U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice

RESEARCH

REPORT

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE

MAY 2016
 

Violence Against American Indian and 

Alaska Native Women and Men 

2010 Findings From the 

National Intimate Partner and 

Sexual Violence Survey 

By André B. Rosay, Ph.D. 
U.S. Department of Justice 

Office of Justice Programs 

810 Seventh St. N.W. 

Washington, DC 20531 

Loretta E. Lynch 

Attorney General 

Karol V. Mason 

Assistant Attorney General 

Nancy Rodriguez, Ph.D. 

Director, National Institute of Justice 

This and other publications and products of the National Institute of Justice can be found at: 

National Institute of Justice 

Strengthen Science • Advance Justice 

http://www.NIJ.gov 

Office of Justice Programs 

Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods 

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov 

The National Institute of Justice is the research, development and evaluation agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. NIJ’s 

mission is to advance scientific research, development and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety. 

The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice 

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Illustration by Sam English 
RESEARCH

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE

REPORT

- - -

MAY 2016

VIOLENCE AGAINST 

AMERICAN INDIAN 

AND ALASKA NATIVE 

WOMEN AND MEN 

2010 FINDINGS FROM THE NATIONAL INTIMATE PARTNER 

AND SEXUAL VIOLENCE SURVEY 

BY ANDRÉ B. ROSAY, PH.D. 

This project was supported by Award No. 2012 PJ BX K001, awarded by the National 

Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, 

findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the 

author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice. 

NCJ 249736 

RESEARCH REPORT iii 

Table of Contents 

List of Tables and Figures .......................................................................................................................... v
 

Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................. viii
 

Resources for Victims and Survivors ........................................................................................................ ix
 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................... 1
 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey ....................................................................... 1
 

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women ............................................................. 2
 

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Men ................................................................. 2
 

Impact of Violence ........................................................................................................................... 3
 

Chapter 1. Background and Methods ........................................................................................................ 5
 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey ....................................................................... 5
 

American Indian and Alaska Native Sample ....................................................................................... 6
 

Analysis .......................................................................................................................................... 6
 

Strengths and Limitations ................................................................................................................ 8
 

Chapter 2. Sexual Violence ...................................................................................................................... 11
 

Lifetime Prevalence of Sexual Violence Against Women .................................................................... 13
 

Lifetime Prevalence of Sexual Violence Against Men ........................................................................ 15
 

Past-Year Prevalence of Sexual Violence Against Women ..................................................................15
 

Past-Year Prevalence of Sexual Violence Against Men .......................................................................16
 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators ...................................................................................................17
 

Summary .........................................................................................................................................18
 

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Chapter 3. Physical Violence by Intimate Partners ................................................................................. 21
 

Prevalence of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Women ............................................... 23
 

Prevalence of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Men .................................................... 24
 

Lifetime Forms of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners ................................................................. 24
 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators .................................................................................................. 26
 

Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 27
 

Chapter 4. Stalking................................................................................................................................... 29
 

Prevalence of Stalking .....................................................................................................................31
 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators ...................................................................................................32
 

Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 33
 

Chapter 5. Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners ..................................................................... 35
 

Prevalence of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Women ................................... 35
 

Prevalence of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Men ........................................ 38
 

Lifetime Forms of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners ..................................................... 39
 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators ...................................................................................................41
 

Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 42
 

Chapter 6. Summary and Impact of Violence .......................................................................................... 43
 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey ...................................................................... 43
 

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women ............................................................ 43
 

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Men ................................................................ 44
 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators .................................................................................................. 45
 

Impact of Violence ...........................................................................................................................47
 

References ............................................................................................................................................... 51
 

Appendix. 95% Confidence Intervals for Weighted Estimates ................................................................ 53
 
RESEARCH REPORT v
 

Tables and Figures 

Chapter 2. Sexual Violence 

Figure 2.1 NIJ Measures of Sexual Violence ......................................................................................13
 

Table 2.1 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Women .........................................14
 

Table 2.2 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Men ..............................................15
 

Table 2.3 Weighted Estimates of Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Women .......................................16
 

Table 2.4 Weighted Estimates of Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Men ...........................................17
 

Figure 2.2 Interracial Sexual Violence: Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims ..................................19
 

Figure 2.3 Intraracial Sexual Violence: Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims ..................................19
 

Chapter 3. Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 

Table 3.1 Weighted Estimates of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Women .................... 23
 

Table 3.3 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Physical Violence by
 

Intimate Partners Experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native Victims ................................... 25
 

Table 3.2 Weighted Estimates of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Men .........................24
 

Figure 3.1 Interracial Physical Violence by Intimate Partners:
 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims .......................................................................................... 26
 

Figure 3.2 Intraracial Physical Violence by Intimate Partners:
 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims .......................................................................................... 26
 

Chapter 4. Stalking 

Table 4.1 Weighted Estimates of Stalking ..........................................................................................31
 

Table 4.2 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Stalking Behaviors Experienced by
 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims ......................................................................................32
 

Figure 4.1 Interracial Stalking: Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims ............................................ 33
 

Figure 4.2 Intraracial Stalking: Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims ........................................... 33
 

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Chapter 5. Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners 

Table 5.1 Weighted Estimates of Psychological Aggression by
 

Intimate Partners Against Women .....................................................................................................37
 

Table 5.2 Weighted Estimates of Psychological Aggression by
 

Intimate Partners Against Men ........................................................................................................ 38
 

Table 5.3 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Psychological Aggression by
 

Intimate Partners Experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native Victims ..............................39, 40
 

Figure 5.1 Interracial Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners:
 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims............................................................................................41
 

Figure 5.2 Intraracial Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners:
 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims............................................................................................41
 

Chapter 6. Summary and Impact of Violence 

Table 6.1 Weighted Estimates of Violence Against Women ................................................................ 44
 

Table 6.2 Weighted Estimates of Violence Against Men .................................................................... 45
 

Figure 6.1 Interracial Violence:
 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims .......................................................................................... 46
 

Figure 6.2 Intraracial Violence:
 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims .......................................................................................... 46
 

Table 6.3 Weighted Estimates of Impact From Physical Violence by
 

Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence on Female Victims ..................................................47
 

Table 6.4 Weighted Estimates of Impact From Physical Violence by
 

Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence on Male Victims ..................................................... 48
 

Table 6.5 Weighted Estimates of Services Needed by Female Victims of
 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence .............................................. 49
 

Table 6.6 Weighted Estimates of Services Needed by Male Victims of
 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence .............................................. 49
 

Figure 6.3 Weighted Estimates of Inability to Get Needed Services .................................................... 50
 
......................

RESEARCH REPORT vii 

Appendix. 95% Confidence Intervals for Weighted Estimates 

Table A.1 Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Women .......................................................................... 54
 

Table A.2 Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Men ............................................................................... 54
 

Table A.3 Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Women ........................................................................ 55
 

Table A.4 Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Men ............................................................................ 55
 

Table A.5 Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Sexual Violence ............................................................ 56
 

Table A.6 Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Women ..................................................... 56
 

Table A.7 Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Men .....................................57


...................................

Table A.8 Lifetime Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Experienced by


American Indian and Alaska Native Victims .................................................. 57
 

Table A.9 Lifetime Physical Violence by Interracial and Intraracial Intimate Partners .......................... 58
 

Table A.10 Stalking ......................................................................................................................... 58
 

Table A.11 Lifetime Stalking Behaviors Experienced by American Indian
 

and Alaska Native Victims ............................................................................................................... 59
 

Table A.12 Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Stalking ..................................................................... 59
 

Table A.13 Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Women ........................................ 60
 

Table A.14 Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Men ............................................. 60
 

..............................

Table A.15 Lifetime Psychological Aggression by
 

Intimate Partners Experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native Victims 61, 62
 

Table A.16 Lifetime Psychological Aggression by


Interracial and Intraracial Intimate Partners...................................................................................... 62
 

Table A.17 Violence Against Women ................................................................................................ 63
 

Table A.18 Violence Against Men ..................................................................................................... 64
 

Table A.19 Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Violence ..................................................................... 64
 

Table A.20 Impact From Physical Violence by
 

Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence on Female Victims 65
 

Table A.21 Impact From Physical Violence by
 

Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence on Male Victims 65
 

Table A.22 Services Needed by Female Victims of Physical Violence by
 

Table A.23 Services Needed by Male Victims of Physical Violence by


Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence ............................................................................. 66
 

Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence 

................................................. 

..................................................... 

............................................................................. 66


Table A.24 Inability to Get Needed Services.......................................................................................67
 

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Acknowledgments 

We sincerely thank the women and men who participated in the 2010 National Intimate Partner and Sexual 

Violence Survey. They re-lived horrendous experiences — ones that no one should be subjected to — to help 

all of us understand the extent of sexual violence, physical violence, stalking, and psychological aggression in 

the United States. While the survey has important limitations, the results provide a voice to millions of women 

and men who have experienced violence in their lives. We hope that this report brings awareness to their 

experiences and that this awareness will then be used to reinforce our prevention and intervention efforts. 

André B. Rosay, Ph.D. 

Executive Visiting Research Fellow, National Institute of Justice 

Director, University of Alaska Anchorage Justice Center 
RESEARCH REPORT ix 

Resources for 

Victims and Survivors 

The National Indigenous Women’s Resource Center (NIWRC) is dedicated to ending violence and increasing 

safety for American Indian women and children. As the National Indian Resource Center, the NIWRC offers 

resources aimed at enhancing the capacity of Tribal Nations, Alaska Native Villages and Native Hawaiians to 

prevent and respond to violence against Native women and their children. Resources are available online at 

www.niwrc.org/resources. 

The National Domestic Violence Hotline provides highly trained expert advocates who are available 

24/7 to talk confidentially with anyone experiencing domestic violence, seeking resources or information, 

or questioning unhealthy aspects of their relationship. The hotline provides lifesaving tools and immediate 

support. Resources and help can be found by calling 1-800-799-SAFE (7233) or online at 

www.thehotline.org/help. 

The National Sexual Assault Hotline, 1-800-656-HOPE (4673), provides access to a range of free services, 

including confidential and judgment-free support, support in finding a local health facility, local resources 

that can assist with next steps toward healing and recovery, referrals for long-term support, and information 

about laws and medical concerns. Additional resources, including an online hotline, are available at 

www.rainn.org/get-help. 

The National Center for Victims of Crime (NCVC) is dedicated to serving individuals, families and communities 

harmed by crime. The Connect Directory provides a fast and easy way to locate crime victim assistance. The 

Stalking Resource Center provides training, technical assistance, a website and an information clearinghouse 

to enhance the ability to effectively respond to stalking. These resources are available at 

www.victimsofcrime.org. 

Additional victim service programs and organizations can be found in the Online Directory of Crime Victim 

Services, a resource from the Office for Victims of Crime (OVC). The Online Directory is available at 

http://ovc.ncjrs.gov/findvictimservices. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

RESEARCH REPORT 1 

VIOLENCE AGAINST AMERICAN
 

INDIAN AND ALASKA NATIVE
 

WOMEN AND MEN
 

BY ANDRÉ B. ROSAY, PH.D. 

Executive Summary 

This report examines the prevalence of violence against 

American Indian and Alaska Native women and men, 

using a large nationally representative sample from the 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 

(NISVS). More specifically, it provides estimates of sexual 

violence, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and psychological aggression by intimate partners. It 

also provides estimates of interracial and intraracial 

victimizations and briefly examines the impact of 

violence. Results should be used to raise awareness and 

understanding about violence against American Indian 

and Alaska Native women and men. 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual 

Violence Survey 

The NISVS was launched in 2010 by the National Center 

for Injury Prevention and Control of the U.S. Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) with the support 

of the National Institute of Justice and the Department of 

Defense. This survey provides detailed information about 

sexual violence, physical violence by an intimate partner, 

stalking, and psychological aggression by an intimate 

partner. The analysis in this report is based on two of 

the samples that were included in the 2010 NISVS — 

the general population sample and the American Indian 

and Alaska Native oversample. These two samples 

provide information from 2,473 adult women and 1,505 

adult men who identified themselves as American Indian 

or Alaska Native, alone or in combination with another 

racial group. Most women (83 percent) and most men (79 

percent) were affiliated or enrolled with a tribe or village. 

For both women and men, more than half (54 percent 

for both) had lived within reservation boundaries or in an 

Alaska Native village in the past year. 

The NISVS has important limitations: Only certain types 

of victimizations were included, the survey was only 

administered by phone, and it was not conducted in 

any indigenous languages. As with other victimization 

surveys, estimates may be impacted by recall errors 

and by the continuing stigma associated with disclosing 

victimizations. Some estimates have large margins 

of error. Despite these limitations, the survey also 

has important strengths: It uses behaviorally specific 

questions and it was administered to a large, nationally 

representative sample. The survey results provide the 

most thorough assessment on the extent of violence 

against American Indian and Alaska Native women and 

men. 

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2 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

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Violence Against American Indian and 

Alaska Native Women 

More than 4 in 5 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (84.3 percent) have experienced violence in their 

lifetime. This includes — 

■■	 56.1 percent who have experienced sexual violence. 

■■	 55.5 percent who have experienced physical violence 

by an intimate partner. 

■■	 48.8 percent who have experienced stalking. 

■■	 66.4 percent who have experienced psychological 

aggression by an intimate partner. 

Overall, more than 1.5 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced violence in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 3 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (39.8 percent) have experienced violence in the 

past year. This includes — 

■■	 14.4 percent who have experienced sexual violence. 

■■	 8.6 percent who have experienced physical violence 

by an intimate partner. 

■■	 11.6 percent who have experienced stalking. 

■■	 25.5 percent who have experienced psychological 

aggression by an intimate partner. 

Overall, more than 730,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced violence in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only women, American 

Indian and Alaska Native women are 1.2 times as likely 

to have experienced violence in their lifetime and are 

1.7 times as likely to have experienced violence in the 

past year (p < .05). Relative to non-Hispanic White-only 

women, American Indian and Alaska Native women are 

also significantly more likely to have experienced violence 

by an interracial perpetrator and significantly less likely to 

have experienced violence by an intraracial perpetrator. 

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska 

Native Men 

More than 4 in 5 American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(81.6 percent) have experienced violence in their lifetime. 

This includes — 

■■	 27.5 percent who have experienced sexual violence. 

■■	 43.2 percent who have experienced physical violence 

by an intimate partner. 

■■	 18.6 percent who have experienced stalking. 

■■	 73.0 percent who have experienced psychological 

aggression by an intimate partner. 

Overall, more than 1.4 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced violence in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 3 American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(34.6 percent) have experienced violence in the past year. 

This includes — 

■■	 9.9 percent who have experienced sexual violence. 

■■	 5.6 percent who have experienced physical violence 

by an intimate partner. 

■■	 3.8 percent who have experienced stalking. 

■■	 27.3 percent who have experienced psychological 

aggression by an intimate partner. 

Overall, more than 595,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced violence in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only men, American Indian 

and Alaska Native men are 1.3 times as likely to have 

experienced violence in their lifetime (p < .05). The pastyear rates are not significantly different across racial and 

ethnic groups (p > .05). Relative to non-Hispanic Whiteonly men, American Indian and Alaska Native men are also 

significantly more likely to have experienced violence by an 

interracial perpetrator and significantly less likely to have 

experienced violence by an intraracial perpetrator. 
RESEARCH REPORT 3 

Impact of Violence 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native victims of 

lifetime physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and sexual violence — 

■■	 66.5 percent of women and 26.0 percent of men 

were concerned for their safety. 

■■	 41.3 percent of women and 20.3 percent of men 

were physically injured. 

■■	 92.6 percent of women and 74.3 percent of men had 

talked to someone about what the perpetrators did. 

■■	 49.0 percent of women and 19.9 percent of men 

needed services because of what the perpetrators did. 

■■	 40.5 percent of women and 9.7 percent of men had 

to miss days of work or school because of what the 

perpetrators did. 

The most common service needed by American Indian 

and Alaska Native victims of lifetime physical violence 

by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence was 

medical care (needed by 38.0 percent of female victims 

and 9.3 percent of male victims). Among victims who 

needed services, 38.2 percent of American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and 16.9 percent of American 

Indian and Alaska Native men were unable to get the 

services they needed. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

RESEARCH REPORT 5 

Chapter 1.
 

