Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series ONMS-10-02

Stellwagen Bank Marine Historical Ecology 

Final Report

U.S. Department of Commerce 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Ocean Service 

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management 

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries
About the Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Ocean Service (NOS) 

administers the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS). Its mission is to identify, 

designate, protect and manage the ecological, recreational, research, educational, 

historical, and aesthetic resources and qualities of nationally significant coastal and 

marine areas. The existing marine sanctuaries differ widely in their natural and 

historical resources and include nearshore and open ocean areas ranging in size from 

less than one to over 5,000 square miles. Protected habitats include rocky coasts, kelp 

forests, coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuarine habitats, hard and soft bottom habitats, 

segments of whale migration routes, and shipwrecks.

Because of considerable differences in settings, resources, and threats, each marine 

sanctuary has a tailored management plan. Conservation, education, research, 

monitoring and enforcement programs vary accordingly. The integration of these 

programs is fundamental to marine protected area management. The Marine 

Sanctuaries Conservation Series reflects and supports this integration by providing a 

forum for publication and discussion of the complex issues currently facing the sanctuary 

system. Topics of published reports vary substantially and may include descriptions of 

educational programs, discussions on resource management issues, and results of 

scientific research and monitoring projects. The series facilitates integration of natural 

sciences, socioeconomic and cultural sciences, education, and policy development to 

accomplish the diverse needs of NOAA’s resource protection mandate.
Stellwagen bank Marine Historical Ecology

Final Report

Stefan H. Claesson, Ph.D. & Andrew A. Rosenberg, Ph.D.

With contributions by: Karen Alexander, Andrew Cooper, Jamie Cournane, Emily Klein, 

William Leavenworth, Katherine Magness

Gulf of Maine Cod Project, University of New Hampshire

Silver Spring, Maryland

May 2010

U.S. Department of Commerce

Gary Locke, Secretary

National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration

Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D.

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

National Ocean Service

David Kennedy, Acting Assistant Administrator

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

Daniel J. Basta, Director
Disclaimer

Report content does not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Office of 

National Marine Sanctuaries or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

nor does the mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or 

recommendation for use.

Report Availability

Electronic copies of this report may be downloaded from the Office of National Marine 

Sanctuaries web site at http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov. Hard copies may be available from 

the following address:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

SSMC4, N/ORM62

1305 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Cover

Discharging cod fish from vessel Gloucester, MA circa 1882. 

From the National Archives collection, LICON. RG 22-C. Records of the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. U.S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. Cyanotypes: Commercial 

Fishing Activity in the United States, 1882-1891. Courtesy of Gulf of Maine Cod 

Project, NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries; Courtesy of National Archives

Suggested Citation

Claesson, Stefan, Andrew A. Rosenberg, Karen Alexander, Andrew Cooper, Jamie 

Cournane, Emily Klein, William Leavenworth, Katherine Magness, 2010. Stellwagen 

Bank Marine Historical Ecology. Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series ONMS-10-02. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Silver Spring, MD. 221 pp. 

Contact

Stefan.Claeson at imh@maritimehistory.org

or 

Catherine.Marzin@noaa.gov
i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ 1

II. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 3

WHAT IS MARINE HISTORICAL ECOLOGY? .................................................................................... 5

III. RESEARCH METHODS ......................................................................................................... 6

HISTORICAL SOURCE MATERIAL ................................................................................................. 7

Monthly Fishery Statistical Bulletins for Northwest Atlantic (1893-1944)............................ 7

U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries Publications (1871-1940)........................................ 7

Scientific Survey Logbooks (1870-1940) ................................................................................ 8

Maps and Charts (1607-1940)................................................................................................ 8

Early Exploration Narrative Accounts (1524-1700) .............................................................. 9

Fishermen Interviews (1850-1900)......................................................................................... 9

Legal Documents and Legislation (1630-1940) ................................................................... 10

IV. STELLWAGEN BANK’S FISHERIES HISTORY .............................................................. 11

EARLY EUROPEAN FISHERIES AND OBSERVATIONS IN MASSACHUSETTS BAY........................... 12

FISHING TECHNOLOGY............................................................................................................... 18

BOTTOM TRAWLING, BY-CATCH, AND EMERGING MARKETS....................................................... 23

TECHNOLOGY TIMELINE ............................................................................................................ 25

FISHING PORTS .......................................................................................................................... 26

Gloucester............................................................................................................................. 27

Boston ................................................................................................................................... 29

Portland ................................................................................................................................ 30

MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF STELLWAGEN BANK...................................................... 32

Middle Bank .......................................................................................................................... 39

Inner Bank............................................................................................................................. 39

Old Man’s Pasture................................................................................................................ 39

West Jeffreys and Cape Ann Shoal Grounds ........................................................................ 40

Tillies Bank ........................................................................................................................... 41

Rocks South of Cape Ann...................................................................................................... 41

Brewer's Spot and Si's Spot................................................................................................... 41

Eagle Ridge........................................................................................................................... 41

Western Point Ridge ............................................................................................................. 42

Wildcat Ridge........................................................................................................................ 42

Massachusetts Bay ................................................................................................................ 42

FISHERIES .................................................................................................................................. 43

Cod........................................................................................................................................ 45

SPENCER BAIRD, ON THE DEPLETION AND RECOVERY OF COD IN NEW ENGLAND (1871):.......... 45

Halibut .................................................................................................................................. 47

Haddock ................................................................................................................................ 49

Mackerel ............................................................................................................................... 51

MACKEREL MIGRATION ACROSS STELLWAGEN BANK, SEPTEMBER 22, 1833: ........................... 53

Hake and Cusk ...................................................................................................................... 53

Pollock .................................................................................................................................. 56

'Other' and 'Miscellaneous' Fisheries................................................................................... 58

V. ANALYSIS.............................................................................................................................. 67

ABUNDANCE .............................................................................................................................. 68
ii

DIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................. 71

SPECIES COMPOSITION............................................................................................................... 79

MARINE CLIMATE...................................................................................................................... 83

PLACE-BASED AND SPECIES INDICATORS................................................................................... 87

SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................. 91

VI. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................. 93

CATCH TRENDS AND BASELINES................................................................................................ 93

CLIMATE.................................................................................................................................... 94

SIZE-BASED INDICATORS (SBI) ................................................................................................. 94

BIODIVERSITY............................................................................................................................ 94

HABITAT CONSERVATION .......................................................................................................... 95

SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS .................................................................................................. 95

RESEARCH COORDINATION AND DATA CLEARINGHOUSE .......................................................... 96

VII. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS..................................................................................... 97

VIII. APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 101

APPENDIX A: METADATA FOR PRIMARY HISTORICAL DATA SETS ....................................... 102

Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries/Bureau of Fisheries... 103

Fishermen Interviews.......................................................................................................... 108

Fisheries Legislation........................................................................................................... 110

Marine Scientific Survey Logbooks .................................................................................... 114

Biological Specimens.......................................................................................................... 117

APPENDIX B: SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS........................................................................... 120

APPENDIX C: NEW ENGLAND FISHING FLEET OPERATIONS 1914-1935 (EXTRACTED FROM THE 

STATISTICAL BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES) ........................................................ 148

APPENDIX D: PHASE I REPORT ............................................................................................. 174

ONMS CONSERVATION SERIES PUBLICATIONS........................................215
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FIGURES AND TABLES

Table 1. Technology timeline....................................................................................................... 25

Figure 1. Trips made to Stellwagen Bank 1893-1926. ................................................................ 26

Figure 2. Earliest known nautical chart of SBNMS fishing grounds including Jeffreys Ledge and 

‘Inner,’ ‘Outer’ and ‘Middle’ Banks............................................................................................. 33

Figure 3. 1812 Lambert nautical chart of Massachusetts Bay fishing grounds, “Middle Bank” 

and “Jeffreys Ledge.”.................................................................................................................... 34

Figure 4. Historic place names of fishing grounds and undersea features superimposed on 

bathymetric map of SBNMS......................................................................................................... 35

Figure 5. Fishing grounds of Stellwagen Bank and Massachusetts Bay as mapped by Goode 

(1887)............................................................................................................................................ 36

Figure 6. Fishing grounds of western Gulf of Maine as mapped by Rich (1929). ...................... 37

Figure 7. “Stellwagen’s Bank” was first surveyed, mapped and named by the U.S. federal 

government in 1854. ..................................................................................................................... 38

Table 2. Exploitation baseline dates for commercial fisheries on Stellwagen Bank. .................. 44

Figure 8. Total fish catch and trips of Gloucester, Boston and Portland fishing fleets on 

Stellwagen Bank, re-constructed from U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries catch records 

(1893-1935)................................................................................................................................... 45

Figure 9. Annual cod catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935....................................................... 46

Table 3. Reports of large halibut caught in SBNMS. .................................................................. 48

Figure 10. Annual halibut catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935. .............................................. 48

Figure 11. Annual haddock catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935............................................. 50

Figure 12. Annual mackerel catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935............................................ 53

Figure 13. Annual hake catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935................................................... 55

Figure 14. Annual cusk catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935. .................................................. 55

Figure 15. Annual pollock catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935. ............................................. 57

Figure 16. Catch of ‘Other’ fish category in Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish 

and Fisheries (1893-1935). ........................................................................................................... 58

Figure 17. Flounder catch on Stellwagen Bank 1928-1935......................................................... 59

Figure 18. Swordfishing fleet and season in Gulf of Maine 1914-1927...................................... 61

Figure 19. Locations of fish pounds in Cape Cod Bay in 1871................................................... 63

Figure 20. Maine herring landings 1880-2005............................................................................. 65

Table 4. Timeline of historical events and conditions that may have affected the herring fishery 

in the Gulf of Maine...................................................................................................................... 66

Figure 21. Fishing banks and grounds in this study that comprise the Gulf of Maine region..... 67

Figure 22. MTI based on USFC statistical bulletin landings 1893-1935 for Stellwagen Bank (in 

dark blue) and 1902-1935 for Gulf of Maine (in light blue)......................................................... 70

Figure 23. Study area with locations for the Fishhawk (black triangles) and NMFS surveys (gray 

circles) separated into three spatial sub-areas (coastal-bight, shelf and slope) and the location of 

the Stellwagen Bank National Maine Sanctuary (gridded polygon). ........................................... 72

Table 5. Characteristics of Fishhawk and NMFS survey operations. .......................................... 73

Table 6. Selected Fishhawk and NMFS bottom-trawl samples. .................................................. 73

Table 7. Fish species sampled by Fishhawk (FH) and NMFS surveys........................................ 75

Figure 24. Frequency of genera by class for Fishhawk (black) and NMFS (gray) surveys. ....... 76
iv

Figure 25. Site-based rarefaction results for the entire study area for Fishhawk (black) and 

NMFS (gray) surveys. Expected genera richness located in the top two panels and expected fish 

genera richness in the bottom two panels. Results scaled to Fishhawk survey tows in the left two 

panels and to NMFS surveys tows in the right two panels. Confidence intervals (dashed lines) 

based on 2 standard deviations. .................................................................................................... 77

Figure 26. Catch composition of historically valuable commercial species on Stellwagen Bank 

(top) and Gulf of Maine (bottom). Catches are in millions of pounds. ........................................ 79

Figure 27. Change in catch composition of commercial species on Stellwagen Bank over time.

....................................................................................................................................................... 80

Figure 28. Average annual catch for commercial species on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935 

compared to 1995-2005. ............................................................................................................... 81

Figure 29. Maximum annual catch for commercial species on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935 

compared to 1995-2005. ............................................................................................................... 81

Figure 30. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) for SBNMS 1854-2004. ......................................... 83

Figure 31. Visualization of sea surface temperature (SST) and cod catch on Stellwagen Bank 

1902-1935. .................................................................................................................................... 84

Figure 32. Visualization of sea surface temperature (SST) and cod catch in the Gulf of Maine 

1902-1935. .................................................................................................................................... 84

Figure 33. Hierarchical cluster analysis of 13 fishing banks in the Gulf of Maine for the period 

1901-1935. .................................................................................................................................... 86

Figure 34. Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) of the 41 factors identified through factor analysis. 

Factors close to one another are more similar than factors farther apart. Similar bank factors 

appear to relate closely to geography............................................................................................ 88

Table 8. Estimated correlations between Stellwagen Bank groundfish factor and other factors. 89

Figure 35. Advertisements of the federal government to market net-trawled by-catch. ............. 92

Table 9. 2006 condition report for specific resources from the SBNMS Draft Management Plan, 

compared to the 1900-period baseline and findings from this marine historical ecology 

assessment..................................................................................................................................... 98
1

Stellwagen bank Marine Historical Ecology

Final Report

I. ABSTRACT

This report is provided to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s 

(NOAA) National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) and Gerry E. Studds Stellwagen 

Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS), by the Gulf of Maine Cod Project (GMCP) 

at the University of New Hampshire (UNH). It presents the results of a 3-year survey and 

analysis of historical documents and manuscripts relevant to the marine historical 

ecology of SBNMS.

This study of SBNMS history and ecology reinforces the long-term significance 

of the sanctuary’s ecosystems and marine resources to the broader Gulf of Maine system. 

At the same time, it highlights the historical role of Stellwagen Bank’s marine resources 

in the development and well-being of Gulf of Maine coastal communities. An assessment 

of the late 19th- and early 20th-century fisheries of Stellwagen Bank, presented in this 

report, provides baselines for comparison with current ecosystem conditions. Through 

comparative analysis, long-term trends have been identified that may be useful to direct 

future management decisions. Our historical research revealed significant declines in 

animal diversity and abundance, as well as major shifts in the species composition of 

Stellwagen’s fisheries. These findings shift baselines established in the “Condition 

Report” of the 2008 Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Draft Management 

Plan and Environmental Assessment, and should influence the direction of management 

actions needed to improve overall ecosystem integrity.

Marine animal trophic level, richness, abundance, and habitat quality in SBNMS 

and the Gulf of Maine declined sharply over an approximately 100-year period (1900-

2000). The result of our research into the effects of climate factors such as Sea Surface 

Temperature (SST) and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on these baseline shifts was 

uncertain. Therefore, we focused on documenting anthropogenic impacts, specifically, 

the effects of fishing upon the sanctuary's marine animal populations and habitats. 

Indirect factors such as industrial pollution, river damming, and reclamation of wetlands 

have interfered with spawning and migration of marine species. However, the direct 

impact of fixed- and towed-net fishing gears on Stellwagen Bank, which has resulted in 

the removal of biomass and seafloor habitat disturbance, is the primary cause for declines 

in species richness and abundance within the sanctuary.

Based on quantitative and qualitative analysis of the historical record, our findings 

are as follows:

a) Nearshore and microbank fish populations were significantly deteriorated by ca. 

1800.

b) Top predators in SBNMS, such as halibut and swordfish, were overfished to near 

extirpation by the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

c) Steady decline in the trophic level of commercial species began in the early 1900s 

with the advent of steam-powered bottom trawling. 
2

d) Composition of catch has shifted over time toward exploitation of lower-level 

trophic animals.

e) Diversity of bottom-dwelling species in the western Gulf of Maine appears to 

have declined significantly from ca. 1900 to 2000.

f) Maximum annual catch levels of historically-important commercial species in 

SBNMS have declined by nearly 50% from ca. 1900 to 2000.

g) Proportional catch ratios of haddock and cod in SBNMS have inverted in the last 

100 years from 3:1 to 1:7, signaling resurgence in cod but a precipitous decline in 

haddock catches.

