Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series (ONMS-09-01)

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Ocean Service

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries February 2009

Chemical Contaminants, Pathogen Exposure and 

General Health Status of Live and Beach-Cast 

Washington Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) 
About the Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Ocean Service (NOS) 

administers the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS). Its mission is to identify, 

designate, protect and manage the ecological, recreational, research, educational, 

historical, and aesthetic resources and qualities of nationally significant coastal and 

marine areas. The existing marine sanctuaries differ widely in their natural and 

historical resources and include nearshore and open ocean areas ranging in size from 

less than one to over 5,000 square miles. Protected habitats include rocky coasts, kelp 

forests, coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuarine habitats, hard and soft bottom habitats, 

segments of whale migration routes, and shipwrecks.

Because of considerable differences in settings, resources, and threats, each marine 

sanctuary has a tailored management plan. Conservation, education, research, 

monitoring and enforcement programs vary accordingly. The integration of these 

programs is fundamental to marine protected area management. The Marine 

Sanctuaries Conservation Series reflects and supports this integration by providing a 

forum for publication and discussion of the complex issues currently facing the Office of 

National Marine Sanctuaries. Topics of published reports vary substantially and may 

include descriptions of educational programs, discussions on resource management 

issues, and results of scientific research and monitoring projects. The series facilitates 

integration of natural sciences, socioeconomic and cultural sciences, education, and 

policy development to accomplish the diverse needs of NOAA’s resource protection 

mandate.
Chemical Contaminants, Pathogen Exposure and General 

Health Status of Live and Beach-Cast Washington Sea Otters 

(Enhydra lutris kenyoni) 

Brancato, M.S.1, L. Milonas1, C.E. Bowlby1, R. Jameson3 and J.W. Davis2

1 NOAA, Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary, Port Angeles, WA

2 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Western Washington Fish & Wildlife Office, Lacey, WA

3 Retired, U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Corvallis, OR

Silver Spring, Maryland

February 2009

U.S. Department of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Dr. Bill Brennan, Acting Administrator

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

National Ocean Service

John H. Dunnigan, Assistant Administrator

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

Daniel J. Basta, Director
i

DISCLAIMER

Report content does not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Office of 

National Marine Sanctuaries or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

nor does the mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or 

recommendation for use.

REPORT AVAILABILITY

Electronic copies of this report may be downloaded from the Office of National Marine 

Sanctuaries web site at www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov. Hard copies may be available 

from the following address:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

SSMC4, N/ORM62

1305 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

COVER 

Photo of Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) by C.E. Bowlby.

SUGGESTED CITATION

Brancato, M.S., L. Milonas, C.E. Bowlby, R. Jameson and J.W. Davis. 2009. Chemical 

Contaminants, Pathogen Exposure and General Health Status of Live and Beach-Cast 

Washington Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni). Marine Sanctuaries Conservation 

Series ONMS-08-08. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Silver Spring, MD. 

181 pp. 

CONTACT

Mary Sue Brancato 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary 

115 East Railroad Ave., Suite 301 

Port Angeles, WA 98382 

(360) 457-6622, ext 20
i

Acknowledgements

This project could not have succeeded without the expertise of veterinarian Dr. Carolyn 

McCormick, who performed the surgery on all of the Washington animals, as well as the dive 

capture team - Greg Sanders (Minerals Management Service, formerly with USFWS), Mike 

Kenner (University of California, Santa Cruz) and Brian Hatfield (USGS). The USFWS’ 

Environmental Quality Division provided the majority of the funding for this project, through an 

On-Refuge Environmental Contaminant Investigations Award (DEC Project ID 20011003.2 

FFS# 1N59). NOAA’s Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary provided vessel and skipper 

support for the ship-board surgeries and both U.S. Geological Survey and Washington State 

Department of Fish and Wildlife provided the capture skiffs and capture and transport equipment

needed for the project. Field support during capture operations and flights to track radio tagged 

animals was provided by Steve Jeffries, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Tacoma, 

WA. Several universities, laboratories and agencies provided analytical support including Dr. 

Nancy Thomas, USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI; Drs. Peter Ross and Lizzy 

Mos, Institute of Ocean Sciences (Fisheries and Oceans Canada) Sidney, British Columbia; Dr. 

Paul Snyder, Purdue University, West Lafayette, ID; Dr. David Lindsay, Virginia-Maryland 

Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA; Dr. Glenn VanBlaricom, B.M. Blaud 

and L.K. Hoberecht, University of Washington, Seattle, WA; and Dr. Terry Wade, Texas AM 

University, College Station, TX. Portland State University graduate student Kristen Walker 

conducted a shore-based telemetry study to complement the overflights. Kevin Ryan, Refuge 

Manager and refuge staff provided guidance for the on refuge activities. Stranding network 

volunteers recovered beachcast carcasses. Numerous colleagues provided constructive review of 

this report in part or in whole, including the following: Liam Antrim, Brenda Ballachey, Robert 

Grove, Brian Hatfield, Steve Jeffries, Carolyn McCormick, Lizzy Mos, Peter Ross, Kevin Ryan, 

Paul Snyder, Nancy Thomas, Terry Wade and Gina Ylitalo. Finally, thanks are also extended to 

Karen Fox with Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc., and Kathy Broughton with the Office 

of National Marine Sanctuaries who assisted with formatting this document.
ii

I. ABSTRACT

Analyses of blood and liver samples from live captured sea otters and liver samples from beachcast sea otter carcasses off the remote Washington coast indicate relatively low exposure to 

contaminants, but suggest that even at the low levels measured, exposure may be indicated by 

biomarker response. Evidence of pathogen exposure is noteworthy - infectious disease presents 

a potential risk to Washington sea otters, particularly due to their small population size and 

limited distribution. During 2001 and 2002, 32 sea otters were captured, of which 28 were 

implanted with transmitters to track their movements and liver and blood samples were collected 

to evaluate contaminant and pathogen exposure. In addition, liver samples from fifteen beachcast animals that washed ashore between 1991 and 2002 were analyzed to provide historical 

information and a basis of reference for values obtained from live otters. The results indicate low 

levels of metals, butyltins, and organochlorine compounds in the blood samples, with many of 

the organochlorines not detected except polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and a few aromatic 

hydrocarbons detected in the liver of the live captured animals. Aliphatic hydrocarbons were 

measurable in the liver from the live captured animals; however, some of these are likely from 

biogenic sources. A significant reduction of vitamin A storage in the liver was observed in 

relation to PCB, dibutyltin and octacosane concentration. A significant and strong positive 

correlation in vitamin A storage in the liver was observed for cadmium and several of the 

aliphatic hydrocarbons. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cytochrome P450 induction 

was elevated in two of 16 animals and may be potentially related to aliphatic and aromatic 

hydrocarbon exposure. Mean concentration of total butyltin in the liver of the Washington 

beach-cast otters was more than 15 times lower than the mean concentration reported by Kannan 

et al. (1998) for Southern sea otters in California. Organochlorine compounds were evident in 

the liver of beach-cast animals, despite the lack of large human population centers and 

development along the Washington coast. Concentrations of PCBs and chlordanes (e.g., transchlordane, cis-chlordane, trans-nonachlor, cis-nonachlor and oxychlordane) in liver of 

Washington beach-cast sea otters were similar to those measured in Aleutian and California sea 

otters, excluding those from Monterey Bay, which were higher. Mean concentrations of 1,1,1,-

trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophyenyl)ethanes (DDTs) were lower, and mean concentrations of 

cyclohexanes (HCH, e.g., alpha BHC, beta BHC, delta BHC and gamma BHC) were slightly 

higher in Washington beach-cast otters versus those from California and the Aleutians. 

Epidemiologically, blood tests revealed that 80 percent of the otters tested positive for 

morbillivirus and 60 percent for Toxoplasma, the latter of which has been a significant cause of 

mortality in Southern sea otters in California. This is the first finding of positive morbillivirus 

titers in sea otters from the Northeast Pacific. Individual deaths may occur from these diseases, 

perhaps more so when animals are otherwise immuno-compromised or infected with multiple 

diseases, but a population-threatening die-off from these diseases singly is unlikely while 

population immunity remains high. The high frequency of detection of morbillivirus and 

Toxoplasma in the live otters corresponds well with the cause of death of stranded Washington 

sea otters reported herein, which has generally been attributable to infectious disease. 

Washington’s sea otter population continues to grow, with over 1100 animals currently 
iii

inhabiting Washington waters; however, the rate of growth has slowed over recent years. The 

population has a limited distribution and has not yet reached its carrying capacity and as such, is 

still considered at high risk to catastrophic events.

Keywords: sea otter, metals, butyltins, organochlorines, aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic 

hydrocarbons, PCBs, infectious disease, Toxoplasma, morbillivirus, vitamin A, cytochrome 

P450.

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... ii

LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................... 3

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 5

II. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 6

III. METHODS ............................................................................................................................ 10

Collection of Tissue Samples from Live Captured Otters......................................................... 10

Collection of Samples from Beach-Cast Otters......................................................................... 12

Chemical Analyses.................................................................................................................... 12

Organics..................................................................................................................................... 14

Inorganic Compounds 2002....................................................................................................... 15

Inorganic Compounds 2001....................................................................................................... 17

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)........................................................................... 17

Biomarker Analyses .................................................................................................................. 17

Pathogen Analyses..................................................................................................................... 18

Blood Health Screens ................................................................................................................ 20

Age Determination.......................................................................................... 15

Fatty Acid Profiles..................................................................................................................... 20

Prey Analyses............................................................................................................................ 20

Data Analyses............................................................................................................................ 20

IV. RESULTS.............................................................................................................................. 24

Live Captured Otters ................................................................................................................. 24

Beach-Cast Otters...................................................................................................................... 24

Analytical Results...................................................................................................................... 25

Metals ........................................................................................................................................ 25

Organotins ................................................................................................................................. 30

Organic Compounds.................................................................................................................. 35

Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons...................................................................................... 35

Semi-volatile Compounds ......................................................................................................... 35

Organochlorines......................................................................................................................... 40

Biomarkers................................................................................................................................. 45

Pathogens................................................................................................................................... 47

Relationship Between Biomarkers Contaminant Concentrations ............................................ 50

Blood Health Screens ................................................................................................................ 50

Fatty Acid Profiles..................................................................................................................... 52

Analysis of Prey Items............................................................................................................... 52

V. DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 58

Metals ........................................................................................................................................ 58

Organotins – Butyltins............................................................................................................... 61

Organic Compounds.................................................................................................................. 63

Aliphatic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Semi-volatile Compounds.................. 63

Organochlorines (OCs).............................................................................................................. 65

Biomarkers................................................................................................................................. 67

Pathogens................................................................................................................................... 69

Blood Health Screens ................................................................................................................ 71
2

Fatty Acid Profiles..................................................................................................................... 76

Analysis of Prey......................................................................................................................... 76

Management Actions/Recommendations.................................................................................. 76

VI. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 78

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 87

Appendix 1. Tracking and Ground Studies Conducted in Support of the Environmental 

Contaminant and General Health Investigation......................................................................... 89

Appendix 1a. Report on Tracking Radio-tagged Sea Otters Along the Washington Coast 

from 2001 to 2003.................................................................................................................. 89

Appendix 1b. Activity Budgets and Prey Consumption for the Washington Sea Otter, 

Enhydra lutris kenyoni: 2003 and 2004 ............................................................................... 135

Appendix 2. List of the Analytes Scanned in Whole Blood or Liver Samples of Washington 

Sea Otters................................................................................................................................. 152

Appendix 3. Percent Lipid and Percent Moisture Used in Analyses Performed by GERG at 

Texas A&M University ........................................................................................................... 155

Appendix 4. Marine Mammal Scientific Research Permit..................................................... 157

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in 

Whole Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight)..................................................... 158

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver 

of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight)............................................................................ 164

Appendix 7. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Organochlorines in Invertebrate Prey 

Species..................................................................................................................................... 170

Appendix 8. List of Acronyms/Abbreviations ....................................................................... 172

Appendix 9. Analyses and Results Pending and Samples Archived....................................... 174

Appendix 10. Normality Tests................................................................................................. 175
3

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Sea Otter Samples Collected and Analyses Performed .................................................. 13

Table 2. Analytes Where Greater than 50 Percent of Samples Were Above Detection Limits .. 21

Table 3. General Information on Live Captured and Beach-Cast Sea Otters.............................. 26

Table 4. Detectable Metals in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea Otters 2001-2002 (ppm, wet 

weight) .......................................................................................................................................... 28

Table 5. Detectable Metals in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight)...................... 31

Table 6. Detectable Metals in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, dry weight) ...................... 32

Table 7. Detectable Butyltins (BT) in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea Otters 2001-2002 

(ppm, wet weight)......................................................................................................................... 33

Table 8. Detectable Butyltins (BT) in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight) ........ 34

Table 9. Detectable Aliphatic Compounds in Liver of Live Captured Sea Otters (ppm, wet 

weight) .......................................................................................................................................... 36

Table 10. Detectable Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Compounds in Liver of Live Captured 

Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight)........................................................................................................ 38

Table 11. Detectable Semi-volatile Compounds in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm,wet 

weight) .......................................................................................................................................... 39

Table 12. Total PCB Concentration in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight) .......................................................................................................................................... 41

Table 13. Organochlorines in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight) ..................... 42

Table 14. Organochlorines by Group in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight)..... 44

Table 15. Vitamin A and Thyroid Hormone Levels for Live Captured Sea Otters (Plasma and 

Liver)............................................................................................................................................. 46

Table 16. Cytochrome P450 (CYP1A1) Blood (PBMC) and Liver Assay Results for 2001 Live 

Captured Sea Otters ...................................................................................................................... 48

Table 17. Serum Antibody Results for Live Captured Sea Otters................................................ 49

Table 18. Significant Correlations Between Biomarkers, Positive Pathogen Titers and 

Contaminants................................................................................................................................ 51

Table 19. Cell Blood Counts (CBC) for Live Captured Sea Otters.............................................. 53

Table 20. Serum Chemistry Results for Live Captured Sea Otters ............................................. 54

Table 21. Metals in Invertebrates Collected in the Intertidal Area of the Washington Sea Otter 

Range (ppm, dry weight) .............................................................................................................. 56

Table 22. Butyltins in Composite Mussel Samples from NOAA Status and Trends,

Mussel Watch Program Cape Flattery Site (ppb, dry weight)...................................................... 56

Table 23. Organochlorines by Compound Group: Invertebrates Collected in the Intertidal Area 

of the Washington Sea Otter Range (ppb, wet weight) ................................................................ 57

Table 24. Literature Summary of Mean Concentrations of Metals in Liver of Sea Otter and 

Confamilial Species (ppm, dry weight) ........................................................................................ 59

Table 25. Literature Summary of Metals in Liver of Marine Mammals (ppm) ........................... 60

Table 26. Literature Summary of Butyltins (BT) in Liver of Marine Mammals Including Sea 

Otters (ppm, wet weight) .............................................................................................................. 62

Table 27. Comparison of Aliphatics in Sea Otter Liver Samples Collected in Southeast Alaska 

and Washington (ppm, wet weight).............................................................................................. 64
4

Table 28. Literature Review of Organochlorines in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet 

weight) .......................................................................................................................................... 66

Table 29. Literature Summary of PCBs in Liver of Confamilial Species and Marine Mammals 

(ppm, wet weight)......................................................................................................................... 66

Table 30. Comparison of Hematology and Serum Chemistry Variables (Mean ± Standard 

Deviation) for Adult Sea Otter Populations in the United States: Prince William Sound (19921), 

Aleutian Island (1995-20002), California (1995-20002), and Washington (2001-2002) Sea Otters

....................................................................................................................................................... 73
5

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris)............................................................................................. 6

Figure 2. Washington Sea Otter Distribution, High Areas of Use (> 50 animals) and Capture 

Locations......................................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 3a. Wilson Trap with a Captured Sea Otter...................................................................... 10

Figure 3b. Wilson Traps Stacked on Deck of the Capture Vessel ....................................11

Figure 4. Ron Jameson Weighing a Captured Sea Otter ............................................................. 12
6

II. INTRODUCTION

The northern sea otter (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) population is federally protected under the 

Marine Mammal Protection Act, and has been listed as endangered since 1981 by Washington 

State, as it is vulnerable due to small population size and restricted distribution. (Lance et al. 

2004) (Figure 1). Sea otters were extirpated from Washington waters in the early twentieth 

century due to the fur trade (Wilson et al. 1991). In 1969 and 1970, sea otters were translocated 

from Amchitka, Alaska to the Washington coast to re-establish the population (Jameson et al. 

1982). A total of 59 were released in Washington; 30 in 1969 and 29 in 1970. Post release 

mortality was high the first year with over half the population ending up as beach-cast carcasses. 

Only 19 animals were counted in 1979, but since then the population has grown at an average 

annual rate of about 18 percent through 1989. From 1989 to 2004, the average annual rate of 

increase was about 8.2 percent (Laidre et al. 2002, Jameson and Jeffries 2000, 2004, 2005). 

Figure 1. Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris)

Photo courtesy of C.E. Bowlby

The potential carrying capacity of approximately 1,372 to 2,734 sea otters (Laidre et al. 2002) 

has not yet been reached for the Washington population. The 2007census report on the 

Washington sea otter population indicates that the population is continuing to increase in size, 

with the current estimate at over 1100 animals (Jameson and Jeffries 2007). Results from the 

2000 census, however, had the population numbers leveling or decreasing slightly as compared 

to the 1999 census (Jameson and Jeffries 2000). 
7

With range expansion possible to the south along the Washington coast and east into the Strait of 

Juan de Fuca, the Washington sea otter population is facing new or additional risks due to 

increased anthropogenic influences (Figure 2). The human population increases in the eastern 

portion of the Strait, with several sizeable towns and marinas, and the Strait is a major shipping 

channel to Puget Sound, Washington and Vancouver, British Columbia. With range expansion 

to the south along the Washington coast, the sea otters will be entering not only a more 

developed and populated area, but also a different ecosystem that is associated with different

risks, such as a the potential increased exposure to biotoxins like domoic acid in bivalve prey, as 

well as potential increased sources of contaminants.

The Washington sea otter population is not the only sea otter population potentially at risk. Otter 

populations along the California coast recently declined during the late 1990s and the Alaskan 

Aleutian Island population has undergone an alarming decline, and the Prince William Sound 

population in Alaska lost thousands of otters after the 1989 T/V Exxon Valdez spill. Initially, it 

was postulated that declines in the Alaska Aleutian population have occurred as killer whales 

(Orcinus orca) switch from one prey type to another resulting from declines in the abundance of 

their primary prey (pinnipeds) (Estes et al. 1998). However, continued declines (up to 90 percent 

in some locations) lead scientists to speculate that more than predation may be responsible for 

the decrease in otter numbers (Brownell 1999). 

Infectious disease (Hanni et al. 2003, USFWS 2003) and cardiac disease (Kreuder et al. 2003) 

have been significant mortality factors in California populations. Some have speculated that the 

decline of the California population may be anthropogenic in nature (Jarman et al. 1996, Kannan 

et al. 1998). Several reports have recently suggested an increased disease susceptibility resulting 

from contaminant-induced immunosuppression may be contributing to worldwide declines in 

marine mammals (Dietz et al. 1989, Osterhaus et al. 1990, Ross et al. 1996, Kannan et al. 1998 

and Tanabe et al. 1998). Immunotoxic chemicals include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs1

), 

polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), lead, 

cadmium, methyl mercury, nickel, butyltins, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAH) and several pesticides (Ross et al. 1996). A more focused study has 

revealed that declining populations of sea otters from California and the Aleutian archipelago 

have higher concentrations of PCBs compared to populations inhabiting southeastern Alaska 

(Bacon et al. 1999), which could increase their susceptibility to pathogens. The design of our

Washington study purposely paralleled some of the analytical parameters in both Alaska and 

California studies to allow for comparisons between the populations. 

Unlike other marine mammals that migrate extensively, sea otters provide an unusual 

opportunity for study because both the sea otters and their principle prey are relatively sedentary; 

thus, their contaminant burdens should reflect localized contamination. To address this, in 

addition to sea otter contaminant residues, data are presented on the chemical residues in their 

prey. Sea otters also provide an unusual opportunity to study a mid to high-trophic level marine 

consumer inhabiting highly industrial to extremely remote habitats throughout its occurrence in 

the Northeast Pacific.

1 A list of acronyms is provided in Appendix 8.
8

Figure 2. Washington Sea Otter Distribution, High Areas of Use (> 50 animals) and 

Capture Locations
9

One of this study’s objectives was to develop baseline information on sea otter contaminant and 

pathogen exposure to compare it to data reported elsewhere. Environmental exposure to 

contaminants has been associated with a variety of physiological impacts on fish and wildlife. 

Many fat-soluble environmental contaminants, including PCBs, persist in the environment and 

present unequivocal risks to the health of wildlife and humans. Their lipophilic nature, 

environmental persistence, and resistance to metabolic breakdown within organisms leads to 

biomagnification up the food chain (Cockcroft et al. 1989). As a consequence, fish and 

invertebrate-eating birds and marine mammals are often exposed to elevated concentrations of 

these contaminants, and studies suggest that certain populations are suffering from their various 

toxic effects (Ross et al. 1996). In addition to analyzing organochlorines, analytical scans were 

completed for other aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and semi-volatile compounds, 

organotins and metals to complete the baseline assessment. Biomarkers of toxicity, including 

vitamin A and thyroid hormone concentration, and cytochrome P450 induction were also 

evaluated, as well as evidence of biotoxins.

Infectious disease exposure (and its potential correlation with immunotoxic chemical 

concentrations) was also a concern for Washington sea otters. In California, 195 sea otter 

carcasses were evaluated and 38.5% of the mortalities were caused by infectious diseases 

(Thomas and Cole 1996). Mortalities reported in California included those from protozoal 

encephalitis caused by the parasites Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis neurona.

In summary, this report presents a baseline for the Washington sea otter population as of 2001-

2002, in terms of contaminant and pathogen exposure, biomarker responses, and general blood 

and serum chemistry. It also presents data on their prey to illustrate potential dietary exposure 

to contaminants and pathogens. Whenever data are available, the Washington sea otter results 

are compared to those for the California, British Columbia, Alaska-Aleutian Island and AlaskaPrince William Sound populations of otters.
10

III. METHODS

Collection of Tissue Samples from Live Captured Otters

Sea otters were captured off the coast of Washington in areas of the Washington Maritime 

National Wildlife Refuge Complex in August of 2001 and 2002. The current distribution of the 

Washington sea otter population distribution extends from Kalaloch to Pillar Point (Laidre and 

Jameson 2006), a distance of about 130 kilometers. Specific locations within this range were 

selected where sea otters are known to form resting rafts, including Destruction Island, Perkins 

Reef, Bodelteh and Ozette Islands, and Cape Alava (Figure 2).

Sea otters were captured by divers equipped with close circuit (rebreather) SCUBA (to avoid 

surface disturbance from SCUBA air bubbles), employing a Wilson Trap for an underwater 

capture (Figure 3a,b). Each animal was transferred and restrained within a net bag, which is 

closed by a purse line. Captured animals were then transported to the research vessel for 

surgery. Immobilization and surgical implantation was conducted under the direction of Dr. 

Carolyn McCormick, a wildlife veterinarian experienced with sea otters. All animals captured

except small pups, were immobilized using fentanyl, which is given intramuscularly in 

combination with valium. This combination produces a safe, short-acting, and easily reversible 

immobilizing agent suitable for use under field conditions (Monson et al. 2001). Naltrexone was 

used as an antagonist to insure that animals are recovered prior to release. The wildlife 

veterinarian administered all drugs. Resuscitation equipment was available in the field and an 

emergency plan to transport animals needing additional medical attention was in place, but 

neither was needed.

Figure 3a. Wilson Trap with a Captured Sea Otter (Photo courtesy of C.E. Bowlby)
11

Figure 3b. Wilson Traps Stacked on Deck of the Capture Vessel (Photo courtesy of J.W. 

Davis)

After an individual was anesthetized, morphometric measurements were taken (Figure 4). Otters 

were measured, weighed, and sexed, and fecal and urine samples were collected when possible. 

Each sea otter was marked with a passive integrated transponder (PIT) tag (Thomas et al. 1987) 

and fitted with unique combinations of colored plastic tags placed in the inter-digital webbing of 

the hind feet. Any webbing tissue expelled from punching the flipper for the tag was preserved 

for genetic analyses (currently being conducted by the Seattle Aquarium). A premolar was 

extracted for age determination. Blood samples were drawn. As part of a concurrent on-going 

population study, radio transmitters were implanted within the intraperitoneal cavity when size, 

age, and reproductive condition criteria, as stated in the marine mammal research permit

(Appendix 4), were met. Because radio implantation required surgery, we used the opportunity 

to take fat and liver biopsies for hormone and contaminant chemistry, as per the permit 

amendment. The surgically implanted radios and transponder chips are permanent, while the 

flipper tags may eventually dislodge over time. Sea otters were generally released within 2 hours 

of capture and marking. Mother/pup pairs were released together. 
12

Figure 4. Ron Jameson Weighing a Captured Sea Otter (Photo courtesy of M.S. Brancato)

The risk to sea otters associated with the capture and 

surgery activities is very low. During past sea otter 

research in Washington State, only 1 of 101 captured 

animals died as a result of the capture procedures (less 

than 1 percent). No animals succumbed to either capture 

or surgery during this study effort. In fact, all of the 

animals implanted with transmitters tracked during this 

study were alive six months post-capture, well beyond 

the point when infection or complications associated

from the procedures would be expected. Results of the 

tracking surveys are presented in Appendix 1.

The two primary tissue types collected were blood and 

liver biopsies. Additional samples were collected as the 

opportunity arose, such as subcutaneous fat, plug of 

tissue from punch tagging the animal, feces, urine, hair,

and fecal and oral swabs for parasite analysis. Table 1 

summarizes the samples collected and type of analyses 

performed each year. 

Collection of Samples from Beach-Cast Otters

Beach-cast otters used in this study were collected opportunistically between 1991 and 2002 

along the Washington coast. Fresh carcasses were collected and shipped on ice to the National 

Wildlife Health Center in Madison, Wisconsin for necropsy. Tissue samples were archived at 

the National Wildlife Health Center wrapped in aluminum foil inside a Whirl Pac© bag and held 

frozen at -20oC prior to shipment for contaminant chemistry. 

Chemical Analyses

Whole blood from live-captured otters was used to determine concentrations of metals, butyltins, 

organochlorines, congener-specific polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and semi-volatile

compounds. Liver biopsies from the live-captured otters were analyzed for aliphatic and 

aromatic hydrocarbons. Liver samples from beach-cast otters collected from Washington 

beaches were analyzed for residues of organochlorines, metals, and butyltins to provide 

information regarding historic and current contaminant levels in sea otters of this region. 

Contaminant analyses were performed by Geochemical & Environmental Research Group 

(GERG) and Trace Element Research Laboratory (TERL) at Texas A&M University, both 

contract laboratories for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s (FWS) Analytical Control Facility

(ACF). A list of the parameters for each analytical scan is provided in Appendix 2. The 

analytical methods followed those outlined in NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA

130 (Lauenstein and Cantillo 1998) unless otherwise specified.
13

Table 1. Sea Otter Samples Collected and Analyses Performed

Year Sample N Analyses Performed

Beach-cast 

(Stranded) 

Animals 1991-

2002

Liver tissue (from dead sea otters 

previously collected)

15 Metals, Butyltins, Organochlorines, Congener-Specific 

PCBs and Semi-volatiles. One animal from 2002 also 

analyzed for Vitamin A levels 

Live Captures

2001 Whole Blood 15 Metals, Butyltins, Organochlorines, Congener-Specific 

PCBs and Semi-volatiles

Serum 15 Serum Chemistry, Cell Blood Counts (CBC) and 

Disease/Pathogen Titers

Plasma 14 Vitamin A and Thyroid Hormone Levels

Liver Biopsy 7 Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 

Liver Biopsy 15 Histopathology, RT-PCR, p-450 CYP1A, and Vitamin A 

Levels

Teeth 14 Age Determination

Feces swab 15 Parasites

Feces (scat) 3 Parasites

Urine 2 Domoic Acid

Subcutaneous fat 15 Fatty Acid profiles

2002 Whole Blood 15 Metals, Butyltins, Organochlorines, Congener-Specific 

PCBs and Semi-volatiles

Serum 15 Serum Chemistry, Cell Blood Counts (CBC) and 

Disease/Pathogen Titers

Plasma 15 Vitamin A Levels

Plasma 14 Thyroid Hormone Levels

Liver Biopsy 9 Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Liver Biopsy (total includes one 

2002 beach-cast animal)

11 Histopathology, RT-PCR, p-450 CYP1A and Vitamin A 

Levels

Teeth 13 Age Determination

Feces swab 14 Parasites

Feces (scat) 4 Parasites

Urine 1 Domoic Acid

Subcutaneous fat 15 Fatty Acid profiles
14

Organics

Tissue samples were extracted following the method described in MacLeod et al. (1985) with 

minor revisions from Brooks et al. (1989) and Wade et al. (1988). Briefly, internal standards 

were added to tissue samples at environmentally relevant concentrations prior to extraction. 

Tissue samples were then homogenized in methylene chloride (CH2Cl2) and anhydrous sodium 

sulfate (Na2SO4) with a Tissumizer for 3 minutes. The sample mixture was centrifuged and the 

extract decanted. The extraction process was repeated two more times, with extracts combined 

and concentrated to 2 ml. Cleanup was done by alumina /silica gel chromatography. Silica gel 

(20 g, 170 C for 12h, deactivated 5%) was slurry packed over alumina (10 g, 400C for 4 h, 

deactivated 1%) using CH2Cl2. The CH2Cl2 was replaced with hexane and the tissue extract 

transferred to the column using 2 ml of hexane. The column was then eluted with 50 ml of 

pentane to bring off the aliphatics (fraction 1), 200 ml of 1:1 CH2Cl2:pentane to elute the PAHs, 

PCBs and organochlorine pesticides (fraction 2). Fraction 2 is concentrated and further cleanup 

done on the HPLC to remove interfering lipids using size exclusion chromatography. The final 

extract elution (containing PAHs, PCBs, organochlorine pesticides) was quantitatively analyzed 

on DB-5 capillary column gas chromatograph (CGC) equipped with a flame ionization detector 

for aliphatic hydrocarbons, electron capture detector for PCBs and organochlorine pesticides, 

and CGC/mass spectrometer (MS) in the selected ion monitoring (SIM) to analyze the molecular 

ions of the compounds of interest. 

There are specific cases where analytes requested for pesticide and PCB analyses are known to 

co-elute with other analytes in the normal CGC with electron capture. These include the 

pesticide Endosulfan I and the PCB congeners 114 and 157. In these cases, the samples were

analyzed by CGC using a mass spectrometer detector in the SIM mode. 

To obtain percent moisture and percent lipid, approximately 1 gram of wet sample was weighed 

into a clean, labeled, preweighed 10 ml beaker. The beaker was placed in a forced air oven at 

approximately 75 oC for 24 hours. The beaker with the dry sample was then weighed and the 

percent dry weight is calculated by the formula:

 (wt. dry sample and beaker) - (wt. beaker) (100)

Equation % dw= ----------------------------------------------------------- x 100

 (wt. wet sample and beaker) - (wt. beaker)

To obtain sample percent lipid, a portion of the extracted lipid containing solution is placed in a 

pre-weighed 10 ml beaker. The solvent is evaporated from the beaker and the beaker placed in an 

oven at 105C for one hour. The evaporated extract is cooled for one hour in a desiccator and reweighed. Percent lipid is calculated by the formula:

 WL VT

Equation %lipid = ------- x ------ X 100

 WT VEG
15

where:

WL = weight of lipid

WT = total weight of sample

VT = total volume of extract

VE = volume of extract used for lipid determination

The sample percent lipid and percent moisture determinations are presented in Appendix 3 along 

with the sample weights and volumes.

The concentration of butyltins including tetrabutyltin, tributyltin, dibutyltin, and monobutyltin 

were determined as described by Wade et al. (1988) for tissues. Tissue samples were 

homogenized, an aliquot (2-10g, fresh wet) was weighed into a centrifuge tube and surrogate 

tripropyltin (TPT), approximately 300 ng as Sn added. Samples were extracted for 3 minutes 

using a Tissumizer after addition of 100 ml of 0.2% tropolone in methylene chloride and sodium 

sulfate as a drying agent. The samples were then centrifuged and the solvent portion containing 

the butyltins decanted. Samples were extracted two more times after adding 100 ml of 0.2% 

tropolone in methylene chloride. Extracts were combined and concentrated on a rotary 

evaporator to approximately 20 ml. Samples were transferred to 50 ml centrifuge tubes and the 

methylene chloride was replaced with hexane. 

Tissue samples were hexylated in the centrifuge tubes by adding 2 ml of hexylmagnesium 

bromide under a nitrogen atmosphere and heating at 60o C in a water bath for six hours. Excess 

hexylmagnesium bromide was neutralized by adding 5 ml of 6 M hydrochloric acid. The organic 

fraction was removed and saved and the aqueous phase extracted three more times with 10 ml of 

pentane each time. Sodium sulfate was added to the combined extracts to remove water. The 

samples were then concentrated to 2 ml, which was transferred to a silica (13.5 g)/alumina 

(17.0g) column and eluted with 50 ml of pentane. Samples were concentrated to 0.5 ml and 

tetrapropyltin (4PT), approximately 300 ng as Sn, was added as a recovery standard. Samples 

were quantitatively analyzed by gas chromatography using a flame photometric detector 

equipped with a 610 nm filter. 

Inorganic Compounds 2002

Digestion of biological tissue.

Liquid or solid biological tissue samples were wet digested with nitric acid and converted into 

acidic digest solutions for analysis by various atomic spectroscopy methods. When possible, 

tissue was freeze dried in order to minimize loss of analytes and to facilitate subsequent sample 

preparation steps, and then homogenized to a fine powder by ball-milling in plastic containers. 

Approximately 0.20 to 0.25 g of powdered tissue was weighed into a Teflon reaction vessel and 

3 ml of HNO3 were added. The closed reaction vessel was heated in a 130 °C oven until 

digestion was complete. Samples were then diluted to a final volume of 20 ml with quartz 

distilled water and stored in 1 oz. polyethylene bottles for later analysis by instrumental 

techniques.
16

Analysis of trace metals by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICPOES). (Boron, Barium, Beryllium, Iron, Magnesium, Molybdenum, Strontium, Zinc)

Liquid samples were nebulized and the resulting aerosol was transported to the plasma torch. 

Element-specific atomic-line emission spectra were produced by an inductively coupled argon 

plasma. The spectra were dispersed by a grating spectrometer, and the intensities of the lines 

were monitored by photomultiplier tubes or solid state detectors. Samples were quantitated by 

comparison with external standards. One or more internal standards may be incorporated to 

compensate for physical effects resulting from viscosity and varying levels of total dissolved 

solids in the samples. Background correction was required and was measured adjacent to analyte 

lines on samples during analysis.

Analysis of trace metals in blood samples by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy 

(ICP-MS). (Silver, Aluminum, Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Manganese, Nickel, 

Lead, Selenium, Vanadium)

Concentrations of trace elements in blood samples were determined with an atomic spectroscopy 

method that relies on ionization of sample constituents in a high temperature argon plasma and 

separation of positively-charged ions on the basis of their mass:charge ratios (m:z) by a 

quadrupole mass spectrometer. The method offers extremely low detection limits but is subject 

to interferences from atomic and molecular ions having values within 1 AMU of the target ions.

Sample preconcentration and matrix elimination can sometimes eliminate these problems, along 

with those resulting from high total dissolved solids.

Digestion of blood and biological tissue for mercury analysis.

Before samples are analyzed by the CVAAS method, mercury is converted to the Hg2+ form. 

Mercury is digested by a modified version of EPA method 245.5 and 245.6. Sediment and tissue 

samples can be analyzed either freeze dried or on a wet basis. Tissue samples were 

homogenized in the original sample containers either after freeze drying or with a Tekmar 

Tissumizer and subsampled. Samples were digested with nitric acid, sulfuric acid, potassium 

permanganate, and potassium persulfate in polypropylene tubes in a water bath at 90-95 °C. 

Before analysis, hydroxylamine hydrochloride was added to reduce excess permanganate and 

samples were brought to volume with distilled-deionized water.

Analysis of mercury by cold-vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (CVAAS).

In this procedure, divalent mercury (Hg++) in aqueous samples (digests of tissue samples) is 

reduced to the elemental state (Hgo) by a strong reducing agent (stannous chloride). Gaseous 

Hgo enters the sweep gas and is introduced into an atomic absorption cell, where light produced 

by a mercury vapor lamp is absorbed by the free Hg atoms. Mercury in the sample was 

determined by comparing light absorption of the sample with that of external calibration 

standards.

Moisture content of tissue samples.

Moisture content was determined by weight loss upon freeze-drying, and is expressed as weight 

percent of the original wet sample. Depending upon sample size, either the whole sample or a 

representative aliquot was frozen and then dried under vacuum until a constant weight was 

attained. Samples were prepared and dried using plastic materials, whenever possible, in order to 

minimize potential contamination artifacts that might impact subsequent trace element analysis.
17

Inorganic Compounds 2001

Trace Metal Total Tissue BOMB Digest

Tissues were digested in heavy-walled, screw-cap Teflon Bombs with concentrated high purity 

nitric acid. Bombs were heated (for 2-8 hours) and opened three times to release CO2 build-up. 

Oven temperature was 129 °C. This procedure results in a total digestion with all trace elements 

present in the tissue samples being solubilized. Most metals in the digestate were determined by 

graphite furnace AAS, in which electrical heating is used to produce an atomic cloud. Some 

elements were typically in high enough concentration (e.g. Zn) to be determined by flame AAS. 

Mercury was determined by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), in which Sn2+ is 

used to reduce Hgo.

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)

Laboratory QA/QC was under the general supervision of FWS’ ACF and their contract 

laboratories such as Texas A&M University’s GERG. The data obtained from the laboratories

were reviewed to determine if any should be flagged for quality control issues and excluded from 

statistical analyses. In addition to review by the principal investigators, the laboratories running 

the analyses implemented standard QA/QC procedures. Procedural blanks, duplicate samples 

(with relative percent difference calculated), spike samples and analysis of standard reference 

materials were all performed by the Texas A&M laboratories to evaluate potential contamination 

during sampling and to review the accuracy and precision obtained by the laboratories. 

The only quality control issue of note is that the variability of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 

(TPH) in the tissue was high (see Table 13). TPH results should be considered estimates. Also, a 

few of the PCB congeners had data qualifiers for interference and were not included in the total 

PCB calculation (see Appendix 5 and 6). Typically the analyst will look for an Aroclor pattern 

and if some PCB congener is out of proportion and/or the peak is not well defined, it will not be

included in the total PCB value. 

Biomarker Analyses

Vitamin A and Thyroid Hormone Analyses

Blood Samples

Plasma was separated from whole blood and a sample of approximately 1 mL was analyzed for 

circulatory vitamin A and thyroid hormone concentrations by the Central Laboratory for 

Veterinarians (Langley, BC, Canada) using their standard laboratory procedures. Vitamin A 

concentrations in plasma were reported as the total of both free and bound all-trans retinol, but 

did not include retinol esters (that are present in circulation in most carnivores). The thyroid 

hormones that were measured are tetraiodothyronine (TT4) and triiodothyronine (TT3).
18

Liver Samples

Vitamin A concentrations in liver were determined at the Institute of Ocean Sciences (Sidney, 

BC, Canada) using the method of Mos and Ross (2002). In this method, tissue samples are 

ground with anhydrous sodium sulphate until a pink powder is obtained. Vitamin A (retinol and 

retinol-esters) was extracted from this powder in two-step extraction with n-hexane. Hexane 

extracts were subsequently evaporated, and dissolved in a small volume of 

methanol:dichloromethane (9:1). Vitamin A was quantified by reversed phase HPLC equipped 

with UV detection (325 nm; Beckman System Gold Solvent Module 126 and Detector Module, 

respectively) using a Vydac C18 column (0.46 x 25 cm, 5 μm) and a gradient mobile phase of 

methanol and dichloromethane at 1.0-1.5 mL min-1. Retinol and one retinol ester (retinyl 

palmitate) were quantified using commercially obtained standards (Sigma-Aldrich). Retinylacetate was used an internal standard. 

Total retinol content for liver was calculated by addition of retinol and retinyl-palmitate 

concentrations, in which the retinyl-palmitate concentrations were converted into retinol 

equivalents by ignoring the mass of the fatty acyl units. A molar ratio of retinol to retinyl 

palmitate in liver was calculated as a measure of vitamin A mobilization from storage.

P450 CYP1A Assays

Liver and PBMC total RNA was isolated and quantitative RT-PCR for CYP 1A was performed 

on the isolated samples following methods described Ben-David et al. (2001). The assays were 

conducted by a diagnostic laboratory at Purdue University.

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated from heparinized blood samples taken 

from live captured sea otters and cryopreserved for analysis of cytochrome P450 (CYP1A) 

expression using a quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). 

Primers specifically designed for sea otter CYP1A were used. 

Liver biopsies from live captured animals were also preserved for analysis of cytochrome P450

(CYP1A1) expression using a quantitative RT-PCR. Liver biopsies were snap frozen in liquid 

nitrogen for CYP1A expression. 

Pathogen Analyses

Serum samples were tested by various diagnostic or research laboratories for antibody to 

morbilliviruses, Leptospira sp., Brucella sp., Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis

sp., and Caliciviruses. In some cases tests were run in sequence on the same samples so that 

serum samples were subsampled by one laboratory before transfer to another laboratory. 

Samples were tested by the following methods:

Morbilliviruses: 

Serum (virus) neutralization tests were carried out by the Oklahoma State Veterinary Diagnostic 

Laboratory, Stillwater, Oklahoma. The laboratory method is described in Garner et al. (2000). 
19

Leptospira sp.:

Leptospira microscopic agglutination tests were performed at USDA-National Veterinary 

Services Laboratory, Ames, Iowa. The method is described in USAHA, 1987.

Brucella sp.:

Four antibody detection tests for Brucella were performed: Brucella abortus card, buffered 

acidified plate agglutination test (BAPA), rivanol, and complement fixation tests. These were 

performed by the Colorado Department of Agriculture, Lakewood, Colorado. All tests were done 

according to standard protocols established by the USDA’s National Veterinary Service 

Laboratory.

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum:

The T. gondii modified agglutination test and Neospora agglutination test were performed by J.P. 

Dubey, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland. Methods and results have 

been previously published in Dubey et al. (2003). 

Sarcocystis sp.:

A direct agglutination test modified for S. neurona was performed by David S. Lindsay, 

Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of 

Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia. The method is described in Lindsay 

and Dubey (2001). 