Background and Methods
 

Few estimates are available to describe the prevalence 

of violence against American Indian and Alaska Native 

women and men. In addition, these estimates are often 

based on local rather than national samples (e.g., Yuan 

et al., 2006; Wood and Magen, 2009). The few available 

national estimates are often based on very small samples. 

These small samples do not always accurately represent 

the American Indian and Alaska Native population in the 

United States (Crossland et al., 2013). 

This report examines the prevalence of violence against 

American Indian and Alaska Native women and men, using 

a nationally representative sample larger than those used 

previously. This sample includes 2,473 women and 1,505 

men in the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence 

Survey (NISVS) who identified themselves as American 

Indian or Alaska Native. More specifically, the purpose of 

this report is to describe the lifetime and annual prevalence 

of violence experienced by American Indian and Alaska 

Native women and men, including the prevalence of sexual 

violence, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and psychological aggression by intimate partners. These 

results show the number of American Indian and Alaska 

Native women and men who have experienced violence in 

their lifetime and in the past year. 

Estimates of sexual violence are provided in chapter 

2. Estimates of physical violence by intimate partners, 

stalking, and psychological aggression by intimate 

partners are provided in chapters 3, 4, and 5, 

respectively. A summary and brief overview of the impact 

of violence is then provided in the concluding chapter. 

Additional details on methods and analyses are available 

in a separate technical report (Rosay, 2015). 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual 

Violence Survey 

The NISVS was launched in 2010 by the National Center 

for Injury Prevention and Control (U.S. Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention) with the support of the National 

Institute of Justice and the Department of Defense. The 

goals of the NISVS were to collect detailed information 

about sexual violence, physical violence by an intimate 

partner, stalking, and psychological aggression by an 

intimate partner. 

Data for the 2010 general population sample were 

collected through a random-digit-dialing survey of 

women and men in the United States. The survey used a 

dual-frame design that included both landline telephone 

numbers and cell phone numbers and was conducted in 

English and in Spanish. A second phase of data collection 

was used to reduce nonresponses. A total of 16,507 

interviews were completed and 1,542 were partially 

completed. The overall weighted response rate was 25.8 

percent. 

In 2010, the NISVS was also administered to an 

oversample of respondents who identified themselves 

as American Indian or Alaska Native. Data for this 

oversample were collected through a random-digit-dialing 

survey of women and men in the United States who lived 

in private residences in telephone exchange areas where 

at least half of the residents identified themselves as 

American Indian or Alaska Native. The sample included 

the landline telephone numbers in these 234 geographical 

areas throughout the U.S. (within and outside Indian 

Country) that have a high density of American Indian and 

Alaska Native residents. Cell phone numbers were not 

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included in this sample. Respondents were then selected 

if they identified themselves as American Indian or Alaska 

Native. A second phase of data collection was used to 

reduce nonresponses. A total of 2,809 interviews were 

completed and 522 were partially completed. The overall 

weighted response rate was 27.9 percent. Additional 

details are available in Rosay’s (2015) technical report 

(see chapter 4). 

Comprehensive protocols were implemented to ensure 

the safety and confidentiality of the respondents. 

The NISVS was introduced as a survey on health and 

injuries and used a graduated informed consent process 

(see Sullivan and Cain, 2004). After ensuring that the 

respondents were safe, they were informed about the 

sensitive questions on victimizations. If they consented to 

participate, they were then asked detailed, behaviorally 

specific questions about their lifetime and past-year 

victimization experiences. These questions avoided legal 

terms (e.g., assault) and instead asked about the specific 

behaviors of the perpetrators (e.g., punched, kicked, 

and slapped). By asking about what the perpetrators 

did, these questions also avoided attributing blame to 

the respondents. Surveys were administered by RTI 

International, using interviewers who were specifically 

trained to ask sensitive questions and to address 

respondents’ distress. 

American Indian and Alaska Native Sample 

The analysis in this report is based on a combined sample 

that includes all respondents in the American Indian and 

Alaska Native oversample as well as the respondents in 

the general population sample who identified themselves 

as American Indian or Alaska Native. By combining 

these two samples, we increased the sample size and 

diversity. The combined sample includes American 

Indians and Alaska Natives who only have cell phones and 

includes American Indians and Alaska Natives who live in 

geographical areas with low densities of American Indians 

and Alaska Natives. Some of these areas (e.g., Oklahoma, 

Texas, New York, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, and Michigan) 

have low densities but large numbers of American Indians 

and Alaska Natives. The combined sample is larger and 

more representative of the American Indian and Alaska 

Native population than the original American Indian and 

Alaska Native oversample. 

Although respondents in the combined American Indian 

and Alaska Native sample were not limited to American 

Indian and Alaska Native people who were enrolled in 

federally recognized tribes or living in tribal communities, 

most women (83 percent) and most men (79 percent) 

were affiliated or enrolled with a tribe or village. More 

than half of the women and more than half of the men (60 

percent for both) had lived within reservation boundaries 

or in an Alaska Native village, and more than half of the 

women and more than half of the men (54 percent for 

both) had done so in the past year. 

On average, both female and male respondents in the 

combined American Indian and Alaska Native sample 

were 46 years old (SDs = 16.4 and 16.0, respectively; 

age range = 18 to 92 years for both female and male 

respondents). Half of the women (50 percent) and almost 

half of the men (43 percent) reported having more than 

a high school degree. Almost 3 in 4 of the women (74 

percent) and men (69 percent) reported a total annual 

household income below $35,000 before taxes. 

Analysis 

All estimates presented in this report are weighted 

estimates. Weights were used to control for selection 

and nonresponses and were then post-stratified to 

population totals for the American Indian and Alaska 

Native population, alone or in combination (U.S. Census, 

2010). Estimates include the percentages and numbers 

of women and men who have experienced violence. The 

estimated numbers of victims are based on the total 

population of women and men in the 2010 U.S. Census 

who identified themselves as American Indian or Alaska 

Native, alone or in combination with another race (Ns = 

1,837,171 women and 1,732,184 men). 

The estimates for American Indian and Alaska Native 

women and men were compared with estimates for 

women and men in the general population sample who 

identified themselves as non-Hispanic White only (Ns 

= 7,646 women and 6,050 men). The non-Hispanic 
RESEARCH REPORT 7 

White-only group was selected to be consistent with the 

CDC analyses by Black et al. (2011) and Breiding et al. 

(2014). When differences across racial and ethnic groups 

were statistically significant at a probability level of .05 or 

less, a relative risk statistic was computed. In this case, 

the relative risk statistic is simply the American Indian 

and Alaska Native percentage divided by the non-Hispanic 

White-only percentage. It examines the difference in the 

risk or probability of being a victim — between people 

identifying themselves as American Indian or Alaska 

Native and those identifying themselves as non-Hispanic 

White only. When the relative risk is greater than 1.0, 

people identifying themselves as American Indian or 

Alaska Native are more likely to be victimized than those 

identifying as non-Hispanic White only. Conversely, 

when the relative risk is less than 1.0, people identifying 

themselves as American Indian or Alaska Native are less 

likely to be victimized than those identifying themselves 

as non-Hispanic White only. All estimates were computed 

with SAS software, using procedures for the analysis of 

complex sample survey data. Confidence intervals for all 

estimates are available in the appendix. Additional details, 

including all syntax files, are available in Rosay’s (2015) 

technical report (chapter 26). 

In addition to providing lifetime and past-year 

victimization estimates, this report also provides 

estimates of interracial and intraracial victimizations. 

To minimize the amount of missing data, the analysis 

examines whether any of a respondent’s victimizations 

were committed by an interracial perpetrator and whether 

any were committed by an intraracial perpetrator. It does 

not examine the number of victimizations committed 

by interracial and intraracial perpetrators. While there 

are often too many missing data to examine the precise 

number of interracial and intraracial victimizations, 

there are enough data to examine whether any of the 

victimizations were interracial and intraracial. Information 

Differences Between CDC and NIJ Samples and Analyses 

The NIJ sample of American Indians and Alaska Natives included respondents in the general population 

sample and in the American Indian and Alaska Native oversample. They were selected if they identified 

themselves as American Indian or Alaska Native, alone or in combination with another race, regardless 

of ethnicity. The NIJ analysis were based on NISVS data that were extensively cleaned. All of NIJ’s data 

cleaning is thoroughly documented in Rosay’s (2015) technical report. The composites created by NIJ were 

different from those created by CDC. 

The NIJ analysis included partially completed interviews. It was important to include partially completed 

interviews because unweighted completion rates were lower in the American Indian and Alaska Native 

oversample (84.3 percent) than in the general population sample (91.5 percent). In addition, completion 

may have been nonrandom. The NIJ analysis assumed that nonrespondents were victimized at the same 

(weighted) rate as the respondents. 

Because of the differences between the CDC and NIJ samples and analyses, it is difficult to compare the 

estimates in this report with the estimates in CDC’s summary reports (Black et al., 2011; Breiding et al., 

2014). 

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about the race of the perpetrator is particularly important 

for American Indian and Alaska Native victims because 

it impacts the criminal jurisdiction. Until recently, Indian 

tribes had no authority to criminally prosecute non-Indian 

offenders, even for crimes committed in Indian Country. 

In each section, the new weighted estimates are compared 

to previous estimates from the National Crime Victimization 

Survey and the National Violence Against Women Survey. 

They are also compared to the previous CDC estimates 

from the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence 

Survey (Black et al., 2011; Breiding et al., 2014). It is 

important to emphasize that it is difficult to compare 

estimates across these different surveys. In particular, 

some estimates provide information about prevalence (the 

number of victims), whereas others provide information 

about incidence (the number of incidents/victimizations). 

Comparisons are included only to provide some context for 

the new estimates. 

Strengths and Limitations 

This report provides what are currently the most 

detailed estimates of violence against American Indian 

and Alaska Native women and men. The NISVS uses 

detailed, behaviorally specific questions to provide a 

comprehensive assessment of sexual violence, physical 

violence by intimate partners, stalking, and psychological 

aggression by intimate partners. It also provides important 

information about interracial and intraracial victimizations. 

The estimates in this report are derived from a nationally 

representative sample that includes a large number of 

people who identified themselves as American Indian or 

Alaska Native (2,473 women and 1,505 men). The results 

in this report provide a voice to millions of American Indian 

and Alaska Native women and men who have experienced 

violence in their relationships, in their homes, and in 

their communities. Their voices will hopefully renew our 

commitment to end violence against all women and men. 

Despite these strengths, the survey has important 

limitations. Not all forms of violence were included in the 

survey. It is not possible for a survey to measure all of 

the possible things that perpetrators do to victims. For 

example, there are no questions about online enticement. 

In addition, there is no information about human trafficking 

(see Farley et al., 2011). 

There are also limitations to the survey methods. The 

survey was conducted only by phone, in English or 

Spanish, and was not available in indigenous languages. 

To be eligible to participate, women and men had to own 

a phone. This excluded women and men without phones 

National Crime Victimization Survey 

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is a nationally representative survey conducted by the Bureau 

of Justice Statistics. Participants included almost 160,000 individuals age 12 or older in more than 90,000 

households in 2014 (Truman and Langton, 2015). The survey measures the frequency of rape and other sexual 

assault, robbery, aggravated and simple assault, personal larceny, household burglary, motor vehicle theft, and 

other theft (Barnett-Ryan, Langton, and Planty, 2014). In 2006, a Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS) was 

added to provide estimates of stalking. Given the small number of American Indians and Alaska Natives included 

in the NCVS sample, most researchers have pooled multiple years of data to create reliable victimization 

estimates (Greenfeld and Smith, 1999; Rennison, 2001; Perry, 2004; Bachman et al., 2008). These estimates 

show the average annual number of victimizations (or the average annual rate of victimizations). This is a 

measure of incidence (the total number of incidents/victimizations experienced by American Indian and Alaska 

Native people), not a measure of prevalence (the total number of American Indian and Alaska Native victims; see 

Lauritsen and Rezey, 2013). 
RESEARCH REPORT 9 

(and women and men who were forbidden by perpetrators 

to answer the phone). The landline telephone samples 

excluded women and men who were not living in private 

residences, such as those who were homeless or living in 

shelters at the time of the survey. 

All victimization estimates may be impacted by recall errors 

and by the continuing stigma associated with disclosing 

victimizations. The estimates derived from the NISVS 

data are no different. Some of these estimates have large 

margins of error (up to 18 percentage points). Confidence 

intervals for all estimates are provided in the appendix. 

Readers are encouraged to examine these confidence 

intervals to determine the precision of each estimate. 

Because margins of error are often large, differences 

across racial and ethnic groups often fail to reach statistical 

significance. In addition, comparisons should be interpreted 

cautiously because they assume that the quality of the 

victimization measures is equivalent across racial and 

ethnic groups (that is, the survey questions work equally 

well across racial and ethnic groups). These comparisons 

also assume that the survey’s limitations are equivalent 

across racial and ethnic groups. 

Finally, it is important to emphasize that the estimates 

in this report show the prevalence (not the incidence) of 

violence. In other words, the results show the number of 

American Indian and Alaska Native women and men who 

have experienced violence. They do not show how often or 

National Violence Against Women Survey 

The National Violence Against Women Survey 

(NVAWS) was conducted in 1995 and 1996 to 

measure the prevalence of violence against 

women and men. This survey provides estimates 

on the incidence and prevalence of rape, physical 

assault, and stalking. It used behaviorally 

specific questions to measure victimization 

incidents. However, few American Indians and 

Alaska Natives were included in the sample (88 

women and 105 men). Nonetheless, estimates 

for lifetime prevalence are generally available. 

These estimates show the total number of 

victims (not victimizations) in the American Indian 

and Alaska Native population. Whereas the NCVS 

provides past-year estimates for the American 

Indian and Alaska Native population, the NVAWS 

provides lifetime estimates. 

how many times they have experienced violence. Because 

some people are victimized more than once, the incidence 

of violence (the number of incidents/victimizations) is 

greater than the prevalence of violence (the number of 

victims; see Lauritsen et al., 2012). This report focuses on 

the prevalence of violence, i.e., the number of victims. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

RESEARCH REPORT 11 

Chapter 2. 

Sexual Violence 

National estimates of sexual violence experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native women and men are 

available from the National Crime Victimization Survey 

(NCVS), the National Violence Against Women Survey 

(NVAWS), and the National Intimate Partner and Sexual 

Violence Survey (NISVS). 

The NCVS asked respondents whether they had been 

forced or coerced to engage in unwanted sexual activity. 

Using data from 1993 to 1998, Rennison (2001) found that 

American Indian and Alaska Native people age 12 or older 

experienced an average of 6,550 rapes and sexual assaults 

per year, resulting in an average annual rate of 5.8 per 

1,000 American Indian and Alaska Native persons age 12 

or older. Perry (2004) found similar results using additional 

years of data. From 1992 to 2001, American Indian and 

Alaska Native people age 12 or older experienced an 

average of 5,900 rapes and sexual assaults per year, 

resulting in an average annual rate of 5 per 1,000 American 

Indian and Alaska Native persons age 12 or older (Perry, 

2004). These estimates were updated by Bachman et al. 

(2008, 2010) to include additional years of NCVS data. 

From 1992 to 2005, American Indian and Alaska Native 

people age 12 or older experienced an average of 6,956 

rapes and sexual assaults per year (Bachman et al., 2008). 

On average, 87 percent of these were committed against 

women, and 13 percent were committed against men 

(Bachman et al., 2008). Forty percent of the rapes and 

sexual assaults against American Indian and Alaska Native 

women were completed rapes (Bachman et al., 2010). 

In the NVAWS, sexual violence was measured using 

behaviorally specific questions. These questions asked 

respondents about times when perpetrators used force 

Key Findings 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

women, 56.1 percent have experienced sexual 

violence in their lifetime and 14.4 percent have 

experienced it in the past year. Among American 

Indian and Alaska Native men, 27.5 percent 

have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime 

and 9.9 percent have experienced it in the past 

year. Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

victims, 96 percent of women and 89 percent 

of men have experienced sexual violence by an 

interracial perpetrator. 

or threats of harm to make the victim receive vaginal or 

anal sex; to make the victim perform or receive oral sex; 

to put their fingers or objects in the victim’s vagina or 

anus; or to try to have vaginal, oral, or anal sex with the 

victim. Too few American Indian and Alaska Native women 

were included to calculate past-year estimates (N = 88). 