In consideration of these results, we also make the following general research 

recommendations for SBNMS: 1) extend historical trends and baselines for fish 

populations, species richness, and habitat conditions back to ca. 1800, 2) refine and 

extend time series of climate variables that impact biota, and 3) identify socio-economic 

and cultural drivers and responses related to shifts in historic catch levels, marine climate 

or biological indicators. Additionally, a ‘compatibility determination’, as defined by the 

Marine Sanctuary Program, is strongly recommended that identifies the current and 

cumulative impacts of modern fishing gears on sanctuary resources, habitats and 

ecological integrity.1

 1 U.S. Department of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Stellwagen Bank 

National Marine Sanctuary Draft Management Plan / Draft Environmental Assessment,” Silver Spring, MD:

National Marine Sanctuary Program, 2008, p. 202.

Finally, as historical sources are explored and analyzed for marine 

historical and ecological assessments, there will be an increasing need for data 

management and the development of education and outreach products for public 

dissemination. Interagency cooperation will be critical to meet these needs and proposed 

research directives.
3

II. INTRODUCTION

The lessons of the past are forgotten, or at least they are not considered 

applicable to present-day fisheries. The story of the virtual extinction of 

the whale, salmon, and shad are familiar enough to many New 

Englanders, but few of them can imagine that the now abundant haddock, 

flounder, and redfish may have a similar fate.2

– Edward A. Ackerman (1938)

The Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS) was authorized as a 

National Marine Sanctuary by the U.S. Congress in 1992 under the National Maritime 

Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (NMSA). The NMSA authorizes the Secretary of Commerce and 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to establish discrete 

areas of the marine environment as sanctuaries. These are areas within 200 nautical miles 

or the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that “possess conservation, recreational, 

ecological, historical, scientific, educational, cultural, archaeological, or esthetic 

qualities, which give them special national, and in some cases international, 

significance.”3

The goal of this research project was to assess the relative health and historical 

conditions of the SBNMS marine environment, ecosystems and fisheries. This 

assessment intends to support and improve sanctuary conservation efforts to “maintain 

the natural biological communities in the national marine sanctuaries, and to protect, and, 

where appropriate, restore and enhance natural habitats, populations, and ecological 

processes.”

Currently, there are 14 national marine sanctuaries in the United States.

4 A critical question that arises from this mandate is, to what levels should we 

restore and maintain these communities, habitats, populations and ecological processes? 

Without historical perspectives and baselines, resource managers’ restoration and 

enhancement targets are limited to short-term perspectives derived primarily from 

modern day fisheries statistical data. Two seminal papers by Daniel Pauly (1995) and 

Jeremy Jackson (2001) have pointed to the importance of a historical perspective to 

document the long-term effects of fishing on marine ecosystems.5 They call for historical 

perspectives based on historical, archaeological and paleo-ecological data, as essential 

tools for “successful management and restoration of coastal marine ecosystems.”6

 2 Edward A. Ackerman, “Depletion in New England Fisheries,” Economic Geography, 14.3 (1938): 233.

This 

approach has been echoed in a decade-long, Census of Marine Life (CoML) project 

called the History of Marine Animal Populations (HMAP), as well as numerous scholarly 

3 National Maritime Sanctuaries Act of 1972, 16 U.S.C. § 1431, Section 301. 4 National Maritime Sanctuaries Act of 1972, Section 301.

5 Daniel J. Pauly, “Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries,” Trends in Ecology and the 

Environment, 10.10 (1995): 430; Jeremy B. C. Jackson et al., “Historical Overfishing and the Recent 

Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems,” Science 293.5530 (2001): 629-637. 6 Jeremy B. C. Jackson et al., “Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems,” 

Science 293.5530 (2001): 636.
4

works and government reports.7

This 3-year study of SBNMS examined historical data in order to identify what 

can be known about the sanctuary’s past abundances and distributions of marine species 

as well as changes in overall ecosystem health. The first phase of this project, conducted 

in 2004-2005, focused on identifying historical sources that could be used to document 

changes in biomass removal and ecosystem conditions. We re-discovered and catalogued 

hundreds of historical documents in federal, state, and local repositories that relate 

directly or indirectly to these topics. The documents and sources were annotated in a 

catalogue and research findings presented in an interim report.

Marine historical ecology studies, as shown in this 

report, can support sanctuary management and conservation efforts by identifying 

historical baselines needed in order to set targets, thresholds and goals to restore, 

enhance, and achieve sustainable fish population levels, as well as provide historical 

contexts and educational material for understanding and explaining change in the marine 

environment.

8

In phase 2, specific 

historical data sets were extracted and compiled into relational, tabular databases and 

Geographical Information Systems (GIS). In the final phase of the project, the data sets 

were analyzed to 1) estimate temporal changes in fish population composition and 

distribution, 2) compare these estimates to current fish population and ecosystem 

conditions, and 3) provide a marine environmental history to explain the anthropogenic 

and environmental factors that have effected fish populations and habitats of SBNMS in 

the past. Based on this historical analysis, conservation measures are proposed and 

discussed, and future research directions recommended.

 7 For project background information about CoML and HMAP see http://www.hmapcoml.org. For 

scholarly works on significance of historical perspectives in resource management see e.g., John M. 

Pandolfi et al., “Global Trajectories of the Long-Term Decline of Coral Reef Ecosystems,” Science 301.5635 

(2003): 955-958; Heike K. Lotze et al., “Depletion, Degradation, and Recovery Potential of Estuaries and 

Coastal Seas,” Science 312.5781 (2006): 1806-1809; Andrea Sáenz-Arroyo et al., “The Value of Evidence 

About Past Abundance: Marine Fauna of the Gulf of California Through the Eyes of 16th to 19th Century 

Travellers,” Fish and Fisheries 7.2 (2006): 128-146; Andrea Sáenz-Arroyo et al., “Using Fishers’ Anecdotes, 

Naturalists’ Observations and Grey Literature to Reassess Marine Species at Risk: the Case of the Gulf 

Grouper in the Gulf of California, Mexico,” Fish and Fisheries 6.2 (2005): 121-133. For government reports 

see e.g., National Research Council, Dynamic Changes in Marine Ecosystems: Fishing, Food Webs, and 

Future Options, Washington: National Academy Press, 2006. 8 Stefan H. Claesson and Matthew G. McKenzie, Stellwagen Bank Marine Historical Ecology, Phase 1: 

Historical Sources Survey Report, Durham, NH: Gulf of Maine Cod Project, University of New Hampshire, 

2005.
5

What is marine historical ecology?

People have lived in coastal regions and depended on the ocean’s resources for 

thousands of years, often preserving their experiences through artifacts, artwork,

photographs, written documents and oral traditions. These various historical records are not 

only culturally important but also contain information about the condition of marine 

environments in the past. ‘Marine historical ecology’ extracts environmental data from 

these historical and archaeological records, in order to determine how marine animal 

populations and habitats, and the ecosystems we live in, have changed over time. These 

records often come from people who knew the ocean best - fishermen, explorers, and 

others that have depended on the ocean’s resources. Their personal stories preserve 

scientific information as well as valuable historical and cultural perspectives. The 

collaboration of history and ecology provides a unique approach for understanding the 

health of our marine sanctuaries, the diversity of life they protect, and a long-term 

perspective for future decision-making.
6

III. RESEARCH METHODS

This project maps marine resources’ exploitation and use, and human responses to 

changes in resource abundance and diversity. Based on historical interpretation and 

scientific analysis, we document the cumulative impact of human activities on the fish 

populations and habitats of Stellwagen Bank. Specifically, we document species 

abundance and diversity over a 100-year period (ca. 1900-2000) in order to provide a 

measure of the relative health of the regional ecosystem. With detailed knowledge of the 

cumulative and long-term effects of human activities, we can make rational choices that 

will help identify sustainable fish population levels and guide future management action. 

We may also contribute toward assessment of the resilience of SBNMS and Gulf of 

Maine ecosystems to anthropogenic influences.

Research was conducted in 3 phases: 1) historical sources exploration and 

identification, 2) data recovery, and 3) analysis and synthesis. The initial research phase 

examined the availability and limitations of historical sources in providing information 

about marine animal populations and the environmental history of SBNMS. Documents 

examined in this study were found in federal, state, and local repositories that relate 

directly or indirectly to the ecological history of SBNMS. Historical source materials 

examined included explorers’ accounts, fishing logbooks, census records, newspapers, 

and early marine scientific survey data. Sources were identified through on-line 

databases, library catalogs and finding aids, references in marine ecology and maritime 

history publications, and communication with specialists in the fields of maritime history 

and fisheries science. UNH historians and ecologists traveled to libraries and historical 

societies throughout New England and visited national archives and libraries in 

Washington, DC and Maryland. In cases where sources were assessed as valuable or 

tangentially relevant, samples were photocopied or digitally photographed and archived. 

The interim report by UNH described the initial findings of the exploratory sources 

survey.

Following the phase 1 survey, specific historical data sets were identified for 

recovery and compilation. Data set selection was based on the potential of the historical 

records to provide a composite of quantitative data that could be used in geo-spatial and 

statistical analyses, and qualitative, historical context information that would complement 

and clarify our analyses. Each relevant historical document, manuscript or collection was 

photographed and the resulting .jpeg images assembled into Adobe Acrobat .pdf files. 

These files were then compiled into digital .pdf ‘libraries.’ The source material was then 

digitized into tabular databases for analysis. Comprehensive metadata descriptions for 

primary data sets are included in Appendix A, however, a summary of primary source 

materials is also provided in the following section. 

The historical source material was then compared to modern data sources. 

Specifically, this study used Vessel Trip Report (VTR) data (1995-2005) to examine 

changes in the composition and volume of commercial fishery catches on Stellwagen 

Bank over a 100-year period. Biological data from National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) bottom trawl surveys (1963-2007) was also compared to U.S. Commission of 
7

Fish and Fisheries survey data from the late 19th century. Rarefaction techniques were 

applied to measure changes in species richness in the western Gulf of Maine based on 

these data sets. In addition, a suite of statistical and geo-spatial techniques and software 

were applied to the historical and modern data sets including trophic-level analysis, factor 

analysis, and time-series and climate modeling. A detailed description of these methods 

and results is provided in section V. ANALYSIS.

Historical Source Material

Monthly Fishery Statistical Bulletins for Northwest Atlantic (1893-1944)

Published by the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries beginning in 1893, and 

continued by the Bureau of Fisheries in 1903, these records tabulate statistical 

information including but not limited to monthly fish catch by species and weight, name 

and location of fishing grounds, the number of trips and vessels made to those grounds, 

fishing gear deployed, days absent at sea, where products were landed, and the values of 

fish sold. Although the complete range of records date from 1892 to 1944, consistent 

monthly records for Stellwagen Bank are available for 1901-1935, and annual catch 

records from as early as 1893. Annual total removals of all fish species on Stellwagen 

Bank by the primary New England fishing fleets (Boston, Gloucester, MA and Portland, 

ME) were tabulated over a 42-year period. Monthly data is also available for a number of 

Northwest Atlantic fishing grounds visited by the New England fleets. A nearly complete 

set of statistical bulletins are available at National Archives in Waltham, MA and a 

partial set at National Archives II in Silver Spring, MD. In 2007-2008, the later data set 

was scanned and digitized under a grant from the Climate Data Modernization Program 

(CDMP).

U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries Publications (1871-1940)

The U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries was established in 1871 by Spencer 

F. Baird to investigate the decrease of fish populations in U.S. coastal and inland waters. 

Consequently, fisheries data generated by the commission is available for portions of 

SBNMS beginning as early as the 1870s. Commission publications consist of a series of 

annual reports, bulletins, as well as occasional monographs or special publications such 

as the voluminous The Fisheries and the Fishery Industry in the United States (1887).

The Annual Reports of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries were submitted 

to the U.S. Congress each year beginning in 1871. They typically contain a report to 

Congress on the work of the commission, including field and survey reports from 

commission scientists, reports on propagation efforts, nationwide fishery statistics, 

fishery histories, and anthropological studies. Publication of the Bulletin of the U.S. 

Commission of Fish and Fisheries, which began in 1881, is a publication of journal 

articles primarily by commission-supported scientists. The early bulletin articles often 

report on specific fisheries and the methods used to harvest or cultivate fish in the United 
8

States and abroad. Subjects include international efforts to develop aquaculture, reports 

of fish diseases, and fishing technology and techniques. Additionally, correspondence 

from fishermen, captains, and fishery scientists in the United States, Europe, and 

Australia was often published in the bulletins. Annual reports (1871/72-1940) and 

bulletins (1881-1998) are available online through NOAA’s Central Library in .pdf 

format.9

The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, published under the 

supervision of George Brown Goode in 1887, provides an exhaustive report on the U.S. 

fisheries at that time. The publication is divided into seven sections: 1) the natural history 

of marine products, 2) fishing grounds, 3) fishermen and fishing towns, 4) apparatus and 

methods of capture, 5) products of fisheries, 6) preparation, care, and manufacture of 

fishery products, and 7) economy of the fisheries. Detailed information is available for all 

aspects of the fisheries of Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bay, including Stellwagen Bank, 

or “Middle Bank,” its historical name. The 7-volume set is available for download from 

NOAA websites as .pdf files.10

Scientific Survey Logbooks (1870-1940)

Scientific marine cruises, explorations and fishery expeditions are an excellent 

source for marine biological and physical ocean data. Numerous records exist concerning 

the operation of federal government fisheries research vessels from approximately 1870-

1940. These records include research and survey vessel logbooks and reports of U.S. 

Commission of Fish and Fisheries, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, and the U.S. Coast and 

Geodetic Survey. The Gulf of Maine was an important proving ground for early 

oceanographic studies. Vessel survey logbooks at the Smithsonian Institution and 

National Archives include data for numerous scientific cruises in the Gulf of Maine and 

SBNMS: Speedwell (1877), Albatross (1883), Fishhawk (various years 1880-1925), 

Grampus (various years 1886-1917), Halcyon (various years 1912-1921), and Blake 

(1880). These sampling and deck logs provide the locations (in latitude and longitude) as 

well as descriptions of oceanographic and climate data, dredging and bottom trawl 

sampling, and bottom habitat and conditions. Air and water temperatures, atmospheric 

pressure, and water column conditions are generally reported in the logbooks.

Maps and Charts (1607-1940)

Often compiled from information collected from fishermen and mariners, charts 

and maps provide information of where fishermen believed shoals and fishing grounds 

existed. These sources offer both local and global referencing to fishing grounds. They 

also serve as cultural indicators of communities’ understandings of their environment. 

Although historical maps and charts typically do not provide statistical data, they do offer 

 9 http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cof/data_rescue_fish_commission_annual_reports.html; 

http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/Fish_Commission_Bulletins/data_rescue_fish_commission_bulletins.html

10 http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/rarebooks/fisheries/welcome.html
9

a glimpse of how the physical oceanographic characteristics of SBNMS have been 

interpreted and mapped over the centuries. Maps often depict bathymetric features, where 

people fished and where fish were caught over time. The spatial and temporal nature of 

maps is important for keying historical fisheries catch data to specific features such as 

fishing grounds. Thus far we have located dozens of historical maps/charts, dating to as 

early as 1734, which document some geographic or bathymetric characteristic of 

SBNMS.

