 

OFTEN 

CHANGE IN 

VEHICLE 

OWNERSHIP

(%)

HUBWAY (Hinds, 2011)1 Boston, U.S. 2011 140,000

MADISON 

BCYCLE

(Madison BCycle, 

2014)2 Madison, U.S. 2014 104,274 352,62

0 

NICE RIDE 

MINNESOTA

(Shaheen et al., 

2012)3

MinneapolisSt. Paul, U.S. 2012 52.4% -1.90%

SAN ANTONIO 

BCYCLE

(San Antonio 

BCycle, 2013)4

San Antonio, 

U.S. 2013 65,560 610,232 93,691

VÉLIB’

(The Globe and 

Mail, 2009) 

(DeMaio, 2009) 

Paris, France 2007-

2009 28,470,005 1%/2.5% 28%

VELO’V* 

(Vogel et al., 

2014) (Bührmann, 

2007)

Lyon, France 2011 6,493,4276

* The number of vehicles trips replaced by this program was about 7%

1 Sample Size: 3,629 2 Sample comprised of 2,622 annual members and 18,651 casual users. 

3 Sample Size: 1,238

4 Sample comprised of 556 annual members and 15,873 casual users. 

5 Based on approximately 250,000 system subscribers. 6 Sample comprised of 4,363,500 trips by annual members and 2,129,927 trips by casual users. Sample comprised of approximately 50,000 annual members. Precise 

sample size of annual members and casual users unavailable. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 88

References

Bührmann, S. (2007). New Seamless Mobility Services: Public Bicycles.

Boulder BCycle. (2014). 2014 Annual Report. https://boulder.bcycle.com/docs/librariesprovider35/default-document-library/b-cycleannual-report-2014.pdf?sfvrsn=4 

DeMaio, P. (2009). Bike-Sharing: History, Impacts, Models of Provision, and Future. Journal of Public Transportation 14-4: 41–56. 

Denver BCycle. (2014). 2014 Annual Report. https://denver.bcycle.com/docs/librariesprovider34/default-document-library/annualreports/2014-denver-bike-sharing-annual-report.pdf?sfvrsn=2

Hangzhou Program Manager, Unpublished Data, 2009 

Hinds, K. (2011). In Its First Season, Boston Bike Share Exceeds Projections; Will Expand Next Spring. 

http://www.wnyc.org/story/283407-in-its-first-season-boston-bike-share-exceeds-projections-will-expand-next-spring/ 

Houle, M-H. (2011). 4 174 917 déplacements en BIXI en 2011 - BIXI atteint le seuil des 40 000 membres. http://www.newswire.ca/fr/newsreleases/4-174-917-deplacements-en-bixi-en-2011---bixi-atteint-le-seuil-des-40-000-membres-509107401.html 

Madison BCycle. (2014). 2014 Season Overview. https://madison.bcycle.com/docs/librariesprovider19/default-document-library/2014-

annual-report-madison-bcycle.pdf?sfvrsn=0 

Romero, C. (2008). SpiCycles – in Barcelona. Presented at the Final Conference of the Chamber of Commerce & Industry of Romania, 

Bucharest, Romania. 

San Antonio Office of Environmental Policy. San Antonio Bikes. Presented at the Texas Trails and Active Transportation Conference, San 

Antonio, TX, February 1-3, 2012. http://www.slideshare.net/biketexas/BCycle-bike-share

Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Cohen, A., and Finson, R. (2012). Public Bikesharing in North America: Early Operator and User Understanding.

Mineta Transportation Institute Report Number 11–26. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 89

The Globe and Mail. (2009). Paris’s Pedal Power Sets Free Uncivilized Behaviour. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/parisspedal-power-sets-free-uncivilized-behaviour/article4276785/ 

Vogel, M., Hamon, R., Lozenguez, G., Merchez, L., Abry, P., Barnier, J., Borgnat, P., Flandrin, P., Mallon, I., and Robardet, C. (2014). 

From bicycle sharing system movements to users: a typology of Vélo’v cyclists in Lyon based on large-scale behavioural dataset.