Lifetime estimates showed that 34.1 percent of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women had experienced rape 

(Tjaden and Thoennes, 1998, 2000b, 2006), and 15.9 

percent had experienced rape by an intimate partner 

(Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000a). American Indian and 

Alaska Native women were almost two times as likely to 

have experienced rape as non-Hispanic White women 

(34.1 percent versus 17.9 percent, p < .05; Tjaden and 

Thoennes, 2006). Too few American Indian and Alaska 

Native men were included to calculate lifetime or past-year 

estimates (N = 105). 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
12 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

Definition of NIJ Measures of Sexual Violence 

Completed forced penetration includes being made to receive vaginal or anal sex, being made to receive 

oral sex, being made to perform oral sex, and (for men only) being made to perform vaginal or anal sex when 

perpetrators used physical force or threats of physical harm. 

■■	 Being made to receive vaginal or anal sex includes instances when perpetrators put their penis, their 

fingers, or objects in the victim’s vagina (for women) or anus (for both women and men). 

■■	 Being made to receive oral sex includes instances when perpetrators put their mouth on the victim’s 

penis (for men), vagina (for women), or anus (for both men and women). 

■■	 Being made to perform oral sex includes instances when perpetrators made the victim put his or her 

mouth on the perpetrator’s penis, vagina, or anus. 

■■	 Being made to perform vaginal or anal sex includes instances when a perpetrator made a male victim 

put his penis into the perpetrator’s vagina or anus. 

Completed alcohol- or drug-facilitated penetration includes the same four types of penetration (being 

made to receive vaginal or anal sex, being made to receive oral sex, being made to perform oral sex, and being 

made to perform vaginal or anal sex). In these instances, instead of using force or threats of physical harm, 

perpetrators used victims who were unable to consent because they were drunk, high, drugged, or passed out. 

Attempted forced penetration includes instances when perpetrators tried to have vaginal, oral, or anal sex 

with a victim, but sex did not happen. Attempted forced penetration also includes instances when female 

perpetrators tried to make a male victim perform vaginal sex, but sex did not happen. 

Sexual coercion includes instances when perpetrators pressured the victim to have vaginal, oral, or anal sex. 

Perpetrators used pressure by telling lies, making promises about the future they knew were untrue, threatening 

to end relationships, threatening to spread rumors, repeatedly asking for sex, showing they were unhappy, or 

using influence or authority. 

Unwanted sexual contact includes instances when perpetrators kissed a victim in a sexual way or fondled or 

grabbed a victim’s sexual body parts when the victim didn’t want these things to happen. 

Non-contact unwanted sexual experiences includes instances when perpetrators exposed their sexual body 

parts to a victim, flashed a victim, masturbated in front of a victim, made a victim show his or her sexual body 

parts, or made a victim look at or participate in sexual photos or movies (all when the victim didn’t want these 

things to happen). 
Figure 2.1 NIJ Measures of Sexual Violence 

Attempted Forced Penetration 

Completed Alcohol- or Drug-Facilitated Penetration 

Completed Forced Penetration 

Non-Contact Unwanted Sexual Experiences 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 

Sexual Coercion 

Sexual Violence 

With Penetration 

Other Sexual 

Violence 

Sexual 

Violence 

RESEARCH REPORT 13 

The NISVS included a measure of rape that was similar 

to the NVAWS measure. It also included a measure 

of other sexual violence that included being made to 

penetrate someone else, sexual coercion, unwanted sexual 

contact, and non-contact unwanted sexual experiences. 

Unfortunately, sample sizes were again too small to 

calculate many of the prevalence rates for American Indian 

and Alaska Native women and men. The 2010 NISVS 

data from the general population sample showed that 

26.9 percent of non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska 

Native women had experienced rape, and 49.0 percent had 

experienced other sexual violence (versus 18.8 percent 

and 47.6 percent of non-Hispanic White women; Black 

et al., 2011), whereas the 2011 NISVS data showed that 

27.5 percent had experienced rape and 55.0 percent had 

experienced other sexual violence (versus 20.5 percent and 

46.9 percent of non-Hispanic White women; Breiding et al., 

2014). For non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native 

men, the 2010 NISVS data showed that 20.1 percent had 

experienced other sexual violence (versus 21.5 percent of 

non-Hispanic White men; Black et al., 2011), and the 2011 

NISVS data showed that 24.5 percent had experienced 

other sexual violence (versus 22.2 percent of non-Hispanic 

White men; Breiding et al., 2014). For men, differences 

across racial groups were not statistically significant. 

The previous research was limited because it either used 

questions that were not behaviorally specific (NCVS) or 

included samples that were too small to produce detailed 

estimates (NVAWS and NISVS). The analysis in this section 

relied on the NISVS data, but different measures of sexual 

violence were developed (see figure 2.1). The measures of 

sexual violence include sexual violence with penetration 

and other sexual violence. Sexual violence with penetration 

includes completed forced penetration, completed alcoholor drug-facilitated penetration, and attempted forced 

penetration. Other sexual violence includes sexual coercion, 

unwanted sexual contact, and non-contact unwanted 

sexual experiences. 

Lifetime Prevalence of Sexual Violence 

Against Women 

Lifetime estimates for the prevalence of sexual violence 

against women are presented in table 2.1. More than 1 in 2 

American Indian and Alaska Native women (56.1 percent) 

have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 3 (35.0 percent) have experienced sexual 

violence with penetration: 

■■	 29.5 percent have experienced completed forced 

penetration. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

14 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

■■	 16.7 percent have experienced completed alcohol- or 

drug-facilitated penetration. 

■■	 12.2 percent have experienced attempted forced 

penetration. 

More than 1 in 2 (52.1 percent) have experienced other 

sexual violence: 

■■	 24.5 percent have experienced sexual coercion. 

■■	 42.5 percent have experienced unwanted sexual 

contact. 

■■	 38.4 percent have experienced non-contact unwanted 

sexual experiences. 

Overall, more than 1 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced sexual violence in their 

lifetime. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only women, American 

Indian and Alaska Native women are — 

■■	 1.7 times as likely to have experienced sexual violence 

with penetration (p < .05). 

■■	 2.2 times as likely to have experienced completed 

forced penetration (p < .05). 

■■	 2.3 times as likely to have experienced attempted 

forced penetration (p < .05). 

■■	 1.8 times as likely to have experienced sexual coercion 

(p < .05). 

■■	 1.4 times as likely to have experienced unwanted 

sexual contact (p < .05). 

Other differences are not statistically significant (p > .05). 

Table 2.1 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Women 

Lifetime Sexual Violence 

Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Sexual Violence With Penetration 35.0% 20.1% 1.7 

Completed Forced Penetration 29.5% 13.6% 2.2 

Completed Alcohol- or DrugFacilitated Penetration 16.7% 9.0% NS 

Attempted Forced Penetration 12.2% 5.3% 2.3 

Other Sexual Violence 52.1% 46.8% NS 

Sexual Coercion 24.5% 13.7% 1.8 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 42.5% 30.5% 1.4 

Non-Contact Unwanted 

Sexual Experiences 38.4% 31.0% NS 

Any Sexual Violence 56.1% 49.7% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.1. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
RESEARCH REPORT 15 

Lifetime Prevalence of Sexual Violence 

Against Men 

Lifetime estimates for the prevalence of sexual violence 

against men are presented in table 2.2. More than 1 in 4 

American Indian and Alaska Native men (27.5 percent) 

have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 10 (10.8 percent) have experienced sexual 

violence with penetration: 

■■	 2.7 percent have experienced completed forced 

penetration. 

■■	 7.9 percent have experienced completed alcohol- or 

drug-facilitated penetration. 

■■	 2.4 percent have experienced attempted forced 

penetration. 

More than 1 in 5 (23.8 percent) have experienced other 

sexual violence: 

■■	 10.1 percent have experienced sexual coercion. 

■■	 13.0 percent have experienced unwanted sexual contact. 

■■	 11.8 percent have experienced non-contact unwanted 

sexual experiences. 

Overall, more than 475,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced sexual violence in their 

lifetime. Differences across racial and ethnic groups are not 

statistically significant (p > .05). 

Past-Year Prevalence of Sexual Violence 

Against Women 

Past-year estimates for the prevalence of sexual violence 

against women are presented in table 2.3. More than 1 in 

Table 2.2 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Men 

Lifetime Sexual Violence 

Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Sexual Violence With Penetration 10.8% 5.1% NS 

Completed Forced Penetration 2.7% 1.6% NS 

Completed Alcohol- or DrugFacilitated Penetration 7.9% 3.7% NS 

Attempted Forced Penetration 2.4% 1.2% NS 

Other Sexual Violence 23.8% 19.6% NS 

Sexual Coercion 10.1% 5.4% NS 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 13.0% 12.3% NS 

Non-Contact Unwanted 

Sexual Experiences 11.8% 9.7% NS 

Any Sexual Violence 27.5% 20.9% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.2. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table 2.3 Weighted Estimates of Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Women 

Past Year Sexual Violence -

Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Sexual Violence With Penetration 4.6% 1.2% NS 

Completed Forced Penetration 3.6% 0.5% NS 

Completed Alcohol- or DrugFacilitated Penetration 3.3% 0.8% NS 

Attempted Forced Penetration 2.8% 0.3% NS 

Other Sexual Violence 13.5% 4.9% NS 

Sexual Coercion 7.2% 1.6% NS 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 7.3% 2.5% NS 

Non-Contact Unwanted 

Sexual Experiences 5.0% 1.7% NS 

Any Sexual Violence 14.4% 5.4% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.3. 

16 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

7 American Indian and Alaska Native women (14.4 percent) 

have experienced sexual violence in the past year. 

More than 1 in 22 (4.6 percent) have experienced sexual 

violence with penetration: 

■■	 3.6 percent have experienced completed forced 

penetration. 

■■	 3.3 percent have experienced completed alcohol- or 

drug-facilitated penetration. 

■■	 2.8 percent have experienced attempted forced 

penetration. 

More than 1 in 8 (13.5 percent) have experienced other 

sexual violence: 

■■	 7.2 percent have experienced sexual coercion. 

■■	 7.3 percent have experienced unwanted sexual contact. 

■■	 5.0 percent have experienced non-contact unwanted 

sexual experiences. 

Overall, more than 260,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced sexual violence in the past 

year. Differences across racial and ethnic groups are not 

statistically significant (p > .05). 

Past-Year Prevalence of Sexual Violence 

Against Men 

Past-year estimates for the prevalence of sexual violence 

against men are presented in table 2.4. More than 1 in 11 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
Table 2.4 Weighted Estimates of Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Men 

Past Year Sexual Violence - Against Men American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Sexual Violence With Penetration 2.3% 0.8% NS 

Completed Forced Penetration 0.4% 0.1% NS 

Completed Alcohol- or DrugFacilitated Penetration 2.0% 0.5% NS 

Attempted Forced Penetration <0.1% 0.2% 0.1 

Other Sexual Violence 7.9% 3.5% NS 

Sexual Coercion 4.5% 0.9% NS 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 3.1% 1.8% NS 

Non-Contact Unwanted 

Sexual Experiences 3.2% 1.7% NS 

Any Sexual Violence 9.9% 3.8% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.4. 

RESEARCH REPORT 17 

American Indian and Alaska Native men (9.9 percent) have 

experienced sexual violence in the past year. 

More than 1 in 44 (2.3 percent) have experienced sexual 

violence with penetration: 

■■	 0.4 percent have experienced completed forced 

penetration. 

■■	 2.0 percent have experienced completed alcohol- or 

drug-facilitated penetration. 

■■	 Less than 0.1 percent have experienced attempted 

forced penetration. 

More than 1 in 13 (7.9 percent) have experienced other 

sexual violence: 

■■	 4.5 percent have experienced sexual coercion. 

■■	 3.1 percent have experienced unwanted sexual 

contact. 

■■	 3.2 percent have experienced non-contact unwanted 

sexual experiences. 

Overall, more than 170,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced sexual violence in the past 

year. 

Only one difference across racial and ethnic groups is 

statistically significant (p < .05). American Indian and 

Alaska Native men are significantly less likely to experience 

attempted forced penetration in the past year than nonHispanic White-only men. 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators 

Figures 2.2 and 2.3 provide information about the 

percentage of victims who have experienced sexual 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
18 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

violence in their lifetime by interracial and intraracial 

perpetrators. They provide information about the 

percentage of American Indian and Alaska Native victims 

who have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime by a 

perpetrator who was also American Indian or Alaska Native 

(intraracial) and by a perpetrator who was not American 

Indian or Alaska Native (interracial). Similarly, they provide 

information about the percentage of victims who were nonHispanic White only who have experienced sexual violence 

in their lifetime by a perpetrator who was also non-Hispanic 

White only (intraracial) and by a perpetrator who was not 

non-Hispanic White only (interracial). Figures 2.2 and 2.3 

do not provide information about the number of interracial 

and intraracial perpetrators. All differences across racial 

and ethnic groups are statistically significant (p < .05). 

Past-year differences are also statistically significant 

(p < .05; results not shown). 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims are significantly 

more likely than non-Hispanic White-only victims to have 

experienced sexual violence by an interracial perpetrator: 

■■	 Female victims are 3.0 times as likely to have 

experienced sexual violence by an interracial 

perpetrator as non-Hispanic White-only female victims 

(96 percent versus 32 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 3.3 times as likely to have 

experienced sexual violence by an interracial 

perpetrator as non-Hispanic White-only male victims 

(89 percent versus 27 percent). 

Conversely, American Indian and Alaska Native victims 

are significantly less likely than non-Hispanic Whiteonly victims to have experienced sexual violence by an 

intraracial perpetrator: 

■■	 Female victims are 0.2 times as likely to have 

experienced sexual violence by an intraracial 

perpetrator as non-Hispanic White-only female victims 

(21 percent versus 91 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 0.3 times as likely to have 

experienced sexual violence by an intraracial 

perpetrator as non-Hispanic White-only male victims 

(29 percent versus 91 percent). 

Differences Between CDC and NIJ Measures of Sexual Violence 

It is difficult to compare the NIJ and CDC measures of sexual violence: 

■■	 CDC included ‘being harassed in a public place’ as an indicator of non-contact unwanted sexual 

experiences. This indicator is not included in NIJ’s measure of sexual violence. 

■■	 Certain behaviors were classified differently. For example, CDC classified someone putting their mouth 

on a male victim’s anus as ‘being made to penetrate’ (a form of other sexual violence). NIJ classified this 

behavior as ‘being penetrated’ (a form of sexual violence with penetration). 

With the NISVS data, it is impossible to separate ‘being penetrated by someone else’ and ‘being made to 

penetrate someone else,’ even when considering the sex of the perpetrator. As a result, the NIJ measures of 

sexual violence keep all behaviors that include forced and alcohol- or drug-facilitated penetration in the category 

of ‘sexual violence with penetration’. This creates mutually exclusive categories of sexual violence with the 

NISVS data. Additional details are available in Rosay’s (2015) technical report (see chapters 19 and 26). 

Summary 

More than half of American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (56.1 percent) have experienced sexual violence 

in their lifetime. More than 1 in 3 (35.0 percent) have 

experienced sexual violence with penetration. This is 

consistent with the NVAWS estimate of 34.1 percent but 
higher than the previous NISVS estimates of 26.9 percent 

and 27.5 percent. Among the American Indian and Alaska 

Native women who have experienced sexual violence in 

their lifetime, almost all (96 percent) have experienced 

sexual violence by an interracial perpetrator and 21 

percent have experienced sexual violence by an intraracial 

perpetrator. 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native men, more than 

1 in 4 (27.5 percent) have experienced sexual violence 

in their lifetime. More than 1 in 10 (10.8 percent) have 

experienced sexual violence with penetration. Among 

the American Indian and Alaska Native men who have 

experienced sexual violence in their lifetime, almost all (89 

percent) have experienced sexual violence by an interracial 

perpetrator and 29 percent have experienced sexual 

violence by an intraracial perpetrator. 

