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Smartphone Applications Primer| i

Technical Report Documentation Page

1. Report No.

FHWA-HOP-16-023 

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle

Smartphone Applications to Influence Travel Choices: Practices and 

Policies

5. Report Date

April 2016 

6. Performing Organization

Code

7. Author(s)

Susan Shaheen (UC Berkeley), Adam Cohen (UC Berkeley), Ismail Zohdy 

(Booz Allen Hamilton), Beaudry Kock (Moovel, formerly RideScout) 

8. Performing Organization

Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Booz Allen Hamilton Inc.

20 M St. SE, Suite 1000 

Washington, DC 20003 

10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

11. Contract or Grant No.

DTFH61-12-D-00047

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Highway Administration 

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE 

Washington, DC 20590 

13. Type of Report and Period

Covered

October 2014 – March 2016 

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

HOTM

15. Supplementary Notes

The Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative (COTR) was Wayne Berman and Technical Support was 

Allen Greenberg.

16. Abstract

This primer provides an overview of current practices in this emerging field and looks toward the future in the 

evolution and development of smartphone applications for the transportation sector. The primer provides an 

introduction and overview smartphone applications (known as “apps”); discusses the background, evolution, and 

development of smartphone apps; reviews the types of smartphone applications promoting transportation 

efficiency and congestion reduction; discusses transportation apps and their impacts on traveler behavior; 

examines current challenges; and concludes with guiding principles for public agencies. 

17. Key Words

Smartphone App, Incentives, Gamification, Travel 

Choices 

18. Distribution Statement

No restrictions

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

Unclassified

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

Unclassified

21. No. of

Pages

90

22. Price

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
Smartphone Applications Primer|ii
Smartphone Applications Primer|iii

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS

SYMBOL WHEN YOU KNOW MULTIPLY BY TO FIND SYMBOL

LENGTH

in inches 25.4 millimeters mm

ft feet 0.305 meters m

yd yards 0.914 meters m

mi miles 1.61 kilometers km

AREA

in2 square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2

ft2 square feet 0.093 square meters m2

yd2 square yard 0.836 square meters m2

ac acres 0.405 hectares ha

mi2 square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2

VOLUME

fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL

gal gallons 3.785 liters L

ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3

yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3

NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3

MASS

oz ounces 28.35 grams g

lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg

T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams 

(or "metric ton")

Mg (or 

"t")

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

F Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9

or (F-32)/1.8

Celsius oC

ILLUMINATION

fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx

fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N

lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa
Smartphone Applications Primer|iv

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS (CONTINUED)

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS

SYMBOL WHEN YOU KNOW MULTIPLY BY TO FIND SYMBOL

LENGTH

mm millimeters 0.039 inches in

m meters 3.28 feet ft

m meters 1.09 yards yd

km kilometers 0.621 miles mi

AREA

mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2

m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2

m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2

ha hectares 2.47 acres ac

km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2

VOLUME

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz

L liters 0.264 gallons gal

m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3

m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3

MASS

g grams 0.035 ounces oz

kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb

Mg (or 

"t") 

megagrams (or "metric 

ton")

1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

C Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit o

F

ILLUMINATION

lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc

cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf

kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per 

square inch

lbf/in2
Smartphone Applications Primer| v 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ............................................................... 1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1

CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND: SETTING THE STAGE ....................................................... 5

Background and Evolution of Smartphone Apps ................................................................................... 5

Phase 1: Basic Hardware, Basic Applications: Early-1980s to Late-1990s ..................................... 5

Phase 2: Emergence of Mobile Data: Mid-1990s to Mid-2000s ...................................................... 7

Phase 3: Step Change in Hardware and Software: Mid-2000s to 2007 ........................................... 7

Phase 4: Platform Wars: 2007 to Present ......................................................................................... 8

Phase 5: Advanced Hardware, Advanced Applications: 2014 to Present ........................................ 9

Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 3. SMARTPHONE APPLICATION TYPES PROMOTING TRANSPORTATION 

EFFICIENCY AND CONGESTION REDUCTION ............................................................... 11

Types of Apps Impacting Transportation ............................................................................................. 11

Mobility Apps ................................................................................................................................ 11

Vehicle Connectivity Apps ............................................................................................................ 13

Smart Parking Apps ....................................................................................................................... 13

Courier Network Services (CNS) Apps ......................................................................................... 13

Non-Transportation Apps Deploying Strategies that May Be Useful for Transportation Apps ........... 13

Health Apps .................................................................................................................................... 14

Environment / Energy Consumption Apps .................................................................................... 14

Insurance Apps ............................................................................................................................... 14

Smartphone App Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 14

Operating Systems ......................................................................................................................... 15

Geographic Availability ................................................................................................................. 16

App Business Models ..................................................................................................................... 16

Real-Time Information Availability .............................................................................................. 17

Gamification and Incentives .......................................................................................................... 17

Mobility Apps ....................................................................................................................................... 19

Business-to-Consumer Sharing Apps ............................................................................................ 19

Mobility Tracker Apps ................................................................................................................... 20

Peer-to-Peer Sharing Apps ............................................................................................................. 21

Public Transit Apps ........................................................................................................................ 22
Smartphone Applications Primer| vi

Real-Time Information Apps ......................................................................................................... 23

Ridesourcing Apps ......................................................................................................................... 24

Taxi e-Hail Apps ............................................................................................................................ 25

Trip Aggregator Apps .................................................................................................................... 26

Vehicle connectivity Apps .................................................................................................................... 27

Smart Parking Apps .............................................................................................................................. 28

Courier Network Services Apps ........................................................................................................... 30

Health Apps .......................................................................................................................................... 32

Environment and Energy Consumption Apps ...................................................................................... 33

Insurance Apps ..................................................................................................................................... 34

Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER 4. TRANSPORTATION APPS AND THEIR IMPACTS ON TRAVELER 

BEHAVIOR.................................................................................................................................. 37

Cognitive Impacts ................................................................................................................................. 38

Actual and Perceived Control ............................................................................................................... 40

Privacy Safeguards ............................................................................................................................... 41

Trust 42

Reframing Norms and Defaults of Transportation Choices ................................................................. 42

Price and Value Impacting App Adoption and Usage Choices ............................................................ 44

Information Availability ....................................................................................................................... 45

Social Pressure ...................................................................................................................................... 47

Delivery of Incentives .......................................................................................................................... 48

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 50

CHAPTER 5. CURRENT CHALLENGES .............................................................................. 51

Privacy Concerns .................................................................................................................................. 51

Open Data and InterOperability Among Services and Modes ............................................................. 53

App Authorization ................................................................................................................................ 54

Accessibility Considerations ................................................................................................................ 54

Bridging the Digital Divide ............................................................................................................ 54

Service and Data Limitations in Rural and Less Urbanized Locations .......................................... 55

Unbanked Users ............................................................................................................................. 55

Addressing Special Needs .............................................................................................................. 56

Additional Challenges .......................................................................................................................... 56

CHAPTER 6. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR PUBLIC AGENCIES .................................... 59

Data Sharing and Interoperability ......................................................................................................... 59
Smartphone Applications Primer| vii

Open Data ...................................................................................................................................... 59

Data Exchanges .............................................................................................................................. 60

Encouraging Multi-Modality ................................................................................................................ 61

Enhancing Multi-Modal Payment Mechanisms ............................................................................. 61

Expanding Commuter Benefits ...................................................................................................... 62

Protecting Consumer Privacy ............................................................................................................... 62

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ 63

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 65
Smartphone Applications Primer| viii

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. Five key phases in the evolution of smartphone apps ............................................................... 6

Figure 2. Screenshot depicts available Zipcar locations in San Francisco. Source: Google Play Store 19

Figure 3. Screenshot of the GPS Tracker Pro mobility app. Source: Google Play Store ....................... 20

Figure 4. Screenshot depicting Spinlister peer-to-peer bicycle listings. Source: Google Play Store ..... 21

Figure 5. MuniMobile app screenshots showing the user interface and mobile fare payment. Source: 

Google Play Store ................................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 6. Screenshot of the Snarl app. Source: Google Play Store ........................................................ 23

Figure 7. Screenshot of the Lyft app. Source: Google Play Store .......................................................... 24

Figure 8. Screenshots of the Flywheel e-Hail taxi app. Source: Mashable.com .................................... 25

Figure 9. Screenshots from “Swiftly” app. Source: Swiftly ................................................................... 26

Figure 10. Screenshot of GM’s OnStar app. Source: Apple iTunes Store ............................................. 27

Figure 11. Screenshots of the ParkWhiz app. Source: Google Play Store ............................................. 28

Figure 12. Screenshot of Luxe app. Source: Google Play Store ............................................................ 29

Figure 13. Screenshots of the Roadie app. Source: Apple iTunes Store ................................................ 30

Figure 14. Screenshot for UberEATS app. Source: UberEATS Official Website ................................. 31

Figure 15. Screenshots from the Map My Walk app. Source: Google Play Store ................................. 32

Figure 16. TomTom app depicting its navigation routing feature. Source: Apple iTunes Store ........... 33

Figure 17. A screenshot showing the greenMeter app. Source: Apple iTunes Store ............................. 34

Figure 18. Metromile diagnostic plug and Metromile app depicting trip information. Source: Google 

Play Store ................................................................................................................................................ 35

 
Smartphone Applications Primer|ix

LIST OF TERMS

Gamification – the use of game design elements in a non-game context

Incentives – a payment or concession provided to a mobile app user to encourage app use, retention, 

or some other type of behavior 

Mobility Consumer – a person who purchases and uses transportation for personal use 

Smartphone App – a software application that runs on a mobile phone 

Transportation App – a transportation-specific software application that runs on a mobile phone 
Smartphone Applications Primer| x 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 1 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION 

Over the years, smartphone applications (apps) have evolved from early basic applications to multiplatform, advanced features that we commonly see today. Mobile and smartphone adoption is 

strikingly pervasive. A Pew Research study found that as of April 2015, 64% of American adults 

owned a smartphone. This study also found that 19% of American adults either do not have broadband 

access at home or have relatively few options for getting online other than their mobile devices (Smith, 

2015). 

Demographic shifts, improvements in computing 

power and mapping technology, the use of cloud 

computing, changes in wireless communication, 

concerns about congestion, and increased awareness 

about the environment and climate change are 

changing the way people travel. Increasingly, 

mobility consumers are turning to smartphone “apps” 

for a wide array of transportation activities including: 

vehicle routing, real-time data on congestion, 

information regarding roadway incidents and 

construction, parking availability, and real-time 

transit arrival predictions. For example, according to 

that same Pew study, 74% of adults used their phones to 

get directions or other location-based services. Sixty-five percent of smartphone users indicated that 

they had received turn-by-turn navigation or directions while driving from their phones, and 15% did 

so regularly. As of April 2015, the study found that 25% of mobile phone users occasionally received 

real-time public transit information using their devices; 10% accessed public transit information from 

their devices regularly. The study also found that 11% of users occasionally and 4% frequently 

accessed a taxi or car service from their mobile devices. However, the study also found that 72% of 

smartphone owners have never used their devices to access a taxi or car service (Smith, 2015). 

Moreover, a travel survey conducted by Expedia with nearly 9,000 adults in 25 countries found that 

35% of business travelers used their phones in booking transportation from one point to another 

(Schaal, 2014). 

This high adoption rate should not come as a surprise. The increasing availability, capability, and 

affordability of intelligent transportation systems, global positioning system (GPS), wireless, and cloud 

technologiescoupled with the growth of data availability and data sharingare causing people to 

increasingly use smartphone transportation apps to meet their mobility needs. Travel time savings 

(e.g., high occupancy vehicle lanes available to users of dynamic ridesharing); financial savings (e.g., 

dynamic pricing providing discounts for peak and off-peak travel and for choosing low-volume 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 2 

routes); incentives (e.g., offering points, discounts, or lotteries); and gamification (e.g., use of game 

design elements in a non-game context) are among the key factors driving end-user growth of 

smartphone transportation applications (Deterding et al., 2011, Marczewski, 2012). 

The same Pew study found that mobile users have significant concerns about their data privacy. More 

than half of app users decided not to install or uninstalled an app because of privacy concerns about 

their personal information, and 20% turned off location tracking (Smith, 2015). This study suggests

increasing concerns by smartphone users about privacy. 

This primer is intended to demonstrate how vital smartphones are becoming to the transportation 

network and provide public agencies, transportation managers, and elected officials with a perspective 

and understanding the role of smartphones in identifying services and choices for individuals and 

influencing travel behavior. The development of this primer was made possible by 13 specialists and 

practitioners that conducted an expert review of this primer and participated in a one-day workshop on 

July 1, 2015, at the US Department of Transportation Headquarters. The workshop brought together 

“thought leaders” from across North America to discuss smartphone apps and how to help public 

agencies develop supportive policies and programs. The document is organized into seven chapters. 

In this first chapter, Introduction and Overview, the document presents the project background and 

an overview for the state-of-the-practice chapters.

Next, Chapter 2, Background: Setting the Stage, presents background information on the history 

and trends affecting the growth and evolution of mobile phones, smartphone applications, and 

associated technologies.

Chapter 3, Smartphone Application Types Promoting Transportation Efficiency and Congestion 

Reduction, presents four types of transportation apps that are in widespread use today: 

• Mobility Apps: Apps that are mobility focused and include the following derivatives: businessto-consumer (B2C) sharing apps; mobility trackers; peer-to-peer (P2P) sharing apps; public 

transit apps; real-time information apps; ridesourcing or transportation network company 

(TNC) apps; taxi e-Hail apps; and trip aggregator apps. 

• Vehicle Connectivity Apps: Apps that help users to connect to their vehicles remotely; these 

apps can be very beneficial in case of lockouts or an accident. 

• Smart Parking Apps: Apps that make the parking process more efficient by highlighting the 

real-time availability and parking cost. Additionally, smart parking apps enable ease of

payment. Valet parking apps allow the user to hire an experienced valet to park their vehicle 

after dropping it off at a convenient location. 

• Courier Network Services (CNS) Apps: Apps that are focused on efficiently delivering goods 

to individuals. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 3 

Additionally, this chapter discusses three categories of non-transportation apps that deploy strategies that 

may be useful for future transportation apps. These three categories of apps may encourage active modes

(e.g., cycling and walking), increase environmental awareness, and impact the ways in which people 

drive. These three categories include: 

• Health Apps: Apps that assist users in monitoring their health (e.g., calories burned, heart rate, 

etc.); understanding the health impacts of their transportation choices; and encouraging healthconscious behavior, such as walking and biking. Outside of mobility, health apps are 

integrating health records, providing low-cost medical care, and creating motivational 

communities focused on health. 