Early Exploration Narrative Accounts (1524-1700)

Narrative accounts of early European voyages or explorations to New England 

provide evidence of the region’s varied and abundant marine resources prior to widescale exploitation. Early published accounts include those of Giovanni da Verrazano 

(1524), Bartholomew Gosnold and John Brereton (1602), Martin Pring (1603), James 

Rosier and George Waymouth (1605), Samuel de Champlain (1605-1606), and John 

Smith (1614). One indisputable point made by these explorers was the richness and 

potential commercial value of the New England fisheries. Descriptive and qualitative data 

can be extracted from these narratives to provide a general sense of abundance, 

distribution, and diversity in Massachusetts Bay prior to large-scale fisheries exploitation. 

Publications from the second half of the 17th century, such as William Wood’s New 

England’s Prospect (1634) and John Josselyn’s New-Englands Rarities Discovered

(1672), also document the condition of marine resources observed by early New England 

settlers. Most early narratives have been re-published and are widely available in literary 

collections and serials such as the Hakluyt Society (London) and the Proceedings of the 

Massachusetts Historical Society.

Fishermen Interviews (1850-1900)

In the late 19th century, the U.S. Fish Commission conducted numerous 

interviews with fishermen throughout the northeast U.S. including cod and mackerel 

fishermen from New York, New England and Nova Scotia. Most fishermen interviewed 

in the 1890s by the commission were over 50 years of age and recollected changes in the 

marine environment during their lifetimes. These interviews, or oral histories, are an 

excellent source for observations of Gulf of Maine fisheries. They provide first-hand 

accounts and observations of fish behavior and fishing activity on specific fishing 

grounds such as Stellwagen Bank. Most interviewees discuss the migratory patterns and 

behaviors of mackerel on the east coast. In addition, the fishermen offer descriptions of 

fish and catch sizes as well as theories for the decline in cod and mackerel in the 19th 

century. These records are located at National Archives II in College Park, MD and 

National Archives in Waltham, MA. The complete set of transcripts at National Archives 

II has been scanned under the Climate Data Modernization Program (CDMP).11

 11 http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/cdmp/cdmp.html
10

Legal Documents and Legislation (1630-1940)

Federal, state, provincial and local laws and regulations directly and indirectly 

provide information about the state of the Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bay fisheries. 

Laws and ordinances regulated aspects of the fisheries. We identified almost 150 fishing 

laws and regulations dating to before 1900, some of which relate to fishing activity in or 

near SBNMS. Histories of regulatory and legislative efforts provide an indication of the 

perceived socio-economic and cultural impacts of environmental degradation. The 

effectiveness of such attempts at curbing fishing efforts and limiting habitat disturbance 

may also be investigated.
11

IV. STELLWAGEN BANK’S FISHERIES HISTORY

Prompted by a terrible gale on August 24, 1873, in which nine Gloucester vessels 

and 128 men perished, George H. Proctor, a wholesale fish dealer, decided to 

memorialize Gloucester fishermen lost at sea.12 The mystique of Gloucester fishermen 

was promulgated in part by his publications, Fisherman's Memorial Record Book (1873) 

The Fisheries of Gloucester from 1623 to 1876 (1876), and Fisherman's Own Book

(1882), which provided detailed narratives of the extraordinary dangers and unusual 

events that occurred in the fisheries. He mixed newspaper stories, poetry and local lore to 

illustrate and describe how difficult life was for these resourceful, determined men and 

the hardship of families who waited anxiously at home for their return. Rudyard Kipling's 

Captains Courageous (1897) also set Gloucester fishermen apart from ordinary men by 

defining their historic maritime traditions, culture of work, and independent character. 

James B. Connolly furthered the fishing heritage of the city through his prolific sea 

histories, novels and short stories published in popular magazines in the 1940s.13 More 

recently, Mark Kurlansky in The Last Fish Tale: The Fate of the Atlantic and Survival in 

Gloucester, America's Oldest Fishing Port and Most Original Town, also recalls the 

legendary fishing port of Gloucester, but separates itself from previous works by calling 

for an end to destructive fishing practices in order to salvage the historically abundant 

fish resources in the Gulf of Maine upon which the vanishing fishing culture depends.14

The stories of New England's (especially Gloucester’s) fishing and maritime 

cultural heritage have been told and affirmed; however, the basis for this heritage and the 

fishing industry, namely the historical abundance and diversity of marine species in the 

Gulf of Maine, is poorly documented and misunderstood. The following historical 

narrative of Stellwagen Bank's fisheries seeks to inform fisheries and ecosystem 

management, as well as the public at large, of the previous abundance of marine animals 

and past ecosystem conditions within the sanctuary and the broader Gulf of Maine. 

Armed with this information, we can celebrate and support the region's cultural heritage, 

identify the cultural and socio-economic benefits that marine resources have afforded, 

and document how human behavior has dramatically impacted the richness of these 

resources. This brief history seeks to not only memorialize and remember the past, but 

also to deduce from historical records what an abundant and diverse marine environment 

in SBNMS and the Gulf of Maine may have looked like. It also compares past and 

present ecosystem conditions and contributes toward the discussion of how conservation 

measures can be employed to support community culture and economy, and 

simultaneously conserve marine resources for future generations.

 12 George H. Proctor, Fisherman’s Memorial Record Book, Gloucester: Proctor Bros., 1873, p. 167-168. 13 James B. Connolly, The Port of Gloucester, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1940; Sea-borne, Thirty 

Years Avoyaging, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1944. 14 Mark Kurlansky, The Last Fish Tale: The Fate of the Atlantic and Survival in Gloucester, America's Oldest 

Fishing Port and Most Original Town, New York: Ballantine Books, 2008.
12

Early European Fisheries and Observations in Massachusetts Bay

The earliest known description of Massachusetts Bay's marine environment was 

recorded by English explorer John Brereton during Bartholomew Gosnold’s expedition of 

the New England coast in 1602. He described schools of cod so dense around Cape Ann 

that:

“In five or six hours absence, we had pestered our ship so with Cod fish, 

that we threw numbers of them over-board again: and surely, I am 

persuaded that in the months of March, April, and May, there is upon this 

coast, better fishing, and in as great plenty, as in Newfoundland: for the 

shoals of mackerel, herrings, Cod, and other fish, that we daily saw as we 

went and came from the shore, were wonderful; and besides, the places 

where we took these Cods (and might in a few days have laden our ship) 

were but in seven fathom water, and within less than a league of the shore; 

where, in New-found-land they fish in forty or fifty fathom water, and far 

off.”15

Many early explorers and settlers marveled at the ocean’s bounty along New 

England’s shores. In 1614, English explorer John Smith remarked:

“You shall scarce find any bay, shallow water or cove of land, where you 

may not take clams, or lobsters, or both at your pleasure, and in many 

places load your boat if you please, nor isles where you find not fruits, 

birds, crabs, and mussels, or all of them, for taking at low water. And in 

the harbors we frequented, a little boy might take of cunners, and 

pinnacks, and such delicate fish, at the ship's stern, more than six or ten 

can catch in a day; but with a casting-net, thousands when we pleased: and 

scarce any place, but cod, cusk, halibut, mackerel, skate, or such like, a 

man may take with a hook and line what he will. And, in diverse sandy 

bays, a man may draw with a net great store of mulletts, bass and diverse 

other sorts of such excellent fish, as many as his net can draw on shore: no 

river where there is not plenty of sturgeon, or salmon, or both; all which 

are to be had in abundance observing but their seasons.”16

 15 John Brereton, A Brief and True Relation of the Discoverie of the North Part of Virginia in 1602, London: 

George Bishop, 1602, 1952 reprint in Early English and French Voyages, 1534-1608, NY: Barnes & Noble, 

1952, p. 331.

16 John Smith, A Description of New England: Or the Observations, and Discoueries, of Captain Iohn Smith 

(Admirall of That Country) in the North of America, in the Year of Our Lord 1614: With the Success of Sixe 

Ships, That Went the Next Yeare 1615; and the Accidents Befell Him among the French Men of Warre. 

London: Lownes, 1616; John Smith, The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles: 

With the Names of the Adventurers, Planters, and Governours from Their First Beginning, Ano 1584 to This 

Present 1624. London: ID and IH for Mitchel Sparkes, 1624.
13

It was possible, John Josselyn observed, to catch 100,000 sea-bass, alewives, 

tomcod, smelt and shad in just two tides at the Watertown weir on Charles River, or 4.5 

million fish over a 45-day season. 17 Thomas Morton reported that lobsters were so 

plentiful that he gathered them for bait when he went fishing for sea-bass.18 Francis 

Higginson, arriving in Massachusetts Bay, wrote:

“the abundance of Sea-Fish are almost beyond believing...Of these (seabass) fish our fishers take many hundred altogether...Yea, their nets 

ordinarily take more than they are able to haul to land...Of these fishes, 

some be three and some four feet long...The fisherman taking a great codline, to which he fasteneth a piece of lobster...the fish biting at it he pulls 

her to him and knocks her on the head with a stick...Codfish in these seas 

are larger than in NewFound Land, six or seven here making a quintal, 

whereas there they have fifteen to the same weight.”19

Cape Cod and Stellwagen Bank also teemed with whales in the early 17th 

century. In 1620, William Bradford of the Plymouth Plantation observed:

“Cape Cod was like to be a place of good fishing, for we saw daily great 

whales of the best kind for oil and bone, come close aboard our ship, and 

in fair weather swim and play about us. There was once one, when the sun 

shone warm, came and lay above water as if she had been dead, for a good 

while together, within half a musket shot of the ship, at which two were 

prepared to shoot to see whether she would stir or no. He that gave fire 

first, his musket flew into pieces, both stock and barrel, yet, thanks be to 

God, neither he nor nay man else was hurt with it, though many were there 

about. But when the whale saw her time, she gave a snuff, and [went] 

away.”20

“And every day we saw whales playing hard by us, of which in that place, 

if we had instruments and means to take them, we might have made a very 

rich return, which to our great grief we wanted. Our master and his mate, 

and others experienced in fishing, professed we might have made three or 

four thousand pounds’ worth of oil. They preferred it before Greenland 

whale-fishing, and purpose the next winter to fish for whale here.”21

 17 John Josselyn, Two Voyages to New England, 1630 & 1663, Reprint, Hanover: University Press of New 

England, 1988, p. 115-116. 18 Thomas Morton, New English Canaan, London: 1632. Quoted in Spencer F. Baird, Part I. Report on the 

Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England in 1871 and 1872, Washington, USGPO, 

1873, p. 158-159. 19 Francis Higginson, 1630, quoted in Spencer F. Baird, Part I. Report on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries 

of the South Coast of New England in 1871 and 1872, Washington, USGPO, 1873, p. 161-162. 20 George Morton, Mourt's Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, Ed. Dwight B. Heath,

Cambridge, MA: Applewood Books, 1986, p. 12. 21 George Morton, Mourt's Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, Ed. Dwight B. Heath, 

Cambridge, MA: Applewood Books, 1986, p. 6.
14

First Plymouth, and then Massachusetts Bay encouraged fishing to generate 

export goods for European markets. London merchant Matthew Craddock subsidized one 

of the earliest fishing efforts between Boston and Salem; his managing partner was 

Massachusetts Bay Colony Governor John Winthrop. Massachusetts Bay colonists 

initially fished in Broad Sound, where they found seemingly prolific cod grounds close to 

the Boston Harbor Islands. In 1629, Higginson upon arriving to Massachusetts and 

crossing Stellwagen Bank recounts events aboard ship:

“In the afternoon we had a clear sight of many islands and hills by the seashore. Now we saw abundance of mackerel, a great store of great whales 

puffing up water as they go; some of them came near our ship. Their 

greatness did astonish us that saw them not before; their backs appeared 

like a little island. . . This day we caught mackerel.”22

“We saw many schools of mackerel, infinite multitudes on every side of 

our ship. The sea was abundantly stored with rockweed and yellow 

flowers, like gulliflowers. By noon we were within three leagues of Cape 

Ann . . .”23

The Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed fishing grounds in the northern bay, and 

Plymouth Colony controlled the fishing grounds of Cape Cod and Provincetown. 

Boston’s shore-fishermen and merchants consequently moved their operations east to 

Cape Ann, where they first bought, and then seized, coastal lands previously granted to 

others, but that were close to more productive and reliable fishing grounds.24 Salem, 

Gloucester and Marblehead fishermen claimed the shore grounds along southern Cape 

Ann, probably out to the ‘Northwest Corner’ of Stellwagen Bank. Taking four men to a 

boat, they fished with hand-lines, brought their catch ashore and turned it over to a shoreman who dressed it and spread it on flakes to dry. The seemingly inexhaustible 

abundance of codfish, however, appears to have been disrupted by the construction of 

weirs, dams and shoreline alterations, which limited the catch in Broad Sound and its 

tributaries so much so that by 1651 Boston experienced a local cod shortage.25

By 1763, all the coasts with the best shore fisheries from Long Island Sound and 

around Massachusetts Bay, down the coast of Maine and across to Nova Scotia, were 

settled and their fisheries regularly exploited. In the 18th century, handlines were still 

used to catch demersals and mackerel, weirs and small seines for anadromous fish, and 

 22 Francis Higginson, Nevv-Englands Plantation. Or, a Short and True Description of the Commodities and 

Discommodities of That Countrey, London: TC and RC, 1630; Francis Higginson, "A True Relation of the 

Last Voyage to New England," A Library of American Puritan Writings, the Seventeenth Century, Ed. Sacvan 

Bercovitch, Vol. 9. New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1986, p. 232. 23 Francis Higginson, Nevv-Englands Plantation. Or, a Short and True Description of the Commodities and 

Discommodities of That Countrey, London: TC and RC, 1630; Francis Higginson, "A True Relation of the 

Last Voyage to New England," A Library of American Puritan Writings, the Seventeenth Century, Ed. Sacvan 

Bercovitch, Vol. 9. New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1986, p. 232. 24 William Leavenworth, “The Changing Landscape of Maritime Resources in Seventeenth-Century New 

England,” International Journal of Maritime History, 20.1 (2008): 33-62. 25 William Aspinwall, The Book of Possessions, 1644-1651, Reprint, Boston: Municipal Printing Office, 

1902, p. 390-391.
15

small nets for pelagic baitfish near shore. Netting was limited in durability by the tensile 

strength of natural fibers – cotton or hemp, and lost nets rotted away quickly without 

ghost-fishing. In addition to-shore grounds, Stellwagen (then called Inner, Middle and 

Outer Banks) and Tillies Banks and Jeffreys Ledge were accessible in good weather to 

small vessels and boats from Cape Ann or Provincetown. 26

From the earliest settlements, virtually all towns with ocean frontage on 

Massachusetts Bay and a sheltered harbor had sent boats fishing seasonally near shore to 

supply local consumption. Most towns licensed weirs to supply townspeople with a cheap 

and reliable supply of fish protein and manure for their fields, as well as bait for the 

ground fishery. Oxen were the principal source of heavy labor, and dairy products 

provided essential nutrition, but beef was a luxury. Fresh, smoked or salted fish were the 

principal sources of animal protein for many settlers. In particular, most settlers of Cape 

Cod, Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard, where the plow, axe and livestock rapidly wore 

down the fragile vegetation, were forced to take up maritime pursuits such as fishing and 

whaling for survival.