Past-year estimates for American Indian and Alaska Native 

people showed that more than 1 in 7 women (14.4 percent) 

and more than 1 in 11 men (9.9 percent) have experienced 

sexual violence in the past year. More than 1 in 22 women 

(4.6 percent) and more than 1 in 44 men (2.3 percent) have 

experienced sexual violence with penetration. More than 

120,000 American Indian and Alaska Native women and 

men have experienced sexual violence with penetration 

at least once in the past year. This implies that the annual 

number of victimizations is at least 120,000 — an estimate 

that is 18 to 21 times as high as the NCVS estimates of 

5,900 to 6,956 rapes and sexual assaults per year. 

These new estimates provide a comprehensive description 

of the sexual violence experienced by American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and men. Results clearly show high 

prevalence rates for both women and men. More than half 

of American Indian and Alaska Native women and more 

than 1 in 4 American Indian and Alaska Native men have 

experienced sexual violence in their lifetime. 

 

Figure 2.2 Interracial Sexual Violence: 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing 

sexual violence by an interracial perpetrator 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

96% 

89% 

32% 

27% 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims • Male Victims 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of sexual violence. 

Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.5. 

 

Figure 2.3 Intraracial Sexual Violence: 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing 

sexual violence by an intraracial perpetrator 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

21% 

29% 

91% 91% 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims • Male Victims 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of sexual violence. 

Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.5. 

RESEARCH REPORT 19 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

RESEARCH REPORT 21 

Chapter 3.
 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners
 

National estimates of physical violence by intimate 

partners against American Indian and Alaska Native 

women and men are available from the National Crime 

Victimization Survey (NCVS), the National Violence Against 

Women Survey (NVAWS), and the National Intimate 

Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS). 

The NCVS examined simple and aggravated assaults 

committed by intimate partners and family members 

(Greenfeld and Smith, 1999; Perry, 2004). Simple assaults 

are attacks and attempted attacks without weapons and 

without serious injury, whereas aggravated assaults are 

attacks and attempted attacks with weapons or with serious 

injury. Using NCVS data from 1992 to 2001, Perry (2004) 

found that the average annual rate for American Indian and 

Alaska Native people age 12 or older was 25 per 1,000 for 

aggravated assaults and 61 per 1,000 for simple assaults. 

Fourteen percent of aggravated assaults and 25 percent 

of simple assaults were committed by intimate partners 

and family members (the remainder were committed by 

acquaintances and strangers). These NCVS estimates showed 

that the average annual rates for victimizations committed by 

intimate partners and family members were 3.5 per 1,000 for 

aggravated assaults and 15.3 per 1,000 for simple assaults. 

Similar (but slightly lower) numbers had been previously 

reported by Greenfeld and Smith (1999), who had used NCVS 

data from 1992 to 1996. Their NCVS estimates showed 

that the average annual rates for victimizations committed 

by intimates and family members were 2.5 per 1,000 for 

aggravated assaults and 13.3 per 1,000 for simple assaults. 

Key Findings 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

women, 55.5 percent have experienced physical 

violence by intimate partners in their lifetime, 

and 8.6 percent have experienced it in the past 

year. Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

men, 43.2 percent have experienced physical 

violence by intimate partners in their lifetime 

and 5.6 percent have experienced it in the past 

year. Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

victims, 90 percent of women and 85 percent of 

men have experienced physical violence by an 

interracial intimate partner. 

The NVAWS asked women and men whether an intimate 

partner had thrown something at them that could hurt; 

pushed, grabbed or shoved them; pulled their hair; slapped 

or hit them; kicked or bit them; choked or attempted to 

drown them; hit them with some object; beat them up; 

threatened them with a knife or other weapon; used a gun 

on them; or used a knife or other weapon on them. Intimate 

partners included current and former spouses, same-sex 

and opposite-sex cohabitating partners, and dates. Results 

showed that 30.7 percent of American Indian and Alaska 

Native women and 11.4 percent of American Indian and 

Alaska Native men had experienced a physical assault by 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
22 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

an intimate partner in their lifetime (Tjaden and Thoennes, 

2000a). Differences across racial groups were not statistically 

significant, but sample sizes were small (88 women and 

105 men). 

Similar questions were included in the NISVS. Respondents 

were asked whether any of their current or former romantic 

or sexual partners had ever slapped them, pushed or shoved 

them, hurt them by pulling their hair, hit them with a fist 

or something hard, kicked them, slammed them against 

something, tried to hurt them by choking or suffocating them, 

beaten them, burned them on purpose, or used a knife or 

gun on them. The 2010 results from the general population 

sample showed that 45.9 percent of non-Hispanic American 

Indian and Alaska Native women (an estimated 399,000) and 

45.3 percent of non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska 

Native men (an estimated 365,000) had experienced physical 

violence by an intimate partner (Black et al., 2011). The 2011 

results showed that 51.7 percent of non-Hispanic American 

Indian and Alaska Native women (an estimated 424,000) and 

43.0 percent of non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska 

Native men (an estimated 355,000) had experienced physical 

violence by an intimate partner (Breiding et al., 2014). Pastyear estimates were not provided. 

This chapter focuses on physical violence by intimate partners 

and does not include other forms of violence by intimate 

partners (such as sexual violence or stalking). With the 

NISVS data, it is not always possible to know with certainty 

whether sexual violence and stalking incidents were 

committed by intimate partners or by non-intimate partners 

(for additional details, see Rosay’s 2015 technical report, 

chapters 19 and 26). As a result, the analysis below focuses 

on physical violence only. Both lifetime and past-year 

estimates are provided. 

Definition of NIJ Measures of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 

Physical violence by intimate partners includes (a) being slapped, pushed or shoved, and (b) severe physical 

violence. Severe physical violence includes being hit with a fist or something hard, being kicked, being hurt by 

having your hair pulled, being slammed against something, being hurt by being choked or suffocated, being 

beaten, being burned on purpose, or having a knife or gun used on you. Intimate partners include current and 

former romantic or sexual partners. This includes spouses, boyfriends, girlfriends, and people the respondents 

were dating, seeing, or hooking up with. 

Differences Between CDC and NIJ Measures of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 

Other than differences in data cleaning and data analysis, there are no differences between the CDC and the 

NIJ measures of physical violence by intimate partners. However, it is important to note that the NIJ measures 

do not include stalking, sexual violence, psychological aggression, or the control of reproductive and sexual 

health (these, along with physical violence, are all included in CDC’s measure of violence by intimate partners). 

Stalking and sexual violence were excluded from NIJ’s measures because “it was not always possible to 

assess the age or relationship at the time specific types of violent behavior occurred” (Black et al., 2011:85). 

Psychological aggression and the control of reproductive or sexual health were excluded to focus on physical 

violence. Additional details are available in Rosay’s (2015) technical report (see chapters 19 and 26). 
RESEARCH REPORT 23 

Prevalence of Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners Against Women 

Lifetime and past-year estimates of physical violence 

against women are presented in table 3.1. 

More than 1 in 2 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (55.5 percent) have experienced physical violence 

by intimate partners in their lifetime: 

■■	 52.2 percent have been slapped, pushed, or shoved 

by intimate partners. 

■■	 42.4 percent have experienced severe physical 

violence by intimate partners. 

Overall, more than 1 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced physical violence by 

intimate partners in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 12 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (8.6 percent) have experienced physical violence 

by intimate partners in the past year: 

■■	 8.0 percent have been slapped, pushed, or shoved by 

intimate partners. 

■■	 2.8 percent have experienced severe physical 

violence by intimate partners. 

Overall, more than 155,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced physical violence by 

intimate partners in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only women, American 

Indian and Alaska Native women are — 

■■	 1.6 times as likely to have experienced physical 

violence by intimate partners (p < .05). 

■■	 1.6 times as likely to have been slapped, pushed, or 

shoved by intimate partners (p < .05). 

■■	 1.7 times as likely to have experienced severe 

physical violence by intimate partners (p < .05). 

Past-year differences across racial and ethnic groups are 

not statistically significant (p > .05). 

Table 3.1 Weighted Estimates of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Women 

Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Lifetime Estimate 55.5% 34.5% 1.6 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 52.2% 32.3% 1.6 

Severe Physical Violence 42.4% 24.8% 1.7 

Past-Year Estimate 8.6% 4.1% NS 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 8.0% 3.6% NS 

Severe Physical Violence 2.8% 2.6% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.6. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

24 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Prevalence of Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners Against Men 

Lifetime and past-year estimates of physical violence 

against men are presented in table 3.2. 

More than 1 in 3 American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(43.2 percent) have experienced physical violence by 

intimate partners in their lifetime: 

■■	 36.5 percent have been slapped, pushed, or shoved 

by intimate partners. 

■■	 25.2 percent have experienced severe physical 

violence by intimate partners. 

Overall, more than 745,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced physical violence by 

intimate partners in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 18 American Indian and Alaska Native 

men (5.6 percent) have experienced physical violence by 

intimate partners in the past year: 

■■	 5.4 percent have been slapped, pushed, or shoved by 

intimate partners. 

■■	 4.2 percent have experienced severe physical 

violence by intimate partners. 

Overall, more than 95,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced physical violence by 

intimate partners in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only men, American 

Indian and Alaska Native men are — 

■■	 1.4 times as likely to have experienced physical 

violence by intimate partners (p < .05). 

■■	 1.7 times as likely to have experienced severe 

physical violence by intimate partners (p < .05). 

Other differences across racial and ethnic groups are not 

statistically significant (p > .05). 

Lifetime Forms of Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners 

Table 3.3 provides details on the types of physical 

violence that were experienced by American Indian and 

Alaska Native victims in their lifetime. 

Table 3.2 Weighted Estimates of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Men 

Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Lifetime Estimate 43.2% 30.5% 1.4 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 36.5% 28.0% NS 

Severe Physical Violence 25.2% 14.5% 1.7 

Past-Year Estimate 5.6% 4.5% NS 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 5.4% 4.2% NS 

Severe Physical Violence 4.2% 1.8% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.7. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
RESEARCH REPORT 25 

Among female victims, the most common forms of 

physical violence included being pushed or shoved 

(experienced by 83.2 percent of victims) and being 

slapped, slammed against something, and hit with a fist 

or something hard (all experienced by more than half of 

victims). Almost 1 in 2 female victims were beaten. More 

than 1 in 3 female victims were hurt by being choked or 

suffocated, and more than 1 in 4 were kicked, were hurt 

by having their hair pulled, and had a knife or gun used 

on them. Almost 1 in 10 female victims were burned on 

purpose. 

Among male victims, the most common forms of physical 

violence included being slapped (experienced by 66.4 

percent of victims), being pushed or shoved (experienced 

by 64.0 percent of victims), and being hit with a fist or 

something hard (experienced by 43.9 percent of victims). 

More than 1 in 5 male victims were kicked, and more 

than 1 in 6 were hurt by having their hair pulled, were 

slammed against something, and were beaten. More than 

1 in 9 male victims had a knife or gun used on them. 

Relative to female victims, male victims were less likely 

to have been slammed against something, to have been 

hurt by being choked or suffocated, to have been beaten, 

or to have been burned on purpose (differences across 

gender groups are statistically significant, p < .05; results 

not shown). 

Table 3.3 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Experienced by American 

Indian and Alaska Native Victims 

Lifetime Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 

Experienced by American Indian and Alaska 

Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Slapped 59.8% 66.4% 

Pushed or shoved 83.2% 64.0% 

Hit with a fist or something hard 53.6% 43.9% 

Kicked 28.3% 22.0% 

Hurt by having hair pulled 27.3% 18.6% 

Slammed against something 53.8% 18.0% 

Hurt by being choked or suffocated 37.6% 6.3% 

Beaten 45.9% 17.5% 

Burned on purpose 9.1% 0.2% 

Had a knife or gun used on them 27.1% 11.3% 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.8. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

90% 

85% 

18% 17% 

Female Victims • Male Victims 

Figure 3.1 Interracial Physical Violence 

by Intimate Partners: Weighted 

Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing physical 

violence by an interracial intimate partner 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate 

partners. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.9. 

 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

18% 21% 

89% 90% 

Female Victims • Male Victims 

Figure 3.2 Intraracial Physical Violence 

by Intimate Partners: Weighted 

Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing physical 

violence by an intraracial intimate partner 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate 

partners. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.9. 

26 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators 

Figures 3.1 and 3.2 provide information about the 

percentage of victims who have experienced physical 

violence in their lifetime by interracial and intraracial 

intimate partners. Interracial intimate partners are of 

a different race and ethnicity than the victim, while 

intraracial intimate partners are of the same race and 

ethnicity as the victim. All differences across racial and 

ethnic groups are statistically significant (p < .05). 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims are 

significantly more likely than non-Hispanic White-only 

victims to have experienced physical violence by an 

interracial intimate partner: 

■■	 Female victims are 5.0 times as likely to have 

experienced physical violence by an interracial 

intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only female 

victims (90 percent versus 18 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 5.0 times as likely to have 

experienced physical violence by an interracial 

intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only male 

victims (85 percent versus 17 percent). 

Conversely, American Indian and Alaska Native victims 

are significantly less likely than non-Hispanic Whiteonly victims to have experienced physical violence by an 

intraracial intimate partner: 

■■	 Female victims are 0.2 times as likely to have 

experienced physical violence by an intraracial 

intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only female 

victims (18 percent versus 89 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 0.2 times as likely to have 

experienced physical violence by an intraracial 

intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only male 

victims (21 percent versus 90 percent). 
RESEARCH REPORT 27 

Summary 

Results showed that 55.5 percent of American Indian 

and Alaska Native women and 43.2 percent of American 

Indian and Alaska Native men have experienced 

physical violence by an intimate partner. These rates are 

significantly higher than the rates for non-Hispanic Whiteonly women and men. They are similar to the previously 

reported NISVS rates and greater than the NVAWS rates. 

Past-year estimates showed that 8.6 percent of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women and 5.6 percent of 

American Indian and Alaska Native men have experienced 

physical violence by an intimate partner. These rates 

are higher than the rates for non-Hispanic White-only 

women and men, but not significantly so (p > .05). Not 

surprisingly, they are substantially greater than the 

NCVS rates. 

Four behaviors were experienced by at least half of 

American Indian and Alaska Native female victims. These 

included being slapped, pushed or shoved, hit with a fist 

or something hard, and slammed against something. The 

behavior that was experienced by the least percentage 

of American Indian and Alaska Native female victims 

was being burned on purpose — but almost 1 in 10 

experienced this form of physical violence. In addition, 

American Indian and Alaska Native female victims were 

significantly more likely to have been burned on purpose 

than American Indian and Alaska Native male victims 

(p < .05). Two behaviors were experienced by at least half 

of American Indian and Alaska Native male victims — 

being slapped and being pushed or shoved. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only victims, American 

Indian and Alaska Native victims (both male and female) 

are significantly more likely to have experienced physical 

violence by an interracial perpetrator. Conversely, they 

are significantly less likely than non-Hispanic Whiteonly victims to have experienced physical violence by an 

intraracial perpetrator. 

It is important to emphasize that not all forms of physical 

violence are included. In addition, physical violence by 

non-intimate partners is not included. Nonetheless, 

estimates show that approximately half of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women and men have 

experienced physical violence by intimate partners. This 

is significantly more prevalent for American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and men than for non-Hispanic 

White-only women and men. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

RESEARCH REPORT 29 

Chapter 4. 

Stalking 

Stalking is generally defined as a course of conduct (i.e., 

multiple stalking behaviors) that would reasonably cause 

fear. To experience stalking, victims must experience 

multiple stalking behaviors (i.e., at least two different stalking 

behaviors or the same stalking behavior at least twice). In 

addition, the course of conduct must reasonably cause fear. 

National estimates of stalking experienced by American 

Indian and Alaska Native women and men are available from 

the Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS), the National 

Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS), and the National 

Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS). Each 

estimate includes a different set of stalking behaviors and 

different measures of fear. 