Caliciviruses:

Samples from 2001 were tested using an ELISA test with a recombinant antigen that detects 

antibody to nearly all known serotypes. The ELISA test was developed and performed in the 

laboratory of Alvin Smith, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 

Oregon, cited in Hanni et al. (2003). Samples from 2002 were tested using a serum (virus) 

neutralization test against serotypes 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14; tests were performed at the USDANational Veterinary Services Laboratory, Ames, Iowa.

In addition to serology, oral and fecal swabs were obtained, when appropriate, from the otters 

and samples were evaluated for parasites by diagnostic laboratories (Phoenix Central Laboratory, 

Everett, WA and Swedish Medical Center, Seattle, WA). Opportunistic urine samples were 

collected from two males in 2001 and one male in 2002. Urine samples were submitted to 

NMFS’ Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, WA and analyzed for domoic acid. 

Samples were evaluated using the receptor binding assay and confirmed by a more precise 

method using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Lastly, 26 of the liver 

biopsies were fixed in neutral buffered formalin for histopathologic evaluations by a diagnostic 

laboratory at Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. Samples were embedded in paraffin, 

sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin for light microscopy. 
20

Blood Health Screens

In addition to analysis for specific pathogens, sea otter health was assessed using routine blood 

chemistry screens. Whole blood was used to determine cell blood counts (CBC) and 

differentials at a veterinary diagnostic facility (Phoenix Central Laboratory, Everett, WA). 

Whole blood was centrifuged and the serum submitted for analysis of blood chemistry 

parameters at the same veterinary diagnostic laboratory. 

Age Determination

Cementum age analysis of sea otter teeth was conducted using standardized procedures for 

wildlife aging by Matson’s Laboratory in Milltown, MT. Method is described in Matson (1980).

Fatty Acid Profiles

Profiles of fatty acid concentrations were determined using fat samples collected during the live 

capture program (VanBlaricom et al. 2007). Samples from 26 of the captured animals were of 

sufficient quantity to allow for the analyses. Lipids were extracted following the procedures 

outlined in Folch et al. 1957, as modified by Iverson et al. 2001. 

Prey Analyses

As part of a concurrent project, NOAA’s Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (OCNMS) 

and a multi-agency and private sector team collected several species of marine invertebrates 

along the outer coast of Washington within sea otter range. Species collected included the shore 

crab Hemigrapsus nudus, mussels Mytilus californianus and Mytilus edulis/trossulus, the whelk 

Nucella lamellosa, and the limpet Tectura scutum. Chemical scans for organochlorines, aromatic 

hydrocarbons and metals were performed by NOAA’s Environmental Assessment Program, 

Northwest Fisheries Science Center in Seattle, WA on composite tissue samples of each species 

from four different locations within the Washington sea otter range. In addition, NOAA’s Status

and Trends, Mussel Watch program surveyed its Cape Flattery, Washington site in 2000 and 

2002, which is also within the Washington sea otter range. Besides the chemical scans indicated 

above, this project also measured butyltins. The invertebrate data presented are species of 

organisms that sea otters could forage on (Bowlby et al. 1988; Estes et al. 2003; VanBlaricom et 

al. 2007), including crab species observed in the scat samples from the live captured otters in this 

study and organisms mentioned as prey items in the ground-based tracking studies mentioned in 

Appendix 1 (Laidre and Jameson 2006). Analytical methods similar to those described for sea 

otter tissues were used for the analyses of the invertebrate samples. 

Data Analyses

Summary statistics including mean, standard deviation, and maximum concentrations were 

determined for all detected analytes. Means were calculated using one-half the detection limit 

for values less than the detection limit and also without non-detects. Data are presented by 

gender and age for ease in viewing trends.
21

Table 2. Analytes Where Greater than 50 Percent of Samples Were Above Detection Limits

Metals 

Live 

Capture

Metals BeachcastButyltins Live 

Capture

Butyltins 

Beach-cast

Organochlorines 

Beach-cast

PCB Live 

Capture

Aliphatics 2001 

& 2002 Live 

Capture

Aromatics 

2001& 2002 

Live Capture

Semi-volatiles 

Beach-cast

n = 30 n = 15 n = 30 n = 15 n = 15 n = 30 n = 16 n = 16 n = 15

Whole 

Blood Liver Whole Blood Liver Liver Whole Blood Liver Liver Liver

Aluminum 

(Al) Aluminum (Al) Dibutyltin Dibutyltin

PCBTOTAL PCB1 n-docosane Unresolved 1,2,3,4-

Arsenic 

(As) Arsenic (As) Monobutyltin Monobutyltin PCB8/5 n-eicosane Complex Tetrachlorobenzene

Boron (B) Cadmium (Cd) Tributyltin PCB28 n-heptacosane Mixture 1,2,4,5-

Barium 

(Ba) Chromium (Cr) PCB42/59/37 n-heptadecane Tetrachlorobenzene

Cadmium 

(Cd) Copper (Cu) PCB44 n-hexacosane

Copper 

(Cu) Iron (Fe) PCB49 n-hexadecane

Iron (Fe) Mercury (Hg) PCB101/90 n-nonacosane

Mercury 

(Hg) Magnesium (Mg) PCB105 n-nonadecane

Magnesium 

(Mg) Manganese (Mn) PCB135 n-octacosane

Lead (Pb) Nickel (Ni) PCB138/160 n-octadecane

Selenium 

(Se) Selenium (Se) PCB153/132 n-pentacosane

Strontium 

(Sr) Strontium (Sr) PCB175 n-pentadecane

Vanadium 

(V) Zinc (Zn) PCB180 n-tetracosane

Zinc (Zn) PCB187 n-triacontane
22

Analyses performed were chemical scans, thus a wide range of parameters were analyzed. 

Appendix 2 provides a full list of the parameters analyzed. Table 2 presents a list of the analytes

for which greater than 50 percent of the results were above the detection limit to minimize the 

reporting of false positives. 

Only those chemicals detected are presented in the data tables in the text. All results of detected 

concentrations are reported in the data tables regardless of their toxicity; however, only those 

considered to be of potential consequence are discussed. In general, the results are reported in 

ppm wet weight; however for metals, dry weight was also presented for ease in comparison to 

literature values. In some cases, analytes were summed to provide exposure to a class of 

compounds. Those summed include: butyltins, e.g., the sum of tetra-, tri-, di- and 

monobutyltins; total PAH; and several organochlorine pesticides were summed, e.g., total DDT 

(1,1,1,-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophyenyl)ethanes including p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDD and p,p’-

DDT); hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH isomers); chlordanes (trans-chlordane, cis-chlordane, 

trans-nonachlor, cis-nonachlor and oxychlordane), and cyclohexanes (HCHs, e.g., alpha BHC, 

beta BHC, delta BHC and gamma BHC).

Statistical analyses beyond summary statistics were not performed on analytes unless 50 percent 

of the samples were above the detection limit. Prior to statistical analyses, data normality was 

tested using Shapiro-Wilk normality test and normal probability plots. Data that was found to be 

not normal were natural log, square root, or rankit transformed. Appendix 10 provides the 

normality test results and which contaminants were transformed. Statistical analyses were 

performed using SPSS® Base 10.0 statistical software (SPSS Inc.).

Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis in SPSS Software was used to determine if age, 

gender and body weight of sea otters were significant predictors of chemical concentrations, 

biomarker assays or positive pathogen titers. Gender was a categorical variable in the 

regressions. Regressions were run excluding non-detects. Significance of the overall regression 

was evaluated with the standard F-test with the probablility of F to include a predictor at 0.50 

and the probability of F to remove a predictor at 0.1. When more than one predictor is 

significant, the p-value for the partial t-test coefficient is also reported. If the only significant 

predictor was gender, the categorical variable, then the means for each gender are reported rather 

than the R2 value. Tests were considered significant with an alpha level <0.05. Estimated R2 

values, when significant, were considered strong only if the value was at least 0.70, meaning 70 

percent of the relationship could be explained by the regression. 

Correlations between chemical concentrations and positive pathogen titer or biomarker responses

were evaluated using the nonparametric Spearman’s rho correlation as were biomarkers 

responses in blood versus liver. Significance was evaluated at an alpha level of 0.05. 

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to compare vitamin A levels in lactating versus 

non-lactating female otters. Significance was evaluated at an alpha level of 0.05. 

Statistics performed using the fatty acid analyses focused on two fatty acids, linoleic and 

linolenic acid, because they cannot be endogenously synthesized by mammals, and therefore can 

only stem from dietary sources. Statistical analyses were performed by VanBlaricom et al. 2007 
23

and are summarized here. Univariate analyses of variance were performed to compare mean 

values among classes within categories of age and weight classes, sex and capture location.

For the cell blood count and serum chemistry data, comparisons were made among Washington, 

Alaska and California sea otters using Tukey multiple comparisons, or t-tests when only two sets 

of data were available. Only summary statistics were available for Alaska and California studies, 

so approximate normality was assumed. 
24

IV. RESULTS

Live Captured Otters

A total of thirty-two sea otters were captured during the 2001 and 2002 field seasons, of which 

27 were adults or sub-adults and five were pups (Table 3). Samples were not taken from pups 

that weighed less than 10 kilograms (kg) and transmitters were not implanted in pups less than 

15 kg in weight, as per permit requirements for this study (Appendix 4). One pup weighed more 

than 15 kg and was implanted, thus, 28 animals were implanted with radio-transmitters in an 

effort to track movements of individuals. Biological samples were collected from 30 animals as 

two were less than 10 kilograms. Of the animals captured, 21 were female and 11 were male, 

with samples collected from 20 females and 10 males (Table 3). Sea otter adults and sub-adults 

ranged from 2 to 16 years of age based on cementum layer analysis of pre-molars that were 

extracted during the capture procedures. Adult females ranged between 20 and 31 kg, while 

adult males ranged from 27 to 50.5 kg. The 50.5 kg male captured off Destruction Island, which 

is part of the Washington Maritime National Wildlife Refuge Complex, is the heaviest sea otter 

ever captured, to the best of our knowledge. Capture locations for each animal and general 

statistics are presented in Table 3. Body or nutritional condition was calculated using a ratio of 

weight(kg)/length(cm), revealing that these animals did not vary considerably in condition. The 

condition ratio for female adults ranged from 0.18 to 0.24, and with the single otter (WA106) 

excluded, the range was even tighter 0.18 to 0.22. Subadult females were similar 0.17 and 0.19. 

Adult males ranged 0.25 to 0.33 and subadult males from 0.21 to 0.23. The oldest male otter 

captured had the highest ratio, a 10 year old male, WA102.

Beach-Cast Otters

Liver samples were collected from 15 beach-cast (dead, stranded) sea otters between 1991 and 

2002, with samples archived at the USGS National Wildlife Health Center. The information 

available on these animals is presented in Table 3. This sample set may be biased in that 

emphasis is placed on otters collected in 2000 during a mortality event and thus, may not 

represent general trends in mortality. Of these otters, ten are male and five are female. The nine 

individuals that were aged range from 2 to 13 years. Body or nutritional condition was 

calculated using a ratio of weight(kg)/length(cm), revealing that these animals were in poor 

condition as compared to the live captured animals, although the male with the highest ratio of 

weight to length, otter number 14717 (Table 3) was a beach cast animal. Cause of death of the 

beach cast animals reported herein is generally attributed to infectious disease (Table 3). 
25

Analytical Results

Overview

Results of the analyses are presented in tabular form with summary statistics including the mean

calculated without non-detects, the mean calculated with one half the detection limit for non 

detects, standard deviation, and maximum concentrations. Only those analytes detected are 

presented in the data tables. Appendix 2 provides a full list of the parameters analyzed. A list 

of the contaminants detected in over 50 percent of the otter samples analyzed is presented in 

Table 2. Summary statistics are presented for each gender and for the sample population 

overall. Animal age is also provided and the data are presented from youngest to oldest otter 

within a gender, for ease in viewing gender and age differences in analyte concentrations. For

the most part, no significant age nor gender biases were found, perhaps due to the small sample

size and low contaminant residues measured. Because the condition or nutrition ratio 

(weight/length) did not vary considerably statistics were not performed based on condition ratio.

Whole blood samples from live captured animals had detectable concentrations of PCBs, heavy 

metals and butyltins. Liver samples from live captured animals had detectable concentrations of 

several of the aliphatic hydrocarbons, but only a few aromatic hydrocarbons were detected. 

Liver from beach-cast animals contained measurable concentrations of several metals, such as

cadmium, copper and zinc, and several organochlorines including PCBs, chlordane and DDT

metabolites. Below is a summary of the findings for each group of compounds.

Metals

Whole blood from the live otter captures was analyzed for metals in both 2001 and 2002. In 

2001, detection limits were much higher and only six metals were detected (Table 4); chromium, 

copper, iron, magnesium, selenium and zinc. Of these, iron and magnesium are of little 

toxicological concern. 

With lower detection limits in 2002, 15 metals were detected in the whole blood of the live sea 

otters captured (Table 4), but mean concentrations of only six metals were greater than 1 ppm, 

and four of these (iron, magnesium, aluminum and boron) are of little toxicological concern. 

Concentrations of heavy metals of potential toxicological concern – arsenic, cadmium, 

chromium, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver and zinc – were low for 

all samples, with only mean concentrations of selenium and zinc above 1 ppm. Three of the

otters had whole blood concentrations of selenium of over 3 ppm. The oldest animal captured, a

16 year old female (WA110), had the highest whole blood concentration of zinc (4.43 ppm). 

Although a literature search was performed, no results for these compounds were found for 

comparison. 
26

Table 3. General Information on Live Captured and Beach-Cast Sea Otters 

Otter #

Study 

Year

Capture 

Location 

Adult/

Pup Sex Age

Weight 

(kg)

Length 

(cm)

Conditio

n Ratio 

(kg/cm) Notes

Live Otters

WA084 2001 Cape Alava Adult F 4 23.5 129.5 0.18

Lactating, mother of 

WA085

WA085 2001 Cape Alava Pup F <1 3 NM Pup of WA084

WA086 2001 Ozette River Adult F 5 21 120 0.18

Lactating, mother of 

WA087

WA087 2001 Ozette River Pup M <1 5 NM Pup of WA086

WA088 2001 Ozette River Adult F 13 22 124 0.18

WA089 2001 Cape Alava Adult F 6 23 124 0.19

WA090 2001 Cape Alava Adult F 9 24 125 0.19

WA091 2001 Cape Alava Adult F 7 22 123 0.18

WA092 2001 Cape Alava Pup M <1 16 105 0.15 Pup of WA093

WA093 2001 Cape Alava Adult F 10 27 134 0.20

Lactating, mother of 

WA092

WA094 2001 Cape Alava Adult F 5 23 127 0.18

WA095 2001 Sand Point Adult F 4 23 127 0.18

WA096 2001 Sand Point Adult F 10 27 126 0.21

WA097 2001

Destruction 

Island Adult M 8 41 134 0.31

WA098 2001

Destruction 

Island Subadult M 3 30 130 0.23

WA099 2001 Perkins Reef Subadult F 3 24 124 0.19

WA100 2001 Perkins Reef Adult F 4 27 128 0.21

WA054 2002 Cape Alava Adult F 15 27 127 0.21

WA102 2002

Destruction 

Island Adult M 10 50.5 151 0.33

WA103 2002 Sand Point Adult F 9 23 126 0.18

WA104 2002 Sand Point Pup M <1 11 95 0.12

WA105 2002

Destruction 

Island Adult M 5 38 142 0.27

WA106 2002 Perkins Reef Adult F 6 31 131 0.24

WA107 2002

Destruction 

Island Adult M 6 36.5 138 0.26

WA108 2002

Destruction 

Island Subadult M 3 31 132 0.23

WA109 2002 Perkins Reef Subadult F 3 20 119 0.17

WA110 2002 Perkins Reef Adult F 16 25 125 0.20

WA111 2002

Giants 

Graveyard Adult F 4 26 128 0.20

WA112 2002

Cape 

Johnson Adult M 6 37 146 0.25

WA113 2002

Cape 

Johnson Subadult M 2 27 130 0.21

WA114 2002

Destruction 

Island Adult F 6 30 135 0.22

WA115 2002

Destruction 

Island Pup F <1 15 106 0.14
27

Table 3. General Information on Live Captured and Beach-Cast Sea Otters; continued

Otter #

Year 

Collected

Stranding 

Location Adult/Pup Sex Age

Weight 

(kg)

Length 

(cm)

Condition 

Ratio 

(kg/cm) Cause of Deathb

Beach-Cast Otters

10385 1991

Cedar 

Creek Adult M U 28 138.5 0.20

Infectious

Disease

13827 1995

Cape 

Alava Adult F U 24 NM Other

13555 1995

Cape 

Alava Adult M U 31.2 147 0.21

Infectious

Disease

14325 1996

Yellow 

Banks Adult F U 20 132 0.15

Infectious

Disease

14717 1997

Bowman 

Creek Adult M U 59 147 0.40 Other

15713-01 1998

Shipwreck 

Point Adult M 8 28.1 143 0.20

Infectious

Disease

16904-01 2000

Roosevelt 

Beach Adult M 12 41.5 144 0.29

Infectious

Disease

16961-01 2000

Ocean 

Park Subadult F 3 19.5 125 0.16

Infectious

Disease

16961-02 2000

Pacific 

Beach Pup M <1 15.1 114 0.13

Infectious

Disease

16961-03 2000 Ocean City Subadult F 2 17 117 0.15

Infectious

Disease

16961-04 2000

Roosevelt 

Beach Subadult M 2 23.4 143 0.16 Infectious

17058-01a 2000 Ocean City Adult M U 37.8 124 0.30

Infectious

Disease

17315-01 2001 Beach 1 Adult F 13 19.6 142 0.14 Emaciation

18124-01 2002

Pacific 

Beach Subadult M 3 19.6 141 0.14

Infectious

Disease

18316-01 2002 Kalaloch Subadult M 1 22.2 137.5 0.16

Infectious

Disease

U = unknown

NM= not measured

a. Approximate length and weight because carcass had no rear foot or tail. Also coded WA019.

b. Data from USGS-National Wildlife Center. One of five categories: emaciation, infectious disease, other causes

(e.g., twisted gut, heart failure), trauma, undetermined. Infectious diseases include: protozoal meningoencephalitis 

(from both Toxoplasma and Sarcocystis), morbillivirus infection, leptospirosis and bacterial infections. Otters may 

have more than one disease.
28

Table 4. Detectable Metals in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea Otters 2001-2002 (ppm, wet 

weight)Otter

GenderAgeAluminumArsenicBoronBariumCadmium

Chromium

CopperIron

WA115 F <1 1.6 0.135 2.04 1.23 0.00632 < 0.0571 0.871 641

WA099 F 3 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.712 620

WA109 F 3 1.25 0.116 1.62 0.943 0.00834 < 0.0402 0.95 712

WA084 F 4 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.695 545

WA095 F 4 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.838 520

WA100 F 4 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 0.421 0.686 559

WA111 F 4 0.924 0.124 1.19 0.708 0.00588 < 0.0328 0.845 625

WA086 F 5 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.725 548

WA094 F 5 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 1.18 583

WA089 F 6 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.823 533

WA106 F 6 0.874 0.134 1.11 0.603 0.007 < 0.0388 0.946 676

WA114 F 6 1.55 0.169 2.15 1.19 0.0102 < 0.0478 1.11 904

WA091 F 7 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.8 576

WA090 F 9 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.686 548

WA103 F 9 0.842 0.191 1.24 0.584 0.0205 < 0.0318 0.922 634

WA093 F 10 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.752 492

WA096 F 10 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 0.414 0.762 494

WA088 F 13 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.745 464

WA054 F 15 0.988 0.275 1.23 0.727 0.00565 < 0.0317 0.893 479

WA110 F 16 1.81 0.134 2.41 1.44 0.00929 < 0.0584 0.823 690

WA092 M <1 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 < 0.4 0.724 533

WA104 M <1 2.1 0.183 2.46 1.45 0.0144 < 0.0644 0.848 621

WA113 M 2 0.973 0.117 1.52 0.703 < 0.00190 < 0.038 0.967 660

WA098 M 3 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 0.465 0.875 555

WA108 M 3 0.788 0.12 1.23 0.594 < 0.00163 < 0.0326 0.844 657

WA105 M 5 0.798 0.114 1.27 0.578 < 0.00162 < 0.0325 0.805 646

WA107 M 6 0.931 0.109 1.19 0.725 < 0.00154 < 0.0308 0.854 631

WA112 M 6 0.895 0.112 1.52 0.658 < 0.00184 < 0.0369 0.951 631

WA097 M 8 < 20 < 0.4 < 1.6 < 4 < 0.08 0.59 0.903 482

WA102 M 10 1.1 0.138 1.37 0.76 < 0.00161 < 0.0322 0.859 630

Females Meana 6.492 0.184 1.13 1.571 0.0277 0.150 0.838 592

Mean b 1.230 0.160 1.62 0.928 0.0091 0.418 0.838 592

n = 20 Std dev 4.414 0.038 0.52 0.574 0.0158 0.126 0.135 102

Max 1.81 0.275 2.41 1.44 0.0205 0.421 1.18 904

Males Meana 3.759 0.149 1.30 1.147 0.0139 0.139 0.863 605

Mean b 1.084 0.128 1.51 0.781 0.0144 0.528 0.863 605

n = 10 Std dev 4.440 0.041 0.27 0.656 n/a 0.252 0.046 63

Max 2.1 0.183 2.46 1.45 0.0144 0.59 0.967 660

All Meana 5.581 0.172 1.19 1.430 0.0231 0.146 0.846 596

Mean b 1.162 0.145 1.57 0.860 0.0097 0.473 0.846 596

n = 30 Std dev 4.504 0.042 0.51 0.619 0.0177 0.157 0.116 90

Max 2.1 0.275 2.46 1.45 0.0205 0.59 1.18 904

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; Metals below 

detection limits: Ag, Be, Mo, Ni
29

Table 4. Detectable Metals in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea Otters 2001-2002 (ppm, wet 

weight); continued Otter Gender

AgeMercuryMagnesium

Manganese

Lead

SeleniumStrontium VanadiumZinc

WA115 F <1 0.0257 57.6 < 0.114 0.0212 0.927 0.114 0.0782 2.65

WA099 F 3 < 0.16 47.8 < 0.8 < 0.4 3.5 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.91

WA109 F 3 0.0041 53.7 < 0.0800 0.00927 2.06 0.0668 0.0539 3.66

WA084 F 4 < 0.16 48.6 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.78 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.69

WA095 F 4 < 0.16 48 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.36 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.71

WA100 F 4 < 0.16 43.9 < 0.8 < 0.4 2.39 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.47

WA111 F 4 0.0414 53.4 < 0.0660 0.0071 2.05 0.0737 0.0435 3.22

WA086 F 5 < 0.16 49 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.48 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.58

WA094 F 5 < 0.16 45.8 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.43 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.77

WA089 F 6 < 0.16 46.8 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.43

WA106 F 6 0.0628 54.4 0.22 0.0146 2.15 0.0536 0.0542 3.57

WA114 F 6 0.0988 63.2 < 0.0960 0.0173 2.62 0.0727 0.0638 4.03

WA091 F 7 < 0.16 50.9 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.63 < 0.4 < 0.4 3.25

WA090 F 9 < 0.16 47.9 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.74

WA103 F 9 0.125 52.3 < 0.0640 0.00583 0.671 0.102 0.0458 2.75

WA093 F 10 < 0.16 46.7 < 0.8 < 0.4 1.89 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.46

WA096 F 10 < 0.16 44.7 < 0.8 < 0.4 2.57 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.65

WA088 F 13 < 0.16 48.2 < 0.8 < 0.4 2.34 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.26

WA054 F 15 0.0719 48.6 < 0.0630 0.00432 1.68 0.167 0.0453 2.43

WA110 F 16 0.0074 55.7 < 0.117 0.00901 2.71 0.0678 0.0775 4.43

WA092 M <1 < 0.16 47.7 < 0.8 < 0.4 0.897 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.49

WA104 M <1 0.0287 54.8 < 0.129 0.0109 0.435 0.17 0.0923 2.91

WA113 M 2 0.0816 51 < 0.0760 0.00762 1.81 0.0701 0.0499 3.83

WA098 M 3 < 0.16 46.6 < 0.8 < 0.4 4.04 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.95

WA108 M 3 0.0591 50.5 < 0.0650 0.00667 2.85 0.0713 0.0437 3.4

WA105 M 5 0.0594 48.3 < 0.0650 0.00647 4.4 0.0449 0.0596 3.38

WA107 M 6 0.0776 50 < 0.0620 0.00574 1.96 0.0518 0.0421 3.18

WA112 M 6 0.0603 47.6 < 0.0740 0.00716 1.58 0.0392 0.0507 3.47

WA097 M 8 < 0.16 47.5 < 0.8 < 0.4 3.66 < 0.4 < 0.4 2.78

WA102 M 10 0.154 53.4 < 0.0640 0.00731 2.16 0.0496 0.0412 3.01

Females Meana 0.0699 50.4 0.27 0.1244 1.90 0.156 0.1431 2.93

Mean b 0.0546 50.4 0.22 0.0111 1.90 0.090 0.0578 2.93

n = 20 Std dev 0.0292 4.8 n/a 0.0950 0.67 0.060 0.0720 0.58

Max 0.125 63.2 0.22 0.0212 3.5 0.167 0.0782 4.43

Males Meana 0.0761 49.7 n/a 0.0652 2.38 0.110 0.0980 3.14

Mean b 0.0744 49.7 n/a 0.0074 2.38 0.071 0.0542 3.14

n = 10 Std dev 0.0335 2.3 n/a 0.0943 1.10 0.073 0.0747 0.26

Max 0.154 54.8 0 0.0109 4.4 0.17 0.0923 3.83

All Meana 0.0719 50.2 0.23 0.1047 2.06 0.140 0.1281 3.00

Mean b 0.0639 50.2 0.22 0.0094 2.06 0.081 0.0561 3.00

n = 30 Std dev 0.0297 4.2 n/a 0.0970 0.94 0.067 0.0740 0.53

Max 0.154 63.2 0.22 0.0212 4.4 0.17 0.0923 4.43

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; Metals below 

detection limits: Ag, Be, Mo, Ni
30

In general, metals concentrations in whole blood of live captured otters did not show a significant 

relationship to age or gender. There were several statistically significant relationships between 

animal body weight and metal concentrations: mercury (p = 0.013, R2 = 0.391), selenium (p = 

0.016 R2 = 0.189), strontium (p = 0.001, R2 = 0.617), and vanadium (p = 0.017, 

R2 = 0.364). Again, in all cases except strontium, although statistically significant the relationship 

was not strong, as indicated by the low adjusted r-squared values.

Liver samples from the 15 beach-cast otters were analyzed for metals and are presented as both wet 

weight (Table 5) and dry weight (Table 6) for comparison with literature values. There was 

considerable variability in the results as illustrated by the large standard deviations for several of the 

metals. In some cases this variability could be explained by one or two individuals. Of note is the 

wide range in aluminum (<5.0 to 198 ppm dw), copper (15.3 to 191 ppm, dw) and zinc 

concentrations (100 to 258 ppm, dw). The 2 year old male (16961-04) had the highest 

concentrations of copper (191 ppm, dw), mercury (41.2 ppm, dw) and selenium 18.3 ppm, dw), the 

3 year old male (18124-01) had elevated manganese and zinc in the liver, and male sea otter 13555

had more than double the liver concentration of aluminum than any of the other animals. Copper 

concentration was also high in liver from 13 year old female otter 17315-01 (179 ppm, dw). Metal 

concentrations in the beach-cast animals cannot be compared to those in the live captured animals 

because of the difference in sample matrix, liver versus whole blood, respectively. Several metals 

of toxicological significance exceeded a mean of 10 ppm in the liver of the beach-cast animals, 

including aluminum, cadmium, copper, mercury, manganese and zinc.

Regression analysis to evaluate relationships between age, gender (body weights were not known) 

and metal concentrations in the liver of beach-cast animals revealed one significant relationship. 

Cadmium concentrations were significantly higher in female animals (p = 0.047, mean for females 

of 6.03 ppm ww, mean for males of 2.03 ppm ww; Table 5).

Organotins

Whole blood samples from the 2001 and 2002 live captured animals were analyzed for butyltins 

(i.e., tetra-, tri-, di- and monobutyltin) (Table 7). No tetrabutyltin was detected and tributyltin 

(TBT), the more toxic moiety, was detected in only one 10-year old male animal (WA102). 

Regression analysis revealed no significant relationships between age, gender or body weight and 

total butyltin concentration in whole blood. Total butyltin concentrations ranged from non-detect 

to 0.427 ppm (wet weight), with a mean of 0.105 ppm (Table 7). 

Butyltins were also measured in liver from fifteen beach-cast otters from the Washington coast 

(Table 8). Total butyltin liver concentrations in beach-cast Washington sea otters was similar to 

that in whole blood of live captured animals, ranging from 0.0553 to 0.447 ppm wet weight; 

however, unlike whole blood results for live captured animals, the concentration of tributyltin in 

liver of beach-cast animals was above the detection limit for all but two animals. Regression 

analysis revealed no significant relationship between age or gender and total butyltin concentration 

in these samples. 
31

Table 5. Detectable Metals in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight) Otter Age Gender Silver Aluminum Arsenic Boron Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron

MercuryMagnesiumManganeseMolybdenumNickelLeadSeleniumStrontiumVanadiumZinc

16961-03 2 F NA 7.64 < 0.170 < 0.681 4.73 0.188 25.8 257 1.9 202 3.5 < 0.681 < 0.170 < 0.170 1.88 0.714 < 0.170 34.1

16961-01 3 F NA 30.9 0.209 < 0.691 3.13 < 0.173 22.3 199 1.22 279 2.53 < 0.691 < 0.173 < 0.173 1.68 1.34 < 0.173 38

17315-01 13 F NA 1.49 0.405 < 0.563 4.93 0.228 50.3 540 4.64 173 2.78 < 0.563 0.335 < 0.141 3.31 < 0.141 < 0.141 38.5

14325 U F NA 13.6 0.158 < 0.564 16.6 0.344 28 293 5.44 573 5.8 < 0.564 0.337 < 0.141 2.2 1.09 < 0.141 43.6

13827 U F NA 17 0.336 < 0.661 5.25 0.226 26.7 342 0.505 188 2.73 < 0.661 0.355 < 0.165 1.22 0.382 < 0.165 36.4

16961-02 <1 M NA 5.67 0.275 < 0.527 0.717 < 0.132 32.9 461 3.48 323 2.99 < 0.527 < 0.132 < 0.132 1.77 0.711 < 0.132 51.2

16961-04 2 M NA 14 0.269 < 0.644 2.07 < 0.161 61.6 438 13.2 273 4.8 < 0.644 < 0.161 < 0.161 5.87 0.482 < 0.161 71.3

18124-01 3 M NA < 1.43 0.472 < 0.570 2.51 < 0.143 20.7 682 2.45 166 6.18 < 0.570 < 0.143 < 0.143 3.24 < 0.143 < 0.143 73.4

15713-01 8 M NA 5.08 0.376 < 0.669 1.36 0.337 9.49 545 0.968 212 2.87 < 0.669 0.411 < 0.167 0.672 < 0.167 0.663 48.7

14717 U M NA 11.1 0.349 < 0.531 3.89 0.338 4.06 154 0.444 157 3.68 < 0.531 0.436 < 0.133 0.446 < 0.133 < 0.133 48.4

16904-01 12 M NA 20 < 0.131 < 0.525 0.624 0.159 16.8 288 4.89 108 1.38 < 0.525 < 0.131 < 0.131 3.58 0.163 < 0.131 28.1

17058-01 U M NA 5.65 < 0.161 < 0.643 1.57 < 0.161 35.7 643 5.63 256 2.33 < 0.643 < 0.161 < 0.161 3.76 < 0.161 < 0.161 56.8

13555 U M NA 58.3 0.382 < 0.589 1.13 0.319 37.6 499 5.35 217 3 < 0.589 0.285 < 0.147 4.02 0.264 < 0.147 44.2

10385 U M NA < 1.2 0.131 < 0.481 5.39 0.167 9.78 285 0.338 163 3.02 < 0.481 0.483 < 0.120 0.456 < 0.120 < 0.120 40.7

18316-01 1 M 0.0519 0.853 0.469 1.14 1 < 0.106 6.53 662 1.19 183 5.45 0.231 < 0.106 0.0437 3.98 0.296 0.166 38.4

Females Mean a -- 14.1 0.24 -- 6.9 0.21 30.6 326 2.7 283 3.47 -- 0.240 -- 2.06 0.719 -- 38.1

n = 5 Mean b -- 14.1 0.28 -- 6.93 0.25 30.6 326 2.7 283 3.47 -- 0.342 -- 2.06 0.882 -- 38.1

Std dev -- 11.1 0.11 -- 5.5 0.07 11.2 130 2.2 167 1.35 -- 0.011 -- 0.78 0.421 -- 3.5

Max -- 30.9 0.41 -- 16.6 0.34 50.3 540 5.4 573 5.80 -- 0.355 -- 3.31 1.340 -- 43.6

Males Mean a -- 12.2 0.29 -- 2.03 0.17 23.5 466 3.8 206 3.57 -- 0.203 -- 2.78 0.228 -- 50.1

n = 10 Mean b -- 15.1 0.34 -- 2.0 0.26 23.5 466 3.8 206 3.57 -- 0.404 -- 2.78 0.383 -- 50.1

Std dev -- 18.5 0.11 -- 1.54 0.09 18.2 178 3.9 64 1.48 -- 0.085 -- 1.85 0.217 -- 14.1

Max -- 58.3 0.47 -- 5.4 0.34 61.6 682 13.2 323 6.18 -- 0.483 -- 5.87 0.711 0.663 73.4

All Mean a -- 12.8 0.27 -- 3.7 0.18 25.9 419 3.4 232 3.54 -- 0.215 -- 2.54 0.392 -- 46.1

n = 15 Mean b -- 14.7 0.32 -- 3.7 0.26 25.9 419 3.4 232 3.54 -- 0.377 -- 2.54 0.605 -- 46.1

Std dev -- 15.5 0.11 -- 4.0 0.08 16.2 173 3.4 110 1.39 -- 0.069 -- 1.58 0.399 -- 12.9

Max 0.0519 58.3 0.47 1.14 16.6 0.34 61.6 682 13.2 573 6.18 0.231 0.483 0.0437 5.87 1.340 0.663 73.4

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; Metals analyzed that were below detection limit: Ba, Be; units: ppm; Sample 

matrix: liver; n=15
32

Table 6. Detectable Metals in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, dry weight) Otter Gender Age Silver Aluminum Arsenic Boron Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron

MercuryMagnesiumManganeseMolybdenumNickelLeadSeleniumStrontiumVanadiumZinc

16961-03 F 2 NA 22.4 < 0.500 < 2.00 13.9 0.552 75.9 755 5.57 592 10.3 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 5.53 2.1 < 0.500 100

16961-01 F 3 NA 89.6 0.605 < 2.00 9.06 < 0.500 64.5 575 3.54 807 7.34 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 4.87 3.89 < 0.500 110

17315-01 F 13 NA 5.31 1.44 < 2.00 17.5 0.811 179 1920 16.5 613 9.89 < 2.00 1.19 < 0.500 11.8 < 0.5 < 0.500 137

14325 F U NA 48.3 0.559 < 2.00 58.9 1.22 99.3 1040 19.3 2030 20.6 < 2.00 1.19 < 0.500 7.81 3.88 < 0.500 154

13827 F U NA 51.3 1.02 < 2.00 15.9 0.685 80.7 1040 1.53 568 8.25 < 2.00 1.07 < 0.500 3.7 1.16 < 0.500 110

16961-02 M <1 NA 21.5 1.05 < 2.00 2.72 < 0.500 125 1750 13.2 1220 11.3 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 6.72 2.7 < 0.500 194

16961-04 M 2 NA 43.6 0.835 < 2.00 6.42 < 0.500 191 1360 41.2 847 14.9 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 18.3 1.5 < 0.500 221

18124-01 M 3 NA < 5.00 1.66 < 2.00 8.81 < 0.500 72.4 2390 8.58 581 21.7 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 11.4 < 0.5 < 0.500 258

15713-01 M 8 NA 15.2 1.12 < 2.00 4.07 1.01 28.4 1630 2.89 633 8.58 < 2.00 1.23 < 0.500 2.01 < 0.5 1.98 146

14717 M U NA 41.9 1.31 < 2.00 14.6 1.27 15.3 579 1.67 592 13.9 < 2.00 1.64 < 0.500 1.68 < 0.5 < 0.500 182

16904-01 M 12 NA 76.1 < 0.500 < 2.00 2.38 0.607 63.9 1100 18.6 412 5.25 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 13.6 0.622 < 0.500 107

17058-01 M U NA 17.6 < 0.500 < 2.00 4.87 < 0.500 111 2000 17.5 795 7.26 < 2.00 < 0.500 < 0.500 11.7 < 0.5 < 0.500 177

13555 M U NA 198 1.3 < 2.00 3.85 1.08 128 1700 18.2 736 10.2 < 2.00 0.97 < 0.500 13.7 0.897 < 0.500 150

10385 M U NA < 5.00 0.545 < 2.00 22.4 0.694 40.7 1190 1.41 680 12.6 < 2.00 2.01 < 0.500 1.9 < 0.5 < 0.500 170

18316-01 M 1 0.177 2.91 1.6 3.9 3.42 < 0.361 22.3 2260 4.05 624 18.6 0.79 < 0.361 0.149 13.6 1.01 0.565 131

Females Mean a -- 43.4 0.77 -- 23.1 0.70 99.9 1066 9.3 922 11.3 -- -- -- 6.7 2.3 -- 122

n = 5 Mean b -- 50.6 0.83 -- 6.90 0.58 104.1 1108 16.4 776 9.8 -- -- -- 9.8 2.2 -- 146

Std dev -- 32.1 0.46 -- 20.3 0.36 46.0 516.8 8.1 627 5.3 -- -- -- 3.2 1.6 -- 22

Max -- 89.6 1.44 -- 58.9 1.22 179 1920 19.3 2030 20.6 -- -- -- 11.8 3.9 -- 154

Males Mean a -- 42.2 0.99 -- 7.35 0.58 79.8 1596 12.7 712 12.4 -- 0.73 -- 9.5 0.8 -- 174

n = 10 Mean b -- 47.6 1.17 -- 15.4 0.97 77.7 1575 9.2 785 13.2 -- 1.33 -- 7.9 1.7 -- 162

Std dev -- 59.5 0.51 -- 6.44 0.41 57.4 554.9 12.2 216 5.1 -- 0.69 -- 6.0 0.8 -- 44

Max -- 198 1.66 -- 22.4 1.27 191 2390 41.2 1220 21.7 -- 2.01 -- 18.3 2.7 1.98 258

All Mean a -- 42.6 0.92 -- 12.6 0.62 86.5 1419 11.6 782 12.0 -- 0.75 -- 8.6 1.3 -- 156

n = 15 Mean b -- 48.7 1.09 -- 12.6 0.88 86.5 1419 11.6 782 12.0 -- 1.33 -- 8.6 2.0 -- 156

Std dev -- 50.7 0.49 -- 14.2 0.38 53.1 584 10.8 391 5.0 -- 0.61 -- 5.2 1.3 -- 45

Max 0.177 198 1.66 3.9 58.9 1.27 191 2390 41.2 2030 21.7 0.79 2.01 0.149 18.3 3.9 1.98 258

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; Metals analyzed that were below detection limit: Ba, Be; U = unknown
33

Table 7. Detectable Butyltins (BT) in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea 

Otters 2001-2002 (ppm, wet weight)

Otter Gender Age Monobutyltin Dibutyltin Tributyltin Total BTsc

WA115 F <1 0.141 0.0302 < 0.010 0.1762

WA099 F 3 0.0162 0.0194 < 0.010 0.0406

WA109 F 3 0.0231 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0331

WA084 F 4 0.0260 0.0373 < 0.010 0.0683

WA095 F 4 0.0950 0.0325 < 0.010 0.132

WA100 F 4 0.0321 0.0153 < 0.010 0.0524

WA111 F 4 0.172 0.120 < 0.010 0.297

WA086 F 5 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0150

WA094 F 5 0.0366 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0466

WA089 F 6 0.0295 0.0146 < 0.010 0.0491

WA106 F 6 0.0180 0.0106 < 0.010 0.0336

WA114 F 6 0.0796 0.0196 < 0.010 0.104

WA091 F 7 0.0155 0.0150 < 0.010 0.0355

WA090 F 9 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0150

WA103 F 9 0.0146 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0246

WA093 F 10 0.0153 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0253

WA096 F 10 0.0261 0.0218 < 0.010 0.0529

WA088 F 13 0.0163 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0263

WA054 F 15 0.103 0.135 < 0.010 0.243

WA110 F 16 0.292 0.130 < 0.010 0.427

WA092 M <1 0.0127 0.0119 < 0.010 0.0296

WA104 M <1 0.0506 0.0255 < 0.010 0.0811

WA113 M 2 0.0645 0.0488 < 0.010 0.118

WA098 M 3 0.0616 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0716

WA108 M 3 0.0785 0.0575 < 0.010 0.141

WA105 M 5 0.0129 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0229

WA107 M 6 0.0208 0.0520 < 0.010 0.0778

WA112 M 6 0.179 0.0744 < 0.010 0.258

WA097 M 8 0.0217 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.0317

WA102 M 10 0.246 0.154 0.0140 0.414

Females Mean a 0.0581 0.0318 0.0949

n = 20 Mean b 0.0640 0.0463 0.0949

Std dev 0.0725 0.0428 0.1103

Max 0.292 0.135 0.427

Males Mean a 0.0748 0.0439 0.1246

n = 10 Mean b 0.0748 0.0606 0.1246

Std dev 0.0778 0.0462 0.1233

Max 0.246 0.154 0.014 0.414

All Mean a 0.0637 0.0358 0.1048

n = 30 Mean b 0.0679 0.0513 0.1048

Std dev 0.0734 0.0436 0.1136

Max 0.292 0.154 0.014 0.427

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; 

c. Total BT calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non detects; No tetrabutyltin was detected in any 

samples analyzed; Detection limit for each butyltin = 0.010 ppm.
34

Table 8. Detectable Butyltins (BT) in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet 

weight)

Otter Gender Age Monobutyltin Dibutyltin Tributyltin Total BTc

16961-03 F 2 0.0183 0.0228 0.052 0.0931

16961-01 F 3 0.0188 0.0472 0.0884 0.154

17315-01 F 13 0.141 0.208 0.0348 0.384

14325 F U 0.0672 0.0516 0.0763 0.195

13827 F U 0.117 0.0708 0.0224 0.21

16961-02 M <1 0.017 0.0207 0.0574 0.0951

16961-04 M 2 0.0463 0.07 0.0795 0.196

18124-01 M 3 0.183 0.162 0.102 0.447

15713-01 M 8 0.0451 0.0527 < 0.0180 0.107

14717 M U 0.0338 0.0145 < 0.0140 0.0553

16904-01 M 12 0.0494 0.0613 0.0605 0.171

17058-01 M U 0.0577 0.107 0.0481 0.213

13555 M U 0.104 0.0541 0.0973 0.255

10385 M U 0.0851 0.0553 0.0251 0.166

18316-01 M 1 0.103 0.137 0.0268 0.267

Females mean a 0.0725 0.0801 0.0548 0.207

n = 5 mean b 0.0725 0.0801 0.0548 0.2072

Std dev 0.056 0.0735 0.0276 0.109

max 0.141 0.208 0.0884 0.384

Males mean a 0.0724 0.0735 0.0513 0.197

n = 10 mean b 0.0724 0.0735 0.0621 0.1972

Std dev 0.0484 0.0478 0.0344 0.111

max 0.183 0.162 0.102 0.447

all mean a 0.0724 0.0757 0.0524 0.201

n = 15 mean b 0.0724 0.0757 0.0593 0.2006

Std dev 0.049 0.055 0.0313 0.106

max 0.183 0.208 0.102 0.447

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without nondetects; c. sum calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; No tetrabutyltin was 

detected in any samples analyzed; U = unknown
35

Organic Compounds

Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Liver of 16 of the 2001 (n=7) and 2002 (n=9) live captured animals was evaluated 

for aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Tables 9 and 10). The 

detection limit varies by sea otter due to the amount of tissue available for analysis, 

ranging from 0.658 to 3.57 ppm, wet weight for aliphatics and from 0.068 to 1.360 

ppm wet weight for PAHs. Several of the aliphatics were detected in more than 50 

percent of the live captured otters. Aliphatics with the highest concentrations – [nhexadecane (maximum concentration of 436 ppm, standard deviation of 134), nnonacosane (maximum concentration of 83.6 ppm, standard deviation of 24.7), noctacosane (maximum concentration of 99.3 ppm, standard deviation of 31.3)] – also 

showed considerable variability with large standard deviations (Table 9). Elevated 

concentrations were particularly apparent for a 3 year old female otter (WA099), 

which not only had the highest number of maximum concentrations of aliphatic 

compounds but also had detectable concentrations of more of the aliphatic 

compounds than any other otter. A 5 year old female (WA086) also had maximum 

concentrations of numerous of the aliphatics. Regardless, regression analysis 

revealed only one significant gender relationship to aliphatic concentrations. 