Journal of Transport Geography. http://liris.cnrs.fr/Documents/Liris-6880.pdf 
Shared Mobility Primer | 90

Table 7. Race of Capital Bikeshare1 Annual Members and Casual Users 

RACE ANNUAL 

MEMBERS %

CASUAL 

USERS* % 2010 CENSUS2

CAUCASIAN 80 78.0 34.0

ASIAN/PACIFIC ISLANDER 5.0 8.0 4.0

BLACK/AFRICAN AMERICAN 2.0 5.0 50.0

HISPANIC 3.0 4.0 9.0

NATIVE AMERICAN 0.3 0.3 0.3

OTHER/MULTI-RACIAL 4.0 3.0 3.0

PREFER NOT TO ANSWER 6.0 2.0

Note: A casual user is a short-term user with pass of 30-days or less. 

Reference: Borecki, N., Buck, D., Chung, P., Happ, P., Kushner, N., Maher, T., Buehler, R. (2012). 

Virginia TechCapital Bikeshare Study. Blacksburg: Virginia Tech. 

 

1 Bikesharing users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip tripmaking. Stationbased bikesharing kiosks are typically unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and offer a one-way station-based service 

(bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing offers users the ability to check-out a bicycle and return it 

to any location within a predefined geographic region. Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The 

majority of bikesharing operators cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of less than 

30 minutes are included within the membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization on an annual, monthly, daily, 

or per-trip basis. 2 The 2010 US census did not tally bicycle users. Data represent Washington D.C. only, not the metropolitan statistical 

area. Membership may include some users outside of the District of Columbia. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 91

Table 8. Annual/Seasonal/30-Day Bikesharing1 Member Demographics

of Cities Surveyed in Canada and U.S.

PARAMETERS

MONTREAL TORONTO SALT LAKE 

CITY

MINNEAPOLIS/ 

SAINT PAUL

2011 

NHS %

SURVEY 

% 

2011 

NHS %

SURVEY 

% 

2012 

ACS %

SURVEY 

% 

2012 

ACS %

SURVEY

% 

HOUSEHOLD 

INCOME

< $10,000 9.0 5.0 6.0 2.0 12.0 0.0 11.0 5.0

$10,000 -$14,999 6.0 4.0 4.0 1.0 7.0 3.0 5.0 3.0

$15,000 - $24,999 14.0 8.0 10.0 3.0 13.0 3.0 11.0 5.0

$25,000 - $34,999 12.0 9.0 9.0 3.0 11.0 3.0 10.0 6.0

$35,000 - $49,999 17.0 14.0 14.0 6.0 12.0 10.0 14.0 12.0

$50,000 - $74,999 17.0 21.0 18.0 20.0 17.0 31.0 16.0 19.0

$75,000 - $99,999 10.0 13.0 13.0 16.0 11.0 20.0 12.0 16.0

$100,000 -$149,999 9.0 16.0 13.0 23.0 10.0 17.0 12.0 18.0

$150,000 < 5.0 9.0 13.0 26.0 8.0 13.0 8.0 17.0

EDUCATION

LESS THAN HIGH 

SCHOOL

13.0 0.0 18.0 0.0 15.0 0.0 12.0 0.0

HIGH 

SCHOOL/GED

18.0 3.0 24.0 3.0 14.0 0.0 18.0 2.0

SOME 

COLLEGE/APPREN

TICE

12.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 19.0 7.0 19.0 11.0

2 OR 3-YEAR 

COLLEGE

22.0 32.0 20.0 40.0 7.0 4.0 7.0 3.0

UNIVERSITY 

BACHELOR’S

20.0 37.0 20.0 37.0 26.0 43.0 27.0 42.0

POST-GRADUATE 

DEGREE

15.0 18.0 13.0 9.0 19.0 46.0 17.0 42.0

1 Bikesharing users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip tripmaking. Stationbased bikesharing kiosks are typically unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and offer a one-way station-based service 

(bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing offers users the ability to check out a bicycle and return it 

to any location within a predefined geographic region. Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The 

majority of bikesharing operators cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of less than

30 minutes are included within the membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization on an annual, monthly, daily, 

or per-trip basis.
Shared Mobility Primer | 92

PARAMETERS

MONTREAL TORONTO SALT LAKE 

CITY

MINNEAPOLIS/ 

SAINT PAUL

2011 

NHS %

SURVEY 

% 

2011 

NHS %

SURVEY 

% 

2012 

ACS %

SURVEY 

% 

2012 

ACS %

SURVEY

% 

AGE

16 – 24 12.0 11.0 12.0 7.0 20.0 9.0 21.0 6.0

25 – 34 21.0 43.0 19.0 42.0 28.0 39.0 26.0 31.0

35 – 44 18.0 23.0 18.0 23.0 17.0 19.0 16.0 28.0

45 – 54 17.0 14.0 19.0 18.0 13.0 17.0 15.0 23.0

55 – 64 14.0 8.0 14.0 7.0 11.0 13.0 12.0 8.0

65 YEARS OR 

OLDER

19.0 1.0 18.0 2.0 12.0 2.0 10.0 4.0

RACE

CAUCASIAN 68.0 90.0 51.0 74.0 64.0 89.0 62.0 92.0

AFRICANAMERICAN9.0 1.0 8.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 17.0 1.0

