Status and Trends 

in the Education 

of American Indians 

and Alaska Natives U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2005–108

Catherine Freeman

National Center for 

Education Statistics

Mary Ann Fox

Education Statistics

Services Institute

Status and Trends

in the Education

of American 

Indians and Alaska 

Natives

U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2005-108
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

Grover J. Whitehurst

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Grover J. Whitehurst

Acting Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, 

analyzing, and reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. 

It fulfills a congressional mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report full and complete 

statistics on the condition of education in the United States; conduct and publish reports and 

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NCES activities are designed to address high-priority education data needs; provide 

consistent, reliable, complete, and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and 

report timely, useful, and high-quality data to the U.S. Department of Education, the Congress, 

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Suggested Citation

Freeman, C., and Fox, M. (2005). Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and 

Alaska Natives (NCES 2005-108). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education 

Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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Catherine Freeman

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Catherine.Freeman@ed.gov
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Several people have contributed to the development of Status and Trends in the Education of 

American Indians and Alaska Natives. Catherine 

Freeman of the National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) was responsible for the development of this report, which was prepared under 

the general direction of Thomas Snyder and Val 

Plisko (NCES). Marilyn Seastrom (Chief Statistician, NCES) reviewed the entire document.

Angelina KewalRamani, Lauren Gilbertson, 

Geeta Kotak, and Kara Lindstrom of the Education Statistics Services Institute (ESSI) provided 

research support and statistical analysis for the 

report. Corinne Calfee, formerly of the American 

Institutes for Research (AIR), and Jeanne Nathanson, formerly of NCES, prepared an initial 

draft of the report.

Bernadette Adams-Yates, Peter McCabe, and 

Mary Schifferli of the Office for Civil Rights 

(OCR), and Taisha Brown-Sleighton of the 

White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and 

Universities provided materials from the Department of Education. Robin Shield and Gaye Leia 

King contributed information from the Bureau 

of Indian Affairs. 

Elina Hartwell, Jennie Romolo, Mike Rollins, 

and Heather Block (ESSI) worked on the cover 

design and typesetting. 

Status and Trends in the Education of American 

Indians and Alaska Natives has received extensive 

reviews by several other individuals within and 

outside of the Department of Education. We 

wish to thank them for their time and expert advice: Lisa Bridges from the Institute of Education 

Sciences, Tom Corwin and Milagros Lanauze 

from Budget Services of the Office of the Deputy 

Secretary; Donna Sabis-Burns from the Office of 

Indian Education; Edith McArthur from NCES; 

and Rachel Dinkes, Ben Dalton, Fraser Ireland, 

Susan Lapham, Kevin Bromer, Ruth Atchison, 

and Thomas Nachazel from ESSI. 

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives v

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..........................................................................iii

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. vii

HIGHLIGHTS .......................................................................................xi

I. DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1. Demographic Overview .....................................................................1

1.1 Population Composition and Growth .............................................................. 2

1.2 Geographic Distribution of the Population ...................................................... 6

1.3 American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes ................................................... 10

1.4 Age Distribution of the Population ............................................................... 12

1.5 Family Structure ........................................................................................ 14

1.6 Individuals, Families, and Children in Poverty ............................................... 16

1.7 Children’s Health Risks .............................................................................. 22

1.8 Birth Rates and Child Mortality ................................................................... 24

II. PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

2. Participation ..................................................................................29

2.1 Elementary and Secondary School Enrollment ............................................. 30

2.2 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Schools ......................................................... 32

2.3 Special Education ..................................................................................... 34

3. Persistence and Effort ....................................................................37

3.1 Absenteeism ............................................................................................. 38

3.2 Suspension and Expulsion ......................................................................... 40

3.3 Dropout Rates .......................................................................................... 42

3.4 Attainment Expectations ............................................................................ 44

4. Academics and Achievement ...........................................................47

4.1 Early Motor and Cognitive Skill Development ............................................... 48

4.2 Student Performance in Reading ................................................................ 50

4.3 Student Performance in Mathematics ......................................................... 54

4.4 Student Performance in Science ................................................................. 58

4.5 Student Performance in U.S. History and Geography .................................... 60

4.6 Core Academic Coursework ........................................................................ 64

4.7 Advanced Coursetaking in High School ........................................................ 66

4.8 Advanced Placement Exams ....................................................................... 68

4.9 Student Performance on College Entrance Examinations .............................. 70
vi Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5. Social and Educational Environments ...............................................75

5.1 Parental Education .................................................................................... 76

5.2 Language ................................................................................................. 78

5.3 Learning Opportunities at Home ................................................................. 80

5.4 Principal and Teacher Perceptions ............................................................... 82

6. Student Behaviors ..........................................................................85

6.1 Access to Computers ................................................................................ 86

6.2 Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drug Use .................................................................. 88

6.3 Violence on School Grounds ...................................................................... 90

6.4 Leisure Activities ....................................................................................... 92

III. POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7. Postsecondary Education ................................................................95

7.1 Enrollment in Colleges and Universities ...................................................... 96

7.2 Tribally Controlled Colleges ...................................................................... 100

7.3 Financial Aid ........................................................................................... 104

7.4 Graduation Rates .................................................................................... 106

7.5 Degrees Conferred by Degree-Granting Institutions .................................... 108

7.6 Bachelor’s Degrees Earned by Field .......................................................... 112

7.7 Master’s and Doctoral Degrees Earned by Field ......................................... 114

7.8 Faculty in Degree-Granting Institutions ...................................................... 116

IV. OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION

8. Outcomes of Education .................................................................119

8.1 Educational Attainment ............................................................................ 120

8.2 Unemployment Rates .............................................................................. 122

8.3 Income ................................................................................................... 124

8.4 Voting Participation .................................................................................. 126

REFERENCES .......................................................................................129

APPENDIX A: Supplemental Tables ........................................................133
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives vii

INTRODUCTION

This report examines both the current conditions 

and recent trends in the education of American Indians and Alaska Natives using statistical measures. 

It presents a selection of indicators that illustrate 

the educational achievement and attainment of 

American Indians and Alaska Natives. Over the 

past 20 years, American Indians/Alaska Natives 

have made gains in key education areas, such as 

increased educational attainment. However, gaps 

in academic performance between American Indian/Alaska Native and White students remain.

In the past, the National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) has produced synthesis reports on minority and other groups. NCES has 

also produced a series of reports based on the 

1990–91, 1993–94, and 1999–2000 Schools 

and Staffing Surveys (SASS) that focus on characteristics of American Indians/Alaska Natives 

in elementary and secondary education, and 

also a report on American Indians/Alaska Natives in postsecondary education (Gruber et al. 

2002; Pavel and Curtin 1997; Whitener 1995; 

Whitener et al. 1997). Status and Trends in the 

Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

is part of a series of reports that also includes 

Status and Trends in the Education of Blacks (Hoffman and Llagas 2003) and Status and Trends in 

the Education of Hispanics (Llagas 2003).

This report is organized into the following four 

sections: Demographic Overview; Preprimary, 

Elementary, and Secondary Education; Postsecondary Education; and Outcomes of Education. 

The data in this reports draws on many different 

surveys, including from the National Center for 

Education Statistics –

Universe Surveys:

• Common Core of Data, Public Elementary/

Secondary School Universe Survey 

• Higher Education General Information Survey

• Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, Fall Enrollment Survey, Spring Survey, 

and Completions 

Sample Surveys:

• Early Childhood Longitudinal Study 

• High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

of 1980 Sophomores 

• National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP)

• National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 and Education Longitudinal Study of 

2002

• National Postsecondary Study Aid 

• Postsecondary Education Transcript Study 

(PETS) 

• Schools and Staffing Survey 

In addition to data from the National Center 

for Education Statistics, this report draws 

from federal agencies and other organizations, 

including:

• American College Testing Program (ACT): 

ACT – universe survey

• College Board: Advanced Placement Program 

and SAT – universe surveys

• Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics: report based on data from the U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services, Live 

Births and Infant Deaths – universe survey

• U.S. Department of Commerce, Census 

Bureau: Census 2000 – universe survey; 

American Community Survey and Current 

Population Surveys (CPS) – sample surveys

• U.S. Department of Education: Office for 

Civil Rights, Elementary and Secondary 

School Survey and Office of Special Education 

Programs (OSEP) – universe surveys

• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

(CDC): National Vital Statistics – universe 

survey; National Immunization Program and 

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, 

Youth Risk Behavior Survey – sample surveys

• U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health 

Services Administration: Office of Applied 

Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and 

Health – sample survey

• U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA): Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP) – universe survey
viii Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

Most of the data presented in this report were 

collected in surveys that allowed respondents to 

self-identify their race and ethnicity. This report 

uses the term American Indian/Alaska Native 

in accordance with the definition used by the 

agency that gathered the data. The definitions 

used by different agencies are described below:

• Department of Commerce, Census Bureau: 

Prior to 2000 — anyone having origins in any 

of the original peoples of North America (including Central America) and who maintains 

tribal affiliation or community attachment; 

Decennial Census of 2000 and thereafter—includes the above definition and anyone having 

origins in any of the original peoples of South 

America.

• Department of Education: 

 For programs—anyone having origins in 

any of the original peoples of North America 

(including Central America) and maintaining 

cultural identification through tribal affiliation or community recognition, including 

federally and state recognized tribes;

For survey data collection — anyone having 

origins in any of the original peoples of North 

America (including Central America). The 

definition includes American Indians from 

South America in recent collection years of 

sample survey data. 

• Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA): 

Anyone who is an enrolled member of a 

federally recognized tribe. Through the BIA’s 

acknowledgment process, tribal groups may 

be given federal recognition as Indian tribes, 

making their members eligible to receive services provided to Indians (U.S. Department 

of the Interior 1999). Members of federally 

recognized tribes, therefore, do not include all 

persons who may self-identify themselves as an 

American Indian or Alaska Native.

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

is responsible for the standards that govern the 

categories used to collect and present federal data 

on race and ethnicity. The OMB revised the guidelines on racial/ethnic categories used by the federal 

government in October 1997 with a January 2003 

deadline for implementation (Office of Management and Budget 1997). The revised standards 

require a minimum of these five categories for data 

on race: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, 

Black or African American, Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islander, and White. In addition, the 

category “more than one race” (respondents could 

select one or more race categories) was introduced 

in the 2000 Census and was used in the Current 

Population Surveys (CPS) (beginning in 2003) 

collected by the Census Bureau (U.S. Department 

of Commerce 2001).

This report presents several indicators using data 

in which the category “more than one race” was 

available. In these indicators, the term “alone” 

(e.g., American Indian/Alaska Native alone) 

represents data for respondents who selected a 

single race category, and the term “in combination with one or more other races” represents 

data for respondents who selected more than 

one race category. For indicators where the “more 

than one race” option was not available, the race 

category represents respondents who selected 

one race category.

It should be noted that White, Black, Asian, 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 

American Indian or Alaska Native are considered 

races, while Hispanic origin is considered an 

ethnicity. Therefore, persons of Hispanic origin 

may be of any race. Race categories presented 

in this report exclude those persons of Hispanic 

origin (who are presented as a separate category), 

unless otherwise noted. Indicators with race 

categories that include Hispanic origin are noted 

explicitly. These tables and figures include one 

of the following notes:

“Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of 

Hispanic origin” or “Race groups include persons 

of Hispanic origin.”

The relatively small size of the American Indian 

and Alaska Native population poses many measurement difficulties when using statistical data. 

Even in larger surveys, the number of American 

Indians and Alaska Natives included in a sample 

population is often small. Researchers studying 

data on American Indians and Alaska Natives 

often face small sample sizes that reduce the 

reliability of results. Survey data for American 

Indians and Alaska Natives often have somewhat 

higher standard errors than data for other racial/

ethnic groups (Cahalan et al. 1998). Due to large 

standard errors, differences which may seem 

substantial are often not statistically significant 

and, therefore, not cited in the text.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives ix

Technical Note

This report includes data from both universe and sample surveys, as is indicated in the list of 

surveys earlier in this report. In the case of the universe data all relevant units are included in the 

data collection. Thus, there is no sampling error and observed differences are reported as true. In 

the case of sample surveys, a nationally representative set of respondents is selected and asked to 

participate in the data collection. Since each sample represents just one of many possible samples 

that could be selected, there is error associated with any sample. To avoid reaching false conclusions about differences between groups or differences over time measured by sample survey data, 

sampling error is taken into account in statistical tests that are conducted to support statements 

about differences. Thus, all statements about differences in this report are supported by the data, 

either directly in the case of universe surveys or with statistical significance testing in the case 

of sample survey data. In addition, there are occasional references to apparent differences that 

are not significant. All significance tests of differences are tested at the .05 level of significance. 

Several test procedures were used, depending on the type of data interpreted and the nature of 

the statement tested. The most commonly used test procedures were: t tests, equivalency tests, 

and linear trend tests. The t tests were not adjusted to compensate for multiple comparisons being 

made simultaneously. Trend tests were conducted by evaluating the significance of the slope of a 

simple regression of the annual data points, and a t test comparing the end points. Equivalence 

tests at the 0.15 level were used to determine whether two statistics were substantively equivalent or different by using a hypothesis test to determine whether the confidence interval of the 

difference between sample estimates was significantly greater or less than a preset substantively 

important difference (Tryon 2001). In most cases involving percentages, a difference of 3.0 percentage points was used to determine substantive equivalence or difference. In some indicators 

involving only very small percentages, a lower value was used. A difference of 1.5 percentage 

points was used to determine equivalence of the percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native 

dropouts between years (Indicator 3.3), of the percentages of students who reported watching 6 

or more hours of television or videotapes each day (Indicator 6.4), and of unemployment rates 

(Indicator 8.2). For other indicators involving only relatively large values, a larger value was used; 

a difference of $1,000 was used in the case of the amount of financial aid (Indicator 7.3) and 

median annual income (Indicator 8.3).

A “! Interpret data with caution” symbol in tables and figures represents data cells with a high 

ratio of standard error to estimate (0.20 or greater); therefore, the estimate may be unstable.

Standard error tables for this report are available on the Web at http://nces.ed.gov.

Data on American Indians and Alaska Natives are 

often subject to inaccuracies that can result when 

respondents self-identify their race/ethnicity. 

Indeed, research on the collection of race/ethnicity data suggests that the categorization of 

American Indian and Alaska Native is the least 

stable self-identification (U.S. Department of 

Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS] 1995). 

The racial/ethnic categories presented to a respondent, and the way in which the question is 

asked, can influence the response, especially for 

individuals who consider themselves of mixed 

descent. These data limitations should be kept 

in mind when reading this report.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives xi

Status and Trends in the Education of American 

Indians and Alaska Natives examines both the 

educational progress and challenges of American Indian/Alaska Native children and adults 

in the United States. This report shows that 

over time more American Indian/Alaska Native 

students have completed high school and gone 

on to college and that their attainment expectations have substantially increased in the past 

20 years. Despite these gains, progress has been 

uneven and differences persist between American 

Indian/Alaska Native and White students on key 

indicators of educational performance.

Demographics and educational outcomes:

• In 2003, 4.4 million persons living in the 

United States were American Indian/Alaska 

Native alone or in combination with one or 

more other races, including those of Hispanic 

origin. (Indicator 1.1)

• In 2003, a larger percentage of American 

Indian/Alaska Native individuals and families 

lived in poverty than White individuals and 

families. (Indicator 1.6)

• In 2003, the majority of American Indian/

Alaska Native public school 8th-graders came 

from homes in which English was the predominant spoken language. (Indicator 5.2)

• In 2003, the American Indian/Alaska Native 

unemployment rate was three times as high as 

the unemployment rate for the White population. (Indicator 8.2)

• Between 1989 and 2003, the median income 

of American Indian/Alaska Native households 

increased. However, the median income of 

American Indian/Alaska Native households 

was lower than that of the total population. 

(Indicator 8.3)

Elementary/secondary education:

• American Indian/Alaska Native students were 

more likely to have dropped out of school than 

White or Asian/Pacific Islander students in 

2003. However, they were less likely to have 

dropped out than Hispanics. Status dropout 

rates represent the percent of 16- to 24-yearolds who are out of school and who have not 

earned a high school diploma or General 

Educational Development (GED) credential. 

(Indicator 3.3)

• In 2003, American Indian/Alaska Native 4thand 8th-grade students scored lower on the 

National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) reading and mathematics assessments than White and Asian/Pacific Islander 

students. However, American Indian/Alaska 

Native 4th-grade students scored higher on 

NAEP reading and mathematics assessments 

than Blacks. (Indicators 4.2 and 4.3)

• In 2003, relatively more American Indian/

Alaska Native high school students took 

Advanced Placement tests than in prior years. 

(Indicator 4.8)

• American Indians/Alaska Natives scored 

lower, on average, than Whites on the SAT 

and the ACT in 2004. (Indicator 4.9)

• In 2003, some 20 percent of American Indian/

Alaska Native children between the ages of 12 

and 17 had used alcohol in the past month, 

and they were more likely than other children 

to have used marijuana in the past month. 

(Indicator 6.2)

Postsecondary education:

• Enrollment of American Indian/Alaska Native 

students in degree-granting institutions has 

more than doubled in the past 25 years. In 

2002, American Indian/Alaska Native total 

enrollment was 60 percent female and 40 

percent male. (Indicator 7.1)

• The number of American Indian/Alaska 

Native students earning degrees more than 

doubled for each level of degree between 1976 

and 2003. However, American Indians/Alaska 

Natives were less likely to earn a bachelor’s or 

higher degree than their peers. (Indicators 7.4 

and 7.5)

• In 2003, 42 percent of American Indians/

Alaska Natives 25 years and older had attended at least some college. (Indicator 8.1)

HIGHLIGHTS

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 1

DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1. Demographic Overview

1.1 Population Composition and Growth

1.2 Geographic Distribution of the Population

1.3 American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes

1.4 Age Distribution of the Population

1.5 Family Structure

1.6 Individuals, Families, and Children in Poverty

1.7 Children’s Health Risks

1.8 Birth Rates and Child Mortality

This section provides a demographic overview 

of the American Indian/Alaska Native population as a context for the education indicators 

appearing in the other sections of this publication. Demographic changes may have a direct 

or indirect impact on education statistics. For 

example, increases in the population of young 

children of any specific group have a direct 

impact on enrollment since nearly all young 

children are enrolled in school. In addition, 

increases in the number of children living in 

poverty are important since children living in 

poverty tend to have lower educational achievement than children who are not living in poverty 

(Maruyama 2003).

Data in this section provide information 

that is useful for understanding the general 

environment of American Indian/Alaska Native 

children. These data are included to help frame 

the education data in a broader context of social 

conditions.

Information on children’s health risks is important in understanding the general social 

environment of American Indian/Alaska Native 

children. Information on family structure provides additional context. These social condition 

variables are related to the socioeconomic status 

of children, which is an important factor associated with student achievement (Chaikind and 

Corman 1991; McLanahan 1997).

I
2 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.1 Population Composition and Growth

In 2003, there were 4.4 million American Indians/Alaska Natives in the United States, 

representing 1.5 percent of the total U.S. population.

In 2003, 4.4 million persons living in the United 

States were American Indian/Alaska Native alone 

or in combination with one or more other races.1

Of these persons, 2.8 million were American 

Indian/Alaska Native alone and 1.6 million were 

American Indian/Alaska Native in combination 

with one or more other races. Furthermore, 

of the American Indian/Alaska Native alone 

population, 2.2 million were non-Hispanic while 

0.6 million were Hispanic. Of the American 

Indian/Alaska Native in combination with one 

or more other races population, 1.4 million were 

non-Hispanic and 0.2 million were Hispanic.

While the 2003 population estimates are the 

most recent information on the American 

Indian/Alaska Native population, the most 

comprehensive information to date on the demographics of the U.S. population comes from the 

2000 Decennial Census. In the 2000 Census, respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska 

Native as the race that best described them were 

then asked to provide the name of their tribe or 

village. Respondents who provided the name 

of a tribe or village were classified as American 

Indian, or Alaska Native, or both American Indian and Alaska Native, based on the origin of 

the tribe(s) and/or village(s). Respondents were 

classified as both American Indian and Alaska 

Native if they provided the names of two or 

more tribes/villages, with at least one classified 

as an American Indian tribe and at least one 

classified as an Alaska Native village or tribe. If 

a respondent did not provide a tribe or village, 

they were categorized as “tribe not specified.” 

In 2000, the American Indian/Alaska Native 

alone population, including those of Hispanic 

origin, was about 75 percent American Indian, 

4 percent Alaska Native, and less than 1 percent 

both American Indian and Alaska Native, while 

21 percent did not specify their background 

beyond American Indian/Alaska Native.

1

 “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race category. 

“In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and one or more other race categories. 

(Continued on page 4.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 3

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.1a. Size of the American Indian/Alaska Native population, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity Number Percent of U.S. population

Total 4,366,174 1.5

American Indian/Alaska Native alone 2,786,652 1.0

Non-Hispanic 2,180,318 0.7

Hispanic 606,334 0.2

American Indian/Alaska Native in combination 

with one or more other races 1,579,522 0.5

Non-Hispanic 1,365,390 0.5

Hispanic 214,132 0.1

NOTE: “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race category. “In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska 

Native and one or more other race categories. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Annual Estimates of the Population by Sex, Race and 

Hispanic or Latino Origin for the United States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2003 (NC-EST2003–03), released June 

14, 2004.

Table 1.1b. Number of American Indians/Alaska Natives, by race subcategory: 2000

Race subcategory and tribal affiliation Total

American Indian/

Alaska Native alone

American Indian/

Alaska Native in 

combination with one 

or more other races

Total 4,119,301 2,475,956 1,643,345

American Indian (with tribal affiliation)1 2,939,784 1,865,118 1,074,666

Alaska Native (with tribal affiliation)2 121,384 97,876 23,508

American Indian/Alaska Native

(both affiliations)3 1,676 1,002 674

American Indian or Alaska Native 

(no affiliation specified)4 1,056,457 511,960 544,497

1 Refers to respondents who specified a tribe or tribes that are American Indian.

2 Refers to respondents who specified a tribe/village or tribes/villages that are Alaska Native.

3 Refers to respondents who specified multiple tribes/villages with at least one that is American Indian and one 

that is Alaska Native.

4 Refers to respondents who did not specify a tribal/village affiliation.

NOTE: “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race category. “In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and one or more other race categories. Figures include American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic 

origin. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Factfinder, Decennial Census, 2000.
4 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

The Census Bureau projects that by 2050 the 

non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native 

alone population will grow to 3.2 million. The 

projected rate of increase between the years 2000 

and 2050 (55 percent) will exceed that for the 

White population (9 percent), but will be slower 

than the expected rate of increase for Hispanics 

(178 percent) and Asian/Pacific Islanders (233 

percent) and slightly slower than the rate for 

Blacks (56 percent). According to these projections, in 2050 the U.S. population will be 24 

percent Hispanic, 13 percent Black, 9 percent 

Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1 percent American 

Indian/Alaska Native (appendix table A-1.1). 

The differences in the projected rates of increase 

indicate that the distribution of the population 

will change. According to these projections, 

between 2003 and 2050, the percentage of the 

population who are White will decrease (68 to 53 

percent), and the percentages of the population 

will increase for those who are Black (12 to 13 

percent), Hispanic (14 to 24 percent), Asian/

Pacific Islander (4 to 9 percent), and American 

Indian/Alaska Native (0.7 to 0.8 percent).
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 5

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Figure 1.1. Percentage of the resident population by selected race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1980 to 2003 and projections to 2050

Percent

Projected

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040 2050

0

10

20

30

40

50

Year

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

NOTE: Numbers for the year 2000 are from the Decennial Census. All other years are population estimates.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000, 

Population Estimates Program, 1980 to 2000; Population Projections Program, 2001 to 2050; and Annual Estimates of the Population by Sex, Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin for the United States: April 1, 2000 to July 

1, 2003 (NC-EST2003–03), released June 14, 2004.
6 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.2 Geographic Distribution of the Population

A greater proportion of American Indians/Alaska Natives live in western states than northeastern, 

midwestern, and southern states.

In 2000, almost half (48 percent) of all American 

Indians/Alaska Natives alone, including those 

of Hispanic origin, resided in western states.2

Seven percent lived in northeastern states, 16 

percent in midwestern states, and 29 percent in 

southern states.

In 17 states—most of them western—American 

Indians/Alaska Natives alone, including those 

of Hispanic origin, composed more than the 

national average, 1 percent, of the total state 

population. Among these, California had the 

largest American Indian/Alaska Native alone 

population with about 333,300 people. Texas 

and New York ranked among the 10 states with 

the largest American Indian/Alaska Native alone 

populations, with 118,400 and 82,500 people 

in this category, respectively. 

Alaska had the largest percentage of its population identified as American Indian/Alaska Native 

alone: almost 16 percent. Although some states, 

such as Texas and New York, had relatively large 

American Indian/Alaska Native alone populations, their proportion was less than 1 percent 

of the total state population.

2

 “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race category.

(Continued on page 8.)

Table 1.2a. Number and percentage distribution of American Indian/Alaska Native population, 

by region and race: 2000

American Indian/Alaska Native alone or in 

combination with one or more other races American Indian/Alaska Native alone

Region Number Percent Number Percent

Total 4,119,301 100.0 2,475,956 100.0

West 1,771,244 43.0 1,187,989 48.0

South 1,259,230 30.6 725,919 29.3

Midwest 714,792 17.4 399,490 16.1

Northeast 374,035 9.1 162,558 6.6

NOTE: “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race 

category. “In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/

Alaska Native and one or more other race categories. Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic 

origin. Western states are AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, and WY. Northeastern states are CT, 

ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT. Midwestern states are IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, ND, OH, SD, and WI. 