 Massachusetts Bay itself was 

fished by settlements from Swampscott around to Provincetown, and Ipswich Bay and 

adjacent waters were accessible by small boats from shore and larger vessels from Lynn 

to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

27 The untenable farming practices also contributed to the silting in 

of Cape Cod’s anadromous fish passages, as well as set erosion in motion that would 

render some Cape fishing ports unusable.28

Marblehead, the premier 18th-century fishing port, lost much of its manpower in 

the Revolutionary War, and went into decline. Although some post-war ports became 

best known for their fishing fleets, nearly every harbor in New England sent vessels into 

the Grand Bank and Scotian Shelf fisheries in the decades between the War of 1812 and 

the Civil War. Between 1852 and 1866, Beverly-Salem fishermen on the Scotian Shelf 

conferred with hundreds of vessels at sea from at least 31 Maine, 27 Massachusetts, 3 

Connecticut and 4 Rhode Island ports.

However, the shift toward maritime pursuits 

was sharply curtailed during the Revolutionary War, and many fishermen were forced 

back ashore or took up privateering.

29

The offshore effort, however, did not include vessels less than 20 tons, and the 

many boats under 5 tons that weren’t required to obtain any license to fish. Vessels under 

20 tons made up 2,033 tons of Massachusetts’ 59,982 tons of codfishing fleet in 1860 and 

nearly 6,000 tons of Maine’s 74,647 tons of cod-fishing fleet in 1861 (Maine’s greatest 

tonnage year in cod fishing before 1867).30

 26 Capt. Thos. Durrell, A Large Draught of New England: New Hampshire, York County and Part of Nova 

Scotia and Accadia, map, Archived at the UK Hydrographic Office in Taunton, UK, 1734.

By 1880, some 5,920 boats fished out of 

Maine, 211 fished from New Hampshire, and 6,749 boats fished from Massachusetts 

27 Anne E. Yentsch, “Farming, fishing, whaling, trading: land and sea as resource on eighteenth-century 

Cape Cod,” Documentary Archaeology in the New World, Ed. Mary C. Beaudry, Cambridge: Cambridge 

University Press, 1988, p. 138-160. 28 Rev. John Simpkins, A Topographical Description of Brewster, In The County of Barnstable, January, 

1806. MAHS Series 1, Vol. X, Boston: Munroe, Francis and Parker, 1809, p. 74; Anon., Description of 

Chatham, MAHS Series 1, Vol. VIII, Reprint, Boston: T. R. Marvin, 1854, p. 156. 29 Andrew A. Rosenberg, et al. "The History of Ocean Resources: Modeling Cod Biomass Using Historical 

Records." Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3.2 (2005): 78-84. 30 Wayne M. O’Leary, Maine Sea Fisheries: The Rise and Fall of a Native Industry, 1830-1890, Boston: 

Northeastern University Press, 1996, p. 346.
16

ports.31 Virtually none of these boats fished more than 15 miles from a harbor of refuge 

except in the best summer weather, and they typically gathered in fleets on near-shore 

grounds. The fisheries of southern Maine and New Hampshire in the 1880s, however 

diminished, were still good enough to attract and keep a large fleet together on small 

inshore grounds.32

Massachusetts Bay, though fished for hundreds of years, remained somewhat 

productive for handliners, and large catches were reported through the first half of the 

1800s. D. Humphreys Storer, writing for the Boston Journal of Natural History (1839), 

described seeing in 1837 a striped bass taken in Boston Harbor that was 3’10” long and 

weighed 36 pounds, a bluefin tuna taken near Pigeon Cove, Cape Ann, in 1838, that was 

15 feet long and weighed 1,000 pounds, a tuna taken between Marshfield and Cape Ann 

(that is, in Broad Sound) in September of 1838, that was 9’3” long, and a swordfish 

caught in the same area near Marshfield in 1833, that was 11’4” overall, and weighed 650 

pounds. Halibut of 500 to 600 pounds were occasionally taken in shore, as were sturgeon 

8-10’ long and weighing 300 pounds.

Although catch records for small craft rarely exist and are therefore 

difficult to quantify, the fact that Maine’s small vessel fleet in 1860-61 was more than 

double that of Massachusetts may indicate the greater productivity of Maine’s fisheries 

compared to Massachusetts at that time.

33 In Storer’s day, about 9,000,000 smelt, 700 

barrels of alewives, 2,000 bushels of tom cod, 3,000 pounds of eels and 6,000 shad were 

annually taken, along with an occasional small sturgeon, at Watertown, on the Charles 

River. Shore-fishermen in Massachusetts Bay, generally day-fishing from boats and small 

schooners, still caught large numbers of cod in 1837 – one smack from Lynn taking 7,124 

pounds in a day. On Jeffreys Ledge in the fall, 20 or 30 boats would fasten together, 

attract pollock by throwing bait overboard, and catch 30 to 40 quintals per boat. Codfishermen often caught hake and cusk on Stellwagen Bank, they fetching a better price 

than cod in winter, and less in summer. Flounder were taken year round from wharves 

and bridges in Boston Harbor, the Deer Island flounder being considered “very fine.”34

New England’s fisheries had long been very extensive inshore at certain seasons, 

but according to local fishermen they had decreased noticeably through the second half of 

the 19th century. The first report of the newly-formed U.S. Commission of Fish and 

Fisheries, which was devoted to the issue of fishery depletion on New England’s coasts, 

gathered testimonies from fishermen and fish market data to quantify and qualify changes 

in the Gulf of Maine fisheries. Nathaniel Smith, 73 years old, of Newport, RI, on Aug. 3, 

1871:

“. . . Menhaden are decreasing too. In 1819 I saw a school of menhaden 

out at sea, when I was going to Portland, that was two miles wide and 

forty miles long. I sailed through them. We were out of sight of land. They 

 31 George Brown Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A 

geographical Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: 

USGPO, 1887.

32 Jonathan Bolster, Manuscript, B35 F5, Log 1862V. Essex, MA: Essex Institute, 1862. 33 D. Humphreys Storer, A Report on the Fishes of Massachusetts, Journal of Natural History, Vol. II, 

Boston: Boston Society of Natural History, 1839. 34 D. Humphreys Storer, A Report on the Fishes of Massachusetts, Journal of Natural History, Vol. II, 

Boston: Boston Society of Natural History, 1839, p. 476.
17

appeared to be all heading southwest. There were no fish near them. I have 

seen a school on this coast three miles long . . .”35

Fifty years later, Solomon Rowe, a 44 year old master fisherman, of Gloucester, MA, on 

Nov. 11, 1893:

“Menhaden on this coast used to be very plenty, but since they got these 

large oil works started on this coast menhaden seemed to disappear, and 

are not as abundant as they used to be.”36

Charles H. Pew, a Gloucester fish merchant for 44 years, in 1893 remarked about 

Georges Bank:

“In 20 years’ time that Bank has been destroyed as a hook and line fishing 

ground. Used to catch more fish on that Bank than we caught in all the 

other fishing grounds put together. Today it does not pay to send vessels 

there hook and line fishing.”37

Describing the impact of seining on Georges Bank, Eliphalet Wharf, a 63-year old 

fisherman commented in 1893 that:

“Cannot catch near the amount of fish on Georges Bank that they used to. 

Large quantities of young mackerel have been destroyed by the seines. 

More destroyed than are ever brought into port; by catching small fish, 

getting them meshed, and filling the seine, and then drawing the seine and 

throwing them away. Have had 500 bbls. in the seine, and picked out 20 

bbls. and let the rest go. They were all dead. Other vessels catch 4 times as 

many as I catch - murder barrels where I murder buckets.”38

Fishermen in previous centuries attributed depletion of fish stocks to natural 

causes, pollution and fishing methods, but were reticent to lay blame to over-fishing as 

the cause for depleted stocks:

"That it is possible to so diminish their numbers by fishing that those 

remaining cannot repair the loss, independent of the vicissitudes of 

ordinary fish-life, we cannot believe. They are scattered over so much 

ground that all the devices of man can never reduce their number, without 

some great auxiliary aid from nature more destructive than anything man 

can devise, although it may be, when natural conditions are such that they 

must diminish, from year to year, as some species have, to the point of 

extermination -then it may be that fishing may hasten; but as has been said 

 35 Spencer F. Baird, Report on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England in 1871 

and 1872, Washington: USGPO, 1873, p. 21. 36 Stefan Claesson, Mackerel Interview Data Set, Obs_ID: 15.039. See metadata, Appendix A. 37 Stefan Claesson, Mackerel Interview Data Set, Obs_ID: 12.042. See metadata, Appendix A. 38 Stefan Claesson, Mackerel Interview Data Set, Obs_ID: 19.090. See metadata, Appendix A.
18

by others, "Under favorable conditions, no amount or kind of fishing can 

ever make any material diminution of the fish of the sea: 1, because of the 

small proportion of the whole number that can be caught by any means 

possible, scattered as they are over so great an area; 2, because of their 

vast reproductive powers, requiring but a small number to keep the stock 

good; 3, because the same means that are used to catch food-fishes are 

equally destructive to other fish, their enemies, the destruction of one of 

which saves numbers that would otherwise be destroyed.” (J.M.K. 

Southwick)”39

A young fisherman from Portland, ME, Ahmon Mallock, held the widely accepted belief 

that the sea held an inexhaustible supply of fish: “catch them when you can. Will never 

catch them all out; it is useless to think of it.”40

Fishing Technology

Nets have been used in coastal fisheries since prehistoric times. Seventeenthcentury New England fishermen used seines and dip nets in the shallow waters 

alongshore to catch herring, mackerel and bass, both for bait and for food. A 1633 

inventory from the Piscataqua River, New Hampshire, listed "1 old seane, 10 herring 

netts.”41 A probate inventory of 1648, taken at Richmond Island, Maine, listed "one seine 

and two old nets.”42 Plymouth lawmakers regulated the use of seines in the Cape Cod 

shore fishery in 1650, suggesting that it was lucrative and perhaps already seen as 

destructive. They observed that "Two companies with net boats and other craft are 

considered as much as the place would bear.”43

Seines and nets evolved variously and rapidly, particularly through the 19th 

century, branching from basic beach seines and dip nets to become purse and haul 

seines. Much of the evolution may have been made possible by the introduction of 

machine-made twine. During the textile phase of the Industrial Revolution, mill-sites 

were evaluated by the number of spindles they could drive, which was accelerated 

further by the adoption of steam power. At about this time, new netting techniques were 

being adopted by New England fisheries such as mackerel, which evolved from hooks 

(or jigs) to seines after 1850:

"Capt. Rowe’s father's name is Solomon Rowe. His father first began to 

use the purse seine in about 1851. Never used to go further south than 

 39 Spencer F. Baird, Part I, Report on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England 

in 1871 and 1872, Washington: USGPO, 1873, p. 81. 40 Stefan Claesson, Mackerel Interview Data Set, Obs_ID: 29.018. See metadata in Appendix B. 41 Nathaniel Bouton, Provincial Papers. Documents and Records Relating to the Province of NewHampshire, from the Earliest Period of its Settlement: 1623-1686. Concord: George E. Jenks, 1867, p. 79. 42 James P. Baxter, Documentary History of the State of Maine, Vol III, Trelawney Papers, Portland, Maine 

Historical Society, 1884, p. 374

43 Anonymous, “Plymouth Colony Records,” MAHS Collections, Series 2, Vol. 111, Boston, 1815. Reprint, 

Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1846, p. 220-21.
19

Cape Cod and off Barnstable Bay and Cape Ann, with the first seines. 

When they fished in the beginning around Cape Cod and Cape Ann, used 

to go about the 1st of May.”44

After 1870, purse seines became common offshore in the mackerel fishery, as 

well as inshore for the menhaden fishery. Goode and Collins stated that "the purse seine 

can be used to very much greater advantage along our own shores between Cape Hatteras 

and the Bay of Fundy."45

By 1905, purse seines were adapted to the near-shore cod fishery around Sable 

and Anticosti Islands, where forage was so plenty that cod would generally not take bait. 

These seines were retrieved using a geared windlass mounted on the seining vessel.

At that time fishermen used two kinds of purse seines-a large 

one, up to 225 fathoms long and 25 fathoms deep, and a smaller seine, measuring 150-

175 fathoms in length and 10-12 fathoms deep. Mackerel fishing on Stellwagen Bank in 

the second half of the 19th century was largely abandoned for more profitable and 

previously unexploited grounds near the Delaware capes, as well as north to the 'Cape 

Shore' (eastern coast of Nova Scotia) and into the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

46

Early reports told of a single vessel taking 50,000 fish at one lift of the purse, and another 

Nova Scotia vessel having to cut her purse lines loose because they could not lift the 

estimated 100,000 lbs. of cod entrapped. Gill nets also proved useful offshore with the 

advent of steam power, which enabled fishermen to drag the nets through a dispersed 

school of mackerel or herring difficult to catch with seines. By 1905, mackerel fishermen 

were stringing 60 to 100 gill nets together and dragging them under power, emptying the 

catch into dories. Thus gill nets, which as small passive catchers had been abandoned 

with the mackerel hook fishery, were revived in much enlarged versions with the advent 

of power draggers.47

The hook-and-line fishery also underwent a dramatic technological shift in the 

19th century. In the 1850s, fishermen began to abandon the handline fishery in favor of 

tub trawls, which put down, on average, 500 baited hooks to the handline’s two. With the 

advent of tub trawling, the hook-and line fishery consumed baitfish at a much greater 

rate. At the same time, damming, channeling and burying tributaries, coupled with 

dumping industrial and household wastes, removed anadromous fish from many parts of 

Boston and Massachusetts Bay, and with them the lower trophic level animals that had 

supported the first English settlements. Fifty years after Joseph Storer’s 1837 account, 

Goode’s voluminous report on fishing communities and towns did not merit a single 

notation of the once abundant anadromous fisheries of Watertown on the Charles River.48

 44 Stefan Claesson, “HMAP Dataset: Fishermen Interviews,” GLOUCESTER_2.PDF, 2007, p. 139.

Remarkably, these bait fisheries – herring, shad, alewife, and eel – continued to be 

productive in other regions into the late 19th-century.