HISPANIC/LATINO 4.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 21.0 5.0 10.0 2.0

ASIAN/PACIFIC 

ISLANDER

11.0 3.0 34.0 20.0 9.0 3.0 6.0 5.0

OTHER/MULTIRACIAL7.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 5.0 0.0

GENDER

MALE 49.0 50.0 48.0. 70.0 51.0 66.0 50.0 55.0

FEMALE 51.0 50.0 52.0 30.0 49.0 34.0 50.0 45.0

Note: NHS refers to the Canadian National Household Survey. ACS refers to the U.S. American 

Community Survey. 

Across all cities, the survey received a total of N=6,168 completed surveys. The surveys in Montreal 

had a sample of N=1,102, Toronto had a N=1,015, Minneapolis/Saint Paul had a N=630, Salt Lake 

City had a N=72, and Mexico City had a N = 3,349. All bikesharing programs surveyed annual, 

seasonal and 30-day subscribers. For more information on this study methodology, please see: 

http://transweb.sjsu.edu/PDFs/research/1131-public-bikesharing-business-models-trends-impacts.pdf 

Reference: Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Chan, N., Cohen, A., & Pogodzinski, M. (2014). Public 

Bikesharing in North America During A Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business Models, 

Industry Trends and User Impacts. San Jose: Mineta Transportation Institute.
Shared Mobility Primer | 93

Table 9. Public Bikesharing1 Member Demographics of Mexico City

PARAMETER 2013 INEGI % SURVEY %

AGE

16 – 24 27.0 11.0

25 – 34 22.0 47.0

35 – 44 20.0 26.0

45 – 54 14.0 10.0

55 – 64 9.0 4.0

65 + 9.0 1.0

EDUCATION

SIN BACHILLERATO (NO HIGH 

SCHOOL)

45.0 1.0

MEDIA SUPERIOR (HIGH SCHOOL 

SECOND LEVEL)

25.0 4.0

TECNICA (NO U.S. EQUIVALENT) 1.0 4.0

SUPERIOR (PROFESSIONAL 

ASSOCIATE)

28.0 90.0

NOT REPORTED

GENDER

MALE 48.0 65.0

FEMALE 52.0 35.0

HOUSEHOLD INCOME PER MONTH

LESS THAN $125 13.0 3.0

$126 TO $251 21.0 4.0

$252 TO $377 19.0 5.0

$378 TO $628 16.0 15.0

MORE THAN $629 11.0 49.0

NOT REPORTED 21.0 24.0

 

1 Bikesharing users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip tripmaking. Stationbased bikesharing kiosks are typically unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and offer a one-way station-based service 

(bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing offers users the ability to check-out a bicycle and return it 

to any location within a predefined geographic region. Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The 

majority of bikesharing operators cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of less than

30 minutes are included within the membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization on an annual, monthly, daily, 

or per-trip basis.
Shared Mobility Primer | 94

Note: INEGI is the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, or the National Institute of Statistics 

and Geography, a Mexican governmental agency responsible for statistical and geographic 

information. 

Reference: Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Chan, N., Cohen, A., & Pogodzinski, M. (2014). Public 

Bikesharing in North America During A Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business Models, 

Industry Trends and User Impacts. San Jose: Mineta Transportation Institute. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 95

Figure 7. Shift in Personal Driving as Result of Public Bikesharing1 Use

Survey Question: As a result of my use of bikesharing, I drive a personal vehicle (e.g., car, SUV, etc.) ... 

Reference: Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Chan, N., Cohen, A., & Pogodzinski, M. (2014). Public 

Bikesharing in North America During A Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business 

Models, Industry Trends and User Impacts. San Jose: Mineta Transportation Institute. 