Southern states are AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, WV, and DC. Detail may not 

sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Census 2000 Brief: The American Indian and Alaska 

Native Population, 2000, 2002.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 7

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.2b. Size of the American Indian/Alaska Native population and percentage distribution 

of the total population in states with the largest American Indian/Alaska Native 

populations: 2000

American Indian/Alaska Native 

alone or in combination with one or 

more other races

American Indian/

Alaska Native alone

State Number

Percent 

of total 

population

Percent of 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native total 

population Number

Percent 

of total 

population

Percent of 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native alone 

population

United States 4,119,301 1.5 100.0 2,475,956 0.9 100.0

California 627,562 1.9 15.2 333,346 1.0 13.5

Oklahoma 391,949 11.4 9.5 273,230 7.9 11.0

Arizona 292,552 5.7 7.1 255,879 5.0 10.3

Texas 215,599 1.0 5.2 118,362 0.6 4.8

New Mexico 191,475 10.5 4.6 173,483 9.5 7.0

New York 171,581 0.9 4.2 82,461 0.4 3.3

Washington 158,940 2.7 3.9 93,301 1.6 3.8

North Carolina 131,736 1.6 3.2 99,551 1.2 4.0

Alaska 119,241 19.0 2.9 98,043 15.6 4.0

Oregon 85,667 2.5 2.1 45,211 1.3 1.8

Minnesota 81,074 1.6 2.0 54,967 1.1 2.2

Colorado 79,689 1.9 1.9 44,241 1.0 1.8

South Dakota 68,281 9.0 1.7 62,283 8.3 2.5

Montana 66,320 7.4 1.6 56,068 6.2 2.3

Nevada 42,222 2.1 1.0 26,240 1.3 1.1

Utah 40,445 1.8 1.0 29,684 1.3 1.2

North Dakota 35,228 5.5 0.9 31,329 4.9 1.3

Idaho 27,237 2.1 0.7 17,645 1.4 0.7

Wyoming 15,012 3.0 0.4 11,133 2.3 0.4

All other states 1,277,491 0.8 31.0 569,499 0.4 23.0

NOTE: “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race category. “In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and one or more other race categories. Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic origin. 

Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Census 2000 Brief: The American Indian and Alaska 

Native Population, 2000, 2002.
8 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

In 2000, some 47 percent of American Indians/

Alaska Natives, not including those of Hispanic 

origin, lived on reservations and off-reservation 

trust lands, Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, 

tribal designated statistical areas, state designated American Indian statistical areas, Alaska 

Native village statistical areas, or Alaska Native 

Regional Corporations.3 In 2000, 25 percent of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives lived on federal 

reservations and off-reservation trust lands, 11 

percent lived on Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, 

4 percent lived on state designated American 

Indian statistical areas, and less than 1 percent 

lived in tribal designated statistical areas and 

state reservations and off-reservation trust land. 

Alaska Native village statistical areas were home 

to 3 percent of American Indians/Alaska Natives, 

while 5 percent lived on Alaska Native Regional 

Corporation land.

It should be noted that most residents of reservation or trust land, tribal areas, statistical areas, or 

Alaska Native Regional Corporation land are not 

American Indian/Alaska Native. In 2000, people 

of other racial/ethnic backgrounds represented 

84 percent of the population in these areas.

3

 According to the Census Bureau, these are the federally recognized legal entities for which census data are 

gathered. Federal American Indian reservations are areas that have been set aside by the United States for 

the use of tribes, the exterior boundaries of which are more particularly defined in the final tribal treaties, 

agreements, executive orders, federal statutes, secretarial orders, or judicial determinations State reservations 

are areas established by individual states for tribes recognized by the state. Off-reservation trust lands (both 

federal and state) are areas for which the United States holds title in trust for the benefit of a tribe or for an 

individual Indian. The U.S. Census Bureau recognizes and tabulates data for reservations and off-reservation 

trust lands because American Indian tribes have primary governmental authority over these lands. Oklahoma 

tribal statistical areas are statistical entities identified and delineated by the U.S. Census Bureau in consultation with federally recognized American Indian tribes in Oklahoma that do not currently have a reservation, 

but once had a reservation in that state. Tribal designated statistical areas are statistical entities identified and 

delineated for the U.S. Census Bureau by federally recognized American Indian tribes that do not currently 

have a federally recognized land base (reservation or off-reservation trust land). State designated American 

Indian statistical areas are entities for state recognized American Indian tribes that do not have a state recognized land base. Alaska Native village statistical areas are statistical entities that represent the densely settled 

portion of Alaska Native villages, which constitute associations, bands, clans, communities, groups, tribes or 

villages, recognized pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1972. Alaska Native Regional 

Corporations are corporate entities organized to conduct both business and nonprofit affairs of Alaska 

Natives pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (U.S. Department of Commerce 2000).
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 9

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.2c. Number and percentage distribution of the non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska 

Native alone population, by designated area: 2000

Region Number Percent

Total 2,068,883 100.0

American Indian/Alaska Native Areas and Alaska Native Regional Areas 969,625 46.9

American Indian reservation and off-reservation trust land—federal 505,904 24.5

American Indian reservation and off-reservation trust land—state 908 #

Oklahoma tribal statistical area 226,900 11.0

Tribal designated statistical area 2,207 0.1

State designated American Indian statistical area 80,783 3.9

Alaska Native village statistical area 57,574 2.8

Alaska Native Regional Corporation 95,349 4.6

Other areas 1,099,258 53.1

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: The total in this table differs from the total American Indian/Alaska Native alone population in table 

1.2a in that this table does not include American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic origin. “Alone” refers to 

respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race category. Detail may not sum 

to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Summary Population and Housing Characteristics, 

tables 2 and 34, based on Decennial Census, 2000.

Table 1.2d. Number and percentage distribution of population in American Indian/Alaska 

Native Areas and Alaska Native Regional Corporations, by race/ethnicity: 2000

Percentage distribution

Residential location Total 

White,

 nonHispanic

Black,

 nonHispanic Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Total 6,108,620 63.7 10.8 5.0 1.5 15.9

American Indian reservation and offreservation trust land—federal 944,317 33.7 1.0 8.7 0.8 53.6

American Indian reservation and offreservation trust land—state 1,121 9.3 4.2 3.6 0.1 81.0

Oklahoma tribal statistical area 2,345,611 74.5 6.2 4.3 0.8 9.7

Tribal designated statistical area 162,709 86.7 6.6 2.7 0.9 1.4

State designated American Indian 

Statistical Area 1,857,172 62.4 25.3 4.7 1.6 4.3

Alaska Native village statistical area 172,205 57.3 0.5 2.3 2.2 33.4

Alaska Native Regional Corporation 625,485 67.7 3.4 4.1 4.5 15.2

NOTE: Totals include other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. On American Indian federal reservation and off-reservation trust land, 0.1 percent of non-Hispanic residents reported being of “some other race” 

and 2.1 percent reported being of two or more races.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Summary Population and Housing Characteristics, 

table 34, based on Decennial Census, 2000.
10 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.3 American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes

There are more than 560 federally recognized American Indian and Alaska Native tribes.

In 2003, the federal government recognized 

562 American Indian/Alaska Native tribes (U.S. 

Department of the Interior 2004a). These federally recognized entities are eligible for funding 

and services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA). Furthermore, these tribes have “domestic 

dependent nation status,” defined as the power 

of self-government, including the powers to form 

governments, make and enforce laws, tax, establish membership, license and regulate activities, 

zone, and exclude people from tribal territories 

(U.S. Department of the Interior 1999). As 

such, they maintain diplomatic relations with 

the federal government (U.S. Department of 

the Interior 2000).

In 2000, the largest American Indian tribes 

were Cherokee and Navajo, with 729,500 and 

298,200 individuals reporting affiliation (including those of Hispanic origin), respectively. 

Eskimo was the largest Alaska Native tribe, with 

a reported affiliation of 54,800 (including those 

of Hispanic origin). 

In 2004, there were 36 state-recognized tribes 

in 14 states (500 Nations 2004).

Figure 1.3. Ten largest American Indian tribes according to number of self-identified 

members, by tribe: 2000

Tribal group

Number

Pueblo

Iroquois2

Blackfeet

Apache

Chippewa

Sioux

Choctaw

Latin American Indian1

Navajo

Cherokee

0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000

429,671

299,862

22,206

275,991

74,736

106,204

61,873

96,901

40,294

113,066

41,032

108,637

31,856

64,977

54,288

31,462

33,292

47,530

11,025

63,060

American Indian/Alaska Native in combination with one or more other races

American Indian/Alaska Native alone

1 Latin American Indian refers to respondents listing any one of a number of Latin American tribes (e.g., the 

Maya or Yanomamo).

2 Iroquois is a language group which includes 6 federally recognized tribes in its confederacy.

NOTE: “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race 

category. “In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/

Alaska Native and one or more other race categories. Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic 

origin. Tribal groupings compiled by the Census Bureau do not necessarily correspond with federally recognized 

tribes. Self-identified membership does not necessarily correspond with official membership in a federally 

recognized tribe.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Census 2000 Brief: The American Indian and Alaska 

Native Population, 2000, 2002.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 11

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.3. Largest American Indian and Alaska Native tribes according to number of selfidentified members, by tribe: 2000

Tribe Total

American Indian/Alaska 

Native in combination with 

one or more other races

American Indian/

Alaska Native alone

Total 4,119,301 1,643,345 2,475,956

American Indian tribes

Cherokee 729,533 429,671 299,862

Navajo 298,197 22,206 275,991

Latin American Indian1 180,940 74,736 106,204

Choctaw 158,774 61,873 96,901

Sioux 153,360 40,294 113,066

Chippewa 149,669 41,032 108,637

Apache 96,833 31,856 64,977

Blackfeet 85,750 54,288 31,462

Iroquois2 80,822 33,292 47,530

Pueblo 74,085 11,025 63,060

Alaska Native tribes

Eskimo 54,761 7,424 47,337

Tlingit-Haida 22,365 6,481 15,884

Alaska Athabascan 18,838 3,503 15,335

Aleut 16,978 4,205 12,773

1 Latin American Indian refers to respondents listing any one of a number of Latin American tribes (e.g., the 

Maya or Yanomamo).

2 Iroquois is a language group which includes 6 federally recognized tribes in its confederacy.

NOTE: “Alone” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/Alaska Native and not any other race 

category. “In combination with one or more other races” refers to respondents who selected American Indian/

Alaska Native and one or more other race categories. Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic 

origin. Tribal groupings compiled by the Census Bureau do not necessarily correspond with federally recognized 

tribes. Self-identified membership does not necessarily correspond with official membership in a federally 

recognized tribe. Tribal populations do not sum to totals because totals include American Indian/Alaska Native 

populations from many additional tribes. In addition, the numbers by American Indian and Alaska Native tribal 

groupings do not sum to the total population because tribal groupings are tallies of the number of American 

Indian and Alaska Native responses rather than the number of American Indian and Alaska Native respondents. Respondents reporting several American Indian and Alaska Native tribes are counted several times. For 

example, a respondent reporting “Apache and Blackfeet” would be included in the Apache as well as Blackfeet 

numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Census 2000 Brief: The American Indian and Alaska 

Native Population, 2000, 2002.
12 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.4 Age Distribution of the Population

The American Indian/Alaska Native population is younger, on average, than the general 

population.

In 2002, the median age for American Indians/Alaska Natives, including those of Hispanic 

origin, was 29 years, compared to 36 years for the 

general population. The median age of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives has increased by 3 years 

since 1990, from 26 to 29. Similarly, the median 

age of the general population has increased from 

33 in 1990 to 36 in 2002.

An additional measure of the relative youth of 

the American Indian/Alaska Native population 

is the proportion of individuals under 18. Percentages for American Indians/Alaska Natives 

include those of Hispanic origin. In 2002, about 

one-third of American Indians/Alaska Natives 

were children under the age of 18 (32 percent) 

compared to about one-quarter of the total 

population (25 percent). A larger proportion 

of Hispanics were under the age of 18 in 2002 

than American Indians/Alaska Natives (34 vs. 

32 percent).

The percentage of American Indians/Alaska Natives under the age of 18 has declined by almost 

7 percentage points, from 39 percent in 1980 to 

32 percent in 2002. The percentage of the total 

population under 18 also decreased from 1980 

to 2002 (from 28 percent to 25 percent) but 

the overall decrease was smaller (3 percentage 

points).

Several factors may have contributed to changes 

in the age distribution of the American Indian/

Alaska Native population over the past 20 years. 

One potential explanation is the decline in birth 

rates among American Indian/Alaska Native 

women (see indicator 1.8). 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 13

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.4a. Median age of the population, by race/ethnicity: Various years, 1990 to 2002

Race/ethnicity 1990 1995 2000 2002

Total 32.8 34.3 35.3 35.7

White 33.7 35.4 36.6 37.1

Black 27.9 29.2 30.0 30.5

Hispanic 25.3 26.1 25.8 26.8

Asian/Pacific Islander 29.7 31.0 32.3 33.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 26.0 26.8 27.7 28.6

NOTE: Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2001 and 

2003, based on Population Projections Program, 1990 to 2002.

Table 1.4b. Percentage of population under the age of 18, by race/ethnicity: Various years, 

1980 to 2002

Race/ethnicity 1980 1990 1995 2000 2002

Total 28.1 25.7 26.1 25.7 25.3

White 27.0 24.5 24.9 24.4 24.0

Black 35.5 32.3 32.2 31.6 30.9

Hispanic 38.5 35.0 35.7 35.0 33.9

Asian/Pacific Islander 30.4 29.1 29.0 24.8 24.0

American Indian/Alaska Native 39.1 35.8 35.2 34.1 32.2

NOTE: Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1995, 2001

and 2003, based on Population Projections Program, 1980 to 2002.
14 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.5 Family Structure

The majority of American Indian/Alaska Native families, like the majority of U.S. families, are 

married-couple families with the husband and wife present in the household.

In this indicator, race groups include persons of 

Hispanic origin. In 2003, about 61 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native families were 

headed by married couples, 29 percent were 

headed by females with no husband present, and 

10 percent were headed by males with no wife 

present. The proportion of American Indian/

Alaska Native families living in married-couple 

households was greater than the proportion of 

Black families (44 percent), but less than the proportions of White, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific 

Islander families (80 percent, 65 percent, and 80 

percent, respectively). American Indian/Alaska 

Native families were about twice as likely as 

White families and Asian/Pacific Islander families to be headed by females with no husband 

present (29 percent vs. 14 and 13 percent, 

respectively). They were less likely than Black 

families, however, to be living in this situation 

(29 vs. 47 percent). American Indian/Alaska 

Native families were also more likely than White 

or Asian/Pacific Islander families to be headed 

by males with no wife present (10 percent vs. 6 

and 7 percent, respectively).

Table 1.5. Percentage distribution of family households, by family status and race/ethnicity: 

2003

Race/ethnicity Married couple

Female householder, no 

husband present

Male householder, no 

wife present 

Total1 74.9 18.7 6.5

White 79.9 14.3 5.8

Black 44.2 46.9 8.9

Hispanic 65.0 23.9 11.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 80.5 12.8 6.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 61.0 28.9 10.1

1 Totals include race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: A family is a group of two people or more (one of whom is the householder) related by birth, marriage, or 

adoption and residing together. By contrast, a household is defined as the people who occupy a housing unit. 

It includes the related family members and all the unrelated people, if any, such as lodgers, foster children, 

wards, or employees who share the housing unit. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Race 

groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, unpublished data, 

2003. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 15

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Figure 1.5. Percentage distribution of family households, by race/ethnicity and family 

status: 2003

Percent

Race/ethnicity

80

14

6

44

47

9

65

24

11

80

13

7

61

29

10

Married couple Female householder, no husband present Male householder, no wife present

White Black Hispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, unpublished data, 

2003. 
16 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.6 Individuals, Families, and Children in Poverty

A larger percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native individuals and families live in poverty 

than White individuals and families. The poverty rate among American Indian/Alaska Native 

families is highest among families on reservations.

Poverty poses a serious challenge to children’s 

access to quality learning opportunities and their 

potential to succeed in school. Measuring poverty rates of individuals and of families highlights 

the patterns of children’s poverty in the United 

States by identifying age groups, race groups, 

and types of families among which poverty is 

particularly prevalent.

One way to examine poverty is to look at poverty 

rates among individuals. The overall poverty rate 

for American Indian/Alaska Native individuals, 

including children, is generally higher than that 

for the total U.S. population. In 2003, the rates 

of poverty for American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(including those of Hispanic origin), Blacks, and 

Hispanics were higher than those for Whites. In 

particular, 43 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native children under the age of 5 lived in poverty, which was more than twice as high as the 

total U.S. population (21 percent).

Table 1.6a. Percentage of individuals living in poverty, by age group and race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity Total

Under 5 

years

5–11 

years

12–17 

years

18–64 

years

65–74 

years

75 years 

and 

older

Total 12.7 20.5 17.9 15.2 11.3 8.6 11.2

White 10.1 15.7 13.5 11.3 9.3 6.8 9.6

Black 24.7 39.4 34.6 29.5 20.2 20.1 25.9

Hispanic 21.9 31.3 28.7 25.0 18.4 18.8 23.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 11.7 11.0 13.0 15.2 11.1 12.2 13.4

American Indian/Alaska Native 24.5 43.0 28.1 27.6 21.5 21.0 24.2

NOTE: To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total income is 

less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated annually 

for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income before taxes 

and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). 

Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, unpublished data, 

2003.

(Continued on page 18.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 17

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Figure 1.6a. Percentage of individuals living in poverty, by age group and race/ethnicity: 

2003

Under 5 years 5–11 years 12–17 years

Age group

18–64 years 65–74 years 75 years and older

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

White

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black

Asian/Pacific Islander

NOTE: To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total income is 

less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated annually 

for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income before taxes 

and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). 

Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, unpublished data, 

2003.
18 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

Table 1.6b. Percentage of families with children under 18 living in poverty, by race/ethnicity 

and family type: 1989, 1999, and 2003

Race/ethnicity All families

Married-couple 

families

Male householder, 

no spouse 

present

Female 

householder, no 

spouse present

1989

Total 17.6 7.3 19.5 42.3

White 10.5 5.9 15.6 34.3

Black 33.0 12.2 27.6 52.5

Hispanic 27.4 18.2 28.3 54.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 13.9 10.7 19.9 35.6

American Indian/Alaska Native 33.4 20.6 39.4 57.6

1999

Total 13.6 6.6 17.7 34.3

White 9.4 5.0 14.3 27.8

Black 27.2 9.4 24.9 41.8

Hispanic 24.1 17.0 24.9 44.5

Asian/Pacific Islander 11.7 9.1 17.5 28.5

American Indian/Alaska Native 27.0 15.5 30.3 45.7

20031

Total 14.9 6.6 18.0 36.5

White 11.5 5.7 15.4 32.2

Black 28.7 8.6 24.8 42.6

Hispanic 23.5 15.9 15.6 46.3

Asian/Pacific Islander 11.1 8.0 18.4 28.3

American Indian/Alaska Native 26.9 13.7 21.8 48.0

1 2003 data are from the American Community Survey, rather than Decennial Census. Use caution in comparing 

these percentages to those from 1989 and 1999.

NOTE: To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total income is 

less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated annually 

for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income before taxes 

and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). 

Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Decennial Census, 1990 and 2000; American Community Survey, unpublished data, 2003.

Another way to examine poverty is to look at 

poverty rates among families. The race categories of families include families of Hispanic 

origin. In 2003, the poverty rate among 

American Indian/Alaska Native families with 

children under 18 (27 percent) was nearly 

twice that of all families with children under 

18 (15 percent).

Households headed by females with no husband present are more likely to be poor than 

are married-couple households. Fifty-eight 

percent of all American Indian/Alaska Native 

female-headed families with children under 18 

lived in poverty in 1989. By 2003, this number 

had decreased to 48 percent, but was still higher 

than the percentage of female-headed families 

in the total population that lived in poverty (36 

percent). In 2003, some 14 percent of marriedcouple American Indian/Alaska Native families 

with children under 18 lived in poverty, double 

the percentage for married-couple families in the 

overall population (7 percent).

(Continued on page 20.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 19

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Figure 1.6b. Percentage of families with children under 18 living in poverty, by race/ethnicity: 

1989, 1999, and 2003

Percent

Race/ethnicity

Total White Black Hispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

18

14 15

10 9

12

33

27 29 27

24 23

14 12 11

33

27 27

1989 1999 20031

1 2003 data are from the American Community Survey, rather than Decennial Census. Use caution in comparing these percentages to those from 1989 and 1999.

NOTE: To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total income is 

less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated annually 

for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income before taxes 

and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). 

Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Decennial Census, 1990 and 2000; American Community Survey, unpublished data, 2003.
20 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

Poverty rates are especially high among American 

Indian/Alaska Native families who live in American Indian/Alaska Native Areas. In 1989, the 

poverty rate among all American Indian/Alaska 

Native families living on reservations and on 

off-reservation trust lands was over one and a 

half times as high as the poverty rate for families in the total American Indian/Alaska Native 

population (47 percent vs. 27 percent). By 1999, 

both percentages had decreased and the gap had 

narrowed to 14 percentage points, but families 

on reservations were still considerably more 

likely to be in poverty. Poverty rates of American 

Indian/Alaska Native families in Oklahoma tribal 

statistical areas and state designated American 

Indian statistical areas were similar to those for 

the total American Indian/Alaska Native population. Also, in Alaska Native village statistical 

areas, poverty rates for families were the same as 

for American Indians/Alaska Natives in the total 

U.S. population.

Table 1.6c. Percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native families living in poverty, by 

American Indian/Alaska Native Area: 1989 and 1999

American Indian/Alaska Native Area 1989 1999

Total families 27.0 21.8

Reservations and off-reservation trust lands 47.3 35.7

Oklahoma tribal statistical areas 25.4 19.4

Alaska Native village statistical areas 25.0 20.8

Tribal designated statistical areas 26.7 19.0

State designated American Indian statistical areas — 19.9

— Not available.

NOTE: Includes families with and without children under 18. Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of 

Hispanic origin. To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary 

by family size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total 

income is less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated 

annually for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income 

before taxes and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and 

food stamps). The U.S. Census Bureau divides American Indian/Alaska Native Areas into several categories. 

Federal American Indian reservations are areas that have been set aside by the United States for the use of 

tribes, the exterior boundaries of which are more particularly defined in the final tribal treaties, agreements, 

executive orders, federal statutes, secretarial orders, or judicial determinations. State reservations are areas 

established by individual states for tribes recognized by the state. Off-reservation trust lands (both federal and 

state) are areas for which the United States holds title in trust for the benefit of a tribe or for an individual 

Indian. The U.S. Census Bureau recognizes and tabulates data for reservations and off-reservation trust 

lands because American Indian tribes have primary governmental authority over these lands. Oklahoma tribal 

statistical areas are statistical entities identified and delineated by the U.S. Census Bureau in consultation 

with federally recognized American Indian tribes in Oklahoma that do not currently have a reservation, but once 

had a reservation in that state. Alaska Native village statistical areas are statistical entities that represent the 

densely settled portion of Alaska Native villages, which constitute associations, bands, clans, communities, 

groups, tribes or villages, recognized pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1972. Tribal designated statistical areas are statistical entities identified and delineated for the U.S. Census Bureau by federally 

recognized American Indian tribes that do not currently have a federally recognized land base (reservation or 

off-reservation trust land). A tribal designated statistical area may not be located in more than one state, and 

it may not include area within any reservation, off-reservation, Oklahoma tribal, Alaska Native village, or state 

designated American Indian statistical areas. State designated American Indian statistical areas are entities 

for state recognized American Indian tribes that do not have a state recognized land base. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Decennial Census, 1990 and 2000.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 21

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Figure 1.6c. Percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native families living in poverty, by 

American Indian/Alaska Native Area: 1989 and 1999

Percent

American Indian/Alaska Native Area

Total Reservations and offreservation trust lands

Alaska Native village 

statistical areas

Tribal designated 

statistical areas

0

10

20

30

40

50

27

22

47

36

25

21

27

19

1989 1999

NOTE: Includes families with and without children under 18. Includes American Indians/Alaska Natives of 

Hispanic origin. To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary 

by family size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total 

income is less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated 

annually for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income 

before taxes and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and 

food stamps). The U.S. Census Bureau divides American Indian/Alaska Native Areas into several categories. 

Federal American Indian reservations are areas that have been set aside by the United States for the use of 

tribes, the exterior boundaries of which are more particularly defined in the final tribal treaties, agreements, 

executive orders, federal statutes, secretarial orders, or judicial determinations. State reservations are areas 

established by individual states for tribes recognized by the state. Off-reservation trust lands (both federal and 

state) are areas for which the United States holds title in trust for the benefit of a tribe or for an individual 

Indian. The U.S. Census Bureau recognizes and tabulates data for reservations and off-reservation trust lands 

because American Indian tribes have primary governmental authority over these lands. Alaska Native village 

statistical areas are statistical entities that represent the densely settled portion of Alaska Native villages, 

which constitute associations, bands, clans, communities, groups, tribes or villages, recognized pursuant to 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1972. Tribal designated statistical areas are statistical entities 

identified and delineated for the U.S. Census Bureau by federally recognized American Indian tribes that do not 

currently have a federally recognized land base (reservation or off-reservation trust land). A tribal designated 

statistical area may not be located in more than one state, and it may not include area within any reservation, 

off-reservation, Oklahoma tribal, Alaska Native village, or state designated American Indian statistical areas.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Decennial Census, 1990 and 2000.
22 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.7 Children’s Health Risks

American Indian/Alaska Native infants are as likely as other children to be born with low 

birthweight.

Birthweight is a strong indicator of a child’s 

health. Babies with low birthweight (less than 

2,500 grams/5.5 pounds) face an increased 

risk of infant death and long-term illness and 

disability (Federal Interagency Forum on Child 

and Family Statistics 2004). In 2002, American 

Indian/Alaska Native infants (including those 

of Hispanic origin) were as likely (7 percent) as 

White (7 percent), Hispanic (7 percent), and 

Asian/Pacific Islander (8 percent) infants (including those of Hispanic origin) to weigh less than 

2,500 grams. The incidence of low birthweight 

among American Indian/Alaska Native babies 

was half that of Black infants (13 percent).