Nonacosane was significantly higher in females versus males (p = 0.048, mean 

concentration for females is 54.1 ppm ww, mean for males is 29.9 ppm ww). 

As expected, very few PAHs were detected in liver of live animals, and only 

unresolved complex mixture were detected in at least 50 percent of the animals 

evaluated (Table 10). Maximum concentrations of the individual aromatic 

hydrocarbons ranged from non-detect to 2.28 ppm. As with the aliphatics, female 

sea otter WA099 had some of the highest PAH concentrations observed, primarily

naphthalenes (naphthalene, C1-naphthalene and 2-methylnaphthalene) (Table 10). 

Regression analysis revealed no significant gender, age or body weight relationship 

to PAH concentrations.

Semi-volatile Compounds

Semi-volatile compounds were detected in only one whole blood sample from 30 

live captured animals: 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene, which measured 0.00151ppm in 

sea otter WA094.

Two semi-volatile compounds were also determined in liver samples from eight of 

the 15 beach-cast otters (Table 11): 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene (mean of 0.00907

ppm) and 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene (mean of 0.0255 ppm). Regression analysis 

revealed no significant gender, body weight or age relationship to concentrations of 

these semi-volatiles.
36

Table 9. Detectable Aliphatic Compounds in Liver of Live Captured Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight) Otter Gender Age Detection Limits

n-decane 

(C10)

n-docosane 

(C22)

n-dodecane 

(C12)

ndotriacontane 

(C32)

n-eicosane 

(c20)

n-heneicosane 

(C21)

nhentricontane 

(C31)

nheptacosane 

(C27)

nheptadecane 

(C17)

n-hexacosane 

(C26)

n-hexadecane 

(C16)

n-nonacosane 

(C29)

n-nonadecane 

(C19)

n-octacosane 

(C28)

n-octadecane 

(C18)

WA099 F 3 2.38 8.72 5.6 9.54 4.01 9.69 5.56 < 2.38 18.7 16.6 17.5 436 80.5 15.4 19.6 15.5

WA109 F 3 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45 <3.45 4.03 7.17 < 3.45 8.02 < 3.45 34.8 < 3.45 6.8 < 3.45

WA095 F 4 1.16 < 1.16 2.01 2.21 1.26 12.3 5.03 < 1.16 6.61 16.1 5.18 167 47.4 13.3 7.97 15

WA086 F 5 3.03 < 3.03 4.03 5.07 < 3.03 20.7 7.32 < 3.03 12 27.3 9.94 203 8.28 21.5 12.5 26.7

WA114 F 6 0.68 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 0.933 0.747 0.796 68.3 < 0.676 78.5 0.742

WA091 F 7 0.66 < 0.658 1.17 1.6 < 0.658 6.34 2.5 < 0.658 1.75 4.94 1.65 64.8 39.5 4.57 2.08 4.67

WA090 F 9 1.04 < 1.04 1.54 2.03 < 1.04 5.35 2.95 < 1.04 3.76 9.54 3.49 136 67.7 8.08 5.35 8.9

WA054 F 15 2.78 < 2.78 4.07 < 2.78 < 2.78 3.3 < 2.78 3.5 5.05 4.13 5.97 2.86 56.7 5.43 70.1 5.35

WA110 F 16 0.71 < 0.714 0.947 < 0.714 1.06 < 0.714 < 0.714 1.06 1.73 < 0.714 1.92 < 0.714 83.6 < 0.714 99.3 < 0.714

WA113 M 2 0.81 < 0.806 < 0.806 < 0.806 0.982 < 0.806 < 0.806 1.2 1.68 < 0.806 1.89 < 0.806 22.6 < 0.806 27 < 0.806

WA098 M 3 2.17 < 2.17 3.17 4.94 2.8 3.23 < 2.17 < 2.17 12.4 9.46 10.4 301 12.1 4.22 12.5 5.72

WA108 M 3 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72 2.24 < 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72 3.45 1.93 2.67 43.8 3.56 53.6 3.6

WA105 M 5 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 2.36 < 1.61 1.79 28.7 2.45 34.7 2.48

WA107 M 6 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57 6.2 4.07 4.63 64.1 4.74 76 5.7

WA112 M 6 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 29.4 < 1.35 33.1 < 1.35

WA097 M 8 1.79 6.05 4.78 3.74 2.54 11 5.55 < 1.79 9.22 11.6 7.33 212 8.63 13.6 9.87 12.6

Females Mean a -- 2.38 2.7 1.35 6.68 3.02 1.45 6.35 9.07 6.05 113 54.1 7.86 33.6 8.77

n = 9 Mean b -- 2.77 4.09 2.11 9.61 3.99 -- 7.1 11.36 6.05 144 54.1 11.4 33.6 11

Std dev -- 1.76 2.92 1.12 6.66 2.45 1.38 5.83 9.19 5.27 145 24.2 7.41 37.9 8.8

Max 8.72 5.6 9.54 4.01 20.7 7.32 4.03 18.7 27.3 17.5 436 83.6 21.5 99.3 26.7

Males Mean a -- 1.78 1.89 1.49 2.88 -- -- 3.92 4.88 3.87 74.7 29.9 4.24 35.3 4.45

n = 7 Mean b -- 3.98 4.34 2.11 5.49 -- -- 7.77 6.61 5.12 104 29.9 5.71 35.3 6.02

Std dev -- 1.63 1.76 0.88 3.72 -- -- 4.82 4.36 3.7 127 19.1 4.45 23.2 4.18

Max 6.05 4.78 4.94 2.8 11 5.55 1.79 12.4 11.6 10.4 301 64.1 13.6 76 12.6

All Mean a 1.7 2.12 2.34 1.41 5.01 2.4 1.27 5.28 7.24 5.09 96 43.5 6.27 34.31 6.88

n = 16 Mean b 7.39 3.04 4.16 2.11 8.24 3.87 -- 7.28 9.38 5.72 128 43.5 8.8 34.31 8.91

Std dev 2.33 1.68 2.44 1 5.75 2.24 1.05 5.38 7.57 4.64 134 24.7 6.38 31.32 7.29

Max 8.72 5.6 9.54 4.01 20.7 7.32 4.03 18.7 27.3 17.5 436 83.6 21.5 99.3 26.7

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; Aliphatics analyzed that were below detection limit: n-hentriacontane & n-tritriacontane
37

Table 9. Detectable Aliphatic Compounds in Liver of Live Captured Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight); continued Otter Gender Age Detection Limits

npentacosane 

(C25)

npentadecane 

(C15)

n-tetracosane 

(C24)

n-tetradecane 

(C14)

ntetratriacontane

(C34)

n-triacontane 

(C30)

n-tricosane 

(C23)

n-tridecane 

(C13)

ntritriacontane 

(C33)

n-undecane 

(C11)

Phytane

Pristane

WA099 F 3 2.38 13.2 12.4 8.64 19.6 < 2.38 12.7 5 6 < 2.38 18 7.3 10.3

WA109 F 3 3.45 7.89 < 3.45 8.04 < 3.45 < 3.45 4.31 5.48 < 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45 < 3.45

WA095 F 4 1.16 5.21 10.6 3.72 6.07 < 1.16 5.01 2.27 2.34 < 1.16 4.51 1.95 3.86

WA086 F 5 3.03 9.53 15.5 5.34 12.2 < 3.03 8.92 3.95 < 3.03 < 3.03 < 3.03 8.04 9.96

WA114 F 6 0.676 < 0.676 0.723 0.78 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676 0.77 < 0.676 < 0.676 < 0.676

WA091 F 7 0.658 1.53 3.24 1.34 3.13 < 0.658 1.45 0.77 1.36 < 0.658 2.69 1.65 2.19

WA090 F 9 1.04 2.91 5.38 1.79 4.17 1.68 2.79 1.18 2.13 < 1.04 5.96 2.97 3.33

WA054 F 15 2.78 6.75 < 2.78 7.62 < 2.78 < 2.78 3.64 5.63 < 2.78 < 2.78 < 2.78 < 2.78 < 2.78

WA110 F 16 0.714 1.95 < 0.714 2.07 < 0.714 < 0.714 1.37 1.39 < 0.714 1.46 < 0.714 < 0.714 < 0.714

WA113 M 2 0.806 1.77 1.76 1.65 < 0.806 < 0.806 1.58 1.19 < 0.806 < 0.806 < 0.806 < 0.806 < 0.806

WA098 M 3 2.17 7.96 8.76 5.24 13.3 < 2.17 9.72 3.45 6.02 1.02 14.5 4.81 5.67

WA108 M 3 1.72 2.55 2.14 2.38 < 1.72 < 1.72 1.78 1.8 < 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72 < 1.72

WA105 M 5 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61 < 1.61

WA107 M 6 3.57 4.61 < 3.57 4.28 < 3.57 < 3.57 4.44 < 3.57 < 3.57 3.93 < 3.57 < 3.57 < 3.57

WA112 M 6 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 1.61 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35 < 1.35

WA097 M 8 1.79 6.8 8.26 4.74 13.5 < 1.79 8.16 2.76 4.34 < 1.79 8.99 5.87 6.43

Females Mean a 5.48 5.7 4.37 5.44 -- 4.5 2.89 1.91 1.05 4.05 2.86 3.72

n = 9 Mean b 6.12 7.97 4.37 6.81 -- 4.73 2.63 2.96 1.05 7.79 4.38 5.93

Std dev 4.25 5.69 3.12 6.48 -- 3.99 2.13 1.68 0.51 5.55 2.85 3.82

Max 13.2 15.5 8.64 19.6 1.68 12.7 5.63 6 1.73 18 8.04 10.3

Males Mean a 3.6 3.46 2.82 4.48 -- 4.01 1.78 2.13 1.46 4 2.17 2.38

n = 7 Mean b 4.74 5.23 3.66 6.04 -- 5.71 3.11 5.18 1.23 11.7 5.34 6.05

Std dev 2.92 3.5 1.91 6.11 -- 3.58 1.02 2.18 1.14 5.54 2.23 2.56

Max 7.96 8.76 5.24 13.5 -- 9.72 3.45 6.02 3.93 14.5 5.87 6.43

All Mean a 4.65 4.72 3.69 5.02 0.98 4.29 2.4 2 1.23 4.03 2.56 3.13

n = 16 Mean b 5.59 6.88 4.12 6.48 2.86 5.08 2.77 3.7 1.13 9.11 4.66 5.96

Std dev 3.74 4.84 2.7 6.13 0.52 3.7 1.78 1.85 0.84 5.36 2.54 3.3

Max 13.2 15.5 8.64 19.6 1.79 12.7 5.63 6.02 3.93 18 8.04 10.3

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; Aliphatics analyzed that were below detection 

limit: n-hentriacontane & n-tritriacontane 
38

Table 10. Detectable Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Compounds in Liver of Live 

Captured Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight) Otter Gender Age Detection Limits

2-

methylnaphthalene

C1-naphthalenes

C2-Phenanthrenes 

& Anthracenes

C3-fluorenes

BiphenylFluorene

Naphthalene

Unresolved 

Complex Mixture

Total Petroleum 

Hydrocarbons

WA099 F 3 1.1 1.07 1.69 < 1.07 < 1.07 1.74 < 1.07 1.44 < 1.07 < 1.07

WA109 F 3 0.3 < 0.345 < 0.345 < 0.345 0.378 < 0.345 < 0.345 < 0.345 291 50.5

WA095 F 4 0.5 < 0.523 < 0.523 < 0.523 < 0.523 0.881 < 0.523 0.53 2090 < 0.523

WA086 F 5 1.4 < 1.36 < 1.36 < 1.36 < 1.36 2.28 < 1.36 1.43 < 1.36 < 1.36

WA114 F 6 0.1 < 0.068 < 0.068 < 0.068 0.0686 < 0.068 < 0.068 < 0.068 382 < 0.135

WA091 F 7 0.3 < 0.296 0.414 < 0.296 < 0.296 0.719 < 0.296 0.47 < 0.296 < 0.296

WA090 F 9 0.5 < 0.469 0.58 < 0.469 < 0.469 0.763 0.556 0.625 < 0.469 < 0.469

WA054 F 15 0.3 < 0.278 < 0.278 < 0.278 0.278 < 0.278 < 0.278 < 0.278 380 < 0.556

WA110 F 16 0.1 < 0.071 < 0.071 < 0.071 < 0.071 < 0.071 < 0.071 < 0.071 459 131

WA113 M 2 0.1 < 0.081 < 0.081 < 0.081 < 0.081 < 0.081 < 0.081 < 0.081 177 139

WA098 M 3 1 < 0.978 1.05 < 0.978 < 0.978 1.77 < 0.978 1.28 < 0.978 < 0.978

WA108 M 3 0.2 < 0.172 < 0.172 < 0.172 0.211 < 0.172 < 0.172 < 0.172 306 9.2

WA105 M 5 0.2 < 0.161 < 0.161 < 0.161 0.195 < 0.161 < 0.161 < 0.161 195 296

WA107 M 6 0.4 < 0.357 < 0.357 < 0.357 0.359 < 0.357 < 0.357 < 0.357 424 102

WA112 M 6 0.1 < 0.135 < 0.135 0.138 1.16 < 0.135 < 0.135 < 0.135 229 < 0.27

WA097 M 8 0.8 < 0.804 0.996 < 0.804 < 0.804 1.44 < 0.804 1.04 < 0.804 < 0.804

Females Mean a -- 0.445 -- 0.291 0.752 -- 0.542 796 45.5

n = 9 Mean b -- 1.28 -- -- 0.242 -- 0.899 720 90.8

Std dev -- 0.52 -- 0.212 0.796 -- 0.55 648 61.8

Max 1.07 1.69 -- 0.682 2.28 0.556 1.44 2090 131

Males Mean a -- 0.357 -- 0.408 0.523 -- 0.396 473 109

n = 7 Mean b -- 1.61 -- 0.138 0.481 -- 1.16 266 137

Std dev -- 0.457 -- 0.364 0.746 -- 0.528 368 120

Max -- 1.05 0.138 1.16 1.77 -- 1.28 1090 296

All Mean a -- 0.407 -- 0.342 0.652 -- 0.478 655 80.9

n = 16 Mean b -- 1.37 -- 0.14 0.379 -- 0.974 493 121

Std dev -- 0.479 -- 0.284 0.758 -- 0.528 553 98.9

Max 1.07 1.69 0.682 1.16 2.28 0.556 1.44 2090 296

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; PAHs 

analyzed that were below detection limit: naphthalene, 1,6,7-Trimethyl-naphthalene, 1-methylnaphthalene, 

1-methylphenanthrene, 2,6-dimethylnaphthalene, acenaphthalene, acenaphthene, anthracene, 

benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(e)pyrene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, C1-

chrysenes, C1-dibenzothiophenes, C1-Fluoranthenes & Pyrenes, C1-fluorenes, C1-Phenanthrenes & 

Anthracenes, C2-chrysenes, C2-dibenzothiophenes, C2-naphthalenes, C2-fluorenes, C3-chrysenes, C3-

dibenzothiophenes, C3-naphthalenes, C3-Phenanthrenes & Anthracenes, C4-chrysenes, C4-naphthalenes, 

C4-Phenanthrenes & Anthracenes, chrysene, dibenzothiophene, fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, 

perylene, phenanthrene, pyrene, Benzo(a)anthracene, Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
39

Table 11. Detectable Semi-volatile Compounds in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters 

(ppm, wet weight)

Otter Gender Age

Detection 

Limits

1,2,3,4-

Tetrachlorobenzene

1,2,4,5-

Tetrachlorobenzene

17315-01 F 13 0.00431 0.00776 0.021

14325 F U 0.00410 0.00521 0.0199

13827 F U 0.00472 0.0406 0.0502

15713-01 M 8 0.00446 0.00585 0.0193

14717 M U 0.00463 <0.00463 0.0218

13555 M U 0.00568 <0.00568 0.0189

10385 M U 0.00735 <0.00735 0.0486

18316-01 M 1 0.00862 <0.00862 <0.00862

Females Mean a 0.0179 0.0304

n = 3 Mean b 0.0179 0.0304

Std dev 0.0197 0.0172

Max 0.0406 0.0502

Males Mean a 0.0038 0.0226

n = 5 Mean b 0.0059 0.0272

Std dev 0.0014 0.0161

Max 0.0059 0.0486

all Mean a 0.0091 0.0255

n = 8 Mean b 0.0149 0.0285

Std dev 0.0129 0.0158

Max 0.0406 0.0502

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without nondetects; U = Unknown; The only detectable semi-volatile found in live sea otters was 1,2,3,4-

Tetrachlorobenzene (0.00151ppm in WA094).
40

Organochlorines

Both organochlorine scans and congener-specific PCB analyses were performed on whole blood 

samples from live captured Washington sea otters and on liver from the beach-cast animals. 

Only one otter had detectable organochlorines other than PCBs in whole blood and that was

otter WA098, which had a measured level of 0.18 ppm p,p'-DDE. Because concentrations of 

individual congeners were quite low, the sum of the PCBs is presented in Table 12, with the 

detection limit and concentration for each congener provided in Appendix 5. Total PCB 

concentration ranged from 2.15 to 15 ppb wet weight when one-half the detection limit was 

used in the calculations and from 0.944 to 12.4 ppb wet weight when zero was used for 

congeners below the detection limit. Total PCB concentrations were significantly higher in 

males (mean = 7.34 ppb) than females (mean = 4.69; p = .035) when the sum was calculated 

without non detects. Several of the congener concentrations revealed a significant relationship 

to a predictor. Gender differences were significant for (1) PCB 101/90, (p = 0.005, mean for 

males is 0.000247 ppb ww, mean for females is 0.000124 ppb ww; (2) PCB 138/160 (p = 0.034, 

mean for males is 0.001151 ppb ww, mean for females is 0.000705 ppb ww); and (3) PCB 

153/132 (p = 0.048, mean for males is 0.727 ppb ww, mean for females is 0.055 ppb ww). In 

all three instances, the PCB congeners were higher in males than females, as would be expected 

since females can rid themselves of contaminants through lactation and giving birth. Age 

differences were significant for several congeners as well: PCB 105 (p = 0.045; R2 = .228), 

PCB 180 (p = 0.002; R2 = .303), and PCB 187 (p = 0.004; R2 = .353). PCB congener 

concentrations with a relationship to age were higher in younger versus older animals. 

Liver samples from fifteen beach-cast sea otters was analyzed for organochlorines (Table 13). 

Only PCBs were detected in more than 50 percent of the animals and these were less than 1 

ppm. The organochlorines were also summed by group and are presented along with total 

butyltin for easier comparison to literature values (Table 14); however, a direct comparison 

cannot be made with live Washington animals since liver biopsies from live animals were not 

analyzed for organochlorines. None of the beach-cast Washington otters had liver 

concentrations exceeding 0.85 ppm for DDT (1,1,1,-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophyenyl)ethanes), 

cyclohexanes (HCHs), chlordanes (CHL), PCBs or total butyltins (BT). Congener-specific PCB 

detection limits and results are presented in Appendix 6. Regression analysis revealed no 

significant relationships between gender or age and total PCB concentrations.
41

Table 12. Total PCB Concentration in Whole Blood of Live Captured Sea Otters 

(ppb, wet weight)

Otter Gender Age Sum of All PCB Congenersa Sum of All PCB Congenersb

WA115 F <1 11.6 9.06

WA099 F 3 5.27 3.69

WA109 F 3 14.7 12.0

WA084 F 4 5.17 3.83

WA095 F 4 4.10 2.55

WA100 F 4 3.18 1.41

WA111 F 4 9.93 7.74

WA086 F 5 4.07 2.59

WA094 F 5 2.39 1.01

WA089 F 6 2.72 1.15

WA106 F 6 8.03 6.18

WA114 F 6 9.05 7.15

WA091 F 7 5.62 3.45

WA090 F 9 3.58 1.91

WA103 F 9 12.7 9.98

WA093 F 10 2.15 0.940

WA096 F 10 2.94 1.12

WA088 F 13 3.05 1.25

WA054 F 15 10.2 8.18

WA110 F 16 10.8 8.52

WA092 M <1 4.68 2.84

WA104 M <1 12.1 10.2

WA113 M 2 12.3 9.96

WA098 M 3 4.76 3.81

WA108 M 3 15.0 12.4

WA105 M 5 9.19 6.95

WA107 M 6 12.1 10.1

WA112 M 6 11.5 9.50

WA097 M 8 3.46 1.66

WA102 M 10 7.93 5.98

Females Mean 6.57 4.69

N = 20 Std dev 3.94 3.56

Max 14.7 12.0

Min 2.15 0.944

Males Mean 9.30 7.34

N = 10 Std dev 3.94 3.65

Max 15.0 12.4

Min 3.46 1.66

All live Mean 7.48 5.57

N = 30 Std dev 4.09 3.75

Max 15.0 12.4

Min 2.15 0.944

a. total PCBs calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. total PCBs calculated without nondetects; Congeners with interference noted by the laboratory are not included in this sum; List of 

summed PCB congeners: 1, 7/9, 8/5, 16/32, 18/17, 22/51, 24/27, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33/20, 39, 40, 

41/64, 42/59/37, 44, 45, 46, 47/75, 48, 49, 52, 53, 60/56, 63, 66, 67, 69, 72, 74/61, 81, 82, 84, 85, 87/115, 

92, 95/80, 97, 99, 101/90, 105, 107, 110, 118, 119, 128, 130, 135, 136, 138/160, 141/179, 146, 149/123, 

151, 153/132, 156, 158, 166, 167, 170/190, 171/202, 172, 174, 175, 176/137, 177, 178, 180, 183, 187, 

191, 193, 194, 195/208, 196, 197, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, 209.
42

Table 13. Organochlorines in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight)

Otter Gender Age Aldrin

alpha 

BHC

alpha 

chlordane beta BHC

cisnonachlor delta BHC Dieldringamma 

BHC

heptachlor 

epoxide Mirex o,p'-DDT

16961-03 F 2 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.00410

16961-01 F 3 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100

17315-01 F 13 <.00431 <.00431 <.00431 0.0372 <.00431 <.00431 0.0485 <.00431 0.00973 <.00431 <.0100

14325 F U <.00410 <.00410 <.00410 0.0065 <.00410 <.00410 0.00882 0.00965 0.00559 <.00410 <.0100

13827 F U 0.0342 <.00472 0.0309 0.0659 <.00472 0.0085 0.0231 0.0566 <.00472 <.00472 <.0100

16961-02 M <1 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.00431

16961-04 M 2 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 0.0136

18124-01 M 3 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100

15713-01 M 8 <.00446 0.00469 <.00446 0.0622 <.00446 <.00446 0.016 0.00616 <.00446 <.00446 <.00446

14717 M U <.00463 0.00464 <.00463 0.0138 <.00463 <.00463 0.00729 0.00585 <.00463 <.00463 <.00463

16904-01 M 12 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100

17058-01 M U NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 NA <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100 <.0100

13555 M U <.00568 <.00568 <.00568 0.0138 0.00764 <.00568 0.015 <.00568 <.00568 0.00828 <.00568

10385 M U 0.0167 0.00777 0.0183 0.0514 <.00735 <.00735 <.00735 0.0399 <.00735 <.00735 <.00735

18316-01 M 1 <.00862 <.00862 <.00862 <.00862 <.00862 <.00862 0.00908 <.00862 <.00862 <.00862 <.00862

Females Mean a -- -- -- 0.0239 -- -- 0.0181 0.0157 -- -- --

n = 5 Mean b -- -- -- 0.0365 -- -- 0.0268 0.0331 -- -- --

Std dev -- -- -- 0.0297 -- -- 0.0201 0.0332 -- -- --

Max 0.0342 -- 0.0309 0.0659 0.005 0.0085 0.0485 0.0566 0.00973 0.005 0.0136

Males Mean a -- 0.0049 -- 0.0171 -- -- 0.0076 0.0084 -- -- --

n = 10 Mean b -- 0.0057 -- 0.0353 -- -- 0.0118 0.0173 -- -- --

Std dev -- 0.0018 -- 0.0252 -- -- 0.0043 0.0196 -- -- --

Max 0.0167 0.00777 0.0183 0.0622 0.00764 0.00431 0.016 0.0399 0.005 0.00828 0.005

all Mean a -- 0.0044 -- 0.0193 -- -- 0.0111 0.0108 -- -- --

n = 15 Mean b -- 0.0057 -- 0.0358 -- -- 0.0183 0.0236 -- -- --

Std dev -- 0.0018 -- 0.0247 -- -- 0.0144 0.0233 -- -- --

Max 0.0342 0.00777 0.0309 0.0659 0.00764 0.0085 0.0485 0.0566 0.00973 0.00828 0.0136

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; U = unknown; NA = Not analyzed; The only detectable 

organochlorine other than PCBs measured in live otters was in the whole blood of otter WA098 - p,p'-DDE at 0.18 ppm.
43

Table 13. Organochlorines in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight); continued

Otter Gender Age

Oxychlordanep,p'-

DDT

PCBTOTALtransnonachlorAroclor1242Aroclor1248Aroclor1254Aroclor1260

16961-03 F 2 0.0073 <.00410 0.503 0.0137 <.0410 <.0410 <.0410 0.503

16961-01 F 3 <.0100 <.0100 0.407 <.0100 NA NA NA NA

17315-01 F 13 <.0100 <.0100 0.258 0.0147 NA NA NA NA

14325 F U <.0100 <.0100 0.176 <.0100 NA NA NA NA

13827 F U <.0100 <.0100 0.0888 <.0100 NA NA NA NA

16961-02 M <1 0.00917 <.00431 0.446 0.0124 <.0431 <.0431 0.178 0.268

16961-04 M 2 <.00472 0.0064 0.486 0.00775 0.17 0.194 0.122 <.0472

18124-01 M 3 0.0188 <.0100 0.718 0.0244 NA NA NA NA

15713-01 M 8 0.00965 <.00446 0.82 0.00954 <.0446 <.0446 0.246 0.533

14717 M U <.00463 <.00463 0.26 <.00463 <.0463 0.104 <.0463 0.156

16904-01 M 12 <.0100 <.0100 0.4 <.0100 NA NA NA NA

17058-01 M U <.0100 <.0100 0.255 <.0100 NA NA NA NA

13555 M U 0.00818 <.00568 0.821 0.0312 <.0568 <.0568 0.411 0.411

10385 M U <.00735 <.00735 0.407 <.00735 0.102 0.122 0.102 0.0815

18316-01 M 1 <.00862 <.00862 0.0936 <.00862 NA NA NA NA

Females Mean a -- -- 0.4484 0.0088 -- -- -- --

n = 5 Mean b -- -- 0.2870 0.0142 -- -- -- --

Std dev -- -- 0.0460 0.0041 -- -- -- --

Max -- -- 0.503 0.0147 -- -- -- 0.503

Males Mean a 0.0067 -- 0.3897 0.0105 -- 0.0692 0.1955 0.2954

n = 10 Mean b 0.0115 -- 0.4707 0.0171 -- 0.1400 0.2118 0.2899 

Std dev 0.0049 -- 0.2470 0.0102 -- 0.0476 0.1246 0.1841

Max 0.0188 0.0064 0.821 0.0312 0.17 0.194 0.411 0.533

all Mean a 0.0064 -- 0.4093 0.0099 -- 0.0733 0.1575 0.2911

n = 15 Mean b 0.0106 -- 0.4093 0.0162 -- 0.1400 0.2118 0.3254 

Std dev 0.0047 -- 0.2353 0.0085 -- 0.0476 0.1246 0.1862

Max 0.0188 0.0064 0.821 0.0312 0.17 0.194 0.411 0.533

a. mean calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. mean calculated without non-detects; U = unknown; NA = Not 

analyzed; The only detectable organochlorine other than PCBs measured in live otters was in the whole blood of otter WA098 -

p,p'-DDE at 0.18 ppm.
44

Table 14. Organochlorines by Group in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters

(ppm, wet weight)

Otter Gender Age DDTs HCHs CHLs PCBs BTs

16961-03 F 2 0.0359 0.015 0.02 0.503 0.0931

16961-01 F 3 0.0867 0.015 0.02 0.407 0.154

17315-01 F 13 0.0912 0.0437 0.0259 0.258 0.384

14325 F U 0.0775 0.0203 0.0251 0.176 0.195

13827 F U 0.0228 0.133 0.0434 0.0888 0.21

16961-02 M <1 0.094 0.015 0.02 0.446 0.0951

16961-04 M 2 0.439 0.015 0.0532 0.486 0.196

18124-01 M 3 0.239 0.015 0.0297 0.718 0.447

15713-01 M 8 0.0883 0.0753 0.0237 0.82 0.107

14717 M U 0.0304 0.0266 0.0093 0.26 0.0553

16904-01 M 12 0.0852 0.015 0.02 0.4 0.171

17058-01 M U 0.0307 0.015 0.02 0.255 0.213

13555 M U 0.527 0.0223 0.0499 0.821 0.255

10385 M U 0.0237 0.103 0.0293 0.407 0.166

18316-01 M 1 0.0192 0.017 0.0172 0.0936 0.267

Females Mean 0.0628 0.0454 0.0269 0.448 0.207 

N = 5 Std dev 0.0313 0.0504 0.0096 0.0460 0.109 

Max 0.0912 0.133 0.0434 0.503 0.384 

Min 0.0228 0.015 0.02 0.4 0.0931 

Males Mean 0.158 0.032 0.0272 0.390 0.197 

n = 10 Std dev 0.184 0.0311 0.0141 0.290 0.111 

Max 0.527 0.103 0.0532 0.821 0.447 

Min 0.0192 0.015 0.0093 0.089 0.0553 

All Mean 0.126 0.0364 0.0271 0.409 0.201

n = 15 Std dev 0.156 0.0373 0.0124 0.235 0.106

Max 0.527 0.133 0.0532 0.821 0.447

Min 0.0192 0.015 0.0093 0.089 0.0553 

Totals and means calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non detects; U = Unknown

DDTs = p,p'-DDD + p,p'-DDE + p,p'-DDT

HCHs = alpha BHC + beta BHC + delta BHC + gamma BHC

CHLs = alpha chlordane + cis-nonachlor + oxychlordane + trans-nonachlor

BTs = monobutyltin + dibutyltin + tributyltin + tetrabutyltin
45

Biomarkers

Vitamin A and Thyroid Hormones

Plasma and liver tissue were used to determine vitamin A levels (Table 15). Plasma was also 

analyzed for thyroid hormones. The mean value of vitamin A in the plasma of all blood samples 

was 170 ug/L, while the liver value was 9.35 ug/L, (Table 15). Vitamin A concentrations in the 

liver and plasma were not significantly correlated with one another (p=0.315 n=24). 

Concentrations of the two retinoids, retinol (fat soluble) and retinyl-palmitate (storage ester form), 

were above detection limits in all samples analyzed. Three additional unquantified peaks detected

in sea otter liver samples may represent other retinol esters.

Regression analyses to determine if vitamin A or thyroid hormone level related to the age, gender or 

body weight of the animals studied found three significant gender relationships and one significant 

weight relationship. Females had a greater concentration of all-trans retinyl palmitate (p=0.005, 

r

2

=0.292, n=25) in the liver (mean for males is 34.76 ug/g, mean for females is 397.18 ug/g); as 

well as a greater concentration of total retinol (p = 0.010, r2 = 0.255, n = 25) in the liver (mean for 

males is 38.22 ug/g, mean for females is 306.31 ug/g). The ratio of all-trans retinol to all-trans 

retinyl palmitate was higher in males (p = 0.49, r

2 = 0.159, mean for males is 61.46 and the mean for 

females is 54.61). All-trans retinyl palmitate also had a significant relationship with gender and age 

(p = 0.003, partial t-test coefficient significance = 0.001 for gender and 0.046 for age, R2 = 0.411).

The thyroid hormone tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine (T4) had a significant relationship with animal 

body weight, (p < 0.001, R2 = 0.436) with larger animals having less of the hormone. ANOVA 

was also used to evaluate if lactating females differed in vitamin A circulatory or liver levels from 

levels in non-lactating reproductive aged females (females become reproductive at 4-5 years; 

Kenyon 1969, Jameson and Johnson 1993). Of the 17 females of reproductive age captured, three 

were lactating. There was no significant difference between lactating and non lactating females in 

the vitamin A levels in plasma (p = 0.154) or liver samples (p = 0.726).

When comparing vitamin A concentrations in liver to contaminant concentrations in liver and whole 

blood samples, a negative correlation was observed between concentration of PCBs in whole blood 

and all-trans retinyl palmitate (RP) in liver (p < 0.001), total retinol (TR) in liver, (p < 0.001), and 

the ratio of all trans retinol (R) to RP in liver (p < 0.001). There was no significant relationship 

between whole blood PCB concentrations and all-trans retinol (R) in the liver or plasma, nor was 

there a significant relationship between PCB concentration in the liver and the thyroid hormones 

tetraiodothyronine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in the plasma. 

In addition to PCBs, a significant reduction of vitamin A storage in the liver was observed in 

relation to dibutyltin and octacosane concentration (Table 18). A significant and strong positive 

correlation in vitamin A storage in the liver was observed for cadmium and several of the aliphatic 

hydrocarbons. Several additional contaminants were significantly correlated with Vitamin A 

indices but no others were particularly strong correlations.
46

Table 15. Vitamin A and Thyroid Hormone Levels for Live Captured Sea Otters (Plasma and 

Liver)

Otter Gender Age Vit A-plasma Vit A-liver T4 T3

[R] ug/L [R] in ug/g [RP] in ug/g TR in ug/g R:RP nmol/L nmol/L

WA115 F <1 150 NA NA NA NA 29 0.4

WA099 F 3 190 8.34 191.58 113.71 22.97 25 0.8

WA109 F 3 200 11.55 31.66 115.15 12.08 58 0.5

WA084 F 4 120 6.41 283.34 162.24 44.22 23 NSQ

WA095 F 4 NA 5.99 660.47 369.25 110.28 NS NSQ

WA100 F 4 170 2.05 236.98 132.39 115.49 21 0.9

WA111 F 4 190 NA NA NA NA 15 0.6

WA086 F 5 140 16.04 1731.14 968.16 107.95 22 0.5

WA094 F 5 120 11.54 418.36 241.64 36.26 20 NSQ

WA089 F 6 230 12.37 1207.33 676.40 97.61 28 1.1

WA106 F 6 220 NA NA NA NA 14 0.2

WA114 F 6 120 14.87 38.91 8.97 11.46 16 0.3

WA091 F 7 190 1.54 81.90 46.59 53.04 22 NSQ

WA090 F 9 270 4.00 219.27 124.59 54.88 25 0.8

WA103 F 9 130 34.23 242.22 1419.65 30.75 23 0.3

WA093 F 10 160 4.18 75.44 45.67 18.05 20 0.4

WA096 F 10 200 2.32 327.72 182.56 141.42 15 0.5

WA088 F 13 210 18.91 991.27 564.11 52.43 24 NSQ

WA054 F 15 140 1.74 3.51 24.44 10.19 NA NSQ

WA110 F 16 170 5.26 10.87 11.77 9.31 12 0.6

WA092 M <1 180 7.82 66.45 44.36 8.50 28 NSQ

WA104 M <1 210 NA NA NA NA 51 1.6

WA113 M 2 110 35.44 39.16 56.91 4.76 24 0.4

WA098 M 3 150 0.16 69.43 38.35 423.88 26 0.7

WA108 M 3 130 1.08 2.43 0.41 13.30 27 0.6

WA105 M 5 170 10.27 17.04 5.85 7.27 13 0.9

WA107 M 6 200 NA NA NA NA 17 0.7

WA112 M 6 130 9.16 11.08 62.85 5.26 9 0.4

WA097 M 8 110 6.86 66.35 43.35 9.67 5 0.6

WA102 M 10 230 1.73 6.17 53.65 19.02 16 0.6

Females Mean 175 9.49 397.18 306.31 54.61 23 0.6

n = 20 Std dev 42 8.36 485.35 391.48 43.37 10 0.3

Min 120 1.54 3.51 8.97 9.31 12 0.2

Max 270 34.23 1731.14 1419.65 141.42 58 1.1

Males Mean 162 9.06 34.76 38.22 61.46 22 0.7

n = 10 Std dev 43 11.3 29.18 23.10 146.52 13 0.4

Min 110 0.16 2.43 0.41 4.76 5 0.4

Max 230 35.44 69.43 62.85 423.88 51 1.6

All Mean 170 9.35 281.20 220.52 56.80 22 0.6

n = 30 Std dev 42 9.17 432.50 344.41 86.75 11 0.3

Min 110 0.16 2.43 0.41 4.76 5 0.2

Max 270 35.4 1731.14 1419.65 423.88 58 1.6

NSQ = Not sufficient quantity; NS = No sample available; NA = Not analyzed; [R] = all-trans retinol; [RP] = all-trans 

retinyl palmitate; [TR] = total retinol = [R]+0.55*[RP]; T4 = tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine; T3 = triiodothyronine
47

The T4 thyroid hormone level was significantly negatively correlated with eiocosane in the 

seven animals with detectable levels of eiocosane. T4 was significantly negatively correlated 

with selenium and positively correlated with strontium but neither correlation was strong. T3 was 

significantly negatively correlated with copper, but the correlation was not strong (Table 18). 

P450 CYP1A Assays

The cytochrome P450 blood (PBMC) and liver results for the 2001 live captured otters are

presented in Table 16. The results are not yet available for the live captured animals from 2002 

The mean PBMC P450 value for the 16 live captured otters was 7.57 x 106 molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA, while the mean liver value was 1.85 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total 

RNA. Although the mean is presented, variability in the data, particularly the blood data, is 

considerable as can be seen by the large standard deviations; therefore, evaluating mean 

cytochrome P450 values does not reveal as much as reviewing the individual results or medians. 

Six of the animals for which P450 was analyzed in the PBMC had less than 1 x 106molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA, which is indicative of animals living in a clean environment (B. 

Ballachey pers. comm. 2006). Three of the animals had PBMC levels less than 4 x 106 but 

greater than 1 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA. Cytochrome P450 induction was 

considerably higher in the remaining two animals, at 17.90 x 106 for otter WA099 and 54.10 x 

106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA for otter WA093. There was not a significant correlation 

between blood and liver P450 values (p=0.505) – in fact liver induction of P450 in otter WA099 

was less than one molecule p450/100ng total RNA and otter WA093 was slightly above the 

mean. Liver levels were less variable than the blood values, ranging from 0.2 x 106 to 4.8 x 106

molecules p450/100ng total RNA. There were no significant correlations between contaminant 

concentrations and cytochrome P450 results for PBMC. Cytochrome p450 in the liver was 

negatively correlated with total PCB (p = 0.01). Regression analysis revealed no significant 

gender, age or body weight relationship to the P450 assay results for PBMC or liver. 

Pathogens

Individual results for the serological tests are provided in Table 17. In summary, 24 of 30

animals or 80 percent, were positive for antibodies to morbilliviruses; 1 of 30 (3 %) was positive 

for antibodies to Leptospira sp.; no animals were positive for antibodies to Brucella or 

caliciviruses; 18 of 30 (60 %) were positive for antibodies to T. gondii; 15 of 30 (50 %) were 

positive for N. caninum, and 4 of 14 (29 %) were positive (7 samples are pending) for 

Sarcocystis sp. antibodies. The otters generally had higher titers to the two distemper strains of 

morbillivirus than the cetacean-derived strains indicating that the population’s exposure is 

probably to Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) or Phocine Distemper Virus (PDV). 