45 George B. Goode and J. W. Collins, “Part III: The Mackerel Fishery of the United States,” The Fisheries 

and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section V, History and Methods of the Fisheries, Vol. I,

Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 247-255. 46 George M. Bowers, Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the Fiscal Year 1905 and Special Papers, 

Washington: USGPO, 1905-12, p. 30-31. 47 George M. Bowers, Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the Fiscal Year 1905 and Special Papers, 

Washington: USGPO, 1905-12, p. 30-31. 48 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II, A Geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880, Washington: USGPO, 1887.
20

The newly-formed U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries undertook to solve 

declining yields by introducing new technologies that intensified fishing effort and 

increased catchability of demersal species. Spencer Baird, the first head of the 

commission, introduced Norwegian gill-nets to Gloucester fishermen in 1878. Norwegian 

cod gill nets were originally composed of hemp, cotton and linen twine, the hemp being 

partly spun at home, while the rest of the twine came from Norwegian and British 

factories. The first gill nets used in the Gulf of Maine were manufactured for Ipswich Bay 

fishermen by the American Net and Twine Company of Boston.49 The first use of these 

nets is described in the 1881 annual report of the Boston Fish Bureau:

"The Commissioner having provided the Norway net for them to 

experiment with, Capt. George H. Martin of Gloucester has been using 

them to good advantage in lpswich Bay, fishing with two dories, two nets 

to a dory, net each fifty fathoms long, three fathoms deep, suspended by 

glass balls or floats at any required depth. Nets of ten-inch mesh, are set 

the same as herring nets, being set in the morning or during the day, and 

are hauled the next morning. As yet no fish caught except at night, and 

only the largest cod, the catch for the three first trials, with unfavorable 

weather, was respectively 4,000, 6,000, and 7,000 pounds. Capt. Martin is 

much pleased with his success and has ordered new nets. These nets can 

be used on the Grand Banks or in fifty fathoms of water, as well as in 

lpswich Bay, where at present used only in 8 to 15 fathoms. We may not 

be surprised in the near future to see the old and much condemned as well 

as expensive method of trawling superseded by the gill nets introduced by 

the U.S. Fish Commission.”50

From February 1 to May 31, 1879, lpswich Bay fishermen using tub trawls and 

handlines took 11,250,000 Ibs. of cod "within a radius of 5 or 6 miles" of the shore.51 In 

the early years of gill-netting, lpswich Bay fishermen fishing between October 1883 and 

April 1884 landed 6,492,000 pounds of cod, 761,000 pounds of pollock, 673,000 pounds 

of haddock, 56,300 pounds of hake, and 54,000 pounds of cusk.52 There were 

simultaneously hook-and-line removals from the same waters, but the gill-nets were able 

to catch spawning fish. Gill-nets’ ability to catch demersal species without bait, and to 

catch cod even when they were spawning and refusing to take bait, soon made them an 

attractive alternative to hook fishing, saving shore fishermen an estimated $150-$250 per 

month in bait in the winter season. However, by November 1886 the lpswich Bay gill-net 

fishery reported a greatly reduced catch: 53

 49 George Brown Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section V, History and 

Methods of the Fisheries, Vol. I. Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 226-233. 50 W. A. Wilcox, Sixth Annual Report of the Boston Fish Bureau, Boston: C. E. Ellis & Co., 1881, p. 7-8. 51 R. E. Earll, “A Report on the History and Present Condition of the Shore Cod-Fisheries of Cape Ann, 

Mass., Together with Notes on the Natural History and Artificial Propagation of the Species,” Report of the 

Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1878, Washington: USGPO, 1880, p. 690. 52 U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part XII. Report of the Commissioner for 1884, Washington: 

USGPO, 1886, p. 284.

53 U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission. Vol. VI, for 1886, 

Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 418.
21

Fish November 1885 (lbs.) November 1886 (lbs.)

Cod 336,624 39,850

Pollock 1,923,506 393,400

Gill-nets were very efficient. By 1923, less than 6,000 lbs of groundfish were 

landed from Ipswich Bay, and in 1924, the bay had disappeared from the list of fishing 

grounds in the Boston and Gloucester catch returns.54

What gill-nets did not take, net trawlers would. Beam trawls were first deployed 

by sailing vessels in the Gulf of Maine in the 1890s. Beam trawls and sails were replaced 

shortly thereafter by otter trawls and steam power, which spread throughout the 

Massachusetts fishery, increasing to 331 in 1929, before dropping to 292 in 1935. 

Massachusetts’ 379 trawls in 1928 had 10,288 yards at the mouth, or just over 27 yards 

per trawl, and the 292 otter trawls in 1935 had a total of 8,502 yards at the mouth, or over 

29 yards per trawl. The early trawls had 3-inch mesh, decreasing to 1.25-inch mesh in the 

cod end.

By 1928, Massachusetts gill-nets 

averaged 269.5 yards in length, and 443.8 yards in 1935. The number of nets deployed 

increased (irregularly) from 3,788 in 1887 to 12, 037 in 1929, and then began to decline 

as otter trawls replaced these technologies. By 1950, Massachusetts’ gill-nets had 

decreased in numbers to 988, but they were all drift nets, and their size had increased to 

575,601 yards total, or 582.6 yards of length per net. They were also made of synthetic 

twine, which ghost fishes when it is lost. Today, the ‘string’ of sink gill nets is more than 

one mile in length.

55

Although landings reported at the three primary New England fishing ports 

(Boston, Gloucester and Portland) are not an accurate measure of the total removals of 

fish from the Gulf of Maine, the trend in Massachusetts fisheries was clear – the weight 

of effort and catch had moved offshore at the end of the 19th century.56

 54 Oscar E. Sette, "Fishery Industries of the United States, 1925," Report of the United States Commissioner 

of Fisheries for the Fiscal Year 1926 with Appendixes, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington: USGPO, 1925, p. 

233-241.

However, in the 

offshore fisheries, available technology ran into market preferences – hook-and-line 

catches in distant waters were slow, fresh bait supply was unreliable, expensive when 

bought, and salt fish was rapidly losing market share to fresh fish, which was preserved 

on ice and delivered relatively fast from vessel to merchant to retail market. Lacking fast 

vessels and the infrastructure to compete with urban rail hubs in the fresh fish market, 

many Massachusetts ports reduced or gave up their fin-fishery effort between the Civil 

War and the Depression of 1929. Gloucester’s fleet declined from 419 vessels averaging 

56.34 tons in 1879, to 315 vessels averaging 54.02 tons in 1905, to 126 vessels averaging 

41.10 tons in 1935. Barnstable’s fleet went from 196 vessels averaging 63.72 tons in 

1879, to 140 vessels averaging 24.86 tons in 1905, to 29 vessels averaging 12.48 tons in 

55 A. B. Alexander, H. F. Moore and W. C. Kendall, “Otter-Trawl Fishery,” Appendix VI, Report of the U.S. 

Commissioner of Fisheries for 1914, Washington: USGPO, 1915, p. 22. 56 U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission.VI, for 1886,

Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 420.
22

1935. Plymouth’s fleet of 63 vessels in 1860 had declined to 25 vessels averaging 45.18 

tons by 1879, to 11 vessels averaging 59.18 tons by 1905, and to none in 1933.57

What the coastal fishery lost in tonnage, it gained in efficiency. With gill-nets 

more fish could be caught closer to home, and without the expense of bait. Starting in 

1902, motorized vessels that could move against wind and tide and drag a net on the 

bottom began to appear. The first drag-net, beam-trawling fleet was in the flounderfishery of Provincetown Harbor:

“The use of beam trawls in the flounder fishery at Provincetown and 

vicinity is also an interesting feature of the fisheries of Barnstable County. 

This apparatus is not used elsewhere in the United States in the 

commercial fisheries. The number of beam trawls in the entire county has 

increased since 1898 from 27, valued at $1,610, to 65 [1904], valued at 

$3,295, and the catch, consisting wholly of flounders, from 766,850 

pounds @ $8,564, to 1,419,809 pounds @ $43,169. These nets cost about 

$60 each. The beam is from 20 to 30 feet long, the net or bag 75 feet long, 

and the size of mesh 3.5 inches stretched. The flounders taken average 

about a pound in weight. They continue to be plentiful on the sandy 

bottoms of Provincetown Harbor and Cape Cod Bay.”58

Net trawls were used initially in waters less than 10 fathoms in depth, according 

to a 1914 federal government study on the impact of trawling.59 This seminal study, the 

first of a series of trawl surveys conducted by the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, 

and continued today by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), revealed in 1914 

that otter trawling resulted in marketing of new species such as flounder, wolfish, and 

monkfish, as well as a catch of up to 40% of “unmarketably small” fish that would almost 

all be destroyed.60

 57 For Gloucester, 1879: G. Brown Goode, Fisheries and Fisheries Industries of the United States: Section II, 

A Geographical Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880, Washington: 

USGPO 1887, p. 138. For Gloucester, 1905: U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, “Document 620,” Statistics of the 

Fisheries of the New England States for 1905, Washington: USGPO, 1907, p. 49. For Gloucester 1935: U.S. 

Bureau of Fisheries, “Administrative Report No. 27,” Fishery Industries of the United States, 1936, 

Washington, USGPO, 1938, p. 95. For Barnstable in 1879: Goode (1887), p. 224; for Barnstable in 1905:

U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (1905), p. 49; for Barnstable in 1935: U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (1938), p. 95. For 

Plymouth in 1879: Goode (1887), p. 215; for Plymouth in 1905: US Bureau of Fisheries (1905), p. 49; for 

Plymouth in 1933: U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Report of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries for the 

Fiscal Year 1935 with Apppendixes, Washington: USGPO, 1936, p. 152.

The report concludes, however, that there is not “any evidence 

whatever that the banks frequented by the American otter trawlers are being depleted of 

their fishes,” yet it concedes that the results are “necessarily inconclusive for the reason 

that the otter-trawl fishery in American waters is too recently established and relatively 

58 A. B. Alexander, “Statistics of the Fisheries of the New England States, 1902,” Report of the Bureau of 

Fisheries, Washington: USGPO, 1905, p. 291. 59 A. B. Alexander, H. F. Moore and W. C. Kendall, “Otter-Trawl Fishery,” Report of the U.S. Commissioner 

of Fisheries for 1914, Appendix VI, Washington: USGPO, 1915. 60 A. B. Alexander, H. F. Moore and W. C. Kendall, “Otter-Trawl Fishery,” Report of the U.S. Commissioner 

of Fisheries for 1914, Appendix VI, Washington: USGPO, 1915, p. 90.
23

too small to have had material effect on the fish supply of the banks frequented.”61 Handand trawl-line fishermen disagreed, contending that 1) in areas of otter trawl operations 

fish were depleted, 2) spawn and eggs were being destroyed by the nets, 3) immature fish 

were taken and great numbers destroyed, 4) bottom habitat and valuable shellfish were 

being destroyed, 5) and their fishing gear was frequently entangled and lost to otter trawl 

gear.62 While the U.S. Fish Commission disputed these assertions, the impact of inshore 

trawling must have been noticeable immediately, as it warranted the prohibition of 

trawling by law within the waters of Boston Harbor in 1911, followed by Salem and 

Edgartown in 1912, Beverly in 1917, and Marblehead in 1920. 63

Otter trawlers were rapidly built and deployed in the 1910s and 20s, primarily to 

South Channel, Nantucket Shoals, Georges Bank, Browns Bank, but also nearshore 

grounds, including Jeffreys Ledge, off Cape Cod, and Stellwagen, Cashes, Platts and 

Fippenies Banks. By 1919, there were 230 steam otter trawlers in New England; 191 in 

Massachusetts and 39 in Maine.64 Auxiliary schooners or all-power steamers were the 

mainstay in Boston by 1930, and became all motor-powered by 1935.65

 61 A. B. Alexander, H. F. Moore and W. C. Kendall, “Otter-Trawl Fishery,” Report of the U.S. Commissioner 

of Fisheries for 1914, Appendix VI, Washington: USGPO, 1915, p. 91-92.

On average, 

62 A. B. Alexander, H. F. Moore and W. C. Kendall, “Otter-Trawl Fishery,” Appendix VI, Report of the U.S. 

Commissioner of Fisheries for 1914, Washington: USGPO, 1915, p. 7. 63 “An Act to Prohibit Beam Trawling in Boston Harbor,” Acts and Resolves Passed by the General Court of 

Massachusetts in the year 1911, 1911 Mass. Acts. Ch. 107, Boston: Wright and Potter Printing, 1911, p. 

81; “An Act Relative to the Taking of Fish in the Waters of the City of Salem,” Acts and Resolves Passed by 

the General Court of Massachusetts in the year 1912, 1912 Mass. Acts. Ch. 63, Boston: Wright and Potter 

Printing. 1912. p. 44; “An Act to Authorize the Taking of Flounders by Means of Dredges and Trawls in the 

Waters of the Town of Edgartown,” Acts and Resolves Passed by the General Court of Massachusetts in 

the year 1912, 1912 Mass. Acts. Ch. 327, Boston: Wright and Potter Printing, 1912, p. 252; “An Act 

Relative to Taking Fish in the Waters of the City of Beverly,” General and Special Acts and Resolves Passed 

by the Legislature of Massachusetts during the Session of 1917, 1917. Mass. Acts. Ch. 87, Boston: Wright 

and Potter Printing, 1917, p. 61; “An Act to Prohibit the Catching of Flounders in Certain Waters of the 

Town of Marblehead,” Acts and Resolves Passed by the General Court off Massachusetts in the year 1920,

1920. Mass. Acts. Ch. 284, Boston: Wright and Potter Printing, 1920, p. 291. 64 Lewis Radcliffe, “Appendix V to the Report of the U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries for 1921,” Fishery 

Industries of the United States: Report of the Division of Statistics and Methods of the Fisheries for 1920, 

Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 908, Washington: Gov. Printing Office, 1921, p. 125.

65 James B.Connolly, “The Fishing Industry of Boston,” Fifty Years of Boston: A Memorial Volume Issued in 

Commemoration of the Tercentenary of 1930. Boston: Subcommittee on Memorial History of the Boston 

Tercentenary Committee, 1932. p. 293.

Bottom trawling, by-catch, and emerging markets

In the Gulf of Maine, beam and otter trawls were first deployed on Stellwagen Bank 

beginning in the 1890s. These fishing methods on average resulted in a 40-50% by-catch 

of unmarketable and immature marketable species. To limit discards and maximize 

profits, these technologies led to new markets for species such as flounder, wolfish, 

redfish, skate, ray and shark.
24

3,000 otter trawling trips (or voyages) were made to these places in any given year 

between 1929 and 1935; peaking in 1933 with 3,824.66

During the period 1929-1935, only one Boston fleet vessel was hand-lining on 

Stellwagen Bank. The fleets of Boston, Gloucester, and Portland fished Stellwagen 405 

times with line trawls, and 63 trips were made with Vigneron-Dahl trawls, 54 with purse 

seines, 49 with drift gill nets, and 38 with otter trawls.67 Line trawls were usually 

deployed from October to April. Otter trawls, mostly medium-sized vessels, were also 

used during this season. Purse seines were typically used for mackerel fishing during 

June and July and to a lesser extent from August to October. By 1950, Maine had 118 

otter trawls in use, totaling 3,123 yards at the mouth, or 26.5 yards per trawl, while 

Massachusetts had 551 trawls, deploying 14,778 yards at the mouth, or 26.8 yards per 

trawl.68

 66 See metadata for “Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries” in Appendix A.

Trawls had leveled off at an optimum size, but they were now used on every 

feasible inshore and offshore ground.

67 See metadata for “Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries” in Appendix A. 68 Fishery Statistics of the United States, 1950, Statistical Digest No. 27, Washington: USGPO, 1953, p. 58-

59.
25

Technology Timeline69

Year Gear Description

Ca. 1600 Weir, trap, haul seine, 

hand line

Native Americans used these fishing techniques for millennia in the Gulf of 

Maine, where Europeans do not begin a concerted fishing effort by these 

methods until ca. 1600.