Vaccinations are vital to safeguarding a child’s 

health. For this reason, it is recommended that 

children receive the 4:3:1:3 vaccination series 

by 35 months of age. This series consists of four 

or more doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxids 

and pertussis vaccine (DTP), three or more 

doses of poliovirus vaccine, one or more doses 

of measles-containing vaccine (MCV), and three 

or more doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b 

(Hib) vaccine (U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services 2003). In 2003, 77 percent 

of American Indian/Alaska Native children 

received the 4:3:1:3 vaccination series by 35 

months of age.

Table 1.7a. Percentage of babies of low birthweight, by race/ethnicity: 2002

Race/ethnicity Low birthweight

Total 7.8

White, non-Hispanic 6.9

Black, non-Hispanic 13.4

Hispanic 6.5

Asian/Pacific Islander1 7.8

American Indian/Alaska Native1 7.2

1 Includes Asian/Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic origin.

NOTE: Babies of low birthweight weigh less than 2,500 grams/5.5 pounds.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 

National Vital Statistics Reports, Births: Final Data for 2002, based on CDC, National Center for Health Statistics, Final Natality Statistics, 2002.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 23

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.7b. Percentage of children ages 19 to 35 months vaccinated with the 4:3:1:3 

vaccination series, by race/ethnicity: 1995, 2000, and 2003

Race/ethnicity 1995 2000 2003

Total 73.7 76.2 81.3

White, non-Hispanic 76.4 79.4 84.3

Black, non-Hispanic 69.8 70.6 75.2

Hispanic 68.2 72.7 78.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 76.4 75.3 80.71

American Indian/Alaska Native 68.5 69.2 76.9

1 Does not include Pacific Islanders.

NOTE: The 4:3:1:3 vaccination series includes four or more doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and 

pertussis vaccine (DTP), three or more doses of poliovirus vaccine, one or more doses of measles-containing 

vaccine (MCV), and three or more doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 

National Immunization Program, Estimated Vaccination Coverage with Individual Vaccines and Vaccination 

Series Among Children 19 to 35 Months of Age by Race/Ethnicity, National Immunization Survey, 1995, 2000, 

and 2003. 

Figure 1.7. Percentage of babies of low birthweight, by race/ethnicity: 2002

Percent

Race/ethnicity

White, nonHispanicTotal Black, nonHispanicHispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander1

American

Indian/Alaska

Native1

10

20

30

40

50

7.8 6.9

13.4

6.5 7.8 7.2

1 Includes Asian/Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives of Hispanic origin.

NOTE: Babies of low birthweight weigh less than 2,500 grams/5.5 pounds.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 

National Vital Statistics Reports, Births: final Data for 2002, based on CDC, National Center for Health Statistics, Final Natality Statistics, 2002
24 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

1.8 Birth Rates and Child Mortality

The overall fertility rate for American Indian/Alaska Native women is lower than that for women 

in general, however, birth rates for young women are higher among American Indians/Alaska 

Natives than among young women overall. Infant and child mortality rates for American 

Indians/Alaska Natives are higher than those for all infants and children.

The overall fertility rate for American Indian/

Alaska Native women (calculated as live births per 

1,000 women ages 15 to 44 years) has declined 

from 83 in 1980 to 58 in 2002. The fertility rates 

of the general population changed only slightly 

over the same time period (from 68 in 1980 to 65 

in 2002). Persons of Hispanic origin are included 

in the race categories for fertility rates. While the 

general fertility rate of American Indian/Alaska 

Native women is now lower than that for women 

overall, birth rates for young women (ages 15 to 

24 years) are still higher for American Indians/

Alaska Natives than for all young women. In 

2002, there were 54 live births for every 1,000 

American Indian/Alaska Native women 15 to 19 

years old, compared to 43 in the general population. For 20- to 24-year-olds, the rate was 113 per 

1,000 American Indian/Alaska Native women, 

and 104 per 1,000 women overall. For both age 

groups, however, the birth rates for American 

Indians/Alaska Natives were considerably lower 

than those for Blacks (67 live births per 1,000 

women 15 to 19 years old, and 127 per 1,000 

women 20 to 24 years old) and Hispanics (83 

live births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old, 

and 164 per 1,000 women 20 to 24 years old) 

(appendix table A-1.8).

Infant mortality rates (the number of deaths 

per 1,000 live births) declined for all racial 

and ethnic groups between 1983 and 2002. 

Nonetheless, babies born to American Indian/

Alaska Native mothers have relatively high infant 

mortality rates. In 2002, the infant mortality 

rate for American Indians/Alaska Natives was 

9 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, which was 

higher than the rates for Whites, Hispanics, and 

Asian/Pacific Islanders (6, 6, and 5 per 1,000 

live births, respectively), but lower than the 

rate for Blacks (14 per 1,000 live births). The 

infant mortality rates for Asian/Pacific Islanders 

and American Indians/Alaska Natives include 

persons of Hispanic origin.

(Continued on page 26.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 25

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Table 1.8a. Infant mortality rates, by race/ethnicity: Various years, 1983 to 2002

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

 American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

1983 10.9 9.2 19.1 9.5 8.3 15.2

1984 10.4 8.6 18.1 9.3 8.9 13.4

1985 10.4 8.6 18.3 8.8 7.8 13.1

1986 10.1 8.3 18.0 8.4 7.8 13.9

1987 9.8 8.1 17.5 8.2 7.3 13.0

1988 9.6 7.8 18.0 8.3 6.8 12.7

1989 9.5 7.8 18.0 8.1 7.4 13.4

1990 8.9 7.2 16.9 7.5 6.6 13.1

1991 8.6 7.0 16.6 7.1 5.8 11.3

1995 7.6 6.3 14.7 6.3 5.3 9.0

1996 7.3 6.0 14.2 6.1 5.2 10.0

1997 7.2 6.0 13.7 6.0 5.0 8.7

1998 7.2 6.0 13.9 5.8 5.5 9.3

1999 7.0 5.8 14.1 5.7 4.8 9.3

2000 6.9 5.7 13.6 5.6 4.9 8.3

2001 6.8 5.7 13.5 5.4 4.7 9.7

2002 7.0 5.8 13.9 5.6 4.8 8.6

NOTE: Infant mortality rate is the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births. Infant deaths are deaths 

before a child’s first birthday. Asian/Pacific Islander and American Indian/Alaska Native figures include those of 

Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, America’s Children: Key National Indicators 

of Well-Being, 2004, based on U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics, National Linked Files of Live Births and Infant 

Deaths; and National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 53, No. 10, Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2002 Period 

Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set, 2004. 
26 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION I — DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

In 2002, the mortality rates for American 

Indian/Alaska Native children and adolescents, 

including those of Hispanic origin, between the 

ages of 1 and 19, were higher than the mortality rates for children in the general population. 

The differences were most pronounced with 

young children ages 1 to 4 and with adolescents 

ages 15 to 19. Mortality rates for American 

Indian/Alaska Native children ages 1 to 4 were 

45 per 100,000 young children, compared to 

31 per 100,000 young children in the total 

population. Similarly, mortality rates among 

American Indian/Alaska Native adolescents (15 

to 19 years old) were 91 per 100,000 adolescents, 

while those for the general population were 68 

per 100,000 adolescents.

Table 1.8b. Child mortality rates (deaths per 100,000 population), by age group and race/

ethnicity: 2002

Race/ethnicity 1–4 years 5–9 years 10–14 years 15–19 years

Total 31.2 15.2 19.5 67.8

White 28.1 14.0 18.1 66.3

Black 47.1 21.3 27.5 82.0

Hispanic 29.8 14.4 16.6 65.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 23.4 11.5 13.4 37.0

American Indian/Alaska Native 45.2 17.3 25.5 91.2

NOTE: Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 53, No. 5, based 

on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics, Vital Statistics 

Cooperative Program, 2004.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 27

Chapter 1 — Demographic Overview

Figure 1.8. Child mortality rates (deaths per 100,000 population), by age group and race/

ethnicity: 2002

Age group

0

20

40

60

80

100

Deaths per 100,000 population

1–4 years 5–9 years 10–14 years 15–19 years

White

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black

Asian/Pacific Islander

NOTE: Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 53, No. 5, 

based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics, Vital Statistics Cooperative Program, 2004.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 29

PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

2. Participation

2.1 Elementary and Secondary School Enrollment

2.2 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Schools

2.3 Special Education

This section examines the participation of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives in public 

elementary and secondary schools, including 

those funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA). These data form key indicators of access 

to educational opportunities. Elementary and 

secondary education provides knowledge, skills, 

and habits that prepare students for further 

learning. Differences in enrollment rates among 

racial/ethnic groups can provide information on 

patterns of access and participation, issues that 

are of national concern. 

This section also examines the minority composition of schools that American Indians/Alaska 

Natives attend and of students served under 

the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 

(IDEA). Data on the racial/ethnic composition of 

children served by IDEA allow for comparisons of 

the rates at which children with special needs are 

identified and served by public schools.

II
30 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

2.1 Elementary and Secondary School Enrollment

American Indian/Alaska Native students in public elementary and secondary schools account for 

1 percent of total enrollment. The majority of American Indian/Alaska Native students attend 

school in the southern or western regions of the United States.

In 2002, about 1 percent, or 624,000, public 

elementary and secondary school students were 

American Indians/Alaska Natives.4

 The proportion of public school students who were American 

Indian/Alaska Native has remained fairly constant 

since 1986, varying between 0.9 percent in 1986 

to 1.2 percent in 2002. The proportion of public 

school students who were members of a minority 

group increased from 30 percent in 1986 to 41 

percent in 2002, while the proportion who were 

White decreased from 70 percent to 59 percent 

over the same period of time. 

Excluding Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

schools, the states where American Indian/Alaska 

Native students compose the largest proportions of the total student populations included 

Alaska (26 percent), Oklahoma (18 percent), 

Montana, New Mexico, and South Dakota (11 

percent each). BIA schools (located in the South, 

Midwest, and West regions; data not shown) 

were attended by 7 percent of all American 

Indian/Alaska Native students (appendix table 

A-2.1a).

American Indian/Alaska Native students were 

more likely than the total student population 

to have attended school in rural areas (appendix 

table A-2.1b). In 2002, 38 percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native students attended schools 

in rural areas, compared to 25 percent of Whites, 

11 percent of Blacks, 7 percent of Hispanics, and 

5 percent of Asian/Pacific Islanders. Almost onethird (31 percent) of American Indian/Alaska 

Native students attended schools where they were 

at least 50 percent of the student body. 

4 Includes students in BIA schools.

Table 2.1a. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school enrollment, by 

race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1986 to 2002

Year

White, nonHispanic Total minority1Black, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska Native

1986 70.4 29.6 16.1 9.9 2.8 0.9

1991 67.4 32.6 16.4 11.8 3.4 1.0

1993 66.1 34.0 16.6 12.7 3.6 1.1

1994 65.6 34.4 16.7 13.0 3.6 1.1

1995 64.8 35.1 16.8 13.5 3.7 1.1

1996 64.2 35.8 16.9 14.0 3.8 1.1

1997 63.5 36.5 17.0 14.4 3.9 1.2

1998 62.9 37.1 17.1 15.0 3.9 1.1

1999 62.1 37.9 17.2 15.6 4.0 1.2

2000 61.2 38.8 17.2 16.3 4.1 1.2

2001 60.3 39.7 17.2 17.1 4.2 1.2

2002 59.2 40.9 17.1 18.1 4.4 1.2

1 Total minority represents persons of all race/ethnicities other than White, non-Hispanic.

NOTE: Figures do not include students enrolled in Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools. Detail may not sum to 

totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, “1986 State Summaries of Elementary and Secondary School Civil Rights Survey”; and National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 

“Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,” 1991–92 to 2002–03.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 31

Chapter 2 — Participation

Table 2.1b. Number and percentage distribution of American Indians/Alaska Natives enrolled 

in public elementary and secondary schools, by percent of American Indian/

Alaska Native enrollment: Fall 2002

Percent American Indian/

Alaska Native enrollment Number Percent

Total 624,298 100.0

Less than 10 percent 265,053 42.5

10–24 percent 82,713 13.2

25–49 percent 80,572 12.9

50–74 percent 43,697 7.0

75–89 percent 20,911 3.3

90 percent or more 131,352 21.0

NOTE: Figures may differ from previously published figures because Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools have 

been included in the Common Core of Data (CCD) total. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 

“Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,” unpublished data, 2002–03.

Figure 2.1. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school enrollment, by 

race/ethnicity and urbanicity: Fall 2002

Percent

Race/ethnicity

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

White, non-Hispanic

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

20 24 18 38

46 45 3 5

50 38 5 7

51 32 7 11

19 45 10 25

Central city Urban fringe Town Rural

NOTE: A ‘central city’ is defined as a large or midsize city of a Core Based Statistical Area (CBSA) or Consolidated Statistical Area (CSA); ‘urban fringe’ is an area within a CBSA or CSA of a city and defined as urban by 

the Census Bureau, but outside of the central city itself; ‘town’ is a place not within a CBSA or CSA, but having 

a population equal to or more than 2,500 people; ‘rural’ is a place with a population of fewer than 2,500 

people. Figures may differ from previously published figures because Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools 

have been included in the Common Core of Data (CCD) total. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 

“Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,” unpublished data, 2002–03.
32 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

2.2 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Schools

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools served almost 46,000 American Indian/Alaska Native 

students in fall 2003. 

Some American Indian/Alaska Native students 

attend schools administered by or affiliated with 

the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).5

 Schools funded by the BIA 

are either operated by the BIA or by tribes under 

contracts or grants. BIA-operated schools are 

under the direct auspices of the BIA, and tribally 

operated schools are run by individual federally recognized tribes with grants or contracts 

from the BIA. The Office of Indian Education 

Programs (OIEP) in the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

oversees the BIA school programs. 

In 2003–04, some 184 schools were BIA-funded, and 64 of these were also BIA-operated. The 

remaining 120 schools were operated by tribes, 

under BIA contracts or grants (appendix table 

A-2.2). These schools were located on 63 reservations in 23 states, serving 46,000 students (U.S. 

Department of the Interior 2004b). In 2002–03, 

a majority of these schools (69 percent) had 300 

or fewer students.

Table 2.2a. Number and percentage distribution of Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school 

enrollment, by grade level: 2003–04

Level Number Percent

Total 45,828 100.0

Elementary 26,109 57.0

Kindergarten 4,266 9.3

Grade 1 3,756 8.2

Grade 2 3,432 7.5

Grade 3 3,466 7.6

Grade 4 3,614 7.9

Grade 5 3,685 8.0

Grade 6 3,890 8.5

Middle school 7,562 16.5

Grade 7 3,855 8.4

Grade 8 3,707 8.1

High school 12,157 26.5

Grade 9 3,932 8.6

Grade 10 3,410 7.4

Grade 11 2,509 5.5

Grade 12 2,306 5.0

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Total does not include 1,733 students who live in BIA 

residences, but attend non-BIA public schools.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP), 

unpublished data, 2003–04.

5

 There are no BIA schools in Alaska. Most Alaska Native children attend public schools in Alaska. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 33

Chapter 2 — Participation

Table 2.2b. Percentage distribution of schools and students, by type of school and enrollment 

size: Fall 2002

Schools Students

Enrollment size

Bureau of 

Indian 

Affairs 

(BIA) 

schools1

25 percent 

or more 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native 

(non-BIA) 

Less than 

25 percent 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

(non-BIA)

Bureau of 

Indian 

Affairs 

(BIA) 

schools1

25 percent 

or more 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native 

(non-BIA) 

Less than 

25 percent 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

(non-BIA)

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

100 or fewer 18.1 33.1 10.8 4.5 6.6 1.0

101–200 30.5 21.8 9.5 17.2 14.0 2.7

201–300 20.9 15.8 11.6 19.8 17.3 5.6

301–500 18.6 20.0 26.5 27.9 33.9 20.2

More than 500 11.9 9.4 41.6 30.6 28.3 70.6

1 Does not include BIA schools that are residences without instructional components.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data 

(CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,” unpublished data, 2002–03.

Figure 2.2. Number of Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)–funded school programs, by operational 

structure: Selected years, 1997–98 to 2003–04

Year

Number

1997–98 1999–2000 2001–02 2003–04

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

77

108

64

121

64

121

64

120

BIA-operated Tribally operated

SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP), 

1999–2000 OIEP School Report Card Summary; and OIEP, Building Exemplary Schools for Tomorrow: 2002 

Fingertip Facts and 2004 Fingertip Facts.
34 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

2.3 Special Education

American Indian/Alaska Native children are more likely than White, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific 

Islander children to be served by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

In 2003, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) served 9 percent of all U.S. 

children between the ages of 3 and 21 who were 

enrolled in public elementary and secondary 

schools.6

 American Indian/Alaska Native and 

Black children were more likely than other racial/

ethnic groups to receive services under the IDEA. 

About 12 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native children and 11 percent of Black children 

received IDEA services in 2003, compared to 8 

percent of White children, 8 percent of Hispanic 

children, and 4 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander 

children. In addition, the percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native children served under 

IDEA increased from 10 percent in 1998 to 12 

percent in 2003.

6 The precursor to IDEA—Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA)—was first passed in 

1975 to provide federal funding for the education of individuals with disabilities. This act was amended in 

1990 to become IDEA and reauthorized in December 2004. IDEA aims “to ensure that all children with 

disabilities have available to them a free, appropriate public education that emphasizes special education and 

related services designed to meet their unique needs; to ensure that the rights of children with disabilities and 

the parents of such children are protected; to assist state localities, educational service agencies, and Federal 

agencies to provide for the education of all children with disabilities; and to assess and ensure the effectiveness 

of efforts to educate children with disabilities.” Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 

2004, P.L. 108–446, 118 Stat. 2647 (2004).

Table 2.3b. Percentage of children ages 3 to 21 served under the Individuals with Disabilities 

Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 1998 to 2003 

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

1998 8.0 8.0 10.3 6.7 3.6 9.5

1999 7.9 7.8 10.2 6.7 3.7 9.4

2000 8.2 8.1 10.8 6.8 4.0 10.5

2001 8.3 8.2 11.1 7.1 4.0 11.0

2002 8.4 8.3 11.3 7.3 4.2 11.4

2003 8.6 8.4 11.5 7.5 4.4 11.9

NOTE: Data have been revised from previously published reports.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 1998 to 2003.

Table 2.3a. Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of children ages 3 to 21 served 

under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Number of children served 

under IDEA

Percent of children in 

each racial/ethnic 

group served under IDEA

Percentage distribution 

of children 

served under IDEA

Total 6,633,902 8.6 100.0

White, non-Hispanic 4,035,880 8.4 60.8

Black, non-Hispanic 1,334,666 11.5 20.1

Hispanic 1,035,463 7.5 15.6

Asian/Pacific Islander 137,544 4.4 2.1

American Indian/Alaska Native 90,349 11.9 1.4

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), Data Tables for OSEP 

State Reported Data, 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 35

Chapter 2 — Participation

Figure 2.3b. Percentage of children ages 3 to 21 served under the Individuals with Disabilities 

Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 1998 to 2003

Year

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 1998 to 2003.

Figure 2.3a. Percentage of children in each racial/ethnic group served under the Individuals 

with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Percent

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic

Hispanic Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

8.4

11.5

7.5

4.4

11.9

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), Data Tables for OSEP 

State Reported Data, 2003.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 37

PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

3. Persistence and Effort

3.1 Absenteeism

3.2 Suspension and Expulsion

3.3 Dropout Rates

3.4 Attainment Expectations

This section focuses on the persistence and effort that students put into their elementary and 

secondary education. Particular attention is paid 

to how American Indian/Alaska Native students 

compare to other population groups as they 

proceed through school. Indicators of student 

persistence and effort include how often students 

are absent from school, student educational 

attainment expectations, and whether students 

drop out of school. School problems such as 

absenteeism, suspension, and expulsion can 

compound and may lead eventually to dropping 

out of school, which has long-term negative 

consequences (U.S. Department of Education 

1999, 2001). 

II
38 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

3.1 Absenteeism

American Indian/Alaska Native 8th-graders had relatively more absences from school than students 

of any other race/ethnicity. 

Children with high rates of absenteeism do not 

have the same amount of learning opportunities 

as children who attend school regularly. In 2003, 

some 66 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native 8th-grade students reported they were 

absent in the preceding month. American Indian/Alaska Native students were more likely to 

be absent at least once a month than students of 

any other race/ethnicity. In 2003, some 56 percent of Black students, 58 percent of Hispanic 

students, and 57 percent of White students, and 

37 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander students 

reported that they were absent at least once from 

school in the preceding month. 

Table 3.1. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students, by number of days absent from 

school in the preceding month and race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity No absences One or more absences

Total 43.8 56.3

White, non-Hispanic 42.8 57.2

Black, non-Hispanic 44.4 55.6

Hispanic 41.6 58.4

Asian/Pacific Islander 63.3 36.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 34.3 65.7

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2003 Reading Assessment.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 39

Chapter 3 — Persistence and Effort

Figure 3.1. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students, by number of days absent from 

school in the preceding month and race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Percent

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic

Hispanic Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Total

44

56

43

57

44

56

42

58

63

37

34

66

No absences One or more absences

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2003 Reading Assessment.
40 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

3.2 Suspension and Expulsion

American Indian/Alaska Native youth have lower suspension and expulsion rates than Black 

students, but higher suspension and expulsion rates than students of all other racial/ethnic 

groups. 

Prior research has confirmed the common perception that students who have been suspended 

from school are at higher risk for other poor 

school outcomes, including dropping out of 

school (Wehlage et al. 1989). Students who are 

disruptive in school or who are not in school 

may not be fully engaged in active learning. 

Eight percent of American Indian/Alaska Native 

public school students in kindergarten through 

12th grade were suspended in 2000. The suspension rate of American Indians/Alaska Natives is 

higher than that of Whites (5 percent), Hispanics 

(6 percent), and Asian/Pacific Islanders (3 percent), but is lower than the suspension rate of 

Blacks (13 percent).

The expulsion rates for all racial/ethnic groups in 

2000 are below 1 percent, but American Indian/ 

Alaska Native students have a rate of expulsion 

that is second only to Black students.

For all racial/ethnic groups, males have higher 

rates of suspension and expulsion than females, 

and comparisons between males and females of 

different race/ethnicities demonstrate the same 

trend as the total population. American Indian/ 

Alaska Native males are less likely than Black 

males to be suspended or expelled, but more 

likely to be suspended or expelled than White, 

Hispanic, or Asian/Pacific Islander males. Similarly, American Indian/Alaska Native females are 

less likely than Black females to be suspended 

or expelled, but more likely to be suspended or 

expelled than White, Hispanic, or Asian/Pacific 

Islander females. 

Table 3.2. Percentage of public school students in kindergarten through 12th grade who were 

suspended or expelled, by sex and race/ethnicity: 2000

Suspended Expelled

Race/ethnicity Total Female Male Total Female Male

Total 6.6 3.9 9.2 0.2 0.1 0.3

White, non-Hispanic 5.1 2.7 7.4 0.2 0.1 0.3

Black, non-Hispanic 13.3 9.1 17.4 0.4 0.2 0.5

Hispanic 6.1 3.5 8.7 0.2 0.1 0.4

Asian/Pacific Islander 2.9 1.4 4.3 0.1 # 0.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 7.7 4.8 10.5 0.3 0.2 0.4

# Rounds to zero.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR), Elementary and Secondary School Survey 

(E&S), 2000.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 41

Chapter 3 — Persistence and Effort

Figure 3.2. Percentage of public school students in kindergarten through 12th grade who 

were suspended, by race/ethnicity and sex: 2000

Race/ethnicity

Percent

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic

Hispanic Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Total

0

10

20

30

40

50

4

9

3

7 9

17

3

9

1

4 5

10

Female Male

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR), Elementary and Secondary School Survey 

(E&S), 2000.
42 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

3.3 Dropout Rates

American Indian/Alaska Native youth and young adults are more likely to have dropped out of 

school than White or Asian/Pacific Islander youth and young adults.

Young adults who do not finish high school are 

more likely to be unemployed and earn less when 

they are employed than those who complete high 

school (U.S. Department of Education 1999, 

2001). This indicator looks at the status dropout rate, the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds 

who are out of school and who have not earned 

a high school diploma or General Educational 

Development (GED) credential.7

In 2003, this measure was 15 percent for 

American Indians/Alaska Natives, higher than 

the 6 percent for Whites and 4 percent for 

Asian/Pacific Islanders. Although the estimate 

for American Indians/Alaska Natives appears 

to be higher than the rate for Blacks, the difference is not significant due to the large standard 

error for American Indians/Alaska Natives. 

However, American Indian/Alaska Native youth 

and young adults were less likely to have dropped 

out than Hispanics (15 percent vs. 24 percent). 

Between 1990 and 2003, the estimates for 

American Indians/Alaska Natives have fluctuated, showing no consistent trend. 

Table 3.3. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school dropouts, by race/

ethnicity: Selected years, 1990 to 2003

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

1990 12.1 9.0 13.4 32.4 4.9 16.4!

1992 11.0 7.7 13.7 29.5 5.7 17.5!

1994 11.4 7.7 12.6 30.0 5.8 10.2!

1996 11.1 7.3 13.0 29.4 5.3 13.0!

1998 11.8 7.7 13.8 29.5 4.1 11.8!

2000 10.9 6.9 13.1 27.8 3.8 14.0!

2001 10.7 7.3 10.9 27.0 3.6 13.1!

2002 10.5 6.5 11.3 25.7 3.9 16.8

2003 9.9 6.3 10.9 23.5 3.9 15.0!