• Environment/Energy Consumption Apps: Apps that track environmental impacts and energy 

consumption of travel behavior, for example greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with 

different modal choices. Outside of mobility, environment/energy apps are reducing material 

consumption, connecting consumers to the environment, and generating awareness of important 

environmental issues. 

• Insurance Apps: Apps that enable users to opt for pay-per-mile automobile insurance (e.g., 

Metromile) and other usage-based pricing and incentives related to distance, time-of-travel, and 

safe driving (e.g., Allstate’s usage-based insurance app). Outside of mobility, insurance apps 

are speeding the insurance claims process and reducing insurance fraud.

Next, in Chapter 4, Transportation Apps and Their Impact on Travel Behavior, highlights the 

social and behavioral aspects impacting the success of these applications. This includes cognitive 

impacts; actual and perceived control; privacy safeguards; the role of trust; the reframing of norms and 

defaults in transportation choices; price, actual value, and perceived value; information availability; 

social pressure; risk analysis; and the delivery of incentives. 

Chapter 5, Current Challenges aims to summarize challenges app developers and public agencies 

confront in this space.

In Guiding Principles for Public Agencies and Policymakers (Chapter 6), some guidelines are 

outlined that can be adopted by public agencies as they investigate smartphone apps. Taking into 

account future trends in the design of smartphone apps and advances in transportation technology, this 

chapter highlights some best practices that can be implemented by policymakers and public agencies to

maximize impact. 

Through this structure, the document serves to inform future transportation policy and investment 

decisions by providing a holistic perspective on the state of smartphone app use among travelers. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 4 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 5 

CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND:

SETTING THE STAGE

BACKGROUND AND EVOLUTION OF SMARTPHONE APPS

To understand how mobile technologies and smartphone applications are impacting how people travel, 

it is helpful to explore the history and trends leading to the growth of smartphones and mobility 

applications. This scan identifies five key phases in the evolution of smartphone apps: basic 

applications, wireless application protocol, the rise of proprietary platforms, platform wars, and the rise 

of multi-platform advanced features. These phases are summarized in Figure 1 on the following page. 

Phase 1: Basic Hardware, Basic Applications: Early-1980s to Late-1990s

The first mobile applications trace their origin to the mid-1990s and were 

extremely limited by rudimentary processors and user interfaces that early 

generation mobile phones made available. The Motorola DynaTac 8000X 

was the first commercially available mobile phone. First marketed in 

1983, it had talk time of about 30 minutes and retailed for approximately 

$4,000 (a new Ford Escort the same year retailed for approximately 

$5,200). The Motorola DynaTac made calls and included a simple contact 

application as part of the device’s early software (Clark, 2012). This and 

other trailblazing applications focused on basic functions, such as arcade 

games, ring tone editors, calculators, and calendars. During this phase, 

software and application features and design were facilitated by the 

original equipment manufacturer. As the underlying computing hardware 

of mobile phones began to advance, new multi-functional applications 

began to emerge in which some took advantage of early developments in 

resistive touchscreen technology to deliver richer user experiences (e.g., 

Sony Ericsson P-series). These developments fundamentally changed the 

way owners viewed their phones: from a single-purpose calling device to 

a multi-purpose personal and business tool. Over time, consumers began 

to demand more features (Clark, 2012). 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 6 

Source: Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California Berkeley and Booz Allen Hamilton, 

December 2015

Figure 1. Five key phases in the evolution of smartphone apps
Smartphone Applications Primer| 7 

Phase 2: Emergence of Mobile Data: Mid-1990s to Mid-2000s

As time progressed, manufacturers began to turn to the Internet as a mechanism to deliver customized 

content while limiting third-party access to potentially proprietary software and hardware developed by 

the original equipment manufacturers. Because early mobile technologies were not directly compatible 

with the Internet due to limitations in screen size, bandwidth, and processing power, manufacturers 

developed the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). WAP was a simplified form of hypertext transfer 

protocol (HTTP), and the foundation for the World Wide Web (Clark, 2012). WAP was designed to 

operate within the confines of cellular memory and limited bandwidth. Third parties could develop 

mobile content using a standard language, known as Wireless Markup Language (WML). For 

equipment manufacturers, WAP offered them the ability to develop a single mobile browser and allow 

content developers to create third-party content. However, the lack of direct interface with HTTP and 

limited user interfaces, often symptomatic of technological limitations, were common criticisms of 

WAP (Clark, 2012). Additionally, WAP browsers were slow and tedious, and there was no integrated 

billing system with WAP, and payments had to be awkwardly facilitated through either Short Message 

Services (SMS – known as text messages) or Multimedia Messaging Services (MMS – known as 

picture or multimedia messages). A poor user experience from technological constraints limited 

commercial viability. Users found it difficult to type on numeric keypads; small screens resulted in 

content that was hard to read; and users found it frustrating to load a sentence fragment and would then 

be forced to wait for the next data fragment to download. 

Phase 3: Step Change in Hardware and Software: Mid-2000s to 2007

Improvements in memory, low-energy microprocessors, and battery technology coupled with lower 

costs enabled the creation of dramatically more powerful non-cellular mobile device hardware that

could run more sophisticated operating software, such as Windows and Linux. Most of these were 

proprietary, “closed ecosystems” controlled by the handset maker and/or operating system developer. 

Desktop computer developers, which were previously non-participants in mobile development, had 

new devices for content development (Clark, 2012). During this phase, a variety of proprietary 

platforms emerged including Palm Operating System (OS), RIM’s Blackberry OS, Symbian OS, and 

Windows CE. These early proprietary platforms were primarily geared toward personal digital 

assistant (PDA) functions and business-related tasks. 

Mobile manufacturers began a marked shift in the late-1990s and early-2000s aimed at bridging the 

gap between business-use mobile computing and mobile phones. In 1996, Nokia launched its 

communicator series that was intended to serve as a mobile phone and computer simultaneously with a 

convertible clamshell design and fax, email, messaging, and web browsing capabilities. Similarly, 

Microsoft’s Pocket PC (later renamed to Windows Mobile) was designed to mimic the user interface 

of Windows XP with a mobile start button and to bridge hardware gaps by operating on smartphones 

with touchscreens, mobile phones without touchscreens, and on PDAs with stylus functionality. These 

early hardware and software platforms laid the groundwork for today’s smartphone technologies but 

were limited by hardware and data bandwidth capabilities. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 8 

The 2007 launch of Apple’s iPhone marked significant 

advancements in hardware and software capabilities, as 

well as the user experience. In addition to these 

advancements, the iPhone became the first mass

marketed mobile device supporting third-party 

applications and cloud computing using a mobile Internet 

connection. Incorporating GPS (later coupled with GPS 

assist using cellular triangulation) enabled the iPhone to 

quickly lock onto GPS signals and be used for a variety 

of mobility functions, thereby changing not just how 

smartphones were used but also how people traveled. A 

key advancement with the iPhone was full website 

compatibility. Web sites no longer needed special mobile 

sites. Instead full web pages could be fully displayed on a 

mobile device. This was crucial in bringing a complete 

Internet experience to mobile devices and bridging the 

hardware and software digital divide that had severely 

curtailed the delivery of products and services to mobile 

Internet users. These advancements were followed by Google’s Android and an updated version of 

Windows Mobile, dubbed the “Windows Phone.” 

With proprietary mobile platforms, developers and/or their products are closely regulated and vetted 

under contractual agreements. Under these proprietary mobile platforms, developers typically must pay 

for access to publish. This limits innovation, app availability, and compatibility across platforms. 

Phase 4: Platform Wars: 2007 to Present

Increased competition has given rise to a new phase, known as “platform wars,” marked predominantly 

by increased competition among Apple, Google, and Microsoft (Clark, 2012). As new entrants launch, 

the mobile marketplace becomes more fragmented. The provision of the same types of apps and data 

availability across platforms becomes an increasing challenge for developers. While this is rarely a 

problem for well-resourced companies that can develop application versions for multiple platforms, 

this represents a tiny selection of the huge universe of apps available. Lack of open-source 

standardization has created an increasingly complex marketplace where it is challenging for new 

market entrants (entrepreneurs and app developers) with limited resources to make their content 

available for all mobile users across a wide array of operating systems. 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 9 

Phase 5: Advanced Hardware, Advanced Applications: 2014 to Present

Cloud computing and new hardware interfaces, such as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)1 and near field 

communications (NFC)2, are also redefining the way people use smartphones and offer a number of 

practical uses in transportation. In addition to BLE and NFC, a number of new trends are shaping what 

apps do and how users interact with them: 

1. Wider, integrative use of data: Apps, like Google Maps, draw on disparate data feeds (traffic 

sensors, device GPS tracks, self-reported roadway incidents) to offer more tailored and accurate 

predictions of travel time to the user.

2. More data sharing among services: Apps like Google Now pull data from multiple sources and 

third-party apps to offer “at a glance” overviews of important information. For example, a user 

could draw from the map app to show the best trip routing in a calendar app . 

3. Functional disaggregation: Apps are becoming less multi-functional and are instead focusing 

more on one or two key functions. 

4. Bundled apps as services: As data flows freely and functionality becomes more dispersed, new 

aggregator serviceseither new apps or native functions of operating systemsare creating 

new services, or “cards,” from assemblages of multiple apps. For example: a card notification 

on a smartphone informs the user of a new e-mail, next it allows the user to quickly respond 

(making use of the mail app), and it can add an event to the user’s calendar (making use of the 

calendar app) or respond using an SMS (using the texting app)all without opening a single 

dedicated app.

These trends are ultimately leading to more seamless, targeted, tailored and real-time services for the 

user. For example, the new App Extensions platform from Apple allows app developers to make app 

functionality available all over the device operating system: displaying information in new places, 

allowing sharing to new channels, adopting common data stores and more. Other app developers are 

already embedding other apps of their own (e.g., Twitter cards support payments using functionality 

borrowed from the Stripe mobile payments app). Transportation apps are also experiencing changes: 

Uber ridesourcing vehicles can be hailed from inside Google Maps, and delivery services are being 

embedded in restaurant apps. In the future, we can expect that the basic activity of getting ride options 

 

1 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): With BLE, wireless transmitters known as BLE beacons (approximately the size of a matchbox with a 

coverage radius measured in feet) transmit Bluetooth signals to smartphones and other Bluetooth-enabled mobile devices. BLE 

communicates with many users, allowing people to be notified of coupons, offers, and promotional information when entering the 

Bluetooth range. For example, a user walking past a bikesharing kiosk, public transit station, or a bus stop could be notified of bicycle 

availability, special rates, or the departure time of the next public transit vehicle. BLE also supports beacon-based navigation, which can 

assist in guiding users to destinations. San Francisco International Airport is using BLE-beacon technology to assist the visually impaired 

in navigating its terminals. BLE does support mobile payment (Mogg, 2014). 

2 Near Field Communications (NFC): With NFC, smartphones communicate with postage-stamp sized NFC tags. NFC has a range of 

inches and communicates with a single user. NFC is best suited for settings requiring one-on-one secure data delivery. NFC can be used 

for mobile payment, transportation passes, and access cards (such as accessing a carsharing vehicle). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 10

to a desired destination may call on multiple separate apps (mapping, scheduling, ride providers, social 

media, and more) to deliver the ideal suggestion, yet seamlessly so that the user is not burdened by the 

underlying inter-app collaborations required. 

SUMMARY 

In recent years, there has been a number of hardware and software developments contributing to the 

growth of smartphone transportation apps. In the next chapter, the scan reviews these types of apps in 

greater detail. Subsequent chapters review the behavioral and economic impacts of these applications; 

opportunities (e.g., planning and data collection) and challenges (e.g., privacy and digital divide); and 

best practices for deploying them. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 11

CHAPTER 3. SMARTPHONE APPLICATION 

TYPES PROMOTING TRANSPORTATION 

EFFICIENCY AND CONGESTION REDUCTION 

Smartphone apps are transforming mobility by improving access to 

transportation services, increasing mobility, and enhancing traveler 

engagement. These apps are spawning new businesses, services, and 

mobility models. For example, within a short period, app-based 

innovations leapfrogged the livery industry with services, such as 

Uber, Lyft, and Flywheel. Using smartphones to facilitate mobility is

becoming the new norm. Smartphone apps have transformed the way 

that many travelers arrange for-hire vehicle services, plan for trips, 

or get real-time transportation information. This chapter includes a 

brief summary of existing smartphone application types, their 

features, and business models. It also provides a scan of 

transportation-related smartphone apps. 

TYPES OF APPS IMPACTING TRANSPORTATION 

There are four broad categories of apps impacting transportation. These categories are delineated by 

the apps’ primary function. The categories are: 1) mobility apps; 2) vehicle connectivity apps; 3) smart 

parking apps; and 4) courier network services (CNS) apps. For the non-mobility apps, the focus in this 

chapter is on their features that could impact mobility either now, such as by including information on 

the energy and health implications of transportation choices, or in the future as a result of 

demonstrating features that could be deployed in forthcoming mobility apps. 

Mobility Apps

Mobility Apps are apps with a primary function to assist users in planning or understanding their 

transportation choices and may enhance access to alternative modes (Jones, 2013). While mobility 

apps may influence the user’s health, energy use and environmental impacts, or the total cost for 

transportation, these impacts are generally not recorded or stated. 

The mobility app marketplace is both broad and deep. Accordingly, the primer further categorizes 

mobility apps into eight sub-categories.

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 12

The eight sub-categories are:

1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Sharing Apps are apps that sell the use of shared 

transportation vehicles from a business to an individual consumer, including one-way and 

roundtrip trip carsharing (e.g., Zipcar). 

2. Mobility Trackers are apps that track the speed, heading, and elapsed travel time of a 

traveler. These apps often include both wayfinding and fitness functions that are colored by 

metrics, such as caloric consumption while walking (e.g., GPS Tracker Pro).

3. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Sharing Apps are apps that enable private owners of transportation 

vehicles to share them peer-to-peer, generally for a fee (e.g., Spinlister). 

