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APPENDIX J 

VEGETATION TREATMENTS AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN THE 

KASHA-KATUWE TENT ROCKS NATIONAL MONUMENT PLANNING AREA 

Major Land Resource Area 

The project area covered by this RMP has been 

characterized by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) as Major Land Resource 

Area (MLRA) No. 36—Western Plateau, subresource area WP-2—New Mexico and Arizona 

Plateaus and Mesas (USDA, NRCS 2004). It 

consists of broad mesas and plateaus interspersed with numerous deep canyons and dry 

washes, mesa breaks, and canyon walls. Scattered throughout the region are isolated volcanic 

peaks, cones, and lava flows. 

This area is characterized as semi-arid, with distinct seasonal precipitation and temperature patterns associated with a continental climate. Average annual precipitation approaches 10-16 

inches. Most of the precipitation comes in the 

form of local high-intensity summer storms of 

short duration. Such storms occur when warm, 

moist Gulf air moves inland and becomes unstable over the hot terrain, causing thundershowers. 

These usually occur in the late afternoon. A 

secondary peak in precipitation comes in the 

form of snow and rain/snow mix that occurs in 

late winter and early spring. Season, quantity, 

frequency, and intensity of precipitation typically vary greatly from place to place and from 

year to year. What precipitation does fall can be 

quite effective for vegetative response because it 

occurs during much of the growing season 

(April to October). The natural vegetation has, 

of course, evolved under these conditions, and 

the erratic precipitation pattern is the predictable 

norm (Dick-Peddie 1993).

Vegetation and Fire Regime 

Climate, vegetation, and fire are frequently considered together in land use planning and environmental analysis. This is because climate (i.e., 

temperature, precipitation, solar degree days, 

and growing season) is the major determinant of 

vegetation patterns, while fire is a component of 

the natural ecological processes that supports, 

maintains, and/or alters a given plant community. 

Dick-Peddie (1993) states: “In New Mexico, 

generally the vegetation changes on an available-moisture gradient (lower to higher) as follows: scrubland to grassland to woodland to 

forest. Moisture availability is considered here 

to be moisture available to plants for their establishment and maintenance. Available moisture

is considered here as the moisture which is free 

to enter the roots. Moisture availability as the 

primary factor influencing vegetative patterns in 

New Mexico was recognized by Watson in 

1912, when he wrote, ‘The chief factor determining this change is moisture, the supply of 

which is largely determined by precipitation, 

ability to hold it, and protection from drying 

winds and sun.’ . . . . Temperature and available 

moisture together can be considered primary 

factors producing vegetation patterns. Features 

that singly or in combination affect these two 

primary factors can be thought of as secondary. 

Examples of secondary factors affecting moisture availability are latitude, altitude, annual precipitation, evaporation rates, soil texture and 

structure, slope, exposure (aspect), salinity, and 

season.” 

The potential natural plant communities and associated vegetation within the Monument are 

highly diverse as a result of the variability of 

soils, elevation, annual and seasonal precipitation, 

temperature, degree of slope and aspect, and 

disturbance (USDA, NRCS 2004). Annual precipitation comes primarily in the form of rainfall 

during the months of July, August, and September, although wintertime precipitation in the 

form of snow, sleet, or rain is sometimes significant. The rainfall patterns generally favor 

warm-season perennial vegetation, while the 
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temperature regime tends to favor cool-season 

vegetation. This creates a complex community 

of plants on any given ecological site, which is 

quite susceptible to disturbance and is at or near 

its productive potential only when both the natural warm and cool-season dominants are present. 

Soils described in the Sandoval County Soil Survey (USDA, SCS 1987, updated in 1992-1993) 

are assigned management potentials under two 

broad interpretations, Rangeland and Woodlands. 

The soils occurring within the Monument (see 

Map 9) and their management potential are 

listed below. 

Map Unit 

Symbol Soils Description % Slopes 

Management 

Potential Acres 

 52 Totavi loamy sand 0-5 Woodland 35

104 Cochiti-Montecito association 1-30 Woodland 1,022

206 Pinitos loam 1-15 Woodland 58

300 Waumac (50%)-Bamac (30%) association 1-7 Rangeland 485

307 Flugle (60%)-Waumac (25%) complex 1-8 Rangeland 460

345 Espiritu (50%)-Bamac (35%) association 15-55 Rangeland 246

353 Cochiti-Espiritu association 15-55 Woodland 2,226

603 Laventana-Mirand very cobbly loam 15-55 Woodland 94

 Total 4,626

The management potentials (Rangeland/Woodland) are further broken down into site-specific 

descriptions and productivity, based on a soil’s 

capability to support and maintain the potential natural plant community structure and 

function. 