Oral swabs, fecal swabs and scat samples were obtained, when possible, from live captured 

otters. All bacterial flora and parasites found in such samples were normal and as expected for 

sea otter residing in the wild due to the prey items they consume. The only obviously 

identifiable prey item in the scat was the shore crab, Hemigrapsus nudus. No domoic acid was 

detected using the receptor binding assay or high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in 

urine samples collected opportunistically from three animals. Liver biopsies evaluated for 

histopathology did not reveal any major lesions. 
48

Table 16. Cytochrome P450 (CYP1A1) Blood (PBMC) and Liver Assay 

Results for 2001 Live Captured Sea Otters

Otter Gender Age

PBMC Molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA 

Liver Molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA 

WA099 F 3 17.90E+06 0.27E+06

WA084 F 4 0.23E+06 NA

WA095 F 4 NA 4.75E+06

WA100 F 4 ND 0.30E+06

WA086 F 5 3.67E+06 2.34E+06

WA094 F 5 ND 3.24E+06

WA089 F 6 0.51E+06 2.37E+06

WA091 F 7 2.94E+06 1.66E+06

WA090 F 9 ND 2.40E+06

WA093 F 10 54.10E+06 2.44E+06

WA096 F 10 3.10E+06 2.16E+06

WA088 F 13 0.19E+06 1.14E+06

WA087 M <1 0.25E+06 NA

WA092 M <1 0.32E+06 0.20E+06

WA098 M 3 0.07E+06 1.16E+06

WA097 M 8 NA 1.42E+06

Females Mean 10.3E+06 2.1E+06

n = 12 Std dev 18.6E+06 1.3E+06

Min 0.19E+06 0.27E+06

Max 54.1E+06 4.8E+06

Males Mean 0.21E+06 0.93E+06

n = 4 Std dev 0.13E+06 0.64E+06

Min 0.07E+06 0.20E+06

Max 0.32E+06 1.4E+06

All Mean 7.57E+06 1.9E+06

n = 16 Std dev 16.3E+06 1.3E+06

Min 0.07E+06 0.20E+06

Max 54.1E+06 4.8E+06

Median 0.51E+06 1.91E+06

ND = no data, sample not viable for analysis; NA = not analyzed. Mean and median for PBMC 

calculated using n=11; mean and median for liver calculated using n=14.
49

Table 17. Serum Antibody Results for Live Captured Sea Otters Otter Gender Age Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) Dolphin Morbillivirus (DMV) Phocine Distemper Virus (PDV) Porpoise Morbillivirus (PMV) Toxoplasma 

gopendingii modified agglutination test (MAT)Neospora AgglutinationTest (NAT)Sarcocystis sp. 

WA115 F <1 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 8 200 < 40 NA

WA099 F 3 ≥ 256 96 128 48 < 25 25 negative

WA109 F 3 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 25 < 40 NA

WA084 F 4 ≥ 256 96 192 32 > 200 < 25 negative

WA095 F 4 64 24 48 8 < 25 < 25 negative

WA100 F 4 48 48 96 32 > 200 < 25 pending

WA111 F 4 48 12 48 24 < 25 < 40 NA

WA086 F 5 ≥ 256 32 128 16 > 200 < 25 500

WA094 F 5 ≥ 256 64 ≥ 256 32 > 200 < 25 500

WA089 F 6 192 16 ≥ 256 24 < 25 25 negative

WA106 F 6 64 16 64 32 > 200 40 NA

WA114 F 6 ≥ 256 128 128 64 200 160 NA

WA091 F 7 ≥ 256 96 192 32 < 25 < 25 negative

WA090 F 9 64 24 48 8 > 200 50 negative

WA103 F 9 48 8 24 12 > 200 40 NA

WA093 F 10 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 25 < 25 negative

WA096 F 10 32 25 32 16 > 200 < 25 negative

WA088 F 13 48 8 32 8 < 25 < 25 negative

WA054 F 15 16 < 8 8 < 8 < 25 160 pending

WA110 F 16 96 24 64 12 > 200 < 40 NA

WA092 M <1 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 8 > 200 < 25 100

WA104 M <1 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 25 < 40 NA

WA113 M 2 32 <8 16 < 8 < 25 40 NA

WA098 M 3 96 32 64 24 > 200 25 negative

WA108 M 3 < 8 < 8 < 8 < 8 > 200 40 pending

WA105 M 5 ≥ 256 64 96 48 < 25 40 pending

WA107 M 6 64 24 48 24 > 200 40 pending

WA112 M 6 16 < 8 12 < 8 100 80 pending

WA097 M 8 192 16 128 16 > 200 25 500

WA102 M 10 192 16 96 16 > 200 160 pending

NA = not analyzed; Bold indicates positive antibody titers; No animals were positive for antibodies to Brucella, Leptospira 

hardjo, Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, Leptospira pomona, Leptospira bratislava, or caliciviruses; Sea otter WA095 was the 

only animal that tested positive for antibodies to Leptosira grippotyphosa.
50

Relationship Between Biomarkers Contaminant Concentrations

Although sea otters are a high trophic level consumer, concentrations of chemicals that tend to 

bioaccumulate, such as heavy metals, PCBs, chlorinated hydrocarbons insecticides (DDT and 

derivatives), and butyltins, were low in the animals captured off Washington in 2001 and 2002. 

However, there were many significant correlations between contaminant concentrations and the 

Vitamin A and thyroid biomarker responses. Vitamin A responses were significantly correlated 

with several metals, butyltins, PCBs and several aliphatics, while thyroid responses were 

significantly correlated with a few of the metals. The significant correlations are listed in Table 

18.

Cytochrome P450 induction was elevated in PMBC samples from two of the otters, one of which 

also had the highest aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations, the other of which the 

liver was not analyzed for hydrocarbons; however the latter did exhibit elevated serum enzyme 

alkaline phosphatase. Cytochrome p450 in the liver was negatively correlated with total PCB (p 

= 0.01; Table 18). 

Blood Health Screens

Hematology values (cell blood counts or CBCs) and serum chemistry results are presented in 

Tables 19 and 20, respectively. Cell blood counts varied little among otters while serum 

chemistry parameters were more variable. Much of the variability in blood and serum values is 

explained by one or two otters. Sea otter WA102, the oldest male otter captured (10 years old) 

had the lowest platelet count at 64 x 1,000/UL – the range excluding this animal was from 160 to 

405 x 1,000/UL, and for all but three animals, the platelet count was above 200 x 1,000/UL. 

WA102 also had one of the two lowest white blood cell counts at 3.8 103 cells/mm3

. One 

animal, WA054, a 15 year old female, drove the high variability observed in percent neutrophils 

and lymphocytes, with the highest percent neutrophils (84%) and the lowest percent lymphocytes 

(10%) – and likewise, the lowest white blood cell count at 2.9 103 cells/mm3. Percent 

eosinophils was also highly variable, due to two otters with high percentages, WA089 at 30 

percent and WA088 at 21 percent – the other animals ranged from 0 to 16 percent. WA089 also 

had the lowest glucose level at 75 mg/dL. WA106 had the highest glucose level, 192 mg/dL. 

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) ranged from 39 (WA098) to 81 (WA103) mg/dL, with much of the 

variability explained by animals at either end of the range. 
51

Table 18. Significant Correlations Between Biomarkers, Positive Pathogen Titers and Contaminants

Vitamin A

All-Trans Retinyl Palmitate (RP) Total Retinol (TR = [R]+0.55*[RP]) R:RP ratio

Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N

Cadmium 0.9429 0.0048 6 Iron -0.4166 0.0383 25 Iron -0.4520 0.0233 25

Iron -0.5289 0.0066 25 Magnesium -0.3997 0.0478 25 Magnesium -0.5690 0.0030 25

Magnesium -0.5490 0.0045 25 Selenium -0.6070 0.0013 25 Zinc -0.5548 0.0040 25

Selenium -0.4778 0.0157 25 Zinc -0.6048 0.0014 25 Dibutyltin -0.5536 0.0323 15

Zinc -0.6533 0.0004 25 Total Butyltin -0.4651 0.0191 25 Sum of PCBsa -0.6209 0.0009 25

Dibutyltin -0.7643 0.0009 15 Sum of PCBsa -0.5674 0.0031 25 Sum of PCBsb -0.6246 0.0008 25

Total Butyltin -0.5266 0.0068 25 Sum of PCBsb -0.5662 0.0032 25 Octacosane -0.6095 0.0159 15

Sum of PCBsa -0.7432 0.0000 25 Eiocosane 0.6667 0.0499 9

Sum of PCBsb -0.7415 0.0000 25 Heptadecane 0.8112 0.0014 12

Eiocosane 0.7333 0.0246 9 Hexadecane 0.6014 0.0386 12

Heptadecane 0.7622 0.0040 12 Nonadecane 0.7091 0.0146 11

Hexadecane 0.6294 0.0283 12 Octacosane -0.6416 0.0099 15

Nonadecane 0.6273 0.0388 11 Octadecane 0.7902 0.0022 12

Octacosane -0.7006 0.0036 15

Octadecane 0.7203 0.0082 12

Pentadecane 0.7818 0.0075 10

Thyroid p450 Serology

Tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3) p450 Liver Canine Distemper Virus (CDV)

Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N Contaminant

Correlation 

Coefficient

Signific

ance N

Selenium -0.4195 0.0263 28 Copper -0.5873 0.0032 23 Sum of PCBsa -0.6484 0.0121 14 Mercury -0.5223 0.0458 15

Strontium 0.5897 0.0265 14 Sum of PCBsb -0.6308 0.0156 14

Eicosane -0.8547 0.0143 7

a. total PCBs calculated using 1/2 detection limit for non-detects; b. total PCBs calculated without non-detects
52

Regression analysis revealed several significant relationships, though the relevance is not known 

and R2 values were all low, meaning that little of the relationship could be explained by the 

significant predictors. Regression analysis results include the following significant relationships: 

(1) between gender and age and white blood cell count (p = 0.002, partial t-test coefficient = 

0.001 for gender and 0.016 for age, R2 = 0.611), with a significant difference in white cell 

counts between males (5.69) and females (7.41) (n=30, p=0.009); (2) between age and red blood 

cell count (p = 0.028, R2 = 0.16); (3) between body weight and mean corpuscular volume (p = 

0.034, R2 = 0.151); (4) between gender and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (p = 

0.007, mean for males is 33.9 g/dL, mean for females is 35.0 g/dL; and (5) between age and 

percent neutrophils (p = 0.045, R2 = 0.154). Significant relationships were also determined for 

some of the serum chemistry parameters: (1) between BUN/creatinine ratio and age (p = 0.014, 

R2 = 0.22); (2) triglycerides and age (p = 0.022, R2 = 0.365); (3) cholesterol and gender (p = 

0.008, R2 = 0.253); (4) GGT and weight (p = 0.023, R2 = 0.189); and (5) alanine

aminotransferase and age (p = 0.015, R2 = 0.215).

Fatty Acid Profiles

Fatty acids were used to investigate the diet of the live captured otters by comparing the fatty 

acids among age and weight classes, sex and capture location (VanBlaricom et al. 2007). Of the 

eight univariate analyses of variance, results of seven were not significant and the authors 

believe that the eighth, a comparison among weight classes, was a false positive result. The 

authors found meaningful variation in concentrations of both linoleic and linolenic acids in 

individual otters, with values of linoleic acid varying up to 110x and linolenic acid up to 70x 

among individual otters.

Analysis of Prey Items

Marine invertebrates were collected from the intertidal area within the Washington sea otter 

range for a program being conducted concurrently with the sea otter study. In addition, NOAA 

Status and Trends, Mussel Watch Program has a sampling station within the Washington sea 

otter range at Cape Flattery that was sampled in 2000 and 2002. On both these programs 

invertebrates that are potential prey for sea otters were analyzed for a suite of chemicals similar 

to those for sea otters in this study, providing information on potential dietary exposure of sea 

otters to contaminants (Tables 21, 22 and 23). 

As might be expected, chemical concentration varied by species. In general, the predator 

(whelk), predatory/scavenger (crab), and grazer (limpet) contained higher concentrations of 

metals than did the filter feeders (mussels) (Table 21). Concentrations of metals in bivalves on 

the Washington coast generally have higher cadmium and arsenic concentration than those in 

Puget Sound possibly due to the metal-rich upwelling of sea water along the coast. Butyltin 

residues in mussels were determined on the Mussel Watch Program (Table 22). TBT was

quantified in only one sea otter, yet it is the primary congener detected in the mussels from 2000 

and 2002. Similar to sea otters, organochlorines, except for PCBs, were generally not detected 

or at very low concentrations in invertebrates samples. PCB concentrations followed the same 

pattern as metals with higher concentrations in the predators, scavengers and grazer than in filter 

feeders. Additional invertebrate data from the Mussel Watch Program are provided in Appendix 

7, which illustrates PAH and individual organochlorine compound data.
53

Table 19. Cell Blood Counts (CBC) for Live Captured Sea Otters Otter Gender Age White Blood Cells (WBC) Red Blood Cells (RBC) Hemoglobin (HGB) Hematocrit (HCT) Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH) Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) Red Cell Distribution width (RDW)

PlateletsMean Platelet Volume Percent NeutrophilsPercent LymphocytesPercent MonocytesPercent Eosinophils(EOS)Percent Basophils

WA115 F <1 8.2 5.54 18.3 53.7 97 33 34.1 NA 266 NA 32 66 0 2 0

WA099 F 3 7.8 5.32 20.6 59.9 113 38.7 34.4 14.9 204 10.1 44 35 5 16 0

WA109 F 3 7.8 5.69 20.5 60.4 106 36 33.9 NA 268 NA 48 38 4 9 1

WA084 F 4 8.4 5.45 19.1 56.8 104 35.1 33.6 14 209 10.9 42 47 2 9 0

WA095 F 4 6.9 4.77 17.6 50.2 105 37 35.2 13.1 292 11.4 42 41 6 11 0

WA100 F 4 9.6 4.67 17.2 45.3 97 36.9 38 19.8 402 12.9 44 44 2 10 0

WA111 F 4 5.4 5.14 18.8 54.5 106 36.6 34.6 NA 305 NA 35 64 1 0 0

WA086 F 5 7.8 5.05 19.6 56.5 112 38.8 34.7 15.1 217 11 62 28 5 5 0

WA094 F 5 10.7 4.94 18.0 51.2 104 36.4 35.2 12.4 253 10.2 74 18 6 2 0

WA089 F 6 9.3 5.27 19.7 55.1 105 37.5 35.8 13.3 343 9.4 44 22 4 30 0

WA106 F 6 7.5 5.34 19.4 55.4 104 36.4 35.1 NA 310 NA NA NA NA NA NA

WA114 F 6 6.9 5.25 20.0 57.8 110 38.2 34.7 NA 291 NA 60 23 5 12 0

WA091 F 7 7.3 5.24 20.0 56.1 107 38.2 35.7 12.7 206 11.4 54 28 10 6 2

WA090 F 9 6.9 5.33 20.0 56.6 106 37.6 35.3 14 252 11.9 53 35 5 7 0

WA103 F 9 8.1 5.05 19.0 54.8 109 37.6 34.7 NA 405 NA 71 23 0 5 1

WA093 F 10 7.4 5.21 19.6 55.9 107 37.7 35.1 13.3 160 11.7 67 23 6 3 1

WA096 F 10 5.4 4.44 16.5 46.6 105 37.1 35.4 12.6 294 10.4 46 43 5 5 1

WA088 F 13 7.8 5.15 18.5 51.6 100 36 36 14.7 299 9.7 33 42 3 21 1

WA054 F 15 2.9 4.27 14.2 43.5 102 33.2 32.6 NA NA NA 84 10 6 0 0

WA110 F 16 6.1 4.91 18.2 52.3 106 37.2 34.9 NA 317 NA 55 42 1 2 0

WA092 M <1 6.0 5.06 18.0 51.4 102 35.6 35.1 14.5 295 8.9 50 36 8 6 0

WA104 M <1 5.5 4.85 17.2 51.5 106 35.6 33.5 NA 226 NA NA NA NA NA NA

WA113 M 2 4.0 5.37 19.1 55.4 103 35.6 34.5 NA 261 NA NA NA NA NA NA

WA098 M 3 8.1 5.22 20.1 59.6 114 38.4 33.6 13.7 191 12.3 38 46 6 10 0

WA108 M 3 5.4 5.75 19.9 58.1 101 34.6 34.2 NA 263 NA NA NA NA NA NA

WA105 M 5 6.4 5.53 20.0 60.8 110 36.1 32.8 NA 250 NA 61 31 3 4 1

WA107 M 6 6.1 5.48 18.8 56.7 104 34.2 33.1 NA 264 NA 51 36 7 5 1

WA112 M 6 4.3 4.38 17.7 51.5 118 40.4 34.3 NA 269 NA NA NA NA NA NA

WA097 M 8 7.3 4.54 18.0 52.6 116 39.6 34.2 13.6 235 9.9 37 53 5 4 1

WA102 M 10 3.8 5.24 18.6 56.1 107 35.6 33.2 NA 64 NA 57 31 6 6 0

Females Mean 7.4 5.10 18.7 53.7 105 36.8 35.0 14.2 279 10.9 52 35 4 8 0.4

n = 20 Std dev 1.7 0.355 1.53 4.55 4.17 1.56 1.08 2.00 64.4 1.0 14 15 3 8 0.6

Min 2.9 4.27 14.2 43.5 97.0 33 32.6 12.4 160 9.4 32 10 0 0 0

Max 10.7 5.69 20.6 60.4 113 38.8 38.0 19.8 405 12.9 84 66 10 30 2

Males Mean 5.7 5.14 18.7 55.4 108 36.6 33.9 13.9 232 10.4 49 39 6 6 0.5

n = 10 Std dev 1.4 0.439 1.03 3.50 6.10 2.13 0.723 0.493 65.4 1.7 10 9 2 2 0.5

Min 3.8 4.38 17.2 51.4 101 34.2 32.8 13.6 64.0 8.9 37 31 3 4 0

Max 8.1 5.75 20.1 60.8 118 40.4 35.1 14.5 295 12.3 61 53 8 10 1

All Mean 6.8 5.12 18.7 54.3 106 36.7 34.6 14.1 262 10.8 51 36 4 8 0.4

n = 30 Std dev 1.8 0.378 1.37 4.24 4.98 1.73 1.09 1.78 67.5 1.1 13 13 2 7 0.6

Min 2.9 4.27 14.2 43.5 97.0 33 32.6 12.4 64.0 8.9 32 10 0 0 0

Max 10.7 5.75 20.6 60.8 118 40.4 38.0 19.8 405 12.9 84 66 10 30 2

WBC, 103 cells/mm3; RBC, 106 cells/mm3; HGB, g/dL; HCT, percent; MCV, fL; MCH, pg; MCHC, g/dL; RDW, %, Platelets, 

x1000/uL. Mean platelet volume, 103

/μL; NA = not analyzed
54

Table 20. Serum Chemistry Results for Live Captured Sea Otters Otter Gender Age Glucose (mg/dL) Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN), (mg/dL) Creatinine (mg/dL) BUN/Creatinine Ratio Uric Acid (mg/dL) Sodium (mequiv/L) Potassium (mequiv/L) Na/K Ratio Chloride (mequiv/dL)

Carbon Dioxide (meq/L)Calcium (mg/dL)Phosphorus mg/dL)Total Protein (g/dL)Albumin (A), (g/dL)Globulin (calculated) (G), (g/dL)A/G Ratio

WA115 F <1 146 51 1 51 NA 151 4.4 34 108 24 10 7.3 5.9 3.1 2.8 1.1

WA099 F 3 115 40 0.5 80 2 155 4 NA 111 21 9.9 2.7 7.4 3.1 4.3 0.7

WA109 F 3 120 47 0.5 94 NA 152 4.7 32 111 19 10.1 4.3 6.4 3.3 3.1 1.1

WA084 F 4 132 72 0.6 120 1.6 154 4.2 NA 113 19 9.4 4.3 7.2 2.9 4.3 0.7

WA095 F 4 101 62 0.6 103.3 2.1 153 4.9 NA 112 21 9.4 6.5 6.5 2.9 3.6 0.8

WA100 F 4 93 62 0.5 124 2.1 153 4.5 NA 116 19 10.6 3.8 6.8 3.0 3.8 0.8

WA111 F 4 106 46 0.6 76.67 NA 152 4.7 32 109 24 9.5 5.3 6.3 3.1 3.2 1.0

WA086 F 5 125 74 0.5 148 2 154 4.3 NA 115 18 9.2 3.2 6.6 2.8 3.8 0.7

WA094 F 5 152 44 0.5 88 1.7 154 3.7 NA 113 22 9.2 3.2 7.6 2.9 4.7 0.6

WA089 F 6 75 51 0.5 102 2.1 155 4.5 NA 114 25 9 4.3 6.5 2.6 3.9 0.7

WA106 F 6 192 43 0.6 71.67 NA 155 4.6 34 112 22 9 3.3 6.3 2.9 3.4 0.9

WA114 F 6 125 62 0.4 155 NA 154 4.6 33 113 22 8.6 3.0 7.5 2.9 4.6 0.6

WA091 F 7 120 42 0.5 84 1.7 158 4.3 NA 115 24 9.1 5.3 6.5 3.0 3.5 0.9

WA090 F 9 96 69 0.7 98.6 3 155 4.8 NA 112 20 9.3 5.4 7.1 3.1 4.0 0.8

WA103 F 9 131 81 0.5 162 NA 160 5.1 31 119 20 8.8 4.8 7.4 2.5 4.9 0.5

WA093 F 10 153 44 0.3 146.7 1.1 155 4.5 NA 113 22 9.8 6.7 5.5 3.1 2.4 1.3

WA096 F 10 98 40 0.5 80 1.5 151 4.5 NA 112 20 9.3 4.1 6.8 2.6 4.2 0.6

WA088 F 13 101 52 0.5 104 1.8 153 4.3 NA 112 23 8.9 3.9 6.9 2.7 4.2 0.6

WA054 F 15 139 71 0.5 142 NA 162 4.2 39 119 23 9.8 5.8 7.3 3.2 4.1 0.8

WA110 F 16 95 64 0.4 160 NA 153 5 31 110 22 9.6 4.9 6.9 3.1 3.8 0.8

WA092 M <1 122 50 0.5 100 1.4 157 4.4 NA 117 25 8.7 3.5 6.6 2.8 3.8 0.7

WA104 M <1 161 42 0.3 140 NA 156 5.2 30 115 20 10.3 7.2 5.1 3.1 2.0 1.6

WA113 M 2 107 43 0.6 71.67 NA 155 4.6 34 115 24 9.3 4.5 6.9 3.1 3.8 0.8

WA098 M 3 120 39 0.5 78 2 150 4.8 NA 112 20 10.1 5.0 6.7 3.0 3.7 0.8

WA108 M 3 99 47 0.5 94 NA 153 4.7 33 111 22 9.5 3.1 6.7 3.3 3.4 1.0

WA105 M 5 131 60 0.8 75 NA 159 4.6 35 116 24 9 3.0 6.3 2.9 3.4 0.9

WA107 M 6 103 66 0.6 110 NA 152 4.6 33 111 21 9.1 4.4 6.8 3.0 3.8 0.8

WA112 M 6 87 73 0.6 121.7 NA 155 4.7 33 115 20 8.5 3.5 6.4 2.8 3.6 0.8

WA097 M 8 86 44 0.8 55 3.2 152 4.2 NA 114 23 9.3 3.1 7.7 2.7 5.0 0.5

WA102 M 10 151 77 0.6 128.3 NA 155 4.5 34 116 20 9.1 4.7 6.4 2.9 3.5 0.8

Females Mean 121 56 0.5 110 1.89 154 4.5 33 113 22 9.4 4.6 6.8 2.9 3.8 0.8

n = 20 Std dev 27 13 0.1 33.2 0.46 2.78 0.34 2.6 2.84 2.0 0.5 1.3 0.55 0.21 0.6 0.2

Min 75 40 0.3 51 1.1 151 3.7 31 108 18 8.6 2.7 5.5 2.5 2.4 0.5

Max 192 81 1 162 3 162 5.1 39 119 25 10.6 7.3 7.6 3.3 4.9 1.3

Males Mean 117 54 0.6 97.4 2.2 154 4.6 33 114 22 9.3 4.2 6.6 3.0 3.6 0.87

n = 10 Std dev 25 14 0.1 27.6 0.92 2.67 0.26 1.6 2.15 2.0 0.56 1.3 0.65 0.18 0.7 0.29

Min 86 39 0.3 55 1.4 150 4.2 30 111 20 8.5 3.0 5.1 2.7 2.0 0.5

Max 161 77 0.8 140 3.2 159 5.2 35 117 25 10.3 7.2 7.7 3.3 5.0 1.6

All Mean 119 55 0.6 105 1.95 154 4.5 33 113 22 9.4 4.5 6.7 2.9 3.8 0.82

n = 30 Std dev 26 13 0.1 31.5 0.55 2.7 0.32 2.1 2.66 2.0 0.51 1.3 0.58 0.2 0.7 0.23

Min 75 39 0.3 51 1.1 150 3.7 30 108 18 8.5 2.7 5.1 2.5 2.0 0.5

Max 192 81 1 162 3.2 162 5.2 39 119 25 10.6 7.3 7.7 3.3 5.0 1.6

NA = not analyzed
55

Table 20. Serum Chemistry Results for Live Captured Sea Otters; continued Otter Gender Age Triglycerides (mg/dL) Cholesterol (mg/dL) Total Bilirubin (mg/dL) Direct Bilirubin (mg/dL) Gamma Glutamyltransfera se (GGT) Alkaline Phosphatase (AP)

Lactic Dehydrogenase(LD)Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)Iron (μg/dL)Hemolytic IndexLipemic IndexIcteric IndexOsmolalityAnion Gap

WA115 F <1 NA 147 0.2 NA 14 332 NA 182 163 NA 38 10 0 315 19

WA099 F 3 49 162 0.2 0 11 110 253 98 83 237 NA NA NA NA NA

WA109 F 3 NA 129 0.2 NA 13 171 NA 201 176 NA 52 9 0 315 22

WA084 F 4 80 303 0.3 0 13 136 306 215 234 338 NA NA NA NA NA

WA095 F 4 57 211 0.1 0 20 115 323 161 217 191 NA NA NA NA NA

WA100 F 4 49 150 0.2 0.1 5 82 336 126 106 195 NA NA NA NA NA

WA111 F 4 NA 170 0.1 NA 14 116 NA 145 122 NA 66 10 0 314 19

WA086 F 5 87 187 0.2 0 13 91 212 192 196 326 NA NA NA NA NA

WA094 F 5 69 195 0.2 0 16 91 308 157 214 265 NA NA NA NA NA

WA089 F 6 36 183 0.2 0 10 75 396 172 146 188 NA NA NA NA NA

WA106 F 6 NA 144 0.1 NA 12 131 NA 120 127 NA 60 9 0 323 21

WA114 F 6 NA 149 0.1 NA 17 102 NA 150 178 NA 58 24 0 324 19

WA091 F 7 54 161 0.3 0.1 17 96 522 300 210 263 NA NA NA NA NA

WA090 F 9 60 220 0.3 0 31 148 494 355 373 260

WA103 F 9 NA 199 0.1 NA 17 82 NA 283 305 NA 53 8 0 343 21

WA093 F 10 38 152 0.2 0.1 14 309 338 129 176 190 NA NA NA NA NA

WA096 F 10 44 138 0.2 0 13 78 245 117 108 116 NA NA NA NA NA

WA088 F 13 34 136 0.2 0 16 85 295 160 184 218 NA NA NA NA NA

WA054 F 15 NA 235 0.1 NA 51 60 NA 293 403 NA 37 7 0 342 20

WA110 F 16 NA 123 0.1 NA 10 116 NA 231 180 NA 65 6 0 322 21

WA092 M <1 88 166 0.3 0 20 134 437 264 221 185 NA NA NA NA NA

WA104 M <1 NA 196 0.1 NA 9 242 NA 116 139 NA 28 10 0 324 21

WA113 M 2 NA 128 0.2 NA 16 102 NA 206 154 NA 80 5 0 318 16

WA098 M 3 103 157 0.2 0 11 122 330 130 130 242 NA NA NA NA NA

WA108 M 3 NA 152 0.1 NA 14 164 NA 225 185 NA 51 6 0 316 20

WA105 M 5 NA 132 0.1 NA 17 122 NA 149 126 NA 69 6 0 333 19

WA107 M 6 NA 123 0.1 NA 17 102 NA 136 136 NA 66 8 0 321 20

WA112 M 6 NA 124 0.1 NA 22 103 NA 192 153 NA 67 10 0 328 20

WA097 M 8 44 137 0.2 0.1 21 95 264 347 280 148 NA NA NA NA NA

WA102 M 10 NA 122 0.2 NA 44 140 NA 474 438 NA 55 4 0 333 19

Females Mean 55 175 0.2 0.0 16 126 336 189 195 232 54 10 0 325 20

n = 20 Std dev 17 43.6 0.1 0.0 9.6 71.8 94 70 83 63 11 6 0 11.6 1.2

Min 34 123 0.1 0 5 60 212 98 83 116 37 6 0 314 19

Max 87 303 0.3 0.1 51 332 522 355 403 338 66 24 0 343 22

Males Mean 78 144 0.2 0.0 19 133 344 224 196 192 59 7 0 325 19

n = 10 Std dev 31 24 0.1 0.1 9.7 44 87 113 98 47 17 2 0 6.87 1.6

Min 44 122 0.1 0 9 95 264 116 126 148 28 4 0 316 16

Max 103 196 0.3 0.1 44 242 437 474 438 242 80 10 0 333 21

All Mean 59 164 0.2 0.0 17 128 337 201 195 224 56 9 0 325 20

n = 30 Std dev 21 40.6 0.1 0.0 9.5 63 90 86 87 61 14 5 0 9.38 1.4

Min 34 122 0.1 0 5 60 212 98 83 116 28 4 0 314 16

Max 103 303 0.3 0.1 51 332 522 474 438 338 80 24 0 343 22

NA=not analyzed; GGT, gamma glutamyltransferase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); AP, alkaline phosphatase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); 

LD, lactic dehydrogenase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); AST, aspartate aminotransferase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); ALT, alanine 

aminotransferase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L). 
56

Table 21. Metals in Invertebrates Collected in the Intertidal Area of the Washington Sea Otter Range (ppm, dry weight)

Species Study N

Aluminum

Arsenic

Cadmium

ChromiumCopper

Iron

Mercury

Magnesium

Manganese

NickelLeadSelenium

Silver

Strontium

Tin

Vanadium

Zinc

Hemigrapsus nudus OCNMS 18 Mean 266 0.53 16.4 286 7721 21.8 3.14 2131 1.60 45.3

Shore crab Biomarker std dev 150 0.13 7.2 227 800 7.2 0.38 210 0.36 9.06

Min 93 0.50 7.2 70 6210 12.4 2.57 1700 1.18 29.6

Max 603 1.04 30.5 816 9000 32.4 4.12 2520 2.36 62.1

Mytilus californianus OCNMS 22 Mean 316 8.28 6.1 421 5594 12.4 0.50 54 1.59 122

Mussel Biomarker std dev 224 4.57 1.5 224 1379 4.6 0.00 19 0.96 30.6

Min 43.8 3.56 4.45 110 3280 6.64 0.5 27.4 0.5 72.1

Max 824 17.00 10.9 890 7900 22.8 0.50 92 3.63 183

Mytilus edulis/trossulus OCNMS 1 Mean 701 5.66 6.0 531 5700 22.9 0.50 68 3.34 119

Mussel Biomarker

Nucella lamellosa OCNMS 7 Mean 110 37.73 12.5 159 6487 11.1 3.14 610 1.17 150

Whelk Biomarker std dev 41 25.06 12.4 121 2789 4.0 1.27 248 0.11 85.5

Min 55 14.90 0.5 79 2710 7.6 1.69 313 1.01 62.1

Max 185 84.10 30.6 429 10500 18.2 5.01 974 1.30 301

Tectura scutum OCNMS 1 Mean 2050 28.20 11.5 3360 3890 50.4 0.50 70 7.81 59.3

Limpet Biomarker

Mytilus edulis NOAA U Mean 369 11.7 12.8 1.65 7.92 766 0.195 12.4 2.13 0.756 2.81 0.99 0 129

mussel Mussel Watch

N = number of composite samples, with composites made up of at least 10 individuals from the same location. U = unknown. Blank values indicate not analyzed.

Table 22. Butyltins in Composite Mussel Samples from NOAA Status and Trends,

Mussel Watch Program Cape Flattery Site (ppb, dry weight)

Year and Species Monobutyltin Dibutyltin Tributyltin Total Butyltins

2000 Mytilus californianus 0 0 9.61 9.61

2002 Mytilus edulis 0.645 1.50 8.17 10.32
57

Table 23. Organochlorines by Compound Group: Invertebrates Collected

in the Intertidal Area of the Washington Sea Otter Range (ppb, wet weight)

Species N Total PCB

Total 

HCH

Total 

Chlordane

Total 

DDTs

Hemigrapsus nudus 18 mean 4.42 0.29 0.02 0.64

Shore crab std dev 11.4 0.31 0.05 1.13

min ND ND ND ND

max 49 1.1 0.17 3.3

Mytilus californianus 22 mean 2.49 0.54 0.18 0.52

Mussel std dev 0.56 0.28 0.42 0.65

min 1.50 0.18 ND ND

max 3.6 1.4 1.4 2.1

Mytilus edulis/trossulus 1 mean 3.2 0.71 0.24 0.13

Mussel

Nucella emarginata 15 mean 8.0 0.21 0.75 0.49

Whelk std dev 5.0 0.25 2.12 0.36

min 2.4 ND ND ND

max 24 0.7 7.8 1

Nucella lamellosa 9 mean 4. 9 0.40 0.17 0.89

Whelk std dev 2.8 0.36 0.17 0.70

min 2.0 ND ND ND

max 11.5 0.975 0.405 2.4

Tectura scutum 14 mean 4.4 0.46 0.06 0.12

Limpet std dev 3.0 0.25 0.24 0.14

min 2.0 ND ND ND

max 13 0.95 0.88 0.4

N = number of composite samples, with composites made up of at least 10 individuals from the 

same location.

ND=Not detected 
58

V. DISCUSSION 

The Washington sea otter population has not faced the extent of declines that the California and 

two of the three Alaska populations have faced in recent years, yet growth of the Washington 

population has slowed before reaching its estimated carrying capacity. A greater number of 

mortalities and a lower census number than expected in 2000, and potential range expansion 

leading to increased exposure to biotoxins and anthropogenic effects led to concerns about the 

Washington population and development of this study. This study was conducted to obtain 

baseline data for chemical contaminants and pathogens, compare across populations, and 

evaluate if health stressors in the Washington population could be identified. Data for archived 

stranded (beach-cast) animals are also presented, but comparison of the beach-cast animals to the 

live captured animals was not possible because of the different sample matrices. Livers of 

beach-cast animals were analyzed, while most of the chemical analyses performed on tissues 

from the live captured animals were on whole blood. 

Contaminant levels are low in Washington sea otters, with very few exceptions. A discussion of 

each group of analytes is presented below, comparing Washington otters to those in Alaska and 

California, or to confamilial species or other marine mammals where literature was available. 

Whole blood chemical contaminant data were not readily available so much of the discussion of 

contaminants pertains to the beach-cast animals. In general, Washington sea otters appear to 

reflect chemical concentrations and blood and serum chemistry most similar to California sea 

otters versus stock in Alaska. Of the Alaska stocks, Washington sea otters appear to reflect 

conditions most similar to those of the Aleutian Islands, which makes sense as the otters came 

from Amchitka Island.

Metals

Metals concentrations in the liver of Washington beach-cast animals were similar to those 

reported in the literature for other marine mammals in the Northeast Pacific but within the range 

of those reported for confamilial species (Tables 5, 6, 24 and 25). Chromium, copper, mercury, 

manganese, strontium and zinc were all within the range reported by Kannan et al. (2008) in 

California, Washington, and Alaska otters. Cadmium levels were similar to those in Alaska sea 

otters, but considerably less than those reported for California otters. Aluminum, cadmium, 

copper, selenium and zinc concentrations in the liver of Washington beach-cast otters were 

generally similar to those reported in gray whales from the west coast of North America 

(Varanasi et al. 1993) and higher than those reported for confamilial species. Mercury 

concentrations in Washington sea otters were higher than those reported for gray whales, but 

similar to those reported for confamilial species, Alaska beluga whales and dolphins from other 

areas. The detection limit for lead was not low enough to allow for comparison as 

concentrations in liver of the beach-cast animals were below the detection limit of 0.5 ppm. As 

noted above, a 2 year old male (16961-04) had the highest concentrations of copper, mercury and 

selenium – concentrations that were considerably higher than those recorded in confamilial 

species, only two of which were from the Pacific Northwest. 
59

Table 24. Literature Summary of Mean Concentrations of Metals in Liver of Sea Otter and Confamilial Species (ppm, dry weight)

Species Region N

SilverAluminum

Barium

CadmiumChromiumCopperIronMercuryMagnesiumManganeseMolybdenumLeadSeleniumStrontiumVanadiumZinc

Source/Study

Enhydra lutris Washington 15 -- 42.6 -- 12.6 0.62 86.5 1419 11.6 782 12 -- -- 8.6 1.3 -- 156 Present Study

Enhydra lutris California 6 1.5 53 4.2 110 13 12 0.69 0.35 1.5 0.36 210 Kannan et al. 2008

Enhydra lutris Washington* 3 0.78 35 0.52 84 8.6 13 0.59 0.06 3.3 0.19 150 Kannan et al. 2008

Enhydra lutris PWS, Alaska 2 1.6 7.6 0.49 210 11 35 1.6 1.2 0.4 0.22 310 Kannan et al. 2008

Enhydra lutris Adak Island 2 0.9 4.9 0.61 56 1.3 22 0.56 0.08 2.1 0.23 140 Kannan et al. 2008

Enhydra lutris Kamchatka 5 0.84 15 0.49 47 1.8 8.6 0.68 0.23 1.1 0.05 110 Kannan et al. 2008

Enhydra lutris California 80 1.59 0.02 91.9 0.53 133 17.8 16.9 0.52 0.22 1.46 0.18 230 Kannan et al. 2006

Lutra lutra Great Britain 51 0.27 28.27 7.637 111.67

Mason and 

Stephenson, 2001

Lutra lutra Ireland 39 0.024 23.77 4.91 83.8

Mason and 

Stephenson, 2001

Lutra lutra Denmark 65 0.081 21.1 3.52 92.13

Mason and 

Stephenson, 2001

Lutra lutra Europe

12 

(juvenile) 0.1* 51.3* 1.2* 132.3* Hyvarinen et al. 2003

Lutra lutra Europe

10 

(female) 0.58* 33* 3.8* 101* Hyvarinen et al. 2003

Lutra lutra Europe 9 (male) 0.6* 35.8* 5.5* 10.94* Hyvarinen et al. 2003

Lutra lutra Austria 15 0.36 38.7 1.01* 0.37 92.6 Gutleb et al. 1998

Lutra lutra Hungary 7 0.31 17.1 0.65* 0.83 96.2 Gutleb et al. 1998

Lutra lutra

Czech 

Republic 5 1.51 23.1 14.43* 0.39 162.4 Gutleb et al. 1998

Mustela vison PNW 20 3.56 0.07 0.16 1.65 23.6 1009 4.28 602 8.71 1.19 0.31 2.28 0.37 95 Harding et al. 1999

Lutra 

canadensis PNW 26 2.77 0.11 0.42 1.24 24.9 1121 2.68 603 10.8 1.92 0.77 1.92 0.21 80 Harding et al. 1999

All values are dry weight except those marked with asterisk (*), which are wet weight and can be compared to Table 5. 

Washington beach cast sea otters used in the Kannan et al. 2008 study likely include some of the animals used in the present study
60

Table 25. Literature Summary of Metals in Liver of Marine Mammals (ppm)

Species Beluga Gray whale Gray whale Gray whale

Striped and bottlenose 

dolphins

Bottlenose dolphin, 

common dolphin, 

melon-headed 

whale

Location Alaska

Northern Pacific Mexican 

Coast WA, CA, and AK Bering Sea Mediterranean

East Coast of 

Australia

Weight basis wet weight dry weight wet weight wet weight wet weight wet weight

N 24 5 10 5 23 6

mean ± std dev range mean ± std dev range mean ± SE range mean ± SE range range

Silver 18.56 ± 12.58 0.637-107.4 0.017 ± 0.003 0.01-0.02 0.31 ± 0.064

Aluminum 32 ± 15 6.4-150 4.2 ± 2.7

Arsenic 0.18 ± 0.13 0.065-0.815 0.34 ± 0.062 0.047-0.7 0.32 ± 0.028 0.2-0.76

Barium 0.061 ± 0.016 0.01-0.12

Cadmium 1.266 ± 0.309 0.455-3.645 1.77 ± 1.11 0.81-3.62 4.3 ± 1.2 0.06-6.2 0.21 ± 0.04 0.07-9.0 0.02-21

Chromium 0.16 ± 0.031 nd-0.25 0.29 ± 0.019 0.1-1.2

Copper 25.57 ± 17.52 3.97-123.8 57.3 ± 87.7 3.37-228 9.2 ± 2.2 0.63-25 16 ± 3.4 4.3-24 2.1-18

Iron 444.5 ± 127.1 100-780.5 580 ± 334 165-1239 2300 ± 950 120-4200 340 ± 67 163-842

Mercury 19.86 ± 9.48 0.704-72.9 0.056 ± 0.012 0.009-0.12 0.16 ± 0.061 1.3-550 0.72-141

Magnesium 137.2 ± 29.0 58.5-219

Manganese 2.295 ± 0.346 1.617-3.357 7.2 ± 6.57 0.11-16.94 3 ± 0 3.1 ± 0.18 0.03-6.5

Nickel 1.84 ± 0.22 1.53-2.16 0.23 ± 0.13 nd-0.35 0.039 ± 0.014 0.05-0.56

Lead 2.06 ± 1.06 0.78-3.62 0.12 ± 0.022 0.02-0.27 0.06 ± 0.013 <0.04-0.17

Selenium 2 ± 0.3 0.35-3.4 1.1 ± 0.15 1.5-58

Strontium 12.92 ± 8.00 1.078-75.51 1.1 ± 0.56 0.2-1.8

Vanadium 0.094 ± 0.042 0.015-0.279 0.52 ± 0.055

Zinc 25.95 ± 2.50 20.9-38.53 141 ± 32 96-173 99 ± 16 1.6-160 28 ± 1.9 15-115 22-144

Source/Study Becker et al. 2000 Mendez et al. 2002 Varanasi et al. 1993 Tilbury et al. 2002 Roditi-Elsar et al. 2003 Law et al. 2003
61

Concentrations of heavy metals of potential toxicological concern in the whole blood samples 

from live captured animals were low (or not detected) in all samples, with only mean 

concentrations of selenium and zinc above 1 ppm. Concentrations in blood samples of live 

captured animals were not as variable as those in the liver of beach-cast animals, possibly due to 

the difference in the number of years over which the samples were collected. The liver is a 

storage organ while contaminants detected in blood reflects current transport which may also 

explain the difference in variability. Although a literature search was performed, no results were 

found for comparison of metals in whole blood. 

Organotins – Butyltins

Total butyltin liver concentrations in Washington beach-cast otters were within the range 

reported by Kannan et al. (1998) for California sea otters; however, the mean total butyltin 

concentration in Washington beach-cast otters was more than 15 times lower than the mean 

concentration reported by Kannan et al. (1998) for California sea otters (0.0724 versus 1.3 ppm) 

(Tables 8 and 26). Also, the contribution of tributyltin (TBT) to the sum of total butyltins was 

considerably less in Washington sea otters versus those reported by Kannan et al. (1998) (Tables 

8 and 26). Total butyltin liver concentrations in Washington otters were greater than those 

reported by Murata et al. (2008) for Alaska and Russian sea otters, but less than reported for 

California sea otters. The California sea otter ranges includes populated areas including 

Monterey, Moss Landing and Santa Cruz with higher use of TBT than the less populated 

coastline of Washington. Butyltins degrade over time and this difference could also be due to 

the difference in the time frame in which the studies were conducted. These results could reflect 

different exposure pathways between the populations, or that exposure levels have decreased 

over time with the limit on usage and then the eventual ban of TBT-containing antifouling paints. 