4. Public Transit Apps are apps that enable the user to search public transit routes, schedules, 

near-term arrival predictions, and connections. These apps may also include a ticketing 

feature, thereby providing the traveler with easier booking and payment for public transit 

services (e.g., Washington, DC’s Metrorail and Metrobus). 

5. Real-Time Information Apps are apps that display real-time travel information across 

multiple modes including current traffic data, public transit wait times, and bikesharing and 

parking availability (e.g., Snarl).

6. Ridesourcing/TNC Apps are apps that provide a platform for sourcing rides. This category is 

expansive in its definition so as to include “ridesplitting” services in which fares and rides 

are split among multiple strangers who are traveling in the same direction (e.g., UberPOOL 

and Lyft Line). 

7. Taxi e-Hail Apps are apps that supplement street hails by allowing location-aware, ondemand hailing of regulated city taxicabs (e.g., Flywheel). 

8. Trip Aggregator Apps are apps that route users by considering multiple modes of 

transportation and providing the user with travel times, connection information, and distance 

and trip cost (e.g., Transit App). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 13

Vehicle Connectivity Apps

Vehicle connectivity apps are apps that allow remote access to a vehicle through an integrated 

electronic system that can be used in times of emergencies (e.g., locked out of a car, asking for help 

when in an accident, etc.). The vehicle connectivity apps are generally developed by auto

manufacturers (e.g., General Motor’s OnStar). 

Smart Parking Apps

Smart parking apps provide information on parking cost, availability, and payment channels. These 

apps are often paired with smart parking systems (e.g., SFpark). These apps can be grouped as follows: 

1. e-Parking is used broadly to describe the integration of technologies to streamline the parking 

process—from real-time information on space availability to simplified payment methods 

(Shaheen & Kemmerer, 2008). e-Parking apps provide important information regarding realtime parking cost and availability (e.g., Park Whiz) and accessible payment channels for 

parking (e.g., Parkmobile). 

2. e-Valet is used broadly to describe a for-hire parking service where drivers use an app to 

dispatch valet drivers to pick-up, park, and return vehicles. In addition to parking, some of 

these services also offer fueling, cleaning, and other vehicle services. Valet Parking Apps

provide the ease of on-demand valet parking with flexible drop off and return locations (e.g., 

Luxe). 

Courier Network Services (CNS) Apps

Courier Network Services (CNSs) (also referred to as flexible goods delivery) are apps that provide 

for-hire delivery services for monetary compensation using an online application or platform (such as a 

website or smartphone app) to connect couriers using their personal vehicles, bicycles, or scooters with 

freight (e.g., packages, food). These apps can be sub-divided into two types: 

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Delivery Services are apps that enable private drivers to collect a fee for 

delivering cargo using their private automobiles (e.g., Roadie). 

2. Paired On-Demand Courier Services are apps that allow for-hire ride services to also conduct 

package deliveries (e.g., UberEATS). 

NON-TRANSPORTATION APPS DEPLOYING STRATEGIES THAT MAY BE 

USEFUL FOR TRANSPORTATION APPS

Additionally, three categories of non-transportation apps that deploy strategies that may be useful for 

future transportation apps include: 1) Health Apps; 2) Environmental / Energy Consumption Apps; and 

3) Insurance Apps. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 14

Health Apps 

Health apps are apps that assist users with monitoring their health (e.g., calories burned, heart rate, 

etc.) and changing their behavior (e.g., exercising more and eating less), as well as understanding the 

health impacts of their transportation choices. Outside of mobility, health apps integrate health records, 

provide low-cost medical care, and create motivational communities to support good health (e.g., Map 

My Walk).

Environment / Energy Consumption Apps 

Environment / Energy Consumption Apps are apps that track environmental impacts and the energy 

consumption of travel behavior. For example, these apps might predict the Greenhouse gas (GHG) 

emissions associated with different modal choices (e.g., Refill). This category also includes ecodriving/eco-routing apps that encourage environmentally conscious driving by providing real-time 

feedback on driving behavior as related to energy use, efficient routing information, or both. The 

category also includes apps that help locate car charging stations for electric cars (e.g., greenMeter). 

Outside of mobility, environment/energy apps are motivating users to reduce their material 

consumption and carbon footprint, along with raising environmental awareness. 

Insurance Apps

Insurance apps generally aim to tie a traveler’s behavior, especially as a driver, to an individual’s 

insurance premiums and user experience. These apps enable users to opt for pay-per-mile automobile 

insurance (e.g., Metromile) and other usage-based pricing and incentives, related to distance, time-oftravel, and safe driving (e.g., Allstate’s usage-based insurance app). Outside of mobility, insurance 

apps are speeding the insurance claims process and reducing insurance fraud.

SMARTPHONE APP CHARACTERISTICS 

To complete this scan, the Transportation Sustainability Research Center (TSRC) at the University of 

California, Berkeley conducted a smartphone services and mobility literature review and Internet 

search. 

TSRC did not review mobile operating systems that were not mainstream in the U.S. marketplace. As a 

corollary, operating systems specific to the Asian and European markets and apps that are not available 

in English were excluded from this analysis. 

Additionally, public transit agency apps were omitted from this analysis. Many of these apps are not 

available on the app marketplace but instead are available for download directly from the public transit 

agency’s website. As such, an accurate census of these apps is difficult to obtain due to the vast 

number of public transit agencies nationwide. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 15

However, where applicable, this literature scan references data from a Transportation Research 

Cooperative (TCRP) Synthesis 91, titled “Use and Deployment of Mobile Device Technology for RealTime Transit Information” (Schweiger, 2011). While this synthesis report included a review of the 

websites of 276 U.S. transit agency members of the American Public Transportation Association 

(APTA), a similar methodology is not possible today. At the time of their survey, the open data 

standard commonly known as General (formerly Google) Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) had

recently been developed and was not in widespread use. Since the development of GTFS open data, 

there has been a proliferation of innumerable public transit apps developed by third parties offering a

variety of timetable, trip planning, and real-time app-based services. 

Broadly speaking, the review covers two different scopes of apps. First, it covers the qualitative 

aspects and range of functionality across the entire universe of apps. Second, researchers completed a 

quantitative analysis of the more limited universe of apps with more than 10,000 total downloads. 

In the entire universe of apps, the scan includes notable developments and new applications to account 

for recent innovations that may not have been available in the marketplace long enough to achieve a 

significant number of downloads. The findings of app cataloging are included, as appropriate. 

In this more limited universe, the primer catalogs key data points available from the app marketplaces 

including operating system(s), geographic availability, business model, real-time information 

availability, gamification, and incentives. Eighty-three transportation-related smartphone applications 

across all four marketplaces, with more than 10,000 total downloads, were successfully identified. 

Applications with fewer total downloads were excluded from this analysis to focus on those in more 

widespread use.

The quantitatively surveyed smartphone apps can be categorized and characterized across six 

dimensions: operating system, geographic availability, business model, real-time information 

availability, gamification, and incentives. The apps within the high-download universe are 

characterized along these axes below.

Operating Systems

A review of applications by operating system found that the majority of transportation-related 

applications were only available on Android and iOS and thus were generally unavailable on Windows 

and Blackberry. Only 36% and 23% of transportation applications were available on Windows and 

Blackberry, respectively, compared to 86% and 80% availability on Android and iOS (TSRC, 

unpublished data, 2015). This suggests potential gaps in transportation app service availability on 

second-tier and emerging operating systems. A recent study of U.S. smartphone users by comScore 

found that as of January 2015, Android was the largest mobile OS with 53.2% of the market share, 

followed by Apple iOS with 41.3%. Microsoft, BlackBerry, and Symbian each had 3.6%, 1.8%, and 

0.1% market share, respectively (Soomro, 2015). Thus, while the transportation apps are relatively 

unavailable on the Windows and Blackberry operating systems, the smaller market shares of these 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 16

operating systems result in fewer users who are impacted by this gap. In turn, that low availability on 

those OSs may not significantly impact the transportation system.

Geographic Availability

Of the 83 transportation-related smartphone applications identified, 81 apps (98%) were available in 

North America, while 59 (71%) apps were obtainable in Europe (meaning that there is a fair amount of 

overlap). Fifty-three (64%) and 52 apps (63%) were available in Asia and Oceania (Australia/New 

Zealand), respectively. Sixty-two apps (75%) were available in developing regions of the world, 

including Africa, South America, and the Middle East. Smartphone applications not available in the 

U.S. were not assessed, and thus this review may overstate the regional availability of transportationrelated applications in North America compared to other regions due to a sampling bias. 

App Business Models

Independent and corporate application developers generally make their apps available in stores for 

users to download and install. Generally, a number of barriers exist within these closed-platform 

marketplaces. For example, most app stores only permit the sale and distribution of “approved” 

applications, and most stores also require developers to pay an annual subscription fee to submit apps 

and maintain their availability on a marketplace. In addition to downloading apps directly from a 

marketplace, a few app stores and mobile carriers permit the dissemination of an app through a 

hyperlink distributed through a web browser, text message, or multimedia message. Additionally, 

although their market share is negligible, a few mobile phone manufacturers have created their own 

app stores to market and sell third-party applications. 

Not surprisingly, 93% of the transportation apps identified were offered free of charge (n=76/82). 

Seven percent of the transportation apps were only offered for purchase (n=6/82), and 17% offered a 

freemium version that has degraded features and/or the presence of advertising in contrast to the paid 

version (n=14/82). Freemium apps are free to download but also include in-app purchases for premium 

content, features, or the removal of advertising. 

Boiling down this survey, the transportation apps can be classified into one of five common business 

models (Manoogian III, 2012). These include: 

• Sale of an app on an app marketplace;

• Offering a free to download, periodic sale/subscription to use/update app (e.g., SaaS (software 

as a service), news services);

• Offering a free app, with in-app purchase features or the close variant ‘freemium’ model; 

• Offering a free app supported through advertising; and 

• Offering a free app that provides access to paid services (e.g., Uber). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 17

In the “freemium” model, an app developer offers an app free of charge but charges for premium 

features. For example, the premium version may have fewer or no advertisements. This model is 

becoming increasingly popular (Findlay Schenck, 2011). App marketplaces may prefer paid apps 

because they charge the app developers a commission on app fees while they do not receive any 

revenue from in-app advertising (Flynn, 2010). For example, Apple receives a 30% commission on 

apps sold in its marketplace (Flynn, 2010). App marketplaces do not make revenue from any 

advertising clicks unless the app uses an advertising platform that is also owned by the marketplace 

owner (i.e., Apple, Google, and Microsoft) (Flynn, 2010). Apps may also generate additional revenue 

by selling user data to third parties and individual transactions (e.g., Uber, Lyft, and Flywheel). 

Generally, advertisers are more willing to pay for ad impressions than users are willing to pay for 

applications without advertising. A study by Cambridge University found that 73% of the apps on 

Android’s GooglePlay store were free of which 80% relied upon advertising revenue (Lunden, 2012). 

The study also found that only 20% of paid apps are downloaded more than 100 times (Lunden, 2012). 

Finally, the study found only 0.2% of paid apps are downloaded more than 10,000 times compared to 

20% of free apps (Lunden, 2012). The Interactive Advertising Bureau estimated that mobile 

advertising revenue hit $19.3 billion in 2013, representing a 92% increase over the previous year 

(Interactive Advertising Bureau, 2014). 

Real-Time Information Availability

The dispensing of real-time transportation data to smartphone users immediately after collection is the 

most important aspect of smartphone transportation apps supporting active travel demand management 

(ATDM). The availability of real-time information, such as traffic conditions, roadway incidents, 

parking availability, and public transit wait times, distinguishes newer apps from many early 

smartphone app services, such as those just providing static public transit timetables. Seventy-one 

percent of the transportation apps identified incorporated some type of real-time information into the 

application. The TCRP study of public transit data and apps found that 16% of APTA member 

agencies (45 of 276) provide some information on mobile devices with approximately 5% (15 of 276) 

providing real-time information (Schweiger, 

2011). That number is sure to be much higher 

today. 

Gamification and Incentives

Gamification is the use of game theory and game 

mechanics in the mobile app context to engage 

smartphone users to employ an app in a 

particular way (Herger, 2015; Marczewski, 

2012). Apps using gamification structure the end

user as a “player” within the gamified app 

design. The use of leaderboards, badges, Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 18

levels, progress bars, and points are examples of gamified applications meant to encourage and/or 

discourage particular user behaviors (Herger, 2015) (Marczewski, 2012). For example, a user might 

receive points, increased rankings, or rewards for environmentally-conscious behaviors, such as 

carpooling or riding public transit instead of driving alone or using an alternative mode on a “sparethe-air” day. By employing these techniques, gamification uses the social aspects of competition, 

achievement, and status to encourage players to compete within an app. A 2011 survey of Global 2000 

companies found that 70% of companies planned to use gamification as a marketing and customer 

retention strategy (Van Grove, 2011). As such, gamification represents one potential strategy for 

encouraging positive transportation behaviors in the mobility context. 

Twenty-three percent of the transportation apps identified for this scan incorporated some form of 

gamified incentive, such as savings, raffles, or favicons (a special badge denoting a level of 

achievement (n=19/81). Loyalty points that could be cashed in for various rewards were the most 

common incentive representing approximately one-fifth (21%) of all incentives (n=4/19). 

Gamification is also often closely associated and paired with “incentives.” Mobile app incentives often

involve the user being incentivized to give up something to get something else (Dabbs, 2013). App 

developers commonly recognize two drop-off periods in engagement/use: 1) from install to first use 

and 2) first to second use. As such, app incentives commonly target these two periods (Dabbs, 2013). 

For transportation, the goal is to get users to switch their behaviors repeatedly, thereby precipitating a 

long-term impact on the transportation network. Thus, app-based incentives in a transportation context 

might mean giving up the convenience or privacy of driving alone but being rewarded to ride in a high 

occupancy vehicle lane that reduces travel time. It may mean riding public transit to work more 

frequently, which can be perceived as less convenient, in exchange for a transportation demand 

management subsidy or rider incentive. Rider incentives for ongoing behaviors can include discounts, 

coupons, gift cards, and other rewards. 

With mobile applications, there are in essence two types of incentives: 1) incentives to download the 

app and 2) incentives to use the app (or more specifically, gamified incentives that encourage or 

discourage a particular type of application use or behavior that is tracked by the application). 