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates, which is the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds 

who are out of school and who have not earned a high school credential. The status dropout rate includes all 

dropouts regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended 

school in the U.S. such as immigrants who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. 

Another way of calculating dropout rates is the event dropout rate, which is the percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds 

who dropped out of grades 10 through 12 in the 12 months preceding the fall of each data collection year. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, October Current Population Survey (CPS), 1990 to 

2003.

7

 The status dropout rate includes all dropouts regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants who did not complete a 

high school diploma in their home country.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 43

Chapter 3 — Persistence and Effort

Figure 3.3. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school dropouts, by race/

ethnicity: Selected years, 1990 to 2003

Year

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates, which is the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds 

who are out of school and who have not earned a high school credential. The status dropout rate includes all 

dropouts regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended 

school in the U.S. such as immigrants who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. 

Another way of calculating dropout rates is the event dropout rate, which is the percentage of 15- to 24-yearolds who dropped out of grades 10 through 12 in the 12 months preceding the fall of each data collection year. 

Interpret data for American Indians/Alaska Natives with caution.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, October Current Population Surveys (CPS), 1990 to 

2003
44 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

3.4 Attainment Expectations

The percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native 10th-graders who expected to complete a 

college degree increased between 1980 and 2002.

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of 

American Indian/Alaska Native 10th-graders 

who expected to complete a bachelor’s degree 

or higher increased from 31 to 76 percent. The 

percentage who expected not to go beyond high 

school declined from 36 percent in 1980 to 

12 percent in 2002.

Expectations of college attainment also increased 

among the other racial/ethnic groups. The percentage of 10th-graders who expected to complete 

a bachelor’s degree or higher increased for Whites 

(from 41 to 81 percent), Blacks (from 41 to 

77 percent), Hispanics (from 33 to 73 percent), 

and Asian/Pacific Islanders (from 67 to 87 percent) between 1980 and 2002.

Table 3.4. Percentage of 10th-graders who expected to attain various levels of education, by 

race/ethnicity: 1980, 1990, and 2002

Level of education Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

High school diploma or 

equivalent or less

1980 26.5 25.9 26.3 33.7 11.7 35.7

1990 10.2 9.4 11.1 14.3 8.2 18.8

2002 9.2 8.0 10.5 13.5 4.9 12.1

Some college, including 

vocational/technical

1980 32.9 33.1 32.7 33.7 21.5 32.9

1990 30.3 29.5 30.2 38.5 21.7 43.0

2002 11.5 10.9 12.6 13.9 8.2 12.0

Bachelor’s degree

1980 22.7 23.4 21.8 17.0 32.4 17.2

1990 32.1 33.9 28.2 25.5 31.4 21.8

2002 39.7 39.6 40.8 40.2 37.2 36.1

Graduate/professional degree

1980 17.9 17.7 19.2 15.6 34.3 14.2

1990 27.4 27.3 30.5 21.7 38.7 16.5

2002 39.7 41.4 36.1 32.4 49.7 39.8

NOTE: Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes Latino. 

Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2004, table 15-1, based on High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&BSo:80); National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/90), “First Follow-up, 1990;” and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), Base Year.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 45

Chapter 3 — Persistence and Effort

Figure 3.4. Percentage of 10th-graders who expected to complete a bachelor’s degree or 

higher, by race/ethnicity: 1980 and 2002

Race/ethnicity

Percent

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic

Hispanic Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

23

18

22

19

17

16

32

34

17

14

Bachelor’s degree Graduate/professional degree

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

40

41

41

36

40

32

37

50

36

40

1980 2002 1980 2002 1980 2002 1980 2002 1980 2002

NOTE: Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes 

Latino. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2004, table 15-1, based on High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&BSo:80); National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/90), “First Follow-up, 1990;” and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), Base Year.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 47

PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4. Academics and Achievement

4.1 Early Motor and Cognitive Skill Development 

4.2 Student Performance in Reading

4.3 Student Performance in Mathematics

4.4 Student Performance in Science

4.5 Student Performance in U.S. History and Geography 

4.6 Core Academic Coursework

4.7 Advanced Coursetaking in High School

4.8 Advanced Placement Exams 

4.9 Student Performance on College Entrance Examinations

This section presents findings on early childhood, elementary, and secondary student 

achievement and other academic outcomes, 

and reports on improvements in American 

Indian/Alaska Native student performance and 

on closing achievement gaps. 

Children enter school with varying levels 

of knowledge and skill (West, Denton, and 

Germino-Hausken 2000). As students progress 

through school, it is important to measure their 

attainment to ensure that they are acquiring 

necessary skills and understanding challenging 

subject matter. These academic outcomes are 

measured as the change in performance over time 

and through the percentage of students achieving 

predetermined standards of competence. 

II
48 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.1 Early Motor and Cognitive Skill Development

American Indian/Alaska Native 8- to 22-month-olds demonstrate early motor and cognitive 

skill development similar to other 8- to 22-month-olds.

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth 

Cohort (ECLS-B) presents information on 

young children’s specific motor and cognitive 

skills. Five proficiencies for a young child’s early 

motor skills are demonstrating eye-hand coordination as he/she reaches for objects; sitting alone 

without assistance; prewalking (taking steps, 

and supporting his/her weight while standing, 

with assistance); independent walking (walking 

without assistance); and balance (can balance 

in various positions). Five proficiencies for 

early cognitive skills are demonstrating interest 

in exploring objects; exploring objects with a 

purpose; babbling and simple gestures; early 

problem solving (using reasoning to interact 

with objects); and communicating with words 

(both receptively and expressively).

Data for American Indians/Alaska Natives 

includes those of Hispanic origin and those in 

combination with one or more other races.

The percentages of American Indian/Alaska 

Native children, ages 8 to 10 months, were similar 

to the percentages of all children of the same age 

in demonstrating eye-hand coordination, sitting, 

independent walking, and balance. There were 

also similar percentages of American Indian/

Alaska Native and all children 11 to 13 months 

of age demonstrating eye-hand coordination, sitting, and balance. In addition, most of the 14- to 

22-month-old children assessed demonstrated 

eye-hand coordination, sitting, and prewalking 

(appendix table A-4.1a).

Most of the children assessed demonstrated 

exploring objects in play. Similar percentages of 

American Indian/Alaska Native and all children 

8 to 13 months old demonstrated exploring with 

purpose, babbling, and early problem solving. 

Five percent of all children 11 to 13 months of 

age demonstrated using words. Thirty percent 

of American Indian/Alaska Native 14- to 22-

month-olds demonstrated using words (appendix 

table A-4.1b). 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 49

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.1. Percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native children and all children 

demonstrating specific motor and cognitive skills, by child’s age at assessment: 

2001

Eye-hand

coordination Sitting Prewalking Independent 

walking

Balance Eye-hand 

coordination Sitting Prewalking Independent 

walking

Balance 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

91 91 93 94

73 75

19 19

1 1

Total American Indian/Alaska Native

Motor skills

Cognitive skills

8, 9, or 10 months 11, 12, or 13 months

96 96 98 98

91 90

55 56

10 9

Explores

objects in

play

Explores

with

purpose

Babbles Early

problem

solving

Uses words Explores

objects in

play

Explores

with

purpose

Babbles Early

problem

solving

Uses words 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

8, 9, or 10 months 11, 12, or 13 months

99 99

88 87

47 46

3 3 # #

100 100 97 98

72 72

17 17

5 5

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) is a sample of children who were born 

between January and December 2001. ECLS-B collected information on children’s race by asking parents if 

their child was White, Black, Asian, Pacific Islander, and/or American Indian/Alaska Native. Parents were asked 

to choose one or more categories that applied to their child. American Indian/Alaska Native includes those of 

Hispanic origin and those in combination with one or more other races.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal 

Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Restricted-Use File, (NCES 2004-093), 2004. 
50 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.2 Student Performance in Reading

American Indian/Alaska Native 4th- and 8th-grade students generally score lower than White 

and Asian/Pacific Islander students on NAEP reading assessments.

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) periodically assesses the skills of 

4th- and 8th-grade students. NAEP assesses reading for literary experience (in grades 4 and 8), 

reading for information (in grades 4 and 8), and 

reading to perform a task (in grade 8). 

In the 2003 assessment, American Indian/Alaska 

Native students had lower average reading scale 

scores than White and Asian/Pacific Islander 

students in both 4th and 8th grades. American 

Indian/Alaska Native students scored higher than 

Black students in the 4th grade in 2003.

Between 2002 and 2003, the average reading 

scores among American Indian/Alaska Native 

4th-graders decreased by 5 points.

Table 4.2a. Average reading scale scores, by race/ethnicity and grade: 2000, 2002, and 2003

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

4th grade

2000 213 224 190 190 225 214!

2002 219 229 199 201 224 207

2003 218 229 198 200 226 202

8th grade

2000 — — — — — —

2002 264 272 245 247 267 250

2003 263 272 244 245 270 246

— Not available.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Data were not collected at grade 8 in 2000. Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 

0 to 500. For a discussion of the reading scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/

reading/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2000, 2002, and 2003 Reading Assessments.

(Continued on page 52.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 51

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.2. Average reading scale scores, by grade and selected race/ethnicity: 2000, 2002, 

and 2003

Total American Indian/Alaska Native

4th grade

Year

Year

8th grade

2000 2002 2003

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Scale score

Scale score

213 214! 219 207 218

202

2000 2002 2003

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

— —

264 250 263

246

— Not available.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the reading 

scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/reading/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2000, 2002, and 2003 Reading Assessments.
52 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

Table 4.2b. Percentage distribution of students across NAEP reading achievement levels, by 

race/ethnicity and grade: 2003

Level Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

4th grade

Below basic 37 25 60 56 30 53

At or above basic 63 75 40 44 70 47

At or above proficient 31 41 13 15 38 16

At advanced 8 11 2 2 12 2

8th grade

Below basic 26 17 46 44 21 43

At or above basic 74 83 54 56 79 57

At or above proficient 32 41 13 15 40 17

At advanced 3 4 1 1 5 1

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. For a discussion of the reading achievement level definitions, see 

http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/reading/achieve.asp. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2003 Reading Assessment.

In addition to average scale scores, NAEP data 

are expressed as a series of achievement levels 

to indicate how well students perform against 

expectations for what students should know 

and be able to do. In 2003, a larger percentage 

of American Indians/Alaska Natives compared 

to Blacks read “at or above basic” in 4th grade 

and “at or above proficient” in 8th grade. Higher 

percentages of White and Asian/Pacific Islander 

students in both 4th and 8th grades achieved “at 

or above basic” and “at or above proficient” than 

American Indian/Alaska Native students.
Page is intentionally left blank.
54 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.3 Student Performance in Mathematics

In 2003, American Indian/Alaska Native 4th-graders scored lower than Whites and Asian/Pacific 

Islanders in NAEP mathematics, but higher than Blacks and similar to Hispanics.

The NAEP mathematics assessment measures 

students’ abilities in five content strands: 

number sense, properties, and operations; 

measurement; geometry and spatial sense; data 

analysis, statistics, and probability; and algebra 

and functions. 

In the 2003 mathematics assessment, American 

Indian/Alaska Native students had lower average 

scores than White and Asian/Pacific Islander 

students in the 4th and 8th grades. American Indian/Alaska Native 4th-graders scored higher than 

Blacks and similar to Hispanics, while American 

Indian/Alaska Native 8th-graders scored above 

their Black and Hispanic peers.

Table 4.3a. Average mathematics scale scores, by race/ethnicity and grade: 1996, 2000, and 

2003

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

4th grade

1996 224 232 198 207 229 217!

2000 226 234 203 208 ‡ 208!

2003 235 243 216 222 246 223

8th grade

1996 270 281 240 251 ‡ ‡

2000 273 284 244 253 288 259!

2003 278 288 252 259 291 263

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale scores range from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the mathematics scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/mathematics/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1996, 2000, and 2003 Mathematics Assessments.

(Continued on page 56.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 55

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.3. Average mathematics scale scores, by grade and selected race/ethnicity: 1996, 

2000, and 2003

Total American Indian/Alaska Native

4th grade

Year

Year

8th grade

1996 2000 2003

1996 2000 2003

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

224 217!

‡

226

208!

235 223

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

270 273 259!

278 263

Scale score

Scale score

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the mathematics scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/mathematics/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1996, 2000, and 2003 Mathematics Assessments.
56 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

Table 4.3b. Percentage distribution of students across NAEP mathematics achievement 

levels, by race/ethnicity and grade: 2003 

Level Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

4th grade

Below basic 23 13 46 38 13 36

At or above basic 77 87 54 62 87 64

At or above proficient 32 43 10 16 48 17

At advanced 4 5 # 1 10 1

8th grade

Below basic 32 20 61 52 22 48

At or above basic 68 80 39 48 78 52

At or above proficient 29 37 7 12 43 15

At advanced 5 7 1 1 13 2

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. For a discussion of the mathematics achievement level definitions, 

see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/mathematics/achieve.asp. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2003 Mathematics Assessments.

As with reading, NAEP uses a series of 

achievement levels for mathematics. American 

Indians/Alaska Natives in both the 4th and 8th

grades had higher percentages “at or above basic” 

and “at or above proficient” than their Black 

peers. In the same grades, American Indians/

Alaska Natives had lower percentages “at or above 

basic” and “at or above proficient” than their 

White and Asian/Pacific Islander peers.
Page is intentionally left blank.
58 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.4 Student Performance in Science

American Indian/Alaska Native students’ NAEP science assessment scores are lower, on average, 

than White students’ scores.

NAEP’s science assessment measures students’ 

knowledge of earth, physical, and life sciences, 

as well as their familiarity with ways of knowing 

and doing science.

On average, American Indian/Alaska Native 

4th- grade students scored 140 in 2000—this 

was not measurably different from their average 

score in 1996. The scores of American Indian/

Alaska Native 8th-graders declined from 148 to 

134 during the same period. American Indian/

Alaska Native students in the 12th grade scored 

an average of 145 in 1996 and 139 in 2000. This 

difference was also not statistically significant.

In 2000, American Indian/Alaska Native students 

in 4th, 8th, and 12th grades scored lower, on average, 

than White students. American Indian/Alaska 

Native 4th-graders scored higher than Blacks and 

Hispanics. Among 8th- and 12th-graders, American 

Indians/Alaska Natives scored higher than Blacks, 

but lower than Asian/Pacific Islanders.

In 2000, American Indians/Alaska Natives across 

grades had a lower percentage of students “at 

or above proficient” than Whites, but a higher 

percentage at this level in the 4th grade than 

Blacks and Hispanics. American Indians/Alaska 

Natives also had a lower percentage of students 

“at or above proficient” than their Asian/Pacific 

Islander peers in the 8th and 12th grades.

Table 4.4a. Average science scale scores, by race/ethnicity and grade: 1996 and 2000

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

4th grade

1996 150 160 124 128 151 144

2000 150 160 124 129 ‡ 140

8th grade

1996 150 159 121 129 152 148

2000 151 162 122 128 156 134

12th grade

1996 150 159 124 130 149 145!

2000 147 154 123 128 153 139

! Interpret data with caution. 

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 300. For a discussion of the science 

scale score definitions, please see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/science/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1996 and 2000 Science Assessments.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 59

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Table 4.4b. Percentage distribution of students across NAEP science achievement levels, by 

race/ethnicity and grade: 2000

Level Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

4th grade

Below basic 34 21 66 58 ‡ 43

At or above basic 66 79 34 42 ‡ 57

At or above proficient 29 38 7 11 ‡ 19

At advanced 4 5 # 1 ‡ 1

8th grade

Below basic 39 26 74 65 36 61

At or above basic 61 74 26 35 64 39

At or above proficient 32 41 7 12 37 14

At advanced 4 5 # 1 6 2

12th grade

Below basic 47 38 78 70 41 56

At or above basic 53 62 22 30 59 44

At or above proficient 18 23 3 7 26 9

At advanced 2 3 # # 4 1

# Rounds to zero.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. For a discussion of the science achievement level definitions, see 

http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/science/achieve.asp. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2000 Science Assessment.

Figure 4.4. Average science scale scores, by grade and selected race/ethnicity: 1996 and 

2000

Scale score

1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

150 144 150 140

Total

4th grade 8th grade 12th grade

American Indian/Alaska Native

150 148 151

134

150 145! 147 139

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 300. For a discussion of the science 

scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/science/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1996 and 2000 Science Assessments.
60 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.5 Student Performance in U.S. History and Geography

In 2001, American Indian/Alaska Native 4th- and 8th-grade students scored higher than their 

Black and Hispanic peers on the NAEP geography assessment. 

NAEP’s U.S. history assessment is organized 

around three dimensions: major themes of U.S. 

history, chronological periods, and ways of knowing and thinking about U.S. history. NAEP’s 

geography assessment measures two dimensions 

of students’ performance in geography. The first 

dimension measures students’ capacity to know, 

understand, and apply geographic material. The 

second dimension measures students’ command 

of three content areas: space and place, environment and society, and spatial dynamics and 

connections.

On the U.S. history assessment, 53 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native 4th-graders, 50 

percent of 8th-graders, and 34 percent of 12thgraders scored at or above the basic proficiency 

level in 2001. American Indian/Alaska Native 

students scored, on average, 190, 246, and 279 

points in 1994 for 4th, 8th, and 12th grade, respectively. In 2001, American Indian/Alaska Native 

students scored, on average, 197, 249, and 277 

points for 4th, 8th, and 12th grade, respectively. 

There were no measurable differences detected 

between 1994 and 2001 for any grade level.

(Continued on page 62.)

Table 4.5a. Percentage distribution of students across NAEP U.S. history achievement levels, 

by race/ethnicity and grade: 2001

Level Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

4th grade

Below basic 33 21 56 58 29 47

At or above basic 67 79 44 42 71 53

At or above proficient 18 24 6 7 19 12

At advanced 2 3 # 1 3 4

8th grade

Below basic 36 25 62 60 32 50

At or above basic 64 75 38 40 68 50

At or above proficient 17 21 4 5 20 8

At advanced 2 2 # # 2 1

12th grade

Below basic 57 51 80 74 47 66

At or above basic 43 49 20 26 53 34

At or above proficient 11 13 3 5 21 1

At advanced 1 1 # # 5 #

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. For a discussion of the U.S. history achievement level definitions, see 

http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ushistory/achieve.asp. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2001 U.S. History Assessment.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 61

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Table 4.5b. Average U.S. history scale scores, by race/ethnicity and grade: 1994 and 2001

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

4th grade

1994 205 215 177 180 205 190

2001 209 220 188 186 213 197

8th grade

1994 259 267 239 243 263 246!

2001 262 271 243 243 267 249

12th grade

1994 286 292 265 267 285 279!

2001 287 292 269 274 295 277!

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the U.S. history 

scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ushistory/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1994 and 2001 U.S. History Assessments.

Figure 4.5a. Average U.S. history scale scores, by grade and selected race/ethnicity: 1994 

and 2001

Scale score

1994 2001 1994 2001 1994 2001

Total

4th grade 8th grade 12th grade

American Indian/Alaska Native

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

205

190

209 197

259 246!

262 249

286 279! 287 277!

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the U.S. history 

scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ushistory/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1994 and 2001 U.S. History Assessments.
62 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

In 2001, 66 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native 4th-graders, 72 percent of 8th-graders, and 

74 percent of 12th-graders scored at or above 

the basic proficiency level on the geography 

assessment. In 1994, American Indian/Alaska 

Native students scored, on average, 193 and 

248 for 4th and 8th grade, respectively. In 2001, 

American Indian/Alaska Native students scored, 

on average, 199, 261, and 288 for 4th, 8th, and 

12th grade, respectively. No measurable differences were found between 1994 and 2001 

for either 4th or 8th grade. In 2001, American 

Indian/Alaska Native 4th- and 8th-grade students 

scored higher, on average, than their Black and 

Hispanic peers, but lower than White students. 

In addition, American Indian/Alaska Native 

4th-grade students scored lower, on average, than 

Asian/Pacific Islander 4th-grade students.

Table 4.5c. Percentage distribution of students across NAEP geography achievement levels, 

by race/ethnicity and grade: 2001

Level Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

4th grade

Below basic 26 13 56 51 23 34

At or above basic 74 87 44 49 77 66

At or above proficient 21 29 5 6 25 13

At advanced 2 3 # # 1 #

8th grade

Below basic 26 14 60 52 21 28

At or above basic 74 86 40 48 79 72

At or above proficient 30 39 6 10 32 31

At advanced 4 5 # 1 4 3

12th grade

Below basic 29 19 65 48 28 26!

At or above basic 71 81 35 52 72 74!

At or above proficient 25 31 4 10 26 32!

At advanced 1 2 # # 1 1!

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. For a discussion of the geography achievement level definitions, see 

http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/geography/achieve.asp. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 2001 Geography Assessment.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 63

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.5b. Average geography scale scores, by grade and selected race/ethnicity: 1994 and 

2001

Scale score

‡

1994 2001 1994 2001 1994 2001

Total

4th grade 8th grade 12th grade

American Indian/Alaska Native

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

206

193

209 199

260 248!

262 261

285 285 288!

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the U.S. history 

scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ushistory/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1994 and 2001 Geography Assessments.

Table 4.5d. Average geography scale scores, by race/ethnicity and grade: 1994 and 2001

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

4th grade

1994 206 218 168 183 214 193

2001 209 222 181 184 212 199

8th grade

1994 260 270 229 239 264 248 !

2001 262 273 234 240 266 261

12th grade

1994 285 291 258 268 285 ‡

2001 285 291 260 270 286 288 !

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Accommodations were permitted. Scale score ranges from 0 to 500. For a discussion of the geography 

scale score definitions, see http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/geography/scale.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), 1994 and 2001 Geography Assessments.
64 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.6 Core Academic Coursework

American Indian/Alaska Native high school graduates completed more academic high school 

coursework in 2000 than in 1982. However, American Indians/Alaska Natives were still less 

likely to have completed substantial credits in academic coursework than the total population 

of students.

The National Commission on Excellence in 

Education recommended that the core academic 

track for high school students include at least 

four courses in English, three in social studies, 

three in science, three in mathematics, and two 

in a foreign language (National Commission on 

Excellence in Education 1983).8

 The percentage 

of American Indian/Alaska Native high school 

graduates who completed this level of academic 

coursework increased from 3 percent in 1982 to 

26 percent in 2000. 

The percentage of high school graduates who 

completed the core academic track increased for 

other racial/ethnic groups as well. Between 1982 

and 2000, the percentage of students who completed the core academic track for White high 

school graduates increased from 11 to 48 percent; 

the percentage for Black graduates increased from 

5 to 44 percent; the percentage for Hispanic 

graduates increased from 4 to 38 percent; and the 

percentage for Asian/Pacific Islander graduates 

increased from 17 to 57 percent.

American Indian/Alaska Native high school 

students who graduated in 2000 were less likely 

to have completed the core academic track than 

their peers of other racial/ethnic groups.

8

 The commission also recommended one-half year of computer science. This indicator focuses on the core 

academic track coursework that does not include computer science. 

Table 4.6. Percentage of public high school graduates who had completed the core 

academic track, by race/ethnicity: Various years, 1982 to 2000

Race/ethnicity 1982 1987 1990 1994 1998 2000

Total 10 18 30 39 44 46

White, non-Hispanic 11 19 32 42 46 48

Black, non-Hispanic 5 13 23 30 40 44

Hispanic 4 11 25 36 32 38

Asian/Pacific Islander 17 36 43 50 58 57

American Indian/Alaska Native 3 5 10 22 28 26

NOTE: The core academic track is defined as at least 4 year-long courses in English; 3 each in social studies, science, and mathematics; and 2 in foreign languages. Black includes African American, Pacific Islander 

includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes Latino. Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not 

separately shown.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80); National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88/90), “First Follow-up, 1990;” and National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), High School 

Transcript Studies (HSTS), selected years 1982 to 2000.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 65

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.6. Percentage of public high school graduates who had completed the core 

academic track, by race/ethnicity: Various years, 1982 to 2000

Year

Percent

1982 1987 1990 1994 1998 2000

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

NOTE: The core academic track is defined as at least 4 year-long courses in English; 3 each in social studies, science, and mathematics; and 2 in foreign languages. Black includes African American, Pacific Islander 

includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes Latino. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80); National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88/90), “First Follow-up, 1990;” and National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), High School 

Transcript Studies (HSTS), selected years 1982 to 2000.
66 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.7 Advanced Coursetaking in High School

In 2000, American Indian/Alaska Native students were less likely than White or Asian/Pacific 

Islander students to have completed advanced science, mathematics, or foreign language 

courses.

A lower percentage of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives take advanced science courses than 

students of any other race/ethnicity. Advanced science courses include chemistry I and II, physics I 

and II, and advanced biology. In 2000, 64 percent 

of Whites, 61 percent of Blacks, 56 percent of 

Hispanics, and 80 percent of Asian/Pacific Islanders had completed one or more advanced science 

courses in high school, compared to 43 percent 

of American Indians/Alaska Natives.

Twenty-nine percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native high school graduates completed advanced 

mathematics courses such as pre-calculus, calculus, and other courses labeled “advanced,” such 

as trigonometry. Asian/Pacific Islanders had the 

highest percentage of students taking advanced 

mathematics courses (69 percent), followed by the 

percentage of White students (47 percent).

Twenty-seven percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native, 27 percent of Black, and 26 percent 

of Hispanic high school graduates completed 

advanced English courses by 2000. Again, 

Asian/Pacific Islander students had the highest 

percentage (43 percent) of students completing 

advanced courses in English.