Within the rangeland capabilities are three range 

sites, described as “Sandy,” “Savannah,” and 

“Foothills” Ecological Site Descriptions (ESDs). 

These are located in valleys, mesa tops, and at 

the base of steep slopes, respectively. These 

sites normally occur on gently to moderately 

sloping topography that may range as high as 15 

percent slope but averages less than 10 percent. 

The soils forming the three rangeland sites are 

found as associations or complexes that often 

produce indistinct boundaries between one ESD 

and another. Rangeland site productivity is 

measured in pounds of air dry forage per acre 

(lbs/ac) and is presented as a range for each ecological site under unfavorable and favorable 

growing conditions. Grazing capacity of rangeland is determined based on the site’s current 

potential to produce forage balanced against a 

desired amount of residual vegetation/stubble 

height for watershed protection and the proper 

amount of forage to be harvested by grazing ungulates. 

The Woodlands are described by indicator species with their productivity measured by Site 

Index (SI) and/or in cubic feet per acre (cuft/ac). 

The indicator species is the species that is common in the area and is generally, but not necessarily, the most productive on the soil. Site index is the average height, in feet, that the trees 

attain in a specified number of years. This index 

applies to fully stocked, even-aged, unmanaged 

stands. Site indexes shown in the table are averages based on measurements made at sites that 

are representative of the soil series and where 

the site has been free of past fire and disturbances. For non-timber species, such as oneseed 

juniper and Utah juniper, productivity is a measure of fiber (wood) in cubic feet per acre 

(cuft/ac). 

The Monument has approximately 512 acres (9 

percent) with slopes greater than 60 percent; 

these have little potential to support vegetation 

due to the steep slopes and shallow soils. Areas 

that are less than 60 percent slope are comprised 

of woodlands and forest, and as percent slope 
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Map Unit 

Symbol 

Management 

Potential 

Indicator Species 

Site Descriptions 

Site Productivity 

SI :: cuft/ac, or 

lbs (air dry forage)/ac Trees to Manage 

 52 Woodland Utah juniper 

Oneseed juniper 

Ponderosa pine SI 75 :: 57 cuft/ac 

-- 

-- 

Ponderosa pine 

104 Woodland Oneseed juniper 

Two-needle piñon 

SI 34 :: 14 cuft/ac 

SI 51 

-- 

-- 

206 Woodland Oneseed juniper 

Two-needle piñon SI 45 

-- 

Two-needle piñon 

300 Rangeland Sandy 325-860 lbs/ac -- 

307 Rangeland Sandy 

Savannah 

325-860 lbs/ac 

300-875 lbs/ac 

-- 

-- 

345 Rangeland Foothills 375-750 lbs/ac -- 

353 Woodland Oneseed juniper 

Two-needle piñon SI 25-51 

-- 

-- 

603 Woodland Ponderosa pine SI 55-76 :: 43-57 cuft Ponderosa pine 

decreases the land’s potential natural plant community moves toward a grass/shrub community. 

Vegetation forms the basis for describing plant 

community structure and function. Fire, a component of the natural ecological processes, supports, maintains, and/or alters a given plant 

community. Ecological site descriptions developed by the NRCS are used to portray rangeland 

plant community structure, whereas fire regimes 

are used to classify the role fire played across 

the landscape. The presence of vegetation (fuels) is essential for fire to occur. 

The concept of Fire Regime is used to broadly 

describe the fire frequency (average number of 

years between fires) and severity (amount of 

replacement) that may occur on dominant overstory vegetation. Two natural fire regimes were 

historically present in the Monument, both with 

an average fire frequency of less than 35 years. 

Under Fire Regime I (low and mixed severity 

fires), surface fires were most common and less 

than 25 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation was replaced. Under Fire Regime II (high 

severity fires), stand replacement fires were 

common and greater than 75 percent of the 

dominant overstory was replaced. 

In addition to classification of the Monument 

lands into two historic Fire Regimes based on 

natural fire frequency, severity, and dominant 

overstory replacement, the lands have been further placed into Fire Regime Condition (FRC) 

Classes based on the degree of departure from 

the natural (historic) fire regime. Departure 

from historic fire regimes results in “alterations 

of key ecosystem components such as species 

composition, structural stage, stand age, and 

canopy closure. One or more of the following 

activities may have caused this departure: fire 

exclusion, timber harvesting, grazing, introduction and establishment of exotic species, insects 

and disease (introduced or native), or other management activities” (Schmidt et al. 2002). 