Tanabe et al. (1998) has shown that pinnipeds and otters have lower butyltin residues than 

cetaceans, and postulates this may be due to molting of the fur. However, from the total butyltin 

values reported in the literature it appears most Steller sea lion and cetacean liver concentrations 

are in the same range as those for Washington sea otters (Tables 8 and 26). 

No tetrabutyltin was detected and TBT, the more toxic moiety, was detected in the whole blood 

of only one 10-year old male animal. Butyltins do not pose a risk to Washington sea otters from 

dietary exposure (MacLellan et al. 1998), and concentrations currently in the water column and 

sea otter prey should continue to decline following the ban on TBT-based paints. 
62

Table 26. Literature Summary of Butyltins (BT) in Liver of Marine Mammals Including 

Sea Otters (ppm, wet weight)

Species Location N Statistic MBT DBT TBT Total BTs Source

Sea Otter Washington 15 Mean 0.0724 0.0757 0.0524 0.201 Present

Range 0.017 - 0.183 0.0145 - 0.208 0.0224 - 0.102 0.0553 - 0.447 Study

Sea Otter California 28 Mean 0.0503 0.2267 0.1904 0.4711 Murata 

Range 0.0019 - 0.610 0.004 - 2.4 0.0010 - 1.3 0.021 - 4.1 et al. 2008

Sea Otter Russia 5 Mean 0.0048 0.0023 0.0071 0.035 Murata 

Range 0.0027-0.0099 0.0076-0.059 0.002 - 0.017 0.018 - 0.079 et al. 2008

Sea Otter Alaska 4 Mean 0.012 0.07 0.051 0.12 Murata 

Range 0.0021 - 0.028 0.0024 - 0.170 <0.0003-0.076 0.0065 - 0.27 et al. 2008

Sea Otter Washington 3 Mean 0.015 0.12 0.071 0.21 Murata 

Range 0.0068 - 0.027 0.084 - 0.180 0.046 - 0.110 0.160 - 0.250 et al. 2008

Sea Otter California 35 Mean 0.07 0.67 0.56 1.3 Kannan 

Range <0.007 - 0.36 0.021 - 5.82 0.019 - 3.02 0.04 - 9.2 et al. 1998

Steller Sea Japan 6 Mean 0.093 0.11 0.021 0.22 Kim 

Lion Range 0.052 - 0.13 0.051 - 0.14 0.016 - 0.031 0.18 - 0.3 et al. 1996

Dall's Porpoise Japan 13 Mean 0.12 0.44 0.21 0.79 Nakata 

Range 0.047 - 0.22 0.027 - 1.1 0.08 - 0.45 0.26 - 1.8 et al. 2002

Pelagic England & 16 Mean 0.0043 0.077 0.028 0.11 Law 

Cetaceansa Wales Range <.003 - 0.082 0.019 - 0.23 <.003 - 0.035 0.019 - 0.312 et al. 1999

a. including white-sided dolphin, white-beaked dolphin, striped dolphin, common dolphin, Risso's dolphin, long-finned pilot 

whale, fin whale, minke whale, pygmy sperm whale, Sowerby's beaked whale, Blainville's beaked whale, Northern bottlenose 

whale
63

Organic Compounds

Aliphatic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Semi-volatile Compounds

Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons were measured in liver samples from live captured animals 

but not in the beach-cast animals. Semi-volatiles were analyzed in liver of some of the beachcast animals and in blood of the all of the live captured animals. Concentrations of PAHs and 

semi-volatiles were low or not detected in live captured Washington sea otter liver and blood; 

however, several aliphatic hydrocarbons were detected in the liver of the live captured otters. 

The low levels of PAHs was expected as vertebrates, such as sea otters, rapidly metabolize PAHs 

to more polar compounds that are excreted to the bile and eliminated from the animal. Semivolatiles were also low or not detected in the beach-cast otter liver samples. Although a 

literature search was conducted, only data from the T/V Exxon Valdez studies were found for 

comparison to the Washington sea otter data. Ballachey and Kloecker (1997) analyzed 

hydrocarbon residues in tissues of 12 carcasses from Southeast Alaska with no known history of 

exposure to oil as a baseline for those collected that were exposed to the Exxon Valdez spill. 

Control animals included 11 from a native subsistence hunter and one drowned in a gill net. 

Muscle, kidney and liver were analyzed. Similar to Washington otters, concentrations of the 

aromatic hydrocarbons were low, with several not detected or below the method detection limit. 

However, aliphatic hydrocarbon concentrations in the liver from southeast Alaska sea otters were 

considerably less than that of Washington otters. For instance, the three aliphatics in highest 

concentration in liver from the live captured Washington otters – n-hexadecane, n-nonacosane, 

and n-octacosane – were below the method detection limit in many cases for the southeast 

Alaska otters. Concentrations of the aliphatics above the method detection limit were an order of 

magnitude lower in the Southeast Alaska sea otter livers versus those from Washington (Table 

27). This is surprising because the low molecular weight compounds would be expected to be 

lost from the environment quickly, yet several are measurable in the Washington sea otters, such 

as n-decane, n-undecane, n-dodecane, n-tridecane and n-tetradecane. Washington sea otters live 

in a habitat rich in macroalgae, which is a biogenic source of alkanes, particularly C15, C17 and 

C19 (Clark and Blumer 1967, Lytle et al. 1979, Youngblood et al. 1971). These biogenic 

sources may explain some of the higher alkane levels in the liver of Washington versus Alaska 

otters. Additional research into biogenic sources and the potential contribution from natural 

hydrocarbons seeps or diapiric muds on the Washington coast may explain the results obtained. 

Fingerprinting of natural oils on the Olympic Peninsula has been conducted (Kvenolden et al. 

1991) and 18 α (H)- and 18 β (H) oleanane (C30) could be used as biomarkers when chemical 

typing. In addition, three oil spills have occurred on the Washington coast within the sea otter 

range since the reintroduction of sea otters to the area - Meigs, Nestucca and Tenyo Maru – that 

may contribute to the residue levels observed. Evidence of exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons 

may be indicated by the amount of unresolved complex for the aromatic hydrocarbons – a 

component that is considered a degraded fossil fuel petroleum residue (Lytle et al. 1979). The 

unresolved complex was one of only two of the parameters detected in over 50 percent of the 

animals (the other was total petroleum hydrocarbons). The mean concentration of the unresolved 

complex was 655 ppm wet weight with a standard deviation of 553 ppm driven by the single 

animal,WA095, with an unresolved complex concentration of 2090 ppm wet weight, more than 

four times higher than the next highest concentration (459 ppm wet weight). 
64

Table 27. Comparison of Aliphatics in Sea Otter Liver Samples Collected in Southeast Alaska and Washington (ppm, wet weight)

   

n-decane (C10) 

n-undecane (C11) 

n-dodecane (C12) n-tridecane (C13) 

n-tetradecane (C14) 

n-pentadecane (C15) 

n-hexadecane (C16) 

n-heptadecane (C17) 

n-octadecane (C18) 

n-nonadecane (C19) 

n-eicosane (c20) 

n-heneicosane (C21) 

n-docosane (C22) n-tricosane (C23) 

n-tetracosane (C24) 

n-pentacosane (C25) 

n-hexacosane (C26) 

n-heptacosane (C27) 

n-octacosane (C28) 

n-nonacosane (C29) 

n-triacontane (C30) 

n-hentricontane (C31) n-dotriacontane (C32) 

n-tetratriacontane (C34) 

n-tritriacontane 

Phytane 

Pristane 

This study

Meana n=16 7.39 9.11 4.16 3.7 10.3 6.88 128 9.38 8.91 8.8 8.24 4.82 3.04 2.91 4.12 5.59 5.72 7.28 34.31 43.5 4.82 2.45 2.11 1.68 1.79 4.66 5.96

Std dev 2.33 5.36 2.44 1.85 6.13 4.84 134 7.57 7.29 6.38 5.75 2.24 1.68 1.78 2.7 3.74 4.64 5.38 31.32 24.7 3.7 1.05 1 0.52 0.84 2.54 3.3

Minb 6.05 2.69 1.6 1.36 3.13 0.723 0.796 0.933 0.742 2.45 2.24 2.5 0.947 0.77 0.78 1.53 0.747 1.68 2.08 8.28 1.37 1.06 0.982 1.68 0.77 1.65 2.19

Max 8.72 18 9.54 6.02 19.6 15.5 436 27.3 26.7 21.5 20.7 7.32 5.6 5.63 8.64 13.2 17.5 18.7 99.3 83.6 12.7 4.03 4.01 1.79 3.93 8.04 10.3

Ballachey 

and 

Kloecker 

1997

Meana n=12 <DL 0.059 <DL 0.068 <DL 0.132 <DL 0.039 <DL 0.025 <DL 0.032 0.073 0.04 0.045 0.124 0.043 0.035 0.032 0.036 0.036 0.046 0.051 <DL 0.045 <DL 0.075

Std dev -- 0.007 -- 0.015 -- 0.001 -- 0.004 -- 0.012 -- -- 0.017 0.015 0.016 0.188 0.01 0.013 0.009 0.007 0.007 -- -- -- -- -- 0.049

Minb -- 0.055 -- 0.047 -- 0.131 -- 0.036 -- 0.014 -- 0.032 0.058 0.019 0.03 0.033 0.029 0.022 0.022 0.03 0.03 0.046 0.051 -- 0.045 -- 0.01

Max -- 0.064 -- 0.1 -- 0.133 -- 0.044 -- 0.045 -- 0.032 0.112 0.07 0.08 0.506 0.057 0.056 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.046 0.051 -- 0.045 -- 0.138

a. mean calculated without non-detects; b. minimum detected value; Aliphatics analyzed in this study that were below detection limit: n-hentriacontane & n-tritriacontane; <DL 

= below method detection limit
65

Organochlorines (OCs)

Organochlorines have been implicated in the decline of several other marine mammal species 

(Tanabe et al. 1994) and river otter (Mason 1989). Kannan et al. (2007) found that elevated PCB 

concentrations in sea otter liver were strongly associated with infections diseases. In this study, 

only one otter had a detectable blood level of organochlorines, other than PCBs (WA098) which 

was p,p'-DDE at 0.18 ppm. In general, Washington beach-cast sea otters had similar liver 

concentrations of those organochlorine compounds measured by Bacon et al. (1999) in 

California and Aleutian sea otters and Kannan et al. (2008) in Alaskan sea otters, and less than 

those measured by Nakata et al. (1998) and Kannan et al. (2004, 2008) in California sea otters 

(Tables 10, 11 and 28).

A review of the literature yields a wide range of PCB concentrations (0.00081 to 222.3 ppm, wet 

weight) in liver of sea otters, river otters, and pinnipeds, (Bacon et al. 1999, Elliott et al. 1999,

Kajiwara 2001, Kannan et al. 2004, Leonards 1997, Nakata et al. 1998 and Troisi 1997), some of 

which may be explained by summation of different congeners, lipid normalization, species and 

location of animals (Tables 28 and 29). A comparison of the liver PCB concentrations in the 

Washington beach-cast sea otters with literature values reveals that Washington concentrations 

are on the lower to mid-range of means reported for sea otters, and are lower than most river 

otter and pinnipeds reported. Mean total PCB concentration in liver of Washington sea otters is 

similar to those reported in Prince William Sound and Adak Island sea otters in Alaska (Kannan 

et al. 2008). Mean total PCB concentration of 0.40 ppm is higher than that found in liver of 

beach-cast Aleutian sea otters (0.31 ppm), California sea otters (0.19 ppm), and Southeast Alaska

otters (0.008 ppm), (Bacon et al. 1999); however, it is one fourth the mean concentration 

reported by Nakata et al. (1998) for California sea otters (1.6 ppm), and less than that reported by 

Kannan et al. (2004), (1.93 ppm), Kannan et al. (2006), (0.624 ppm) and Kannan et al, (2008), 

(1.1 ppm) for California otters. PCB concentrations in livers of beach-cast Washington otters 

were similar to those of the other California otters reported by Kannan et al. (2004) when the 

high outliers from Monterey Bay are excluded. 

Although not exhaustive, a review of the literature for PCB concentrations in the blood of marine 

mammals yielded results for seals (DeSwart et al.1994; Young 1998; Beckman et al. 1999), all of 

which were higher than mean concentrations of the Washington sea otters by at least an order of 

magnitude. However, even at the low levels of PCB measured in the whole blood samples from 

live captured animals, we still observed a significant reduction of vitamin A storage in the liver, 

a biomarker of exposure (see below); therefore, continued monitoring of PCB in the Washington 

population is suggested.
66

Table 28. Literature Review of Organochlorines in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppm, wet 

weight)

Location N Statistic PCBs DDTs HCHs CHLs HCB Source

Washington 15 Mean 0.409 0.126 0.0364 0.0271 ND

Present 

Study

California 6 Mean 1.100 2.300 0.013 0.110 ND

Kannan et al. 

2008

Washington* 6 Mean 0.210 0.160 0.016 0.022 ND

Kannan et al. 

2008

Prince 

William 

Sound, AK 3 Mean 0.420 0.210 0.0053 0.077 ND

Kannan et al. 

2008

Adak Island 2 Mean 0.390 0.065 0.0072 0.0092 ND

Kannan et al. 

2008

California 80

Mean

Range

.624

.003-5.96 ND ND ND ND

Kannan et al. 

2007

California 11

Mean

Range

1.93

0.28-8.7

2.02

0.29-5.9

0.0328

0.009-0.0076

0.125

0.01–0.05 ND

Kannan et al. 

2004

California 20

Mean

Range

1.6

0.06-8.7

1.8

0.28-5.9

0.032

0.005-0.13

0.093

0.0041-0.5

0.0023

0.0007-0.008

Nakata et al. 

1998

Aleutian 7 Mean 0.31 0.036 ND 0.015 0.002

Bacon et al. 

1999

California 9 Mean 0.19 0.85 ND 0.031 0.002

Bacon et al. 

1999

Southeast 

Alaska 7 Mean 0.008 0.001 ND 0.001 0.001

Bacon et al. 

1999

ND=Not Determined

* Washington beach cast sea otters used in the Kannan et al. 2008 study likely include some of the animals used in 

the present study.

Table 29. Literature Summary of PCBs in Liver of Confamilial Species and Marine 

Mammals (ppm, wet weight)

Species Location Statistic PCB Source

Pinnipedsa California Mean 0.11 Kajiwara et al. 2001

Range 0.005-0.41

Harbor seal England Mean 0.00293 Troisi et al. 1997

Range 0.00001-0.01674

Eurasian

otter Netherlands

Mean

70.994 Leonards et al. 1997

Range 4.441-222.3

River otter Washington Mean

Range

.170

.0161–10.087 Grove and Henry 2007

a. elephant seal and harbor seal
67

DDT (1,1,1,-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophyenyl)ethanes

Mean DDT concentrations in liver of Washington beach-cast animals did not exceed 1 ppm, 

which is considerably lower than that observed in California sea otters (Bacon et al. 1999; 

Kannan et al. 2004, 2008; and Nakata et al. 1998) but higher than that observed in Alaskan sea 

otters (Bacon et al. 1999) (Tables 11 and 28). 

Cyclohexanes (HCHs)

Mean cyclohexane concentration in the liver of Washington beach-cast sea otters was similar to 

those observed by Kannan et al. (2004) and Nakata et al. (1998) in California beach-cast otters 

and two and three times greater than those observed by Kannan et al. (2008) in California and 

Alaska (Table 28). 

Chlordanes (CHLs)

Chlordanes in liver of Washington beach-cast otters were considerably lower than those reported 

by Kannan et al. (2004, 2008) and Nakata et al. (1998) but similar to those reported by Kannan et 

al. (2008) for Alaska others and those reported by Bacon et al. (1999) for both California and 

Aleutian sea otters (Table 28). 

Thus, from our analyses it seems the levels of OCs found in the tissues of Washington sea otters 

is not markedly different from other investigation findings for various marine mammal species 

with presumably similar exposure pathways for these chemicals.

Biomarkers

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is a collective name for a group of fat-soluble molecules (retinoids) essential to 

growth, development, reproduction and immunocompetence. Because vitamin A has been shown 

to be sensitive to disruption by organochlorine contaminants (PCBs and dioxin-like compounds 

especially), levels of this dietary hormone have been widely used as biomarkers of toxicity in 

both adult (Tabuchi et al. 2006; Mos et al. 2007; De Swart et al. 1994; Brouwer et al. 1989) and 

young harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) (Simms et al. 2000, Jenssen et al. 1994), sea lions (Debier et 

al. 2005), river otters (Murk et al. 1996) and a variety of bird species (Harris et al. 2007; Murk et 

al. 1994; Spear et al. 1986). Decreased vitamin A levels can indicate that the health of a species 

is adversely affected by contaminant exposure that may be playing a part in impaired 

reproduction and an increased incidence of disease (Spear et al. 1989). 

Kannan et al. (2000) established organochlorine tissue residue threshold values for seals, otters

and minks from published field and laboratory studies. Toxicological endpoints elicited by the 

aquatic mammals in response to this dietary dose of chemicals included altered vitamin A levels, 

reduced thyroid hormone concentrations, and immunosuppression (Kannan et al. 2000). These 

physiological effects were observed at liver concentrations ranging from 6.6 to 11 ug PCB/g 

depending on the species of marine mammal. In this study we did not measure PCBs or other 

organochlorines in liver of the live captured sea otters. PCB concentrations in the liver of the 

beach-cast animals were above the range determined by Kannan et al. (2000) to elicit a 

physiological response.
68

In our study, concentrations of contaminants in the liver of beach-cast sea otters were relatively 

low and similar to those in other sea otter populations in the United States. Chemical 

concentrations in the whole blood and liver of live captured otters were also low. However, even 

the low level of PCB exposures we observed have been associated with the sensitivity of vitamin 

A storage enzymes in laboratory animals (Zile 1992), and we observed a significant reduction of

vitamin A storage in the liver. Significant negative correlations were found between PCBs and 

all-trans retinyl palmitate, total retinol, and the R:RP ratio, though not the correlation with the 

R:RP ratio was not particularly strong. The disruption of these compounds is associated with a 

displacement of hormone by PCB metabolites at the transport protein complex (TTR-RBP). In 

summary, since measurable levels of PCBs were found in beach-cast livers and at levels above 

those known to cause physiological stress, it is not surprising to see the decreased levels of 

retinols and thyroid hormones in the blood of live Washington sea otters sampled.

Vitamin A in the liver was also reduced in relation to dibutyltin and octasosane concentrations, 

but significantly and positively correlated to several of the other aliphatic hydrocarbons, and 

positively and particularly strongly correlated to cadmium concentrations (Table 18). Harris et 

al. (2007) also found a strong positive correlation between hepatic vitamin A concentration and 

kidney cadmium concentration but not so to liver or plasma concentrations of cadmium. In all 

cases our sample size is relatively small (6 to 15), making interpretation of the results 

problematic.

Vitamin A increases in the liver with age, decreases during disease, and can decrease over the 

course of lactation. Thyroid hormones change over the course of development and may also be 

affected by the animal’s condition because they function in thermoregulation. No significant or 

strong relationship (R2 values were less than 0.40) was observed between age, gender or body 

weight of the sea otters and vitamin A or thyroid hormone levels, which may be due to our small 

sample size. 

Cytochrome P450 CYP1A Assays

The oxidative metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 (CYP1A) plays a role in the detoxification 

of some contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons. 

Cytochrome P450 (CYP1A) assays were conducted on the peripheral blood mononuclear cells 

(PBMC) isolated from heparinized blood and on liver biopsies in order to determine if blood and 

liver P450 levels correlated and if the P450 enzyme induction found in liver tissue correlated 

with any chemical concentrations. Molecular biomarker procedures may allow us to evaluate 

potential chemical-specific stressors to the sea otters, and help predict overall sea otter health. 

Cytochrome P450 CYP1A1 is an isozyme in the cytochrome P450 superfamily. Its role in 

metabolizing chemicals has been well studied, though not in sea otters. Cytochrome P450 

molecular biomarker assays of PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cell) and liver have been 

used to evaluate potential chemical-specific stressors to Alaska and California sea otters, thus we 

undertook these assays for the Washington otters for comparison. The development of the 

technique using blood (PBMC) allows for a less invasive approach to determine if the animals 

are potentially stressed due to specific toxins. For instance, the mean level expression in PBMC 

from sea otters captured in non-oiled areas in Prince William Sound, Alaska is reported as 0.12 x 
69

106 as compared to 1.96 x 106 in oiled areas in 1994-1996 (Snyder et al. 2002). The mean level 

expressed in PBMC from Washington otters was considerably higher, at 7.57 x 106 molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA in blood samples. Unpublished data provided by USGS (B. Ballachey 

2006) using the same methods employed on the Washington project, revealed that California 

(43.97 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA) and Washington (7.57 x 106 molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA) mean PBMC cytochrome P450 expression was closer to animals 

experiencing the Exxon Valdez spill (22.11 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA) than to 

southeast Alaska animals (1.02 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA) or those from a control 

site for the Exxon Valdez study (1.66 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA). The mean liver 

value in Washington otters was 1.85 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA. The mean 

Washington sea otter liver value was more in line with the only other liver values available for 

comparison – those from otters exposed to the Exxon Valdez spill (5.90 x 106 molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA) and the control site (1.03 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA)

(unpublished data provided by USGS, B. Ballachey 2006) . As indicated above, the mean may 

not be an adequate statistic since variability in the P450 results from Washington sea otters is 

considerable, with the PBMC mean driven by two otters. This variability is also apparent in the 

data provided by USGS. When medians are compared, the Washington otters PBMC expression 

(0.51 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA) is comparable to the Alaska sea otters from 

unoiled areas in Prince William Sound (1.05 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA) and 

Southeast Alaska (1.02 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA); however, the median for the 

California otters is still comparatively high (4.09 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA) and 

closer to that of oiled animals from Alaska (4.89 x 106 molecules p450/100ng total RNA). 

Chemical concentrations in Washington sea otters were low, perhaps explaining why there were

few significant relationship between the cytochrome P450 results and the chemical 

concentrations. Only total PCBs and P450 in the liver were found to be significantly correlated. 

Despite these low concentrations, liver from one of the two otters with increased PBMC P450 

induction also had the highest aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations (WA099).

Liver from the other otter with increased PBMC P450 induction was not analyzed for 

hydrocarbons; however it did exhibit elevated serum enzyme alkaline phosphatase, one of the 

serum enzymes that has been shown to increase in response to hydrocarbon exposure (Ballachey 

et al. 2003). 

Pathogens

The following text is quoted almost verbatim from the results obtained from the USGS National 

Wildlife Health Center.

Serology

The high prevalence (80 percent) of antibody titers to morbilliviruses in the live captured animals 

suggests that the Washington sea otter population is fairly well-protected against a widespread 

morbillivirus outbreak. Individual deaths may occur but a population-threatening die-off from 

this disease is unlikely while population immunity remains high. This is the first finding of 

positive morbillivirus titers in sea otters. No positive titers were found in a survey of Alaska and 
70

California sea otters (Hanni et al. 2003), although British Columbia has detected Morbillivirus in 

river otters using the marine environment (Nichol et al. 2003). 

Only one animal had a low positive antibody titer to one serovar of Leptospira sp. From 

leptospirosis deaths in Washington sea otters during the second year of this study (including the 

animal identified as “18316-01” sampled in this study) we know that sea otters are susceptible to 

this disease. These results suggest that exposure to this agent was not widespread at the time of 

the study. Hanni et al. (2003) reported one instance of this antibody titer in California otters as 

well, and none in the Alaska population.

Brucella sp. has been found in a harbor seal, and antibodies have been detected in both harbor 

seals and sea lions in Puget Sound, Washington, and in sea otters from California and Alaska.

Negative Brucella sp. results in sea otters suggests that they are not exposed to this potential 

zoonotic disease agent on the outer coast of Washington or that our sample population is small. 

Hanni et al. (2003) detected Brucella sp. antibodies in both Alaska and California animals. 

Toxoplasmosis has been diagnosed in sea otters dying in Washington and California (Dubey et 

al. 2003) and has been cited as major cause of mortalities and the slowed recovery rate for 

California sea otters (Kreuder et al. 2003). The high prevalence of antibody titers (60 percent) 

found in this study is similar to previous studies of California otters (Dubey et al. 2003; Hanni et 

al. 2003). The explanation for the seroprevalence remains unexplained and the cause postulated 

for California, that exposure is likely from oocysts in feces of felids entering the marine system 

through runoff, is not as likely for Washington sea otters since their exposure to such sources 

would not be great. The Washington coast is relatively pristine with only small villages located 

along the shore adjacent to the sea otter range, and the domestic cat population is small. Wild 

cats may be a source, but it is not known how significant this source would be. As a post pilot 

study to this capture operation we collected sea otter prey to evaluate oocyst content as providing 

a potential dietary exposure route for sea otters. The study was small and we (Dubey et al. 

unpublished data) did not detect any oocysts, however, Miller et al. (2008) reported Type X T. 

gondii in one of the marine bivalves analyzed.

The presence of antibody against Neospora caninum in sea otters is a new finding from this 

study (first reported in Dubey et al. 2003). The significance of this finding is unclear; no other 

evidence of infection and no disease from this agent has been reported in sea otters. 

Sarcocystis neurona has caused fatal encephalitis in Washington sea otters in the past. Other 

Sarcocystis sp. have been shown to be present in Washington sea otters, but not associated with 

significant disease. The Sarcocystis serologic test used in this study has not been tested to 

determine its specificity for S. neurona in sea otters. Therefore until the test is proven specific, 

positive antibody in sea otters should be considered evidence of exposure to S. neurona or other 

similar Sarcocystis sp. 

No calicivirus-associated disease has been described in sea otters. A past serologic survey for 

this agent found few low positive titers in California, but none in Alaskan sea otters (Hanni et al. 

2003).
71

Based on these findings for Washington live and beach-cast otters and those of other sea otter 

populations, continued serological testing is recommended to monitor the health of the 

Washington sea otter population.

Biotoxin

In addition to anthropogenic contaminants, concern has been raised by scientists studying 

biotoxin levels along the outer coast. There may be a connection between anthropogenic 

activities (nutrient loading) and the increased incidence of harmful algal blooms (NOAA 1999). 

Biotoxin monitoring in shellfish is ongoing by the Quinault Nation, Quileute and Makah tribes

and the Washington Department of Health (WDOH), and during this study, it was part of the 

Olympic Region Harmful Algal Bloom partnership. This monitoring information provides a 

useful database for potential exposure of sea otters to biotoxins, such as domoic acid produced 

by a diatom, and Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxins produced by dinoflagellates, both of 

which can accumulate in invertebrate prey of sea otters. In 1998 in California, there was a 

California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) mortality event that, through weight-of-evidence 

studies, indicated that domoic acid exposure, from ingestion of its prey, was the cause of 

seizures, loss of neurological function, and ultimately death of these animals (Lefebvre et al. 

1999; Scholin et al. 2000). Domoic acid has also recently been linked to reproductive failure in 

pinnipeds such as the California sea lion (Brodie et al. 2006). Domoic acid has been associated 

with seabird die offs in California (Work et al. 2003), and one domoic acid poisoning has been 

presumed for a California sea otter (Kreuder et al. 2003). A die off of sea otters in the Aleutians 

in 1987 was also partly attributed to PSP toxins (DeGange and Vacca 1989); however, Kvitek et 

al. (1991) indicates that sea otters may actually be able to avoid prey containing elevated PSP.

In this study, urine was opportunistically collected from three animals for domoic acid 

determination and all were negative. This is certainly not conclusive and if warranted by 

observations of increased harmful algal blooms, increased occurrence of domoic acid in shellfish 

or increased sea otter mortalities, particularly any reported during harmful algal blooms, 

additional study may be undertaken. This would be of increased importance if the Washington 

sea otter population continued their range expansion southwards into areas known to have more 

regular elevated levels of domoic acid.

Blood Health Screens

Washington sea otter cell blood counts (CBC) and serum chemistry were generally similar to 

those reported for California sea otters (Hanni et al. 2003). Alaska otter CBC and serum 

chemistries often statistically differed from Washington and California sea otters (Table 30). 

Table 30 presents a comparison of mean values for Alaska, California and Washington otters for 

those parameters that overlapped between studies and the statistical comparison of the means is 

also presented. Gender differences could be evaluated for Prince William Sound, Alaska and 

Washington otters. Gender differences in some of the parameters were apparent in both the 

Alaska and Washington populations – for white blood cell counts and glucose, counts or 

concentrations were higher in female otters, and gamma-glutamyltransferase 1 was higher in 

male otters. 
72

Other parameters that differed notably between the sea otter populations included phosphorus, 

which was highest in the Aleutian Island animals; lactic dehydrogenase, which was statistically 

lower in Washington otters; and aspartate aminotransferase, which was statistically higher in 

Prince William Sound animals (Table 30). Diet could potentially explain the difference in 
73

Table 30. Comparison of Hematology and Serum Chemistry Variables (Mean 

± Standard Deviation) for Adult Sea Otter Populations in the United States: 

Prince William Sound (19921), Aleutian Island (1995-20002), California (1995-

20002), and Washington (2001-2002) Sea Otters

Variable Location Mean Sig Std dev N

White Blood Cells Alaska, PWS 8.84 a 2.02 49

California 7.2 b 1.9 48

Washington 6.8 b 1.8 30

Red Blood Cells Alaska, PWS 5.07 a 0.30 49

California 5.1 a 0.5 48

Washington 5.12 a 0.378 30

Hemoglobin Alaska, PWS 20.60 a 1.10 49

California 18.7 b 2.2 48

Washington 18.7 b 1.37 30

Hematocrit Alaska, PWS 59.28 a 3.47 49

California 55.5 b 5.4 48

Washington 54.3 b 4.24 30

Mean Corpuscular Volume Alaska, PWS 117.34 a 4.43 49

California 108.8 b 5.3 48

Washington 106 c 4.98 30

Mean Corpuscular Alaska, PWS 40.73 a 1.60 49

Hemoglobin California 37.4 b 2.4 48

Washington 36.7 b 1.73 30

Mean Corpuscular Alaska, PWS 34.70 a 0.93 49

Hemoglobin Concentration California 35.4 b 1.1 48

Washington 34.6 a 1.09 30

Red Cell Distribution Alaska, PWS 12.83 a 0.57 49

Width Washington 14.1 a 1.78 15

Neutrophils California 52 a 10 48

Washington 51 a 13 25

Lymphocytes California 30 a 10 48

Washington 36 a 13 25

Monocytes California 6 a 4 48

Washington 4 a 2 25

Eosinophils Alaska, PWS 0.41 a 0.39 49

California 11 b 7 48

Washington 8 b 7 25

Platelets California 242 a 95 48

Washington 262 a 67.5 30

Glucose Alaska, PWS 146.99 a 32.19 53

Alaska, AI 148 a 46 54

California 112 b 26 49

Washington 119 b 26 30

Blood Urea Nitrogen Alaska, PWS 50.18 a 10.36 53

Alaska, AI 51 a 11 54

California 57 b 12 49

Washington 55 a,b 13 30
74

Creatinine Alaska, PWS 0.81

a 0.14 53

Alaska, AI 0.4

b 0.2 53

California 0.6

c 0.07 49

Washington 0.6

c 0.1 30

Uric Acid Alaska, PWS 2.54

a 0.70 53

Washington 1.95

a 0.55 15

Sodium Alaska, PWS 154.25

a 1.69 53

Alaska, AI 157 a,b 10 54

California 148

b

4 49

Washington 154

a 2.7 30

Potassium Alaska, PWS 4.17

a 0.33 53

Alaska, AI 4.3

a,b 0.5 54

California 4.4

b 0.4 49

Washington 4.5

b 0.32 30

Chloride Alaska, PWS 118.61

a 2.48 53

Alaska, AI 115

b

7 54

California 112

b

9 49

Washington 113

b 2.66 30

Calcium Alaska, PWS 8.73

a 0.46 53

Alaska, AI 9.2

b 0.7 54

California

8

c 0.6 49

Washington 9.

4

b 0.51 30

Phosphorus Alaska, PWS 4.28

a 1.38 53

Alaska, AI 5.9

b 1.3 54

California 3.8

a 0.9 49

Washington 4.5

a 1.3 30

Albumin Alaska, PWS 2.92

a 0.18 53

Alaska, AI 2.6

b 0.3 54

California 2.7

b 0.2 49

Washington 2.9

a 0.2 30

Globulin Alaska, PWS 3.88

a 0.48 53

Alaska, AI 4.3

b 0.5 54

California 4.3

b 0.5 49

Washington 3.8

a 0.7 30

Total Protein Alaska, AI 6.9

a 0.7 54

California 6.9

a 0.8 49

Washington 6.7

a 0.58 30

Cholesterol Alaska, AI 174

a 57 54

California

164

a 54 49

Washington 164

a 40.6 30

Total Bilirubin Alaska, PWS 0.40

a 0.14 53

Alaska, AI 0.2

b 0.1 54

California 0.1

c 0.04 49

Washington 0.2

b 0.1 30

Gamma- Alaska, PWS 15.70

a 3.95 53

glutamyltransferase 1 Washington 17

a 9.5 30
75

Alkaline Alaska, PWS 83.24 a 25.88 53

phosphatase Alaska, AI 112 b,c 35 54

California 98 a,c 27 49

Washington 128 b 63 30

Lactic dehydrogenase Alaska, AI 573.8 a 73.7 54

California 532.3 a 62.8 49

Washington 337 b 90 15

Aspartate Alaska, PWS 282.42 a 56.91 53

aminotransferase Alaska, AI 173 b 75 54

California 208 b 70 49

Washington 201 b 86 30

Alanine Alaska, PWS 235.98 a 68.40 53

aminotransferase Alaska, AI 205 a 71 54

California 230 a 65 49

Washington 195 a 87 30

1). 1Results for Alaska sea otters from Ballachey et al. 2003 are reported only from unoiled otters –

Western Prince William Sound (PWS). 

2.) 2

California and Aleutian Island (AI)/Elfin Cove results from Hanni et al. 2003, genders combined. 

Sig = statistically significant; Same letter superscript indicates there is not a significant difference in the 

results for those locations. Different letter superscript indicates a significant difference (p<0.05) between 

locations. 

White blood cells (103 cells/mm3); Red blood cells (106 cells/mm3); Hemoglobin (g/dL); Hematocrit 

(%); Mean corpuscular volume (fL); Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (pg); Mean corpuscular hemoglobin 

concentration (g/dL); Red cell distribution width (%); glucose (mg/dL); Blood urea nitrogen (mg/dL); 

creatinine (mg/dL); uric acid (mg/dL); sodium (mequiv/L); potassium (mequiv/L); chloride (mequiv/dL); 

calcium (mg/dL); phosphorus (mg/dL); albumin (g/dL); globulin (g/dL); total protein (g/dL); cholesterol 

(mg/dL); total bilirubin (mg/dL); gamma glutamyltransferase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); alkaline 

phosphatase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); lactic dehydrogenase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); aspartate 

aminotransferase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L); alanine aminotransferase (1 U/L = 16.67 nkat/L). 
76

glucose, phosphorus, sodium and creatinine levels between Alaska populations and those in 

Washington and California. The Aleutian Island animals feed on fish more than do the other 

populations. The relevance of these differences in CBC and serum chemistry, if any, is 

unknown, but may be explained by a difference in laboratory methods, physiological 

differences, contaminant exposure, parasite loads, or as previously mentioned, sea otter diet.

Fatty Acid Profiles

The authors found meaningful variation in concentrations of both linoleic and linolenic acids 

in individual otters, suggesting substantial differences in foraging habits of the individual 

otters within the same age class, weight, location or gender (VanBlaricom et al. 2007). This 

result is consistent with foraging variation documented in California sea otters (Estes et al. 

2003). The authors recommend that Quantitative Fatty Acid Signature Analysis be 

performed to estimate the diet consumed. This requires knowledge of fatty acid profiles in 

prey items that are collected from the same location the sea otter are captured and then 

modeling the combination of fatty acids from the prey that would most likely lead to the 

distribution of fatty acids found in the sea otters. 

Analysis of Prey

Chemical concentrations in sampled prey were low, as reflected also in sea otter tissue 

concentrations. 

Management Actions/Recommendations

Based on the results of this investigation, the following direct management actions are 

recommended:

1) Data from this study should be used as a baseline from which to compare the future 

health of the Washington sea otter population over time. The data can also be used in 

an injury assessment, such as Natural Resource Damage Assessments (NRDA) that 

might result from or as a part of contaminant releases. As such, this information is 

useful to resource agencies in addition to the USFWS, such as Olympic Coast 

National Marine Sanctuary, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympic 

National Park and the primary spill response agencies (NOAA, the US Coast Guard 

and the Washington Department of Ecology) and should be provided to them.

2) Results should continue to be used by resource managers as done so within, to 

evaluate the health of Northeast Pacific sea otter populations, comparing a relatively 

stable population of otters (Washington) with populations experiencing declines 

(Alaska and California) to better understand the reason for the declines. 

3) The information should be provided to the team responsible for the Washington State 

Recovery Plan for the Sea Otter, for incorporation into future revisions to the 

recovery plan.

4) The information should be provided to agencies to help meet their mandate for 

resource protection, in particular sea otter population protection (i.e., management 

actions under the Marine Mammal Protection Act such as stock assessments as well 
77

as responding to stranded sea otters and carcass recovery from Washington beaches). 

Agencies with this mandate include the USFWS, Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife and the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. 

5) An overview or summary of the report should be produced for public 

outreach/awareness purposes and web posting.

6) The results of this study should contribute to the design of futures studies of the 

Washington sea otter population. For instance, serology and blood health screens 

should continue for specific parameters that have been shown to respond to exposure 

to hydrocarbons (e.g., increased alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase) 

or parasite loads (e.g., eosinophils).

From this study a baseline has been developed for future assessment of the Washington sea 

otter population. Based on the findings of low PCB concentrations yet a significant 

relationship between these and reduced Vitamin A liver production, and the potential 

relationship between aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations and P450 induction 

measured in two of the otters, we believe periodic monitoring using a more limited set of 

parameters is warranted. Analysis of PCBs, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, and 

potentially a subset of metals is also warranted. Biomarkers, such as Vitamin A analysis and 

cytochrome P450, should also be measured to generate additional data from which broader 

conclusions might be drawn. Additional serology is also needed since pathogen exposure is 

quite evident in the Washington population with both morbillivirus (80%) and Toxoplasma

(60%), which has been determined to be a significant cause for California sea otter 

mortalities, evident in the Washington sea otter population tested, and infectious disease was 

determined the primary cause of death for the majority of the subsample of the beach-cast 

animals reported herein.

Analyses of blood and liver samples from live captured sea otters and liver samples from 

beach-cast sea otter carcasses off the remote Washington coast indicate relatively low 

exposure to contaminants, but suggest that even at the low levels measured, exposure may be 

indicated by biomarker response. The results indicate low levels of metals, butyltins, and 

organochlorine compounds in the blood samples, with many of the organochlorines not 

detected except polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and a few aromatic hydrocarbons detected 

in the liver of the live captured animals. Evidence of pathogen exposure presents a potential 

risk to Washington sea otters, particularly due to their small population size and limited 

distribution. Washington’s sea otter population continues to grow, with over 1100 animals 

currently inhabiting Washington waters (Jameson and Jeffries 2007); however, the 

population remains well under estimated carrying capacity, has a limited distribution and has 

not yet reached its carrying capacity and as such, is still considered at high risk to 

catastrophic events.
78

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APPENDICES
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89

Appendix 1. Tracking and Ground Studies Conducted in Support of the 

Environmental Contaminant and General Health Investigation

Appendix 1a. Report on Tracking Radio-tagged Sea Otters Along the Washington Coast from 

2001 to 2003

Report on Tracking Radio-tagged Sea Otters along

the Washington Coast from 2001 to 2003

Steven Jeffries

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife

Marine Mammal Investigations

7801 Phillips Road SW

Tacoma WA 98498

Submitted to:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Western Washington Fish and Wildlife Office

510 Desmond Dr. SE

Lacey WA 98503

For:

Cooperative Agreement 

No. 134101J014

15 June 2004
Appendix 1a

90

Report on Tracking Radio-tagged Sea Otters along the Washington Coast from 2001 to 

2003

Introduction

This report summarizes radio-tag tracking activities conducted under Cooperative Agreement 

No. 134101J014 between Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. This effort was part of a cooperative interagency research project to 

monitor the distribution, numbers, movements, health and contaminant/biotoxin levels in 

Washington’s sea otter population.

Sea otters were captured and radio-tagged off the Olympic Peninsula in 2001 (15 otters) and 

2002 (13 otters) (Tables 1 and 2). The purpose of the project was to detect the presence of 

radio-tagged otters both within and outside the current Washington range. Aerial surveys 

were determined to be the most efficient technique to detect radio-tagged otters and were 

conducted within the current sea otter range in Washington (Destruction Island to Pillar 

Point) as well as potential range of sea otters from the Columbia River to Destruction Island; 

Pillar Point to Elwha River; and along Vancouver Island, British Columbia from Race Rocks 

to Esteven Point. 

Methods

WDFW personnel conducted aerial surveys in a Cessna 185 to locate radio-tagged sea otters. 

Surveys were flown at 800 feet and 100 knots airspeed. Surveys covered all known and 

potential range of sea otters in Washington and along Vancouver Island. Telemetry 

equipment included right and left mounted H-style yagi antennas, Advanced Telemetry 

System (ATS) scanning receiver and switch box for determining specific locations of radiotagged otters. For each survey, all radio-tagged otters known to be alive were programmed 

into the scanning receiver. Resight information including date, time, location, 

latitude/longitude and activity were recorded in a telemetry log (Appendix 1). 

During surveys, the receiver scan interval was set at 2-4 seconds per frequency to allow 

detection of each radio-tag. At known sea otter concentration sites along the Olympic 

Peninsula (Destruction Island, Diamond Point, Perkins Reef/Rocks 443, Cape Johnson, 

Cedar Creek, Yellowbanks, Sand Point, Cape Alava and Duk Point), the aircraft circled and 

scanned 4-6 times through all programmed radiotag frequencies in order to detect resting and 

active otters. If a radiotag was detected, the switch box and receiver gain were manipulated 

to determine specific location of the radio-tagged otter. 