Asian/Pacific Islander, White, and Hispanic 

students had the highest percentages of students 

completing 3 or more years of foreign language 

courses or an Advanced Placement course in a 

foreign language (36 percent, 31 percent, and 

31 percent, respectively). These percentages 

were higher than either the percentage of Black 

students (20 percent) or American Indian/Alaska 

Native students (17 percent) who completed 

advanced foreign language courses.9

Table 4.7. Percentage of high school graduates who completed advanced academic 

coursework, by school subject and race/ethnicity: 2000

Race/ethnicity Science1 Mathematics2 English3

Foreign 

language4

Total 63.1 44.6 33.9 29.8

White, non-Hispanic 63.7 47.4 36.2 30.8

Black, non-Hispanic 60.8 32.4 27.3 19.7

Hispanic 56.2 31.1 26.1 30.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 79.7 68.6 42.7 36.1

American Indian/Alaska Native 43.1 29.2 26.8 17.0

1 Includes students who completed courses in chemistry I, physics I, chemistry II, physics II, or advanced 

biology.

2 Includes students who completed precalculus, calculus, or other courses labeled as “advanced,” such as 

trigonometry.

3 Includes students who completed more honors courses than “below grade level” courses.

4 Includes students who completed 3 years or more of foreign language courses or an Advanced Placement 

course in a foreign language. These figures include only students who studied French, German, Latin, or 

Spanish as these are the only foreign languages commonly offered in high schools for 4 years or more. Some 

students also studied more than one foreign language.

NOTE: Students classified at any particular level need not have taken courses at a lower level and may have 

taken more than one course at that level. For more detailed descriptions of these categories, please see 

Supplemental Note 6 in The Condition of Education, 2003 and 2004. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education, 

2003 (NCES 2003-077) and The Condition of Education, 2004 (NCES 2004-077), based on National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 2000.

9

 Figures for foreign language include only students who studied French, German, Latin, or Spanish, as these 

are the only foreign languages commonly offered in high schools for 4 years or more.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 67

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.7. Percentage of high school graduates who completed advanced academic 

courses, by school subject and race/ethnicity: 2000

Academic subject

Percent

Science1 Mathematics2 English3 Foreign language4

0

20

40

60

80

10

30

50

70

90

100

64 61

56

80

43 47

32 31

69

29

36

27 26

43

27 31

20

31

36

17

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

1 Includes students who completed courses in chemistry I, physics I, chemistry II, physics II, or advanced 

biology.

2 Includes students who completed precalculus, calculus, or other courses labeled as “advanced,” such as 

trigonometry.

3 Includes students who completed more honors courses than “below grade level” courses.

4 Includes students who completed 3 years or more of foreign language courses or an Advanced Placement 

course in a foreign language. These figures include only students who studied French, German, Latin, or 

Spanish as these are the only foreign languages commonly offered in high schools for 4 years or more. Some 

students also studied more than one foreign language.

NOTE: Students classified at any particular level need not have taken courses at a lower level and may have 

taken more than one course at that level. For more detailed descriptions of these categories, please see 

Supplemental Note 6 in The Condition of Education, 2003 and 2004.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education, 

2003 (NCES 2003-077) and The Condition of Education, 2004 (NCES 2004-077), based on National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 2000.
68 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.8 Advanced Placement Exams

Between 1999 and 2003, the number of American Indian/Alaska Native high school students 

taking Advanced Placement tests increased.

Students who take Advanced Placement (AP) 

courses in high school are eligible to take the 

corresponding AP examination and may earn 

college credit for scores above a minimum threshold. Currently, there are 34 AP exams available 

across 19 subject areas. Between 1999 and 

2003, the number of American Indian/Alaska 

Native students taking AP exams in the 12th

grade increased 25 percent, which was a lower 

rate of increase than that for students overall 

(35 percent). Over the same time period, each 

other racial/ethnic group increased in both the 

number of test-takers and the percentage those 

test-takers represented in their race/ethnicity’s 

12th-grade population.

American Indian/Alaska Native students scored, 

on average, consistently below the national average, but above Black students on the calculus, 

English language and composition, chemistry, 

and U.S. history AP examinations. 

Table 4.8a. Number and percent change of 12th-grade students taking Advanced Placement 

(AP) examinations, by race/ethnicity: 1999 to 2003

Race/ethnicity 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Percent 

change, 

1999 to 

2003

Total1 349,300 378,540 407,572 440,916 470,398 34.7

White, non-Hispanic 234,307 262,399 280,165 302,463 321,074 37.0

Black, non-Hispanic 16,942 19,469 21,027 23,105 25,649 51.4

Hispanic 28,501 33,641 37,438 41,429 47,233 65.7

Asian/Asian American 37,182 41,538 44,539 48,040 50,710 36.4

American Indian/Alaska Native 1,679 1,779 1,799 1,948 2,106 25.4

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: The College Board collects race/ethnic information based on the categories American Indian/Alaskan, 

Asian/Asian American, Black/Afro-American, Latino: Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, Other Latino, White, 

and Other. Black, non-Hispanic refers to test-takers who identified themselves as Black/Afro-American, and 

Hispanic refers to the sum of all Latino subgroups. Pacific Islander may or may not be included in Asian/Asian 

American. 

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report, 1999 to 2003.

Table 4.8b. Average scores of 12th-grade students on Advanced Placement (AP) examinations, 

by subject and race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity Calculus1

English language 

and composition Chemistry U.S. history

Total 3.1 3.0 2.7 2.7

White, non-Hispanic 3.2 3.1 2.8 2.8

Black, non-Hispanic 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.9

Hispanic 2.4 2.4 1.9 2.1

Asian/Asian American 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.8

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.5 2.6 1.9 2.3

1 Averages combined from Calculus AB and Calculus BC examinations.

NOTE: The College Board collects racial/ethnic information based on the categories American Indian/Alaskan, 

Asian/Asian American, Black/ Afro-American, Latino: Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, Other Latino, White, and 

Other. Black, non-Hispanic refers to test-takers who identified themselves as Black/Afro-American, and Hispanic 

refers to the sum of all Latino subgroups. Pacific Islander may or may not be included in Asian/Asian American. 

The scores for all AP examinations range from 0 to 5.

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report 2003. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 69

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.8. Average scores on Advanced Placement (AP) tests, by subject and 

race/ethnicity: 2003

Subject

Score

Calculus1 English language and

composition

Chemistry U.S. history

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

0

1

2

3

4

5

3.2

2.2 2.4

3.2

2.5

3.1

2.2 2.4

3.1

2.6 2.8

1.7 1.9

2.9

1.9

2.8

1.9 2.1

2.8

2.3

1 Averages combined from Calculus AB and Calculus BC examinations.

NOTE: The College Board collects racial/ethnic information based on the categories American Indian/Alaskan, 

Asian/Asian American, Black/Afro-American, Latino: Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, Other Latino, White, 

and Other. Black, non-Hispanic refers to test-takers who identified themselves as Black/Afro-American, and 

Hispanic refers to the sum of all Latino subgroups. Pacific Islander may or may not be included in Asian/Asian 

American. The scores for all AP examinations range from 0 to 5.

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report 2003. 
70 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

4.9 Student Performance on College Entrance Examinations

American Indians/Alaska Natives score lower, on average, than Whites on the SAT and ACT.

The diversity of the student population taking the SAT is increasing. In 2004, minorities 

represented 37 percent of SAT takers, compared 

to 31 percent in 1996. The 2004 SAT-taking 

population was 63 percent White, 12 percent 

Black, 10 percent Hispanic, 10 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, 1 percent American Indian/Alaska 

Native, and 4 percent other racial/ethnic groups 

(appendix table A-4.9).

On average, American Indian/Alaska Native 

students who elected to take the SAT college 

entrance exam in 2004 scored below the national 

average on both the verbal and mathematics sections of the exam. However, they scored higher, 

on average, than Black and Hispanic collegebound seniors. Between 1996 and 2004, the 

gap widened between the average verbal scores 

of American Indians/Alaska Natives and those 

of the total student population tested. In 1996, 

American Indian/Alaska Native students scored 

22 points below the average verbal scores of all 

students; this increased to 25 points in 2004. 

The gap decreased slightly between the average 

mathematics scores of American Indian/Alaska 

Native students and those of all students, from 

31 points in 1996 to 30 points in 2004. From 

2003 to 2004, American Indian/Alaska Native 

students’ average verbal score increased by 3 

points and their average mathematics score 

increased by 6 points. The average scores of 

all students increased by 1 point in verbal and 

decreased by 1 point in mathematics during the 

same time period.

Table 4.9a. Average SAT scores for college-bound seniors, by race/ethnicity: 1996 to 2004

Year Total1 White Black

Mexican 

American

Puerto 

Rican

Other 

Hispanic/ 

Latino

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Verbal

1996 505 526 434 455 452 465 496 483

1997 505 526 434 451 454 466 496 475

1998 505 526 434 453 452 461 498 480

1999 505 527 434 453 455 463 498 484

2000 505 528 434 453 456 461 499 482

2001 506 529 433 451 457 460 501 481

2002 504 527 430 446 455 458 501 479

2003 507 529 431 448 456 457 508 480

2004 508 528 430 451 457 461 507 483

Mathematics

1996 508 523 422 459 445 466 558 477

1997 511 526 423 458 447 468 560 475

1998 512 528 426 460 447 466 562 483

1999 511 528 422 456 448 464 560 481

2000 514 530 426 460 451 467 565 481

2001 514 531 426 458 451 465 566 479

2002 516 533 427 457 451 464 569 483

2003 519 534 426 457 453 464 575 482

2004 518 531 427 458 452 465 577 488

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Scores for both Verbal and Mathematics range from 0 to 800.

SOURCE: College Entrance Examination Board, College Bound Seniors Report, 1996 to 2004.

(Continued on page 72.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 71

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Figure 4.9. Average SAT scores for college-bound seniors, by race/ethnicity: 2004

Average score

Race/ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Other Hispanic/Latino

Puerto Rican

Mexican American

Black

White

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Mathematics

Verbal

528

531

430

427

451

458

457

452

461

465

507

577

483

488

NOTE: Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Scores for both Verbal and Mathematics range from 0 to 800.

SOURCE: College Entrance Examination Board, College Bound Seniors Report, 2004.
72 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

The second most common college entrance 

examination is the ACT. Although the SAT and 

ACT measure distinct constructs, scores on the 

two tests are highly related. Composite scores 

below 19 on the ACT indicate minimal readiness 

for college, and students receiving such scores are 

likely to need additional precollege classes (ACT 

Program 2002). The average score in 2004 for 

American Indian/Alaska Native students was 19.5 

for English and 19.9 for mathematics—about the 

same as Mexican-American (18.3 and 19.4) and 

Puerto Rican/other Hispanic students (19.1 and 

19.9), higher than that for Black students (17.2 

and 17.5), and lower than those for White (22.5 

and 22.4) and Asian/Pacific Islander students 

(21.7 and 23.6). 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 73

Chapter 4 — Academics and Achievement

Table 4.9b. Average ACT scores by subject and race/ethnicity: 1997 to 2004

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanicMexicanAmerican

Puerto Rican/ 

other 

Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

English

1997 20.3 22.2 17.4 18.9 19.2 21.2 19.5

1998 20.4 22.2 17.5 18.7 19.9 21.3 19.7

1999 20.5 22.4 17.5 18.7 20.0 21.3 19.8

2000 20.5 22.3 17.4 18.6 19.8 21.3 19.7

2001 20.5 21.3 16.2 17.5 18.6 20.7 17.8

2002 20.2 22.2 17.2 18.0 19.3 21.2 19.2

2003 20.3 21.3 16.2 17.2 18.1 20.7 17.7

2004 20.4 22.5 17.2 18.3 19.1 21.7 19.5

Mathematics

1997 20.6 22.3 17.8 20.1 20.3 24.1 20.0

1998 20.8 22.5 17.7 19.8 20.9 24.2 20.0

1999 20.7 22.3 17.7 19.8 20.7 23.8 20.0

2000 20.7 22.4 17.6 19.6 20.6 23.9 20.0

2001 20.7 21.3 16.8 18.7 19.4 23.1 18.4

2002 20.6 22.3 17.3 19.2 20.0 23.6 19.8

2003 20.6 21.3 16.7 18.3 18.9 22.9 18.3

2004 20.7 22.4 17.5 19.4 19.9 23.6 19.9

NOTE: Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Scores for both English and Mathematics range from 0 to 36.

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Reports, 1997 to 2004.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 75

PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

5. Social and Educational Environments

5.1 Parental Education

5.2 Language

5.3 Learning Opportunities at Home

5.4 Principal and Teacher Perceptions

This section examines the social and educational 

environments for learning. It begins with the 

contributions made by parents and others to 

support the education of their children. The resources and support that children receive outside 

of school from parents and others complement, 

reinforce, and add to their school experiences. 

This section includes indicators about parental 

educational attainment, language spoken at 

home, and literacy material available at home. 

This section also includes an indicator that 

compares goals of school principals and problem 

issues perceived by teachers in Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) schools with those in other public 

schools. 

At least four risk factors are associated with 

children’s future academic and socioeconomic 

outcomes: living in a single-parent family, living 

in a family on welfare or receiving food stamps, 

having a mother who has less than a high school 

education, and having parents whose primary 

language is a language other than English. The 

early reading and mathematics skills of children 

with at least one of these risk factors tend to lag 

behind those of children with no risk factors. 

Furthermore, these risk factors are considerably 

more common among children from racial/ethnic minorities than among children from White 

families (U.S. Department of Education 2001). 

As outlined in Chapter 1, American Indian/

Alaska Native children are more likely to live in 

a single-parent family or in poverty than White 

children. The other risk factors—a mother who 

has less than a high school education and parents 

whose primary language is a language other than 

English—will be discussed in this chapter. 

II
76 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

5.1 Parental Education

About 84 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native children ages 6 to 18 have mothers who 

have attained at least a high school education. 

Parents’ educational attainment has been identified as one of several factors positively related to 

children’s academic achievement and socioeconomic levels (Grissmer et al. 1994). In 2003, 

the percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native 

children ages 6 to 18 who had a mother who had 

attained a high school education was similar to 

the percentage of Black children ages 6 to 18 

(both 84 percent). Both Black and American 

Indian/Alaska Native children ages 6 to 18 were 

more likely than Hispanic children of the same 

age, but less likely than White children of the 

same age, to have mothers who had attained a 

high school education (84 percent vs. 57 percent 

and 93 percent, respectively). Also, American 

Indian/Alaska Native children were more likely 

than Hispanic children, but less likely than White 

children, to have fathers who had attained at 

least a high school education (86 percent vs. 57 

percent and 92 percent, respectively). 

Table 5.1. Percentage of children ages 6 to 18 whose parents had completed high school, by 

race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity Mother Father

Total1 85.4 85.2

White, non-Hispanic 93.1 91.8

Black, non-Hispanic 84.2 84.6

Hispanic 57.2 57.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 86.5 87.8

American Indian/Alaska Native 83.7 85.9

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Parents include adoptive and step-parents but exclude parents not residing in the same household as 

their children.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 77

Chapter 5 — Social and Educational Environments

Figure 5.1. Percentage of children ages 6 to 18 whose parents had completed high school, 

by race/ethnicity: 2003

Percent

Mother Father

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 93

84

57

86 84

92

85

57

88 86

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

NOTE: Parents include adoptive and step-parents but exclude parents not residing in the same household as 

their children. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March 2003.
78 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

5.2 Language

The majority of American Indian/Alaska Native public school 8th-graders come from homes in 

which English is the predominant spoken language. 

In 2003, 51 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native public school 8th-graders reported living in 

homes where no other language besides English 

was spoken. Twenty-seven percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native public school 8th-graders 

reported a language other than English was 

spoken once in a while, and 22 percent reported 

a language other than English was spoken at 

least half the time at home. The percentage of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives who reported 

that people in their homes never speak a language 

other than English was 51 percent, compared 

to 9 percent for Hispanics and 11 percent for 

Asian/Pacific Islanders. American Indians/Alaska 

Natives were less likely than Hispanics and Asian/

Pacific Islanders (11 percent vs. 47 and 49 percent, respectively), but more likely than Blacks 

(7 percent) and Whites (3 percent) to report that 

people in their homes speak a language other 

than English all or most of the time. 

In 2000, the percentage of American Indian/

Alaska Native students who qualified for limited 

English proficient (LEP) services (11 percent) 

was smaller than the percentage for Hispanics 

(36 percent) and Asian/Pacific Islanders (23 percent), but higher than the percentage for White 

and Black students (both 1 percent). American 

Indian/Alaska Native students who speak a 

language other than English may speak a tribal 

language (Krauss 1996). Currently, there are 

about 175 American Indian/Alaska Native tribal 

languages, many of which are disappearing as 

their speakers become assimilated into Englishspeaking communities.

Table 5.2a. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade public school students who report that 

people in their home speak a language other than English, by frequency of other 

language spoken and their race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity Never Once in a while Half the time

All or most

of the time

Total 58.3 20.8 8.0 12.9

White, non-Hispanic 72.1 21.2 3.3 3.5

Black, non-Hispanic 65.2 21.4 6.0 7.4

Hispanic 9.4 19.6 23.9 47.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 10.8 14.9 25.1 49.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 50.7 27.0 11.7 10.7

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 79

Chapter 5 — Social and Educational Environments

Table 5.2b. Percentage of students who qualify for limited English proficient (LEP) services, 

by race/ethnicity and LEP enrollment status: 2000

Race/ethnicity Total

Enrolled in

LEP services

Not enrolled in

LEP services

Total 7.6 6.8 0.7

White, non-Hispanic 0.8 0.7 0.1

Black, non-Hispanic 1.2 1.0 0.1

Hispanic 36.0 32.5 3.4

Asian/Pacific Islander 23.5 21.3 2.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 11.0 9.9 1.1

NOTE: Students who qualify for LEP services are defined as (1) individuals who were not born in the United 

States or whose native language is a language other than English; (2) individuals who come from environments 

where a language other than English is dominant; and (3) individuals who are American Indian/Alaska Native 

and who come from environments where a language other than English has had a significant impact on their 

level of English language proficiency; and who, by reason thereof, have sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, 

writing, or understanding the English language. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR), Elementary and Secondary School Survey 

(E&S), 2000.

Figure 5.2. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade public school students who report that 

people in their home speak a language other than English, by frequency of other 

language spoken and race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Percent

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

White, non-Hispanic

 Total

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

58 21 8 13

72 21 3 3

65 21 6 7

9 20 24 47

11 15 25 49

51 27 12 11

Never Once in a while Half the time All or most of the time

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), National Assessment 

of Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.
80 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

5.3 Learning Opportunities at Home

Among 8th-graders in public schools, 62 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native students 

reported having more than 25 books at home, lower than the percentage of White and Asian/

Pacific Islander students, but higher than that of Hispanic students. 

In 2003, American Indian/Alaska Native 8thgraders attending public schools were less likely 

to report having more than 25 books in their 

home than the total, White, and Asian/Pacific 

Islander populations of 8th-grade public school 

students (62 percent vs. 70 percent, 80 percent, 

and 69 percent, respectively). American Indian/

Alaska Native students were more likely to report 

having more than 25 books at home than Hispanic public school 8th-graders (46 percent).

A similar pattern is seen with access to encyclopedias and magazines. American Indian/Alaska 

Native 8th-graders were less likely to have regular 

access to encyclopedias at home than the total 

population of their 8th-grade peers (75 percent 

vs. 83 percent), as well as their White, Black, 

and Asian/Pacific Islander peers (87 percent, 

79 percent, and 83 percent, respectively). Additionally, American Indians/Alaska Natives 

were less likely than all 8th-graders and their 

White and Black 8th-grade peers to have access to magazines (63 percent vs. 72 percent, 

78 percent, and 66 percent, respectively). On 

the other hand, American Indian/Alaska Native 

students were more likely to report having access to encyclopedias and magazines at home 

than their Hispanic counterparts (75 percent 

vs. 71 percent, and 63 percent vs. 57 percent, 

respectively). 

The percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native 8th-grade public school students reporting 

regular access to a newspaper at home is similar 

to the percentages for the total and Asian/Pacific 

Islander students (46 percent, 47 percent, and 

46 percent, respectively). American Indian/Alaska 

Native 8th-grade public school students were less 

likely than their White counterparts and more 

likely than their Hispanic counterparts to have 

regular access to a newspaper at home (46 percent 

vs. 50 percent and 34 percent, respectively).
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 81

Chapter 5 — Social and Educational Environments

Table 5.3. Percentage of 8th-grade students in public schools with selected literacy 

resources at home, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

More than

25 books

 An

encyclopedia

 Regular access

to magazines

Regular access

to newspapers

Total 70.0 82.9 71.6 46.5

White, non-Hispanic 79.6 87.1 77.6 50.1

Black, non-Hispanic 58.0 79.5 66.4 44.5

Hispanic 45.5 70.5 57.4 34.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 69.4 83.1 60.1 46.1

American Indian/Alaska Native 62.4 75.1 63.0 46.3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.

Figure 5.3. Percentage of 8th-grade students in public schools with more than 25 books at 

home, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Percent

Race/ethnicity

White, nonHispanicTotal Black, nonHispanicHispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

70

80

58

46

69

62

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.
82 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

5.4 Principal and Teacher Perceptions

Most principals in public schools serving American Indian/Alaska Native students report that 

basic literacy is one of the most important goals for students to achieve. Over 50 percent of 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) teachers report that students’ coming to school unprepared is a 

serious problem in their schools.

In the 1999–2000 school year, 80 percent of 

principals across all schools reported that basic 

literacy is one of the most important goals for 

their students. Differences appeared, however, 

between principals of public schools and principals of BIA schools regarding other student 

goals. Although academic excellence and work 

habits/self-discipline were the second and 

third most frequently endorsed goals among 

principals of both BIA and non-BIA public 

schools, principals of non-BIA public schools 

(which serve about 90 percent of the American 

Indian/Alaska Native student population) were 

more likely than principals of BIA schools to 

report that these were among their three most 

important goals for their students. Principals 

of BIA schools were more likely to focus on 

personal growth and multicultural awareness 

than principals of public schools.

Teachers in public schools with large American 

Indian/Alaska Native populations (public schools 

with 25 percent or more enrollment of American 

Indian/Alaska Native students and BIA schools) 

were more likely to identify serious problems in 

the school such as students coming to school 

unprepared, lack of parent involvement, poverty, 

and student apathy, than were teachers in public 

schools with less than 25 percent enrollment 

of American Indian/Alaska Native students. A 

higher percentage of BIA teachers than public 

school teachers reported student absenteeism as 

a serious problem in their school. 

Table 5.4a. Percentage of principals rating each of eight goals as among the three most 

important goals for students in their schools, by school type: 1999–2000

Student goal All principals

Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) 

schools1

Non-BIA public 

schools with 

25 percent or 

more American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native student 

enrollment

Non-BIA public 

schools with 

less than 25 

percent American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native student 

enrollment

Basic literacy skills 80.2 83.8 84.0 80.1

Academic excellence 69.5 55.9 65.1 69.6

Work habits/self-discipline 59.8 49.6 60.3 59.8

Personal growth 32.4 40.6 33.2 32.4

Human relations skills 25.1 20.6 16.9 25.2

Occupational/vocational skills 12.9 12.5 17.9 12.8

Multicultural awareness 11.2 28.9 13.1 11.2

Specific moral values 8.9 8.1 9.6 8.9

1 BIA-funded schools.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey 

(SASS), “Public School Survey,” “Public Charter School Survey,” and “Indian School Survey,” 1999–2000
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 83

Chapter 5 — Social and Educational Environments

Table 5.4b. Percentage of teachers who view certain issues as serious problems in their 

schools, by school type: 1999–2000 

Problem All teachers

Bureau of

Indian Affairs

(BIA) schools1

Non-BIA public 

schools with 

25 percent or 

more American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native student 

enrollment

Non-BIA public 

schools with 

less than 

25 percent 

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native student 

enrollment

Students coming to school unprepared 29.5 50.7 46.9 29.4

Lack of parent involvement 23.7 46.3 40.2 23.5

Student apathy 20.6 32.6 31.0 20.5

Poverty 19.2 45.6 41.0 19.0

Student disrespect for teachers 17.2 29.8 23.8 17.1

Student absenteeism 13.8 38.5 29.4 13.7

Student tardiness 10.1 19.9 15.1 10.1

Student use of alcohol 7.4 16.9 14.8 7.3

Student drug abuse 6.0 20.9 13.0 5.9

Physical conflicts among students 4.8 10.2 7.3 4.8

Students cutting class 4.7 16.8 7.9 4.7

Students dropping out 4.6 21.4 11.8 4.5

Poor student health 4.3 11.2 8.5 4.2

Student pregnancy 3.7 6.3 7.3 3.6

Vandalism of school property 3.4 13.2 6.1 3.4

Robbery or theft 2.4 8.4 5.8 2.3

Teacher absenteeism 2.2 9.1 2.9 2.2

Student possession of weapons 0.8 1.6 1.3 0.8

1 BIA-funded schools.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey 

(SASS), “Public School Survey,” “Public Charter School Survey,” and “Indian School Survey,” 1999–2000.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 85

PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

6. Student Behaviors

6.1 Access to Computers

6.2 Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drug Use

6.3 Violence on School Grounds

6.4 Leisure Activities

The indicators in this section examine student 

activities in order to better understand the social 

environment of American Indian/Alaska Native 

and other students. These indicators explore 

how students use their leisure time and provide 

a snapshot of student access to computers. 

Important indicators of at-risk behavior, such 

as measures of student exposure to drugs and 

violence are also examined in this section. 

II
86 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

6.1 Access to Computers

In 2003, American Indian/Alaska Native students were less likely than White and Asian/Pacific 

Islander students to use computers at home.

Exposure to computers at home may help young 

people build necessary computer literacy skills. 

In 2003, 78 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native, 80 percent of Black, and 75 percent of 

Hispanic 8th-graders in public schools reported 

using a computer at home. In contrast, 93 percent of White and 94 percent of Asian/Pacific 

Islander 8th-graders reported using a computer 

at home.