The SVS was conducted in 2006 as a supplement to the 

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Stalking 

behaviors included instances when someone, male or 

female (not including bill collectors, telephone solicitors, or 

other sales people), ever frightened, concerned, angered, 

or annoyed the respondent by making unwanted phone 

calls or leaving messages; sending unsolicited or unwanted 

letters, emails, or other forms of written correspondence 

or communication; following or spying on the respondent; 

waiting outside or inside places such as the respondent’s 

home, school, workplace, or recreation place; showing up at 

places where the respondent was, even though he or she had 

no business being there; leaving unwanted items, presents, or 

flowers; and posting information or spreading rumors about 

the respondent on the Internet, in a public place, or by word of 

mouth. To be counted as victims of stalking, respondents had 

to experience “at least one of these behaviors on at least two 

separate occasions” and “must have feared for their safety or 

that of a family member [...] or have experienced additional 

threatening behaviors that would cause a reasonable person 

to feel fear” (Baum et al., 2009:1). Results showed that 2.2 

Key Findings 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

women, 48.8 percent have experienced stalking 

in their lifetime and 11.6 percent have experienced 

it in the past year. Among American Indian and 

Alaska Native men, 18.6 percent have experienced 

stalking in their lifetime and 3.8 percent have 

experienced it in the past year. Among American 

Indian and Alaska Native victims, 89 percent of 

women and 91 percent of men have experienced 

stalking by an interracial perpetrator. 

percent of American Indian and Alaska Native women and 

men had experienced stalking in the past year (but results 

were based on 10 or fewer sample cases; Catalano, 2012). 

The NVAWS respondents were asked whether anyone, male 

or female (not including bill collectors, telephone solicitors, 

or other sales people), ever followed or spied on them; sent 

them unsolicited letters or written correspondence; made 

unsolicited phone calls to them; stood outside their home, 

school, or workplace; showed up at places they were, even 

though he or she had no business being there; left unwanted 

items for them to find; tried to communicate in other ways 

against their will; or vandalized their property or destroyed 

something they loved. Respondents were counted as stalking 

victims if they reported that someone had done these things 

to them on more than one occasion and that they were 

very frightened or feared bodily harm. Results showed that 

4.8 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native men and 

17.0 percent of American Indian and Native women had 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
30 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

experienced stalking in their lifetime (Tjaden and Thoennes, 

1998). When removing the requirement for victims to be very 

frightened or fear bodily harm, the percentage of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women who had experienced 

stalking in their lifetime increases to 27.3 percent (Dietz 

and Martin, 2007). When focusing on stalking by intimate 

partners, 10.2 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native 

women had experienced stalking in their lifetime (Tjaden and 

Thoennes, 2000a). 

The NISVS measured similar stalking behaviors. Respondents 

were asked whether anyone, other than bill collectors, 

telephone solicitors, and other sales people, had ever made 

unwanted phone calls to them or left them messages; sent 

them unwanted emails or messages; left them unwanted 

cards, letters, flowers, or presents; watched or followed 

them from a distance or spied on them; approached them 

or showed up in places when not wanted; left strange or 

potentially threatening items for them to find; or sneaked into 

their home or car and did things to scare them. Respondents 

were then counted as stalking victims if they experienced 

multiple stalking behaviors and felt very fearful or believed 

that they, or someone close to them, would be harmed or 

killed. The 2010 NISVS results from the general population 

sample showed that 22.7 percent of non-Hispanic American 

Indian and Alaska Native women (approximately 197,000) had 

experienced stalking in their lifetime (Black et al., 2011). The 

2011 NISVS results showed that 24.5 percent of non-Hispanic 

American Indian and Alaska Native women had experienced 

stalking in their lifetime (Breiding et al., 2014). 

Because of low sample sizes, the previous research was 

limited and was often not able to produce past-year estimates 

or estimates for American Indian and Alaska Native men. The 

analysis in this section uses a sample of American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and men that is larger than previously 

used. In addition, it uses a less conservative definition of 

stalking than used in the original NVAWS and NISVS analyses. 

Those analyses required respondents to be very frightened, 

to fear bodily harm, or to believe that they or someone close 

to them would be harmed or killed. This analysis uses a 

requirement similar to the one used in the SVS analyses. 

To be counted as victims of stalking, respondents had to 

report multiple stalking behaviors and had to report feeling 

fear (any level) or experiencing behaviors that would cause a 

reasonable person to feel fear. 

Definition of NIJ Measures of Stalking 

Respondents experienced stalking in their lifetime when they experienced a course of conduct (multiple stalking 

behaviors) that would reasonably cause fear. The 2010 NISVS includes seven different stalking behaviors. 

Respondents were asked whether someone had made unwanted phone calls to them or left them messages; 

sent them unwanted emails, instant messages, or sent messages through websites like MySpace or Facebook; 

left them unwanted cards, letters, flowers, or presents; watched or followed them from a distance, or spied 

on them with a listening device, camera, or GPS; approached them or showed up in places, such as their 

home, workplace, or school when unwanted; left strange or potentially threatening items for them to find; and 

sneaked into their home or car and did things to scare them. Victims of stalking experienced these stalking 

behaviors multiple times (i.e., the same stalking behavior multiple times or multiple types of stalking behaviors). 

In addition, they experienced fear. Respondents were asked whether the perpetrator had ever caused them 

to be fearful; had ever damaged their personal property or belongings, such as in their home or car; had ever 

threatened them with physical harm; or had ever made them believe that they or someone close to them 

would be seriously harmed or killed. Respondents experienced stalking in the past year if their lifetime stalking 

experience extended into the past year (i.e., if any of the stalking behaviors occurred in the past year). 
Table 4.1 Weighted Estimates of Stalking 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

Stalking or Alaska Native White Only Relative Risk 

Women 

Lifetime Estimate 48.8% 26.8% 1.8 

Past-Year Estimate 11.6% 7.0% NS 

Men 

Lifetime Estimate 18.6% 13.4% NS 

Past-Year Estimate 3.8% 3.7% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.10. 

RESEARCH REPORT 31 

Differences Between CDC and
 

NIJ Measures of Stalking
 

The NIJ measure of stalking includes the same 

seven stalking behaviors that were included 

in the CDC measure. However, contrary to the 

CDC measure, the NIJ measure does not require 

respondents to feel very fearful or to believe 

that they, or someone close to them, would 

be harmed or killed. Instead, the NIJ measure 

requires respondents to report that (a) they felt 

fear (any level of fear, from a little fearful to 

very fearful); (b) the perpetrator damaged their 

personal property or belongings, such as in their 

home or car; (c) the perpetrator made threats 

to physically harm them; or (d) they believed 

that they, or someone close to them, would be 

seriously harmed or killed. Under any of these 

conditions, the perpetrator’s course of conduct 

would meet the definition of stalking because it 

would reasonably cause fear. Additional details 

are available in Rosay’s (2015) technical report 

(see chapters 19 and 26). 

Prevalence of Stalking 

Prevalence estimates for lifetime and past-year experiences 

of stalking are presented in table 4.1. Almost 1 in 2 American 

Indian and Alaska Native women (48.8 percent) have 

experienced stalking in their lifetime, and 1 in 9 (11.6 percent) 

have experienced stalking in the past year. More than 1 in 6 

American Indian and Alaska Native men (18.6 percent) have 

experienced stalking in their lifetime, and 1 in 27 (3.8 percent) 

have experienced stalking in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only women, American 

Indian and Alaska Native women are 1.8 times as likely 

to have experienced stalking in their lifetime (p < .05). 

Other differences across racial and ethnic groups are not 

statistically significant (p > .05). 

Overall, more than 895,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced stalking in their lifetime and 

more than 210,000 have experienced stalking in the past 

year. More than 320,000 American Indian and Alaska Native 

men have experienced stalking in their lifetime and more than 

65,000 have experienced stalking in the past year. 

Table 4.2 provides additional details on the stalking behaviors 

that were experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native 

victims of lifetime stalking. Non-victims are not included in 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

32 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

this table. The most common stalking behaviors, experienced 

by more than half of American Indian and Alaska Native 

victims, were receiving unwanted phone calls and being 

approached at home, work, or school. Differences across 

gender groups are not statistically significant (p > .05; results 

not shown). 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators 

Figures 4.1 and 4.2 provide information about the percentage 

of victims who have experienced stalking in their lifetime by 

interracial and intraracial perpetrators. Interracial perpetrators 

are of a different race and ethnicity than the victim, while 

intraracial perpetrators are of the same race and ethnicity as 

the victim. All differences across racial and ethnic groups are 

statistically significant (p < .05). 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims are significantly 

more likely than non-Hispanic White-only victims to have 

experienced stalking by an interracial perpetrator: 

■■	 Female victims are 3.4 times as likely to have 

experienced stalking by an interracial perpetrator as nonHispanic White-only female victims (89 percent versus 

26 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 4.6 times as likely to have experienced 

stalking by an interracial perpetrator as non-Hispanic 

White-only male victims (91 percent versus 20 percent). 

Conversely, American Indian and Alaska Native victims are 

significantly less likely than non-Hispanic White-only victims 

to have experienced stalking by an intraracial perpetrator: 

■■	 Female victims are 0.3 times as likely to have 

experienced stalking by an intraracial perpetrator as nonHispanic White-only female victims (30 percent versus 

87 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 0.3 times as likely to have experienced 

stalking by an intraracial perpetrator as non-Hispanic 

White-only male victims (23 percent versus 90 percent). 

Table 4.2 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Stalking Behaviors Experienced by American Indian and 

Alaska Native Victims 

Lifetime Stalking Behaviors Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Received unwanted phone calls 82.1% 75.3% 

Received unwanted emails or messages 19.0% 13.7% 

Received unwanted cards, flowers, or gifts 35.0% 12.7% 

Was watched or followed from a distance 29.1% 37.6% 

Was approached at home, work, or school 53.6% 61.0% 

Found strange or threatening items 10.8% 4.4% 

Had home or car intruded 27.6% 23.2% 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of stalking. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.11. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

89% 91% 

26% 

20% 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims � Male Victims 

Figure 4.1 Interracial Stalking: Weighted 

Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing
 

stalking by an interracial perpetrator
 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of stalking. Confidence intervals 

are available in appendix table A.12. 

 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

30% 

23% 

87% 90% 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims � Male Victims 

Figure 4.2 Intraracial Stalking: Weighted 

Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing
 

stalking by an intraracial perpetrator
 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of stalking. Confidence intervals 

are available in appendix table A.12. 

RESEARCH REPORT 33 

Summary 

Almost half of American Indian and Alaska Native women 

(48.8 percent) have experienced stalking in their lifetime. 

American Indian and Alaska Native women are 1.8 times 

more likely to have experienced stalking in their lifetime 

than non-Hispanic White-only women. Almost 1 in 5 

American Indian and Alaska Native men (18.6 percent) have 

experienced stalking in their lifetime. These estimates far 

exceed the previous lifetime NVAWS estimates of 17.0 percent 

(with fear) to 27.3 percent (with or without fear) for American 

Indian and Alaska Native women and 4.8 percent (with fear) 

for American Indian and Alaska Native men. They also far 

exceed the previous lifetime NISVS estimates of 22.7 percent 

(in 2010) and 24.5 percent (in 2011) for American Indian and 

Alaska Native women. 

Results also showed that 11.6 percent of American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and 3.8 percent of American Indian 

and Alaska Native men have experienced stalking in the past 

year. This, again, far exceeds previous estimates. The SVS 

estimates showed that 2.2 percent of American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and men had experienced stalking in 

the past year. 

As found in prior research, the most common stalking 

behaviors experienced by American Indian and Alaska 

Native women and men were receiving unwanted phone 

calls and being approached at home, work, or school. 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims of stalking are 

significantly more likely to have experienced stalking by an 

interracial perpetrator and are significantly less likely to have 

experienced stalking by an intraracial perpetrator than nonHispanic White-only victims of stalking. 

These estimates provide a comprehensive description of the 

stalking experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native 

women and men. They show that stalking against American 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
34 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

Indian and Alaska Native women and men is far more 

prevalent than previously reported (even by researchers who 

did not require respondents to feel any level of fear). Current 

estimates are higher, in part, because a lower threshold was 

used to determine whether a perpetrator’s course of conduct 

would reasonably cause fear. It is also important to emphasize 

that the new estimates still have important limitations. In 

particular, the survey did not measure all possible stalking 

behaviors or all possible ways that perpetrators cause fear or 

commit behaviors that would reasonably cause fear. 
RESEARCH REPORT 35 

Chapter 5. 

Psychological Aggression 

by Intimate Partners 

There is significant evidence that psychological 

aggression is a strong predictor of negative health 

outcomes in the general population (e.g., Coker et al., 

2000, 2002; Lawrence et al., 2009). Psychological 

aggression is also strongly associated with other forms of 

violence (e.g., Hamby and Sugarman, 1999; Follingstad 

et al., 1990). Remarkably, very few national estimates of 

psychological aggression are available. 

The only survey to provide national estimates of 

psychological aggression against American Indian and 

Alaska Native people is the 2011 National Intimate 

Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS). The analysis 

of the 2010 data from the general population sample did 

not provide estimates specifically for American Indian 

and Alaska Native women or men. The 2011 survey only 

provided lifetime estimates. Psychological aggression 

included expressive aggression and coercive control. 

Results showed that 63.8 percent of non-Hispanic 

American Indian and Alaska Native women (approximately 

523,000) had experienced expressive aggression and 

coercive control in their lifetime, and 47.2 percent of 

non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(approximately 368,000) had experienced expressive 

aggression and coercive control in their lifetime. 

Much remains to be known about the psychological 

aggression experienced by American Indian and Alaska 

Native women and men. The analysis in this chapter 

uses a larger sample than previously used to examine 

expressive aggression and coercive control experienced 

by American Indian and Alaska Native women and 

Key Findings 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

women, 66.4 percent have experienced 

psychological aggression by an intimate 

partner in their lifetime, and 25.5 percent have 

experienced it in the past year. Among American 

Indian and Alaska Native men, 73.0 percent 

have experienced psychological aggression by 

an intimate partner in their lifetime, and 27.3 

percent have experienced it in the past year. 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native 

victims, 91 percent of women and 88 percent of 

men have experienced psychological aggression 

by an interracial intimate partner. 

men. It also uses a more comprehensive measure of 

psychological aggression than previously used. This 

measure of psychological aggression includes the 

control of reproductive or sexual health. This chapter 

provides a thorough analysis of psychological aggression 

experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native 

women and men. 

Prevalence of Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Against Women 

Lifetime and past-year estimates of psychological 

aggression by intimate partners against women are 

presented in table 5.1. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
36 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

Definition of NIJ Measures of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners 

Psychological aggression by intimate partners includes expressive aggression, coercive control, and the control 

of reproductive or sexual health. Expressive aggression includes instances when perpetrators acted very angry 

towards the victim in a way that seemed dangerous; told the victim that s/he was a loser, a failure, or not 

good enough; called the victim names like ugly, fat, crazy, or stupid; insulted, humiliated, or made fun of the 

victim in front of others; and told the victim that no one else would want him or her. Coercive control includes 

instances when perpetrators tried to keep the victim from seeing or talking to her/his family or friends; made 

decisions for the victim that should have been hers/his to make, such as the clothes s/he wears, things s/he 

eats, or the friends s/he has; kept track of the victim by demanding to know where s/he was and what s/he was 

doing; made threats to physically harm the victim; threatened to hurt themselves or commit suicide when they 

were upset with the victim; threatened to hurt a pet or to take a pet away from the victim; threatened to hurt 

someone the victim loves; hurt someone the victim loves; threatened to take the victim’s children away; kept the 

victim from leaving the house when s/he wanted to go; kept the victim from having money for her/his own use; 

destroyed something that was important to the victim; and said things like “if I can’t have you, then no one can.” 

The control of reproductive or sexual health includes instances when perpetrators tried to stop the victim from 

using birth control and instances when perpetrators refused to use a condom when the victim wanted them 

to use one. In addition, the control of reproductive or sexual health includes instances when male perpetrators 

tried to get a female victim pregnant when she did not want to become pregnant and instances when female 

perpetrators tried to get pregnant when a male victim did not want them to get pregnant. 