Once the specific location of the radio-tagged otter was determined, latitude and longitude 

was recorded using an onboard GPS unit. Activity patterns (active, resting or dead) were 

determined based on signal type and recorded. For an active otter, the signal was heard while 

on the surface and lost when diving; for a resting animal, the signal was continuous; and for 

dead otter a continuous mortality signal was received. Following determination of a radiotag location, that frequency was deleted from the scan cycle to reduce the time required 

scanning remaining undetected radio-tags. A mortality signal from a radio-tagged otter was 

investigated to determine status and location. In some cases a false mortality signal was 

detected from a radio-tagged live otter by determining the animal was actively diving. If a 

radio-tagged otter was determined to be dead, its location was recorded and frequency 

deleted from subsequent survey scans. Capture and resight locations were plotted by latitude 
Appendix 1a

91

and longitude (in hddd0 mm.mmm’ format) on maps generated up MapSource BlueChart 

Version 5.0 from Garmin. Distances between capture and resight locations were measured 

along the coast by following the 40-foot isobath contour line using the MapSource 

distance/bearing feature.

Results 

In 2001, from August 3-11, a total of 15 sea otters were captured and implanted with radiotags at Ozette River (2 otters), Cape Alava (7 otters), Sand Point (2 otters), Perkins Reef/ 

Rocks 443 (2 otters) and Destruction Island (2 otters) (Table 1). In 2002, from August 13-

22, a total of 13 sea otters were captured and implanted with radio-tags at Cape Alava (1 

otter), Sand Point (1 otter), Cape Johnson (2 otters), Giant’s Graveyard (1 otter), Perkins 

Reef/Rocks 443 (3 otters) and Destruction Island (5 otters) (Table 2).

Between 2 October 2001 and 9 December 2003, telemetry surveys were conducted through 

potential and current range of sea otters in Washington from the Columbia River to the 

Elwha River (23 surveys) as well as along Vancouver Island, British Columbia from Race 

Rocks to Esteven Point (2 surveys) (Table 3). Surveys averaged 5.9 hours (range 3.3-7.7 

hours) for a total of 146.5 hours of flight time.

For the 15 otters radio-tagged in 2001, one (Otter 95) was never heard; two (Otters 88 and 

94) were heard only once; and one (Otter 97) was heard only twice. Of the remaining 11 

otters radio-tagged in 2001, movement distances from capture location to resight location 

(Table 4) ranged up to 2 miles (Otter 98); up to 5 miles (Otter 86); up to 10 miles (Otter 89, 

93, 99, and 100); up to 15 miles (Otter 90 and 96); up to 20 miles (Otter 91); and up to 37 

miles (Otter 84 and 92). Extensive movement and interchange throughout their known range 

was recorded for the majority of otters radio-tagged in 2001 with the greatest movements 

between Cape Alava and Destruction Island (Otter 84 and 92). Otter 91 moved from Cape 

Alava to Slant Rock in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The farthest distance from capture to 

resight location was for Otter 97 that was recovered dead on Shi-Shi Beach, a distance of 47 

miles from its capture location at Destruction Island. Three of the otters implanted in 2001 

died (Otter 88, 91 and 97).

For the 13 otters radio-tagged in 2002, one (Otter 54) was never heard; one (Otter 108) was

heard only once, and one (Otter 113) only twice. Of the remaining 10 otters radio-tagged in 

2002, movement distances from capture location to resight location (Table 5) ranged up to1 

mile (Otter 107); up to 4 miles (Otter 103 and 109); up to 13 miles (Otter 102, 106 and 110); 

and up to 30 miles (Otter 105, 111, 112 and 114). Otters radio-tagged in 2002 showed 

extensive interchange throughout their range similar to the otters radio-tagged in 2001, with 

exchange recorded between Destruction Island and Cedar Creek (Otter 105); Cape Johnson 

and Destruction Island (Otter 112); Destruction Island to Cape Johnson (Otter 114); and 

Giant’s Graveyard to Ozette River (Otter 111). Two of the otters implanted in 2002 died

(Otter 54 and 103).

Although there was extensive movements and interchange between areas along the 

Washington coast, none of the radio-tagged otters were located outside of their currently 

defined range.

Five of the twenty-five sea otters implanted with radio-tags (20 percent) had died by 9 

December 2003. 
Appendix 1a

92

Table 1. Summary of 2001 Washington sea otter captures.

 NO. DATE LOCATION SEX AGE Wt (kg) TX FREQ. LATITUDE LONGITUDE

84 8/3/01 CAPE ALAVA F A 23.5 164.334 48 10.21 124 44.53

85 8/3/01 CAPE ALAVA F P 3 NONE 48 10.21 124 44.53

86 8/4/01 OZETTE RIVER F A 21 164.576 48 10.81 124 43.32

87 8/4/01 OZETTE RIVER M P 5 NONE 48 10.81 124 43.32

88 8/6/01 OZETTE RIVER F A 22 164.697 48 10.86 124 43.28

89 8/6/01 CAPE ALAVA F A 23 164.495 48 10.08 124 44.72

90 8/6/01 CAPE ALAVA F A 24 164.054 48 10.08 124 44.72

91 8/6/01 CAPE ALAVA F A 22 164.451 48 10.08 124 44.72

92 8/6/01 CAPE ALAVA M P 16 164.294 48 10.09 124 44.72

93 8/6/01 CAPE ALAVA F A 27 164.516 48 10.09 124 44.72

94 8/7/01 CAPE ALAVA F A 23 164.135 48 10.10 124 44.69

95 8/7/01 SAND POINT F A 23 164.674 48 07.25 124 43.06

96 8/7/01 SAND POINT F A 27 164.396 48 07.25 124 43.06

97 8/9/01 DESTRUCTION I. M A 41 164.014 47 40.89 124 28.44

98 8/9/01 DESTRUCTION I. M A 30 164.173 47 40.89 124 28.44

99 8/9/01 PERKINS/443 F A 24 164.596 47 46.77 124 29.64

100 8/11/01 PERKINS/443 F A 27 164.216 47 46.77 124 28.44
Appendix 1a

93

Table 2. Summary of 2002 Washington sea otter captures.

 NO. DATE LOCATION SEX AGE Wt (kg) TX FREQ. LATITUDE LONGITUDE

102 8/13/02 DESTRUCTION I. M A 50.5 164.353 47 40.93 124 28.49

103 8/17/02 SAND POINT F A 23 164.373 48 07.30 124 42.91

104 8/17/02 SAND POINT M P 11 NONE 48 07.30 124 42.91

105 8/18/02 DESTRUCTION I. M A 38 164.931 47 40.78 124 28.61

106 8/18/02 PERKINS/RK 443 F A 31 164.882 47 46.84 124 29.63

54 8/16/02 CAPE ALAVA F A 27 164.754 48 10.26 124 44.49

107 8/19/02 DESTRUCTION I. M A 36.5 164.433 47 40.84 124 28.48

108 8/19/02 DESTRUCTION I. M A 31 164.801 47 40.84 124 28.48

109 8/19/02 PERKINS/RK 443 F SA 20 164.973 47 46.81 124 29.66

110 8/19/02 PERKINS/RK 443 F A 25 164.922 47 46.48 124 29.66

111 8/20/02 GIANTS GRVYD F A 26 164.694 47 51.02 124 33.98

112 8/21/02 CAPE JOHNSON M A 37 164.862 47 59.02 124 41.02

113 8/21/02 CAPE JOHNSON M A 27 164.553 47 59.02 124 41.02

114 8/22/02 DESTRUCTION I. F A 30 164.773 47 40.39 124 29.34

115 8/22/02 DESTRUCTION I. F P 15 NONE 47 40.39 124 29.34
Appendix 1a

94

Table 3. Summary of Sea Otter Telemetry Surveys from 2001 to 2003.

DATE AREA OF RADIOTELEMETRY SURVEY HRS

10/2/01 Columbia River to Neah Bay 5.7

10/4/01 Elwha River to Split/Willoughby Rocks 4.0

10/23/01 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

10/25/01 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

10/30/01 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

11/6/01 Columbia River to Lyre River 7.7

11/8/01 Grays Harbor to Lyre River (with broken coaxial cable) 7.2

11/13/01 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

11/15/01 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

11/20/01 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

11/27/01 Pacific Beach to Elwha River 6.8

2/4/02 Columbia River to Seal/Sail Rocks 5.0

2/26/02 Columbia River to Elwha River 4.0

4/2/02 Elwha River to Columbia River 7.2

5/20/02 Columbia River to Elwha River 4.2

5/22/02 Pt. Grenville to Seal/Sail Rocks 5.7

6/19/02 Willapa Bay to Neah Bay 3.5

10/16/02 Pacific Beach to Pillar Point 6.5

10/17/02 Race Rocks to Esteven Point BC 7.5

11/26/02 Pt. Grenville to Tatoosh Island 3.3

1/16/03 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

2/10/03 Columbia River to Lyre River 6.5

4/9/03 Elwha River to Quinault River 7.7

4/10/03 Race Rocks to Esteven Point BC 7.0

4/12/03 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

6/22/03 Cancelled due to fog/weather ---

7/7/03 Columbia River to Elwha River 3.9

7/8/03 Destruction Island to Neah Bay 5.8

7/9/03 Pacific Beach to Elwha River 6.5

7/10/03 Destruction Island to Sekiu River 5.9

8/18/03 Grays Harbor to Giants Graveyard (end with fog to north) 5.1

9/11/03 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

10/21/03 Cancelled due to bad weather ---

11/3/03 Pt. Grenville to Pillar Point 6.0

11/12/03 Pt. Grenville to Sekiu River 7.0

12/9/03 Columbia River to Elwha River 6.8
Appendix 1a

95

TABLE 4. DISTANCE (MILES) FROM CAPTURE LOCATIONS OF SEA OTTERS RADIOTAGGED IN 2001.

SEA OTTER NUMBER

 DATE 84 86 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

10/2/01 32.7 1.3 1 4.4 0.3 3.3 3.3 0.2

10/4/01 33 1.7 0.1 0.3 3.1 0.1 0.1 6 7

11/6/01 31 19.3 1.4 0.2 1.7 5.5

11/27/01 37.3 1.1 0.4 10.2 19.4 37.4 10 1.5 0.5 6.3 6.5

2/4/02 <11.3> 0.7 20 37.7 10.4 9.9 0.1

4/2/02 31.1 5.4 0.9 10.2 39.4 9.3 11.8 0.1 0.1 8.7

5/20/02 37.5 0.5 0.3 6.1 <23.6> 37.2 3.4 <47.3> 0.6 6.6 6.6

5/22/02 30.8 1.7 3.1 6 37.9 0.4 6.7 0.1 7.2 7.2

6/19/02 3.1 2.3 0.8 7.9

10/16/02 24.6 1.9 6 0.1 13.8 7.6

11/26/02 1.7 11.1 14.8 10.8 7.2

2/10/02 0.3 10.3 0.1

4/9/02 13.4

7/7/03 1.9 3.1 38.5 3.2 0.3 7.1

7/8/03 31.7

11/3/03 1.2 0.6

11/12/03 24.8 3.4

12/9/03 25 7.7

TABLE 5. DISTANCE (MILES) FROM CAPTURE LOCATIONS OF SEA OTTERS RADIOTAGGED IN 2002. 

SEA OTTER NUMBER

 DATE 102 103 105 106 54 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114

10/16/02 0.1 0.1 30.1 5.6 0.5 0.4 4.2 5.5 0.9 24.6 1.8

11/26/02 0.5 5.9 1.1 0.1 3 13.8 24.6 0.1

2/10/03 3.5 0.1 2.7 <24.3> 0.3 6.5 1.1

4/9/03 0.8 1.2 0.6 7.8 2.9 0.3 25.8

7/7/03 1.1 4.9 7.3 0.3 3 3 0.6

7/8/03 13.2 7 0.2 0.2

8/18/03 9.8 0.1 0.5 6.4 0.1

11/3/03 <2.7> 1.5 9.9 25.1

11/12/03 0.6 0.9 21 26

12/9/03 12.7 1.6
Appendix 1a

96

Sea Otter Aerial Survey Telemetry Resight Logs for 2001-2003.

2001 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 2 October 2001 (Grays Harbor to Neah Bay)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries and Dyanna Lambourn

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site 

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 11:50 Diamond Pt. 47 45.20 124 27.33 Resting 32.7

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 12:15 Cape Alava 48 09.90 124 44.30 Resting 1.3

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R.

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 13:05 Ozette Island 48 09.21 124 44.65 Resting 1.0

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 12:54 Father & Son 48 13.60 124 42.02 Active 4.4 Rapid pulse 

rate

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 12:15 Cape Alava 48 09.76 124 44.35 Resting 0.3

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 12:15 Cape Alava 48 09.88 124 44.30 Resting 3.3

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction 11:49 Abbey Island 47 42.90 124 25.50 Active 3.3

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 13:13 Destruction Is 47 40.72 124 28.43 Resting 0.2

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks/#443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks/#443
Appendix 1a

97

2001 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 4 October 2001 (Elwha River to Split/Willoughby Rks)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries and Dyanna Lambourn

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site 

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 14:17 Diamond Pt 47 45.23 124 27.30 Resting 33.0

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. 13:52 Duk Pt 48 12.05 124 42.12 Active 1.7

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 13:57 Cape Alava 48 09.90 124 44.23 Resting 0.1

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 13:57 Cape Alava 48 09.85 124 44.28 Resting 0.3 Rapid pulse

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 13:57 Cape Alava 48 09.80 124 44.25 Resting 3.1

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction 14:22 Destruction 47 40.70 124 28.52 Resting 0.1

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 14:22 Destruction 47 40.65 124 28.50 Resting 0.1

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 14:12 GiantsGrvyd 47 51.00 124 33.80 Active 6.0

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443 14:22 Destruction 47 40.66 124 28.00 Resting 7.0
Appendix 1a

98

2001 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 6 November 2001 (Columbia River to Lyre River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steven Jeffries and Dyanna Lambourn

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 13:06 Hoh Head 47 46.56 124 29.95 Active 31.0

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R.

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava 14:03 E. Slant Rk 48 23.51 124 38.26 Resting 19.3 Interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 13:54 Ozette R. 48 11.16 124 23.02 Active 1.4

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava 13:52 Cape Alava 48 10.12 124 43.88 Active 0.2

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 11:45 Midway DI 47 41.27 124 26.46 Active 1.7

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 13:22 Strwbrry Pt 47 50.40 124 33.66 Active 5.5

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

99

2001 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 8 November 2001 (Grays Harbor to Lyre River w/ broken coaxial cable)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries and Dyanna Lambourn, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R.

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443

Telemetry malfunction-coaxial cable to receiver broken
Appendix 1a

100

2001 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 27 November 2001 (Pacific Beach to Elwha River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 11:14 W DI 47 40.63 124 29.27 Active 37.3

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 12:08 Cape Alava 48 10.35 124 44.50 Resting 1.1

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R.

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 12:03 Cape Alava 48 10.35 124 44.81 Resting 0.4

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 13:34 Anderson Pt 48 18.18 124 40.07 Resting 10.2 Rapid pulse

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava 12:30 E. of Slant 48 23.58 124 40.30 Resting 19.4 Interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 13:09 NE DI 47 40.90 124 28.60 Active 37.4

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 12:18 Anderson Pt 48 18.43 124 40.99 Active 10.0

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 11:51 N Yellwbnk 48 06.23 124 42.15 Resting 1.5

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 11:08 NE DI 47 40.99 124 29.18 Active 0.5

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 11:29 GiantsGrvyd 47 51.13 124 33.74 Resting 6.3

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443 12:57 GiantsGrvyd 47 51.20 124 34.21 Resting 6.5
Appendix 1a

101

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 4 February 2002 (Columbia River to Seal/Sail Rocks)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW

Otter No. Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. 13:58 Waatch Pt 48 20.00 124 40.7 Dead 11.3 Mortality signal

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 13:43 Cape Alava 48 10.40 124 45.80 Active 0.7 Rapid but active

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava 14:06 Slant Rock 48 23.60 124 39.70 Resting 20.0 interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 13:16 DI 48 40.80 124 28.60 Active 37.7

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 13:56 Andrsn Pt 48 18.4 124 40.9 Active 10.4

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 13:51 Pt of Arches 48 15.1 124 42.3 Resting 9.9

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 13:12 DI 47 40.8 124 28.6 Resting 0.1

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443

Ref 164.754 OLM 11:37 OLM
Appendix 1a

102

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 26 February 2002 (Columbia River to Destruction Island) Note: end at DI due to bad interference

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW and Peter Olesiuk, DFO

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

103

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 2 April 2002 (Elwha River to Columbia River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW and Peter Olesiuk, DFO

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 11:55 Rks 443 47 46.89 124 29.76 Resting 31.1

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 11:28 Sand Pt 48 06.49 124 42.94 Active 5.4

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 11:20 S. Ozette Is 48 09.28 124 44.54 Resting 0.9 w/ raft of 30

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 11:02 N Andrsn Pt 48 18.04 124 41.51 Resting 10.2

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Bad interference

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 12:10 DI east 47 40.86 124 28.78 Active 39.4 w/ 180

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 11:07 Portage Head 48 17.40 124 41.70 Active 9.3 Swimming north

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 12:35 S. Portge Hd 48 16.57 124 41.96 Active 11.8

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 12:09 DI east 47 40.86 124 28.78 Active 0.1 w/ 180

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 11:56 Rks 443 47 46.89 124 29.50 Active 0.1

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443 13:55 DI west 47 40.22 124 29.35 Resting 8.7
Appendix 1a

104

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 20 May 2002 (Columbia River to Elwha River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER(S): Steve Jeffries and Dyanna Lambourn, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 14:43 DI 47 41.45 124 28.40 Resting 37.5

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 15:32 S. of Ozette R 48 10.69 124 44.33 Resting 0.5 w/10 

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 15:27 Cape Alava 48 09.86 124 44.33 Resting 0.3 w/6

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 15:20 Yellowbanks 48 05.22 124 41.77 Resting 6.1 w/24 rapid pulse

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava 15:57 Waadah N side 48 23.13 124 36.00 Dead 23.6 Mortality on beach

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 14:43 DI 47 41.45 124 28.40 Active 37.2

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 15:39 Duk 48 12.08 124 42.34 Resting 3.4 w/30

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction 15:44 ShiShi N. end 48 16.65 124 40.80 Dead 47.3 Dead at north end

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 14:43 DI 47 41.45 124 28.40 Active 0.6

99 AD/F 164.596 Perkins/#443 14:43 DI 47 41.45 124 28.40 Active 6.6

100 AD/F 164.216 Perkins/#443 14:43 DI 47 41.45 124 28.40 Resting 6.6
Appendix 1a

105

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 22 May 2002 (Pt Grenville to Seal/Sail Rks)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 12:31 Rks 443 47 46.89 124 29.76 Active 30.8 w/50

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 13:14 Duk 48 12.08 124 42.34 Resting 1.7 w/40

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 13:15 Duk 48 12.08 124 42.34 Resting 3.1 w/40

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 12:57 Yellowbanks 48 05.22 124 41.77 Active 6.0 rapid pulse/alive

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 12:12 DI 47 40.86 124 28.78 Active 37.9 w/100

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 13:11 Cape Alava 48 09.86 124 44.33 Resting 0.4 w/8

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 13:14 Duk 48 12.08 124 42.34 Resting 6.7 w/40

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 12:12 DI 47 40.86 124 28.78 Resting 0.1 w/100

99 AD/F 164.596 Perkins/#443 12:13 DI 47 40.86 124 28.78 Resting 7.2 w/100

100 AD/F 164.216 Perkins/#443 12:15 DI 47 40.86 124 28.78 Active 7.2 w/100
Appendix 1a

106

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 19 June 2002 (Willapa Bay to Neah Bay)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 16:50 Duk 48 12.11 124 42.20 Resting 3.1 w/60

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 16:38 Yellowbanks 48 05.44 124 42.34 Resting 2.3 w/15

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction 16:06 DI east 47 40.18 124 29.00 Active 0.8 w/150

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443 15:58 DI west 47 40.15 124 29.35 Resting 7.9 w/15
Appendix 1a

107

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 16 October 2002 (Pacific Beach to Pillar Point)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW and Kristen Walker, Portland State University

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 11:05 GiantsGravyd 47.51.06 124 33.68 Resting 24.6

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 13:21 Cape Alava 48 09.77 124 44.67 Active 1.9 Weak signal

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 11:59 Pt of Arches 48 14.56 124 42.95 Active 6.0

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 11:38 Cape Alava 48 09.90 124 44.50 Active 0.1 Rapid pulse rate

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 11:18 Bluff Pt 47 58.58 124 40.81 Resting 13.8

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 10:27 DI 47 40.51 124 29.76 Active 7.6

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

108

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 16 October 2002 (Columbia River to Pillar Point)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW and Kristen Walker, Portland State University

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI 10:18 DI 47 41.54 124 28.70 Resting 0.1

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point 11:33 Sand Pt 48 07.15 124 42.72 Active 0.1

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 13:13 Norwgn Mem 48 02.92 124 42.12 Active 30.1

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443 11:01 Toleak Pt 47 50.50 124 32.48 Resting 5.6

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava

107 AD/M 164.433 DI 10:16 DI 47 40.91 124 29.12 Resting 0.5

108 AD/M 164.801 DI 12:36 DI 47 40.95 124 29.00 Active 0.4

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443 10:48 Toleak Pt 47 49.80 124 32.20 Active 4.2 Rapid pulse rate

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 10:47 Strawberry Pt 47 50.72 124 32.94 Active 5.5

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 12:55 Strawberry Pt 47 50.70 124 32.80 Resting 0.9

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson 12:31 DI 47 40.93 124 27.86 Active 24.6

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson 11:13 Cape Johnson 47 57.0 124 39.80 Active 1.8

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

109

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 17 October 2002 (Race Rks to Esteven Pt, BC)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks 443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

110

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 26 November 2002 (Pt Grenville to Tatoosh Island)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 15:04 Cape Alava 48 09.70 124 44.56 Active 1.7

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 15:14 Anderson Pt 48 18.50 124 39.20 Active 11.1 Rapid/mortality

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 15:32 CapeJohnsn 47 5760 124 39.80 Active 14.8

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 15:13 Anderson Pt 48 18.65 124 39.91 Active 10.8

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 14:28 DI 47 40.90 124 28.91 Resting 7.2

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

111

2002 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 26 November 2002 (Pt Grenville to Tatoosh Island)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 14:24 DI 47 41.20 124 28.70 Active 0.5

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443 14:42 GiantsGravyrd 47 50.88 124 33.70 Active 5.9

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava

107 AD/M 164.433 DI 14:20 DI 47 40.45 124 29.77 Resting 1.1

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443 15:48 Rk 443 47 46.79 124 29.49 Active 0.1 rapid/mortality

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 15:42 Goodmn Crk 47 49.24 124 30.50 Resting 3.0

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 14:21 DI 47 40.45 124 29.77 Active 13.8

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson 14:25 DI 47 41.20 124 28.70 Active 24.6

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI 14:27 DI 47 40.49 124 29.50 Active 0.1

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

112

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 10 Feb 2003 (Columbia River to Lyre River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava 13:45 Cape Alava 48 09.92 124 44.23 Active 0.3 Rapid pulse rate

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 14:08 Anderson Pt 48 17.83 124 40.90 Resting 10.3

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 13:05 Rks 443 47 46.81 124 29.70 Active 0.1

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

113

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 10 Feb 2003 (Columbia River to Lyre River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point 13:54 Cape Alava 48 10.12 124 44.19 Active 3.5

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 12:52 DI 47 40.80 124 28.53 Active 0.1

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443 13:01 Diamond Rk 47 45.23 124 27.24 Active 2.7

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava 14:20 Waadah 48 22.68 124 35.84 Dead 24.3 Rapid, tag on beach

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443 13:10 Rks 443 47 46.55 124 29.84 Active 0.3 Rapid pulse, alive

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 13:18 GiantsGrvyrd 47 51.08 124 33.76 Resting 6.5

111 AD/F 164.694 Giants Gravyrd

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI 12:49 DI 47 40.74 124 28.42 Resting 1.1

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

114

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 9 April 2003 (Elwha River to Quinault River) 

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 12:23 Bluff Pt 47 58.75 124 41.31 Resting 13.4

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

115

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 9 April 2003 (Elwha River to Quinault River) 

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI 12:46 DI 47 40.27 124 28.61 Active 0.8

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point 12:09 Sand Pt 48 08.47 124 43.92 Active 1.2

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 12:46 DI 47 40.27 124 28.61 Active 0.6

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443 12:46 DI 47 40.27 124 28.61 Active 7.8

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Waadah Dead 24.3 Tag on beach

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 12:36 GoodmanCrk 47 49.05 124 30.20 Resting 2.9

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson 12:21 Bluff Pt 47 58.75 124 41.31 Resting 0.3

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI 12:21 Bluff Pt 47 58.75 124 41.31 Resting 25.8

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

116

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 10 April 2003 (Race Rks to Estevan Pt, BC)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

117

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 10 April 2003 (Race Rks to Estevan Pt, BC)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

118

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 7, 2003 (Columbia River to Elwha River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R. 1758 Duk 48 12.20 124 42.10 Active 1.9

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 1757 Duk 48 12.18 124 42.16 Active 3.1

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava 1709 DI 47 40.80 124 28.68 Active 38.5

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava 1756 Duk 48 12.15 124 42.14 Active 3.2

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point 1748 Sandpoint 48 07.55 124 42.80 Active 0.3

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443 1710 DI 47 40.74 124 28.69 Resting 7.1 Rapid mort. signal
Appendix 1a

119

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 7, 2003 (Columbia River to Elwha River) 

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point 1749 Weddng Rks 48 08.22 124 43.12 Active 1.1

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 1722 HohR mouth 47 44.90 124 27.19 Active 4.9

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443 1710 DI 47 40.72 124 28.64 Active 7.3

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Waadah Dead Tag buried in sand

107 AD/M 164.433 DI 1705 DI 47 40.68 124 28.72 Active 0.3

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443 1720 HohR mouth 47 44.95 124 27.24 Resting 3.0

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 1719 HohR mouth 47 44.85 124 27.20 Active 3.0

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI 1707 DI 47 40.65 124 28.60 Active 0.6

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

120

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 8, 2003 (Destruction Island to Neah Bay) Note: scan frequencies not heard on 7/7/03 flight

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steven Jeffries, WDFW and Lisa Triggs, Pt. Defiance Zoo and Aquarium

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 1204 Rk 443 47 46.29 124 29.70 Active 31.7

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Perkins/#443

100 AD/F 164.216 Perkins/#443
Appendix 1a

121

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 8, 2003 (Destruction Island to Neah Bay) Note: scan frequencies not heard on 7/7/03 flight

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steven Jeffries, WDFW and Lisa Triggs, Pt. Defiance Zoo and Aquarium

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI 1214 GiantsGravyrd 47 50.92 124 33.72 Active 13.2 Signal weak

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 1204 Rks 443 47 46.20 124 29.70 Active 7.0

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson 1224 Bluff Pt 47 59.20 124 41.00 Resting 0.2

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson 1224 Bluff Pt 47 59.20 124 41.00 Active 0.2

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

122

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 9, 2003 (Pacific Beach to Elwha River) Note: only scan frequencies not heard on 7/7-8/03

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steven Jeffries, WDFW and Lisa Triggs, Pt. Defiance Zoo and Aquarium

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

123

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 9, 2003 (Pacific Beach to Elwha River) Note: only scan frequencies not heard on 7/7-8/03

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steve Jeffries, WDFW and Lisa Triggs, Pt. Defiance Zoo and Aquarium

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

124

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 10, 2003 (Destruction Island to Sekiu River Note: only scan frequencies not heard on 7/7-9/03)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVERS: Steven Jeffries, WDFW and Lisa Triggs, Pt. Defiance Zoo and Aquarium

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

125

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: July 10, 2003 (Destruction Island to Sekiu River Note: only scan frequencies not heard on 7/7-9/03) 

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

126

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 18 August 2003 (Grays Harbor to Giants Graveyard) Note: end at Giants Graveyard due to fog to north

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries

 

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

127

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 18 August 2003 (Columbia River to Giants Graveyard Note: end at Giants Graveyard due to fog to north)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries

 

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI 12:25 GoodmnCrk 47 49.25 124 30.55 Active 9.8 weak

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 11:50 DI 47 40.70 124 28.61 Active 0.1

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443 12:03 Rks 443 47 47.22 124 29.66 Resting 0.5 mortality signal

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 12:10 GiantsGrvyrd 47 51.15 124 33.55 Resting 6.4

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 12:12 GiantsGrvyrd 47 51.09 124 33.49 

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI 12:09 GiantsGrvyrd 47 51.10 124 33.72 Active 0.1 weak

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

128

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 21 October 2003 (Cancelled bad weather)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

129

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 3 November 2003 (Point Grenville to Pillar Point)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries

 

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 14:06 S. Ozette Is 48 09.10 124 44.31 Resting 1.2

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443 13:28 Rks 443 47 47.26 124 29.58 Active 0.6

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443
Appendix 1a

130

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 3 November 2003 (Point Grenville to Pillar Point)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW 

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point 13:59 Yellowbanks 48 05.13 124 41.35 Dead 2.7 mortality

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 13:14 DI 47 40.52 124 30.32 Active 1.5 active but mort.signal

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 13:41 Chilean Mem. 47 57.11 124 40.06 Resting 9.9

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson 13:12 DI 47 40.64 124 30.71 Active 25.1

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

131

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 12 November 2003 (Point Grenville to Sekiu River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW 

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 15:18 GiantsGrvyrd 47 51.06 124 33.22 Resting 24.8 In raft w/ 10 El’s

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava 13:15 N. Sand Pt 48 07.29 124 43.15 Active 3.4

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Perkins/#443

100 AD/F 164.216 Perkins/#443
Appendix 1a

132

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 12 November 2003 (Point Grenville to Sekiu River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW 

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point Dead Dead

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI 15:03 DI NE 47 40.41 124 29.12 Active 0.6 active but mort. sig

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI 12:57 DI W 47 40.30 124 29.41 Active 0.9

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 13:37 N Cedar Crk 48 01.24 124 41.31 Active 21.0

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 13:41 Ozette R W 48 10.49 124 43.41 Active 26.0 Swimming to Canball

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1a

133

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 9 December 2003 (Columbia River to Elwha River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steven Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

84 AD/F 164.334 Cape Alava 11:59 GiantsGrvyrd 47 51.01 124 33.83 Resting 25.0 w/12 in raft

85 P/F Cape Alava

86 AD/F 164.576 Ozette R.

87 P/M Ozette R.

88 AD/F 164.697 Ozette R. Dead Dead

89 AD/F 164.495 Cape Alava

90 AD/F 164.054 Cape Alava

91 AD/F 164.451 Cape Alava Dead Dead

92 P/M 164.294 Cape Alava

93 AD/F 164.516 Cape Alava

94 AD/F 164.135 Cape Alava

95 AD/F 164.674 Sand Point

96 AD/F 164.396 Sand Point

97 AD/M 164.014 Destruction Dead Dead

98 AD/M 164.173 Destruction

99 AD/F 164.596 Rks #443

100 AD/F 164.216 Rks #443 11:30 DI 47 40.46 124 29.25 Resting 7.7 Rapid mortality
Appendix 1a

134

2003 Sea Otter Radiotelemetry Resight Form

DATE: 9 December 2003 (Columbia River to Elwha River)

SURVEY TYPE: Aerial 

OBSERVER: Steve Jeffries, WDFW

Otter 

No.

Age/ 

Sex

Radiotag 

Frequency

Capture 

Location

Resight 

Time

Resight 

Location

Latitude Longitude Activity Miles from 

Capture Site

Comments

102 AD/M 164.353 DI

103 AD/F 164.373 Sand Point Dead Dead

104 P/ Sand Point

105 AD/M 164.931 DI

106 AD/F 164.882 Rks #443

54 AD/F 164.754 Cape Alava Dead Dead

107 AD/M 164.433 DI

108 AD/M 164.801 DI

109 SA/F 164.973 Rks #443

110 AD/F 164.922 Rks #443 12:05 James Island 47 54.69 124 38.98 Active 12.7

111 AD/F 164.694 GiantsGravyrd 11:50 N. Toleak Pt 47 49.75 124 33.16 Active 1.6

112 AD/M 164.862 Cape Johnson

113 AD/M 164.553 Cape Johnson

114 AD/F 164.773 DI

115 P/F DI
Appendix 1b

135

Appendix 1b. Activity Budgets and Prey Consumption for the Washington Sea Otter, 

Enhydra lutris kenyoni: 2003 and 2004

Kristen A. Walker

Department of Biology

Portland State University

P.O. Box 751

Portland, OR 97207

Phone: (503)295-6658, Fax: (503)725-4751;

Email: kristenw3@yahoo.com

Activity Budgets and Prey Consumption for the Washington Sea Otter, 

Enhydra lutris kenyoni: 2003 and 2004

K.A. WALKER, Portland State University, Department of Biology, PO Box 751, Portland, 

OR 97207, USA, email:kristenw3@yahoo.com

J.W. DAVIS, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Western Washington Fish & Wildlife

Office, 510 Desmond Drive SE Suite 102, Lacey, WA 98503, USA, 

email:jay_davis@fws.gov

D.A. DUFFIELD, Portland State University, Department of Biology, PO Box 751, 

Portland, OR 97207, USA, email:duffieldd@pdx.edu

Walker, K.A., Davis, J.W., and D.A. Duffield. Activity Budgets and Prey Consumption for 

the Washington Sea Otter, Enhydra lutris kenyoni: 2003 and 2004.

ABSTRACT

Northern sea otters, Enhydra lutris kenyoni, were extirpated from the Washington 

coast in the early 1900’s. Reintroductions of sea otters from Amchitka Island, Alaska 

occurred in 1969 and 1970. By 2005, 814 sea otters were occupying a range from 

Destruction Island north to Anderson Point, with the majority of individuals located south 

of La Push, Washington. The focus of this study was to describe local abundance, diurnal 

activity budgets, and variability in prey consumption at four locations in the current 

Washington sea otter range. Local abundance varied among the locations. Overall, sea 

otters primarily spent their daylight hours resting (62.0%), followed by grooming (19.7%), 

and then feeding (7.6%). Activities varied by location, age, group size, tide, and time of 

day. Diet consisted predominantly (82%) of crabs, clams, and sea stars. In each study area, 

one main prey item comprised at least 34% of the total prey consumed; however, the main 

prey item differed among locations. Study locations were utilized differently, some as 

resting/pup-rearing sites and others as feeding sites. Overall diurnal feeding activity in this 

study (7.6%) suggested high food availability in the current Washington sea otter range, 

signifying that the Washington population is still below equilibrium density. 
Appendix 1b

136

INTRODUCTION

Sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) were common along the Washington coast until 

they were extirpated during the fur trade (Scheffer 1940, Riedman and Estes 1990). The 

current Washington State sea otter population was subsequently founded from sea otters 

translocated from Amchitka Island, Alaska. Two groups of translocated sea otters were 

introduced in 1969 and 1970, resulting in a total of 59 otters (41 females and 18 males) 

being released into Washington waters over these two years (Bowlby et al. 1988). It is 

believed that the current population was re-established from no more than 43 otters, and 

possibly as few as 10 (Jameson et al. 1982). 

Between 1977 and 1989, records indicate that the Washington population increased 

from 19 to 208 otters (Jameson 1998, Lance et al. 2004). Since 1989, the Washington 

Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) had observed continued growth to a total of 604 

animals by 1999 (Lance et al. 2004). In the latest census conducted in July 2005, 814 sea 

otters were counted, a 10% increase from 2004 (Jameson and Jeffries 2005). Overall, there 

has been an average annual rate of increase of 8.2% since 1989 and it would appear that the 

Washington sea otter population is still in a positive growth phase (Jameson and Jeffries 

2005).

The Washington State sea otter population is currently protected under the Marine 

Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and under endangered species legislation in the State of 

Washington. As sea otter numbers continue to increase in Washington there are many 

management issues that are of concern: oil spill and anthropogenic contaminant risks, 

shellfish fisheries conflicts, and the effects of sea otters on coastal marine ecosystem 

structure and dynamics (Lance et al. 2004). Ecological factors such as distribution, 

abundance and prey consumption, as well as time and activity budgets need to be 

documented not only to aid in these management decisions, but also to support the WDFW 

Sea Otter Recovery Plan (Lance et al. 2004) which is aimed at ensuring that a selfsustaining population of sea otters will eventually exist in Washington. 

Bowlby et al. (1988) presented data on Washington sea otter abundance, 

distribution, and activity budgets collected in 1986 & 1987. However, little dietary 

composition data for sea otters in Washington has been published, unlike other regions in 

which sea otters inhabit, most likely due to the remote nature of the area and presence of 

complex weather patterns which make land-based observations more difficult. Dietary 

consumption information is especially critical because in recent years there has been an 

increased presence of immuno-suppressing contaminants in sea otters and there may be a 

relationship between sea otters ingesting contaminated prey items and mortality events and 

incidence of pathogens observed in the Washington population (Lance et al. 2004, Dubey

et al. 2003). Accordingly, to provide these data and to address changes in the previously 

measured population parameters, this research study was designed to investigate prey 

consumption, as well as, local abundance, group size and diurnal activity patterns for sea 

otters in four known high abundance locations along the Washington State Olympic 

Peninsula. Additional analyses were conducted to assess the influence of environmental 

variables such as tide, water and air temperature, time of day, age, and date/year, on these 

ecological measures. 
Appendix 1b

137

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research was conducted in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary on the 

Washington State Olympic Peninsula during the spring and summer months of 2003 and 

2004. This was a land-based observation study using coastal viewing areas which were 

close to large rafts of sea otters and which were accessible by backcountry trails and 4-

wheel drive vehicles. Four locations were selected for the concentrated survey effort (Duk 

Point, Cape Alava, Sand Point, and Norwegian Memorial; Fig.1). These sites were chosen 

based on accessibility and viewing conditions, as well as to complement toxicological and 

epidemiological studies being conducted in the area by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Activity Budgets and Prey Consumption

Based on methods used by Estes et al. 1982, an effort was made to evenly distribute 

observations across time periods for all locations to avoid spatial segregation bias due to 

point-in-time sampling. However, the actual total amount of time spent at each study 

location was dependent upon clear viewing conditions and upon accessibility to the study 

area based on tidal cycles. 

When sea otters were in unobstructed viewing areas at the four study locations, sea 

otter activity was observed from the coast by scanning the water using Cabela Alaskan 

Guide 10 X 40 binoculars (Cabela, Sidney, Nebraska). An AT-80 high definition 

Swarovski spotting scope (Swarovski Optik, Cranston, Rhode Island) was used to facilitate 

closer observations of prey consumption and behavioral activities. During each observation 

period, the largest number of sea otters in the area was noted every half hour. Date, time, 

location, observable tidal cycle (high, mid, low), and weather conditions were also 

recorded.

An ethogram was constructed based on a study by Packard and Ribic (1982), and 

activity budget data were collected. Activity budget categories included resting, grooming, 

foraging, traveling, playing, nursing, and other (i.e. copulating, startled). A scan sample 

method, based on a study by Estes et al. (1982), was used to record activity. Scans were 

conducted with a spotting scope to determine the total number of sea otters concentrated in 

one location and their individual activity. Age (adult or pup) and the number of sea otters 

per group at each location were recorded. One minute was spent in each field of view 

visible through the spotting scope, so as not to exclude otters underwater. This was based 

on an average reported dive time for sea otters of one minute (Estes et al.1982). During 

every scan, each sea otter observed was classified as performing one of the seven 

behaviors. The scan was repeated every thirty minutes, with the total time at each area 

being as equally distributed as possible among the locations. Activity budgets were 

calculated from these observations. 

Prey consumption data were collected by direct observation of individual sea otters 

feeding. Foraging observations (eating or engaged in foraging dives) were made between 

activity budget scans. Once a foraging otter was located, data collection would begin. If 

more than one individual was observed feeding, the otter closest to shore was observed to 

facilitate identification of prey species. Once an individual was no longer actively foraging, 
Appendix 1b

138

moved out of sight, or when the activity budget scan was to resume, the feeding 

observation was terminated. Location, time of day, and tidal cycle were recorded for all 

feeding observations, along with sex and age (pup or adult), if identifiable. Sex of the 

adults was determined by the presence of either a penile or testicular bulge on the male 

lower abdomen, or the presence of abdominal teats on the female (Riedman and Estes 

1990). Pups were not sexed due to difficulties in distinguishing reproductive anatomy. Age 

was categorized as adult or pup (approximately 0-24 weeks old). Additional data collected 

during a feeding observation included: the total number of successful and unsuccessful 

dives, the duration of each observed foraging dive, the number of prey brought to the 

surface after a foraging dive, and the identification of the prey item. A successful dive was 

defined by the capture of a prey item. If prey items were not brought back to the surface, 

the dive was classified as unsuccessful. 

Taxonomic classification of prey species was determined to the lowest possible 

taxon. If there was difficulty in classifying an individual prey species, then the major 

taxonomic group was indicated (i.e. crab, clam, sea star, mussel, etc.). Prey were classified 

as unknown when items were either hidden in the sea otter’s forepaws, or the otter was too 

far away for complete confidence in classification. 

Tide height data and water and air temperature data for 2003 and 2004 were 

obtained from the CO-OPS database (http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/data_res.html). 

Statistical Methods

All statistical tests were conducted using SPSS (SPSS, Inc. Version 11.5 Chicago, 

Illinois). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to test for significant 

differences in overall mean abundance (the mean number of sea otters present at a given 

location). Tukey Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) post hoc tests were used to test for 

significant differences among locations. 

To be able to compare differences in daily activity patterns among the four study 

locations, the number of sea otters performing a specific behavior was divided by the total 

number of sea otters observed during the half hour time interval, giving a percentage of 

time spent in that activity. Chi square contingency tables were then used to test whether 

each activity was uniform among the four locations, as well as between all paired locations, 

and, similarly, to test uniformity in prey consumption among locations and by gender. 

Stepwise logistic regression was used to investigate the relationship between 

behavioral activities (adults and pups together) and 10 predictor variables -location, date, 

year, time (second order polynomial; time and time squared), tide (actual height in meters 

and daily tidal cycle coded – high, mid, low), water temperature, age, and group size. 

Differences in dive durations among locations were tested using one-way ANOVA, 

followed by a Tukey HSD post hoc comparison. The effects of gender and females with 

pups on dive duration were also tested using a one-way ANOVA. 

The total numbers of successful vs. unsuccessful dives were analyzed by logistic 

regression analysis to look for relationships between unsuccessful dives and location, 

gender of the sea otter, and the presence of a dependent pup with a foraging mother. 
Appendix 1b

139

RESULTS

Local Abundance

Significant differences in overall local abundance were found among the four 

locations (ANOVA: F(3,315) = 28.75, p < 0.001; Fig. 2). Follow-up pair-wise comparisons 

found that mean sea otter abundance at Cape Alava and Sand Point did not differ 

significantly (p = 0.304), however all other pair-wise comparisons were significant at p ≤ 

0.01. Duk Point had the highest average number of otters observed per 1⁄2 hr activity scan, 

followed by Cape Alava, Sand Point, and then Norwegian Memorial. The highest number 

of sea otters observed overall during a single 1⁄2 hr activity scan was 104 at Duk Point 

(2004), with Cape Alava having the second highest count of 86 sea otters (2003). 