Table 6.1. Percentage of 8th-grade students in public schools who use a computer at home, 

by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity Use a computer at home

Total 88

White, non-Hispanic 93

Black, non-Hispanic 80

Hispanic 75

Asian/Pacific Islander 94

American Indian/Alaska Native 78

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 87

Chapter 6 — Student Behaviors

Figure 6.1. Percentage of 8th-grade students in public schools who use a computer at home, 

by race/ethnicity: 2003

Percent

Race/ethnicity

White, nonHispanicTotal Black, nonHispanicHispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

70

80

58

46

69

62

88

93

80

75

94

78

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.
88 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

6.2 Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drug Use

Twenty percent of American Indian/Alaska Native children between the ages of 12 and 17 had 

used alcohol in the past month. American Indian/Alaska Native students were more likely than 

other racial/ethnic groups to have used marijuana in the past month.

In 2003, 20 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native children between the ages of 12 and 17 

reported the use of alcohol in the past month. 

Twenty percent of White, 11 percent of Black, 

and 16 percent of Hispanic children reported the 

use of alcohol in the past month.

American Indians/Alaska Natives between the 

ages of 12 and 17 were more likely to have 

smoked cigarettes in the past month than their 

White, Black, and Hispanic peers: 26 percent of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives had smoked 

cigarettes, compared to 15 percent of Whites, 

7 percent of Blacks, and 9 percent of Hispanics.

In 2003, a higher percentage of American Indians/Alaska Natives between the ages of 12 and 

17 used marijuana in the past month than their 

White, Black, and Hispanic counterparts. Specifically, 16 percent of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives had used marijuana in the past month, 

compared to 9 percent of Whites, 6 percent of 

Blacks, and 7 percent of Hispanics. 

Table 6.2. Percentage of children ages 12 to 17 who used alcohol, smoked cigarettes, or 

used marijuana, by selected time period and race/ethnicity: 2003

Alcohol Cigarettes Marijuana

Race/ethnicity Lifetime1 Past month Lifetime1 Past month Lifetime1 Past month

Total2 43.1 17.7 32.1 12.6 20.1 8.0

White, non-Hispanic 45.3 20.3 34.7 15.2 21.3 9.0

Black, non-Hispanic 36.0 10.5 25.0 6.8 17.7 6.4

Hispanic 45.0 16.4 31.0 9.4 19.4 6.8

American Indian/

Alaska Native 48.1 19.5 52.3 25.5 38.4 15.9

1 Lifetime refers to having used specified substances at any point during a respondent’s lifetime.

2 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: This survey reported estimates for Asian subgroups separately, so no overall estimate is included. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration, Office of Applied Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2002 and 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 89

Chapter 6 — Student Behaviors

Figure 6.2. Percentage of children ages 12 to 17 who used alcohol, smoked cigarettes, or 

used marijuana in the past month, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Substance

Percent

Alcohol Cigarettes Marijuana

0

10

20

30

40

50

20

11

16

20

15

7 9

26

9

6 7

16

White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native

NOTE: This survey reported estimates for Asian subgroups separately, so no overall estimate is included. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration, Office of Applied Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2002 and 2003.
90 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

6.3 Violence on School Grounds

Twenty-four percent of American Indian/Alaska Native high school students have been in a 

physical fight on school property in the past year. 

In 2003, American Indian/Alaska Native high 

school students were more likely than the total 

population of their peers to report having been 

threatened or injured with a weapon on school 

property (22 percent vs. 9 percent) and being in 

a physical fight on school property (24 percent 

vs. 13 percent).

In 2003, American Indian/Alaska Native high 

school students (22 percent) were also more 

likely than Black (11 percent), Hispanic (9 percent), and White (8 percent) students to report 

being threatened or injured with a weapon on 

school property in the past 12 months. American Indian/Alaska Native high school students 

(24 percent) were more likely than Asian and 

White students (13 percent and 10 percent, 

respectively) to report being in a fight on school 

property on one or more of the past 30 days. 

American Indian/Alaska Native high school 

students (13 percent) were more likely than 

White (6 percent) and Hispanic (6 percent) 

students to report carrying a weapon to school 

over the same period.

Table 6.3. Percentage of high school students who reported that they were threatened or 

injured with a weapon on school property, engaged in a physical fight on school 

property, or carried a weapon to school, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Were threatened

or injured

with a weapon1

Engaged in a 

physical fight1

Carried

a weapon2

Total3 9.2 12.8 6.1

White, non-Hispanic 7.8 10.0 5.5

Black, non-Hispanic 10.9 17.1 6.9

Hispanic 9.4 16.7 6.0

Asian4 11.5 13.1 6.6

American Indian/Alaska Native 22.1 24.2 12.9

1 In the past 12 months.

2 On one or more of the past 30 days.

3 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

4 This survey separated Asians from Pacific Islanders. This category does not include Pacific Islanders.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System 

(YRBSS), “Youth Risk Behavior Survey” (YRBS), 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 91

Chapter 6 — Student Behaviors

Figure 6.3. Percentage of high school students who reported that they were threatened or 

injured with a weapon on school property, engaged in a physical fight on school 

property, or carried a weapon to school, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Type of violence

Percent

White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native

Were threatened or 

injured with a weapon1

Engaged in a physical fight

1 Carried a weapon2

0

10

20

30

40

50

8

11 9 11

22

10

17 17

13

24

6 7 6 7

13

Asian3

1 In the past 12 months.

2 On one or more occasions in the past 30 days.

3 This category does not include Pacific Islanders.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System 

(YRBSS), “Youth Risk Behavior Survey” (YRBS), 2003.
92 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION II — PREPRIMARY, ELEMENTARY, AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

6.4 Leisure Activities

Forty-seven percent of American Indian/Alaska Native 8th-graders read for fun at least one to 

two times each week. 

In 2003, 47 percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native 8th-graders reported that they read for 

fun on their own time at least 1–2 times a week. 

Thirty-one percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native 8th-graders watched 4 or more hours of 

television or videotapes each day. American 

Indians/Alaska Natives (11 percent) were less 

likely than their Black or Hispanic peers (32 

and 17 percent, respectively) to have reported 

watching 6 or more hours of television or 

videotapes each day. 

Table 6.4a. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students in public schools according to 

frequency of reading for fun, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Never or

hardly ever

1–2 times

 a month

1–2 times

 a week

Almost

 every day

Total 30 25 26 19

White, non-Hispanic 32 24 23 21

Black, non-Hispanic 26 27 30 17

Hispanic 32 27 28 13

Asian/Pacific Islander 20 22 31 27

American Indian/Alaska Native 32 21 29 18

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.

Table 6.4b. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students in public schools according to hours 

of television or videotapes watched daily outside of school hours, by race/

ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity None

1 hour

or less 2 to 3 hours 4 to 5 hours

6 hours

or more

Total 4 22 41 18 15

White, non-Hispanic 4 25 44 16 11

Black, non-Hispanic 4 12 29 24 32

Hispanic 4 19 40 20 17

Asian/Pacific Islander 6 26 40 17 11

American Indian/Alaska Native 4 22 42 20 11

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress, Reading Assessment, 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 93

Chapter 6 — Student Behaviors

Figure 6.4. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students in public schools according to 

frequency of reading for fun, by race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Percent

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

White, non-Hispanic

 Total

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Never or hardly ever 1–2 times a month 1–2 times a week Almost every day

30 25 26 19

32 24 23 21

26 27 30 17

32 27 28 13

20 22 31 27

32 21 29 18

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessment, 2003.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 95

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7. Postsecondary Education

7.1 Enrollment in Colleges and Universities

7.2 Tribally Controlled Colleges

7.3 Financial Aid

7.4 Graduation Rates

7.5 Degrees Conferred by Degree-Granting Institutions

7.6 Bachelor’s Degrees Earned by Field

7.7 Master’s and Doctoral Degrees Earned by Field

7.8 Faculty in Degree-Granting Institutions

This section contains indicators that examine 

the postsecondary education of American Indians/Alaska Natives, including college access, 

completion rates, types of degrees earned, and 

faculty composition. Access is measured by 

indicators on enrollment in 2- and 4-year institutions, as well as attendance at tribal colleges. 

College completion is measured by degrees 

earned at the associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, 

and doctoral levels. Comparative information 

is also presented on the fields of study in which 

degrees are earned. Data on the distribution of 

faculty by race/ethnicity provide some additional 

information about the social context of American 

Indian/Alaska Native college education.

III
96 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.1 Enrollment in Colleges and Universities

Enrollment of American Indian/Alaska Native students in colleges and universities more than 

doubled in the past 25 years. American Indian/Alaska Native students accounted for 1 percent 

of the 2002 total enrollment. 

American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment in 

public and private degree-granting institutions 

more than doubled between 1976 and 2002. In 

1976, about 76,100 American Indians/Alaska 

Natives were enrolled in colleges and universities. Enrollment grew steadily from 1976 and 

reached 102,800 in 1990. During the 1990s 

enrollments continued to increase, and by 2002 

almost 166,000 American Indian/Alaska Native 

students were enrolled in higher education 

(appendix table A-7.1a). 

More than half of the American Indian/Alaska 

Native students were enrolled in 4-year degreegranting institutions in 2002. Between 1976 and 

1994, more American Indians/Alaska Natives 

were enrolled in 2-year postsecondary institutions than in 4-year postsecondary institutions. 

During the mid-1990s, the number in 4-year 

institutions began to surpass the number in 

2-year institutions (appendix table A-7.1a).

Between 1976 and 2002, college and university enrollment of male and female American 

Indians/Alaska Natives grew at different rates. 

In 1976, there was near parity in the number 

of American Indian/Alaska Native males and 

females enrolled in degree-granting colleges and 

universities (38,500 and 37,600, respectively). 

By 1978, the number of females enrolled exceeded, and has continued to grow more quickly 

than, the number of males enrolled. By 2002, 

there were 100,200 American Indian/Alaska Native females and 65,700 men enrolled in colleges 

and universities, a difference of 20 percentage 

points. Only among Blacks was there a gender 

gap larger than that among American Indians/

Alaska Natives; 28 percentage points separated 

the percentages of enrollment for Black females 

(64 percent) and males (36 percent) in 2002 

(appendix table A-7.1b).

(Continued on page 98.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 97

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.1. American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment in public and private degree-granting 

institutions, by type of institution and sex: Selected years, 1976 to 2002

Enrollment

Type of institution

Year

Total

2-year

4-year

1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

Enrollment

Year

1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

Total

Female

Male

Sex

NOTE: Data from 1976 to 1996 are for institutions of higher education that were accredited by an agency or 

association that was recognized by the U.S. Department of Education, or recognized directly by the Secretary 

of Education. Data from 1996 and later years are for degree-granting institutions. The new degree-granting classification is very similar to the earlier higher education classification, except that it includes some 

additional institutions, primarily 2-year colleges, and excludes a few higher education institutions that did not 

award associate or higher degrees. Data for 1999 were imputed using alternative procedures. Detail may not 

sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall Enrollment in 

Colleges and Universities” surveys; and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Fall 

Enrollment” surveys, 1976 to 1999, and Spring 2001 through Spring 2003 surveys.
98 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

Despite more American Indians/Alaska Natives 

enrolling in college and university than ever before, American Indians/Alaska Natives composed 

only about 1 percent of the total college and 

university enrollment in 2002, an increase from 

0.7 percent in 1976. College and university enrollment became much more diverse over these 

years. Minorities, including American Indians/

Alaska Natives, represented 16 percent of the total 

enrollment in 1976, whereas they represented 

30 percent of the total enrollment in 2002.

In 2003, American Indians/Alaska Natives between the ages of 18 and 24 were less likely to 

be enrolled in a college or university than their 

White, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Black peers. 

Eighteen percent of American Indian/Alaska 

Native 18- to 24-year-olds were enrolled in a 

college or university, compared with 42 percent 

of Whites, 60 percent of Asian/Pacific Islanders, 

and 32 percent of Blacks. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 99

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Table 7.1a. Percentage distribution of students enrolled in public and private degree-granting 

institutions, by race/ethnicity and type of institution: 1976, 1980, 1990, and 

2002

Race/ethnicity Total 2-year 4-year

1976

White, non-Hispanic 84.3 80.2 86.6

Minority 15.7 19.8 13.4

Black, non-Hispanic 9.6 11.2 8.7

Hispanic 3.6 5.5 2.5

Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8 2.1 1.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.7 1.1 0.5

1980

White, non-Hispanic 83.5 79.8 85.7

Minority 16.5 20.2 14.3

Black, non-Hispanic 9.4 10.6 8.7

Hispanic 4.0 5.7 3.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 2.4 2.8 2.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.7 1.1 0.5

1990

White, non-Hispanic 79.9 76.4 82.0

Minority 20.1 23.6 18.0

Black, non-Hispanic 9.3 10.1 8.8

Hispanic 5.8 8.2 4.3

Asian/Pacific Islander 4.3 4.2 4.3

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.8 1.1 0.6

2002

White, non-Hispanic 69.5 63.6 73.5

Minority 30.5 36.4 26.5

Black, non-Hispanic 12.4 13.4 11.7

Hispanic 10.4 14.9 7.3

Asian/Pacific Islander 6.7 6.9 6.6

American Indian/Alaska Native 1.0 1.3 0.9

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall Enrollment in 

Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980; and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” 1990 survey, and Spring 2003 survey.

Table 7.1b. Percentage of persons ages 18 to 24 enrolled in colleges or universities, by race/

ethnicity: October 2003

Race/ethnicity Enrolled

Total1 37.8

White, non-Hispanic 41.6

Black, non-Hispanic 32.3

Hispanic 23.5

Asian/Pacific Islander 60.3

American Indian/Alaska Native 17.7

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), unpublished data, 

October 2003.
100 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.2 Tribally Controlled Colleges

Total enrollment in tribally controlled colleges was nearly 16,000 in fall 2002.

In 2002, there were 32 tribally controlled colleges and universities. They were located in 12 

different states, scattered across the West and 

Midwest. Seven of those colleges and universities were 4-year institutions, and 25 were 2-year 

institutions.

Tribally controlled colleges and universities share 

many characteristics that differentiate them 

from most colleges and universities. Tribally 

controlled colleges and universities are designed 

to foster environments focused on American 

Indian culture in order to preserve, enhance, and 

promote American Indian languages and traditions (Cahalan et al. 1998). They are intended 

to create learning opportunities for students 

with unique needs. For example, students are 

generally older than 24 years of age and over half 

of the students are single parents. Also, tribally 

controlled colleges may function as community 

resources, providing social services to reservations in isolated areas (American Indian Higher 

Education Consortium 1999).

(Continued on page 102.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 101

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Table 7.2. Number and percentage of American Indians/Alaska Natives enrolled in tribally 

controlled colleges: Fall 2002

College Location Total

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

Percent 

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

Total 15,837 13,024 82.2

Bay Mills Community College Brimlay, MI 430 237 55.1

Blackfeet Community College Browning, MT 418 402 96.2

Cankdeska Cikana Community College Fort Totten, ND 160 157 98.1

Chief Dull Knife College1 Lame Deer, MT 268 207 77.2

College of the Menominee Nation Kashena, WI 530 409 77.2

Crownpoint Institute of Technology Crownpoint, NM 283 279 98.6

D-Q University Davis, CA 251 88 35.1

Diné College Tsaile, AZ 1,822 1,764 96.8

Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College Cloquet, MN 1,315 316 24.0

Fort Belknap College Harlem, MT 158 136 86.1

Fort Berthold Community College New Town, ND 249 233 93.6

Fort Peck Community College Poplar, MT 443 353 79.7

Haskell Indian Nations University Lawrence, KS 887 887 100.0

Institute of American Indian Arts Santa Fe, NM 155 150 96.8

Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwa Community College Hayward, WI 550 421 76.5

Leech Lake Tribal College Cass Lake, MN 244 226 92.6

Little Big Horn College Crow Agency, MT 275 265 96.4

Little Priest Tribal College Winnebago, NE 146 126 86.3

Nebraska Indian Community College Macy, NE 118 90 76.3

Northwest Indian College Bellingham, WA 667 525 78.7

Oglala Lakota College Kyle, SD 1,279 1,124 87.9

Saginaw Chippewa Tribal College Mount Pleasant, MI 41 35 85.4

Salish Kootenai College Pablo, MT 1,109 885 79.8

Sinte Gleska University Rosebud, SD 787 787 100.0

Sisseton Wahpeton Community College Sisseton, SD 285 238 83.5

Si Tanka College Eagle Butte, SD 434 309 71.2

Sitting Bull College Fort Yates, ND 214 190 88.8

Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute Albuquerque, NM 777 777 100.0

Stone Child College Box Elder, MT 83 78 94.0

Turtle Mountain Community College Belcourt, ND 897 833 92.9

United Tribes Technical College Bismarck, ND 463 423 91.4

White Earth Tribal and Community College Mahnomen, MN 99 74 74.7

1 Previously named Dull Knife Memorial College.

NOTE: These colleges are, with few exceptions, located on reservations. They are all members of the American 

Indian Higher Education Consortium. The U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR) maintains 

the U.S. Department of Education Minority Postsecondary Institution listing which includes a listing of tribally 

controlled colleges. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Integrated Postsecondary Education System (IPEDS), Spring 2003.
102 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

The total enrollment in tribally controlled colleges and universities increased by 17 percent, 

from 13,600 in fall 1997 to 15,800 in fall 2002 

(appendix table A-7.2). In 2002, some 13,000 

students were American Indian/Alaska Native, 

representing 82 percent of total enrollment.10

Eight percent of all American Indian/Alaska 

Native college students were enrolled in tribally controlled colleges. American Indian/Alaska 

Native enrollment in tribally controlled colleges 

and universities increased at a faster rate between 

1997 and 2002 than American Indian/Alaska Native college and university enrollment generally 

(32 percent vs. 16 percent; data not shown). 

10 Although all enrollment data group American Indians and Alaska Natives together, it should be noted that 

there are no tribally controlled colleges in Alaska.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 103

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.2. Enrollment in tribally controlled colleges: Fall 1997 to fall 2002

Year

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

0

4,000

8,000

12,000

16,000

13,583 13,940 14,40013,589 14,040

15,837

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

various years, based on Integrated Postsecondary Education System (IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” surveys, 1997 

to 1999, and Spring 2001 through Spring 2003 surveys.
104 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.3 Financial Aid

In the 1999–2000 school year, 56 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native students received 

financial aid. 

In the 1999–2000 school year, 56 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native students received 

financial aid of some kind. Blacks (70 percent) 

were more likely than American Indians/Alaska 

Natives to receive financial aid, while Asian/Pacific Islanders (44 percent) were less likely than 

American Indians/Alaska Natives to receive 

financial aid.

American Indians/Alaska Natives receiving financial aid were awarded, on average, $8,300 for 

the school year. The average amount of financial 

aid received by American Indian/Alaska Native 

students was similar to the average amount of 

aid received by Black students. American Indians/Alaska Natives attending 4-year colleges and 

institutions were awarded more financial aid, on 

average, than Whites and Hispanics attending 

4-year institutions. 

Table 7.3a. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid from any 

source, by race/ethnicity: 1999–2000

Race/ethnicity Percent

Total1 55.3

White, non-Hispanic 53.3

Black, non-Hispanic 69.5

Hispanic 58.3

Asian/Pacific Islander 44.3

American Indian/Alaska Native 56.5

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS), unpublished data, 1999–2000.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 105

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Table 7.3b. Average amount of finanical aid awarded from any source per full-time, full-year 

undergraduate student, by type of aid, race/ethnicity, and type of institution: 

1999–2000

Race/ethnicity Any aid Grants Loans

Total1 $8,500 $4,900 $5,400

White, non-Hispanic 8,700 5,100 5,500

Black, non-Hispanic 8,500 4,700 5,300

Hispanic 7,100 4,200 5,400

Asian/Pacific Islander 9,200 5,800 5,500

American Indian/Alaska Native 8,300 5,200 5,200

Total, 2-year or less1 $5,200 $3,000 $4,700

White, non-Hispanic 5,400 3,000 4,700

Black, non-Hispanic 5,000 3,000 4,400

Hispanic 4,600 2,900 4,900

Asian/Pacific Islander 4,800 3,100 5,300

American Indian/Alaska Native 4,600 3,200 ‡

Total, 4-year1 $9,500 $5,600 $5,600

White, non-Hispanic 9,600 5,600 5,600

Black, non-Hispanic 10,100 5,500 5,500

Hispanic 8,100 4,800 5,500

Asian/Pacific Islander 10,400 6,700 5,400

American Indian/Alaska Native 11,100 6,700 5,700

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Students may receive aid from multiple sources. Data include undergraduates in degree-granting and 

non-degree-granting institutions.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS), unpublished data, 1999–2000.
106 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.4 Graduation Rates

American Indians/Alaska Natives were less likely to earn a bachelor’s or higher degree than 

their peers.

In 2000, the bachelor’s and higher degree graduation rates for American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(who were 12th-graders in 1992) were lower than 

the graduation rates for the total population 

(who were 12th-graders in 1992). Of the American Indian/Alaska Native 1992 12th-graders who 

were likely postsecondary participants, 11 percent received a bachelor’s degree as their highest 

degree by 2000 versus 31 percent for the total 

population of likely postsecondary participants. 

American Indians/Alaska Natives were less likely 

to have received a bachelor’s degree by 2000 

than White (34 percent), Black (24 percent), 

and Asian/Pacific Islander (34 percent) students 

who were likely postsecondary participants. 

Also, of the American Indian/Alaska Native 

1992 12th-graders who were likely postsecondary 

participants, 2 percent received a graduate degree 

by 2000 versus 6 percent of the total population 

of likely postsecondary participants. American 

Indians/Alaska Natives were less likely to have 

received a graduate degree by 2000 than White 

(6 percent) and Asian/Pacific Islander (8 percent) students, but had similar rates as Black 

(2 percent) and Hispanic (3 percent) students. 

All figures are based on the 2000 educational attainment of those who were 12th-graders in 1992 

and who were likely postsecondary participants 

(those for whom transcripts were received or 

requested and those for whose files supported 

postsecondary attendance). 

Table 7.4. Percentage distribution of the highest postsecondary attainment of 1992 12thgraders who were likely postsecondary participants, by race/ethnicity: 2000

Race/ethnicity None Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Some postbaccalaureate

enrollment Graduate

Total 42.1 4.9 8.1 31.0 8.2 5.7

White, non-Hispanic 37.3 4.9 8.5 33.8 9.0 6.4

Black, non-Hispanic 59.2 5.3 4.9 24.1 4.4 2.1

Hispanic 63.1 5.0 8.2 15.1 6.0 2.5

Asian/Pacific Islander 36.5 4.5 7.6 33.6 9.7 8.1

American Indian/

Alaska Native 77.4 1.2 6.1 10.5 3.1 1.7

NOTE: “Likely postsecondary participants” include those for whom transcripts were received, those for whom 

transcripts were requested but not received, and those for whom other evidence in the NELS files supports the 

student’s report of postsecondary attendance. “Some post-baccalaureate enrollment” includes both incomplete 

graduate degrees and nondegree post-baccalaureate work. “Graduate” includes master’s, first-professional, 

and doctoral degrees. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up,” and Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS), 

2000.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 107

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.4. Percentage of 1992 12th-graders who were likely postsecondary participants who 

completed a bachelor’s degree or higher by 2000, by race/ethnicity

Percent

Race/ethnicity

White, nonHispanicTotal Black, nonHispanicHispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

45 49

31

24

51

15

NOTE: “Likely postsecondary participants” include those for whom transcripts were received, those for whom 

transcripts were requested but not received, and those for whom other evidence in the NELS files supports 

the student’s report of postsecondary attendance. “Bachelor’s degree or above” includes bachelor’s degrees, 

incomplete graduate degrees and nondegree post-baccalaureate work, master’s, first-professional, and doctoral 

degrees. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up,” and Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS), 

2000. 
108 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.5 Degrees Conferred by Degree-Granting Institutions

The number of American Indian/Alaska Native students earning degrees has more than doubled 

for each level of degree since 1976.

Between the 1976–77 and 2002–03 school 

years, the number of degrees awarded by colleges 

and universities to American Indians/Alaska 

Natives more than doubled for each level of 

degree. In 1976–77, 2,498 associate’s degrees 

were conferred to American Indians/Alaska Natives. The number steadily increased to 3,871 by 

1990–91. After 1990–91, the rate dramatically 

increased and 7,470 associate’s degrees were 

awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native 

students in 2002–03. This was also the pattern 

for the number of bachelor’s degrees earned by 

American Indian/Alaska Native students. In 

1976–77, 3,326 bachelor’s degrees were awarded; 

by 1990–91, the number increased to 4,583, 

and in 2002–03, 9,803 bachelor’s degrees were 

awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native 

students (appendix table A-7.5). 

The number of post-baccalaureate degrees 

awarded to American Indians/Alaska Natives 

also increased between 1976–77 and 2002–03: 

967 to 2,841 for master’s degrees, 95 to 192 for 

doctoral degrees, and 196 to 586 for first-professional degrees (appendix table A-7.5).

(Continued on page 110.)
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 109

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.5. Number of degrees awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native students, by level 

of degree: 1976–77 to 2002–03

Number

Year ending

1977 1979 1981 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

Associate’s degrees

Master’s degrees

First-professional degrees1

Bachelor’s degrees

Doctoral degrees

1 A degree that signifies both completion of the academic requirements for beginning practice in a given 

profession and a level of professional skill beyond that normally required for a bachelor’s degree. This degree 

usually is based on a program requiring at least 2 academic years of work prior to entrance and a total of at 

least 6 academic years of work to complete the degree program, including both prior required college work 

and the professional program itself. First-professional degrees are awarded in the fields of dentistry, medicine, 

optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, podiatric medicine, veterinary medicine, chiropractic, law, and 

theological professions.