Differences Between CDC and NIJ Measures of Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners 

NIJ’s measure of psychological aggression by intimate partners includes (a) expressive aggression, (b) 

coercive control, and (c) the control of reproductive or sexual health. There are no differences between 

NIJ’s and CDC’s measures of expressive aggression, coercive control, and the control of reproductive or 

sexual health (other than differences in data cleaning and data analysis). The only difference is that the 

control of reproductive or sexual health is included in NIJ’s measure of psychological aggression. It is not 

included in CDC’s measure of psychological aggression. Instead, it is included separately as an indicator 

of violence by intimate partners (along with physical violence, stalking, sexual violence, and psychological 

aggression). Additional details are available in Rosay’s (2015) technical report (see chapters 19 and 26). 
Table 5.1 Weighted Estimates of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Women 

Psychological Aggression 

by Intimate Partners 

Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Lifetime Estimate 66.4% 52.0% 1.3 

Expressive Aggression 56.9% 44.2% 1.3 

Coercive Control 61.5% 42.7% 1.4 

Control of Reproductive or 

Sexual Health 10.6% 8.0% NS 

Past-Year Estimate 25.5% 16.1% 1.6 

Expressive Aggression 20.8% 11.6% 1.8 

Coercive Control 20.3% 11.8% 1.7 

Control of Reproductive or 

Sexual Health 4.0% 1.3% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.13. 

RESEARCH REPORT 37 

More than 1 in 2 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (66.4 percent) have experienced psychological 

aggression by intimate partners in their lifetime: 

■■	 56.9 percent have experienced expressive 

aggression. 

■■	 61.5 percent have experienced coercive control. 

■■	 10.6 percent have experienced the control of 

reproductive or sexual health. 

Overall, more than 1.2 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced psychological aggression 

by intimate partners in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 4 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (25.5 percent) have experienced psychological 

aggression by intimate partners in the past year: 

■■	 20.8 percent have experienced expressive 

aggression. 

■■	 20.3 percent have experienced coercive control. 

■■	 4.0 percent have experienced the control of 

reproductive or sexual health. 

Overall, more than 465,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native women have experienced psychological aggression 

by intimate partners in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only women, American 

Indian and Alaska Native women are — 

■■	 1.3 times as likely to have experienced psychological 

aggression by intimate partners in their lifetime and 

1.6 times as likely to have experienced it in the past 

year (p < .05). 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table 5.2 Weighted Estimates of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Men 

Psychological Aggression 

by Intimate Partners 

Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Lifetime Estimate 73.0% 52.7% 1.4 

Expressive Aggression 43.6% 35.3% NS 

Coercive Control 67.4% 44.4% 1.5 

Control of Reproductive or 

Sexual Health 19.9% 10.0% 2.0 

Past-Year Estimate 27.3% 19.3% NS 

Expressive Aggression 12.1% 9.5% NS 

Coercive Control 21.7% 15.3% NS 

Control of Reproductive or 

Sexual Health 6.7% 1.1% 6.1 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.14. 

38 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

■■	 1.3 times as likely to have experienced expressive 

aggression in their lifetime and 1.8 times as likely to 

have experienced it in the past year (p < .05). 

■■	 1.4 times as likely to have experienced coercive 

control in their lifetime and 1.7 times as likely to have 

experienced it in the past year (p < .05). 

Differences across racial and ethnic groups for the control 

of reproductive or sexual health are not statistically 

significant (p > .05). 

Prevalence of Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Against Men 

Lifetime and past-year estimates of psychological 

aggression by intimate partners against men are 

presented in table 5.2. 

More than 1 in 2 American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(73.0 percent) have experienced psychological aggression 

by intimate partners in their lifetime: 

■■	 43.6 percent have experienced expressive 

aggression. 

■■	 67.4 percent have experienced coercive control. 

■■	 19.9 percent have experienced the control of 

reproductive or sexual health. 

Overall, more than 1.2 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced psychological aggression by 

intimate partners in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 4 American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(27.3 percent) have experienced psychological aggression 

by intimate partners in the past year: 

■■	 12.1 percent have experienced expressive 

aggression. 

■■	 21.7 percent have experienced coercive control. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
Table 5.3 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims 

Lifetime Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Expressive Aggression 

Experienced very angry actions that seemed dangerous 68.2% 28.0% 

Told they were losers, failures, or not good enough 53.6% 28.6% 

Called names like ugly, fat, crazy, and stupid 55.8% 35.6% 

Insulted, humiliated, or made fun of 52.2% 26.2% 

Told that no one else would want them 39.8% 13.9% 

RESEARCH REPORT 39 

■■	 6.7 percent have experienced the control of 

reproductive or sexual health. 

Overall, more than 470,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced psychological aggression by 

intimate partners in the past year. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only men, American 

Indian and Alaska Native men are — 

■■	 1.4 times as likely to have experienced psychological 

aggression by intimate partners in their lifetime 

(p < .05). 

■■	 1.5 times as likely to have experienced coercive 

control in their lifetime (p < .05). 

■■	 2.0 times as likely to have experienced the control of 

reproductive or sexual health in their lifetime and 6.1 

times as likely to have experienced it in the past year 

(p < .05). 

All other differences across racial and ethnic groups are 

not statistically significant (p > .05). Differences between 

American Indian and Alaska Native women and men are 

not statistically significant (p > .05; see the appendix). 

Lifetime Forms of Psychological Aggression 

by Intimate Partners 

Table 5.3 provides additional details on the behaviors that 

were experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native 

women and men who had experienced psychological 

aggression by intimate partners in their lifetime. 

More than half of American Indian and Alaska Native 

female lifetime victims experienced very angry actions 

that seemed dangerous (68.2 percent); were told they 

were losers, failures, or not good enough (53.6 percent); 

were called names like ugly, fat, crazy, or stupid (55.8 

percent); were insulted, humiliated, or made fun of in 

front of others (52.2 percent); were kept from seeing or 

talking to family or friends (55.2 percent); had decisions 

made for them that should have been theirs to make (50.2 

percent); and were tracked by being asked about their 

locations and actions (62.6 percent). Only one behavior 

was experienced by more than half of American Indian 

and Alaska Native male lifetime victims: 62.0 percent of 

American Indian and Alaska Native male lifetime victims 

were tracked by being asked about their locations and 

actions. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

40 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Table 5.3 Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims (continued) 

Lifetime Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Coercive Control 

Kept from seeing or talking to family or friends 55.2% 26.6% 

Had decisions made for them that should have been theirs 

to make 

50.2% 29.9% 

Was tracked by being asked about locations and actions 62.6% 62.0% 

Threatened with being physically harmed 47.8% 22.0% 

Threatened with perpetrators hurting themselves when upset 38.2% 24.1% 

Threatened with having pets hurt or taken away 16.8% 2.4% 

Threatened with having loved ones hurt 21.4% 2.6% 

Had loved ones who were hurt 17.9% 4.8% 

Threatened with having children taken away 40.0% 25.1% 

Kept from leaving the house when they wanted to go 43.5% 16.1% 

Kept from having their own money to use 30.6% 12.5% 

Had something that was important to them destroyed 40.8% 28.4% 

Told things like "If I can't have you, then no one can" 40.0% 18.5% 

Control of Reproductive or Sexual Health 

Experienced unwanted pregnancy attempts 7.7% 21.7% 

Experienced refusals to use condoms 14.2% 16.5% 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression by intimate partners. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.15. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

Figure 5.1 Interracial Psychological 

Aggression by Intimate Partners: 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing psychological 

aggression by an interracial intimate partner 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

91% 88% 

22% 23% 

Female Victims • Male Victims 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression 

by intimate partners. Confidence intervals are available in appendix 

table A.16. 

 

Figure 5.2 Intraracial Psychological 

Aggression by Intimate Partners: 

Weighted Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing psychological 

aggression by an intraracial intimate partner 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

25% 28% 

93% 92% 

Female Victims • Male Victims 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression 

by intimate partners. Confidence intervals are available in appendix 

table A.16. 

RESEARCH REPORT 41 

Most differences across gender groups were statistically 

significant (p < .05; results not shown). American Indian 

and Alaska Native female victims were significantly 

more likely than American Indian and Alaska Native male 

victims to experience all forms of expressive aggression, 

except being called names like ugly, fat, crazy, or stupid. 

American Indian and Alaska Native female victims were 

significantly more likely than American Indian and Alaska 

Native male victims to experience 9 of the 13 forms 

of coercive control (all except being tracked by being 

asked about locations and actions, being threatened 

by perpetrators hurting themselves, being threatened 

with having children taken away, and having something 

important destroyed). American Indian and Alaska Native 

male victims were significantly more likely than American 

Indian and Alaska Native female victims to experience 

unwanted pregnancy attempts. 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators 

Figures 5.1 and 5.2 provide information about the 

percentage of victims who have experienced psychological 

aggression in their lifetime by interracial and intraracial 

intimate partners. Interracial intimate partners are of a 

different race and ethnicity than the victim, and intraracial 

intimate partners are of the same race and ethnicity as the 

victim. All differences across racial and ethnic groups are 

statistically significant (p < .05). 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims are 

significantly more likely than non-Hispanic White-only 

victims to have experienced psychological aggression by 

an interracial intimate partner: 

■■	 Female victims are 4.1 times as likely to have 

experienced psychological aggression by an 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
42 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

 

 

interracial intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only 

female victims (91 percent versus 22 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 3.8 times as likely to have 

experienced psychological aggression by an 

interracial intimate partner as non-Hispanic Whiteonly male victims (88 percent versus 23 percent). 

Conversely, American Indian and Alaska Native victims 

are significantly less likely than non-Hispanic White-only 

victims to have experienced psychological aggression by 

an intraracial intimate partner: 

■■	 Female victims are 0.3 times as likely to have 

experienced psychological aggression by an intraracial 

intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only female 

victims (25 percent versus 93 percent). 

■■	 Male victims are 0.3 times as likely to have 

experienced psychological aggression by an intraracial 

intimate partner as non-Hispanic White-only male 

victims (28 percent versus 92 percent). 

Summary 

Almost 7 in 10 American Indian and Alaska Native women 

(66.4 percent) and more than 7 in 10 American Indian 

and Alaska Native men (73.0 percent) have experienced 

psychological aggression by intimate partners in their 

lifetime. It is important to emphasize that not all forms of 

psychological aggression are included, and psychological 

aggression by non-intimate partners is not included. 

Differences between men and women are not statistically 

significant (p > .05). 

The estimate for American Indian and Alaska Native 

women is similar to the 2011 NISVS estimate of 63.8 

percent (Breiding et al., 2014), but the estimate for 

American Indian and Alaska Native men is substantially 

and significantly higher than the 2011 NISVS estimate 

of 47.2 percent (p < .05). This difference is not due to 

including the control of reproductive and sexual health. 

Even when the control of reproductive and sexual health 

is excluded, the lifetime estimate for psychological 

aggression by intimate partners against American 

Indian and Alaska Native men (72.9 percent) remains 

substantially and significantly higher (95% CI = 65.6% 

to 80.3%). 

For both men and women, the most common category 

of psychological aggression is coercive control. Coercive 

control was experienced by more than half of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women (61.5 percent) and men 

(67.4 percent). Differences between men and women 

are not statistically significant for any category of 

psychological aggression (p > .05). The most common 

form of coercive control, for both American Indian and 

Alaska Native women and men, included a perpetrator 

keeping track of them by demanding to know where they 

were and what they were doing. 

More than 1 in 4 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women (25.5 percent) and more than 1 in 4 American 

Indian and Alaska Native men (27.3 percent) have 

experienced psychological aggression by intimate 

partners in the past year. As with lifetime experiences, 

differences across gender groups are not statistically 

significant (p > .05). 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only women, American 

Indian and Alaska Native women are 1.3 times as likely 

to have experienced psychological aggression by intimate 

partners in their lifetime, and 1.6 times as likely to have 

experienced it in the past year. Relative to non-Hispanic 

White-only men, American Indian and Alaska Native men 

are 1.4 times as likely to have experienced psychological 

aggression by intimate partners in their lifetime (past-year 

differences are not statistically significant, p > .05). 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims are 

significantly more likely to have experienced psychological 

aggression by interracial intimate partners and 

significantly less likely to have experienced psychological 

aggression by intraracial intimate partners than nonHispanic White-only victims. This is true for both female 

and male victims. 
RESEARCH REPORT 43 

Chapter 6.
 

Summary and Impact of Violence
 

This report examined the prevalence of violence against 

American Indian and Alaska Native women and men, 

using a large nationally representative sample from the 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 

(NISVS). More specifically, it provided estimates of sexual 

violence, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and psychological aggression by intimate partners. It 

also provided estimates of interracial and intraracial 

victimizations. The sample and estimates are summarized 

in this chapter. In addition, this chapter examines the 

impact of violence. Prior research has shown that the 

impact of violence is greater among American Indian and 

Alaska Native populations than among other populations 

(e.g., Greenfeld and Smith, 1999; Bachman et al., 2010; 

Garcia and Rivera, 2014). 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual 

Violence Survey 

The NISVS was launched in 2010 by the National Center 

for Injury Prevention and Control of the U.S. Centers 

for Disease Control and Prevention, with the support of 

the National Institute of Justice and the Department of 

Defense. This survey provides detailed information 

about sexual violence, physical violence by an intimate 

partner, stalking, and psychological aggression by an 

intimate partner. 

The analysis in this report used data from two of the 

samples that were included in the 2010 NISVS — the 

general population sample and the American Indian and 

Alaska Native oversample. These two samples provide 

information from 2,473 women and 1,505 men who 

identified themselves as American Indian or Alaska 

Native, alone or in combination with another racial group. 

Most women (83 percent) and most men (79 percent) 

were affiliated or enrolled with a tribe or village. More 

than half of both women and men (54 percent) had lived 

within reservation boundaries or in an Alaska Native 

village in the past year. 

It is important to again emphasize that all estimates in 

this report have important limitations. The estimates 

provide information about the number of people that have 

been victimized. They do not provide information about 

the number of times that people have been victimized. 

In addition, the survey did not measure all forms of 

victimization. The landline telephone samples excluded 

women and men who were not living in private residences 

(such as those living in domestic violence shelters). 

Victimization estimates may be impacted by recall errors 

and by the continuing stigma associated with disclosure. 

Nonetheless, the survey has important strengths. 

It uses behaviorally specific questions to provide a 

comprehensive assessment of sexual violence, physical 

violence by intimate partners, stalking, and psychological 

aggression by intimate partners. The analysis is based 

on a large, nationally representative sample of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women and men. 

Violence Against American Indian and 

Alaska Native Women 

Four different forms of violence were examined — sexual 

violence, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and psychological aggression by intimate partners. A 

summary of the lifetime and past-year estimates for these 

forms of violence against women is presented in table 6.1. 

Results show that more than 4 in 5 American Indian and 

Alaska Native women (84.3 percent) have experienced 

violence in their lifetime. This includes 56.1 percent who 

have experienced sexual violence, 55.5 percent who have 

experienced physical violence by an intimate partner, 48.8 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

percent who have experienced stalking, and 66.4 percent 

who have experienced psychological aggression by an 

intimate partner. Overall, more than 1.5 million American 

Indian and Alaska Native women have experienced 

violence in their lifetime. 

Results also show that more than 1 in 3 American 

Indian and Alaska Native women (39.8 percent) have 

experienced violence in the past year. This includes 

14.4 percent who have experienced sexual violence, 8.6 

percent who have experienced physical violence by an 

intimate partner, 11.6 percent who have experienced 

stalking, and 25.5 percent who have experienced 

psychological aggression by an intimate partner. Overall, 

more than 730,000 American Indian and Alaska Native 

women have experienced violence in the past year. 

Table 6.1 Weighted Estimates of Violence Against Women 

Violence Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Any Lifetime Violence 84.3% 71.0% 1.2 

Sexual Violence 56.1% 49.7% NS 

Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners 55.5% 34.5% 1.6 

Stalking 48.8% 26.8% 1.8 

Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners 66.4% 52.0% 1.3 

Any Past-Year Violence 39.8% 23.3% 1.7 

Sexual Violence 14.4% 5.4% NS 

Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners 8.6% 4.1% NS 

Stalking 11.6% 7.0% NS 

Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners 25.5% 16.1% 1.6 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.17. 

44 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

The lifetime and past-year victimization rates are 

significantly higher for American Indian and Alaska Native 

women than for non-Hispanic White-only women. Relative 

to non-Hispanic White-only women, American Indian 

and Alaska Native women are 1.2 times as likely to have 

experienced violence in their lifetime and are 1.7 times 

as likely to have experienced violence in the past year 

(p < .05). 