FRC Class I is characterized as being within the 

natural range of variability for vegetation structure and function; fuel composition; fire frequency, severity and pattern; and other associated disturbances. Since the introduction of 

livestock grazing and implementation of fire 

suppression, the historic fire regime within the 

Monument has been significantly altered from a 

high frequency, low intensity fire regime to a 

low frequency, high intensity fire regime, with 

the result that none of the Monument lands are 
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FRC Class I. Based on departure from the natural fire regime, the Monument lands have been 

classified as FRC Class II (moderately altered 

from the natural fire regime, with moderate risk 

of losing key ecosystem components) or FRC 

Class III (significantly altered from the natural 

fire regime, with high risk of eliminating desired 

ecosystem components). The Statewide RMP 

amendment Fire and Fuels Management Resource Management Plan Amendment and Environmental Assessment (USDI, BLM 2004b) describes the Fire Regime Condition Classes for 

the vegetative communities or plant associations 

that occur on the Monument (Open Conifer 

Woodlands, Closed Conifer Woodlands, and 

Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands). 

The potential natural plant community of 

woodlands and forest stands within the Monument is described as 70 percent piñon-juniper 

woodlands and 2 percent ponderosa pine forests, 

while the remaining 28 percent of the Monument 

consists of grass/shrub rangeland communities 

(USDA, SCS 1987, updated in 1992-93). On 

the basis of local fire history information (Allen 

2002), the young ages of most piñon-juniper 

trees of the Pajarito Plateau located near Los 

Alamos, NM (Julius 1999), and soils data 

(McFadden et al. 1996), we believe that many 

upland mesa areas now occupied by dense 

piñon-juniper woodlands were formerly more 

open, with fewer trees and well developed herbaceous understories that: (1) protected the soil 

from excessive erosion during intense summer 

thunderstorm events, and (2) provided a largely 

continuous fuel matrix, which allowed surface 

fires to spread and maintain these vegetative 

types. 

Shifts may occur in plant community dominance, structure, and function under natural disturbance. These natural disturbances—fire, 

drought, and insects—play a vital role in plant 

community dynamics and development of vegetation patterns. Other human-induced disturbances—logging, livestock grazing, and fire suppression—may also encourage changes in plant 

community structure and function. The following illustrates the effects to the potential natural 

plant communities from human-induced disturbance. 

Settlement and the introduction of domestic livestock into the Rio Grande Valley by EuroAmericans began in 1598; however, significant 

livestock grazing did not occur until after the 

railroads linked the Southwest to commercial 

markets in the 1880s. Millions of sheep and 

cattle were placed onto the New Mexico landscape at that time, with unrestricted grazing on 

public lands. Sharp reductions in the herbaceous 

ground cover and associated litter resulted, effectively eliminating previously widespread surface fires. This was coupled with institutionalized fire suppression initiated by the Federal 

government after 1910. Severe drought during 

the 1950s contributed to declines in ground 

cover (Allen and Breshears 1998). Firesensitive piñon and juniper trees became established in densities unprecedented for at least the 

past 800 years. As these trees grew, they became increasingly effective competitors for water and nutrients. Thus a positive feedback cycle 

was initiated that favors tree invasion and decreased herbaceous ground cover (Allen 1989; 

Gottfried et al. 1995). 

Arnold (1950), Cooper (1960), Madany and 

West (1983), Mitchell and Freeman (1993), 

Rummell (1951), and Savage and Swetnam 

(1990) have identified livestock grazing as a 

major cause in altering the historic fire regimes 

and increasing fire hazard. Past grazing of the 

low growing, continuous fine fuel by livestock 

has displaced the herbaceous plant community 

with brush and piñon-juniper. The loss of herbaceous ground fuels inhibits the occurrence of 

low intensity surface fires and fire spread that 

could control the ensuing brush and tree encroachment. The resulting increase in brush and 

tree densities supports destructive crown fires. 