Restrictions against incentives to download an app are designed to maintain the integrity of app 

download ratings and discourage the practice of encouraging a high number of incentivized app 

downloads that in turn artificially raises the download count and increases an app’s download ranking 

within an app marketplace. In July 2014, Apple began issuing rejection notices to app developers that 

offered incentives to users who post feedback about an app on social media (Bolluyt, 2014). Finally, as 

with all apps, continued customer engagement and retention are challenges following the collection of 

the incentive.
Smartphone Applications Primer| 19

MOBILITY APPS 

This section provides an example of each of the apps that impact transportation (mobility, parking, 

health, environment and energy, and insurance) identified in Section 3.1. Mobility apps are further 

broken down into the sub-categories, also noted in Section 3.1. The app examples are provided for 

illustrative purposes and do not represent an endorsement by the report authors or any other party 

involved in the development of the primer document. 

Business-to-Consumer Sharing Apps

Zipcar (Figure 2) is an example of a Business-to-Consumer (B2C) carsharing service, 

which provides users short-term access to a fleet of cars owned by the business and not by 

individuals. Zipcar rentals are usually available in places like city centers, and they can be accessed by 

the hour or for the whole day. Fuel and insurance are also included, making it easier for the customer 

to use it instantly without owning a car. Zipcar operates in more than 150 U.S. cities and is also 

available in Austria, Canada, France, Spain, the UK, and Turkey. Other B2C apps in this space include 

City CarShare and Enterprise CarShare (both roundtrip carsharing); car2go and ReachNow 

(formerly DriveNow) (both one-way carsharing services); Scoot Networks (Scooter Sharing); and 

Bridj and Via (both microstransit services). 

Figure 2. Screenshot depicts available Zipcar locations in San Francisco. Source: Google Play 

Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 20

Mobility Tracker Apps

GPS Tracker Pro (Figure 3) is an example of a mobility app that allows users to find and 

track friends and get directions to their location. The app also allows users to track their 

own mobile phone, if the device is lost or stolen. Other apps in this space include: EmergenSee, 

Friend Locator: Phone Tracker, and GPS Phone Tracker Pro. 

Figure 3. Screenshot of the GPS Tracker Pro mobility app. Source: Google Play Store 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 21

Peer-to-Peer Sharing Apps

Spinlister (Figure 4) is an example of a peer-to-peer bikesharing service provider offering 

users short-term access to a fleet of privately-owned bicycles. The Spinlister app enables 

bicycle owners to list bikes for rent and users to locate available bikes for reservation and access using 

the smartphone application. As of June 2015, Spinlister was available in Amsterdam, Austin, Boston, 

Chicago, Denver, London, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, Portland, San Francisco, and the 

Seattle metropolitan areas. Other apps in this space include: BitLock (Peer-to-Peer bikesharing) and 

FlightCar, Getaround, and Turo (formerly known as RelayRides) (all Peer-to-Peer Carsharing 

operators). 

Figure 4. Screenshot depicting Spinlister peer-to-peer bicycle listings. Source: Google Play Store 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 22

Public Transit Apps 

The MuniMobile public transit application (Figure 5) provides app-based fare payment and 

ticketing for the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (commonly referred to as 

Muni). The app allows users to purchase and use fares and passes instantly on a smartphone without 

paper tickets. Other apps in this space include: D.C. Metrorail and Metrobus; MyTransit NYC Maps 

& Schedules; and New York MTA Subway Map (NYC). 

 

Figure 5. MuniMobile app screenshots showing the user interface and mobile fare payment. 

Source: Google Play Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 23

Real-Time Information Apps

Snarl (Figure 6) is an example of a real-time information app for Australian drivers. The 

Snarl app provides free traffic and roadway incident updates and displays real-time traffic 

information and traffic hot spots. Additionally, the app features a driving mode enabling drivers to 

dynamically navigate around traffic and roadway incidents. Other apps in this space include: 511 

Transit; Commute: Live Traffic Alerts; and Florida 511. 

Figure 6. Screenshot of the Snarl app. Source: Google Play Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 24

Ridesourcing Apps

Lyft (Figure 7) is an example of a transportation network company application offering ondemand real-time for-hire vehicle services. The app uses an online platform to connect 

passengers with drivers using their personal vehicles for compensation. As of December 2015, Lyft

was available in 31 states and the District of Columbia. Other apps in this space include 

HopSkipDrive and Uber. 

Figure 7. Screenshot of the Lyft app. Source: Google Play Store 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 25

Taxi e-Hail Apps

Flywheel (Figure 8) is an example of a mobile application for the taxi industry that 

connects passengers with taxi drivers. Flywheel enables passengers to e-Hail taxi drivers 

real-time, track taxi arrival via GPS, and pay their taxi fares from their smartphones. As of June 2015, 

Flywheel was available in the Los Angeles, Sacramento, San Diego, San Francisco, and the Seattle 

metropolitan regions. Other apps in this space include: AeroTaxi, Bandwagon, Easy Taxi, Gett, 

Hailo, and mytaxi. 

Figure 8. Screenshots of the Flywheel e-Hail taxi app. Source: Mashable.com
Smartphone Applications Primer| 26

Trip Aggregator Apps 

The “Swiftly App” (Figure 9) is an example of an all-in-one multi-modal aggregator 

displaying public transit options, timetables, and real-time arrival and departure information 

(in select regions). Additionally, the app can display shared mobility information for more than 90 

metropolitan regions in seven countries on three continents. Other apps in this space include: GoLa

(Xerox) and Transit App. 

Figure 9. Screenshots from “Swiftly” app. Source: Swiftly
Smartphone Applications Primer| 27

VEHICLE CONNECTIVITY APPS 

OnStar (Figure 10) is a vehicle connectivity app by the General Motors group that provides 

subscription-based communications, in-vehicle security, hands-free calling, turn-by-turn navigation, 

and remote diagnostics systems. It provides emergency services like “Automatic Crash Response,” 

“Crisis Assist,” and “Roadside Assistance.” Additionally, it has sophisticated security features, such as

“Stolen Vehicle Assistance,” including “Remote Ignition Block” and “Stolen Vehicle Slowdown.” 

Other apps in this space include: Lexus Enform App Suite, M-B mbrace, and My BMW Remote. 

Figure 10. Screenshot of GM’s OnStar app. Source: Apple iTunes Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 28

SMART PARKING APPS 

The ParkWhiz app (Figure 11) is an example of an e-parking app that allows drivers to search for 

available parking, view pricing, and make reservations at over 2,000 parking lots across the United 

States. Additionally, ParkWhiz customers are offered a discount for booking parking in advance. 

Other apps in this space include: Best Parking, ParkMe, and SpotHero. 

 

Figure 11. Screenshots of the ParkWhiz app. Source: Google Play Store 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 29

Luxe (Figure 12) is an example of an eValet parking app where car owners can hire experienced valets 

to park their car. There is the added flexibility of selecting different drop-off and return locations; 

some additional services offered by Luxe valets are washing and fueling of the car. As of October 

2015, Luxe was available in nine U.S. cities: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicago, Seattle, Boston, 

Austin, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington D.C. Other apps in this space include: 1-2 Car Valet 

Services and Valet. 

Figure 12. Screenshot of Luxe app. Source: Google Play Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 30

COURIER NETWORK SERVICES APPS 

Roadie (Figure 13) is an example of a cargo delivery app permitting peer-to-peer delivery. Similar to

ridesourcing, Roadie offers on-demand, real-time for-hire cargo services. The app uses an online 

platform to connect shippers with independent delivery drivers using their personal vehicles for 

compensation. As of March 2015, Roadie was available in all 50 states (Roadie, 2015). Other apps in 

this space include: DoorDash, Postmates, Shipbird, and Shyp. 

Figure 13. Screenshots of the Roadie app. Source: Apple iTunes Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 31

The second CNS model that has emerged is one in which for-hire ride services (e.g., ridesoucing) also 

conduct package deliveries. Uber has entered the paired on-demand courier network services market 

with UberEATS (food), UberRUSH (in New York City), and UberCARGO (in Hong Kong). 

UberEATS allows users to order their food from nearby restaurants and get it delivered on-demand 

and within a few minutes (three to 10 minutes in urban areas). As of April 2016, UberEATS was

available in 12 cities around the world: Atlanta, Austin, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, New 

York, Paris, San Francisco, Seattle, Toronto, and Washington D.C. 

Figure 14. Screenshot for UberEATS app. Source: UberEATS Official Website
Smartphone Applications Primer| 32

HEALTH APPS 

Map My Walk is a health app (Figure 15) aimed at encouraging walking by providing GPS guided 

walking and health tracking features, such as distance and time walked, calories burned, and diet 

tracking. Other apps in this space include: Pedometer, Walkmeter GPS Pedometer, Google Fit and 

Microsoft Health. 

 

Figure 15. Screenshots from the Map My Walk app. Source: Google Play Store
Smartphone Applications Primer| 33

ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION APPS 

TomTom is a navigation app (Figure 16) with an eco-friendly routing feature that allows drivers to 

select the most fuel-efficient routes. 

Figure 16. TomTom app depicting its navigation routing feature. Source: Apple iTunes Store

Another example for environmental and energy consumption is greenMeter (Figure 17). It is an ecodriving smartphone application that computes a driver’s vehicle power, fuel usage, and driving 

characteristics. The app uses these metrics to evaluate a user’s driving and advises motorists on how to 

increase their efficiency, reduce fuel consumption, and reduce vehicular emissions. The app displays 

real-time results providing the driver with instantaneous driving feedback. Other apps in this space 

include: EcoDriving and Geco. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 34

 

Figure 17. A screenshot showing the greenMeter app. Source: Apple iTunes Store

INSURANCE APPS 

With the Metromile insurance app (figure 15), customers can “plug-and-play” a GPS and cellularactivated box into the vehicle’s diagnostic port, which reads various metrics and diagnostic codes from 

the customer’s vehicle and relays the info to the Metromile app on the customer’s smartphone. Using 

the Metromile app, customers can select their deductible and view their insurance bill, which combines 

a flat base rate with a per mile rate based on actual vehicle usage. In addition to tracking insurance 

savings, the app also allows customers to track miles per gallon, fuel cost, and driving times. Metromile

advertises that customers who drive less than 5,000 miles per year can save an estimated 40 to 50% off 

their insurance premiums. As of April 2016, Metromile insurance was available in California, Illinois, 

New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington. Other apps in this space include: Geico, 

Liberty Mutual, Progressive, and The General. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 35

Figure 18. Metromile diagnostic plug and Metromile app depicting trip information. Source: 

Google Play Store 

SUMMARY

In summary, mobility, vehicle connectivity, smart parking, courier network services, health, 

environment and energy consumption, and insurance apps are transforming mobility, improving access 

to transportation services, enhancing traveler engagement, and spawning innovative businesses, 

services, and mobility models. Android and iOS are the most common operating systems. Most 

mainstream transportation apps have limited availability on less common second tier operating 

systems, such as Windows and Blackberry. The vary majority of apps are offered free of charge in 

contrast to only 7% offered for purchase. Some of the free apps (17%) offer a freemium version with 

enhanced features or a user experience without advertising (n=14/82). Anecdotally, advertisers seem to 

be more willing to pay for ad impressions than users are willing to pay for applications without 

advertising and other premium services. The use of game theory and game mechanics, such as 

gamification and incentives, remain important elements of app design. Nearly one quarter of the 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 36

transportation apps identified for this scan incorporated some form of gamified incentive. Incentives 

within mobile applications, such as incentives to download the app and incentives to use the app (or 

more specifically, gamified incentives that encourage or discourage a particular type of application 

use), are common strategies being employed by app developers to enhance user engagement and 

encourage user retention across a wide array of transportation applications. The next chapter reviews 

the behavioral and economic impacts of these applications. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 37

CHAPTER 4. TRANSPORTATION APPS AND 

THEIR IMPACTS ON TRAVELER BEHAVIOR

Smartphone apps have a strong influence on the 

travel choices people make. Much of this influence 

is economic and social psychological in nature. That 

is, smartphone apps often deploy psychological, 

cognitive, emotional, and social mechanisms to 

influence our economic and non-economic decision 

making. Transportation apps are no exception: 

whether it is the convenience of a ridesourcing app, 

like Uber; transforming the ride-for-hire industry; or 

expanding gamification opportunities on traffic 

apps, like Waze to develop ever smarter driver 

routing, transportation apps are profoundly 

influencing how travelers interact with the 

transportation system and traveler behavior. This 

chapter discusses how transportation apps may impact travel behavior. 

There is simultaneously a huge variety of previously identified behavioral economic/social 

psychological mechanisms and very little specific research on their application in the transportation 

sector (Metcalfe & Dolan, 2012) (Solof, 2010). This primer identifies the mechanisms believed to be 

the most impactful and prevalent and describes, with examples, where and how they are deployed in 

current smartphone transportation apps (as of mid-2015). These mechanisms include: 

1. Cognitive Impacts: How apps mitigate cognitive difficulties and drive new and different usage 

of the transportation system. 

2. Actual and Perceived Control: How apps give travelers more or more perceived control over 

their travel choices and experiences.

3. Privacy Safeguards: The role of data privacy in shaping usage of apps and transportation 

behavior. 

4. Trust: Limitations imposed on the potential of smartphone apps and transportation services by 

consumer trust issues. 

5. App Design: How the design and user experience in apps impacts their usage and success in 

shaping behavior. 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 38

6. Reframing Norms and Defaults about Transportation Choices: Changing what travelers 

consider the “normal” or “right” choice for a given transportation decision. 

7. Price, Actual Value, and Perceived Value: Impacting how travelers conceptualize and 

respond to transportation pricing. 

8. Information Availability: How information in various forms, or lack thereof, can shape 

transportation behavior. 

9. Social Pressure: How our social networks and connections are exploited by apps to change our 

choices and transportation experiences.

10. Risk Analysis: The impact of our perception of risk and how smartphone apps mitigate or 

increase it and thus influence our choices and behavior. 

11. Delivery of Incentives: What smartphone apps do to shift our behavior with deliberate 

incentives.

Public agencies and governments need to better understand these mechanisms, how they are being 

deployed, and what benefits and costs they can incur for behavioral change in our transportation 

system. Each mechanism listed above is explored in greater detail below.

COGNITIVE IMPACTS

Smartphone apps are able to mitigate a number of cognitive difficulties, principally by reducing the 

cognitive effort required to make sense of complex situations and the steps required to achieve specific 

tasks. This is applicable for both the average user and those with cognitive challenges and disabilities 

(Szczerba, 2014). 