NOTE: For years 1984–85 to 2002–03, reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field 

of degree, and sex were used to impute race/ethnicity for students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. 

Data for 1998–99 were imputed using alternative procedures. Some data may have been revised from 

previously published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” surveys, 1976–77 through 1985–86; 

and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Completions Survey,” (IPEDS-C:87–99), 

1986–87 through 1998–99, and Fall 2000 through 2003. 
110 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

During the same period, American Indians/

Alaska Natives earned a slightly increasing 

share of the degrees at every level. In 1976–77, 

American Indian/Alaska Native students received 0.6 percent of all the associate’s degrees 

awarded, 0.4 percent of all bachelor’s degrees, 

and 0.3 percent each of all master’s, doctoral, 

and first-professional degrees. These percentages 

increased to 1.2 percent for associate’s degrees, 

0.8 percent for bachelor’s degrees, 0.6 percent for 

master’s degrees, 0.6 percent for doctoral degrees, 

and 0.7 percent for first-professional degrees 

awarded in 2002–03 (appendix table A-7.5).

In the 2002–03 academic year, American Indians/Alaska Natives earned more bachelor’s degrees 

than associate’s degrees. American Indian/Alaska 

Native males earned 3,858 bachelor’s degrees and 

2,624 associate’s degrees, while females earned 

5,945 bachelor’s degrees and 4,846 associate’s 

degrees. American Indian/Alaska Native females 

earned more associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, and 

doctoral degrees than American Indian/Alaska 

Native males. American Indian/Alaska Native 

males and females earned the same number of 

first-professional degrees, each with 293.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 111

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Table 7.5. Number and percentage distribution of degrees conferred by degree-granting 

institutions, by race/ethnicity, sex, and type of degree: 2002–03

Race/ethnicity and sex Total Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral

Firstprofessional1

Number of degrees

Total degrees conferred2 2,620,665 632,873 1,348,322 512,676 45,994 80,800

White, non-Hispanic

Male 787,237 178,965 429,958 133,248 13,459 31,607

Female 1,073,063 258,807 564,360 208,554 14,258 27,084

Black, non-Hispanic

Male 82,858 25,523 41,455 12,794 914 2,172

Female 169,261 49,911 82,733 31,477 1,599 3,541

Hispanic

Male 73,377 26,290 35,065 9,247 747 2,028

Female 112,420 39,866 53,976 15,724 819 2,035

Asian/Pacific Islander

Male 72,545 14,042 40,151 12,480 1,247 4,625

Female 87,312 18,561 47,660 14,755 1,169 5,167

American Indian/Alaska Native

Male 7,870 2,624 3,858 1,022 73 293

Female 13,022 4,846 5,945 1,819 119 293

Percentage distribution

Total degrees conferred2 100.0 24.1 51.4 19.6 1.8 3.1

White, non-Hispanic

Male 100.0 22.7 54.6 16.9 1.7 4.0

Female 100.0 24.1 52.6 19.4 1.3 2.5

Black, non-Hispanic

Male 100.0 30.8 50.0 15.4 1.1 2.6

Female 100.0 29.5 48.9 18.6 0.9 2.1

Hispanic

Male 100.0 35.8 47.8 12.6 1.0 2.8

Female 100.0 35.5 48.0 14.0 0.7 1.8

Asian/Pacific Islander

Male 100.0 19.4 55.3 17.2 1.7 6.4

Female 100.0 21.3 54.6 16.9 1.3 5.9

American Indian/Alaska Native

Male 100.0 33.3 49.0 13.0 0.9 3.7

Female 100.0 37.2 45.7 14.0 0.9 2.3

1 A degree that signifies both completion of the academic requirements for beginning practice in a given profession and a level of professional skill beyond that normally required for a bachelor’s degree. This degree usually 

is based on a program requiring at least 2 academic years of work prior to entrance and a total of at least 6 

academic years of work to complete the degree program, including both prior required college work and the 

professional program itself. First professional degrees are awarded in the fields of dentistry, medicine, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, podiatric medicine, veterinary medicine, chiropractic, law, and theological 

professions.

2 Includes degrees conferred to nonresident aliens.

NOTE: Numbers within each degree do not sum to totals because degrees conferred to nonresident aliens are 

not shown separately on table. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.
112 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.6 Bachelor’s Degrees Earned by Field

While American Indian/Alaska Native students were more likely to have earned their bachelor’s 

degrees in business than in other fields, they were less likely to have earned their degrees in business 

than students of other racial/ethnic groups.

In the 2002–03 school year, business, education, 

and social sciences were the most popular majors 

among American Indians/Alaska Natives earning 

bachelor’s degrees. Twenty percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native college and university 

graduates studied business, while 11 percent 

studied a social science or history and 10 percent 

studied education. As compared with 2002–03 

graduates in general, American Indians/Alaska 

Natives were less likely to earn business degrees 

and more likely to earn education degrees. There 

was a difference of less than 1 percent between 

the percentage of degree recipients of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives and the total population 

for psychology, health professions and related 

clinical sciences, and biological and biomedical 

sciences. 

Table 7.6. Percentage of bachelor’s degrees conferred in total and to American Indians/

Alaska Natives by degree-granting institutions in the 10 most popular fields of 

study: 2002–03

Field of study Total

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Biological and biomedical sciences 4.5 3.9

Business 21.8 20.0

Communications, journalism, and related programs 

and communications technologies 5.2 3.7

Computer and information sciences 4.3 3.0

Education 7.8 10.5

Engineering and engineering technologies 5.7 4.7

Health professions and related clinical sciences 5.3 5.4

Psychology 5.8 5.8

Social sciences and history 10.6 11.1

Visual and performing arts 5.3 4.7

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education 

Statistics, 2004 (forthcoming), based on Integrated Postsecondary Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 113

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.6. Percentage of bachelor’s degrees conferred in total and to American Indians/

Alaska Natives by degree-granting institutions in the 10 most popular fields of 

study: 2002–03

Field of study

Percent

Total American Indian/Alaska Native

Visual and performing arts

Social sciences and history

Psychology

Health professions and related clinical sciences

Engineering and engineering technologies

Education

Computer and information sciences

Communications, journalism, and related

programs and communications technologies

Business

Biological and biomedical sciences

0 10 20 30 40 50

4

4

22 20

5

4

4

3

8 10

6

5

5

5

6

6

11

11

5

5

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Integrated Postsecondary Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003. 
114 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.7 Master’s and Doctoral Degrees Earned by Field

More than half of the master’s degrees awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native students were 

in education or business. American Indians/Alaska Natives were more likely to have earned their 

doctoral degrees in education and psychology than other degree recipients.

In the 2002–03 school year, 34 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native master’s degree 

recipients studied education and 19 percent 

studied business. These two fields were also the 

most frequently studied for the general population, with 29 percent of the master’s degrees 

being awarded for education and 25 percent for 

business in the general population.

In 2002–03, American Indians/Alaska Natives 

earning doctoral degrees were most likely to earn 

their degrees in education, psychology, and social 

sciences and history. Twenty-five percent earned 

their degrees in education, 20 percent in psychology, and 13 percent in social sciences and history. 

As compared with graduates in general, American Indians/Alaska Natives were more likely to 

earn degrees in education, psychology, and social 

science and history. Doctoral degree earners in 

the general population were more likely than 

American Indian/Alaska Native doctoral degree 

earners to study engineering, physical sciences, 

or biological and biomedical sciences.

Table 7.7. Percentage of master’s and doctoral degrees conferred in total and to American 

Indians/Alaska Natives by degree-granting institutions in the most popular fields 

of study: 2002–03

Field of study Total

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Master’s degrees

Business 24.9 19.1

Computer and information sciences 3.8 1.7

Education 28.8 34.1

Engineering and engineering technologies 6.0 2.9

English language and literature/letters 1.4 1.6

Health professions and related clinical sciences 8.3 10.2

Psychology 3.3 4.5

Public administration and social services 5.1 8.7

Social sciences and history 2.9 2.5

Visual and performing arts 2.3 1.9

Doctoral degrees

Biological sciences/life sciences 10.9 6.1

Business 2.7 1.5

Education 14.9 25.0

Engineering and engineering-related technologies 11.6 6.6

Health professions/related sciences 7.2 6.1

Physical sciences and science technologies 8.4 3.6

Psychology 10.5 19.9

Social sciences and history 8.4 13.3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Integrated Postsecondary Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 115

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.7. Percentage of master’s and doctoral degrees conferred in total and to American 

Indians/Alaska Natives by degree-granting institutions in the most popular fields 

of study: 2002–03

Total American Indian/Alaska Native

Master’s degrees

Percent

Percent

Doctoral degrees

Visual and performing arts

Social sciences and history

Public administration and social 

services

Psychology

Health professions and related clinical

sciences

English language and literature/letters

Engineering and engineering 

technologies

Education

Computer and information sciences

Business

Field of study

Field of study

0 10 20 30 40 50

25

19

4

2

29 34

6

3

1

2

8 10

3 5

5 9

3

2

2

2

Social sciences and history

Psychology

Physical sciences and science

technologies

Health professions/related sciences

Engineering and engineering-related

technologies

Education

Business

Biological sciences/life sciences

0 10 20 30 40 50

11

6

3

2

15

25

12

7

7

6

8

4

10

20

8

13

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Integrated Postsecondary Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003. 
116 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION III — POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

7.8 Faculty in Degree-Granting Institutions

American Indians/Alaska Natives constitute small percentages of faculty in degree-granting 

institutions.

In 2001, American Indians/Alaska Natives 

accounted for about 0.5 percent of faculty in 

degree-granting institutions. Differences by 

level of faculty are apparent. American Indians/Alaska Natives constituted 0.9 percent of 

instructors, but only 0.3 percent of professors 

and 0.4 percent of associate professors. As a point 

of comparison, in 2002 American Indian/Alaska 

Native students made up 1.0 percent of the 

total enrollment in degree-granting institutions 

(indicator 7.1).

Table 7.8. Percentage distribution of full-time instructional faculty in degree-granting 

institutions, by race/ethnicity and academic rank: 2001

Faculty rank

White, nonHispanic

Total

minority 

faculty

Black, nonHispanic Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

Total 84.6 15.4 5.4 3.1 6.4 0.5

Professors 88.8 11.2 3.1 1.9 5.8 0.3

Associate 

professors 84.9 15.1 5.4 2.8 6.6 0.4

Assistant 

professors 81.1 18.9 6.7 3.5 8.3 0.5

Instructors 82.4 17.6 7.3 5.1 4.4 0.9

Lecturers 84.4 15.6 5.9 4.4 4.9 0.4

Other faculty 84.0 16.0 5.4 3.0 7.0 0.6

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics 

2003, based on Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Winter 2001–02.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 117

Chapter 7 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 7.8. Percentage distribution of full-time instructional faculty in degree-granting 

institutions, by race/ethnicity and academic rank: 2001

Faculty rank

Percent

Other faculty

Lecturers

Instructors

Assistant professors

Associate professors

Professors

Total

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

84 5 3 7 0.6

84 6 4 5 0.4

82 7 5 4 0.9

81 7 4 8

85 5 3 7

89 3 2 6

85 5 3 6 0.5

0.3

0.4

0.5

White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander American Indian/Alaska Native

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics 

2003, based on Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Winter 2001–02.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 119

OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION

8. Outcomes of Education

8.1 Educational Attainment

8.2 Unemployment Rates

8.3 Income

8.4 Voting Participation

An important objective of a successful educational 

system is producing an educated, capable, and 

engaged public. This section contains indicators 

on the social and economic characteristics of 

education, measured by unemployment rates, 

income, and voter participation. It is important 

to examine educational attainment since 

education levels are associated with income and 

employment.

IV
120 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION IV — OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION

8.1 Educational Attainment

Thirteen percent of American Indians/Alaska Natives 25 years and older held a bachelor’s or 

graduate degree.

In 2003, 42 percent of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives had attended at least some college. 

Thirty-five percent had finished high school 

without continuing on to postsecondary 

education and 23 percent had not finished high 

school.11 The percentage of American Indians/Alaska Natives who had not finished high 

school was lower when compared to Hispanics 

(43 percent), but higher when compared to 

Whites (11 percent) and Asian/Pacific Islanders 

(12 percent). A lower percentage of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives completed a bachelor’s 

degree only (9 percent) than all other racial/ethnic groups except Hispanics. A lower percentage 

of American Indians/Alaska Natives achieved a 

graduate degree (4 percent) compared to other 

racial/ethnicity groups except Blacks and Hispanics, whose percentages were similar (5 and 

3 percent, respectively).

11 This is different from the status dropout rate of 15 percent reported in indicator 3.3. The 23 percent 

reported here represents adults 25 years and older who have not completed a high school credential. 

The status dropout rate is the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who are out of school and who have not 

completed a high school credential.

Table 8.1. Percentage distribution of adults ages 25 and over, by highest level of educational 

attainment and race/ethnicity: 2003

Highest level of education Total

White,

nonHispanic

Black,

nonHispanic Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

High school dropout 15.4 10.6 19.7 43.0 12.2 22.8

High school completion 32.0 32.9 35.4 27.4 20.7 35.2

Some college 17.2 17.6 20.1 13.0 11.5 22.2

Associate’s degree 8.2 8.8 7.5 5.2 6.8 7.3

Bachelor’s degree 17.9 19.7 12.3 8.3 30.7 9.0

Graduate degree 9.3 10.4 5.2 3.1 18.1 3.6

Master’s degree 6.6 7.4 4.0 2.1 12.2 2.7

Doctoral or professional degree 2.7 3.0 1.1 1.0 5.9 0.9

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March 2003.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 121

Chapter 8 — Outcomes of Education

Figure 8.1. Percentage distribution of adults ages 25 and over, by highest level of education 

and race/ethnicity: 2003

Race/ethnicity

Percent

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

White, non-Hispanic

 Total

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

23 35 22 7 9 4

12 21 12 7 31 18

43 27 13 5 8 3

20 35 20 7 12 5

11 33 18 9 20 10

15 32 17 8 18 9

High school dropout

Some college

Bachelor's degree

High school completion

Associate's degree

Graduate degree1

1 Includes master’s, doctoral, and professional degrees.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March 2003.
122 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION IV — OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION

8.2 Unemployment Rates

Unemployment rates for American Indians/Alaska Natives did not significantly decrease between 

1994 and 2003.

Between 1994 and 2003, the unemployment rate 

for American Indians/Alaska Natives, ages 16 and 

over, fluctuated but did not significantly increase 

or decrease overall. The unemployment rate for 

American Indians/Alaska Natives has remained 

higher than the rate for the general population. 

In 2003, the American Indian/Alaska Native 

unemployment rate (15 percent) was 9 percentage points higher than the general population’s 

rate (6 percent). Whites, Asian/Pacific Islanders, 

and Hispanics had lower unemployment rates 

than American Indians/Alaska Natives in 2003 

(5, 6, and 8 percent, respectively, vs. 15 percent). 

In 2003, the American Indian/Alaska Native 

unemployment rate was three times as high as the 

unemployment rate for the White population.

Table 8.2. Unemployment rates for persons ages 16 and over, by race/ethnicity: 1994 to 

2003

Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

1994 6.5 5.3 11.7 9.9 5.8 11.7

1995 5.4 4.5 8.8 9.0 4.4 12.9

1996 5.5 4.3 10.2 9.4 4.2 12.0

1997 5.1 4.0 10.0 8.2 4.4 10.3

1998 4.7 3.7 8.5 6.9 4.0 9.1

1999 4.2 3.4 7.8 6.2 3.7 11.1

2000 4.1 3.3 7.1 6.2 3.4 9.6

2001 4.4 3.5 8.2 6.5 2.8 9.5

2002 5.8 4.8 10.4 7.5 5.5 11.5

2003 5.9 4.9 9.8 7.8 6.3 15.1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, March Current Population Survey (CPS), 1994 to 

2003. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 123

Chapter 8 — Outcomes of Education

Figure 8.2. Unemployment rates for persons ages 16 and over, by race/ethnicity: 1994 to 

2003

Rate

Year

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

White, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, March Current Population Survey (CPS), 1994 to 

2003.
124 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION IV — OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION

8.3 Income

In 2003, the median income of American Indian/Alaska Native households was lower than 

that of households in the total population.

Race categories include those of Hispanic origin, 

except for White. Between 1989 and 2003, the 

median income among American Indian/Alaska 

Native households increased. Income increased 

from 1989 to 1992, and from 1997 to 1999. 

Over the 15-year period, the median income 

of American Indians/Alaska Natives increased 

32 percent, from $26,300 in 1989 to $34,700 

in 2003. American Indian/Alaska Native 

households had a lower median income in 1989 

and 2003 than the total population; however, 

American Indian/Alaska Native households 

had a larger increase in income during the 

same period ($8,400) than the total population 

($1,200).

In 2003, the median income of American Indian/ 

Alaska Native households ($34,700) was lower 

than the median income among White, nonHispanic and Asian/Pacific Islander households 

($48,000 and $54,800, respectively) and higher 

than that of Black households ($30,100).

Table 8.3. Median income (in constant 2003 dollars) of households, by race/ethnicity: 1989 

to 2003

Year Total

White, nonHispanic Black HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

1989 $42,300 $45,800 $25,800 $31,700 $51,800 $26,300

1990 42,300 45,500 26,100 31,800 52,500 27,800

1991 41,800 44,800 26,100 31,400 52,100 30,100

1992 40,900 44,000 25,400 30,500 50,800 31,400

1993 40,100 43,500 24,900 29,700 49,100 30,900

1994 39,900 43,500 25,100 29,200 49,400 31,000

1995 40,200 43,900 25,900 28,500 49,200 29,800

1996 40,800 44,500 26,800 28,500 49,900 28,800

1997 41,600 45,500 27,700 29,000 50,400 28,700

1998 42,500 46,500 28,200 30,500 51,600 31,800

1999 43,700 47,700 29,300 32,000 53,500 33,900

2000 44,500 48,500 30,600 33,800 56,000 33,900

2001 44,400 48,400 30,900 34,600 57,000 33,300

2002 43,900 48,100 30,600 34,600 56,000 33,800

20031 43,500 48,000 30,100 33,900 54,800 34,700

1 The 2003 Current Population Survey (CPS) offered respondents the option of choosing more than one race. 

The 2002 and 2001 CPS recorded only one race for each respondent. The 3-year averages are based on 

combining the 2003 CPS race categories with the relevant single race categories of White, Black, American 

Indian or Alaska Native, or Asian and Pacific Islander recorded in the 2002 and 2001 CPS.

NOTE: Race categories include those of Hispanic origin, except as noted (White, non-Hispanic). Median income 

is the 3-year moving average median and calculated as the sum of 3 inflation-adjusted single-year medians 

divided by 3. 

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, March Current Population Survey (CPS), 1989 to 

2000, and Annual Social and Economic Supplements, 2000 to 2004.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 125

Chapter 8 — Outcomes of Education

Figure 8.3. Median income (in constant 2003 dollars) of households, by race/ethnicity: 

1989 to 2003 

Dollars

Year

1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 20031

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

White, non-Hispanic

Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native

Black, non-Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

1 The 2003 Current Population Survey (CPS) offered respondents the option of choosing more than one race. 

The 2002 and 2001 CPS recorded only one race for each respondent. The 3-year averages are based on combining the 2003 CPS race categories with the relevant single race categories of White, Black, American Indian 

or Alaska Native, or Asian and Pacific Islander recorded in the 2002 and 2001 CPS.

NOTE: Race categories include those of Hispanic origin, except as noted (White, non-Hispanic). Median income 

is the 3-year moving average median and calculated as the sum of 3 inflation-adjusted single-year medians 

divided by 3. 

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, March Current Population Survey (CPS), 1989 to 

2000, and Annual Social and Economic Supplements, 2000 to 2004.
126 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

SECTION IV — OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION

8.4 Voting Participation

In 1996 and 2000, American Indians/Alaska Natives were less likely to have reported voting 

than Whites and Blacks.

In the 2000 presidential election, American 

Indians/Alaska Natives were less likely to report 

voting (47 percent) than Whites (62 percent) 

and Blacks (57 percent). 

A similar pattern was found in the 1996 

presidential election. In the 1996 election, 

46 percent of American Indians/Alaska Natives 

reported having voted, compared to 61 percent 

of Whites and 53 percent of Blacks.

Table 8.4. Percentage of citizens ages 18 and over who reported voting in the presidential 

election, by race/ethnicity: 1996 and 2000

Race/ethnicity 1996 2000

Total 58.4 59.5

White, non-Hispanic 60.7 61.8

Black, non-Hispanic 53.0 56.9

Hispanic 44.0 45.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 45.8 43.3

American Indian/Alaska Native 45.7 46.7

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, November Current Population Survey (CPS), 1996 

and 2000. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 127

Chapter 8 — Outcomes of Education

Figure 8.4. Percentage of citizens ages 18 and over who reported voting in the presidential 

election, by race/ethnicity: 1996 and 2000

Race/ethnicity

Percent

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic

Hispanic Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

61 62

53 57

44 45 46 43 46 47

1996 2000

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, November Current Population Survey (CPS), 1996 

and 2000. 

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 129

REFERENCES
130 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

REFERENCES

NCES Publications (Complete Citation)

Cahalan, M., Farris, E., Pavel, M., Skinner, R., Tippeconnic, J. (1998). American Indians and Alaska 

Natives in Postsecondary Education (NCES 98-291). U.S. Department of Education, NCES. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Gruber, K., Wiley, S., Broughman, S., Strizek, G., and Burian-Fitzgerald, M. (2002). Schools and 

Staffing Survey, 1999–2000: Overview of the Data for Public, Private, Public Charter, and Bureau of 

Indian Affairs Elementary and Secondary Schools (NCES 2002-313). U.S. Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Hoffman, K., and Llagas, C. (2003). Status and Trends in the Education of Blacks (NCES 2003-034). 

U.S. Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Llagas, C. (2003). Status and Trends in the Education of Hispanics (NCES 2003-038). U.S. Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Pavel, D.M., and Curtin, T.R. (1997). Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Native Education

(NCES 97-451). U.S. Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office.

West, J., Denton, K., and Germino-Hausken, E. (2000). America’s Kindergartners (NCES 2000-070). U.S. 

Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Whitener, S. (1995). Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Native Education: 1990–91. 

(NCES 95-735). U.S. Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office.

Whitener, S., Gruber, K., Lynch, H., Rohr, C., Tingos, K. (1997). Schools and Staffing Survey: Student 

Records Questionnaire: School Year 1993–94, With Special Emphasis on American Indians and Alaska 

Native Students (NCES 97-449). U.S. Department of Education, NCES. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education, NCES. (1999). The Condition of Education 1999 (NCES 1999-022). 

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

U.S. Department of Education, NCES. (2001). The Condition of Education 2001 (NCES 2001-072). 

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

U.S. Department of Education, NCES. (n.d.). Handbooks Online, unpublished. http://nces.ed.gov/

programs/handbook/index.asp

Other Publications and Sources

500 Nations: Native American Supersite. (2004). List of State Recognized Tribes. Retrieved December 

16, 2004, from http://www.500nationas.com/tribes/Tribes_States.asp.

ACT Program. (2002). Information Brief: Interpreting ACT Assessment Scores (2002–1). 

American Indian Higher Education Consortium. (1999). Tribal Colleges: An Introduction. Retrieved 

March 12, 2004, from http://www.act.org/news/data/01/t1.html.

Chaikind, S., and. Corman, H. (1991). The Effect of Low Birth Weight on Special Education Costs. 

Journal of Health Economics, 10(3):291–311.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2004). America’s Children in Brief: Key 

National Indicators of Well-Being, 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 131

REFERENCES

Grissmer, D.W., Kirby, S.N., Bernerd, M., and Williamson, S. (1994). Student Achievement and the 

Changing American Family. RAND Distribution Services.

Krauss, M. (1996). Status of Native American Language Endangerment. In G. Cantoni, Stabilizing Indigenous Languages. Flagstaff: Northern Arizona University Center for Excellence in Education. 

Maruyama, G. (2003). Disparities in Educational Opportunities and Outcomes: What Do We Know 

and What Can We Do? Journal of Social Issues, 59(3):653–676.

McLanahan, S.S. (1997). Parent Absence or Poverty: Which Matters More? In G. Duncan and J. 

Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of Growing Up Poor (pp. 35–48). New York: Russell Sage 

Press.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation At Risk: The Imperative For 

Educational Reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Office of Management and Budget. (1997). Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal 

Data on Race and Ethnicity. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Tryon, W.W. (2001). Evaluating Statistical Difference, Equivalence, and Indeterminacy Using Inferential Confidence Intervals: An Integrated Alternative Method of Conducting Null Hypothesis 

Statistical Tests. Psychological Methods, 6(4):371–386.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau. (2000). Cartographic Boundary Files, “American Indian Areas/Alaska Native Areas/Hawaiian Home Lands Cartographic Boundary Files 

Descriptions and Metadata.” Retrieved December 23, 2004 from http://www.census.gov/geo/

www/cob/na_metadata.html.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau. (2001). Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 

(2003). Technical Notes for NIS Surveillance Tables. Retrieved April 12, 2005 from http://www.

cdc.gov/nip/coverage/NIS/technotes.htm.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Office of the American Indian 

Trust. (1999). American Indians and Alaska Natives. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of the Interior, BIA, Office of the American Indian Trust. (2000). Bureau of Indian 

Affairs Government-to-Government Consultation Policy. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of the Interior, BIA. (2004a). Tribal Leaders Directory, Winter 2003/2004. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of the Interior, BIA, Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP). (2004b). Building Exemplary Schools for Tomorrow: 2004 Fingertip Facts.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (1995). A Test of Methods for Collecting 

Racial and Ethnic Information (USDL 95-428). Washington, DC. 

Wehlage, G., Rutter, R., Smith, G., Lesko, N., and Fernandez, R. (1989). Reducing the Risk: Schools 

as Communities of Support. London: The Falmer Press.

Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 133

APPENDIX A

Supplemental Tables
134 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

APPENDIX A

Table A-1.1. Resident population and percentage distribution, by race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1980 to 2003 and projections to 2050

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

Number (in thousands)

1980 226,546 180,906 26,142 14,609 3,563 1,326

1985 237,924 184,945 27,738 18,368 5,315 1,558

1990 248,791 188,315 29,304 22,379 6,996 1,797

1995 262,803 193,328 31,590 27,107 8,846 1,932

2000 281,422 195,575 34,313 35,306 10,724 2,097

2001 285,094 196,314 34,811 37,062 11,241 2,130

2002 287,974 196,833 35,205 38,488 11,652 2,155

2003 290,810 197,326 35,593 39,899 12,064 2,180

20051 287,716 199,414 35,446 38,189 12,497 2,171

20101 299,862 201,956 37,483 43,688 14,436 2,300

20151 312,268 204,590 39,551 49,255 16,444 2,428

20201 324,927 207,145 41,549 55,156 18,527 2,550

20301 351,070 210,984 45,567 68,168 23,564 2,787

20401 377,350 212,475 49,618 82,692 29,543 3,023

20501 403,687 212,991 53,466 98,229 35,760 3,241

Percentage distribution

1980 100.0 79.9 11.5 6.4 1.6 0.6

1985 100.0 77.7 11.7 7.7 2.2 0.7

1990 100.0 75.7 11.8 9.0 2.8 0.7

1995 100.0 73.6 12.0 10.3 3.4 0.7

2000 100.0 69.5 12.2 12.5 3.8 0.7

2001 100.0 68.9 12.2 13.0 3.9 0.7

2002 100.0 68.4 12.2 13.4 4.0 0.7

2003 100.0 67.9 12.2 13.7 4.1 0.7

20051 100.0 69.3 12.3 13.3 4.3 0.8

20101 100.0 67.3 12.5 14.6 4.8 0.8

20151 100.0 65.5 12.7 15.8 5.3 0.8

20201 100.0 63.8 12.8 17.0 5.7 0.8

20301 100.0 60.1 13.0 19.4 6.7 0.8

20401 100.0 56.3 13.1 21.9 7.8 0.8

20501 100.0 52.8 13.2 24.3 8.9 0.8

1 Projected.

NOTE: Figures for the year 2000 are from the Census table “Annual Estimates of the Population,” released in 

2004, and may differ from other published tabulations. The figures for American Indians/Alaska Natives are for 

the alone, non-Hispanic population. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000, 

Population Estimates Program, 1980 to 2000; Population Projections Program, 2001 to 2050; and Annual 

Estimates of the Population by Sex, Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin for the United States: April 1, 2000 to 

July 1, 2003 (NC-EST2003-03), released June 14, 2004.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 135

Supplemental Tables

Table A-1.8. Number of live births per 1,000 women, by race/ethnicity and age group of 

mother: Selected years, 1980 to 2002 

Age of mother Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

1980

Total (ages 15–44) 68.4 65.6 84.7 — 73.2 82.7

15–19 years 53.0 45.4 97.8 — 26.2 82.2

20–24 years 115.1 111.1 140.0 — 93.3 143.7

25–29 years 112.9 113.8 103.9 — 127.4 106.6

30–34 years 61.9 61.2 59.9 — 96.0 61.8

35–39 years 19.8 18.8 23.5 — 38.3 28.1

40–44 years 3.9 3.5 5.6 — 8.5 8.2

1990

Total (ages 15–44) 70.9 68.3 86.8 107.7 69.6 76.2

15–19 years 59.9 50.8 112.8 100.3 26.4 81.1

20–24 years 116.5 109.8 160.2 181.0 79.2 148.7

25–29 years 120.2 120.7 115.5 153.0 126.3 110.3

30–34 years 80.8 81.7 68.7 98.3 106.5 61.5

35–39 years 31.7 31.5 28.1 45.3 49.6 27.5

40–44 years 5.5 5.2 5.5 10.9 10.7 5.9

1995

Total (ages 15–44) 64.6 63.6 71.0 98.8 62.6 63.0

15–19 years 56.0 49.5 94.4 99.3 25.5 72.9

20–24 years 107.5 104.7 133.7 171.9 64.2 123.1

25–29 years 108.8 111.7 95.6 140.4 103.7 91.6

30–34 years 81.1 83.3 63.0 90.5 102.3 56.5

35–39 years 34.0 34.2 28.4 43.7 50.1 24.3

40–44 years 6.6 6.4 6.0 10.7 11.8 5.5

2000

Total (ages 15–44) 65.9 65.3 70.0 95.9 65.8 58.7

15–19 years 47.7 43.2 77.4 87.3 20.5 58.3

20–24 years 109.7 106.6 141.3 161.3 60.3 117.2

25–29 years 113.5 116.7 100.3 139.9 108.4 91.8

30–34 years 91.2 94.6 65.4 97.1 116.5 55.5

35–39 years 39.7 40.2 31.5 46.6 59.0 24.6

40–44 years 8.0 7.9 7.2 11.5 12.6 5.7

2002

Total (ages 15–44) 64.8 64.8 65.8 94.4 64.1 58.0

15–19 years 43.0 39.4 66.6 83.4 18.3 53.8

20–24 years 103.6 101.6 127.1 164.3 60.4 112.6

25–29 years 113.6 117.4 99.0 139.4 105.4 91.8

30–34 years 91.5 95.5 64.4 95.1 109.6 56.4

35–39 years 41.4 42.4 31.5 47.8 56.5 25.4

40–44 years 8.3 8.2 7.4 11.5 12.5 5.8

— Not available.

NOTE: Race groups include persons of Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 

National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 52, no. 10, Births: Final Data for 2002, based on CDC, National Center for 

Health Statistics, Final Natality Statistics, 2003.
136 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

APPENDIX A

Table A-2.1a. Enrollment, American Indians/Alaska Natives as a percentage of total 

enrollment, and percentage distribution of American Indians/Alaska Natives 

enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools, by region and state: 2002

Region/state Total enrollment

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 

enrollment

American Indians/

Alaska Natives as 

percent of total 

enrollment

Percentage 

distribution of 

American Indians/ 

Alaska Natives by 

region and state

Total1 46,996,416 624,298 1.3 100.0

Northeast 8,296,140 25,720 0.3 4.1

Connecticut 570,009 1,822 0.3 0.3

Maine 203,966 1,045 0.5 0.2

Massachusetts 982,989 3,134 0.3 0.5

New Hampshire 207,671 619 0.3 0.1

New Jersey 1,367,473 2,238 0.2 0.4

New York 2,888,233 12,905 0.4 2.1

Pennsylvania 1,816,747 2,519 0.1 0.4

Rhode Island 159,074 862 0.5 0.1

Vermont 99,978 576 0.6 0.1

South1 16,475,245 178,397 1.1 28.6

Alabama 726,545 5,786 0.8 0.9

Arkansas 450,985 2,355 0.5 0.4

Delaware 116,342 357 0.3 0.1

District of Columbia 76,166 42 0.1 #

Florida 2,532,566 7,197 0.3 1.2

Georgia 1,496,012 2,324 0.2 0.4

Kentucky 628,894 1,230 0.2 0.2

Louisiana 730,354 4,925 0.7 0.8

Maryland 866,743 3,218 0.4 0.5

Mississippi 492,645 809 0.2 0.1

North Carolina 1,335,954 19,643 1.5 3.1

Oklahoma 624,548 111,898 17.9 17.9

South Carolina 689,634 1,768 0.3 0.3

Tennessee — — — —

Texas 4,258,009 13,163 0.3 2.1

Virginia 1,167,393 3,396 0.3 0.5

West Virginia 282,455 286 0.1 #

Midwest 10,774,012 103,864 1.0 16.6

Illinois 2,084,187 3,478 0.2 0.6

Indiana 1,001,810 2,693 0.3 0.4

Iowa 482,210 2,635 0.5 0.4

Kansas 468,342 6,657 1.4 1.1

Michigan 1,769,457 26,178 1.5 4.2

Minnesota 846,891 17,479 2.1 2.8

Missouri 923,194 2,996 0.3 0.5

Nebraska 285,402 4,467 1.6 0.7

North Dakota 104,225 8,411 8.1 1.3

Ohio 1,799,228 2,455 0.1 0.4

South Dakota 128,049 13,547 10.6 2.2

Wisconsin 881,017 12,868 1.5 2.1

See notes at end of table.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 137

Supplemental Tables

Table A-2.1a. Enrollment, American Indians/Alaska Natives as a percentage of total 

enrollment, and percentage distribution of American Indians/Alaska Natives 

enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools, by region and state: 

2002—Continued

Region/state Total enrollment

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 

enrollment

American Indians/

Alaska Natives as 

percent of total 

enrollment

Percentage 

distribution of 

American Indians/

Alaska Natives by 

region and state 

West 11,404,893 270,191 2.4 43.3

Alaska 134,364 34,742 25.9 5.6

Arizona 929,111 61,288 6.6 9.8

California 6,195,920 53,898 0.9 8.6

Colorado 751,056 8,937 1.2 1.4

Hawaii 183,829 835 0.5 0.1

Idaho 248,277 3,026 1.2 0.5

Montana 149,995 16,324 10.9 2.6

Nevada 368,364 6,291 1.7 1.0

New Mexico 320,264 35,939 11.2 5.8

Oregon 537,484 11,930 2.2 1.9

Utah 484,983 7,399 1.5 1.2

Washington 1,014,798 26,746 2.6 4.3

Wyoming 86,448 2,836 3.3 0.5

Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) schools2 46,126 46,126 100.0 7.4

— Not available.

# Rounds to zero.

1 These data do not include Tennessee, which did not report racial/ethnic data. 

2 Data for BIA schools are not separated by state. They are located in the South, Midwest, and West regions.

NOTE: Figures may differ from previously published figures because BIA schools have been included in the 

Common Core of Data (CCD) total. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 

“Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,” unpublished data, 2002-03.

Table A-2.1b. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school enrollment, 

by race/ethnicity and urbanicity: Fall 2002

Urbanicity

White, nonHispanic Total minority1Black, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Central city2 19.2 49.2 51.1 50.1 46.5 20.0

Urban fringe3 45.4 35.7 31.5 38.2 45.1 24.3

Town4 10.1 6.0 6.8 5.1 3.3 17.8

Rural5 25.2 9.2 10.6 6.6 5.2 37.8

1 Total minority represents persons of all race/ethnicities other than White, non-Hispanic.

2 Large or midsize city of a Core Based Statistical Area (CBSA) or Consolidated Statistical Area (CSA).

3 Area within a CBSA or CSA of a city and defined as urban by the Census Bureau, but outside of the central city 

itself.

4 Place not within a CBSA or CSA, but having a population equal to or more than 2,500 people.

5 Place with a population of fewer than 2,500 people.

NOTE: Figures may differ from previously published figures because Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools have 

been included in the Common Core of Data (CCD) total. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 

“Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey,” unpublished data, 2002–03.
138 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

APPENDIX A

Table A-2.2. Number of Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) funded school programs, by operational 

structure: Selected years, 1997–98 to 2003–2004

Operational structure 1997–98 1999–2000 2001–02 2003–04

Total 185 185 185 184

BIA-operated 77 64 64 64

Tribally operated 108 121 121 120

SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Indian Education Programs (OIEP), 

1999–2000 OIEP School Report Card Summary; and OIEP, Building Exemplary Schools for Tomorrow: 2002 Fingertip Facts and 2004 Fingertip Facts.

Table A-4.1a. Percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native children and all children 

demonstrating specific motor skills, by child’s age at assessment: 2001

Age at assessment

Eye-hand 

coordination Sitting Prewalking

Independent 

walking Balance

8, 9, or 10 months

Total 91 93 73 19 1

American Indian/Alaska Native 91 94 75 19 1

11, 12, or 13 months

Total 96 98 91 55 10

American Indian/Alaska Native 96 98 90 56 9

14 to 22 months

Total 99 100 98 89 43

American Indian/Alaska Native 99 100 99 93 52

NOTE: The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) is a sample of children who were born 

between January and December 2001. ECLS-B collected information on children’s race by asking parents if 

their child was White, Black, Asian, Pacific Islander, and/or American Indian/Alaska Native. Parents were asked 

to choose one or more categories that applied to their child. American Indian/Alaska Native includes those of 

Hispanic origin and those in combination with one or more other races. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal 

Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Restricted-Use File, (NCES 2004-093), 2004. 

Table A-4.1b. Percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native children and all children 

demonstrating specific cognitive skills, by child’s age at assessment: 2001 

Age at assessment

Explores 

objects in 

play

Explores

with 

purpose Babbles

Early

problem 

solving

Uses

words

8, 9, or 10 months

Total 99 88 47 3 #

American Indian/Alaska Native 99 87 46 3 #

11, 12, or 13 months

Total 100 97 72 17 5

American Indian/Alaska Native 100 98 72 17 5

14 to 22 months

Total 100 99 89 46 27

American Indian/Alaska Native 100 99 92 51 30

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) is a sample of children who were born 

between January and December 2001. ECLS-B collected information on children’s race by asking parents if 

their child was White, Black, Asian, Pacific Islander, and/or American Indian/Alaska Native. Parents were asked 

to choose one or more categories that applied to their child. American Indian/Alaska Native includes those of 

Hispanic origin and those in combination with one or more other races. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal 

Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Restricted-Use File, (NCES 2004-093), 2004. 
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 139

Supplemental Tables

Table A-4.9. Percentage distribution of 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/

ethnicity: 1996 to 2004

Race/ethnicity 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Total1 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

White 69 68 67 67 66 66 65 64 63

Black 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12

Mexican American 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5

Puerto Rican 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Other Hispanic/Latino 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4

Asian/Pacific Islander 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10

American Indian/

Alaska Native 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. 

SOURCE: College Entrance Examination Board, News 2002-2003, Table 1 and Table 9.

Table A-7.1a. American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment in public and private degree-granting 

institutions, by type of institution and sex: Selected years, 1976 to 2002

Type of institution Sex

Year Total 2-year 4-year Males Females

1976 76,100 41,200 35,000 38,500 37,600

1978 77,900 43,100 34,800 36,800 41,000

1980 83,900 47,000 36,900 37,800 46,100

1982 87,700 49,100 38,600 39,900 47,800

1984 83,600 45,500 38,100 37,400 46,100

1986 90,100 50,500 39,600 39,400 50,600

1988 92,500 50,400 42,100 39,100 53,400

1990 102,800 54,900 47,900 43,100 59,700

1991 113,700 62,600 51,100 47,600 66,100

1992 119,300 64,400 54,900 50,200 69,100

1993 121,700 63,200 58,500 51,200 70,500

1994 127,400 66,200 61,200 53,000 74,400

1995 131,300 65,600 65,700 54,800 76,500

1996 137,600 70,200 67,300 57,200 80,400

1997 142,500 71,000 71,500 59,000 83,400

1998 144,200 71,500 72,600 59,000 85,100

19991 145,500 72,100 73,400 58,600 86,800

2000 151,200 74,700 76,500 61,400 89,700

2001 158,200 78,200 80,000 63,600 94,500

2002 165,900 81,300 84,600 65,700 100,200

1 Data were imputed using alternative procedures.

NOTE: Data from 1976 to 1996 are for institutions of higher education that were accredited by an agency or 

association that was recognized by the U.S. Department of Education, or recognized directly by the Secretary 

of Education. Data from 1996 and later years are for degree-granting institutions. The new degree-granting 

classification is very similar to the earlier higher education classification, except that it includes some additional institutions, primarily 2-year colleges, and excludes a few higher education institutions that did not award 

associate or higher degrees. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 2004 (forthcoming), based on Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall Enrollment 

in Colleges and Universities” surveys; and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Fall 

Enrollment” surveys, 1976 to 1999, and Spring 2001 through Spring 2003 surveys.
140 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

APPENDIX A

Table A-7.1b. Percentage of total public and private degree-granting institution enrollment 

that is male, percentage that is female, and difference between male and 

female percentages, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976 to 2002

Year Total

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanic HispanicAsian/Pacific 

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Percent male

1976 52.7 53.0 45.5 54.6 54.8 50.6

1980 48.5 48.5 41.9 49.1 52.8 45.0

1990 45.5 45.3 38.9 45.2 51.5 42.0

2000 43.9 44.3 36.7 42.9 47.6 40.7

2001 43.7 44.2 36.3 42.6 47.2 40.2

2002 43.4 44.0 35.8 42.1 46.9 39.6

Percent female

1976 47.3 47.0 54.5 45.4 45.2 49.4

1980 51.5 51.5 58.1 50.9 47.2 55.0

1990 54.5 54.7 61.1 54.8 48.5 58.0

2000 56.1 55.7 63.3 57.1 52.4 59.3

2001 56.3 55.8 63.7 57.4 52.8 59.8

2002 56.6 56.0 64.2 57.9 53.1 60.4

Difference 

1976 5.5 6.1 -9.0 9.3 9.6 1.3

1980 -2.9 -2.9 -16.2 -1.8 5.6 -10.0

1990 -9.1 -9.3 -22.3 -9.5 3.0 -16.1

2000 -12.2 -11.4 -26.6 -14.2 -4.7 -18.7

2001 -12.6 -11.6 -27.3 -14.9 -5.6 -19.5

2002 -13.3 -12.1 -28.4 -15.9 -6.2 -20.8

NOTE: Data from 1976 to 1990 are for institutions of higher education that were accredited by an agency or 

association that was recognized by the U.S. Department of Education, or recognized directly by the Secretary 

of Education. Data after 1996 are for degree-granting institutions. The new degree-granting classification is 

very similar to the earlier higher education classification, except that it includes some additional institutions, 

primarily 2-year colleges, and excludes a few higher education institutions that did not award associate or 

higher degrees. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

2004 (forthcoming), based on Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall Enrollment in 

Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980; and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” survey, 1990, and Spring 2001 through Spring 2003 surveys.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 141

Supplemental Tables

Table A-7.2. Enrollment in tribally controlled colleges: Fall 1997 to fall 2002

College

Fall

1997

Fall

1998

Fall

1999

Fall

2000

Fall

2001

Fall

2002

Total 13,583 13,940 14,400 13,589 14,040 15,837

Bay Mills Community College 453 369 321 360 368 430

Blackfeet Community College 411 396 291 299 341 418

Cankdeska Cikana Community College 142 124 134 9 169 160

Chief Dull Knife College1 508 448 448 461 442 268

College of the Menominee Nation 225 249 385 371 407 530

Crownpoint Institute of Technology 364 227 270 841 299 283

D-Q University 314 225 257 172 193 251

Diné College 1,732 1,875 1,881 1,712 1,685 1,822

Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College 704 701 935 999 1,023 1,315

Fort Belknap College 218 163 266 295 170 158

Fort Berthold Community College 223 291 285 50 50 249

Fort Peck Community College 360 316 370 400 419 443

Haskell Indian Nations University 846 779 885 918 967 887

Institute of American Indian Arts 109 109 133 139 44 155

Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwa Community College 493 551 485 489 516 550

Leech Lake Tribal College 135 228 222 240 174 244

Little Big Horn College 243 324 207 320 203 275

Little Priest Tribal College — — 147 141 88 146

Nebraska Indian Community College 223 186 186 170 191 118

Northwest Indian College 677 695 548 524 600 667

Oglala Lakota College 1,219 1,137 1,198 1,174 1,270 1,279

Saginaw Chippewa Tribal College — — — — — 41

Salish Kootenai College 967 1,016 1,075 1,042 976 1,109

Sinte Gleska University 766 1,041 910 900 895 787

Sisseton Wahpeton Community College 199 201 219 250 275 285

Si Tanka College 171 215 215 59 51 434

Sitting Bull College 217 231 233 22 194 214

Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute 656 653 643 304 723 777

Stone Child College 166 255 188 38 242 83

Turtle Mountain Community College 579 624 665 686 684 897

United Tribes Technical College 263 311 299 204 302 463

White Earth Tribal and Community College — — 99 — 79 99

— Not available.

1 Previously named Dull Knife Memorial College.

NOTE: These colleges are, with few exceptions, located on reservations. They are all members of the American 

Indian Higher Education Consortium. The U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR) maintains 

the U.S. Department of Education Minority Postsecondary Institution listing which includes a listing of tribally 

controlled colleges.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 

various years, based on Integrated Postsecondary Education System (IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” surveys, 1997 

to 1999, and Spring 2001 through Spring 2003 surveys.
142 Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives

APPENDIX A

Table A-7.5. Number and percentage of degrees awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native 

students, by level of degree: 1976–77 to 2002–03

Number of degrees conferred

American Indians/Alaska 

Natives as a percent of all 

degrees conferred to U.S. citizens

Year

Associate’s 

degrees

Bachelor’s 

degrees

Master’s 

degrees

Doctoral 

degrees

First–

professional 

degrees1

Associate’s 

degrees

Bachelor’s 

degrees

Master’s 

degrees

Doctoral 

degrees

First–

professional 

degrees1

Total

1976–77 2,498 3,326 967 95 196 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 

1978–79 2,336 3,410 999 104 216 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 

1980–81 2,584 3,593 1,034 130 192 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 

1984–85 2,953 4,246 1,256 119 248 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 

1986–87 3,195 3,968 1,103 105 304 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

1988–89 3,331 3,951 1,086 85 264 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 

1989–90 3,430 4,390 1,090 98 257 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 

1990–91 3,871 4,583 1,178 106 261 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

1991–92 4,060 5,228 1,280 120 298 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 

1992–93 4,408 5,683 1,405 107 370 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 

1993–94 4,876 6,192 1,699 134 371 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 

1994–95 5,482 6,610 1,621 130 413 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 

1995–96 5,573 6,976 1,778 159 463 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 

1996–97 5,984 7,425 1,940 175 514 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.7 

1997–98 6,246 7,903 2,053 186 561 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.7 

1998–99 6,424 8,423 2,016 194 612 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.8 

1999–2000 6,497 8,719 2,246 160 572 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.8 

2000–01 6,623 9,049 2,481 177 543 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.7 

2001–02 6,832 9,165 2,624 180 581 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.7 

2002–03 7,470 9,803 2,841 192 586 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.7 

Males

1976–77 1,216 1,804 521 67 159 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 

1978–79 1,069 1,736 495 69 150 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 

1980–81 1,108 1,700 501 95 134 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 

1984–85 1,198 1,998 583 64 176 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 

1986–87 1,263 1,817 518 57 183 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 

1988–89 1,323 1,730 476 50 148 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 

1989–90 1,364 1,860 455 49 135 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 

1990–91 1,439 1,938 488 59 144 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 

1991–92 1,545 2,195 529 66 159 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

1992–93 1,680 2,450 584 52 192 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 

1993–94 1,837 2,620 692 66 222 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 

1994–95 2,098 2,739 659 58 223 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 

1995–96 1,993 2,885 705 80 256 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 

1996–97 2,068 2,996 734 87 290 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 

1997–98 2,252 3,151 782 83 291 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 

1998–99 2,241 3,323 771 92 333 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.8 

1999–2000 2,225 3,464 836 57 293 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 

2000–01 2,294 3,700 917 76 278 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.7 

2001–02 2,308 3,624 993 67 292 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.7 

2002–03 2,624 3,858 1,022 73 293 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.7 

See notes at end of table.
Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives 143

Supplemental Tables

Table A-7.5. Number and percentage of degrees awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native 

students, by level of degree: 1976–77 to 2002–03 —Continued

Number of degrees conferred 

American Indians/Alaska Natives as a percent 

of all degrees conferred to U.S. citizens

Year

Associate’s 

degrees

Bachelor’s 

degrees

Master’s 

degrees

Doctoral 

degrees

First–

professional 

degrees1

Associate’s 

degrees

Bachelor’s 

degrees

Master’s 

degrees

Doctoral 

degrees

First–

professional 

degrees1

Females

1976–77 1,282 1,522 446 28 37 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 

1978–79 1,267 1,674 504 35 66 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

1980–81 1,476 1,893 533 35 58 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 

1984–85 1,755 2,248 673 55 72 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 

1986–87 1,932 2,151 585 48 121 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 

1988–89 2,008 2,221 610 35 116 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 

1989–90 2,066 2,530 635 49 122 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 

1990–91 2,432 2,645 690 47 117 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 

1991–92 2,515 3,033 751 54 139 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 

1992–93 2,728 3,233 821 55 178 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 

1993–94 3,039 3,572 1,007 68 149 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 

1994–95 3,384 3,871 962 72 190 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 

1995–96 3,580 4,091 1,073 79 207 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.7 

1996–97 3,916 4,429 1,206 88 224 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 

1997–98 3,994 4,752 1,271 103 270 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 

1998–99 4,183 5,100 1,245 102 279 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.8 

1999–2000 4,272 5,255 1,410 103 279 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 

2000–01 4,329 5,349 1,564 101 265 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.7 

2001–02 4,524 5,541 1,631 113 289 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.8 

2002–03 4,846 5,945 1,819 119 293 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 

1 A degree that signifies both completion of the academic requirements for beginning practice in a given profession and a level of professional skill beyond that normally required for a bachelor’s degree. This degree usually 

is based on a program requiring at least 2 academic years of work prior to entrance and a total of at least 6 

academic years of work to complete the degree program, including both prior required college work and the 

professional program itself. First–professional degrees are awarded in the fields of dentistry, medicine, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, podiatric medicine, veterinary medicine, chiropractic, law, and theological 

professions.

NOTE: For years 1984–85 to 2002–03, reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field 

of degree, and sex were used to impute race/ethnicity for students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. 

Data for 1998–99 were imputed using alternative procedures. Some data have been revised from previously 

published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” surveys, 1976–77 through 1985–86; 

and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Completions Survey,” (IPEDS–C:87–99), 

1986–87 through 1998–99, and Fall 2000 through 2003. 


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