Shifts in the potential natural plant communities 

on the Monument are reflected in recent woodland inventories that record a striking departure 

in expected species composition. Fixed 0.05-

acre plots done within the rangeland and woodland sites in 2004 reveal that 60 percent of the 
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stems are less than 4 inches in diameter and less 

than 100 years in age. The average stem density 

is 353 per acre with a range of 60 to 720 stems 

per acre. This represents an average spacing of 11 

feet. These sites are dominated by oneseed juniper 

at 70 percent, followed by piñon at 30 percent 

(Borland 2004). The expected natural plant 

community of the piñon-juniper woodlands on 

the Monument is around 60 to 100 stems per 

acre. 

These changes in vegetation patterns appear to 

be the result of differential accumulation of 

available moisture. Human-induced disturbance, livestock grazing, and fire suppression 

resulted in reduced herbaceous cover. Exposed 

bare ground increased, allowing rain water to 

flow across the interspaces rather than infiltrate 

where it fell. Water then accumulated in small 

depressions that provided more water than normal under grass cover so that junipers could become established (Dick-Peddie 1993). 

The prevailing natural disturbances of drought 

and insects continue to dramatically influence 

the present condition of the vegetative communities within the Monument. Drought conditions 

have been acknowledged from 1994-1995 to 

present by meteorologists/climatologists 

throughout the Southwest. This regional 

drought has caused trees to become moisture 

stressed and susceptible to insect invasion and 

damage. As drought progressed, trees became 

unable to repel the piñon-bark (Ips) beetle with 

tree pitch. Insect populations of the Ips beetle 

have exploded, permitting them to move onto 

adjoining trees and woodlands. The smaller encroaching trees (less than 3 inches in diameter) 

are passed up by the Ips beetle; however, the 

older and larger trees are highly susceptible to 

their damage, eventually resulting in death. The 

extent of this outbreak within the Monument is 

obvious: on the average 88 piñon trees per acre 

are dead (Borland 2004). 

The following ecological site descriptions 

(Sandy, Savannah, and Foothills), taken from 

the Sandoval County soil mapping unit summaries, describe the potential natural vegetation 

that would occur on the rangeland component of 

the Monument (USDA, SCS 1987, updated in 

1992-1993). 

Sandy ecological sites are characterized as having both warm- and cool-season grasses, scattered shrubs, half-shrubs, and forbs. Blue grama 

and western wheatgrass are co-dominants, with 

Indian ricegrass and dropseed closely associated. 

Principal shrubs and half-shrubs include fourwing saltbush, winterfat, and sand sagebrush. 

Rocky Mountain beeplant is often the most noticeable forb. Broom snakeweed is most common in certain wet years and when the plant 

community deteriorates from its potential. Potential natural plant communities have about 69 

percent bare ground, 12 percent litter, and 15 

percent grasses and forbs as an average percentage of the surface area. The overstory is 5 percent shrubs and half-shrubs with 0 percent tree 

canopy. Under unfavorable growing conditions, 

the historic potential plant community could 

produce 325 pounds per acre air dry plant matter 

while during favorable conditions the site’s potential increases to 850 pounds per acre air dry 

plant matter. The Sandy ecological site fits the 

Chihuahuan Desert Grassland fire regime classification; however, recent disturbance to the plant 

community structure and the increasing number 

and density of shrubs and trees creates a grading 

effect into the Open and Closed Conifer Woodlands fire regimes. Fire frequency is variable 

and dependent upon plant community development and/or departure from the historic community and ignition source. Grassland types support fires and could occur in any given year provided the grasses are cured and dry enough to 

burn. Plant density is a critical factor in the 

grassland’s ability to propagate fire. Heat output 

is relatively low from grass fuels, so fairly continuous fuels are necessary for fire spread to occur (Brown and Smith 2000). The current fire 

frequency is between 85 and 120 years due to 

the age of the larger size trees and recent fire 

suppression. Historic fire frequencies probably 

ranged from about 4 to 20 years (Fire Regime 

II). 

Savannah ecological sites are characterized by 

the NRCS as scattered large tree-type piñons 

and/or junipers with open grass stands in between. 
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Understory grasses are dominated by blue 

grama, Western wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass, 

and sand dropseed. Piñon ricegrass and pine 

dropseed may also be found, usually beneath the 

trees and at the higher elevation ranges on the 

site. Winterfat and some forbs may occur in 

significant amounts. Broom snakeweed is most 

common in certain good rainfall years and when 

the understory plant community deteriorates 

from its potential. Reproduction of piñon and 

juniper is normally very slow and, historically, 

may have been controlled by natural fire. Tree 

canopy of the natural potential plant community 

averages approximately 25 percent. In exceptional cases, a few more or less even-aged ponderosa pines may occur on this site naturally. 