Violence Against American Indian and Alaska 

Native Men 

American Indian and Alaska Native men also have high 

victimization rates. The lifetime and past-year estimates 

of violence against men are presented in table 6.2. 

More than 4 in 5 American Indian and Alaska Native 

men (81.6 percent) have experienced violence in their 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
lifetime. This includes 27.5 percent who have experienced 

sexual violence, 43.2 percent who have experienced 

physical violence by an intimate partner, 18.6 percent who 

have experienced stalking, and 73.0 percent who have 

experienced psychological aggression by an intimate partner. 

Overall, more than 1.4 million American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced violence in their lifetime. 

More than 1 in 3 American Indian and Alaska Native men 

(34.6 percent) have experienced violence in the past 

year. This includes 9.9 percent who have experienced 

sexual violence, 5.6 percent who have experienced 

physical violence by an intimate partner, 3.8 percent who 

have experienced stalking, and 27.3 percent who have 

experienced psychological aggression by an intimate partner. 

Overall, more than 595,000 American Indian and Alaska 

Native men have experienced violence in the past year. 

Table 6.2 Weighted Estimates of Violence Against Men 

Violence Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Any Lifetime Violence 81.6% 64.0% 1.3 

Sexual Violence 27.5% 20.9% NS 

Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners 43.2% 30.5% 1.4 

Stalking 18.6% 13.4% NS 

Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners 73.0% 52.7% 1.4 

Any Past-Year Violence 34.6% 25.7% NS 

Sexual Violence 9.9% 3.8% NS 

Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners 5.6% 4.5% NS 

Stalking 3.8% 3.7% NS 

Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners 27.3% 19.3% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 

Note: Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.18. 

RESEARCH REPORT 45 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only men, American Indian 

and Alaska Native men are 1.3 times as likely to have 

experienced violence in their lifetime (p < .05). The pastyear rates are not significantly different across racial and 

ethnic groups (p > .05). 

Race and Ethnicity of Perpetrators 

The race and ethnicity for perpetrators of violence is 

shown in figures 6.1 and 6.2. These figures provide 

information about the percentage of American Indian and 

Alaska Native victims who have experienced violence by 

a perpetrator who was American Indian or Alaska Native 

(intraracial) and by a perpetrator who was not American 

Indian or Alaska Native (interracial). Similarly, they 

provide information about the percentage of non-Hispanic 

White-only victims who have experienced violence by a 
 

 

 

Figure 6.1 Interracial Violence: Weighted 

Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing violence 

by an interracial perpetrator 

100 97%
 

90%
 

80
 

60 

40 35%
 

30%
 

20 

0 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims � Male Victims 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression by 

intimate partners, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and 

sexual violence. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.19. 

 

Figure 6.2 Intraracial Violence: Weighted 

Estimates for Lifetime Victims 

Percentage of victims experiencing violence 

by an intraracial perpetrator 

100 95% 94% 

80 

60 

40 35% 33%
 

20
 

0 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims � Male Victims 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression by 

intimate partners, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and 

sexual violence. Confidence intervals are available in appendix table A.19. 

46 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

perpetrator who was non-Hispanic White only (intraracial) 

and by a perpetrator who was not non-Hispanic White 

only (interracial). 

All differences across racial and ethnic groups are 

statistically significant (p < .05). American Indian and 

Alaska Native victims are significantly more likely than 

non-Hispanic White-only victims to have experienced 

violence by an interracial intimate partner: 

■■ Female victims are 2.8 times as likely to have 

experienced violence by an interracial perpetrator as 

non-Hispanic White-only female victims (97 percent 

versus 35 percent). 

■■ Male victims are 3.0 times as likely to have 

experienced violence by an interracial perpetrator as 

non-Hispanic White-only male victims (90 percent 

versus 30 percent). 

Conversely, American Indian and Alaska Native victims 

are significantly less likely than non-Hispanic White-only 

victims to have experienced violence by an intraracial 

perpetrator: 

■■ Female victims are 0.4 times as likely to have 

experienced violence by an intraracial perpetrator as 

non-Hispanic White-only female victims (35 percent 

versus 95 percent). 

■■ Male victims are 0.4 times as likely to have 

experienced violence by an intraracial perpetrator as 

non-Hispanic White-only male victims (33 percent 

versus 94 percent). 

Similar results were obtained for all estimates included 

in this report. Relative to non-Hispanic White-only 

victims, American Indian and Alaska Native victims are 

significantly more likely to have been victimized by at 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
least one interracial perpetrator and are significantly less 

likely to have been victimized by at least one intraracial 

perpetrator. In part, this is likely due to the relative size 

of the American Indian and Alaska Native population. 

Nonetheless, the importance of this result should not be 

minimized. This result is important because the federal 

government has a “trust responsibility to assist tribal 

governments in safeguarding the lives of Indian women” 

(Violence Against Women and Department of Justice 

Reauthorization Act of 2005). However, in the 1978 

Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe case, the Supreme 

Court had ruled that Indian tribes did not have criminal 

jurisdiction over non-Indians. Despite having high rates 

of interracial victimizations, Indian tribes had no authority 

to criminally prosecute non-Indian offenders, even for 

crimes committed in Indian Country. This created a 

jurisdictional gap that provided immunity to non-Indian 

offenders and compromised the safety of Indian women 

and men. To partially correct this problem, the Violence 

Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013 provided 

special domestic violence criminal jurisdiction to Indian 

tribes. This special jurisdiction provides Indian tribes 

that meet certain conditions with the ability to prosecute 

certain cases with non-Indian offenders. While the results 

on interracial and intraracial victimizations in this report 

are not surprising, they provide strong support for Indian 

nations’ sovereign right to prosecute non-Indian offenders 

(see also Indian Law and Order Commission, 2013; 

Fortson, 2015). 

Impact of Violence 

Previous research has documented the physical, 

psychological, and economic impacts of violence (e.g., 

Campbell, 2002; Coker et al., 2002; Ehrensaft et al., 

2003; Black et al., 2011; Garcia and Rivera, 2014). The 

NISVS asked questions about the impacts of victimization. 

Estimates can be produced for victims who experienced 

physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, or sexual 

violence in their lifetime. (Victims who experienced 

psychological aggression by intimate partners but did 

not experience physical violence by intimate partners, 

stalking, or sexual violence are not included in this 

section.) These questions included whether victims were 

concerned for their safety, were physically injured, had 

talked to someone, needed services, and had to miss 

days of work or school. Tables 6.3 and 6.4 describe the 

impacts of violence for women and men who experienced 

lifetime physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

or sexual violence. 

Table 6.3 Weighted Estimates of Impact From Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual 

Violence on Female Victims 

Impact on Female Victims 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Concerned for safety 66.5% 59.6% NS 

Physically injured 41.3% 27.4% 1.5 

Talked to someone 92.6% 89.9% NS 

Needed services 49.0% 27.7% 1.8 

Missed work/school 40.5% 21.6% 1.9 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p >.05).
 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. Confidence intervals are available in 


appendix table A.20.
 

RESEARCH REPORT 47 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table 6.4 Weighted Estimates of Impact From Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual 

Violence on Male Victims 

Impact on Male Victims 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Concerned for safety 26.0% 23.2% NS 

Physically injured 20.3% 10.6% NS 

Talked to someone 74.3% 68.9% NS 

Needed services 19.9% 15.3% NS 

Missed work/school 9.7% 12.2% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05).
 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. Confidence intervals are available in 


appendix table A.21.
 

48 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native female victims 

of lifetime physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and sexual violence — 

■■	 66.5 percent were concerned for their safety. 

■■	 41.3 percent were physically injured. 

■■	 92.6 percent had talked to someone about what the 

perpetrators did. 

■■	 49.0 percent needed services because of what the 

perpetrators did. 

■■	 40.5 percent had to miss days of work or school 

because of what the perpetrators did. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only female victims of 

lifetime physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and sexual violence, American Indian and Alaska Native 

female victims were — 

■■	 1.5 times as likely to be physically injured 

(p < .05). 

■■	 1.8 times as likely to need services (p < .05). 

■■	 1.9 times as likely to have to miss days of work or 

school (p < .05). 

Among American Indian and Alaska Native male victims 

of lifetime physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, 

and sexual violence — 

■■	 26.0 percent were concerned for their safety. 

■■	 20.3 percent were physically injured. 

■■	 74.3 percent had talked to someone about what the 

perpetrators did. 

■■	 19.9 percent needed services because of what the 

perpetrators did. 

■■	 9.7 percent had to miss days of work or school 

because of what the perpetrators did. 

Differences across racial and ethnic groups are not 

statistically significant (p > .05). 

The specific services that were needed by female and 

male victims are shown in tables 6.5 and 6.6. These 

include whether victims needed medical care, housing 

services, community services, victim’s advocate services, 

and legal services. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
Table 6.5 Weighted Estimates of Services Needed by Female Victims of Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence 

Services Needed 

by Female Victims 

Medical care 

Housing services 

Community services 

Advocacy services 

Legal services 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

or Alaska Native White Only Relative Risk 

38.0% 16.6% 2.3 

11.2% 4.2% NS 

4.3% 4.6% NS 

8.8% 5.9% NS 

15.8% 16.4% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05).
 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. Confidence intervals are available in 


appendix table A.22.
 

Table 6.6 Weighted Estimates of Services Needed by Male Victims of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, 

Stalking, and Sexual Violence 

Services Needed 

by Male Victims 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only Relative Risk 

Medical care 9.3% 5.1% NS 

Housing services 0.7% 1.3% NS 

Community services <0.1% 1.4% <0.1 

Advocacy services 3.0% 1.0% NS 

Legal services 9.0% 11.1% NS 

NS = Percentages across racial and ethnic groups are not significantly different (p > .05). 


Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. Confidence intervals are available in 


appendix table A.23.
 

RESEARCH REPORT 49 

The most common service needed by American Indian need medical care than non-Hispanic White-only female 

and Alaska Native female victims of lifetime physical victims (p < .05). 

violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual 

violence was medical care (needed by 38.0 percent The most common service needed by American Indian 

of victims). American Indian and Alaska Native female and Alaska Native male victims of lifetime physical 

victims of lifetime physical violence by intimate partners, violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual 

stalking, and sexual violence were 2.3 times as likely to violence was also medical care (needed by 9.3 percent 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

of victims). Differences in male victims’ need for medical 

care across racial and ethnic groups are not statistically 

significant (p > .05). 

Figure 6.3 shows the percentage of victims who needed 

services who were unable to get these services. Among 

victims who needed services, 38.2 percent of American 

Indian and Alaska Native women and 16.9 percent of 

American Indian and Alaska Native men were unable to 

get the services they needed. Among victims who needed 

services, American Indian and Alaska Native women were 

significantly less likely to get services than non-Hispanic 

White-only women (p < .05). Differences across racial 

and ethnic groups are not statistically significant for male 

victims (p > .05). 

To summarize, more than 2 in 5 American Indian and 

Alaska Native female victims reported being physically 

injured and almost half reported needing services. Among 

American Indian and Alaska Native male victims, 1 in 

5 reported being physically injured and 1 in 5 reported 

needing services. For American Indian and Alaska Native 

victims, the most common needed service was medical 

care, followed by legal services. 

Relative to non-Hispanic White-only female victims, 

American Indian and Alaska Native female victims were 

1.5 times as likely to be physically injured, 1.8 times as 

likely to need services, and 2.3 times as likely to need 

medical care. Unfortunately, they were significantly 

less likely than non-Hispanic White-only female victims 

to get the services they needed. These results are 

consistent with other research examining disparities 

in health outcomes (e.g., Greenfeld and Smith, 1999; 

Garcia and Rivera, 2014). They are also consistent with 

other research examining disparities in access to health 

care (Smedley et al., 2003). For male victims, these 

differences across racial and ethnic groups are not 

statistically significant (p > .05). 

These results highlight the need for additional services for 

American Indian and Alaska Native victims of crime — a 

need that has been persistently noted (e.g., Office for 

Victims of Crime, 2013). The results in this report should 

also be used to raise awareness and understanding about 

violence against American Indian and Alaska Native women 

and men. Although the scope of this analysis on the impact 

of violence was limited, the results reaffirm the direction 

needed to restore safety in tribal homes, relationships, and 

communities. We must hold offenders accountable while 

helping survivors heal and return to safety. 

Figure 6.3 Weighted Estimates of 

Inability to Get Needed Services 

Percentage of victims unable to get needed services 

40 38% 

35
 

30
 

25
 

20
 17% 

15% 14% 15
 

10
 

5
 

0
 

Female Victims Who Male Victims Who 

Needed Services Needed Services 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

• Non-Hispanic White Only 

Notes: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate 

partners, stalking and sexual violence who needed services. Confidence 

intervals are available in appendix table A.24. 

50 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
RESEARCH REPORT 51 

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RESEARCH REPORT 53 

Appendix. 

95% Confidence Intervals 

for Weighted Estimates 

Confidence intervals (CI) for all point estimates are 

included in this appendix. These confidence intervals 

show the range of plausible values for each estimate. 

The estimates presented in this report are based on a 

sample of people who identified themselves as American 

Indian or Alaska Native and on a sample of people who 

identified themselves as non-Hispanic White only. These 

samples did not include all people in the population. 

Because statistics were calculated using samples rather 

than populations, the estimates have a margin of error. To 

provide information about this margin of error, confidence 

intervals were computed for each weighted estimate. 

These confidence intervals provide a range of likely values 

for the percentage of victims in the entire population of 

people who identify themselves as American Indian or 

Alaska Native and in the entire population of people who 

identify themselves as non-Hispanic White only. 

The width of these confidence intervals provides 

information about the precision of each estimate. 

Estimates with wide confidence intervals indicate that 

there is much uncertainty about the extent to which 

the estimates accurately reflect the percentages of 

victims in the entire population. Confidence intervals 

were computed using a confidence level of 95 percent. 

Interpreting Confidence Intervals 

Statistically, a confidence interval indicates that 

if multiple independent samples were taken and 

confidence intervals were computed with each 

sample, 95 percent of these confidence intervals 

would include the percentage of victims in the 

entire population. In practice, interpretations for 

confidence intervals are more straightforward. 

Each confidence interval (CI) has a lower bound 

and an upper bound (for example, CI = 15% to 

25%). The straightforward way to interpret a 

95-percent confidence interval of 15 percent 

to 25 percent is to say that we are 95-percent 

confident that the percentage of victims in the 

entire population is between 15 percent and 25 

percent. 