One of the primary offerings of smartphones is always-on, always-connected, and at-your-fingertips

convenience. Mobile devices enable users to communicate instantly around the clock, monitor 

financial markets, track weather forecasts, and get GPS guided directions in real time on an as-needed 

basis. In transportation, smartphone apps have made it easier to access and sort through complex 

public transit schedule data (e.g., Google Maps, Transit App, Moovit); alleviated the cognitive burden 

of route planning, both static and dynamic (e.g., Waze); and made it simpler and easier to pay for and 

access transportation services (e.g., TriMet ticketing, Zipcar app). Although smartphone apps in 

general may mitigate some cognitive difficulties, a number of studies have documented the negative 

impacts of the personal and business use of smartphones on employee productivity and sleep patterns 

and may be linked to stress and anxiety associated with social networking and compulsive checking for 

updates (Johnson & Barnes, 2014) (The British Psychological Society, 2012). In the transportation 

space, a growing body of research highlights the distracting impact of smartphone app usage on 

driving safety: whether checking social media, texting friends, or simply keeping track of smartphone 

route directions, studies indicate that the cognitive load involved is a serious distraction from safe and 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 39

effective driving. Outside of driving safety, negative impacts on cognitive load in transportation choice 

and usage are unknown. 

Apps deliver their cognitive benefits both through the physical nature of any mediated service (as in 

the case of Lyft or Uber) and through the design of the app itself. Transportation apps often involve 

search and decision heuristics, and how these are designed can have important impacts on whether or 

not the app is used and therefore whether or not it changes behavior. A well designed app will improve 

search heuristics by reducing the cognitive load necessary to make efficient and effective searches. It 

may also improve decision heuristics by making it easy to sort through options and come to a decision. 

Ways in which app designs have been optimized to improve these heuristics include: 

1. Providing users with immediate notification of an application’s status: trip aggregator apps, 

such as Moovel (formerly RideScout) and Citymapper, quickly take users from a trip plan to a 

full range of options that could meet their particular travel objectives. This reduces the 

cognitive load in searching for ride options. 

2. Using a theme and visual language consistent with the offering and brand: ridesourcing apps, 

like Uber and Lyft, have distinct visual themes that often match their overall brand identity 

(e.g., sleek and efficient for Uber, more playful and social for Lyft) and help set them apart. 

Waze uses its icon consistently through the app and employs a cartoonish aesthetic that helps 

reinforce their primary value proposition as crowdsourcing user data for improved traffic 

routing. All these mechanisms reduce cognitive load in distinguishing between offerings and 

set up users for habitual and familiar use of these services. 

3. Preventing errors where possible and assisting users when errors occur: Trip aggregator apps 

and public transit apps allow users to access public transportation schedules and route 

itineraries without access to the Internet. For example, Moovit crowdsources information from 

its app users to ground truth the public transit arrival predictions it receives from public 

agencies. These features can mitigate the significant cognitive effort necessary to respond to 

unforeseen failures in a particular journey (e.g., a missed bus or poor Internet connection). 

4. Employing a simple, easy to read, pleasing, intuitive user interface: Regardless of the end 

objective of a particular transportation app, it is generally agreed that a simple and accessible 

interface improves user retention. For example, Lyft focuses on the one main goal users are 

likely to have when using their app, that is, hailing a vehicle. Their app is designed to 

emphasize the large button at the bottom of the screen that indicates to drivers that a user needs 

a ride. Lyft understands that the easier it is to request a ride, the more likely they are to see their 

service used.

While the user interface and user experience research supports the notion that design can significantly 

impact cognitive load and therefore user success in using an app, little publicly available research has 

been done on this in the context of the transportation world. Additionally, with an aging population in 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 40

the developed world, heuristic practices for older adults that account for declining vision, hearing, 

motor skills, and cognitive function will become of increasing importance to ensure that transportation 

apps meet the mobility needs of disabled and older populations (Silva, Holden, & Nii, 2014) (Calak, 

2013). 

ACTUAL AND PERCEIVED CONTROL 

App designers typically agree on the importance of user experience, interface, simplicity, reliability, 

and performance to designing a successful smartphone application. However, the actual and perceived 

user control that an app provides over a task or challenge are often overlooked attributes. Actual 

control refers to the explicit control an app user gains over some decision making process or 

experience. The underlying principle of perceived control is that the more a user feels in control, the 

more satisfied and comfortable they are. In the transportation space, actual control may relate to 

improving the user’s sense of being on time or knowledge of when they will arrive: trip planning and 

public transit information apps from Moovit and Moovel (RideScout) through to Routesy and 

OneBusAway do so through accessing real-time data and providing timely and tailored updates. 

Perceived control may relate to the sense of material or security comfort while using a transportation 

service the user gains from employing an app, regardless as to whether or not that comfort is 

objectively improved. For instance, studies have shown that bus patrons without real-time arrival 

information perceive wait times as being longer, implying that apps providing real-time information 

can improve level of satisfaction from bus services (Watkins, Ferris, Borning, Rutherford, & Layton, 

2011). 

Studies on actual and perceived control benefits associated with smartphones are limited. However, 

according to one study, smartphone apps that enable riders more control over their trips may be the key 

to filling information gaps (Latitude, 2011) and by implication to enabling different transportation 

choices. According to their deprivation study, users that gave up a personal vehicle for one week

wanted to be empowered and informed about available public transit options including: routing, 

electronic schedules, and system delays. Anecdotally, this study suggests that the new crop of 

informational apps providing real-time updates on bus arrivals, for exampleand innovative 

transportation service apps providing access to taxis or ridesourcing within minutesmay be able to 

provide a level of control over personal transportation options comparable to a privately-owned 

vehicle. This has important implications for the modal share of drive-alone trips, particularly for 

commuting when high levels of certainty are required around arrival times. Informational apps that 

help mitigate the challenges of intermodal trips, particularly the issues of missed connections between 

multiple public transit services, could also increase public transit use in general. 

The social networking capabilities of smartphones, independent of any specific transportation function, 

may play their own role in changing the transportation experience of travelers. Surveys have shown 

that “Millennial” demographic users favor smartphone ownership over car ownership because of the 

connectedness that such technologies enable: having dedicated time to access social networks may be a 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 41

significant advantage to public transit ridership over driving (Tuttle, 2015) (Nelson, 2013) (Sakaria & 

Stehfest, 2013). 

PRIVACY SAFEGUARDS

With many transportation apps tracking and storing sensitive information, such as user location data, 

concerns are emerging on how to safeguard user privacy (King & Raja, 2012) (Saif, Peasley, & 

Perinkolam, 2015), and on how this might impact usage of transportation apps and services. Ajusto, a 

transportation app released by Desjardins Insurance, tracks driver behavior in return for a promise of 

car insurance savings. As with many transportation apps that collect sensitive user data, Ajusto has 

critics worrying about how user location data are being used, such as the potential for data aggregation 

with other information on a user’s smartphone and the sharing of user data to third parties (CBC News, 

2015). Studies have shown, for example, that an individual’s identity can be discovered purely by 

compiling travel habits in conjunction with other publicly available datasets (Rossi & Musolesi, 2014), 

(de Montjoye, Hidalgo, Verleysen, & Blondel, 2013). 

Community-based navigation app, Waze; public transport app, Moovit; and community-based running 

and cycling app, Strava, are transportation apps revolving around the collection and analysis of user 

data. They raise questions about how these data are being shared, particularly as the three apps partner 

and share data with cities. Currently Waze, Moovit, and Strava only report sharing data that is 

anonymous and aggregated, but the potential for leaking or misuse remains (Forbes, 2014), and 

anonymizing/aggregation does not remove the potential to identify users based on detailed location 

information. To enable greater privacy controls for users and to combat privacy concerns, 

transportation apps that track location sensitive information, such as Strava, allow users to turn off the 

tracking in the app’s settings, but it is not clear what happens to the data that may still reside on Strava 

servers. Typically, the answer may reside in the long and complex terms and conditions that every user 

implicitly signs but very few read (Gayomali, 2011) (Blodget, 2011). 

While privacy concerns are often publicly raised, it is unknown if they have any significant impact on 

the rate at which these apps are adopted and therefore how transportation choices are made. 

Revelations from Uber of a “god view” where all vehicle and user locations could be seen from a 

central web portal (Dent, 2014) or explicit statements that user locations are being deployed as a 

central part of the app service (e.g., in Moovit’s crowdsourcing feature for public transit arrival times) 

have not deterred the user bases of either company (70,000 users for Uber in San Francisco alone; 

(Shontell, 2014) and 10 million worldwide users for Moovit (Moovit, 2015)). It appears that anything 

other than gross breaches of privacy will not be sufficient to impact app use or app-mediated 

transportation services, but there is limited research on the subject, at present. It is likely that 

consumers balance app utility against perceived privacy breaches. In Lyft’s and Uber’s case, the 

powerful mobility benefits of having access to ridesourcing may in the traveler’s mind outweigh the 

knowledge that user data are being collected and used for uncertain purposes. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 42

TRUST

For a smartphone app to be effective, it usually has to meet the minimum standard of delivering on 

what is promised. This is particularly sensitive for transportation app providers, who may be fielding 

data on complex and unreliable public transit arrivals. Often, when there is a failure in real-time 

arrivals data (the purview of the serving agency), the party that is blamed is the transportation app, 

even if the app has no actual control over data quality (pers. comm. RideScout 2015). 

More generally, having incorrect or missing information on roadway incidents, public transit 

departures and arrivals, and service availability can all undermine the trust and confidence of the user 

and may reduce the likelihood they adopt a particular app or service. For consumers using smartphone 

apps to access a particular product offering, such as a carsharing or microtransit, service reliability is 

particularly key. An unavailable vehicle or late driver, although again not necessarily the fault of the 

app itself, undermines the trust and confidence of the program. As such, real-time, reliable, and ondemand availability are the key characteristics contributing to a user’s trust in an application and may 

be strong factors in how impactful the app is in shaping transportation behavior and choice. 

Trust is also about perceived/actual security and comfort in using a service. This is especially 

important with transportation apps that facilitate some type of ridematching, whether it be a 

ridesourcing service or casual carpooling. One mobile app, Slugg, has attempted to build trust among 

unknown carpool drivers and passengers by connecting app users to their company email addresses. 

Other apps, Lyft and Uber, attempt to build trust among for-hire drivers and passengers through the use 

of a public ranking system. In both cases, the mutual social screening that goes on can be a significant 

driver of trust in the safety and comfort of ridematching services. 

REFRAMING NORMS AND DEFAULTS OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES

Mobility apps are increasingly breaking traditional travel norms and instituting new patterns and 

habits. In the early years of smartphone apps, usage was mostly passive. For example, users might 

download an app with public transit timetables and reference their smartphone for static schedule 

information. The advent of high-speed mobile data coupled with GPS location services enabled a new 

change in travel norms: using smartphones for real-time mapping and mobility data (such as public 

transit information). Now users can get directions and destination information on a real-time, asneeded basis, breaking the prior norm of having to pre-plan journeys or use other static sources of 

information like paper schedules or websites. 

Advancements in real-time technology now also enable travelers to alter their routing dynamically 

based on congestion and incident information. For example, the Here Drive+ app allows drivers to 

record various routes to work (Manticore blog, 2014). The app stores a commuter route, which can 

then be referenced by the driver in the future for side-by-side route comparisons with estimated travel 

time and bottleneck locations. Whereas the prior norm might have been that drivers accept being 

unknowing recipients of traffic congestion or public transit riders accept the inevitability of being 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 43

subject to delays outside their control, real-time apps are changing these norms by placing more 

control and information in the user’s hands. It is becoming more normal to plan dynamic trips because 

there is much greater certainty over available options and travel times due to real-time information. 

Advances in mobile ticketing and access apps have impacted the norm of service access. When moving 

from one city to another, travelers might previously have had to relearn the unique means by which 

public transit tickets are priced, delivered, and validated in that new location. In addition, ticketing was 

often viewed as a time consuming transaction involving proper change, a fare agent, or both. The 

norms of assumed complexity and variability are being replaced now by new mobile ticketing apps in 

Phoenix, Portland, and Austin (GlobeSherpa, 2015) and elsewhere, which are standardizing and 

simplifying the process of buying and validating things like bus tickets (Linton, 2015). 

Relatedly, there has long been a norm (and reality) of complexity in multimodal/intermodal trips. The 

challenge in navigating a bikesharing bike to a bus to a carsharing vehicle would, until recently, have 

defeated all but the most committed traveler. The smartphone and its transportation apps are 

increasingly enabling seamless door-to-door travel on multiple modes (e.g., Moovel, formerly 

RideScout). This is creating new informational and transactional norms, with digital wallets and 

wireless communication capabilities changing expectations for how easy the process of booking and 

accessing a particular service might be. Innovative transportation services that provide such amenities 

are increasingly in use (such as the dramatic growth of Lyft and Uber, where no cash ever changes 

hands) and putting pressure on traditional transportation modes, like public transit and taxis, to adopt 

and conform to these new expectations. 

In recent years, smartphone apps have again caused a re-evaluation of travel patterns and habits by 

incorporating mobility matching, mobility networking, and real-time data to create a new travel 

experience. Today, smartphone users can use their devices to match themselves with other travelers to 

carpool, hire a driver, and rent their personal bicycle or vehicle, changing a number of different 

behavioral norms: 

• Carpooling apps are breaking the norm that getting in a car with strangers is necessarily a bad 

thing. They are doing so by making the matching process easier and improving the verification 

process by which riders and drivers are matched (Kerr, 2014). 

• Ridesourcing apps are breaking the norm that you need to be wealthy to have a private driver. 

Indeed, Uber’s early marketing campaigns revolved around the slogan “Everyone’s Private 

Driver” (White, 2012). They are doing so by disrupting the taxi industry so that any individual 

can operate an on-demand vehicle and making it easier and cheaper to access mobility services.

• Carsharing and bikesharing are changing norms around ownership of transportation modes. For 

long periods in the history of the automotive and bicycle industries, owning a vehicle was the 

primary norm: it was the gateway to mobility. But with the rise of carsharing and bikesharing 

services (Shaheen & Cohen, 2014) (Shaheen, Martin, Chan, Cohen, & Pogodzinski, 2014) and 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 44

apps that enable easy access to such services, the norm of ownership is beginning to evolve into 

a norm of access.