1770 Line trawl Believed to be a Dutch development. Quickly adopted by the French in Grand 

Banks and Newfoundland fisheries. Also called a “bultow.” Originally, lines ran 

from vessels, but later from dories. Line trawling introduced for halibut in 1843 

and cod 2 years later. Good at catching all groundfish except for flounder, ocean 

perch, and small haddock and cod. Not fully adopted by American fishermen 

until 1850s-60s. 

1800 “Drailing” with sinker 

and hook

Used in mackerel fishery. Poles to which lines were attached. Hook and weight 

at end of line and baited with pork rind.

1812 “Drailing”with chum For mackerel fishery.

1815 Mackerel jig Sinker attached to shank of hook. Attributed to Abraham Lurvey of Pigeon 

Cove, Cape Ann and Thurlow of Newburyport.

1850 Purse seine In general use by this date for mackerel fishery. Solomon Rowe one of first 

fishermen to use the purse seine in Gloucester in 1851. Also credited to Captain 

Isaiah Baker of Chatham in 1853.

Ca. 1850 Toggle harpoon or 

‘Lily-iron’ harpoon

Used by Native Americans in the Gulf of Maine for millennia. Adapted from 

whaling for the swordfishery sometime in the 1850s.

Ca. 1850 Scallop dredge or drag Scallop dragging limited in Gulf of Maine in 19th century to Cape Cod and 

Buzzard’s Bay, and primarily executed in Rhode Island and New York during 

this early use period.

1878 Gill net (sink and 

drift)

Norwegian gill net introduced by Spencer F. Baird for the Cape Ann cod 

fishery.

1891 Beam trawl First trials of a beam trawl in New England by 95-ton vessel Resolute on 

Stellwagen (Middle) Bank.

1905 Otter trawl First introduced in New England fishery. Beam replaced by boards at each wing 

or end of trawl net. First steam trawler Spray out of Boston. The steam trawler 

was first developed by France in 1876 and Britain in 1881.

1908 Great Lakes gill 

netters (sink and drift)

Vessels arrive from Great Lakes in Gloucester with new technology: 

mechanical lifter/winch allows set and haul of gill net directly from the vessel, 

leading to broader use. Used specifically on winter cod east of Ipswich and 

autumn pollock near Cape Ann.

1924 Vigneron-Dahl trawl Otter boards are placed forward of the net rather than adjacent to net, improving 

efficiency. Documented by size of vessel in 1900s (small, medium, and large).

1952 Regulation of trawl 

mesh

Mesh size regulations for inshore fisheries as early as 1918, but mesh size 

smaller than 4.5 in for the cod and haddock fisheries is not banned by the 

federal government until 1952.

Table 1. Technology timeline.

 69 Albert C. Jensen, A Brief History of the New England Offshore Fisheries. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish 

and Wildlife Service, Fishery Leaflet 594. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1967. 

Dwight L.Hoy, and George M. Clark, Atlantic Mackerel Fishery, 1804-1965. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Leaflet 603. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1967; 

“An Act to Permit the Dragging for Flounders by the Beam or Otter Trawl in Pleasant Bay in the Town of 

Orleans,” General Acts Passed by the General Court of Massachusetts in the year 1918, 1918 Mass. Acts. 

Ch. 13, Boston: Wright and Potter Printing, 1918, p. 10; George B. Goode, “Section V: History and 

Methods of the Fisheries,” Vol. 1, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Washington: 

GPO, 1887.
26

Fishing Ports

The trip and catch data of the New England fishing fleets are derived primarily 

from the monthly statistical bulletins of the Bureau of Fisheries. A complete description 

of these historical records and data sets, which span the period 1893-1935, is provided in 

Appendix A, Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries/Bureau 

of Fisheries. In addition, the socio-economic, climate, and geo-political events that 

affected the New England ports and their respective fishing fleets from 1914 to 1935 is 

extracted from the bulletins and included in Appendix D. 

The three most important Gulf of Maine fishing ports for most of the past two 

centuries were Boston and Gloucester, Massachusetts, and Portland, Maine. In the late 

19th century the Boston fleet fished mostly inshore with occasional trips to the Scotian 

Shelf and Grand Banks.70 These bank fisheries were the work primarily of the Cape Ann 

and Gloucester fleets. In the first half of the 20th century, New England shore fisheries 

remained relatively productive, with more than 50% of the fleet catch, but effort of the 

principal fleets had clearly shifted offshore, primarily to Georges Bank (12%) and South 

Channel (9%). Trips to Stellwagen Bank and Jeffreys Ledge represented only 8% of total 

fishing fleet effort from 1901 to 1935. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, nearly all 

trips (94%) to Stellwagen originated from Boston (FIG. 1). Gloucester vessels would fish 

there occasionally, but mostly for mackerel, and Portland fishermen did not visit Middle 

Bank until 1924 after the advent of gasoline-powered vessels. 

Figure 1. Trips made to Stellwagen Bank 1893-1926.

 70 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 1887, 

p. 189.
27

Gloucester

To the north of Cape Ann lie Ipswich Bay and the Merrimack River delta, which 

form a featureless flat sandy plain with barrier beaches buffering small estuarine systems. 

Extending east and seaward from Cape Ann is the historically productive fishing bank, 

Jeffreys Ledge. To the south are numerous fishing ledges and islands, and Stellwagen 

Bank. Cape Ann is supplied with freshwater by the relatively small Danvers, Essex, and 

Ipswich Rivers, which flow into coastal estuaries and protected harbors. In addition, 

Annisquam River (often referred to as the ‘Squam’), a broad but shallow tidal river that 

separates Cape Ann from the mainland, connects Gloucester Harbor and Massachusetts 

Bay to Ipswich Bay. The region includes, from south to north, the towns of Marblehead, 

Salem, Beverly, Manchester, Gloucester, Rockport, Annisquam, and Ipswich. These 

maritime-based communities are ideally situated in close proximity to Stellwagen Bank 

and the Gulf of Maine’s historically most productive fishing grounds.

The first Europeans to arrive and settle Cape Ann established temporary fishing 

stages or stations along the Cape’s rocky shores and on Annisquam River, but the first 

permanent English colonies were established at Salem (1626) and Gloucester (1634). By 

this time, Native American settlements had largely vanished from the region because of 

an epidemic that hit the Massachuset shortly after John Smith’s historic visit in 1614. 

Although the initial Cape Ann fishing venture of the Plymouth Colony failed, it took less 

than a decade for fishermen to familiarize themselves with the maritime landscape and 

successfully exploit what were once probably the most prolific inshore fishing grounds in 

the Gulf of Maine. Subsequently, Gloucester became the most storied of all fishing 

communities in America. The market potential that Smith referred to in his The 

Description of New England was quickly realized, and the fishing industry of Cape Ann 

was ultimately critical to the survival and development of the New England colonies.71

The export of codfish to Northern Europe and the Mediterranean nations resulted in large 

part to the rise of the colonial merchant class.72

The development of Cape Ann’s fishing industry was not without difficulty, 

however. As a result of King William’s War (1689-1697), more than 90% of Salem’s 

fishing vessels were lost, and consequently merchants shifted emphasis to coastal trade 

and small boat fisheries.

Codfish were traded for European wine 

and products that were sold in the colonies. Furthermore, Cape Ann merchants traded fish 

and agricultural products with the West Indies for coffee, cocoa, sugar, and molasses to 

make rum.

73

 71 John Smith, A Description of New England, Ed. Paul Royster, London: Humphrey Lownes, 1616, p. 30-31.

Simultaneously, the locus of fishing on Cape Ann shifted from 

Salem to Marblehead, which incorporated as a separate town in 1639. Reverend John 

72 see e.g., Lorinda B. R. Goodwin, An Archaeology of Manners: The Polite World of the Merchant Elite in 

Colonial Massachusetts, Contributions to Global Historical Archaeology, New York: Kluwer 

Academic/Plenum, 1999; Peter E. Pope, Fish into Wine: The Newfoundland Plantation in the Seventeenth 

Century, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. 73 Daniel Vickers, Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age of Sail, New Haven: Yale University 

Press, 2005, p. 71; Lorenzo Sabine, Report on the Principal Fisheries of the American Seas, Washington:

Robert Armstrong, 1853, p. 129.
28

Barnard became minister of this once dismally poor village in 1714, and by encouraging 

his most enterprising parishioners to sell their fish on their own account, made them 

independent of Boston and Salem merchants.74 At the outset of the American Revolution, 

Marblehead sent out 150 cod-fishing vessels averaging 50 tons, 23% of the entire New 

England vessel fleet by numbers and almost a third by tonnage, mostly to the Scotian 

Shelf and Georges Bank, where they fished adrift on the strong currents of Georges.75

Gloucester, just behind Marblehead in vessel tonnage and men employed in the bank 

fisheries, was sending schooners to the Grand Banks with some regularity by the 1740s.76

In 1775, it was second only to Boston in terms of population and wealth in 

Massachusetts, and served as a principal port of entry for Cape Ann, where European 

goods were sold directly in return for cod and other merchantable fish.

77

In the 1820s, Gloucester grew significantly in population as a direct result of 

mackerel fishing and exploitation of groundfish stocks on Gulf of Maine fishing banks.78

Gloucester fishermen pioneered the merchantable salt-mackerel fishery in 1818, and 

began to fish for halibut and haddock on Stellwagen Bank in 1819.79 These enterprises 

made up for a lackluster inshore cod-fishery until the late 1830s, when offshore bank 

vessel fisheries made up for the dwindling cod catch.80

A railroad line established between Boston and Gloucester in 1846 improved the 

market for Gloucester fish, especially the fresh halibut market, which strengthened the 

connection between the port and larger urban markets. By the end of the Civil War, 

Gloucester’s fleet comprised 358 vessels, and its fish products were sold directly to 

merchants in Boston, New York and Philadelphia.

By the mid-1840s, Gloucester 

took the lead as the premiere fishing port in America.

81

In the late 1800s, Gloucester competed with Boston to be the foremost 

commercial trans-shipment point in the Northwest Atlantic. Although Gloucester 

Milling and industrial manufactories 

sprang up in Cape Ann towns such as Beverly, Lynn, and Salem, competing for labor 

with the fisheries, but Gloucester was able to consolidate its labor and capital investments 

in the offshore and deep-water bank fisheries (e.g., Grand Banks, Flemish Cap, 

Greenland and Iceland). By the end of the century, more than half of the Gloucester fleet 

catch came from these regions.

 74 Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries: With Maps, Reprint Ed., Gloucester: Ten 

Pound Island Book Company, 2002, p. 85. 75 Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries: With Maps, Reprint Ed., Gloucester: Ten 

Pound Island Book Company, 2002, p. 112, 192.

76 Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries: With Maps, Reprint Ed., Gloucester: Ten 

Pound Island Book Company, 2002, p. 88. 77 Daniel Vickers, Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age of Sail, New Haven: Yale University 

Press, 2005, p. 71; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts 1783-1860, Boston: 

Houghton Mifflin, 1961, p. 23. 78 Andrew W. German, "History of the Early Fisheries: 1720-1930," Georges Bank, Eds. Richard H. Backus 

and Donald W. Bourne, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987, p. 409. 79 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 62; George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section 

V: History and Methods of the Fisheries, Vol. 1, Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 31. 80 Manuscript, City of Gloucester Archives, Gloucester, MA. 81 Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries: With Maps, Reprint Ed., Gloucester: Ten 

Pound Island Book Company, 2002, p. 190-195.
29

employed more men, paid out more wages, and landed a greater quantity of fish, Boston 

supported a greater number of mercantile firms with greater capital investment and 

infrastructure. Rail, ice, and new technologies such as Clarence Birdseye’s flash-freezing 

method, which developed in the 1920s, would benefit both Gloucester and Boston, 

allowing for rapid delivery of fish products to inland and west coast markets.

Boston

Boston became the first colonial entrepôt to consolidate its coastal region. As the 

center of trade and most populous city, Boston profited enormously from the fisheries, 

and many towns and villages along the New England shore prospered through their 

connections with its mercantile establishments. By 1700, Boston merchants were 

exporting 100,000 quintals of dried codfish annually to Portugal, Spain and Italy, and 

conducted a brisk but relatively undocumented trade with Europe and the West Indies in 

fish and other products gathered from its hinterlands.82 One of Boston’s principal 

merchants, Peter Faneuil, traded with Englishmen and French Canadians in Canso and 

Louisburg for fish that was shipped on his account to the Caribbean and Europe. Faneuil 

Hall Market, his gift to the City of Boston, was built with the profits from that trade.83

Boston would remain the commercial hub for fisheries exports for the next 300 

years. An extensive boat fishery from Swampscott to Provincetown developed in the 

1700s, which supplied the Boston market with fresh fish. Salted and pickled fish caught 

by American vessels from the bank fisheries of the North Atlantic were not wholesaled 

and trans-shipped from Boston until 1815, and increasingly for domestic markets.84

As fishing and trade expanded, new waterfront facilities and infrastructure were 

established to direct the landing of fish and outfitting of vessels. In the colonial era, the 

primary landing place was Long Wharf (built ca. 1711-1715).

Between 1893 and 1927, 90% of all fish caught by the Boston fleet, in contrast to 

Gloucester, was from Gulf of Maine grounds and banks. Stellwagen Bank represented 

7% of the Boston fleet’s Gulf of Maine catch at this time, but the majority of landings 

came from South Channel (30%), Georges Bank (22%) and the shore fisheries (16%).

85 From 1838 until 1884, 

Commercial Wharf accommodated the fresh fishing fleet and fish merchants. In 1884, 

they moved to T-Wharf and a state-of-the-art commercial warehouse, which was built to 

accommodate Boston’s fish dealers, store fresh fish, and service hundreds of vessels a 

day.86

 82 Lorenzo Sabine, Report on the Principal Fisheries of the American Seas, Washington: Robert Armstrong, 

1853, p. 129.

Except for a few vessels mackerel seining in the spring and fall, the T-Wharf fleets 

83 Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries: With Maps, Reprint Ed., Gloucester: Ten 

Pound Island Book Company, 2002, p. 87. 84 Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Massachusetts, 

Boston Looks Seaward: the Story of the Port 1630-1940, Reprint Ed., New York: AMS Press Inc., 1975, p. 

93, 108-9, 147. 85 Nancy Seasholes, Gaining Ground: A History of Landmaking in Boston, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003, p. 

31.

86 Wayne M. O’Leary, Maine Sea Fisheries: The Rise and Fall of a Native Industry, 1830-1890, Boston: 

Northeastern University Press, 1996, p. 274; George B. Goode, George Brown Goode, The Fisheries and 
30

were mostly trawlers or long-liners with dories.87 In 1914, sanitation concerns at T-Wharf 

prompted the construction of the Boston Fish Pier in South Boston.88 The Boston Fish 

Bureau in 1875, the New England Fish Exchange in 1908, and the Boston Fish Market 

Corporation in 1914, all worked to modernize Boston’s fish business. In the 1920s, the 

Commonwealth Ice and Cold Storage Company on the Boston Fish Pier distributed 

approximately 150-175,000,000 pounds of fish yearly.89

Portland

Known as Falmouth to early English settlers, Portland, now Maine’s largest city, 

occupies a peninsula between the Fore River and Back Cove at the southwest end of 

Casco Bay. The city and harbor are situated approximately 6.5 km (3.5 nm) from the 

Atlantic Ocean and 140 km (75 nm) from Stellwagen Bank. Consequently, Portland 

vessels rarely voyaged to Stellwagen to fish until the advent of gas-powered vessels in 

the 1920s.