1 Bikesharing users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip tripmaking. Stationbased bikesharing kiosks are typically unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and offer a one-way station-based service 

(bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing offers users the ability to check-out a bicycle and return it 

to any location within a predefined geographic region. Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The 

majority of bikesharing operators cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of less than 

30 minutes are included within the membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization on an annual, monthly, daily, 

or per-trip basis.
Shared Mobility Primer | 96

Table 10. Ridesourcing1 Demographics of Survey Respondents in San Francisco

AGE RIDESOURCING% TAXI 

% a

SF % b 2013 HOUSEHOLD 

INCOME (USD)2

RIDESOURCING

% SF % b

15-24 50 16 3.0 11.0 $30K OR LESS 28 9 26.0

25-34 178 57 43.0 22.0 $30-70K 74 23 22.0

35-44 59 19 27.0 16.0 $71-100K 56 18 13.0

45-54 20 6 13.0 14.0 $100-200K 86 27 25.0

55-64 3 1 9.0 12.0 $200K+ 35 11 13.0

65-74 0 0 4.0 7.0 (DECLINE TO 

RESPOND)

37 12 n/a

75+ 0 0 2.0 7.0 SAMPLE 316

SAMPLE 310

GENDER RIDESOURCING% TAXI 

%a

SF % b EDUCATION3 RIDESOURCING

% SF % b

FEMALE 124 40 n/a 49.0 LESS THAN A 

BACHELOR'S DEGREE

51 16 46.0

MALE 184 60 n/a 51.0 BACHELOR'S DEGREE 173 54 33.0

SAMPLE 308 GRADUATE DEGREE 

(MASTER'S/PH.D.)

87 27 21.0

OTHER DEGREE 10 3 n/a

SAMPLE 321

Data Sources:

a 2013 SFMTA taxi user survey

b 2012 ACS one-year estimate

This study conducted an intercept survey of ridesourcing customers in San Francisco during May and 

June 2014. Surveyors targeted two types of potential respondents: those who had just completed a 

 

1 Ridesourcing services (also known as transportation network companies (TNCs) or ride-hailing) provide prearranged and 

on-demand transportation services for compensation, which connect drivers of personal vehicles with passengers. 

Smartphone mobile applications are used for booking, ratings (for both drivers and passengers), and electronic payment. 

There are a variety of vehicle types that can be offered by these services including: sedans, sports utility vehicles, vehicles 

with car seats, wheelchair accessible vehicles, and vehicles where the driver can assist older or disabled passengers.

2 Corresponding data for taxi users unavailable. 

3 Corresponding data for taxi users unavailable. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 97

ridesourcing trip (“intercept trips”), and those who had used ridesourcing within the last two weeks 

(“previous trips”). Both types responded to identical surveys. 

Reference: Rayle, L., Dai, D., Chan, N., Cervero, R., and Shaheen, S. (2016). “Just A Better Taxi? A 

Survey-Based Comparison of Taxis, Transit, and Ridesourcing Services in San Francisco,” Transport 

Policy, Volume 45, pp. 168-178. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 98

Table 11. Respondent Modal Preference if Ridesourcing1 (uberX/Lyft/Sidecar) Were Not 

Available 

% RESPONDENTS DO YOU HAVE A CAR AT HOME?

Yes No

TAXI 39% 41% 35%

BUS 24% 17% 33%

RAIL (BART, 

STREETCAR, 

CALTRAIN) 

9% 7% 10%

WALK 8% 9% 6%

BIKE 2% 2% 3%

DRIVE MY OWN CAR 6% 10% 0%

GET A RIDE WITH 

FRIEND/FAMILY

1% 1% 2%

OTHER* 11% 12% 10%

TOTAL 100% 100% 100%

SAMPLE 302 175 124

* “Other” includes several responses indicating the respondent would have used another ridesourcing service. 

This study conducted an intercept survey of ridesourcing customers in San Francisco during May and 

June 2014. Surveyors targeted two types of potential respondents: those who had just completed a 

ridesourcing trip (“intercept trips”) and those who had used ridesourcing within the last two weeks 

(“previous trips”). Both types responded to identical surveys. 

Reference: Rayle, L., Dai, D., Chan, N., Cervero, R., and Shaheen, S. (2016). “Just A Better Taxi? A 

Survey-Based Comparison of Taxis, Transit, and Ridesourcing Services in San Francisco,” Transport 

Policy, Volume 45, pp. 168-178.