Additional details, including sample sizes and odds ratios, 

are available in chapter 26 of the technical documentation 

for the NIJ analysis of the National Intimate Partner and 

Sexual Violence Survey (Rosay, 2015). 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table A.1 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Women 

Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Sexual Violence With Penetration 26.2% to 43.9% 18.6% to 21.5% 

Completed Forced Penetration 21.0% to 38.0% 12.4% to 14.8% 

Completed Alcohol- or Drug-Facilitated Penetration 9.9% to 23.4% 8.0% to 10.0% 

Attempted Forced Penetration 6.1% to 18.3% 4.5% to 6.1% 

Other Sexual Violence 42.5% to 61.7% 45.1% to 48.6% 

Sexual Coercion 15.7% to 33.2% 12.5% to 14.9% 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 33.3% to 51.8% 28.9% to 32.1% 

Non-Contact Unwanted Sexual Experiences 29.2% to 47.5% 29.3% to 32.6% 

Any Sexual Violence 46.4% to 65.8% 48.0% to 51.4% 

Table A.2 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Men 

Lifetime Sexual Violence Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Sexual Violence With Penetration 5.3% to 16.4% 4.3% to 5.9% 

Completed Forced Penetration 0.9% to 4.6% 1.1% to 2.0% 

Completed Alcohol- or Drug-Facilitated Penetration 2.9% to 12.9% 3.0% to 4.4% 

Attempted Forced Penetration -0.1% to 5.0% 0.8% to 1.5% 

Other Sexual Violence 16.5% to 31.1% 18.0% to 21.2% 

Sexual Coercion 4.7% to 15.5% 4.4% to 6.4% 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 7.9% to 18.0% 11.0% to 13.6% 

Non-Contact Unwanted Sexual Experiences 6.4% to 17.2% 8.5% to 10.9% 

Any Sexual Violence 19.6% to 35.4% 19.3% to 22.6% 

54 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
Table A.3 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Women 

Past Year Sexual Violence Against Women -

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Sexual Violence With Penetration -0.7% to 9.8% 0.7% to 1.7% 

Completed Forced Penetration -1.3% to 8.5% 0.2% to 0.8% 

Completed Alcohol- or Drug-Facilitated Penetration -1.7% to 8.2% 0.4% to 1.2% 

Attempted Forced Penetration -2.0% to 7.7% 0.1% to 0.6% 

Other Sexual Violence 5.4% to 21.5% 4.0% to 5.8% 

Sexual Coercion 0.4% to 14.0% 1.2% to 2.1% 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 0.9% to 13.8% 1.8% to 3.1% 

Non-Contact Unwanted Sexual Experiences -0.2% to 10.1% 1.1% to 2.3% 

Any Sexual Violence 6.2% to 22.6% 4.5% to 6.4% 

Table A.4 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Past-Year Sexual Violence Against Men 

Past Year Sexual Violence Against Men -

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Sexual Violence With Penetration -1.3% to 5.8% 0.4% to 1.1% 

Completed Forced Penetration -0.2% to 0.9% 0.0% to 0.3% 

Completed Alcohol- or Drug-Facilitated Penetration -1.5% to 5.6% 0.2% to 0.8% 

Attempted Forced Penetration 0.0% to 0.0% 0.1% to 0.3% 

Other Sexual Violence 2.8% to 13.0% 2.7% to 4.3% 

Sexual Coercion 0.6% to 8.5% 0.5% to 1.3% 

Unwanted Sexual Contact 0.0% to 6.2% 1.3% to 2.4% 

Non-Contact Unwanted Sexual Experiences 0.1% to 6.3% 1.1% to 2.2% 

Any Sexual Violence 3.7% to 16.0% 3.0% to 4.6% 

RESEARCH REPORT 55 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table A.5 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Sexual Violence 

Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Sexual 

Violence 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Female Victims 

Experienced sexual violence by interracial perpetrator 91.9% to 100.5% 29.2% to 34.5% 

Experienced sexual violence by intraracial perpetrator 10.8% to 30.4% 89.2% to 92.5% 

Male Victims 

Experienced sexual violence by interracial perpetrator 78.3% to 98.9% 22.9% to 31.6% 

Experienced sexual violence by intraracial perpetrator 13.1% to 45.4% 87.9% to 93.4% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of sexual violence. 

Table A.6 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Women 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 

Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Lifetime Estimate 46.5% to 64.5% 32.9% to 36.2% 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 43.2% to 61.2% 30.7% to 33.9% 

Severe Physical Violence 33.4% to 51.3% 23.3% to 26.2% 

Past-Year Estimate 3.2% to 13.9% 3.2% to 5.0% 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 2.8% to 13.2% 2.8% to 4.5% 

Severe Physical Violence 1.0% to 4.6% 2.0% to 3.3% 

56 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
Table A.7 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Against Men 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 

Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Lifetime Estimate 34.7% to 51.7% 28.7% to 32.3% 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 28.5% to 44.4% 26.2% to 29.7% 

Severe Physical Violence 17.5% to 33.0% 13.1% to 15.9% 

Past-Year Estimate 1.2% to 10.0% 3.6% to 5.3% 

Slapped, Pushed, or Shoved 1.0% to 9.7% 3.3% to 5.0% 

Severe Physical Violence 0.1% to 8.3% 1.2% to 2.3% 

Table A.8 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Physical Violence by Intimate Partners Experienced by American 

Indian and Alaska Native Victims 

Lifetime Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Slapped 47.2% to 72.3% 53.0% to 79.8% 

Pushed or shoved 73.3% to 93.2% 51.1% to 76.9% 

Hit with a fist or something hard 41.1% to 66.1% 30.7% to 57.1% 

Kicked 17.1% to 39.5% 11.2% to 32.8% 

Hurt by having hair pulled 17.7% to 37.0% 7.4% to 29.8% 

Slammed against something 41.1% to 66.5% 7.6% to 28.4% 

Hurt by being choked or suffocated 25.8% to 49.4% 0.7% to 11.9% 

Beaten 33.3% to 58.5% 7.7% to 27.2% 

Burned on purpose 0.7% to 17.5% 0.0% to 0.4% 

Had a knife or gun used on them 15.5% to 38.7% 2.8% to 19.9% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners. 

RESEARCH REPORT 57 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

58 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Table A.9 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Physical Violence by Interracial and 

Intraracial Intimate Partners 

Lifetime Physical Violence by Interracial 

and Intraracial Intimate Partners 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Female Victims 

Experienced physical violence by interracial intimate partner 80.3% to 99.2% 15.9% to 21.0% 

Experienced physical violence by intraracial intimate partner 7.3% to 28.3% 86.8% to 91.0% 

Male Victims 

Experienced physical violence by interracial intimate partner 75.9% to 93.6% 14.7% to 20.3% 

Experienced physical violence by intraracial intimate partner 10.6% to 31.1% 88.3% to 92.5% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners. 

Table A.10 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Stalking 

Stalking 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Women 

Lifetime Estimate 39.2% to 58.5% 25.3% to 28.3% 

Past-Year Estimate 6.6% to 16.5% 6.1% to 7.9% 

Men 

Lifetime Estimate 11.9% to 25.3% 11.9% to 14.9% 

Past-Year Estimate 1.3% to 6.3% 2.9% to 4.5% 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
RESEARCH REPORT 59 

Table A.11 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Stalking Behaviors Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims 

Lifetime Stalking Behaviors Experienced by 

American Indian and Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Received unwanted phone calls 70.7% to 93.5% 60.1% to 90.6% 

Received unwanted emails or messages 7.0% to 30.9% 0.8% to 26.6% 

Received unwanted cards, flowers, gifts 22.2% to 47.7% 1.0% to 24.4% 

Was watched or followed from a distance 17.4% to 40.9% 18.2% to 57.0% 

Was approached at home, work, or school 40.4% to 66.8% 42.7% to 79.3% 

Found strange or threatening items 4.0% to 17.7% -0.1% to 8.9% 

Had home or car intruded 15.5% to 39.7% 6.5% to 39.8% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of stalking. 

Table A.12 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Stalking 

Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Stalking 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Female Victims 

Stalked by interracial perpetrator 80.7% to 97.1% 22.7% to 29.6% 

Stalked by intraracial perpetrator 14.9% to 46.0% 84.9% to 90.0% 

Male Victims 

Stalked by interracial perpetrator 80.2% to 101.3% 15.6% to 25.4% 

Stalked by intraracial perpetrator 4.8% to 41.4% 86.8% to 93.8% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of stalking. 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

60 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Table A.13 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Women 

Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Lifetime Estimate 57.6% to 75.2% 50.3% to 53.6% 

Expressive Aggression 47.8% to 66.0% 42.5% to 45.9% 

Coercive Control 52.7% to 70.3% 41.0% to 44.3% 

Control of Reproductive or Sexual Health 5.8% to 15.4% 7.1% to 8.9% 

Past-Year Estimate 17.6% to 33.4% 14.7% to 17.4% 

Expressive Aggression 13.4% to 28.2% 10.4% to 12.8% 

Coercive Control 13.1% to 27.4% 10.6% to 13.0% 

Control of Reproductive or Sexual Health 0.0% to 8.0% 0.9% to 1.8% 

Table A.14 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners Against Men 

Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Lifetime Estimate 65.6% to 80.3% 50.8% to 54.7% 

Expressive Aggression 35.1% to 52.0% 33.4% to 37.1% 

Coercive Control 59.6% to 75.2% 42.5% to 46.4% 

Control of Reproductive or Sexual Health 12.9% to 26.9% 8.7% to 11.2% 

Past-Year Estimate 19.4% to 35.1% 17.8% to 20.9% 

Expressive Aggression 5.9% to 18.2% 8.4% to 10.7% 

Coercive Control 14.7% to 28.7% 14.0% to 16.7% 

Control of Reproductive or Sexual Health 1.7% to 11.7% 0.7% to 1.6% 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
RESEARCH REPORT 61 

Table A.15 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native Victims 

Lifetime Psychological Aggression by Intimate 

Partners Experienced by American Indian and 

Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Expressive Aggression 

Experienced very angry actions that seemed dangerous 58.2% to 78.3% 18.7% to 37.2% 

Told they were losers, failures, or not good enough 42.8% to 64.5% 19.2% to 38.0% 

Called names like ugly, fat, crazy, stupid 44.8% to 66.8% 25.9% to 45.2% 

Insulted, humiliated, made fun of 41.1% to 63.2% 17.7% to 34.6% 

Told no one else would want them 29.5% to 50.1% 7.7% to 20.0% 

Coercive Control 

Kept from seeing or talking to family or friends 44.5% to 66.0% 18.2% to 34.9% 

Had decisions made for them that should have been theirs to make 39.4% to 61.1% 20.8% to 38.9% 

Was tracked by being asked about locations and actions 52.0% to 73.3% 52.1% to 71.9% 

Threatened with being physically harmed 37.0% to 58.5% 13.9% to 30.1% 

Threatened with perpetrators hurting themselves when upset 28.2% to 48.3% 15.8% to 32.5% 

Threatened with having pets hurt or taken away 9.6% to 24.1% 0.4% to 4.4% 

Threatened with having loved ones hurt 13.1% to 29.7% 0.0% to 5.2% 

Had loved ones who were hurt 9.9% to 25.8% 0.9% to 8.8% 

Threatened with having children taken away 27.4% to 52.6% 13.6% to 36.6% 

Kept from leaving the house when they wanted to go 32.8% to 54.1% 9.0% to 23.2% 

Kept from having their own money to use 20.2% to 41.1% 6.7% to 18.3% 

Told things like “If I can’t have you, then no one can” 29.4% to 50.6% 10.3% to 26.6% 

Had something that was important to them destroyed 30.3% to 51.3% 19.8% to 37.0% 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

62 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Table A.15 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Psychological Aggression by 

Intimate Partners Experienced by American Indian and Alaska Native Victims (continued) 

Lifetime Psychological Aggression by Intimate 

Partners Experienced by American Indian and 

Alaska Native Victims Female Victims Male Victims 

Control of Reproductive or Sexual Health 

Experienced unwanted pregnancy attempts 3.8% to 11.6% 13.1% to 30.4% 

Experienced refusals to use condoms 7.2% to 21.3% 8.4% to 24.6% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression by intimate partners. 

Table A.16 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Psychological Aggression by 

Interracial and Intraracial Intimate Partners 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

Lifetime Psychological Aggression by 

Interracial and Intraracial Intimate Partners 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Female Victims 

Experienced psychological aggression 

by interracial intimate partner 83.0% to 99.2% 19.3% to 23.7% 

Experienced psychological aggression 

by intraracial intimate partner 13.1% to 37.5% 91.1% to 94.0% 

Male Victims 

Experienced psychological aggression 

by interracial intimate partner 82.5% to 94.1% 20.2% to 25.0% 

Experienced psychological aggression 

by intraracial intimate partner 18.0% to 37.7% 90.4% to 93.5% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression by intimate partners. 
RESEARCH REPORT 63 

Table A.17 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Violence Against Women 

Violence Against Women 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Lifetime Violence 76.9% to 91.8% 69.4% to 72.6% 

Sexual Violence 46.4% to 65.8% 48.0% to 51.4% 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 46.5% to 64.5% 32.9% to 36.2% 

Stalking 39.2% to 58.5% 25.3% to 28.3% 

Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners 57.6% to 75.2% 50.3% to 53.6% 

Past-Year Violence 29.7% to 49.8% 21.6% to 24.9% 

Sexual Violence 6.2% to 22.6% 4.5% to 6.4% 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 3.2% to 13.9% 3.2% to 5.0% 

Stalking 6.6% to 16.5% 6.1% to 7.9% 

Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners 17.6% to 33.4% 14.7% to 17.4% 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table A.19 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Violence 

Lifetime Interracial and Intraracial Violence 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Female Victims 

Experienced violence by interracial perpetrator 94.1% to 99.4% 33.0% to 37.6% 

Experienced violence by intraracial perpetrator 23.2% to 47.8% 94.3% to 96.3% 

Male Victims 

Experienced violence by interracial perpetrator 85.2% to 95.6% 27.4% to 32.5% 

Experienced violence by intraracial perpetrator 22.3% to 43.2% 93.0% to 95.5% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of psychological aggression by intimate partners, physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and 

sexual violence. 

64 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

Table A.18 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Violence Against Men 

Violence Against Men 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Lifetime Violence 75.1% to 88.1% 62.1% to 65.9% 

Sexual Violence 19.6% to 35.4% 19.3% to 22.6% 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 34.7% to 51.7% 28.7% to 32.3% 

Stalking 11.9% to 25.3% 11.9% to 14.9% 

Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners 65.6% to 80.3% 50.8% to 54.7% 

Past-Year Violence 25.6% to 43.7% 23.8% to 27.5% 

Sexual Violence 3.7% to 16.0% 3.0% to 4.6% 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners 1.2% to 10.0% 3.6% to 5.3% 

Stalking 1.3% to 6.3% 2.9% to 4.5% 

Psychological Aggression by Intimate Partners 19.4% to 35.1% 17.8% to 20.9% 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
Table A.20 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Impact From Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, 

Stalking, and Sexual Violence on Female Victims 

Impact From Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence on 

Female Victims 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Concerned for safety 55.8% to 77.2% 57.4% to 61.8% 

Physically injured 30.2% to 52.4% 25.4% to 29.4% 

Talked to someone 88.4% to 96.9% 88.5% to 91.2% 

Needed services 37.5% to 60.6% 25.6% to 29.7% 

Missed work/school 29.1% to 52.0% 19.6% to 23.5% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. 

Table A.21 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Impact From Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, Stalking, and Sexual 

Violence on Male Victims 

Impact From Physical Violence by 

Intimate Partners, Stalking, and 

Sexual Violence on Male Victims 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Concerned for safety 15.0% to 37.0% 20.5% to 25.9% 

Physically injured 9.7% to 30.8% 8.7% to 12.4% 

Talked to someone 64.6% to 84.0% 65.9% to 72.0% 

Needed services 9.8% to 30.0% 13.3% to 17.4% 

Missed work/school 1.8% to 17.5% 10.2% to 14.1% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. 

RESEARCH REPORT 65 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 
 

 

Table A.22 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Services Needed by Female Victims of Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence 

Services Needed by Female Victims of 

Physical Violence by Intimate Partners, 

Stalking, and Sexual Violence 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Medical Care 26.1% to 50.0% 14.9% to 18.3% 

Housing Services 4.2% to 18.3% 3.3% to 5.1% 

Community Services 1.4% to 7.2% 3.7% to 5.5% 

Advocacy Services 3.9% to 13.7% 4.8% to 7.1% 

Legal Services 8.1% to 23.4% 14.8% to 17.9% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. 

66 Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 

Table A.23 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Services Needed by Male Victims of Physical Violence by Intimate 

Partners, Stalking, and Sexual Violence 

Services Needed by Male Victims of Physical 

Violence by Intimate Partners, Stalking, and 

Sexual Violence 

American Indian 

or Alaska Native 

Non-Hispanic 

White Only 

Medical Care 3.4% to 15.2% 3.7% to 6.5% 

Housing Services -O.3% to 1.7% O.6% to 2.0% 

Community Services 0.0% to 0.1% 0.6% to 2.1% 

Advocacy Services -1.7% to 7.7% 0.4% to 1.6% 

Legal Services 1.0% to 17.0% 9.3% to 12.8% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence. 
Table A.24 

95% CIs for Weighted Estimates of Inab

Percentage of Victims Unable to 

ility to Get Needed Services 

American Indian Non-Hispanic 

Get Needed Services or Alaska Native White Only 

Female Victims 20.1% to 56.2% 12.2% to 18.6% 

Male Victims -5.9% to 39.6% 9.0% to 18.5% 

Note: Samples are restricted to victims of physical violence by intimate partners, stalking, and sexual violence who needed services. 

RESEARCH REPORT 67 

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov 


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