Reproduction of this species is ordinarily even 

less evident than that of piñon or juniper, and no 

more than 1 or 2 percent of the understory is 

likely to be made up of ponderosa seedlings, 

even in the absence of livestock grazing. Historic plant communities have about 65 percent 

bare ground, 15 percent litter, and 18 percent 

grasses and forbs as an average percentage of 

the surface area. The overstory is 15 to 30 percent shrubs and half-shrubs and 15 to 30 percent 

tree canopy. Under unfavorable growing conditions, the historic potential plant community 

could produce 300 pounds per acre air dry plant 

matter while favorable growing conditions improve the site’s potential to 875 pounds per acre 

air dry plant matter. 

Foothills ecological sites are characterized by 

the NRCS as a mixed shrub-grassland aspect 

with scattered oneseed juniper and some piñon 

trees. The tree component is more prevalent on 

the cooler, north-facing slopes, while shrubs and 

grasses prevail on south- and west-facing slopes. 

Dominant grasses on the north-facing slopes are 

blue grama, galleta, New Mexico feathergrass, 

and bottlebrush squirreltail. On the south-facing 

slopes black grama, little bluestem, sideoats 

grama, and blue grama are dominant. This site 

occurs as rolling to steep hills and foot slopes of 

steep mountains and sideslopes of high mesas. 

Slopes may range from 2 to 50 percent. This is 

a transitional area between adjoining Major 

Land Resource Areas SD-1 and WP-2 as a product of the highly variable soils, slopes, and exposures. Historic plant communities have about 

33 percent bare ground, 10 percent litter, and 12 

percent grasses and forbs as an average percentage of the surface area. The overstory is about 

20 percent shrubs and half-shrubs and 20 percent tree canopy. Under unfavorable growing 

conditions, the historic potential plant community could produce 375 pounds per acre air dry 

plant matter while favorable growing conditions 

raise the site’s potential to 750 pounds per acre 

air dry plant matter. 

Historically, the fire regime occurring on the 

Foothills and Savannah ecological sites was one 

of frequent mixed severity fires (Fire Regimes I 

and II). Typically fires occurring on these sites 

consisted of low intensity surface fires with occasional high intensity stand-replacing fires 

when higher fuel concentrations were present. 

The average historic fire return interval is about 

28 to 31 years, with a range of 10 to 49 years. 

These sites are now dominated by piñon-juniper 

with a grass/forb and shrub understory. The current plant communities fall into the Open and 

Closed Conifer Woodlands fire regimes. The 

herbaceous understory is discontinuous and of 

low productivity; coupled with the small amount 

of litter, and the number, age and size of trees 

that are present, the current fire frequency is between 85 and 120 years. 

Vegetative response is tied closely to changes in 

soil structure, function, and productivity. The 

loss of organic-rich topsoils, decreased plantavailable-water (Breshears and Barnes 1999), 

extreme soil temperatures, and freeze-thaw activity severely impede herbaceous vegetation 

establishment and productivity (Davenport et al. 

1998). Reductions in ground cover cause increased runoff from summer thunderstorms 

(Reid et al. 1999), with associated increases in 

erosion (Wilcox et al. 1996a, 1996b, 2003). The 

processes described above have moved much of 

the historic natural potential vegetation on the 

Monument across a plant community threshold 

that currently favors further establishment and 

maintenance of oneseed juniper and piñon. 

Successful restoration of the rangelands on the 

Monument to historic natural plant communities 
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is directly proportional to the site’s retention of 

topsoil. Areas that have experienced severe loss 

of the organic topsoil would exhibit a slower 

response to vegetative treatments and prescriptions than similar areas containing higher 

amounts of topsoil in the system. 

Strategies for any vegetative treatments should 

address the need to minimize any further surface 

disturbance and/or transport of soils off site. 

Treatments geared to the reduction of oneseed 

juniper and piñon pine stems should include 

lopping and scattering of smaller diameter stems 

and branches to provide suitable micro-climates 

for seed germination, establishment, and survival of seedlings. Since the native seed bank is 

stored in the soil, its presence and abundance is 

proportional to the degree of soil loss. It is uncertain whether an adequate native seed bank is 

present to move treated sites toward their natural 

potential plant community. To encourage the 

desired restoration of treated areas, vegetative 

strategies should include re-seeding with native 

seeds.