Portland and Casco Bay grew as a commercial port in the 1800s, but did not 

experience significant maritime development until the second half of the 19th century. 

The region emerged as a fisheries market and trans-shipment point following the Civil 

War, and in the 1880s Portland became a primary fishing port in the U.S. alongside 

Gloucester and Boston.90 Portland maintained a significant portion of the region’s 

mackerel fleet at that time and operated numerous fish-processing and canning facilities. 

Portland’s mid-19th century growth coincided with steam and rail improvements. Maine 

fish were typically wholesaled in Boston or New York, but with the arrival of the railroad 

in 1842, Portland was able to deliver its products rapidly to these and other domestic 

markets.91

Maine fisheries initially showed much less capital concentration than 

Massachusetts fisheries, and were prosecuted primarily inshore in the 19th century. 

However, the Gulf of St. Lawrence would develop as an important destination for 

Portland fishermen for cod, halibut, mackerel and herring. Other nearby coastal towns 

thrived off exploitation of their local fisheries and depended on the city to deliver its 

innovative fish products to domestic and foreign markets. Eastport began canning lobster 

 

Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A geographical Review of the Fisheries Industries and 

Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 1887, p.193. 87 James B. Connolly, “The Fishing Industry of Boston,” Fifty Years of Boston: A Memorial Volume Issued 

in Commemoration of the Tercentenary of 1930, Boston: Subcommittee on Memorial History of the Boston 

Tercentenary Committee, 1932, p. 291.

88 Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Massachusetts, 

Boston Looks Seaward: the Story of the Port 1630-1940, Reprint Ed., New York: AMS Press Inc., 1975, p. 

158, 185.

89 Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Massachusetts, 

Boston Looks Seaward: the Story of the Port 1630-1940, Reprint Ed., New York: AMS Press Inc., 1975, p. 

185.

90 Wayne M. O’Leary, Maine Sea Fisheries: The Rise and Fall of a Native Industry, 1830-1890, Boston: 

Northeastern University Press, 1996, p. 182.

91 Wayne M. O’Leary, Maine Sea Fisheries: The Rise and Fall of a Native Industry, 1830-1890, Boston: 

Northeastern University Press, 1996, p. 120-122, 279-280.
31

in 1843, oil was first extracted from menhaden in Blue Hill Bay in 1850, and Bristol built 

the first menhaden oil and guano factory in 1864.92

The Portland Fish Exchange, begun in 1884, attempted to follow the model of 

Boston consortiums and increase Maine’s piece of the growing fresh fish market. 

However, Portland fish dealers were in competition with Boston and Gloucester, which 

were better capitalized, had better infrastructure, and were positioned closer to domestic 

markets south and west. While Portland was undoubtedly the largest fish market in 

Maine, Massachusetts handled up to 75% of all fish products landed in New England.

These products as well as the 

ubiquitous salted cod and smoked herring were shipped on coastal schooners directly to 

Portland.

93

 92 Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries: With Maps, Reprint Ed., Gloucester: Ten 

Pound Island Book Company, 2002, p. 177-183.

The shift in market demand from salt to fresh fish products also handicapped Maine 

vessel fisheries, which remained committed to salt-cured fish. Portland maintained a 

sizeable trawling fleet in the 20th century, but kept primarily to its shore, herring and 

increasingly lobster fisheries, which were caught and processed ‘Downeast’ near the 

supply. Between 1893 and 1927, 75% of the Portland fleet catch came from the Gulf of 

Maine. Catch from Stellwagen Bank represented less than 1% of total landings, with the 

majority of landings from shore grounds (59%) and Jeffreys Ledge (15%).

93 Wayne M. O’Leary, Maine Sea Fisheries: The Rise and Fall of a Native Industry, 1830-1890, Boston: 

Northeastern University Press, 1996, p. 274.
32

Maritime Cultural Landscape of Stellwagen Bank

The maritime cultural landscape of Stellwagen Bank, or places where humans 

have interacted historically with the marine environment, was well-known to fishermen 

by the 17th century, as any seagoing vessel could not enter Massachusetts Bay to reach 

the region’s fishing stations and colonies without crossing its fertile fishing grounds. 

Charts and maps that depict the fishing grounds of Stellwagen Bank date as early as 

1734, and provide information of where fishermen believed shoals and fishing grounds 

existed (FIGS. 2 & 3). Maps and charts were often made without highly sophisticated 

methods or plotting instruments, and need to be viewed cautiously, particularly in regards 

to claims of their accuracy as both representations of land forms and locations of fishing 

banks. Nonetheless, these sources not only assign names and descriptions of fishing 

grounds, but also serve as indicators of fishing communities’ comprehension of the 

marine environment.

Historical maps and charts typically do not provide quantitative data, but they do 

offer a glimpse of how the physical characteristics of SBNMS have been interpreted and 

mapped over the centuries. Maps of the sanctuary often outline features where people 

fished and where fish were caught over time. The spatial and temporal nature of maps is 

important for keying historical fisheries catch data and reports to specific bathymetric 

features. The recent high-resolution mapping of the sanctuary by the USGS, its fishing 

ledges, bank and ridges, and muddy bottoms, now allows for the association of known 

geological features and structures to their historical places names (FIG. 4). The 

interpretation of the landscape is based primarily on two historical works: “The Fishing 

Grounds of North America” in the multi-volume work, The Fisheries and Fishery 

Industries of the United States, by George B. Goode (1887), and The Fishing Grounds of 

the Gulf of Maine, by Walter H. Rich (1929) (FIGS. 5 & 6). 94 Their maps were 

constructed primarily from extensive interviews with fishermen about what, where and 

when they fished. Their descriptions of the grounds in or near the sanctuary are 

paraphrased in this section.

 94 Walter H. Rich, Fishing Grounds of the Gulf of Maine, Washington: GPO, 1929.
33

Figure 2. Earliest known nautical chart of SBNMS fishing grounds including Jeffreys Ledge and ‘Inner,’ 

‘Outer’ and ‘Middle’ Banks.95

 95 Capt. Thos. Durrell, A Large Draught of New England: New Hampshire, York County and Part of Nova 

Scotia and Accadia, map, Taunton: UK Hydrographic Office, 1734.
34

Figure 3. 1812 Lambert nautical chart of Massachusetts Bay fishing grounds, “Middle Bank” and “Jeffreys 

Ledge.”96

 96 Samuel Lambert, New Chart of Massachusetts Bay Drawn From the Latest Authorities, Salem, MA: 

Cushing, Appleton and Lambert, 1812.
35

Figure 4. Historic place names of fishing grounds and undersea features superimposed on bathymetric map 

of SBNMS.97

 97 After http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/pgallery/atlasmaps/images/sb_2000.jpg. 
36

Figure 5. Fishing grounds of Stellwagen Bank and Massachusetts Bay as mapped by Goode (1887).98

 98 George B. Goode, “Chart No. 10. Fishing Grounds from Cape Ann to Buzzard’s Bay, Mass.,” The Fisheries 

and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section III: The Fishing Grounds of North America, Washington: 

USGPO, 1887.
37

Figure 6. Fishing grounds of western Gulf of Maine as mapped by Rich (1929).99

 99 Walter H. Rich, “Coastal Banks and Inshore Grounds of the Gulf of Maine: Monhegan to Cape Cod,” 

Fishing Grounds of the Gulf of Maine, U.S.B.F. Doc. 1059, Washington: USGPO, 1929.
38

Figure 7. “Stellwagen’s Bank” was first surveyed, mapped and named by the U.S. federal government in 

1854.100

 100 “Preliminary Chart of Stellwagen’s Bank, Massachusetts Bay, Discovered in October 1854 by the 

Hydrographic Party Under the Command of Lieut. H. S. Stellwagen U.S.N. Assist.,” Report of the 

Superintendent of the Coast Survey, Showing the Progress of the Survey During the Year 1854, 33rd

Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol. 757. Session Vol. No. 12, S. Exec. Doc. 10, Washington: USGPO, 1855.
39

Middle Bank

The Durrell map of 1734 is the first known historical reference to Stellwagen 

Bank’s historical name of ‘Middle Bank.’ Middle Bank was so named because of its 

position relative to Cape Ann – ‘Inner Bank’ being in close proximity to the cape and 

‘Outer Bank’ nearer to Provincetown at the southern end of the sanctuary. Stellwagen 

Bank was not officially charted and named as such by the federal government until 1854 

(FIG. 7), when Henry S. Stellwagen, then commander of a U.S. Coast Survey team 

proclaimed that “I consider I have made an important discovery in the location of a 15-

fathom bank lying in a line between Cape Cod and Cape Ann . . . .”101

The middle, shallowest portion of the bank was described as sandy, but the 

eastern slope of the bank was coarser with sand, gravel and pebbles. On this slope, cod 

was caught in the fall and spring seasons and haddock in winter. At the southern end of 

the bank near Race Point, cod was abundant in fall and winter. Haddock fishing began 

March 1, but was particularly good from April 20 to May 15. Cod were present year 

round, but most abundant August-October. The deeper water was a good cusk ground 

November-March. Mackerel were found across the bank from July through September. 

Halibut appeared infrequently on the northern slope of the bank. Gill-netting for pollock 

was extensive in November and December. In the 1920s, the bank was fished mainly by 

Italian boats and small trawlers out of Boston and Gloucester. They often worked on hard 

bottom approximately 22 nm southeast of Eastern Point. 

Inner Bank

In the northern portion of the sanctuary lies Inner Bank. The bank is described by 

Rich as a ridge nearly 10 nm in length, 2.5 nm wide, lying 12 nm from Thatcher’s Island, 

and the bottom hard and gravelly. Haddock were taken in the spring, pollock in the fall, 

and cod in the winter. Fishing was mostly by gill netters out of Gloucester. Between 

Inner and Middle Bank is a muddy ground, which was fished by flounder draggers from 

Boston and Gloucester in the early 20th century.

Old Man’s Pasture

Because of its proximity to Cape Ann, this fishing ground was perhaps one of the 

most important and earliest grounds fished within the sanctuary. The ‘Pasture’ is located 

due south of Thatcher’s Island and 5 nm southeast of Eastern Point Light. The ground is 

described by Goode as a small rocky area only 0.75 nm in length 0.4 nm in width, 

oriented northeast to southwest. Rich positions the ground further east and 1.5 by 1.0 nm 

 101 Nathalie Ward, Stellwagen Bank: A Guide to the Whales, Seabirds, and Marine Life of the Stellwagen 

Bank National Marine Sanctuary, Camden: Downeast Books, 1995, p. 20.
40

in size, but with similar orientation. The bottom is described as “rough and rocky” with 

an average depth of 45 m.

Old Man’s Pasture was the principal winter cod ground for Cape Ann fishermen, but cod 

were taken year round, primarily by gill-netters in November. Additionally, pollock were 

taken by gill net from October to December. Haddock fishing was good from February to 

April, but few were caught in the fall season. It was also a lobster ground in the early

1900s. The Pasture was the primary testing ground for new technologies deployed by the 

U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries when it was stationed at Gloucester in the 1870s. 

Both the gill net and the beam trawl were first deployed and then tested on this once 

prolific fishing ground.

West Jeffreys and Cape Ann Shoal Grounds

Historically, the shoal area of Jeffreys Ledge near Cape Ann was referred by 

fishermen as West Jeffreys. It is an area that extends from Cape Ann in a northeasterly 

direction for a distance of 15-18 nm. Depths on the eastern part of the shoal vary 35-85 

m, and the bottom consists of rocks, pebbles, and coarse gravel. Sand and mud are found 

along its edges. The eastern part of the ground was fished by haddock fleets in the fall 

and early winter, and other parts visited by vessels and boats from Cape Ann and Boston 

Portland line-trawlers, gill-netters, and small otter-trawlers over the entire year for cod, 

haddock, and pollock.

On Jeffreys Ledge, cod, haddock and cusk were taken all winter and spring, with 

winter providing the best catches. Pollock and hake also constituted a significant portion 

of the landings. Halibut were taken most years on hard gravel bottom in spring and early 

summer in 65-120 m. When herring migrated to these waters, seiners made good catches 

of very large herring. From July 1 through September, mackerel also appeared on these 

grounds and on smaller grounds close to shore. In most years, a large amount of mackerel 

was taken on Jeffreys; an especially large catch was taken in 1925.

The haddock fishery was the most productive and important fishery on this 

ground during the late 1800s and early 1900s. The fishery was conducted almost entirely 

by hand-liners and line-trawlers, but the gill-net fishery increased significantly by 1900. 

Because of the weight of the nets in the deep water, however, they were generally not 

deployed in depths greater than 90 m. Steam-powered otter trawls would eventually 

dominate the fishery. Although Jeffreys was fished mostly by small trawlers, large otter 

trawls would also run to Jeffreys (and Stellwagen) for one set and return to port the same 

day. 

The Shoal Ground, east of Thatcher Island, with depths of 35-55 m and a sandy 

and gravelly bottom, was an important pollock ground during spawning time and a good 

cod-fishing ground in the fall. The center of the ground was about 12 nm northeast of 

Thatcher Island. Flounder draggers operated east and southeast of Thatcher Island. 

Within 8-15 nm of Thatcher Island, where the bottom was sand, gravel and mud, the gill 

net fleet operated extensively, but mainly in winter and spring. A fishing ground, known 

as the ‘Cove of Jeffreys’ (ca. 12-15 nm from Thatcher Island), was a favorite haddock 

ground in the spring (April 20 to May 15). 
41

Tillies Bank

Goode speculates that the name of this bank is owed to Edward Tillie who was 

part of John Smith’s expedition to the region in 1614. Edward ‘Tilly’ also operated a 

fishing station on Cape Ann 1624-1625. The center of this ground is located 18 nm from 

Cape Ann. This mostly rocky ground was described as oriented east to west, 10 nm in 

length, and 5 nm in width. Depths reportedly ranged from 45-55 m over the bank, but 

deepened to 75-110 m down to a muddy bottom. A shoal area connects this ground with 

West Jeffreys. Tillies Bank was revered as one of the best fishing grounds off Cape Ann, 

particularly for cod and haddock in the spring and fall; hake in the spring, summer and 

fall; pollock in the spring and fall. The fishing was done mainly by line and otter 

trawling, but gill-netting also occurred on shoal grounds in less than 90 m of water.

Rocks South of Cape Ann

South of Cape Ann, at an average distance of 2.5 nm from Eastern Point Light 

was a number of small, rocky patches with depths of 15-45 m. Although Brown’s Ledge, 

Spot of Rocks, Saturday Night Ledge and Burnham’s Rocks are located outside of the 

Sanctuary’s boundaries, these nearby fishing rocks and grounds were once highly 

productive. Approximately 6 nm southwest of Saturday Night Ledge is another ground,

Old Tillie. West of Eastern Point is two more small fishing areas: Eleven Fathom Ground 

and Kettle Island Ledge. These latter grounds have a depth (not surprisingly) of 11 

fathoms (20 m). These places were fished for cod in the winter and haddock in the 

summer. Gill-netters and Italian trawl boats frequented this area.