 

1 Ridesourcing services (also known as transportation network companies (TNCs) or ride-hailing) provide prearranged and 

on-demand transportation services for compensation, which connect drivers of personal vehicles with passengers. 

Smartphone mobile applications are used for booking, ratings (for both drivers and passengers), and electronic payment. 

There are a variety of vehicle types that can be offered by these services including: sedans, sports utility vehicles, vehicles 

with car seats, wheelchair accessible vehicles, and vehicles where the driver can assist older or disabled passengers.
Shared Mobility Primer | 99

Table 12. Ridesourcing1 and Taxi Trips Travel Times in San Francisco

PARAMETERS RIDESOURCING TRIPS TAXI TRIPS

AVG TOTAL TIME BY PUBLIC 

TRANSIT (WAIT + TRAVEL) 32.5 min 31.0 min

AVG TOTAL TIME BY 

RIDESOURCING/TAXI (WAIT 

+ TRAVEL)

22.1 min 23.7 min

TRIPS THAT ARE AT LEAST 

50% LONGER BY PUBLIC

TRANSIT

86% 88%

TRIPS THAT ARE LEAST

TWICE AS LONG BY PUBLIC 

TRANSIT

66% 61%

SAMPLE 283 277

This study conducted an intercept survey of ridesourcing customers in San Francisco during May and 

June 2014. Surveyors targeted two types of potential respondents: those who had just completed a 

ridesourcing trip (“intercept trips”) and those who had used ridesourcing within the last two weeks 

(“previous trips”). Both types responded to identical surveys. 

Reference: Rayle, L., Dai, D., Chan, N., Cervero, R., and Shaheen, S. (2016). “Just A Better Taxi? A 

Survey-Based Comparison of Taxis, Transit, and Ridesourcing Services in San Francisco,” Transport 

Policy, Volume 45, pp. 168-178. 

1 Ridesourcing services (also known as transportation network companies (TNCs) or ride-hailing) provide prearranged and 

on-demand transportation services for compensation, which connect drivers of personal vehicles with passengers. 

Smartphone mobile applications are used for booking, ratings (for both drivers and passengers), and electronic payment.

There are a variety of vehicle types that can be offered by these services including: sedans, sports utility vehicles, vehicles 

with car seats, wheelchair accessible vehicles, and vehicles where the driver can assist older or disabled passengers.
Shared Mobility Primer | 100
Shared Mobility Primer | 101

APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY

Alternative Transit Services: Alternative transit services is a broad category that encompasses 

shuttles (shared vehicles that connect passengers to transit or employment centers), paratransit, and 

private sector transit solutions commonly referred to as microtransit. Microtransit can include fixed 

route or flexible route services as well as offering fixed schedules or on-demand service. In its most 

agile form (flexible routing, scheduling, or both), microtransit and paratransit can be bundled under the 

category known as flexible transit services.

Bikesharing: Users access bicycles on an as-needed basis for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip 

use. Station-based bikesharing kiosks are typically unattended, concentrated in urban settings, and 

offer one-way station-based access (bicycles can be returned to any kiosk). Free-floating bikesharing 

offers users the ability to check-out a bicycle and return it to any location within a predefined 

geographic region. Bikesharing provides a variety of pickup and drop-off locations. The majority of 

bikesharing operators cover the costs of bicycle maintenance, storage, and parking. Generally, trips of 

less than 30 minutes are included within the membership fees. Users join the bikesharing organization 

on an annual, monthly, daily, or per-trip basis. 

Carpooling: A formal or informal arrangement where commuters share a vehicle for trips from either 

a common origin, destination, or both, reducing the number of vehicles on the road. 

Car Rental: A non-membership-based service or company that rents cars or light trucks typically by 

the day or week. Traditional rental car services include storefronts requiring an in-person transaction 

with a rental car attendant. However, rental cars may also employ “virtual storefronts,” allowing 

unattended vehicle access similar to carsharing. 

Carsharing: A program where individuals have temporary access to a vehicle without the costs and 

responsibilities of ownership. Individuals typically access vehicles by joining an organization that 

maintains a fleet of cars and light trucks deployed in lots located within neighborhoods, public transit 

stations, employment centers, and colleges/universities. Typically, the carsharing operator provides 

insurance, gasoline, parking, and maintenance. Generally, participants pay a fee each time they use a 

vehicle.