Activity Budget Data

The combined time and activity budget data for 2003-2004 showed that sea otters 

spent 62.3% of their daylight hours resting, 19.7% grooming, 7.6% feeding, with playing, 

traveling, nursing, and “other” activities comprising the remaining 10.4% of the activity 

budget (Table 1). While, overall, sea otters spent the majority of the daylight hours resting, 

the proportion of the time spent in resting, feeding, traveling, and “other” activities varied 

significantly among locations (χ2 = 83.09, p < 0.001; χ2 = 91.96, p < 0.001; χ2 = 44.50, p < 

0.001; χ2 = 33.72, p < 0.001, respectively). On the other hand, diurnal grooming, playing, 

and nursing activities were not significantly different among the four study sites (χ2 = 7.74, 

p = 0.05; χ2 = 6.70, p = 0.08; χ2 = 4.91, p = 0.18, respectively). 

The different predictor variables - location, date, year, time (second order 

polynomial), tide (actual height and coded), water temperature, age, and group size, had 

effects on the various activities.

Resting Activity: Seven of the predictor variables were significantly related to 

resting activity and accounted for 14% of the variation in feeding (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 

923.1, p < 0.001, Cox-Snell R2 = 0.14). The greatest contribution to the log-odds of resting 

was group size; resting activity was higher in larger groups (p < 0.001). Age (adult vs. pup) 

was the second most influential variable with pups resting more than adults (p < 0.001). 

There was greater resting activity in 2003 (p < 0.001), and resting was less frequent in the 

morning hours (time; p = 0.026) with a peak in the afternoon (time sq.; p = 0.002). Resting 

activity increased as tide height decreased (p = 0.021) and as water temperature decreased 

(p = 0.04).

Grooming Activity: Seven of the predictor variables were significantly related to 

grooming activity (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 231.0, p < 0.001), however, the regression model 

accounted for very little of the observed variability (Cox-Snell R2 = 0.04). Age was the 

greatest contributor to the log-odds of grooming, with adults grooming more than pups (p < 

0.001). Grooming activity was observed in greater frequency in 2004 (p <0.001), however 

this varied among the observation days (p = 0.002). The probability of sea otters grooming 

increased as tide height decreased (p < 0.001). Grooming had a greater probability of 

occurring in smaller groups (p < 0.001), and was more common in the middle of the day 

(time: p = 0.013 and time sq.: p = 0.006). 

Feeding Activity: Seven of the predictor variables were significantly related to 

feeding activity, accounting for 21% of the variation in feeding (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 
Appendix 1b

140

1469.2, p < 0.001, Cox-Snell R2 = 0.21). The greatest contribution to the log-odds of 

feeding was group size: sea otters rarely fed in large groups (p < 0.001). Tide height was 

the second most influential variable, with the probability of sea otters feeding increasing as 

tide height increased (p < 0.001). The probability of sea otters feeding was different among 

the locations (p < 0.001). Adults fed more than pups (p < 0.001), and there was a peak in 

foraging activity in the late morning and a decrease in the late afternoon (time sq; p = 

0.057). Feeding activity was greater in 2004 (p = 0.001), and decreases in water 

temperature were related to an increase in the log-odds of feeding (p = 0.014).

Playing Activity: Four of the predictor variables were significantly related to play 

activity, but accounted for only 1% of the variability (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 74.4, p < 0.001, 

Cox-Snell R2 = 0.01). The greatest contribution to the log-odds of playing was group size, 

with the probability of playing increasing as group size decreased (p < 0.001). The 

probability of sea otters playing decreased in the morning (p < 0.001) and increased in the 

afternoon hours (p < 0.001), and there was variability in play activity among the 

observation dates (p = 0.003).

Traveling Activity: Six of the predictor variables were significantly related to 

traveling activity, but accounted for very little of the variability in travel activity (Wald’s χ2

statistic = 222.97, p < 0.001, Cox-Snell R2 = 0.04). The greatest contribution to the logodds of traveling was group size (p < 0.001); sea otters traveled in small groups (one to 

twenty-one individuals), with the exception of occasions where, for example, the majority 

of a group were resting, became startled and all rapidly swam together in one direction. 

Traveling significantly decreased in the afternoon hours (p < 0.001) and was observed 

more often in 2003 (p < 0.001). The probability of sea otters traveling increased as both 

water temperature (p = 0.002) and tide height (p = 0.028) increased. Adults traveled 

significantly more than pups (p < 0.001). 

Nursing Activity: Only pups were classified as nursing with one predictor variable, 

group size, significantly related to nursing activity (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 16.48, p < 0.001, 

Cox-Snell R2 = 0.03), again accounting for very little variability. As group size decreased, 

the probability of sea otter pups nursing increased (p = 0.007). In fact, nursing behavior 

was only witnessed in groups smaller than 30 sea otters, and was most often seen when 

there was only the mother-pup pair present. 

Other Activity: The last criterion variable was whether or not sea otters were 

engaged in “other” activities, 83% of which were acts of copulation. Three of the predictor 

variables were significantly related to other activity (Wald’s χ

2 statistic = 222.97, p < 

0.001, Cox-Snell R2 = 0.01). The greatest contribution to the log-odds of other activity was 

the tide height, with other activity increasing during higher tides (p < 0.001). The 

probability of other activities increased as group size decreased to between two to nine 

individuals (p < 0.001) and these activities decreased in the morning hours (p < 0.001).

Diet Composition

Sea otters were observed consuming crabs (Order Decapoda), kelp crabs (Pugettia 

producta), clams (Order Bivalvia), Pacific littleneck clams (Protothaca staminea), octopus 

(Octopus dofleini), sea stars (Pisaster sp.), Dawson’s sea stars (Solaster dawsoni), sea 
Appendix 1b

141

cucumbers (Cucumaria miniata), mussels (Mytilus sp.), snails (Class Gastropoda), red sea 

urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), and unknown bivalves (Order Bivalvia). 

Overall, sea otters consumed primarily crabs (45.0%), clams (23.1%), and sea stars 

(13.9%) (Table 2). All other food items together comprised approximately 18.0% of the 

total dietary composition. In each study area, one main prey type comprised at least 34% of 

the total consumption of all identifiable prey, but the main prey types differed among 

locations. The proportion of clams, crabs, sea stars, and mussels all differed significantly 

among locations (χ2 = 171.83, p < 0.001; χ2 = 18.09, p < 0.001; χ2 = 118.80, p < 0.001; χ2= 

16.71, p = 0.001, respectively). 

Overall, females consumed significantly more clams than males (χ2 = 106.71, p < 

0.001). Males consumed significantly greater amounts of crabs (χ2 = 4.05, p = 0.044), 

mussels (χ2 = 14.24, p < 0.001), and unknown prey items (χ2 = 20.22, p < 0.001) than 

females. All other prey items were consumed uniformly by both sexes. 

Dive Durations

The mean duration for all observed foraging dives was 35.6 sec. The shortest dive 

recorded (5.3 sec) was by a male at Sand Point who consumed an unknown prey item, and 

the longest (122 sec) was an unsuccessful dive recorded for an adult female at Norwegian 

Memorial. The longest dive in which a prey item was captured, was 93.9 sec by a female 

at Sand Point. 

Longer dives occurred when sea otters captured clams (Χ = 45.8 ± 17.7 sec, n = 49) 

and sea stars (Χ = 42.5 ± 17.9 sec, n = 17). The shortest dives were for small unknown prey 

items (Χ = 22.4 ± 15.7 sec, n = 25). On 80.1% of observed foraging dives, one prey item 

was captured, two prey items were observed 18% of the time, and three prey items were 

captured on 1.9% of the foraging dives.

Dive durations differed significantly among the four locations (ANOVA: F(3,198) = 

16.65, p < 0.001), with location alone explaining 19% of the variation in dive length. The 

greatest mean dive duration was seen at Norwegian Memorial and was significantly 

different from both Sand Point (p < 0.001) and Duk Point (p < 0.001). Sea otters at Duk 

Point dove longer than the otters at Sand Point (p = 0.032). Mean dive durations were not

significantly different for males, females, or females with pups (ANOVA: F(2,143) = 1.72, p 

= 0.183). 

Successful vs. Unsuccessful dives 

A significant relationship existed between the number of unsuccessful dives and 

location (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 10.79, p = 0.001). Duk Point and Cape Alava had the highest 

proportion of unsuccessful dives with a mean percent of 24% and 21.7%, respectively. The 

lowest number of observed unsuccessful dives occurred at Sand Point and Norwegian 

Memorial (15% and 12.3%, respectively). 

No relationship was found between the number of unsuccessful dives and the 

gender of the otters (Wald’s χ

2 statistic = 0.493, p = 0.483), nor between the number of 

unsuccessful dives and independent females and females with pups (Wald’s χ2 statistic = 

0.590, p = 0.442). 
Appendix 1b

142

DISCUSSION

Lower percentages of foraging activities are believed to occur in areas where sea otter 

populations are below equilibrium density, as a consequence of still abundant sessile prey 

(Estes et al. 1982, Garshelis 1983, Estes et al. 1986). Garshelis et al. (1986) proposed a 

relationship between the amount of time sea otters spent foraging and food availability and 

that one could use time budget data to assess the availability vs. limitation of prey in 

different parts of a population’s range. This has been supported by studies on diurnal 

patterns of activity for sea otters at Amchitka Island, Alaska, where the population is 

assumed to be at or near equilibrium density vs. a population at Attu Island, Alaska which 

is considered to be below equilibrium density (Estes et al. 1982, Estes 1990). The 

Amchitka Island population spent 51-58% of the day feeding, while in the Attu Island 

population sea otters spent only 16-18% of their day feeding. Furthermore, given limited 

prey availability at Amchitka Island, Estes et al. (1982) concluded that the otters adjusted 

their foraging activities to exploit fish (60% of their diet), which also resulted in changes in 

the their diurnal feeding activities. Similarly, a small translocated population of sea otters 

at Blanco Reef in Oregon (below equilibrium) spent 17% of the day feeding (Estes et al.

1982), compared to the California population (assumed to be approaching equilibrium 

density) where Estes et al. (1986) found that sea otters spent 21-28% of the day feeding. 

The translocated sea otter population in Washington was studied in 1986 and 1987 

(Bowlby et al. 1988) and at that time exhibited feeding frequencies of 9.5-11.2%, 

respectively. The overall diurnal feeding activity reported in this study for 2003 and 2004 

(7.6%) is similarly low and suggests that there is high food abundance in the Washington 

sea otter population range. This would indicate that the Washington population is still 

below equilibrium density, as predicted by an estimated carrying capacity of 2,734 sea 

otters for this range (Laidre et al. 2002). 

This study concentrated on four coastal locations in Washington where sea otters 

had been previously reported. Local abundance fluctuated within and among locations 

throughout the day and from one observation day to the next. The average local sea otter 

abundance was greatest at Duk Point and lowest at Norwegian Memorial. Activity budgets 

were also different among the locations and were influenced by a number of confounding 

variables: location, tide height, water temperature, time of day, group size, and age. 

Overall, the highest frequency of resting behavior was observed at Cape Alava, which also 

had the lowest frequency of feeding activities of all locations. Duk Point had the second 

highest frequency of resting activity and the second lowest frequency of feeding activity. 

Conversely, sea otters at Sand Point and Norwegian Memorial exhibited the highest 

frequencies of feeding activity and the lowest resting activity. This suggests that Duk Point 

and Cape Alava may be used more as resting and/or pup-rearing sites, while Sand Point 

and Norwegian Memorial are used more as feeding sites. 

In this study, for all Washington locations combined, there was an increase in 

foraging activities beginning around 0930, a peak occurring in the late morning, and then a 

significant decrease in foraging activities occurring after 1300. Traveling activities also 

decreased during the afternoon hours. In California, sea otters tended to have crepuscular 

peaks in activity, with feeding behavior peaking in the early morning hours (0600) and 

again in the afternoon (1600-1800) (Estes et al. 1986, Ralls and Siniff 1990). At Amchitka 
Appendix 1b

143

Island, Alaska, similar foraging patterns were observed, with peaks in foraging activity 

occurring at 0800 and again at 1800-1900 (Estes et al. 1982). In contrast, at Attu Island, 

Alaska, and Blanco Reef, Oregon, sea otters foraged throughout the day (Estes et al. 1982). 

Patterns of behavior appear to be specific to location, which could be influenced by the 

availability of resources, topography, weather and seasonal effects, and social structure 

(Garshelis 1983).

In the current study there was a close relationship between tide height and feeding 

with the greatest feeding activity occurring at the highest tides of the day. The exception to 

this trend was at Norwegian Memorial where at low tide the greatest feeding occurred. 

Bowlby et al. (1988) also found an increase in foraging behavior at Cape Alava and Sand 

Point in 1986-87 and at Duk Point in 1987 during higher tide levels, although at Cape 

Johnson (similar to Norwegian Memorial) the opposite was found to be true. The 

observations from both studies suggest that activity may be influenced by a combination of 

variables (e.g. time, location, tide height, group size, age, water temperature) and that these 

patterns cannot be generalized.

Sea otters have been shown to select prey items that maximize their energy intake, 

presumably to meet their high metabolic requirements (Ostfeld 1982, Garshelis 1983). As 

preferred prey items become less abundant, sea otters spend more time foraging in search 

of the prey items, and switch to other prey items (Ostfeld 1982, Garshelis 1983). For 

example, red abalones have a very high caloric content (994 kcal) compared with kelp 

crabs (43 kcal) (Ostfeld 1982). Although more time is spent harvesting the abalone (Ostfeld 

1982), the overall net energy gain makes it beneficial for sea otters to consume such prey 

items when available. Prey items thought to be of high preference to sea otters include: sea 

urchins, abalone, cancer crabs, and large clams (Kenyon 1969, Garshelis 1983). Less 

preferred prey (also of lower caloric content) include: snails, kelp crabs, sea stars, mussels, 

and chitons (Ostfeld 1982, Garshelis 1983). 

Studies at Amchitka Island, Alaska, showed that the majority of prey items consumed 

were sea urchins and fish, while at Attu Island, Alaska, the main prey was sea urchins 

(Estes et al. 1982). In contrast, in Prince William Sound, Alaska, sea otters consumed 

primarily clams (> 75%) and crabs (Garshelis 1983, Garshelis et al. 1986). In California, 

sea otters consumed primarily crabs, clams, sea urchins, abalone, and mussels (Ostfeld 

1982, Ralls et al. 1995). From previous studies, Washington sea otters have been shown to 

feed on crabs, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sea stars, clams, mussels, snails, octopus,

abalones, and chitons (Bowlby et al. 1988, Riedman and Estes 1990, Lance et al. 2004). 

In this study, sea otters in Washington consumed primarily crabs (45.0%), clams 

(23.1%), and sea stars (13.9%). The remaining prey items consisted of unidentified 

bivalves, mussels, octopus, snails, sea cucumbers, and a sea urchin. At each location the 

main prey type was different (Norwegian Memorial - clams; Cape Alava and Sand Point -

crabs; Duk Point - sea stars). Almost half of the prey consumed at Duk Point in 2003 and 

2004 were sea stars and mussels, which based on the caloric classification by Ostfeld 

(1982) and Garshelis (1983), are of lower caloric content. This suggests that prey of higher 

preference, in terms of caloric content, are less abundant at Duk Point.

Over the years, there has been a notable shift in diet at Sand Point and Duk Point 

suggesting a change in the availability of prey items. Prey consumption at Duk Point in 
Appendix 1b

144

1987 consisted of primarily clams, then octopus (Bowlby et al. 1988). In the 2003 and 

2004 study, the main prey items included sea stars and crabs, followed by clams, mussels, 

unknown bivalves, octopus, and sea cucumbers. Prey consumed at Cape Alava and Sand 

Point in 2003 and 2004 consisted of primarily crabs, then clams. In 1986 and 1987, 

Bowlby et al. (1988) found that while sea otters at Cape Alava consumed crabs and clams, 

as well as sea cucumbers, at Sand Point the prey items consumed were primarily octopus, 

then sea urchins. 

Change in prey composition over time has been shown to be correlated with the 

overall length of time in which sea otters have occupied an area (Estes et al. 1978, Ostfeld 

1982, Garshelis 1983). In Washington, sea otter abundance has been shown by Kvitek et al. 

(1989) to have a negative correlation with the distribution and abundance of invertebrate 

prey. For example, they found that in Washington, prey items were larger in size and more 

abundant outside of the primary range that sea otters inhabited. They also found that 

increases in kelp cover at Cape Alava have occurred since the reintroduction of sea otters 

back into Washington waters and that by 1988, sea urchins at Cape Alava were almost 

nonexistent (Kvitek et al. 1989). Only one sea urchin was noted during all foraging 

observations in all the locations of the current study. These observations support the 

findings by Kvitek et al. (1998) that increases in sea otter abundance were positively 

correlated with the abundance of algal species and the reduced presence of sea urchins 

(Strongylocentrotus sp.). Therefore it would be predicted that areas which have been 

occupied longer in Washington by sea otters, such as Sand Point and Cape Alava, or that 

have higher abundance counts such as Duk Point, would have fewer sea urchins. 

Although dive durations are correlated with the depths to which sea otters are diving, 

variation among locations and between sexes have also been recorded (Garshelis 1983). 

Foraging dives have been found to have a mean duration ranging from 85 sec in Southeast 

Alaska (Bodkin et al. 2004), to 61 sec in Prince William Sound (Garshelis 1983), and 56.4 

sec in California (Loughlin 1977). The longest dives ever recorded were 265 sec and 246 

sec in California (Loughlin 1977, Riedman and Estes 1990), and 205 sec in Prince William 

Sound (Garshelis 1983). 

In this study, dive durations ranged from 5.3 sec to 122.0 sec, with mean dive duration 

of 35.6 sec. There were differences between locations and these local differences probably 

relate to differences in prey availability. For example, Sand Point had a high dive success 

rate, the highest feeding activity, and the least amount of time spent foraging. Of the four 

locations, prey availability would be predicted to be highest at this location. 

The current Washington sea otter population is still growing, but does not appear to 

be currently expanding its range, with the exception of a few sightings of single otters 

outside of the population range, south near Cape Arago and Cape Disappointment, OR, and 

north in Makah Bay, WA (Jameson and Jeffries 2004). Based on feeding activity for the 

four locations, food availability does not appear to be limited and it would seem that the 

Washington sea otter population has the potential to continue to grow. 

There is concern that, in the event of a single oil spill or catastrophic event, the 

entire Washington population could be severely affected due to their restricted distribution 

along the coast. The Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989 was a disastrous situation, with sea 

otters suffering the greatest mortality of all the marine mammals affected (Garshelis 1997). 
Appendix 1b

145

Furthermore, the constant change in sea otter abundance observed during this study from 

site visit to site visit indicated a high degree of movement between locations. With this 

movement, there is a strong possibility of conflict with vessels transporting petroleum and 

other hazardous materials. Continuing to monitor distribution, prey consumption, foraging 

behaviors and movement will be of extreme importance for determining areas of suitable 

habitat and predicting future movements along the Washington coast. 

Prey consumption data is of particular and timely significance because of the 

concerns surrounding current mortalities and contaminant findings. Contaminants such as 

butyltins, PCBs, and organochlorine pesticides, have been detected in sea otters in 

California (Kannan et al. 2004). Contaminant levels in Washington sea otter population are 

currently being investigated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and its partners. Recent 

necropsy findings in Washington have revealed the presence of acanthocephalan 

peritonitis, protozoal encephalitis (caused by the protozoal parasite T. gondii or S. 

neurona), and leptospirosis (Lance et al. 2004, Dubey et al. 2003). Sea otters captured in 

Washington in 2000 and 2001 have also shown positive titers to morbilliviruses (Lance et 

al. 2004). Industrial and agricultural compounds are making their way into sea otter tissues 

probably via trophic transfer and recent investigations into the possibility of protozoal 

parasites also being transferred via trophic levels are also being investigated (Lance et al.

2004), hence the importance of continuing to collect prey consumption data. The data 

collected in this study regarding current prey composition per location, and the changes 

over time, are being incorporated into current U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service toxicological 

and epidemiological studies which are attempting to determine direct correlations between 

prey consumption and the recent contaminant and mortality findings in the Washington sea 

otter population.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Primary funding for this project was provided by the Olympic Coast National 

Marine Sanctuary (OCNMS – NOAA) and WDFW, through cooperative agreements with 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Western Washington Office. Field equipment was 

provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. We are grateful to the many field assistants 

from the Biology Department at Portland State University who contributed their time and 

energy to data collection, often under rough field conditions. Special thanks to C.E. 

Bowlby and M. Brancato for providing expertise and logistical support; R. Jameson for 

sharing his expertise in the area; S. Jefferies and D. Lynch for providing logistical support 

and valuable information; and M. Murphy for providing statistical advice. The Biology 

Department at Portland State University supported the first author throughout the project. 

Permits were acquired through the National Park Service. 
Appendix 1b

146

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and implications to coastal marine communities. Marine Mammal Science 20: 

305–321.

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Distribution, Abundance, and Activity Patterns. Final report prepared for National 

Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Hatfield Marine Science 

Center, Newport, Oregon.133 pp.

Dubey, J.P., R. Zarnke, N.J. Thomas, S.K. Wong, W. VanBonn, M. Briggs, J.W. Davis,

R. Ewing, M. Mense, O.C. Kwok, S. Romand, and P. Thulliez. 2003. Toxoplasma 

gondii, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and Sarcocystis canis-like 

infections in marine mammals. Veterinary Parasitology 116: 275–296.

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Ecology 59: 385–401.

Estes, J.A., N.S. Smith, and J.F. Palmisano. 1978. Sea otter predation and community 

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otter: influence of population status on community structure. The American 

Naturalist 120: 242–258.

Estes, J.A., K.E. Underwood, and M.J. Karmann. 1986. Activity-time budgets of sea 

otters in California. Journal of Wildlife Management 50: 626–636.

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dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. 321 pp.

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Exxon Valdez oil spill. Conservation Biology 11: 905–916.

Garshelis, D.L., J.A. Garshelis, and A.L. Kimker. 1986. Sea otter time budgets and 

prey relationships in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 50: 637–647.

Jameson, R.J. 1998. Translocated sea otter populations off the Oregon and 

Washington coasts. In Status and trends of the nation’s biological resources. Edited 

by Mac, M.J., P.A. Opler, C.E. Puckett Haecker, and P.D. Doran. U.S. Geological 

Survey, Washington, D.C., 2: 684–686.

Jameson, R.J. and S. Jeffries. 2004. Results of the 2004 Survey of the Reintroduced 

Sea Otter Population in Washington State. Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife, Olympia, Washington. 6 pp.

Jameson, R.J. and S. Jeffries. 2005. Results of the 2005 Survey of the Reintroduced 

Sea Otter Population in Washington State. Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife, Olympia, Washington. 6 pp.

Jameson, R.J., K.W. Kenyon, A.M. Johnson, and H.M. Wight. 1982. History and status of 

translocated sea otter populations in North American. Wildlife Society Bulletin

10: 100–107.

Kannan, K., N. Kajiwara, M. Watanabe, H. Nakata, N.J. Thomas, M. Stephenson, D.A. 

Jessup, and S. Tanabe. 2004. Profiles of Polychlorinated Biphenyl Congeners, 

Organochlorine Pesticides, and Butyltins in Southern Sea Otters and Their Prey. 

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 23: 49–56.
Appendix 1b

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Kenyon, K.W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean. North American Fauna

68: 1–352.

Kvitek, R.G., D. Shull, D. Canestro, E. Bowlby, and B.L. Troutman. 1989. Sea otters and 

benthic prey communities in Washington State. Marine Mammal Science 5: 266–

280.

Kvitek, R.G., P.T. Iampietro, and E. Bowlby. 1998. Sea otters and benthic prey 

communities: A direct test of the sea otter as keystone predator in Washington 

State. Marine Mammal Science 14: 895–902.

Laidre, K.L., R.J. Jameson, S.J. Jefferies, R.C. Hobbs, C.E. Bowlby, and G.R. 

VanBlaricom. 2002. Estimates of carrying capacity for sea otters in 

Washington State. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30: 1172–1181.

Lance, M.M., S.A. Richardson, and H.L. Allen. 2004. Washington state recovery plan for 

the sea otter. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia. 91pp.

Loughlin, T.R. 1977. Activity Patterns, Habitat Partitioning, and Grooming Behavior of the 

Sea Otter, Enhydra lutris, in California. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 

Los Angeles. 110 pp.

Ostfeld, Richard S. 1982. Foraging strategies and prey switching in the California sea 

otter. Oecologia 53: 170–178.

Packard, J.M. and C.A. Ribic. 1982. Classification of behavior of sea otters (Enhydra 

lutris ). Canadian Journal of Zoology 60: 1362–1373.

Ralls, K. and D.B. Siniff. 1990. Time budgets and activity patterns in California sea 

otters. Journal of Wildlife Management 54: 251–259.

Ralls, K., B.R. Hatfield, and D.B. Siniff. 1995. Foraging patterns of California sea 

otters as indicated by telemetry. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73: 523–531.

Riedman, M.L. and J.A. Estes. 1990. The sea otter (Enhydra lutris): Behavior, ecology, and 

natural history. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Biological Report 90: 126pp.

Scheffer, V.B. 1940. The sea otter on the Washington coast. Pacific Northwest 

Quarterly 10: 370–388.
Appendix 1b

148

Table 1. Activity percentages for 2003 and 2004 by age and location.

Location

No. of

Animal

Observations

Activity %

Resting Grooming Feeding Playing Traveling Nurse Other

Cape Alava

 adults 1026 72.1 20.1 3.1 0.8 3.4 0 0.5

 pups 119 73.1 6.7 4.2 3.4 5.0 7.6 0

 Total 1145 72.2 18.7 3.2 1.1 3.6 0.8 0.4

Duk Point

 adults 3579 61.8 19.7 6.7 1.8 9.6 0 0.4

 pups 240 75.4 5.4 4.2 2.5 4.2 7.9 0.4

 Total 3819 62.7 18.8 6.5 1.9 9.2 0.5 0.4

Sand Point

 adults 1484 53.4 23.5 12.6 2.4 8.0 0 0.1

 pups 168 74.4 5.9 6.6 0.6 4.2 8.3 0

 Total 1652 55.6 21.7 12.0 2.3 7.6 0.8 0.01

Norwegian Memorial

 adults 429 55.5 24.0 11.7 0.9 5.6 0 2.3

 pups 71 77.5 5.6 8.5 2.8 2.8 2.8 0

 Total 500 58.6 21.4 11.2 1.2 5.2 0.4 2.0

All locations

 adults 6518 61.1 20.9 7.8 1.7 8.0 0 0.5

 pups 598 74.9 5.8 5.4 2.1 4.2 7.4 0.2

 Grand Total 7116 62.3 19.7 7.6 1.8 7.6 0.6 0.4
Appendix 1b

149

Table 2. Number of prey items consumed by location (total percentage of prey consumed), unknown items excluded. 

Clam

Pacific 

Littleneck clam CrabKelp 

crab Octopus

Sea 

Star

Dawsons 

Sun Star

Sea 

Cucumber Mussel Snail

Unk. 

Bivalve

Red Sea 

Urchin

Duk Point 26 

(14.7) 0 48 (27.1)

1

(0.6)

3

(1.7)

60 

(33.9)

1

(0.6)

1

(0.6)

19 

(10.7) 0 18 (10.2) 0

Cape Alava

14

(23.7) 0 38 (64.4) 0 1(1.7)

4

(6.8) 0 0 0 0 1(1.7)

1

(1.7)

Sand Point 21 

(12.8) 0 103 

(62.8)

1

(0.6)

4

(2.4)

1

(0.6) 0 0 10

(6.1)

2

(1.2)

22 

(13.4) 0

Norwegian 

Memorial

16 

(21.1)

33

(43.4)

18 

(23.7)

5

(6.6) 0 0 0 0 0 1(1.3)

3

(4.0) 0

Total 77

(16.2)

33

(6.9)

207 

(43.5)

7

(1.5)

8

(1.7)

65 

(13.7)

1

(0.2)

1

(0.2)

29

(6.1)

3

(0.6)

44

(9.2)

1

(0.2)

 
Appendix 1b

150

Figure 1. Study locations, current range, and release sites of the translocated Washington sea otter population. 

Map created using Map Maker: National Atlas of the United States, March 24, 2006, http://nationalatlas.gov.
Appendix 1b

151

Duk Point Cape Alava Sand Point Norwegian

Memorial

29.3

1.9

20.1

2.4

16.0

1.8

8.1

1.3

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

Average number of sea otters (per 1/2 hr scan)

Pups

Adults

Figure 2. Average abundance of sea otters per 1⁄2 hour activity scan totaled over 2003 and 2004. All pairwise location comparisons were significantly difference from one another (p ≤ 0.01) except for Cape Alava 

and Sand Point. 
Appendix 2

152

Metals

Silver

Aluminum

Arsenic

Boron

Barium

Beryllium

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Iron

Mercury

Magnesium

Manganese

Molybdenum

Nickel

Lead

Selenium

Strontium

Vanadium

Butyltins

Dibutyltin

Monobutyltin

Tetrabutyltin

Tributyltin

Semi-volatiles

1,2,3,4-

Tetrachlorobenzene

1,2,4,5-

Tetrachlorobenzene

Aliphatics

n-decane

n-docosane

n-dodecane

n-dotriacontane

n-eicosane

n-heneicosane

n-hentriacontane

n-heptacosane

n-heptadecane

n-hexacosane

n-hexadecane

n-nonacosane

n-nonadecane

n-octacosane

n-octadecane

n-pentacosane

n-pentadecane

n-tetracosane

n-tetradecane

n-tetratriacontane

n-triacontane

n-tricosane

n-tridecane

n-tritriacontane

n-undecane

phytane

pristane

Organochlorines

Aldrin

alpha BHC

alpha chlordane

beta BHC

cis-nonachlor

delta BHC

Dieldrin

endosulfan II

endrin

gamma BHC

gamma chlordane

HCB

Heptachlor

heptachlor epoxide

mirex

o,p'-DDD

o,p'-DDE

o,p'-DDT

oxychlordane

p,p'-DDD

p,p'-DDE

p,p'-DDT

PCB-TOTAL

toxaphene

trans-nonachlor

pentachloro-anisole

chlorpyrifos

AROCLOR-1242

AROCLOR-1248

AROCLOR-1254

AROCLOR-1260

AROCLOR-1268

Appendix 2. List of the Analytes Scanned in Whole Blood or Liver Samples of 

Washington Sea Otters
Appendix 2

153

Polycyclic Aromatic 

Hydrocarbons

1,6,7-Trimethyl-

naphthalene 1-methylnaphthalene 1-methylphenanthrene

2,6-dimethylnaphthalene

2-methylnaphthalene

acenaphthalene

acenaphthene

anthracene

benzo(a)pyrene

benzo(b)fluoranthene

benzo(e)pyrene

benzo(g,h,i)perylene

benzo(k)fluoranthene

biphenyl

C1-chrysenes

C1-dibenzothiophenes

C1-Fluoranthenes & 

Pyrenes

C1-fluorenes

C1-naphthalenes

C1-Phenanthrenes & 

Anthracenes

C2-chrysenes

C2-dibenzothiophenes

C2-fluorenes

C2-naphthalenes

C2-Phenanthrenes & 

Anthracenes

C3-chrysenes

C3-dibenzothiophenes

C3-fluorenes

C3-naphthalenes

C3-Phenanthrenes & 

Anthracenes

C4-chrysenes

C4-naphthalenes

C4-Phenanthrenes & 

Anthracenes

chrysene

dibenzothiophene

fluoranthene

fluorene

indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene

naphthalene

perylene

phenanthrene

pyrene

unresolved complex 

mixture

Benzo(a)anthracene

Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
Appendix 2

154

PCBs

PCB1

PCB7/9

PCB8/5

PCB15

PCB16/32

PCB18/17

PCB22/51

PCB24/27

PCB25

PCB26

PCB28

PCB29

PCB30

PCB31

PCB33/20

PCB39

PCB40

PCB41/64

PCB42/59/37

PCB44

PCB45

PCB46

PCB47/75

PCB48

PCB49

PCB52

PCB53

PCB60/56

PCB63

PCB66

PCB67

PCB69

PCB70

PCB72

PCB74/61 PCB77

PCB81

PCB82

PCB83

PCB84

PCB85

PCB87/115

PCB/55

PCB92

PCB95/80

PCB97

PCB99

PCB101/90

PCB105

PCB107

PCB110

PCB114

PCB118

PCB119

PCB126

PCB128

PCB129

PCB130

PCB135

PCB136

PCB138/160

PCB141/179

PCB146

PCB149/123

PCB151

PCB153/132

PCB156

PCB158

PCB166

PCB167

PCB169

PCB170/190

PCB171/202

PCB172

PCB174

PCB175

PCB176/137

PCB177

PCB178

PCB180

PCB183

PCB185

PCB187

PCB189

PCB191

PCB193

PCB194

PCB195/208

PCB196

PCB197

PCB199

PCB200

PCB201

PCB1/157/173

PCB203/196

PCB205

PCB206

PCB207

PCB209
Appendix 3

155

Appendix 3. Percent Lipid and Percent Moisture 

Used in Analyses Performed by GERG at Texas A&M University

Live Otters (sample matrix: blood)

Otter

Sample 

Volume (ml) Percent Lipid

WA054 15 0.19

WA084 15 0.23

WA086 15 0.18

WA088 15 0.11

WA088 15 0.11

WA089 15 0.11

WA090 15 0.21

WA091 15 0.12

WA092 15 0.15

WA093 15 0.33

WA094 15 0.27

WA095 15 0.10

WA096 15 0.16

WA097 15 0.10

WA098 15 0.15

WA099 15 0.08

WA100 15 0.13

WA101 14 0.16

WA102 15 0.10

WA103 15 0.11

WA104 10 0.10

WA105 15 0.15

WA106 15 0.11

WA107 15 0.14

WA108 15 0.03

WA109 15 0.03

WA110 15 0.08

WA111 15 0.01

WA112 15 0.09

WA113 15 0.16

WA114 15 0.14

WA115 12 0.09
Appendix 3

156

Appendix 3 continued; Beach-Cast Otters (sample matrix: liver)

Otter

Sample 

Weight (g)

Sample 

Volume (ml)

Percent 

Lipid

Percent 

Moisture

16904-01 2.0 73.7

16961-01 5.53 65.5

16961-02 2.96 73.7

16961-03 4.94 65.9

16961-04 3.7 67.8

17058-01 3.63 67.9

18124-01 1.92 71.5

17315-01 15 1.0 68.5

15713-01 15 2.4 64.1

14717 15 3.6 72.1

14325 15 2.9 69.7

13827 15 2.7 67.5

13555 15 4.8 69.7

10385 15 1.8 69.4

18316-01 (liver) 25 6.18 61.88

18316-01 (blood) 15 0.19
Appendix 4

157

Appendix 4. Marine Mammal Scientific Research Permit
Appendix 5

158

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in 

Whole Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight)

Otter Gender Age PCB1 PCB101/90 PCB105 PCB107 PCB110 PCB118 PCB128 PCB130 PCB135

WA115 F <1 0.979 0.089 0.124

WA099 F 3 0.163 0.050 0.053 0.051 0.157 0.070

WA109 F 3 1.625 0.017 0.157

WA084 F 4 0.176 0.050 0.060 0.133 0.054 0.067

WA095 F 4 0.095 0.095 0.100 0.075

WA100 F 4 0.130 0.069

WA111 F 4 0.285 0.056 0.144

WA094 F 5 0.047 0.053 0.066

WA086 F 5 0.049 0.142 0.052 0.078 0.073

WA089 F 6 0.081 0.070

WA106 F 6 1.045 0.007 0.011

WA114 F 6 0.815 0.008 0.069

WA091 F 7 0.158 0.204 0.086

WA103 F 9 2.006 0.004

WA090 F 9 0.079 0.136 0.066 0.076 0.073

WA096 F 10 0.078 0.069 0.076

WA093 F 10 0.035

WA088 F 13 0.081 0.050 0.066

WA054 F 15 0.700 0.028 0.088

WA110 F 16 1.288 0.007 0.068

WA104 M <1 0.901 0.405 0.024 0.105 0.065 0.049

WA092 M <1 0.164 0.090 0.091 0.093

WA113 M 2 1.216 0.209 0.077 0.083

WA098 M 3 0.226 0.043 0.080 0.114 0.125 0.100

WA108 M 3 0.945 0.028 0.575

WA105 M 5 0.721 0.010

WA112 M 6 0.910 0.090 0.025 0.331

WA107 M 6 0.774 0.356 0.030 0.106

WA097 M 8 0.121 0.137 0.061

WA102 M 10 0.320 0.022 0.048

Females Mean 0.811 0.124 0.032 0.063 0.056 0.119 0.054 0.112 0.064

N = 20 Std dev 0.663 0.037 0.029 0.016 0.006 0.048 0.042 0.020

Max 2.006 0.176 0.089 0.095 0.060 0.204 0.054 0.157 0.086

Males Mean 0.827 0.247 0.040 0.075 0.114 0.093 0.274 0.076

N = 10 Std dev 0.273 0.111 0.029 0.035 0.038 0.230 0.024

Max 1.216 0.405 0.090 0.105 0.114 0.137 0.575 0.100

All live Mean 0.817 0.170 0.036 0.067 0.075 0.109 0.054 0.184 0.067

N = 30 Std dev 0.534 0.093 0.028 0.024 0.034 0.044 0.167 0.021

Max 2.006 0.405 0.090 0.105 0.114 0.204 0.054 0.575 0.100

NA = Not analyzed; blank cells indicate values below detection limit

PCBs that were analyzed that were below detection limit: PCB15, PCB25, PCB26, PCB29, PCB39, PCB40, 

PCB46, PCB47/75, PCB48, PCB53, PCB63, PCB66, PCB67, PCB70, PCB72, PCB74/61, PCB77, PCB81, 

PCB82, PCB83, PCB85, PCB91/55, PCB97, PCB114, PCB119, PCB126, PCB129, PCB136, PCB141/179, 

PCB158, PCB166, PCB167, PCB169, PCB172, PCB176/137, PCB178, PCB185, PCB189, PCB191, PCB193, 

PCB195/208, PCB197, PCB200, PCB201, PCB201/157/173, PCB203/196, PCB205, PCB206, PCB207, PCB209
Appendix 5

159

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Whole 

Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB138/160 PCB146 PCB149/123 PCB151 PCB153/132 PCB156 PCB16/32 PCB170/190

WA115 F <1 1.353 0.915

WA099 F 3 0.718 0.093 0.611 0.065 0.148

WA109 F 3 1.623 1.062

WA084 F 4 0.597 0.085 0.047 0.594 0.163 0.151

WA095 F 4 0.510 0.054 0.339 0.053 0.076 0.124

WA100 F 4 0.367 0.163

WA111 F 4 1.509 0.911

WA094 F 5 0.198 0.074 0.058

WA086 F 5 0.406 0.382 0.120 0.109

WA089 F 6 0.260 0.100 0.055 0.072

WA106 F 6 0.868 0.426

WA114 F 6 1.062 0.503

WA091 F 7 0.592 0.068 0.663 0.086 0.165

WA103 F 9 1.041 0.622

WA090 F 9 0.296 0.225 0.075 0.121

WA096 F 10 0.233 0.115 0.083

WA093 F 10 0.186 0.075 0.081 0.057

WA088 F 13 0.227 0.099 0.141 0.084

WA054 F 15 0.920 0.627

WA110 F 16 1.140 0.607

WA104 M <1 1.265 1.016

WA092 M <1 0.541 0.068 0.382 0.072 0.143

WA113 M 2 1.643 1.088

WA098 M 3 0.561 0.080 0.199 0.051 0.511 0.049 0.152

WA108 M 3 1.945 1.475

WA105 M 5 0.821 0.530

WA112 M 6 2.145 0.658

WA107 M 6 1.274 0.742

WA097 M 8 0.426 0.205 0.072 0.063

WA102 M 10 0.893 0.664

Females Mean 0.705 0.075 0.047 0.456 0.053 0.091 0.115

N = 20 Std dev 0.460 0.017 0.306 0.035 0.037

Max 1.623 0.093 0.047 1.062 0.053 0.163 0.165

Males Mean 1.151 0.080 0.134 0.051 0.727 0.064 0.119

N = 10 Std dev 0.606 0.093 0.374 0.013 0.049

Max 2.145 0.080 0.199 0.051 1.475 0.072 0.152

All live Mean 0.854 0.076 0.105 0.051 0.546 0.053 0.085 0.116

N = 30 Std dev 0.546 0.015 0.082 0.349 0.033 0.038

Max 2.145 0.093 0.199 0.051 1.475 0.053 0.163 0.165

NA = Not analyzed; blank cells indicate values below detection limit

PCBs that were analyzed that were below detection limit: PCB15, PCB25, PCB26, PCB29, PCB39, PCB40, PCB46,

PCB47/75, PCB48, PCB53, PCB63, PCB66, PCB67, PCB70, PCB72, PCB74/61, PCB77, PCB81, PCB82, PCB83, PCB85, 

PCB91/55, PCB97, PCB114, PCB119, PCB126, PCB129, PCB136, PCB141/179, PCB158, PCB166, PCB167, PCB169, 

PCB172, PCB176/137, PCB178, PCB185, PCB189, PCB191, PCB193, PCB195/208, PCB197, PCB200, PCB201, 

PCB201/157/173, PCB203/196, PCB205, PCB206, PCB207, PCB209
Appendix 5

160

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in 

Whole Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight) ; continued

Otter Gender Age PCB171/202 PCB174 PCB175 PCB177 PCB18/17 PCB180 PCB183 PCB187 PCB194