Smartphone apps can also impact defaults and norms through explicit and direct behavioral 

interventions (for example, rewarding a desirable behavior and punishing an undesirable one). These 

are distinct from app features of functionality that may change behavioral norms by virtue of their 

utility. There is limited research on deliberate behavioral interventions by transportation apps, but 

studies of smartphone apps in other sectors emphasize very few formal techniques for behavioral 

change, such as goal setting and self-monitoring (Nauert 2015). 

Anecdotally, it appears that gamification is one of the primary behavioral interventions deployed in 

transportation apps. It is likely that apps, such as Waze, which gamify the act of providing 

transportation information (e.g., reporting an accident), have done so with the deliberate intent of 

shaping behavior toward the goal of generating more real-time information on traffic incidents. Given 

that Waze now provides data to multiple cities (Waze, 2015) and to the Google Maps application 

(Google, 2015), gamification is emerging as an effective intervention to shape behavior. In terms of 

norms, Waze is changing perceptions of the level of connectedness of individual drivers and the value 

of their own information. Moovit, a public transit information app, also deploys a form of gamification 

but in the public transit space. Moovit awards points to users for reporting late arrivals, incidents with 

vehicles, and other information pertinent to other travelers (Moovit, 2015). How successful this 

mechanism is in attracting new users or driving public transit ridership is unknown, but Moovit is 

doing its part to shift norms around the value of any individual traveler’s experience to operation of the 

wider system. 

Transportation app interventions may improve policing and security. The Bay Area Rapid Transit 

(BART) District, a San Francisco Bay Area transit agency, recently launched an app for policing. This 

app provides tools for users to report potential criminal incidents on the subway. Such an app may be 

primarily oriented toward helping the BART police secure the system, but it may also have the 

behavioral effect of discouraging criminal activity (similar to the effect of having security cameras on 

public transit (Nieto, 1997)). In the vein of punishing and stopping bad behavior, apps like TowIt 

(recently launched in several U.S. cities as of mid-2015) seek to empower the majority of the traveling 

public against a scofflaw minority. TowIt allows users to report double parked or otherwise obstructive 

vehicles with license plate recognition and an interface for the police or other authorities to review the 

offenders and presumably take action (CBS San Francisco, 2015). This is a behavioral intervention to 

punish violators for an actual offense, but it is also attempting to curtail double parking, which remains 

far too prevalent.

PRICE AND VALUE IMPACTING APP ADOPTION AND USAGE CHOICES

Transportation apps on smartphones may shape behavior by changing perceptions on price and value. 

This is in terms of purchase/use cost, actual value for money, and perceived value on both monetary 

and non-monetary grounds. Transportation apps may both increase awareness of favorable price/value 

(e.g., mode comparison apps) and actively drive down the cost of a transportation service through a 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 45

linked transportation mode (e.g., Uber or Lyft). Finally, transportation apps may change the value 

equation by either providing additional non-monetary benefits or making other non-monetary benefits 

more prominent to the consumer. 

At the most basic level, app purchase price is believed to impact a consumer’s choice on whether or 

not to use an app. As of 2013, 90% of apps across iOS and Android were free or ad supportedan 

increase of 84% from 2010 (Gordon, 2013). Clearly, transportation apps that are freely available are 

likely to be downloaded more. But this is only part of the story. 

Public transit apps that convey fare information or aggregator apps that allow comparisons of fares 

across services (e.g., What’s The Fare (What's The Fare, 2015)), may act to commoditize 

transportation in favor of users (driving down prices), as well as shape choice toward cheaper options. 

The price elasticity of multimodal travel is not well understood, however, and convenience, comfort, 

trust, safety, and reliability may come above the price of a service in determining choice. Nevertheless, 

improved pricing informationparticularly for complex journeyscan have an impact, and 

smartphone apps are a highly effective way to deliver this information. 

App-based services, like Lyft and Uber, have expanded the on-demand mobility market by competing 

alongside legacy taxi services, increasing the supply of drivers, and driving down prices (although 

some of this price depression may well be subsidized by both companies in an attempt to corner 

market share (Said, 2014)). Such apps and associated services create perceived consumer value 

through enhanced services (e.g., digital dispatch and on-demand vehicle tracking), making the expense 

of paying for a private car seem a better value for the money.

Consumer “value” is not always about lower prices or indeed about prices altogether. New companies, 

such as Leap in San Francisco (now defunct) and Von Lane in Texas (Leap, 2015) (Box, 2014), offer 

“enhanced” transit services with more comfortable vehicles and amenities like onboard drinks. These 

are higher priced offerings that provide more “transportation experience” value, which their apps 

publicize. In the same vein, apps that provide access to environmentally-less costly transportation 

services, like Scoot Networks (an electric scooter sharing system in San Francisco), may shift behavior 

toward those modes both by simply making it easier to do the right thing and also publicizing the 

benefit of doing so to others (Welch, 2009). Apps that offer convenience value (e.g., time savings, 

access to smartphones while on the move) may be particularly impactful in shaping behavior, even if 

the financial cost is ultimately greater. Similarly, purely informational apps that make it easier to use 

public transit services may enhance the perceived value of such services by expanding notions of what 

trips can be conveniently made on transit, and they may help to dismantle notions that public transit is 

necessarily unreliable or only for people with no other options. 

INFORMATION AVAILABILITY

Transportation of any kind is a complex activity, requiring integration of multiple kinds of information 

to successfully execute any given trip. This is true of all modes, but particularly so for non-drive alone 

modes, where having incorrect information or not understanding the complex information available 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 46

can be a barrier to successfully getting from origin to destination. Imperfect information about 

alternatives, difficulty comparing alternatives, and challenges with multi-modal integration generally 

lead to behavioral biases toward particular modes, like driving alone. 

Transportation apps act to address this information availability problem in a number of ways: 

• Schedule information apps, which gather and parse public transit schedule data, static or 

dynamic, and present it more simply and accessibly for the user. Such apps shape behavior by 

reducing fear of failed trips using public transit modes and overall cognitive load in configuring 

such trips. Transit Screen, Transit App, Moovit, One Bus Away, and any number of public and 

private apps meet this profile.

• Mode aggregator apps, which pull in availability and schedule data on multiple different public 

and private modes, remove the information/awareness barrier to using different modes. Moovel 

(formerly RideScout) is an example of this approach, but increasingly other public transit 

information apps, like Transit App and Swiftly, are starting to integrate other modes (Transit 

App, 2015). 

• Real-time incident reporting apps seek to raise awareness of issues and problems arising during 

the journey. Google Maps apps for Android and iOS now offer dynamic re-routing to avoid 

traffic problems in real time (Torres, 2014); Moovit tracks real-time locations of its users and 

self-reported incidents to adjust predictions for other users (Moovit, 2015); and apps like 

CaltrainMe integrate social media feeds to quickly funnel problem reports with train services 

direct to users (CaltrainMe App, 2015). 

• Providing price and quality information: Studies suggest that consumer purchase decisions are 

impacted by three strategies: 1) best value, 2) highest quality of service regardless of price, and 

3) price aversion (Tellis & Gaeth, 1990). Best value is choosing the mode with the highest 

value-to-cost ratio; highest quality of service is selecting the best service regardless of price; 

and price aversion is selecting the lowest cost alternative to minimize costs. Transportation 

apps support these three strategies in a number of ways. Numerous aggregator and trip planning 

apps (e.g., Moovel (formerly RideScout), Google Maps) communicate cost and service 

information (including anticipated trip time) so a best value decision can be made, as well as 

supporting a simple price aversion search where the lowest cost service is sought regardless of 

quality. The wide variety of apps providing access to specific niche services, some more 

luxurious than others (e.g., Von Lane, Uber, Bridj, Chariot, Via), assist those seeking the 

highest quality of service regardless of price, with aspects of their design and branding 

signaling the higher service quality.

It is arguable that the first and best role of transportation apps changing behavior is through their 

information provision functions. However, with the predominance of transportation information being 

held publicly and the majority of transportation apps being developed by private companies, a data 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 47

transfer gap exists that can limit app success. If real-time data are not available for a given service, few 

apps can address this, although efforts by Moovit and others to develop crowdsourcing tools can help 

to remedy gaps.

SOCIAL PRESSURE

Facilitating connections into, and awareness of, social networks and social messaging are bedrock 

features of the smartphone app ecosystem, whether transportation-focused or otherwise. Some of the 

most successful deliberate behavioral change interventions in the energy, environment, and 

infrastructure sectors have involved leveraging social dynamics (Opower, 2015). This is with good 

reason: people are likely to adjust their behavior in response to social psychological mechanisms 

(Schultz, Nolan, Cialdini, Goldstein, & Griskevicius, 2007) (Lindenberg & Steg, 2007). Transportation 

apps may be leveraging and deploying these mechanisms in a number of ways. 

• Community building is an effective and widely used mechanism to exert social pressure and 

shape behavior. For example, Waze makes users feel as though they are part of a unique and 

exclusive community by deploying instruments to convey a strong identity. This might entail 

customizing cartoon avatars for each user or the ability to “like” other user’s recommendations. 

By showing the locations and avatars for each user on a live map that all users see, Waze is 

deploying a mechanism called “social proof” (Cialdini, 2006), where a particular behavior is 

encouraged by providing examples of other people already doing so. Both the community 

building and social proof arguably increases trust in Waze’s navigation recommendations, 

which may in turn feedback into a greater propensity on the part of individuals to supply more 

information about their own driving experience. 

• Both Waze and other crowdsourced data apps, like Moovit and GasBuddy, deploy competition 

and status seeking to drive desired behavioral change. Reporting incidents on these apps can 

lead to accumulation of points and/or status of some kind (perhaps a new avatar that signifies 

seniority in the community). In some cases, these apps provide leaderboards as a competitive 

gamification mechanism to further increase engagement.

• The urge to conform to established social norms can be a powerful motivator. This force is 

evident in the mutual ratings systems deployed in a number of transportation apps, particularly 

those where trust and security are a concern. Ridesourcing services, such as Lyft and Uber, 

allow passengers to rate their driver and drivers to rate their passengers (Uber, 2015). The 

driver star rating is presented to passengers and used by Lyft and Uber to weed out 

underperforming or problematic drivers. The passenger rating is presented to drivers when they 

are agreeing to pick up a hail request, and they have the option to reject if the star rating is too 

low. These generate subtly different but nonetheless firm social pressures to be a “good” 

participant in the ecosystem. Such mutual pressures not only ensure smooth operation of the 

service and a great ride for customers, but they may also attract additional users to the service 

given their implied promise of a trustworthy and safe experience. It is important to note that 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 48

improving safety (e.g., biometrics, licensing) across these platforms is a separate issue from the 

psychological issues addressed through encouraging trust on the platforms through star ratings. 

• A variant of conforming to social norms is the use of shadow policing as deployed by 

carsharing services, like Zipcar and car2go. This takes the form of a requirement to report 

vehicle damage at the beginning of a carsharing reservation (Zipcar, 2015). It provides a strong 

incentive to users to both avoid blame for damage by making an early report and to avoid 

damaging the vehicle in the first place since the chance of being reported by the next user is 

high. While this mechanism was deployed long before smartphone apps arrived, apps for both 

services are now easing this reporting and making it easier to track the condition of a vehicle 

before booking (car2go, 2015).

• Some apps are generating entirely new social norms and using them to attract users. The 

PlugShare electric vehicle services app encourages private owners of electric vehicle charging 

stations to share their equipment with other users of the PlugShare app. This is currently a feefree service, but PlugShare encourages beneficiaries to leave tokens of thanks, such as gift 

cards or a bottle of wine (Tesla, 2015). This new norm encourages existing sharers to continue 

providing free electricity, and other PlugShare users to join the community. 

Social psychology is rich with heuristics and interventions that purport to change human behavior in 

response to social cues or pressures. Transportation apps have barely scratched the surface of what 

might be possible, but success with Lyft’s and Uber’s mutual ratings system and Waze’s gamified 

community, for example, suggest notable future potential. 

DELIVERY OF INCENTIVES 

Incentives, rewards, and loyalty programs are a long-standing mechanism for changing behavior. 

Retailers have long issued “punch cards” to reward loyalty and repetitive behavior. Increasingly, 

smartphones applications are using both broadcast and segmented incentives in an effort to impact 

behavior, often through gamification. Psychologists and marketing professionals have argued that the 

closer a user gets to a reward, the more motivated they become to follow through (Wax, 2015). 

Transportation apps deploy a wide range of incentives. 

Taking perhaps the simplest approachfinancial incentives/rewards for specific desired 

behaviorsboth ridesourcing and e-Hail taxi apps regularly deploy ride credits for downloading, using 

and sharing their services. These typically range from $5 to $25. Uber, for example, offers a bonus of 

the same magnitude to third-party transportation apps integrating Uber’s services through their 

Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), as a reward for attracting new users onto Uber’s platform. 

They have also advertised a tiered pricing incentive for existing drivers to encourage heavier use of 

their service by drivers. Incentives are also widely used outside of on-demand ride services. Parking 

apps, like BMW ParkNow and ParkingPanda, offer discounted parking for users of the service. The 

GasBuddy app (helps drivers find locations of gas stations and provides prices) enters users into a 

drawing for $100 in free gas, if they report a local gas price (Gas Buddy, 2015). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 49

A variant of the classic financial incentive is to offer points or non-monetary currency, much as 

airlines have offered for decades through frequent flyer programs. The GasBuddy app offers nonmonetary currency by rewarding users with 200 points for posting and updating a gasoline price. 

Accumulated points may be redeemed to participate in prize raffles. The Changers app helps reduce a 

user’s carbon dioxide (CO2) footprint by tracking their transportation-related CO2 emissions 

(Markham, 2014) and uses a virtual “green currency” as a proxy for personal carbon offsets. By 

tracking a user’s trips, travel modes, and distance, the Changers app calculates a CO2 value for each 

journey and then adds or subtracts “ReCoins”a virtual currency within the app from the user’s 

balance. By forecasting a CO2 balance for the trip, the app awards or penalizes ReCoins based on 

whether or not a user saves more CO2 than the forecast estimates for that trip. The currency can be 

used to “buy” offsets for other trips that have higher CO2 emissions. More generally, transportation 

app usage of points are typically categorized into one or more of four types (Zichermann, 2011): 

1. Experience points: Points are awarded for simply participating on a regular basis in the app. 

Waze and Moovit are prime examples of awarding experience points for basic interactions. 