Closed-Campus Bikesharing: Closed-campus bikesharing systems are increasingly being deployed at 

university and office campuses. These closed-campus systems are available only to the particular 

campus community they serve. 

Courier Network Services (CNS): CNS provide for-hire delivery services for monetary 

compensation using an online application or platform (such as a website or smartphone app) to connect 

delivery drivers using a personal transportation mode with a package/item or food delivery requests. 

These services can also be used to pair package delivery with passenger trips, where for hire-drivers 

can deliver both passengers and packages, either together or in separate trips.
Shared Mobility Primer | 102

E-Hail Apps: Smartphone apps that connect licensed taxi or pedicab drivers with passengers. 

High-Tech Company Shuttles: Employer-sponsored shuttles that ferry employees between suburban 

workplace and public transit stations. 

Fixed Route and Fixed Schedule Microtransit: Fixed route and fixed schedule microtransit occurs 

where the routing and arrival/departure times of the shared vehicles are fixed. The alignment of routes, 

however, can be “crowdsourced” (i.e., users can request origin-destination points on a tech-enabled 

platform that can inform the operators of which routes to introduce). This type of microtransit most 

closely mirrors public transit. 

Flexible Route and On-Demand Schedule Microtransit: Users can request shared vans or buses real

time through a tech-enabled application, and the vehicle will deviate from its route to somewhere 

within walking distance of the requester. These services can range in how dynamic they are—from 

routes that change over the span of a few days to fully dynamic routes that adjust in real time based on 

traffic and demand.

Flexible Transit Services: Flexible transit services include dial-a-ride and shuttle services (also 

known as paratransit) to supplement fixed-route bus and rail services. Flexible transit services include 

one or more of the following characteristics: 1) route deviation (vehicles can deviate within a zone to 

serve demand-responsive requests); 2) point deviation (vehicles providing demand-responsive service 

serve a limited number of stops without a fixed route between spots); 3) demand-responsive 

connections (vehicles operate in a demand-responsive geographic zone with one or more fixed-route 

connections); 4) request stops (passengers can request unscheduled stops along a predefined route); 5) 

flexible-route segments (demand-responsive service is available within segments of a fixed-route); and 

6) zone route (vehicles operate in a demand-responsive mode along a route corridor with departure and 

arrival times at one or more end points). 

Fractional Ownership: Carsharing where multiple individuals sublease or subscribe to a vehicle 

owned by a third party. 

Hybrid Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Individuals access vehicles or low-speed modes by joining an 

organization that maintains its own fleet, but it also includes private autos or low-speed modes. 

Expenditures, such as insurance, are typically provided by the organization during the access period for 

both carsharing and P2P vehicles. Members access vehicles or other low-speed modes through a direct 

key or combination transfer from the owner or through operator-installed technology enabling 

“unattended access.” 

Limousines and Liveries: A limousine or luxury sedan offering pre-arranged transportation services 

driven by a for-hire driver or chauffeur. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 103

Microtransit: A privately owned and operated shared transportation system that can offer fixed routes 

and schedules, as well as flexible routes and on-demand scheduling. The vehicles generally include 

vans and buses. 

One-Way Carsharing: A form of carsharing that enables members to pick up a vehicle at one location 

and drop it off at another. This is also called a point-to-point carsharing service. One-way carsharing 

can be station-based or free floating.

Paired On-Demand Passenger Ride and Courier Services: A CNS model in which package/item 

and food delivery trips can be conducted by for-hire ride services (e.g., ridesourcing or pedicabs) either 

in single purpose or mixed-purpose trips. 

Pedicabs: A pedicab is a bicycle for-hire service with a peddler that transports passengers on a cycle 

containing three or more wheels with a passenger compartment. 

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Access Model: Employs privately-owned vehicles or low-speed modes made 

temporarily available for shared use by an individual or members of a P2P company. Expenditures, 

such as insurance, are generally provided by the P2P organization during the access period. In 

exchange for providing the service, operators keep a portion of the usage fee. Members can access 

vehicles or low-speed mode through a direct key or combination transfer from the owner or through 

operator-installed technology that enables “unattended access.”

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Carsharing: This model employs privately-owned vehicles or low-speed modes 

made temporarily available for shared use by an individual or members of a P2P carsharing company. 

Expenditures, such as insurance, are generally provided by the P2P organization during the access 

period. In exchange for providing the service, operators keep a portion of the usage fee. Members can 

access the automobiles or low-speed modes through a direct key or combination transfer from the 

owner through the operator-installed technology that enables “unattended access.”