WA115 F <1 0.718 0.527 0.135

WA099 F 3 0.065 0.457 0.071 0.129

WA109 F 3 0.817 0.680 0.073

WA084 F 4 0.050 0.453 0.088 0.171

WA095 F 4 0.057 0.362 0.069 0.117 0.050

WA100 F 4 0.052 0.203 0.050

WA111 F 4 0.618 0.457 0.139

WA094 F 5 0.122

WA086 F 5 0.049 0.336 0.065 0.088 0.048

WA089 F 6 0.201

WA106 F 6 0.510 0.137

WA114 F 6 0.555 0.247 0.020

WA091 F 7 0.068 0.509 0.087 0.105

WA103 F 9 0.803 0.276 0.043

WA090 F 9 0.291 0.071

WA096 F 10 0.050 0.146

WA093 F 10 0.093 0.049

WA088 F 13 0.133

WA054 F 15 0.582 0.291

WA110 F 16 0.650 0.277 0.046

WA104 M <1 0.585 0.591 0.178

WA092 M <1 0.064 0.061 0.360 0.071 0.114

WA113 M 2 0.693 0.634 0.121

WA098 M 3 0.072 0.046 0.037 0.066 0.322 0.077 0.178

WA108 M 3 0.769 0.613 0.209

WA105 M 5 0.632 0.237

WA112 M 6 0.636 0.449 0.044

WA107 M 6 0.629 0.473 0.532 0.121

WA097 M 8 0.055 0.228

WA102 M 10 0.555 0.297 0.068

Females Mean 0.058 0.425 0.310 0.072 0.091 0.049

N = 20 Std dev 0.011 0.317 0.161 0.015 0.045 0.001

Max 0.065 0.817 0.680 0.088 0.171 0.050

Males Mean 0.072 0.055 0.510 0.064 0.473 0.426 0.074 0.129

N = 10 Std dev 0.013 0.270 0.004 0.158 0.004 0.057

Max 0.072 0.064 0.769 0.066 0.473 0.634 0.077 0.209

All live Mean 0.062 0.055 0.460 0.064 0.473 0.349 0.072 0.106 0.049

N = 30 Std dev 0.011 0.013 0.295 0.004 0.167 0.013 0.052 0.001

Max 0.072 0.064 0.817 0.066 0.473 0.680 0.088 0.209 0.050

NA = Not analyzed; blank cells indicate values below detection limit

PCBs that were analyzed that were below detection limit: PCB15, PCB25, PCB26, PCB29, PCB39, PCB40, PCB46,

PCB47/75, PCB48, PCB53, PCB63, PCB66, PCB67, PCB70, PCB72, PCB74/61, PCB77, PCB81, PCB82, PCB83, 

PCB85, PCB91/55, PCB97, PCB114, PCB119, PCB126, PCB129, PCB136, PCB141/179, PCB158, PCB166, 

PCB167, PCB169, PCB172, PCB176/137, PCB178, PCB185, PCB189, PCB191, PCB193, PCB195/208, PCB197, 

PCB200, PCB201, PCB201/157/173, PCB203/196, PCB205, PCB206, PCB207, PCB209
Appendix 5

161

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Whole 

Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight) ; continued

Otter Gender Age PCB196 PCB199 PCB22/51 PCB24/27 PCB28 PCB30 PCB31 PCB33/20 PCB41/64

WA115 F <1 0.267

WA099 F 3 0.066 0.092 0.151 0.065

WA109 F 3 0.258 0.302 0.129

WA084 F 4 0.076 0.059 0.072 0.054

WA095 F 4 0.072 0.078 0.095

WA100 F 4 0.095 0.053

WA111 F 4 0.133 0.206

WA094 F 5 0.070

WA086 F 5 0.067 0.090 0.065

WA089 F 6 0.070

WA106 F 6 0.190 0.241

WA114 F 6 0.149

WA091 F 7 0.076 0.085 0.090

WA103 F 9 0.265 0.334

WA090 F 9 0.059 0.063

WA096 F 10 0.103

WA093 F 10 0.054 0.048 0.042

WA088 F 13 0.066

WA054 F 15 0.115

WA110 F 16 0.297 0.286

WA104 M <1 0.163 0.174 0.172

WA092 M <1 0.064 0.094 0.117

WA113 M 2 0.170

WA098 M 3 0.046 0.061 0.079 0.040

WA108 M 3 0.244 0.352 0.298

WA105 M 5 0.294

WA112 M 6 0.119 0.156

WA107 M 6 0.169 0.216 0.876 0.500

WA097 M 8 0.134

WA102 M 10 0.125

Females Mean 0.071 0.077 0.238 0.063 0.141 0.241 0.059 0.129 0.042

N = 20 Std dev 0.005 0.015 0.072 0.013 0.092 0.008

Max 0.076 0.092 0.297 0.072 0.334 0.241 0.065 0.129 0.042

Males Mean 0.055 0.078 0.174 0.182 0.876 0.323 0.040

N = 10 Std dev 0.013 0.023 0.052 0.084 0.166

Max 0.064 0.094 0.244 0.352 0.876 0.500 0.040

All live Mean 0.067 0.077 0.206 0.063 0.155 0.558 0.059 0.275 0.041

N = 30 Std dev 0.010 0.015 0.068 0.013 0.090 0.449 0.008 0.167 0.001

Max 0.076 0.094 0.297 0.072 0.352 0.876 0.065 0.500 0.042

NA = Not analyzed; blank cells indicate values below detection limit

PCBs that were analyzed that were below detection limit: PCB15, PCB25, PCB26, PCB29, PCB39, PCB40, PCB46,

PCB47/75, PCB48, PCB53, PCB63, PCB66, PCB67, PCB70, PCB72, PCB74/61, PCB77, PCB81, PCB82, PCB83, PCB85, 

PCB91/55, PCB97, PCB114, PCB119, PCB126, PCB129, PCB136, PCB141/179, PCB158, PCB166, PCB167, PCB169, 

PCB172, PCB176/137, PCB178, PCB185, PCB189, PCB191, PCB193, PCB195/208, PCB197, PCB200, PCB201, 

PCB201/157/173, PCB203/196, PCB205, PCB206, PCB207, PCB209
Appendix 5

162

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in 

Whole Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight) ; continued

Otter Gender Age PCB42/59/37 PCB44 PCB45 PCB49 PCB52 PCB60/56 PCB69 PCB7/9 PCB8/5

WA115 F <1 3.289 0.330 0.339

WA099 F 3 0.223 0.091

WA109 F 3 3.535 0.595 0.781 0.355

WA084 F 4 0.086 0.084 0.107 0.066

WA095 F 4 0.074

WA100 F 4 0.144 0.080

WA111 F 4 2.691 0.328 0.257

WA094 F 5 0.043 0.075 0.155

WA086 F 5 0.048 0.050 0.092 0.049

WA089 F 6 0.051 0.079

WA106 F 6 2.277 0.233 0.240

WA114 F 6 2.471 0.294 0.551 0.406

WA091 F 7 0.109 0.137

WA103 F 9 3.480 0.678 0.429

WA090 F 9 0.071 0.096 0.052

WA096 F 10 0.082 0.089

WA093 F 10 0.050 0.068 0.049

WA088 F 13 0.142 0.089

WA054 F 15 2.553 0.260 1.806 0.209

WA110 F 16 2.835 0.345 0.243 0.427

WA104 M <1 2.546 0.318 1.085 0.592

WA092 M <1 0.077 0.103

WA113 M 2 0.096 3.005 0.293 0.208 0.425

WA098 M 3 0.039 0.081 0.054 0.059

WA108 M 3 3.344 0.318 0.994 0.254

WA105 M 5 0.140 2.787 0.236 0.291 0.252

WA112 M 6 0.117 2.643 0.300 0.462 0.412

WA107 M 6 2.665 0.329 0.322

WA097 M 8 0.054 0.100

WA102 M 10 2.500 0.269 0.214

Females Mean 0.094 2.892 0.383 0.067 0.091 0.551 0.450 0.302

N = 20 Std dev 0.053 0.483 0.162 0.024 0.019 0.652 0.125

Max 0.223 3.535 0.678 0.084 0.137 0.551 1.806 0.429

Males Mean 0.087 2.784 0.236 0.303 0.538 0.086 0.453 0.353

N = 10 Std dev 0.038 0.298 0.021 0.646 0.027 0.453 0.133

Max 0.140 3.344 0.236 0.329 0.994 0.103 1.085 0.592

All live Mean 0.091 2.841 0.236 0.345 0.302 0.090 0.551 0.451 0.324

N = 30 Std dev 0.048 0.397 0.123 0.462 0.020 0.562 0.127

Max 0.223 3.535 0.236 0.678 0.994 0.137 0.551 1.806 0.592

NA = Not analyzed; blank cells indicate values below detection limit

PCBs that were analyzed that were below detection limit: PCB15, PCB25, PCB26, PCB29, PCB39, PCB40, 

PCB46, PCB47/75, PCB48, PCB53, PCB63, PCB66, PCB67, PCB70, PCB72, PCB74/61, PCB77, PCB81, 

PCB82, PCB83, PCB85, PCB91/55, PCB97, PCB114, PCB119, PCB126, PCB129, PCB136, PCB141/179, 

PCB158, PCB166, PCB167, PCB169, PCB172, PCB176/137, PCB178, PCB185, PCB189, PCB191, PCB193, 

PCB195/208, PCB197, PCB200, PCB201, PCB201/157/173, PCB203/196, PCB205, PCB206, PCB207, PCB209
Appendix 5

163

Appendix 5. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations 

Measured in Whole Blood Live-Captured Sea Otters (ppb, wet weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB84 PCB87/115 PCB92 PCB95/80 PCB99

WA115 F <1

WA099 F 3 0.103

WA109 F 3

WA084 F 4 0.048 0.150 0.084

WA095 F 4 0.050

WA100 F 4

WA111 F 4

WA094 F 5 0.052

WA086 F 5 0.075 0.053

WA089 F 6 0.053 0.057

WA106 F 6

WA114 F 6

WA091 F 7 0.068 0.090

WA103 F 9

WA090 F 9 0.064

WA096 F 10

WA093 F 10 0.057

WA088 F 13 0.068

WA054 F 15

WA110 F 16

WA104 M <1

WA092 M <1 0.069

WA113 M 2

WA098 M 3 0.037 0.047 0.083 0.093

WA108 M 3

WA105 M 5

WA112 M 6

WA107 M 6

WA097 M 8

WA102 M 10

Females Mean 0.053 0.048 0.074 0.076

N = 20 Std dev 0.032 0.023

Max 0.053 0.048 0.150 0.103

Males Mean 0.037 0.047 0.076 0.093

N = 10 Std dev 0.010

Max 0.037 0.047 0.083 0.093

All live Mean 0.053 0.043 0.047 0.074 0.079

N = 30 Std dev 0.008 0.028 0.022

Max 0.053 0.048 0.047 0.150 0.103

NA = Not analyzed; blank cells indicate values below detection limit

PCBs that were analyzed that were below detection limit: PCB15, PCB25, PCB26, PCB29, PCB39, PCB40, 

PCB46, PCB47/75, PCB48, PCB53, PCB63, PCB66, PCB67, PCB70, PCB72, PCB74/61, PCB77, PCB81, 

PCB82, PCB83, PCB85, PCB91/55, PCB97, PCB114, PCB119, PCB126, PCB129, PCB136, PCB141/179, 

PCB158, PCB166, PCB167, PCB169, PCB172, PCB176/137, PCB178, PCB185, PCB189, PCB191, PCB193, 

PCB195/208, PCB197, PCB200, PCB201, PCB201/157/173, PCB203/196, PCB205, PCB206, PCB207, 

PCB209
Appendix 6

164

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight)

Otter Gender Age PCB1 PCB101/90 PCB105 PCB107 PCB110 PCB118 PCB119 PCB128 PCB130 PCB135 PCB136 PCB138/160 PCB141/179 PCB146

13827 F U 506.0 47.40 3.32 2.71 0.94 3.88 0.91 0.40 10.00 0.56 3.30

14325 F U 77.3 8.94 0.27 6.42 2.33 3.49 1.76 37.20 3.35 12.20

17315-01 F 13 109.0 14.30 25.00 1.52 4.14 11.90 5.37 1.74 40.70 1.44 11.50

18316-01 M 1 0.5 4.29 0.67 2.70 1.42 1.12 0.21 10.98 3.32

10385 M U 105.0 27.20 3.06 3.12 1.16 3.44 1.02 13.40 0.47 2.54

13555 M U 125.0 29.60 17.00 15.40 35.20 1.51 12.40 4.26 13.70 76.40 5.20 18.40

14717 M U 75.2 5.02 5.09 1.13 8.08 2.60 0.54 17.30 0.52 5.23

15713-01 M 8 75.8 28.40 40.70 1.92 5.24 27.10 16.90 6.50 104.00 4.64 20.90

Females Mean 230.8 23.55 14.16 2.12 1.78 7.40 2.33 3.26 1.30 29.30 1.78 9.00

N = 3 Std dev 238.9 20.83 15.33 0.84 2.07 4.10 2.24 0.78 16.81 1.43 4.95

Max 506.0 47.40 25.00 2.71 4.14 11.90 2.33 5.37 1.76 40.70 3.35 12.20

Min 77.3 8.94 3.32 1.52 0.27 3.88 2.33 0.91 0.40 10.00 0.56 3.30

Males Mean 76.3 18.90 13.30 2.06 7.27 15.30 1.51 6.87 3.11 13.70 0.21 44.42 2.71 10.08

N = 5 Std dev 47.3 13.04 16.56 1.00 7.33 14.89 7.30 2.79 42.98 2.57 8.84

Max 125.0 29.60 40.70 3.12 15.40 35.20 1.51 16.90 6.50 13.70 0.21 104.00 5.20 20.90

Min 0.5 4.29 0.67 1.13 1.16 2.70 1.51 1.02 0.54 13.70 0.21 10.98 0.47 2.54

All live Mean 134.2 20.64 13.55 2.08 4.53 12.34 1.92 5.51 2.33 13.70 0.21 38.75 2.31 9.67

N = 8 Std dev 154.8 15.06 14.90 0.82 5.68 12.17 0.58 5.95 2.24 34.60 2.05 7.21

Max 506.0 47.40 40.70 3.12 15.40 35.20 2.33 16.90 6.50 13.70 0.21 104.00 5.20 20.90

Min 0.5 4.29 0.67 1.13 0.27 2.70 1.51 0.91 0.40 13.70 0.21 10.00 0.47 2.54
Appendix 6

165

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB149/123 PCB151 PCB153/132 PCB156 PCB158 PCB16/32 PCB166 PCB167 PCB170/190 PCB171/202 PCB172 PCB174 PCB175

13827 F U 1.92 9.98 2.20 0.37 5.35 0.70 0.25 7.24

14325 F U 0.44 3.15 50.50 3.18 1.32 1.08 16.20 9.53 3.57 4.29 2.95

17315-01 F 13 5.74 3.14 25.90 2.91 0.68 10.90 7.07 2.06 0.84 3.45

18316-01 M 1 0.59 0.40 9.94 1.05 1.20 1.38 0.56 3.35 1.45 0.16 2.74

10385 M U 2.62 15.50 1.98 6.10 1.66 0.72 0.65 5.26

13555 M U 34.10 8.32 70.30 4.42 0.29 2.38 14.00 18.00 2.46 9.50 5.36

14717 M U 0.32 0.41 5.43 1.85 0.98 4.03 2.34 0.80 0.28 1.94

15713-01 M 8 8.71 3.44 45.20 7.28 7.51 4.35 23.50 18.90 4.59 2.84

Females Mean 2.70 3.15 28.79 3.05 1.76 0.71 10.82 5.77 2.82 1.79 4.55

N = 3 Std dev 2.73 0.01 20.41 0.19 0.62 0.36 5.43 4.56 1.07 2.18 2.35

Max 5.74 3.15 50.50 3.18 2.20 1.08 16.20 9.53 3.57 4.29 7.24

Min 0.44 3.14 9.98 2.91 1.32 0.37 5.35 0.70 2.06 0.25 2.95

Males Mean 9.27 3.14 29.27 1.05 3.69 1.16 7.51 2.43 10.20 8.47 2.14 2.69 3.82

N = 5 Std dev 14.29 3.74 27.70 2.77 0.71 1.90 8.56 9.12 1.82 3.96 1.75

Max 34.10 8.32 70.30 1.05 7.28 1.98 7.51 4.35 23.50 18.90 4.59 9.50 5.36

Min 0.32 0.40 5.43 1.05 1.20 0.29 7.51 0.56 3.35 1.45 0.72 0.16 1.94

All live Mean 6.80 3.14 29.09 1.05 3.47 1.36 7.51 1.57 10.43 7.46 2.37 2.35 4.13

N = 8 Std dev 11.42 2.90 23.61 2.17 0.69 1.54 7.10 7.45 1.53 3.25 1.87

Max 34.10 8.32 70.30 1.05 7.28 2.20 7.51 4.35 23.50 18.90 4.59 9.50 7.24

Min 0.32 0.40 5.43 1.05 1.20 0.29 7.51 0.37 3.35 0.70 0.72 0.16 1.94
Appendix 6

166

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB176/137 PCB177 PCB178 PCB18/17 PCB180 PCB183 PCB187 PCB191 PCB193 PCB194 PCB195/208 PCB196 PCB197 PCB199

13827 F U 1.10 30.40 8.72 23.50 11.90 0.51 0.49 1.46 0.82 2.81 0.48 3.66

14325 F U 8.13 4.41 0.44 46.90 36.60 26.80 2.56 2.73 9.71 4.72 12.80 0.40 13.50

17315-01 F 13 4.79 3.21 31.30 17.20 22.70 0.69 1.53 2.96 1.27 4.52 0.57 5.41

18316-01 M 1 1.70 0.80 1.35 0.49 5.61 2.82 5.55 0.32 0.94 0.33 0.64 2.47

10385 M U 1.39 1.68 21.10 13.20 12.60 15.30 2.36 0.76 3.99 5.13

13555 M U 6.74 11.80 6.54 0.61 45.40 15.60 37.40 0.59 1.13 6.39 1.97 10.50 0.68 8.76

14717 M U 0.78 0.20 1.04 12.80 21.80 3.16 0.30 0.19 0.69 0.45 1.78 0.61 1.75

15713-01 M 8 5.67 4.98 83.00 36.00 34.80 1.17 1.89 8.43 5.80 17.50 1.83 13.80

Females Mean 4.67 3.81 15.42 28.97 25.77 20.47 1.25 1.58 4.71 2.27 6.71 0.48 7.52

N = 3 Std dev 3.52 0.85 21.18 19.20 9.90 7.70 1.13 1.12 4.39 2.13 5.34 0.09 5.25

Max 8.13 4.41 30.40 46.90 36.60 26.80 2.56 2.73 9.71 4.72 12.80 0.57 13.50

Min 1.10 3.21 0.44 8.72 17.20 11.90 0.51 0.49 1.46 0.82 2.81 0.40 3.66

Males Mean 4.22 4.09 2.95 5.81 32.00 17.76 19.24 0.69 0.88 3.76 1.86 8.44 0.94 6.38

N = 5 Std dev 3.56 4.77 2.68 10.20 32.40 12.28 16.07 0.44 0.79 3.47 2.29 7.08 0.59 4.97

Max 6.74 11.80 6.54 21.10 83.00 36.00 37.40 1.17 1.89 8.43 5.80 17.50 1.83 13.80

Min 1.70 0.78 0.20 0.49 5.61 2.82 3.16 0.30 0.19 0.69 0.33 1.78 0.61 1.75

All live Mean 4.22 4.31 3.20 9.01 30.87 20.76 19.70 0.97 1.18 4.12 2.02 7.70 0.75 6.81

N = 8 Std dev 3.56 4.08 2.25 13.30 26.60 11.46 12.84 0.83 0.93 3.55 2.09 5.95 0.49 4.73

Max 6.74 11.80 6.54 30.40 83.00 36.60 37.40 2.56 2.73 9.71 5.80 17.50 1.83 13.80

Min 1.70 0.78 0.20 0.44 5.61 2.82 3.16 0.30 0.19 0.69 0.33 1.78 0.40 1.75
Appendix 6

167

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB200 PCB201 PCB203/196 PCB205 PCB206 PCB207 PCB209 PCB22/51 PCB24/27 PCB25 PCB26 PCB28 PCB29 PCB33/20

13827 F U 0.45 0.55 0.47 5.59 3.96 24.30 21.40

14325 F U 0.54 0.70 1.29 6.96 3.72 0.19 0.90 0.20

17315-01 F 13 3.58 1.92

18316-01 M 1 1.66 1.15 0.24 0.79 0.35 0.48

10385 M U 1.14 7.87 0.83

13555 M U 2.27 0.70 4.99 1.13 0.62

14717 M U 1.30 0.24 1.30 0.72 1.18

15713-01 M 8 8.11 0.89 8.26

Females Mean 0.54 0.57 1.29 3.70 2.04 5.59 2.08 12.60 10.80

N = 3 Std dev 0.17 3.21 1.63 2.66 16.54 14.99

Max 0.54 0.70 1.29 6.96 3.72 5.59 3.96 24.30 21.40

Min 0.54 0.45 1.29 0.55 0.47 5.59 0.19 0.90 0.20

Males Mean 2.27 1.66 0.70 3.89 0.56 3.56 1.15 0.24 0.79 0.72 2.51 0.48 0.83

N = 5 Std dev 3.33 0.46 4.07 3.59

Max 2.27 1.66 0.70 8.11 0.89 8.26 1.15 0.24 0.79 0.72 7.87 0.48 0.83

Min 2.27 1.66 0.70 1.14 0.24 1.13 1.15 0.24 0.79 0.72 0.35 0.48 0.83

All live Mean 0.54 1.14 1.66 1.00 3.80 0.56 2.80 1.15 2.92 0.79 1.63 5.87 0.48 7.48

N = 8 Std dev 0.99 0.42 3.00 0.46 2.89 3.78 2.04 9.47 12.06

Max 0.54 2.27 1.66 1.29 8.11 0.89 8.26 1.15 5.59 0.79 3.96 24.30 0.48 21.40

Min 0.54 0.45 1.66 0.70 0.55 0.24 0.47 1.15 0.24 0.79 0.19 0.35 0.48 0.20
Appendix 6

168

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB39 PCB40 PCB41/64 PCB42/59/37 PCB44 PCB45 PCB46 PCB47/75 PCB48 PCB49 PCB52 PCB53 PCB60/56 PCB63

13827 F U 6.76 3.88 31.20 0.37 1.69 8.32 4.23 12.10

14325 F U 1.94 1.05 6.48 2.94

17315-01 F 13 0.53 2.54 0.99 1.06 2.69 7.04 2.91

18316-01 M 1 1.23 0.35 0.23 1.65 2.97 1.72

10385 M U 3.82 5.00 15.90 0.55 5.64 5.66 2.14

13555 M U 1.44 2.90 0.96 3.25 3.81 2.53 11.00 4.81 0.38

14717 M U 4.74 2.12 0.20 0.51 5.47 3.90

15713-01 M 8 1.14 3.66 8.34 9.08 13.80 2.84

Females Mean 3.64 2.79 31.20 0.99 0.37 1.06 1.81 7.28 3.36 12.10

N = 3 Std dev 4.41 0.99 0.83 0.94 0.75

Max 6.76 3.88 31.20 0.99 0.37 1.06 2.69 8.32 4.23 12.10

Min 0.53 1.94 31.20 0.99 0.37 1.06 1.05 6.48 2.91 12.10

Males Mean 1.23 2.79 3.42 5.74 3.25 0.39 3.81 4.27 3.44 7.78 1.72 4.30 1.26

N = 5 Std dev 1.77 1.23 8.81 0.23 5.75 3.85 4.46 1.21 1.25

Max 1.23 4.74 5.00 15.90 3.25 0.55 3.81 8.34 9.08 13.80 1.72 5.66 2.14

Min 1.23 1.14 2.12 0.35 3.25 0.23 3.81 0.20 0.51 2.97 1.72 2.84 0.38

All live Mean 1.23 3.07 3.15 12.10 3.25 0.99 0.38 3.81 3.20 2.74 7.59 1.72 3.90 4.87

N = 8 Std dev 2.44 1.09 14.62 0.16 4.47 2.90 3.42 1.08 6.32

Max 1.23 6.76 5.00 31.20 3.25 0.99 0.55 3.81 8.34 9.08 13.80 1.72 5.66 12.10

Min 1.23 0.53 1.94 0.35 3.25 0.99 0.23 3.81 0.20 0.51 2.97 1.72 2.84 0.38
Appendix 6

169

Appendix 6. Congener-Specific PCB Detection Limits and Concentrations Measured in Liver of Beach-Cast Sea Otters (ppb, wet 

weight); continued

Otter Gender Age PCB66 PCB67 PCB69 PCB72 PCB74/61 PCB8/5 PCB82 PCB84 PCB85 PCB87/115 PCB92 PCB95/80 PCB97 PCB99

13827 F U 45.60 9.02 3.25 8.85 66.60 5.54 0.74 5.78 5.71 8.32

14325 F U 6.86 9.19 0.85 1.79 21.90 1.12 5.59 9.41

17315-01 F 13 2.93 1.28 8.90 2.51 8.96 2.87 1.39 8.48

18316-01 M 1 1.47 334.23 0.66 1.07 0.29 0.81 0.92 0.81 3.67

10385 M U 21.90 3.85 3.86 3.14 27.70 4.38 1.37 5.58 4.53 6.02

13555 M U 4.08 16.00 3.02 0.53 7.36 1.40 7.64 21.10 9.67 7.51 21.60

14717 M U 14.00 11.60 0.79 18.40 1.31 2.36 5.51

15713-01 M 8 15.30 3.74 0.33 1.86 17.10 6.99 15.00 5.54 2.55 21.40

Females Mean 18.46 9.11 0.85 3.25 3.97 32.47 5.54 1.46 6.78 2.87 3.55 8.74

N = 3 Std dev 23.58 0.12 4.23 30.27 0.93 1.89 3.05 0.59

Max 45.60 9.19 0.85 3.25 8.85 66.60 5.54 2.51 8.96 2.87 5.71 9.41

Min 2.93 9.02 0.85 3.25 1.28 8.90 5.54 0.74 5.59 2.87 1.39 8.32

Males Mean 11.35 8.80 112.81 1.89 12.96 4.01 1.40 0.81 3.65 8.97 7.61 4.86 11.64

N = 5 Std dev 8.43 6.05 191.77 1.18 11.83 3.55 3.36 8.74 2.92 2.50 9.04

Max 21.90 16.00 334.23 3.14 27.70 7.36 1.40 0.81 7.64 21.10 9.67 7.51 21.60

Min 1.47 3.74 0.33 0.66 0.53 0.29 1.40 0.81 0.92 0.81 5.54 2.55 3.67

All live Mean 14.02 8.90 0.85 85.42 2.67 20.27 4.39 1.40 0.81 2.83 8.15 6.03 4.34 10.55

N = 8 Std dev 14.60 4.69 165.88 2.66 21.06 3.00 2.83 6.78 3.43 2.44 7.01

Max 45.60 16.00 0.85 334.23 8.85 66.60 7.36 1.40 0.81 7.64 21.10 9.67 7.51 21.60

Min 1.47 3.74 0.85 0.33 0.66 0.53 0.29 1.40 0.81 0.74 0.81 2.87 1.39 3.67
Appendix 7a

170

Appendix 7. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Organochlorines in Invertebrate Prey 

Species

7a. Detectable Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Measured in Mussels from the NOAA Status 

and Trends, Mussel Watch Program Cape Flattery Site in 2002 (ppb, dry weight)

Analyte

Concentration in

Mytilus edulis 2002

1,6,7-Trimethylnaphthalene 1.2

1-Methylnaphthalene 3.9

1-Methylphenanthrene 0.8

2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene 2.8

2-Methylnaphthalene 12.2

Acenaphthene 0.6

Anthracene 0.2

Biphenyl 5.9

C1-Naphthalenes 10.5

C1-Phenanthrenes/Anthracenes 3.8

C2-Fluoranthenes/Pyrenes 0.7

C2-Naphthalenes 8.5

C2-Phenanthrenes/Anthracenes 4.2

C3-Naphthalenes 4.5

C4-Naphthalenes 2.6

Chrysene 1.7

Dibenzothiophene 0.5

Fluoranthene 1.5

Fluorene 1.5

Naphthalene 9.9

Phenanthrene 7.1

Pyrene 0.7

PAHs that were not detected: Acenaphthylene, Benzo[a]pyrene, Benzo[b]fluoranthene, Benzo[e]pyrene, Benzo[k]fluoranthene, 

C1-Chrysenes, C1-Fluoranthenes/Pyrenes, C1-Fluorenes, C2-Chrysenes, C3-Chrysenes, C3-Fluorenes, C3-

Phenanthrenes/Anthracenes, C4-Chrysenes, C4-Phenanthrenes/Anthracenes, Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, Perylene
Appendix 7b

171

7b. Organochlorines in Mussels from NOAA Status and Trends Mussel Watch Program, Cape Flattery Site in 2000 and 2002 

(ppb, dry weight) Year and Species alpha chlordane

alpha BHCbeta BHCcis-nonachlorDieldrinEndosulfan IIEndringamma chlordaneheptachlor-epoxideHexachlorMirexo,p'-DDDo,p'-DDEo,p'-DDToxychlordanePentachloro-anisolep,p'-DDDp,p'-DDEp,p'-DDTTrans-NonachlorTotal chlordanesTotal DDTTotal dieldrinTotal HCHTotal PCB1,2,3,4-Tetrachlorobenzene1,2,4,5-Tetrachlorobenzene

2000 Mytilus 

californianus 6.672 2.471 1.483 2.842 0.618 0.865 0.371 0.124 0.124 0.247 1.606 0.988 4.695 0.247 0.618 8.155 6.178 2.842 4.571 10.872 0.124 3.212

2002 Mytilus 

edulis 6.298 2.203 1.807 0.111 3.44 0.186 1.039 0.78 0.569 0.297 0.099 0.393 0.495 0.334 2.71 0.978 5.123 0.161 0.445 7.312 7.484 3.44 4.863 8.566 0.136 0
Appendix 8

172

Appendix 8. List of Acronyms/Abbreviations

4PT – tetraprylin

AAS – atomic absorption spectrometry

ACF – Analytical Control Facility

Ag – silver

Al – aluminum

AMU – atomic mass unit

ANOVA – analysis of variance

As – arsenic

B – boron

Ba – barium

Be – beryllium

BHC – benzene hexachloride

BT – butyltins

BUN – blood urea nitrogen

C – Celsius

CBC – cell blood counts

Cd – cadmium

CDV – Canine Distemper Virus

CGC – capillary gas chromatography

CHL – chlordanes

CO2 – carbon dioxide

Cr – chromium

Cu – copper

CVAAS – cold vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy

DDD – dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane

DDE – dichlorodiphenylethylene

DDTs –dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (1,1,1,-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophyenyl)ethanes

DMV – Dolphin Morbillivirus

EPA – Environmental Protection Agency

Fe – iron

FWS – Fish and Wildlife Service (United States)

g – gram

GERG – Geochemical and Environmental Research Group

HCB – hexachlorobenzene

HCH – cyclohexanes

Hg – mercury

HNO3 – nitric acid

HPLC – high performance liquid chromatography

ICP – inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy

ICP-MS – coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy

Kg – kilograms

M - molar

m:z – mass charge ratio

MAT – modified agglutination test

Mg – magnesium
Appendix 8

173

ml – milliliter

Mn – manganese

Mo – molybdenum

NA – no sample available

Na2SO4 – sodium sulfate

Narcan – Nalazone hydrochloride 

NAT – Neospora Agglutination Test

ng - nanograms

Ni – nickel

nm – nanometer

NMFS – Northwest Fisheries Science Center

NOAA – National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

NSQ – Not sufficient quantity

OCNMS – Olympic Coast national Marine Sanctuary

OCs – Organochlorines

oz. – ounce

PAH – polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PBMC – Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell

PIT – passive integrated transponder tag

Pb – lead

PCB – polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDD – polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins

PCDF – polychlorinated dibenzofurans

PDV – Phocine Distemper Virus

PMV – Porpoise Morbillivirus

ppb – parts per billion

ppm – parts per million

QA/QC – quality assurance quality control

R– all-trans retinol

RP – all-trans retinyl palmitate

Se – selenium

SIM – p3

Sn – Tin

Sr – strontium

T3 – triiodothyronine

T4 – tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine

TBT - tributyltin

TERL – Trace Element Research Laboratory

TPH – total petroleum hydrocarbons

TPT – tripropyltin

TR – total retinol ([R]+0.55*[RP])

USFWS – United States Fish and Wildlife Service

USGS – United States Geological Survey

V – vanadium

WBC – white blood cells

WDFW – Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife

wt – weight
Appendix 9

174

Appendix 9. Analyses and Results Pending and Samples Archived

Genetics

Tissue plugs leftover from the tagging procedures were preserved and transferred to the Seattle 

Aquarium so that genetic analysis can be conducted on the captured otters. Results are pending.

Fur and Whiskers

Other samples, like fur and whiskers were taken and archived in the event that they would be 

useful to other researchers or were needed for further analysis under this proposal.

Serology

Sarcocystis results are pending for seven of the live captured sea otters.

Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC)

PBMC results are pending for the 2002 live captured sea otters.
Appendix 10

175

Appendix 10. Normality Tests

Contaminant 

Group Contaminant Transformation

Shapiro-Wilk 

Significance

Metals live capture

Aluminum (Al) Rankit 0.99

Arsenic (As) Rankit 0.99

Boron (B) Rankit 0.99

Barium (Ba) Rankit 0.99

Cadmium (Cd) Square root 0.157

Copper (Cu) None 0.05

Iron (Fe) ln 0.236

Mercury (Hg) none 0.595

Magnesium (Mg) Square root 0.445

Lead (Pb) ln 0.313

Selenium (Se) None 0.261

Strontium (Sr) ln 0.243

Vanadium (V) ln 0.087

Zinc (Zn) Square root 0.99

Metals beach cast wet weight

Aluminum (Al) ln 0.903

Arsenic (As) None 0.573

Cadmium (Cd) Square root 0.054

Chromium (Cr) Square root 0.07

Copper (Cu) None 0.184

Iron (Fe) None 0.628

Mercury (Hg) Square root 0.364

Magnesium (Mg) ln 0.312

Manganese (Mn) None 0.109

Nickel (Ni) None 0.847

Selenium (Se) None 0.47

Strontium (Sr) None 0.062

Zinc (Zn) None 0.406

Butyltins 

Live

Total Butyltins ln 0.196

Butyltins 

Beach cast

Monobutyltin None 0.263

Dibutyltin ln 0.548

Tributyltin None 0.465

Total BT None 0.223
Appendix 10

176

Contaminant 

Group Contaminant Transformation

Shapiro-Wilk 

Significance

PCBs

PCB1 None 0.422

PCB8/5 None 0.591

PCB28 ln 0.337

PCB42/59/37 None 0.3

PCB44 None 0.161

PCB49 Rankit 0.99

PCB101/90 ln 0.404

PCB105 ln 0.353

PCB135 Rankit 0.99

PCB138/160 ln 0.263

PCB153/132 None 0.162

PCB 175 Rankit 0.99

PCB180 None 0.257

PCB187 None 0.581

total PCBs A Rankit 0.99

total PCBs B Rankit 0.99

Organochlorines 

Beach cast

total PCB None 0.3

Aliphatics

n-docosane None 0.482

n-eicosane None 0.259

n-heptacosane None 0.311

n-heptadecane None 0.169

n-hexacosane None 0.06

n-hexadecane None 0.05

n-nonacosane None 0.487

n-nonadecane None 0.081

n-octacosane ln 0.558

n-octadecane None 0.07

n-pentacosane None 0.367

n-pentadecane None 0.57

n-tetracosane None 0.294

n-triacontane None 0.269

PAHs

Unresolved Complex 

Mixture Rankit 0.913

Semivolatiles

1,2,3,4-

Tetrachlorobenzene N/A N/A

1,2,4,5-

Tetrachlorobenzene None 0.077
Appendix 10

177

Contaminant 

Group Contaminant Transformation

Shapiro-Wilk 

Significance

Vitamin A and Thyroid

Vit A-plasma [R] ug/L None 0.328

Vit A-liver [R] in ug/g ln 0.161

[RP] in ug/g ln 0.542

TR in ug/g ln 0.281

R:RP ln 0.361

T4 nmol/L ln 0.101

T3 nmol/L ln 0.092

p450

PBMC Molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA ln 0.422

Liver Molecules 

p450/100ng total RNA None 0.365

Cell Blood Counts

White Blood Cells 

(WBC) None 0.778

Red Blood Cells (RBC) None 0.270

Hemoglobin (HGB) Rankit 0.229

Hematocrit (HCT) None 0.136

Mean Corpuscular 

Volume (MCV) None 0.383

Mean Corpuscular 

Hemoglobin (MCH) None 0.957

Mean Corpuscular 

Hemoglobin 

Concentration (MCHC) None 0.319

Red Cell Distribution 

width (RDW) Rankit 0.721

Platelets None 0.275

Mean Platelet Volume None 0.982

Percent Neutrophils None 0.451

Percent Lymphocytes None 0.674

Percent Monocytes None 0.315

Percent Eosinophils 

(EOS) ln 0.785

Percent Basophils N/A
Appendix 10

178

Contaminant 

Group Contaminant Transformation

Shapiro-Wilk 

Significance

Serum Chemistry

Glucose (mg/dL) None 0.400

Blood Urea Nitrogen 

(BUN), (mg/dL) Rankit 0.255

Creatinine (mg/dL) N/A

BUN/Creatinine Ratio None 0.274

Uric Acid (mg/dL) None 0.072

Sodium (mequiv/L) ln 0.057

Potassium (mequiv/L) None 0.762

Na/K Ratio None 0.061

Chloride (mequiv/dL) None 0.512

Carbon Dioxide (meq/L) None 0.125

Calcium (mg/dL) None 0.517

Phosphorus mg/dL) ln 0.357

Total Protein (g/dL) None 0.297

Albumin (A), (g/dL) None 0.284

Globulin (calculated) 

(G), (g/dL) None 0.447

A/G Ratio ln 0.212

Triglycerides (mg/dL) None 0.236

Cholesterol (mg/dL) ln 0.047

Total Bilirubin (mg/dL) N/A

Direct Bilirubin (mg/dL) N/A

Gamma 

Glutamyltransferase 

(GGT) Rankit 0.197

Alkaline Phosphatase 

(AP) Rankit 0.275

Lactic Dehydrogenase 

(LD) None 0.265

Aspartate 

Aminotransferase (AST) ln 0.448

Alanine 

Aminotransferase (ALT) ln 0.468

Iron (μg/dL) None 0.669

Hemolytic Index None 0.545

Lipemic Index ln 0.099

Icteric Index N/A

Osmolality None 0.096

Anion Gap Rankit 0.990

Shapiro-Wilk Significance is for transformed data unless data unless data were not transformed
179

NMSP CONSERVATION SERIES PUBLICATIONS

To date, the following reports have been published in the Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series. All 

publications are available on the National Marine Sanctuary Program website 

(http://www.sanctuaries.noaa.gov/).

Caribbean Connectivity: Implications for Marine Protected Area Management (ONMS-08-07)

Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of Management Strategies and Regulations of FKNMS by Commercial 

Fishers, Dive Operators, and Environmental Group Members: A Baseline Characterization and 10-year Comparison 

(ONMS-08-06)

First Biennial Ocean Climate Summit: Finding Solutions for San Francisco Bay Area's Coast and Ocean 

(ONMS-08-05)

A Scientific Forum on the Gulf of Mexico: The Islands in the Stream Concept (NMSP-08-04)

M/V ELPIS Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2007 Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-08-03)

CONNECTIVITY Science, People and Policy in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (NMSP-08-

02) 

M/V ALEC OWEN MAITLAND Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2007 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-08-01) 

Automated, objective texture segmentation of multibeam echosounder data - Seafloor survey and 

substrate maps from James Island to Ozette Lake, Washington Outer Coast. (NMSP-07-05) 

Observations of Deep Coral and Sponge Assemblages in Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary, 

Washington (NMSP-07-04) 

A Bioregional Classification of the Continental Shelf of Northeastern North America for Conservation 

Analysis and Planning Based on Representation (NMSP-07-03) 

M/V WELLWOOD Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2006 Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-07-02) 

Survey report of NOAA Ship McArthur II cruises AR-04-04, AR-05-05 and AR-06-03: Habitat 

classification of side scan sonar imagery in support of deep-sea coral/sponge explorations at the Olympic 

Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMSP-07-01) 

2002 - 03 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Science Report: An Ecosystem Report Card After 

Five Years of Marine Zoning (NMSP-06-12) 

Habitat Mapping Effort at the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary - Current Status and Future 

Needs (NMSP-06-11) 

M/V CONNECTED Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2005 Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-010) 

M/V JACQUELYN L Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2005 Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-09)
180

M/V WAVE WALKER Coral Reef Restoration Baseline Monitoring Report - 2004 Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-08) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Habitat Mapping: Survey report and classification of side scan 

sonar data from surveys HMPR-114-2004-02 and HMPR-116-2005-01 (NMSP-06-07) 

A Pilot Study of Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus Walbaum 1792) Movement in the Conch Reef 

Research Only Area (Northern Florida Keys) (NMSP-06-06) 

Comments on Hydrographic and Topographic LIDAR Acquisition and Merging with Multibeam 

Sounding Data Acquired in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-05) 

Conservation Science in NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries: Description and Recent Accomplishments 

(ONMS-06-04)

Normalization and characterization of multibeam backscatter: Koitlah Point to Point of the Arches, 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary - Survey HMPR-115-2004-03 (ONMS-06-03) 

Developing Alternatives for Optimal Representation of Seafloor Habitats and Associated Communities in 

Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-02) 

Benthic Habitat Mapping in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-01) 

Channel Islands Deep Water Monitoring Plan Development Workshop Report (ONMS-05-05) 

Movement of yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus Block 1790) and black grouper (Mycteroperca 

bonaci Poey 1860) in the northern Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary as determined by acoustic 

telemetry (MSD-05-4) 

The Impacts of Coastal Protection Structures in California's Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

(MSD-05-3) 

An annotated bibliography of diet studies of fish of the southeast United States and Gray's Reef National 

Marine Sanctuary (MSD-05-2) 

Noise Levels and Sources in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary and the St. Lawrence River 

Estuary (MSD-05-1) 

Biogeographic Analysis of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (MSD-04-1) 

A Review of the Ecological Effectiveness of Subtidal Marine Reserves in Central California (MSD-04-2, 

MSD-04-3) 

Pre-Construction Coral Survey of the M/V Wellwood Grounding Site (MSD-03-1) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary: Proceedings of the 1998 Research Workshop, Seattle, 

Washington (MSD-01-04) 

Workshop on Marine Mammal Research & Monitoring in the National Marine Sanctuaries (MSD-01-03) 
181

A Review of Marine Zones in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (MSD-01-2) 

Distribution and Sighting Frequency of Reef Fishes in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

(MSD-01-1) 

Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary: A Rapid Assessment of Coral, Fish, and Algae Using 

the AGRRA Protocol (MSD-00-3) 

The Economic Contribution of Whalewatching to Regional Economies: Perspectives From Two National 

Marine Sanctuaries (MSD-00-2) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Area to be Avoided Education and Monitoring Program 

(MSD-00-1) 

Multi-species and Multi-interest Management: an Ecosystem Approach to Market Squid (Loligo 

opalescens) Harvest in California (MSD-99-1)