Such repeated awards create habits of using the app and associated services.

2. Redeemable points: These points are awarded (or purchased) in-app and redeemable within the 

app ecosystem. These are common for airline frequent flyer programs and are also used by 

Amtrak and some rental car companies. Not surprisingly, they have considerable potential for 

keeping users entirely inside a given transportation service. They have also been deployed by 

public-minded transportation apps, such as NuRide, Stanford University’s CAPRI, and now 

just beginning with Metropia, to reward both transportation alternatives to driving alone and 

congestion avoidance when driving. 

3. Skill points: Such points are awarded for the completion of a particular task in-app or using the 

service. An example is GasBuddy, which awards specific blocks of points for reporting gas 

prices. Waze has a complex system of points awarded for different tasks, such as “resolve 50 

map problems” and “complete 500 map edits” (Waze, 2015). While not explicitly involving 

points, some services, like Scoot Networks, in San Francisco progressively reveal app 

functionality in return for users completing important training and qualification tasks (like 

learning how to ride an electric scooter).

4. Reputation points: The mutual rating systems provided by Lyft, Uber, and other ridesourcing 

companies through their smartphone apps are a form of reputation points, forming the basis of 

mutual trust in their services.

Incentives in the form of discounts on third-party services or products are a common motivator across 

retail and advertising. Transportation apps and services are also starting to explore their potential. 

Public transit agencies, like TriMet, are experimenting with pushing location-aware promotions to 

encourage ridership growth on new and existing transportation lines. In Montreal, the STMMerci 

public transit app rewards riders with location and use-targeted discounts from 340 enrolled merchants 

and 1,000 event partners to reward riders based on how often they use public transportation. Top-tier 

riders are offered a 50% discount on a product or service, second-tier riders receive a 30% discount, 

and third-tier riders receive a 10 to 15% discount. Non-currency incentives can be just as effective as 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 50

monetary ones when delivered directly, and better yet, they can compound the benefits of monetary 

incentives when concurrently provided. Indeed, many of the other mechanisms discussed in earlier 

sections are non-financial. 

CONCLUSION

It is clear that behavioral mechanisms from economics and psychology are already being deployed 

widely in transportation apps, with a variety of benefits. Some of these benefits include: 

• Alleviating cognitive burdens with powerful search tools (e.g., Google Maps); 

• Improving actual and perceived traveler control over journeys (e.g., OneBusAway); 

• Improving trust in carpooling services (e.g., Carma); 

• Changing norms around transportation, such as the ease of mobile ticketing (e.g., RideTap

formely GlobeSherpa); 

• Impacting price directly by enabling cheaper services (e.g., Uber) and changing perceptions of 

value across multiple modes (e.g., Moovel, formerly RideScout); 

• Improving information availability and so shaping service usage (e.g., Transit App); 

• Harnessing existing social pressures and generating new ones to shape travel behavior in a 

desired direction (e.g., Waze); and 

• Delivering financial and non-financial incentives in favor of one behavior or another (e.g., 

GasBuddy, Changers). 

Sometimes these economic and social psychological mechanisms are deployed for the sole benefit of 

the app developer. More commonly, however, these mechanisms are driving both app usage and 

positive benefits to the consumers and the wider transportation system. For example, Waze’s multiple 

use of gamification mechanisms and its popularity led to an acquisition by Google and the use of their 

data by a number of major U.S. cities (Olson, 2014). Public agencies have not been as successful as 

private app developers in fully benefiting from their apps or the data that they make available for 

private apps. For example, public transit agencies open up their real-time arrivals data, and both the 

apps and users benefit, but it may also be worthwhile considering ways to bring benefits back to the 

agencies (perhaps in the form of sharing real-time usage data to help operators improve services). 

The wide usage of behavioral economics and social psychological principles in apps suggests the 

importance of understanding the theory and practice of behavioral change in the context of smartphone 

apps for transportation. Additional work would help to test some of the hypotheses and build on 

anecdotal evidence that successful behavioral change mechanisms from other sectors can be usefully 

deployed to change transportation behavior. The next chapter reviews opportunities (e.g., planning and 

data collection) and challenges (e.g., privacy and digital divide), as well as best practices for deploying 

smartphone apps. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 51

CHAPTER 5. CURRENT CHALLENGES 

Although smartphone apps have become ubiquitous, a number of significant challenges remain for app 

developers, mobility service providers, and public agencies. Five key challenges affect the adoption 

and effectiveness of smartphone apps, and best practices to overcome these challenges are explained in 

the following section. 

PRIVACY CONCERNS 

Numerous studies indicate that people are either unaware of 

what private information they are exposing or they do not 

understand what information they are consenting to share 

(Miller, 2014). Privacy policies for most software companies 

and app marketplaces (e.g., Apple, Google) are often written 

in legalese, making user agreements long, confusing, opaque, 

and challenging to understand for the vast majority of users. 

All too often, app marketplaces have multi-page user 

agreements with fine print that software companies “expect” 

users to read and provide consent. For example, 

Apple’s iTunes user agreement contains 56 pages that 

users are expected to read, tap, and agree (Pidaparthy, 

2011). In many jurisdictions, selecting “agree” constitutes an electronic signature akin to typing your 

name in an email or signing a document with a pen. In other cases, apps may intentionally or 

unintentionally collect a wide array of sensitive and personally identifiable information (PII), such as 

location history, email addresses, phone numbers, financial information, and usage history of the apps 

installed on their phone and mobile Internet browsing history. Privacy and security concerns are 

further complicated because vulnerabilities may exist on many different levels, such as through the 

app, API3, the cloud, or hardware. 

One possible privacy breach may occur between apps and APIs. According to a recent report by the 

analytics service “SourceDNA,” hundreds of apps in the iOS App Store were extracting PII user 

information via private APIs, although Apple had forbidden the apps from engaging in this type of 

practice (Perez, 2015). The report found that the applications in question had been using a software 

development kit (SDK) from a Chinese advertising company called “Youmi,” which was accessing 

this information by way of private APIs. After confirming its validity, Apple responded by banning 

numerous apps from its marketplace. Privacy breaches have impacted and have been a notable concern 

among other operating systems as well. Google has stated that any new APIs being proposed must 

 

3 An API, short for “Application Programming Interface,” is a set of routines, protocols, and tools for building software and applications. 

APIs can help developers and smartphone apps share data and information between apps and make it easier third parties to develop apps 

and incorporate features from existing apps. 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 52

either be “safe” by default, or in the case where some capability is being granted that may negatively 

impact the user’s security or privacy, this capability should be granted through a user interaction that is 

natural and understandable to the individual (Fetter and Eisenger, 2013). 

In addition to security, there are growing concerns about the use of sensitive geospatial user data. In 

June 2015, the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) revealed that Uber would soon track and 

report back the whereabouts of its users even when they are not using the app (Thomson, 2015). 

Specifically, EPIC claimed that the ridesourcing app collected the location of its users via their 

smartphones' GPS tech even if the app is running in the background unused. EPIC further claimed that 

if a user switches off the satellite service, the app would continue to use the smartphone's IP address to 

approximate the user’s geographic location. Similar reports indicate that other apps both in the iOS and 

Android environment use location data of their users to provide them customized service (Thurm, 

2010). This represents one example where users may not understand the type and implications of the 

data they are sharing on their smartphones. 

Cloud privacy can also be a significant user concern. Increasingly users are backing up data in the 

cloud for convenience, multi-device access, back-up, and storage expansion. Users may not be able to 

opt-out of this functionality. For example, Apple requires its iPhone users to create a mandatory iCloud 

account, where it backs up all data from the smartphone, including deleted data. While Apple insists 

that the data are secure and no one but the user can access it from their iCloud accounts, recent cases 

where personal pictures of celebrities were hacked from their iPhone and iCloud accounts may indicate 

possible security vulnerabilities with cloud storage systems (Whitman, 2015). 

While improving the privacy of all app users continues to evolve, a few significant developments are 

strengthening user privacy. Google has introduced stricter rules for Android applications to reduce the 

number of malicious apps in the Google Play app market (Ashford, 2012). Developers have been

warned that apps that introduce security vulnerabilities, spread malware, collect information without 

authorization, or "harm user devices" will not be permitted in the Google Play Store. Malicious scripts 

and password phishing scams are also now prohibited on Google Play, as are applications that cause 

users to unknowingly download or install apps from sources outside of Google Play. Apple is also 

focusing on privacy. To address the “fine print” and “legalese” challenges associated with privacy and 

user agreements, Apple has started introducing user agreements written in clear language in the new 

iOS9 update (Panzarino, 2015). 

When it comes to privacy issueswhether at the app, cloud, or smartphone level, privacy is a two-way 

street. End users should exercise caution and due diligence in reading the privacy policies, be aware of 

spam links, and avoid “copy-cat” versions of mainstream apps. Likewise, app manufacturers have an 

obligation to design their apps to provide necessary security, and app marketplaces could play an 

important role in ensuring that apps distributed on their sites are secure and free of security 

vulnerabilities and malware. Public agencies and governments may be able to address a wide array of 

privacy issues through security standards and consumer privacy protection laws. 
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OPEN DATA AND INTEROPERABILITY AMONG SERVICES AND MODES 

It is common for apps to share data with third-party apps and services (including APIs) to provide a 

seamless user experience and enhanced functionality. Most location-based services, such as Google 

maps, use search histories to recommend and advertise an array of products and services to their users. 

For example, when a user searches “Starbucks” on Google, the search usually includes a map of the 

nearest Starbucks outlets at the top of the search browser. Similarly, an app, such as “Moovel,” which 

is a multi-modal trip aggregator, uses data from public transit apps and traffic data to provide the user 

the “optimum” multi-modal route available, based on user preferences, such as least expensive fare, 

fewest transfers, shortest waits between connections, etc. Although open data has provided new 

opportunities, it also creates a number of challenges for app developers and end users. 

One major challenge for app developers is the need to design the same app for several mobile 

operating systems, such as iOS, Google Android, and Microsoft Windows. Different operating system 

and marketplace requirements make it difficult and costly for developers to create cross-platform apps. 

Similarly, creating a uniform look and feel across devices can also be a challenge. Replacing native 

apps with browser-based functionality that can work across platforms may be one way to address this 

challenge. 

As previously discussed, privacy challenges also re-emerge with open data and data sharing among

services. Any API that facilitates data sharing among apps without user consent can create a number of 

ethical and legal issues. How much data are wise to share among services and how best to protect these

data can vary by circumstance. Generally, providing the end user with a very clear and limited consent

process is a best practice. For example, rather than having an end user consent to sharing all data with 

third parties, allowing a user to choose what data to share is more ideal (e.g., billing information, travel 

history, search history, etc.). This gives users more transparency and control over the type and extent 

of information they share with third parties. 

Data can broadly be divided into three types: 1) open data, 2) proprietary data, and 3) personal data. 

Open data are data that are publicly available for download or through APIs. Proprietary data are data 

related to the company or corporation including copyright, patent, or trademarked material (e.g., 

proprietary code). Proprietary data can also be important to a company’s business plan or growth 

strategy. In contrast, personal data includes email addresses, phone numbers, and other PII. Personal 

travel behavior (e.g., origins and destinations) and IP addresses (to the extent that they can identify a 

particular individual or location) also constitute personal data. Protecting all three types of data, while 

still enabling information sharing with other apps and services, is a continual challenge confronting 

developers. Industry-wide security standards, data sharing practices, and common computer languages 

may assist in addressing this challenge. Increasing public awareness is also important so that people 

understand the benefits and risks associated with sharing their personal information (Roberts, 2014). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 54

APP AUTHORIZATION

In many cases, users must download smartphone apps through an app marketplace maintained by the 

operating system manufacturer (e.g., Apple’s App Store, Android’s Google Play, etc.). A developer 

interested in publishing their app initiates a request to the operating system manufacturer (e.g., Apple 

or Google). This is designed to keep the app ecosystem healthy and to protect users from low-quality, 

insecure, or malicious apps. 

Based on nearly 70 reports released by developers in 2014, it takes an estimated eight to ten days for 

Apple to approve a new app in its App Store and an average of seven days for Android’s Google Play 

marketplace. Apple has reported that the iOS App Store had approved 89% of new app submissions, 

and 95% of submitted app updates, within eight business days (Friedman, 2012). Other reports have 

cited a lengthier app approval process, averaging 22 days (Friedman, 2012). A lengthy approval period 

could create problems for app developers, particularly when they attempt to quickly push an update to 

address compatibility issues, correct critical errors, or fix security vulnerabilities. Often times app 

developers are at the mercy of app marketplaces; however, accelerated approval processes and 

increasing awareness of this challenge by app marketplaces may be mitigating this developer concern. 

One strategy to overcome the delays associated with app authorization is for companies to develop 

mobile websites (accessed via a mobile web browser) instead of a native smartphone app. Many 

experts believe that smartphone apps may be replaced by mobile websites in the long run (Magid, 

2015). Similarly, Google also stated that it believes apps may be replaced with mobile sites (Magid, 

2015). Mobile web-based platforms not only address challenges associated with app authorization 

delays, but they can also relieve app marketplaces of potential liabilities associated with security 

vulnerabilities and address cross-platform compatibility issues, negating the need to develop operating 

system specific apps. 

ACCESSIBILITY CONSIDERATIONS

Another challenge confronted by public agencies, app developers, and manufacturers is how to address 

accessibility issues related to smartphone apps. 

Bridging the Digital Divide

Mobility consumers are becoming increasingly dependent on smartphone hardware and applications,

and the data packages required are often expensive for low-income households. While some state and 

federal programs exist to provide reduced cost mobile service, more education and outreach are key to 

promote these programs, and program expansion and additional programs are also needed. 

In 1997, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) established the Universal Service Fund 

(USF), as part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. One key program component, known as 

Lifeline, provides a subsidy of up to $10 per month for Americans below 135% of the poverty line for 

land line or mobile service (Phillips Erb, 2012). In 2015, the maximum income threshold for the 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 55

contiguous U.S. was $15,890 and $32,734 for a household size of one to four, respectively (United 

Service Administrative Company, 2015). As of 2012, 17 million households received a $9.25/month

subsidy through the program (Malter, 2012). In 2012, the FCC announced its intention to transition the 

Lifeline program from basic mobile phones to Internet-capable smartphones (Henry, 2013) (Federal 

Communications Commission, 2012). 