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Marketplace: P2P marketplace enables direct exchanges between individuals via 

the Internet. Terms are generally decided among parties of a transaction and disputes are subject to 

private resolution. 

Personal Vehicle Sharing (PVS): The sharing of privately-owned vehicles where companies broker 

transactions among car owners and renters by providing the organizational resources needed to make 

the exchange possible (i.e., online platform, customer support, driver and motor vehicle safety 

certification, auto insurance, and technology). 

Public Transportation: Any mass transportation vehicle that charges set fares, operates on fixed 

routes, and is available to the public. Common public transportation systems include buses, subways, 

ferries, light and heavy rail, and high speed rail.
Shared Mobility Primer | 104

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Bikesharing: P2P bikesharing is a system where users can rent out their private 

bikes to others. Spinlister (previously known as Liquid) is one P2P bicycle sharing system in North 

America. Another company, Bitlock, sells keyless Bluetooth bicycle locks that can be used for 

personal use or for P2P sharing. 

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Delivery Services: A CNS where anyone who signs up can us their private 

vehicle or bike to conduct a delivery. 

Transportation Network Company (TNC)/Ridesourcing: Ridesourcing services (also known as 

transportation network companies (TNCs) or ride-hailing) provide prearranged and on-demand 

transportation services for compensation, which connect drivers of personal vehicles with passengers. 

Smartphone mobile applications are used for booking, ratings (for both drivers and passengers), and 

electronic payment. There are a variety of vehicle types that can be offered by these services including: 

sedans, sports utility vehicles, vehicles with car seats, wheelchair accessible vehicles, and vehicles 

where the driver can assist older or disabled passengers. 

Ride-Hailing: Another term for ridesourcing services, as defined above. 

Ridesplitting: A form of ridesourcing where riders with similar origins and destinations are matched 

to the same ridesourcing driver and vehicle in real time, and the ride and costs are split among users. 

Roundtrip Carsharing: Carsharing that allows members hourly access to shared vehicles that must be 

returned to the same location from where they were picked up. Depending on the operator, users can 

choose from a variety of vehicles including: sedans, vans, sports utility vehicles, plug-in hybrid 

vehicles, and all-electric vehicles.

Scooter Sharing: Users gain the benefits of a private scooter without the costs and responsibilities of 

ownership. Individuals typically access scooters by joining an organization that maintains a fleet of 

scooters at various locations. Typically, the scooter operator provides gasoline, parking, and 

maintenance. Generally, participants pay a fee each time they use a scooter. They can be roundtrip, 

one-way, or both. 

Slugging: A term used to describe informal or casual carpooling among strangers, which has often 

been described as a hybrid between commuter carpooling and hitchhiking. With slugging, passengers 

generally line up in “slug lines” and are picked up by unfamiliar drivers who are commonly motivated 

to pick up passengers to take advantage of high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, lower tolls, and 

similar benefits. 

Taxis: A type of for-hire vehicle service with a driver used by a single or multiple passengers. Taxi 

services may be either pre-arranged or on-demand. Taxis can be reserved or dispatched through street 

hailing, a phone operator, or an “e-Hail” Internet or phone application maintained either by the taxi 

company or a third-party provider.

Vanpooling: Consists of seven to 15 passengers who share the cost of the van and operating expenses 

and may share the responsibility of driving. 
Shared Mobility Primer | 105

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FHWA would like to thank the following specialists and practitioners that provided invaluable 

expertise to this study as part of a one-day workshop conducted at the U.S. Department of 

Transportation Headquarter, Washington D.C.: 

• Sandra Brecher (Montgomery County, MD) 

• Darren Buck (DDOT) 

• Matthew Daus (IATR)

• Bill Dossett (North American Bikesharing Association) 

• Kiersten Grove (Seattle DOT)

• Art Guzzetti (American Public Transportation Association) 

• Matthew Lesh (Noblis) 

• Sean Mackin (Denver Public-Works Transport) 

• Douglas Noble (ITE)

• Timothy Papandreou (SFMTA)

• Alan Woodland (Carsharing Association) 
Shared Mobility Primer | 106

U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Operations (HOP)

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE 

Washington, DC 20590 

www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov 

Toll-Free “Help Line” 866-367-7487 

Pub. # FHWA-HOP-16-022 

April 2016