Service and Data Limitations in Rural and Less Urbanized Locations 

Some mobility services may not be available in less urbanized and rural areas. Moreover, data speeds 

and service quality may limit the use of smartphone applications in less urbanized and rural locations. 

The end user experience of any smartphone app depends on not just the way the apps are coded, but 

also on numerous external factors, such as Internet availability, quality of the network service, and 

hardware limitations.

Most apps that provide real-time data services require a continuous high speed data connection. This 

may not be readily available in many rural areas nor affordable to low-income users. Slow Internet 

speed and limited data availability represent a notable accessibility challenge: many users may not 

upgrade their apps when an upgrade is available because of limited data constraints. When app 

developers add new features and fix various problems through upgrades, not installing updates can 

limit user’s ability to benefit from new features and security updates.

To address the challenge of providing a similar experience for all users irrespective of data speed 

constraints, many companies have started designing a “lite” version of mobile sites and apps (Felker, 

2012). These lite versions may not result in less end-user functionality but instead restructure data use 

through data caching and asynchronous data exchanges (e.g., supplementing download data through 

WiFi connections). In addition to consuming less Internet data and operating on low speeds, lite 

versions of apps may also help conserve smartphone battery life.

Unbanked Users 

Smartphone apps with a payment component may not serve the needs of unbanked users (typically 

lower-income households). Many smartphone apps generally require payment facilitated through 

credit/debit cards or mobile/Internet banking. If a user is unbanked (they do not have a bank account or 

a credit/debit card), app-based services with a payment component (e.g., electronic fares and ticketing) 

may be difficult or impossible to useleaving behind households that cannot afford to have a credit 

card or bank account (due to insufficient funds, bad credit history, etc.). 

To address this challenge, services may consider allowing alternative payment methods, alongside 

cashless transactions or programs to bank unbanked users. New programs are now being developed to 

assist unbanked users open a bank account (Helhoski, 2014). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 56

Addressing Special Needs

Another accessibility issue is ensuring that smartphone apps are accessible to all users. Accessibility 

requires apps to be usable by people with various health conditions (primarily older adults), as well as 

disabled individuals who need assistance. Although the smartphone apps of today have improved 

tremendously in design, user interface, and power, there has been less progress toward making these 

apps available for the visually impaired or users with learning disabilities. 

For example, Uber has partnered with the National Federation of the Blind and Lighthouse for the 

Blind in San Francisco to test VoiceOver iOS compatibility that allows blind or visually impaired 

riders to speak to their Uber app (Uber, 2015). Lack of information about available ADA accessible 

options may adequately serve all users. For example, some parking apps enable users to access realtime information about parking availability and pricing but exclude information on disabled parking. 

Technology manufacturers and app developers are making some progress. For example, Apple has 

released a list of more than 50 apps that are specifically designed for blind and low-vision users (Apple 

Vis, 2014). However, this represents only a very tiny fraction of the overall number of apps available 

on its marketplace. Public agencies, app developers, and marketplace stewards should move toward 

ensuring that all transportation apps provide user interfaces that serve individuals with special needs. 

Similarly, special attention should also be given to the user interface, keeping in mind that users may 

have special needs, such as older adults who may have difficultly operating a smartphone with a 

touchscreen. Such innovations are needed to ensure that transportation apps provide mobility and 

accessibility for all segments of society. 

ADDITIONAL CHALLENGES 

For app developers, a few other challenges exist. For example, as previously mentioned, another 

challenge is the interoperability across a growing array of devices and operating systems. In recent 

years, there has been an increasing number of devices with varying hardware capabilities and screen 

A common concern among bikesharing operators and 

local governments is low-income access to bikesharing 

and the requirement to have a debit or credit card for use. 

In Washington DC, Capital Bikeshare partnered with 

United Bank and District Government Employees Federal 

Credit Union (DGEFCU) to allow users to open up a bank 

account and obtain a debit card. New account holders 

receive a $25 gift card good toward the cost of an annual 

Capital Bikeshare membership (Capital Bikeshare, 2015). 

Source: Thinkstock Photo
Smartphone Applications Primer| 57

resolutions (e.g., desktop computers, notebooks, 2-In-1 devices, tablets, smartphones, smart TVs, and 

wearable devices, such as watches, bands, and glasses). Providing apps for all of these devices is 

becoming increasingly challenging and expensive for developers and their companies. Additionally, it 

takes time to develop, test, re-test, and deploy an app across these devices. With new devices and 

technology entering the marketplace daily, it is increasingly difficult for developers to keep pace with 

these advances. The release of Windows 10 may be able to address some of the technical challenges 

associated with interoperability across a growing array of devices. Windows 10 offers developers the 

ability to create “universal apps” that can seamlessly run and scale across a spectrum of devices, 

ranging from phones to desktops. 

In addition to interoperability challenges, companies must be able to generate sufficient revenue to 

support the development costs associated with creating and maintaining their apps. In recent years, 

both ad blocking apps and add-ons have become more commonplace. For example, in its latest version 

of iOS, Apple has allowed users to block ads on the safari browser and several apps (Tsukayama, 

2015). Most developers and companies oppose this feature because they interfere with their ability to 

generate revenue and provide free or reduced cost services to end users. Most free apps in the 

marketplace generate revenue from in-app advertising or in-app purchases. Google’s Senior Vice 

President of Advertising and Commerce, Sridhar Ramaswam, recently said that the industry must 

agree on advertising standards and address sites that have poor advertising practices (D'Onfro, 2015). 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 58
Smartphone Applications Primer| 59

CHAPTER 6. GUIDING PRINCIPLES

FOR PUBLIC AGENCIES 

With the growing popularity of smartphone applications, it is helpful for public agencies to recognize

several guiding principles when considering the role and implementation of smartphone apps on a 

transportation network. These principles reflect current understanding, which will undoubtedly 

continue to evolve. These guiding principles include the following. 

DATA SHARING AND INTEROPERABILITY 

Data sharing and interoperability will form the foundation of transportation apps, in particular mobility 

apps. Public and private entities could play a critical role in facilitating and defining data sharing 

through public-private partnerships. For example, in June 2014, during the World Cup in Rio de 

Janeiro, the government obtained driver navigation data from Google’s Waze app and combined it 

with information from pedestrians who use the public transportation app Moovit, providing local 

authorities with valuable real-time information about the transportation network. Previously, the local 

transportation department had been reliant solely on road cameras and roadway sensor data.

Incorporating data from Waze and Moovit allowed local officials to use aggregated mobility data on

110,000 drivers (half a million over the course of the month) and to identify thousands of operational 

issues ranging from congestion to roadway hazards (Olson, 2014). In exchange for sharing user 

mobility data with government authorities, Waze asked for transportation network data (e.g., sensor 

data, construction information, etc.). This is a notable example of how the public and private sector can 

mutually benefit through data exchange partnerships. 

Open Data

Providing open data has allowed local governments and public agencies the ability to offer real-time 

transportation information to their communities, without the cost or responsibility of developing or 

maintaining mobile applications themselves. For example, in Chattanooga, a partnership was formed 

between the Code for America4 team and the Chattanooga Area Regional Transportation Authority 

allowing digital public transit schedules to be available to third-party developers on GitHub. Public 

agencies need to develop acceptable use policies to provide terms and conditions for private sector use 

of public sector data. In another example, the North American Bikeshare Association recently adopted 

an open data standard, pledging to make real-time data feeds available in a standardized format so 

these data can be readily incorporated into smartphone applications. Efforts such as this will improve 

 

4 Code for America is a non-partisan, non-profit organization whose mission is to address the role of the public and private sectors in 

their effective use of technology. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 60

transparency and public access to bikesharing data and support the development of integrated software 

and end user applications. Some guiding principles for open data include: 

1) Data Accessibility

Ensure that data made available are in an open format that can be downloaded, indexed, 

searchable, and machine-readable to allow automated processing. 

2) Open License 

Data are available to the public for use. 

3) Data Quality and Timeliness

o Data are high quality scrubbed for plug-and-play end use by developers without 

requiring extensive effort to make datasets usable. 

o Data are made available as quickly as possible and frequently enough to remain current 

and usable. 

Once local governments have established open data standards and data become available, the next step 

is to establish data exchanges to share this information. 

Data Exchanges

Public agencies could establish data exchanges to serve as a repository for public and private sector 

data sets. Public agencies can establish data exchanges by: 

1) Maintaining in-house capability through a chief technology officer or chief data officer, for 

example, to oversee data standards and data exchanges. 

2) Establishing Data Standards: 

o Determine the type of data useful for public agency and private sector use both for the 

planning, design, operation, safety, and maintenance of the transportation network and 

the development of third-party apps. 

o Determine the format and standards for publishing data sets that are consistent with 

industry standards, other public entities, and address interoperability issues. 

o Require two-way data sharing, when possible. For example, apps must share selfreported incident data with public agencies in exchange for receiving their data. 

Develop standards for aggregating these data and disseminating this aggregated data 

real time. 

o Develop standards for classifying and updating data. 

o Include metadata with key methodological information on how data were collected. 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 61

o Require geocoding location-based data to make such data suitable for mapping 

functions. 

o Develop standards for data dissemination. 

3) Establishing Conditions for Use: 

o Require transportation service providers and apps to share data as a condition for 

offering services within a jurisdiction. 

o Require open access to trip aggregator apps (i.e., trip aggregator apps cannot provide 

exclusive access to one service provider on its app and exclude another). 

o Require that data sources filter and scrub their data, according to set standards, prior to 

uploading to a data exchange. 

4) Establishing Data Management Platforms: 

o Establish standard operating procedures to protect consumer privacy and proprietary 

data. 

o Establish user agreements, data upload, data storage, and data delivery (download) 

capabilities in conjunction with third-party organizations. 

o Timestamp and archive old data to ensure that historical data are made available on data 

exchanges. 

5) Establishing a Data Dashboard (for internal use): 

o Public agencies may consider establishing a data dashboard that assists local 

governments in tracking longitudinal data metrics against a baseline (e.g., modal split, 

app modal share, etc.). 

ENCOURAGING MULTI-MODALITY

Leveraging smartphone applications to encourage multi-modal travel represents a key opportunity for 

public agencies. Enhancing multi-modal payment interfaces and enabling commuter benefit payment 

via smartphone apps are two ways public agencies can encourage multi-modal trips. 

Enhancing Multi-Modal Payment Mechanisms

With a growing array of private sector trip planning (e.g., ticketing and fare payment apps and 

integrated solutions), fare payment is becoming increasingly complex for the end user. An end user 

may be able to plan an entire public transit trip on a single app, but generally these multi-modal 

connections will require multiple fare payments. Smartphone apps offer an opportunity to integrate 

fare payment mechanisms into a unified, single process where a user not only uses a single app to plan 

and execute an entire journey but also a single point-of-sale for the entire trip. Developing a common 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 62

fare payment platform for a single point-of-sale to cover an entire journey (multiple modes) can make 

smartphone apps more convenient to use and support multi-modal trip planning, ticketing, and 

payment. 

Expanding Commuter Benefits

Expanding commuter benefits to incentivize multi-modal trips could encourage the use of a broader 

variety of modes and services. This could be enabled by allowing smartphone apps access to pre-tax 

commuter accounts (e.g., journeys could be paid for by using pre-tax payroll deductions); employerprovided usage (e.g., mechanisms that allow employers to pay for commute expenses directly to an app 

service provider); and providing app-based commuter incentives linked to a user’s modal choice (e.g., 

incentives for carpooling or riding public transit, calculated and awarded based on a person’s app 

account). 

PROTECTING CONSUMER PRIVACY 

Generally, smartphone apps collect a lot of private information from their users. In the transportation 

context, this can include particularly sensitive information, such as addresses, current location, location 

history, and financial information (for fare payment). More broadly, transportation apps can trace 

mobility habits and share a user’s location (via third-party APIs). Some users may or may not pay 

attention to the information usage permissions they grant (via user agreements and app installation 

processes). Sometimes the data shared and how the data will be used is opaque and confusing for the 

user. The private sector can aid mobility consumers in making informed decisions about the data they 

share by ensuring that user agreements are drafted in plain language, comprehensible, and easy to read 

on mobile devices so that users clearly understand how their personal data may be shared and used. 

Developers can help protect consumer privacy by designing apps that do not require full-scale access 

to user data. This can help mitigate over sharing of consumer data. As a practical matter, developers 

should generally scrub their data and remove PII from data sets when sharing information with third 

parties, unless the information included serves a specific mobility function (e.g., sharing data as part of 

an API for a third-party app). De-linking user information (e.g., names and user identifications) from 

financial and location data can also help protect from unintentional data sharing and data breaches 

where de-linking is technically feasible to achieve the app’s purpose. 

The public and private sector should continually develop (and enhance, as needed) policies that protect 

user data privacy. In January 2013, a report, “Privacy on The Go: Recommendations for the Mobile 

Ecosystem” provided high-level recommendations for app developers, app platform providers, mobile 

ad networks, operating system developers, and mobile carriers (Harris, 2013). The report identified 

many privacy problems; however, it concluded that more research is needed by governmental agencies 

on data privacy and data sharing issues. 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

FHWA would like to thank the 13 specialists and practitioners that provided invaluable expertise to 

this study reviewing this primer and participating in a one-day workshop in July 2015 conducted at the 

U.S. Department of Transportation Headquarter, Washington D.C. Special thanks goes to: 

• Tim McHugh (TriMet) • James Dreisbach-Towle (SANDAG)

• Rachel Klein (Battelle) • Yi-Chang Chiu (Metropia)

• Greg Valyer (Bytemark) • Jonny Simkin (Swiftly)

• Adam Johnson (Car2go) • Timothy Papandreou (SFMTA) 

• Mike Mikos (Car2go) • Mark McTamney (Parking Panda) 

• Matthew Lesh (Noblis) 

• Bill Dossett (North American 

Bikesharing Assoc.)

• Sean Mackin (Denver Public-Works 

Transport) 
Smartphone Applications Primer| 64
Smartphone Applications Primer| 65

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U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Operations (HOP)

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE 

Washington, DC 20590 

www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov 

Toll-Free “Help Line” 866-367-7487 

Pub. # FHWA-HOP-16-023 

April 2016