Brewer's Spot and Si's Spot

Approximately 10-11 nm southeast of Scituate lies a ridge that was a productive 

cod fishery in February. The northern end of this fishing ground, onto which cod

schooled, is known as Si's Spot. The ridge was covered with mussels at a depth of 45-55 

m. Si's Spot, at a depth of 55-65 m, is described as rocky and pebbly, and the bottom of 

Brewer's Spot was composed of stones, gravel, and pebbles in 35-45 m. To the east and 

west of this ridge is muddy bottom, which was dragged for flounder throughout the year. 

Eagle Ridge 

This ridge, also known as Little Middle Bank. was described as lying 7.6 nm 

southwest of Eastern Point Light. Goode and Rich map this feature differently: Goode 

described the ridge as 1 nm in length and 0.5 nm in width, while Rich maps it as 4.0 by 

1.5 nm and oriented east to west. The average depth over the ridge is 45 m. The bottom is 

rocky and uneven. This ridge, as well as Old Man's Pasture and Browns Ledge were 

formerly regarded as the best winter cod-fishing grounds, but a decline in cod was noted 

for these grounds in the 1920s.
42

Western Point Ridge

This ridge is located 9.25 nm southeast from Eastern Point Light. It is a small 

ground, described as only 1.5 by 0.75 nm, and oriented northeast to southwest. Small 

vessels and boats fished here for summer cod and haddock. Gill nets were used to catch 

large fares of pollock, particularly in the months October-January. The ridge was 

believed to be a spawning ground for pollock, and the fish would leave abruptly for 

deeper water at the end of January. 

Wildcat Ridge

The ridge is located east of Stellwagen Bank and approximately 18 nm northeast 

from Highland Light. The feature is oriented north to south, and approximately 7.5 nm in 

length and 3.5 nm in width. Composed of broken shell and sand, the depths across the 

ridge vary from 80 to 110 m. Depths extend 180-200 m to either side of the ridge. This 

was a productive cod and haddock fishery year round, but was fished primarily in the 

winter. A muddy area between the ridge and Stellwagen Bank, at a depth of 80-100 m, 

was fished extensively for flounder by draggers from Boston and Gloucester. 

Massachusetts Bay

The larger part of this ground, especially inside Stellwagen Bank, has a mud 

bottom, on which large quantities of fish were rarely taken. However, between Boston 

Harbor and Plymouth to Sandwich are rocky ledges, which were preferred fishing 

grounds for cod in winter and fall. In late March, large schools of codfish were reported 

off Plymouth. Gill netting for codfish was conducted by Gloucester and Boston vessels in 

December, January and February. There was also a considerable hand-line fishery for 

pollock in the fall. Gill nets were known to take large fares of pollock on shore grounds 

around Gloucester, with fares for a single month occasionally reaching 4,000,000 pounds 

in the early 1900s. November and December were the best months for pollock. Pollock 

fishers operated mostly between Boston and Gloucester. This pollock fishery ended in 

January, when the fish moved offshore. 
43

Fisheries

Over the long-term, abundance of fish in the Gulf of Maine had declined, and 

consequently, new grounds were fished and exploited, species targeted shifted, and 

techniques were developed to increase catchability. The inshore Massachusetts fishery 

appears to have peaked in 1832.102 Post-colonial reports of scarcity, however, near and in 

Boston Bay were reported at least by 1821.103 This appears to have initiated a shift to 

offshore bank fishing, as well as development of newer technologies to increase 

catchability. Simultaneously, the fresh fish business began to dominate the market 

particularly after a large store was opened on Long Wharf in Boston in 1835. Demand 

was limited to local markets in the summer but in the cold of winter fresh fish was 

transported as far as Albany, New York and Montreal, Canada. The demand for fresh fish 

led to construction of live well smacks and the introduction of ice in 1848.104

In the last decade, the concept of "shifting baselines" has become an important 

measure for understanding long-term changes in marine environments and fish 

populations.

The fish 

came almost entirely from Massachusetts Bay, caught primarily by small fishing vessels. 

Before 1845 groundfish were caught solely by hook-and-line. While some near-shore 

grounds fished regularly from 1630 to 1840 continue to produce today, none is as 

productive as it was before the industrial revolution blocked streams and polluted rivers, 

destroying most of the anadromous prey in the food-fishes' larder, while dredges 

uprooted feeding bottoms along with invertebrate prey species, and the introduction of 

tub trawls, gill nets, and otter trawls sequentially decimated spawning-age cohorts of 

nearly every commercial species in the Massachusetts Bay.

105 The following qualitative, single-species analyses address this concept as 

well as the notion of "Fishing Down Marine Food Webs.”106

 102 Proctor Brothers, The Fishermen's Own Book, Gloucester: Proctor Brothers, Pub., 1882, p. 7.

Reference is made in 

particular to the temporal period for which precise, monthly statistical data has been 

extracted from the historical record (1893-1935) for Stellwagen and Gulf of Maine 

fisheries (FIG. 8). A detailed description of this data set is provided in Appendix A. 

Anecdotal, descriptive, or qualitative information, however, is provided alongside this 

statistical data before, during and following this era in order to document long-term 

changes in the fisheries. This contextual data offers an opportunity to identify temporal 

baselines for commercial exploitation or targeting of particular fish species (TAB. 2). 

Prior to these baselines, the fisheries were certainly not 'pristine,' as they were exploited 

for local consumption or were a product of by-catch for hundreds if not thousands of 

103 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1,1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 66. 104 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 69-70. 105 Daniel Pauly, “Anecdotes and the Shifting Baseline Syndrome of Fisheries,” Trends in Ecology and 

Evolution 10.10 (1995): 430. 106 Daniel Pauly, et al., "Fishing Down Marine Food Webs," Science 279.5352 (1998): 860-863.
44

years, but as there were no major commercial markets for their exportation, we assume 

that they were not overfished. The temporal baselines for individual fisheries shown in 

Table 2 are provided only for Stellwagen Bank, and they are defined in large part by 

market and infrastructure developments in Boston and Gloucester. Other grounds such as 

Georges Bank, for example, which were not fished consistently until the 1830s, may 

differ considerably from these baselines.

Fishery Date

Cod 1620

Mackerel 1810

Haddock 1820

Halibut 1820

Herring 1820

Swordfish 1850

Hake 1800

Cusk 1800

Pollock 1800

Flounder 1895

Wolffish107 1900

Table 2. Exploitation baseline dates for commercial fisheries on Stellwagen Bank.

 107 The wolfish, or "sea catfish", as it was referred to in 19th-century historical records, had little economic 

importance until the early 20th century. The fish was caught with some regularity by hook-and-line in the 

19th century, but there was neither market nor demand until the early 1900s. The first landings recorded 

for this fish in the statistical bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries was 1905, but it does 

not appear consistently until 1913.
45

Figure 8. Total fish catch and trips of Gloucester, Boston and Portland fishing fleets on Stellwagen Bank, 

re-constructed from U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries catch records (1893-1935).

Cod

In the 19th and early 20th centuries the Boston fishing fleet caught codfish by line 

trawl with market boats primarily on rocky areas south of Cape Ann, Ipswich Bay and 

Stellwagen Bank. During the summer and fall, codfish was regularly caught on 

Stellwagen Bank, South Channel and the outside of Cape Cod.108 Gloucester vessels 

typically caught cod on La Have, Browns and Georges Banks. Each year in early 

November, after herring left the coast, a fall school of spawning fish known as the 

“pasture school” would arrive south of Cape Ann.109 This school is likely related to the 

naming of the ground 'Old Man's Pasture' located there. In 1877-1878, small vessels 

(with 3-12 dories and long lines of 800 hooks) and shore boats would fish this school, 

with average daily catches of 800-900 Ibs. per man.110 The average size of fish was 12-14 

pounds. The fishing season would last until January when many fishermen would shift 

their effort to lpswich Bay. In the late spring and summer fishermen would again shift 

their effort to deeper offshore waters on Jeffrey's and Stellwagen Banks.

In the second half of the 19th century, inshore fishermen occasionally caught very 

large codfish. For example, a 130-pound cod was caught off Eastern Point on July 22, 

 108 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 1887, 

p. 194.

109 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 204. 110 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 204.

Spencer Baird, on the depletion and recovery of cod in New England (1871):

“. . . should [cod] be brought back to their original condition, we shall find, 

within a short time, an increase of wealth on our shores, the amount of which 

would be difficult to calculate. Not only would the general prosperity of the 

adjacent States be enhanced, but in the increased number of vessels built, in 

the larger number of men induced to devote themselves to maritime pursuits, 

and in the general stimulus to everything connected with the business of the 

seafaring profession, we should be recovering, in a great measure, from that 

loss which has been the source of so much lamentation to political economists 

and well-wishers of the country.”
46

1873.111 Reports of large fish were exceptional for the time, however, as hook-caught cod 

averaged 12-14 Ibs. south of Cape Ann and 20.75 lbs. in Ipswich Bay.112 With the 

introduction of cod gill-nets in the winter of 1880-81, Ipswich Bay catches averaged well 

over 20 pounds, with numerous 75-80 pound animals caught.113 Cod-fishing on 

Stellwagen Bank peaked in 1906 with a total catch of 1,788,100 pounds (FIG. 9). The 

catch declined steadily until 1916, and between 1916 and 1935 the average annual catch 

hovered around a mere 200,000 Ibs. This decline appears to mirror the effort expended, 

in terms of trips made to Stellwagen Bank. Simultaneously, an increase in effort and 

catch occurred on Jeffrey's Ledge. The decline in catch is explained in part by a shift in 

effort to this latter location as well as other offshore banks. Although travel cost and 

distance was greater to offshore grounds, steam and diesel-powered otter trawlers likely 

abandoned Stellwagen for more abundant and profitable grounds. This shift in effort 

suggests that cod stocks of Stellwagen were less productive, or comparably and relatively 

degraded by the early 1910s.

Figure 9. Annual cod catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.

 111 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 126. 112 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 204. 113 J. W. Collins, “Gill-nets in the Cod Fishery; A Description of the Norwegian Cod-nets, with Directions 

for their Use, and a History of their Introduction into the United States,” Bulletin of the United States Fish 

Commission. Vol. I, for 1881, Washington: USGPO, 1882, p. 15; J. W. Collins, “Success of the Gill-net Codfishery on the New England Coast, Winter of 1882-’83,” Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, Vol. 

III, for 1883, Washington: USGPO, 1883, p. 441-443.
47

Halibut

The earliest known report of halibut caught on Stellwagen Bank was in September 

1819, when the schooner Madison at anchor cod-fishing, caught 140 halibut, which sold 

for $1 each.114 By 1846, the Gloucester halibut fleet had grown to 29 vessels.115 In the 

early 1870s, halibut abundance inshore was greatly diminished, but its high market value 

led fishermen to pursue offshore grounds:

“The diminution of inshore fishing is particularly noticeable in the case of 

the halibut. This fish was formerly taken with great ease in small boats all 

along the New England coast, and at first was considered of very little 

value, fish weighting a hundred pounds and over being caught and thrown 

back into the water as refuse, and classed in the same category with 

sharks, skates, and rays. Within a comparatively few years, however, the 

halibut has appreciated in value, and is now one of the principal objects of 

pursuit by the New England fishermen. The yield of this fish to Gloucester 

alone in 1879 amounted to over eleven millions of pounds.”116

After 1880, halibut were caught almost entirely offshore in waters of up to 300 fathoms:

“In later years it has been necessary to follow the halibut into deeper and 

deeper waters, so that while twenty years ago it might taken in water of 10 

to 50 fathoms, it is now seldom caught in less than 100 fathoms, and 

deeper waters are gradually traversed up to 300 fathoms. The increasing 

depth renders it constantly more difficult for the fishermen to prosecute 

their labors, and makes it more important that new localities be 

discovered.”117

This did not preclude, however, large halibut being caught occasionally inshore and 

within the sanctuary waters (TAB. 3). Schooling halibut rarely occurred in the 20th 

century, but in April 1926 several small craft were able to catch 2-3,000 pounds per day 

on the northern slope of Stellwagen Bank (FIG. 10).118

 114 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 68. 115 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 69-70. 116 U.S. Fish Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Report of the Commissioner for 1881, Washington: GPO, 

1884, p. xxvii-xxviii. 117 U.S. Fish Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Report of the Commissioner for 1881, Washington: GPO, 

1884, p. xxviii.

118 Walter H. Rich, Fishing Grounds of the Gulf of Maine, Washington: GPO, 1929.
48

Year Location Description

1873 6 miles ESE of Thatcher’s Island 347 lbs.119

1877 Off Eastern Point 320 lbs.120

June 13, 

1873

Old Man’s Pasture 377 lbs. (2 halibut)121

Table 3. Reports of large halibut caught in SBNMS.

Figure 10. Annual halibut catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.

 119 Proctor Brothers, The Fishermen’s Own Book, Gloucester: Proctor Brothers, Pub., 1882, p. 51. 120 Proctor Brothers, The Fishermen’s Own Book, Gloucester: Proctor Brothers, Pub., 1882, p. 51. 121 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 126.
49

Haddock

Stephen Martin of Gloucester began haddock fishing in the 1830s.122 As a boy he 

had watched Amos Story and Jefferson Rowe fish for haddock from a small dory with 

hand lines two times most every day of spring: once at 8AM and then again at 4PM. In 

the 1830s and 40s they fished within the harbor; a ledge between Ten Pound Island and 

Niles Wharf was one of their favorite spots. Each trip they returned with a full dory of 

haddock. By the time Stephen Martin had earned his title of Captain in the early 1850s, 

haddock had all but disappeared from Gloucester Harbor. The fish were now caught 3-4 

miles from shore. The tradition of hand-lining for haddock was largely abandoned and 

superceded by line trawling in the 1860s. The 66-ton schooner Romp, considered at that 

time a large vessel for the shore fishery, fished with four dories, each trawling 500 hooks. 

Romp frequented ‘Inner Bank’, and regularly landed 40,000 pounds per trip. By the late 

1860s all ‘shore’ spring haddock were caught 20-25 miles offshore; Jeffreys Ledge, 

Tillies Bank, and Stellwagen Bank were usual fares for Captain Martin and other Cape 

Ann shore fishermen. In the 1880s, Cape Ann fishermen began to weather the harsh 

winter seas to catch haddock on banks such as Georges, Browns, and La Have. To 

contend with longer voyages of greater risk as well as to maximize profitability, average 

vessel tonnage for haddock fishing nearly doubled in the 1880s with each vessel carrying 

6-8 dories with 1000-1500 hooks per dory. With each increase in vessel tonnage, dories 

and quantity of hooks, record landings were commonplace.123

Up until the last few decades of the 20th century, haddock was the most abundant 

fishery on Stellwagen Bank (FIG. 11). Beginning at least by 1812, haddock trips were 

made regularly by a fleet of ‘pinky’ fishing vessels from Gloucester to Old Man’s 

Pasture, Hart’s Ground and Inner Bank, approximately 12 miles off Eastern Point.

The distance from 

homeport and fishing depths to achieve these record-breaking catches, however, also 

increased.

124 The 

best haddock fishery, however, was reportedly on Stellwagen Bank:

“The principal haddock fisheries are, however, located north of Cape Cod 

. . . On the outside of Cape Cod the fishing is within 5 to 15 miles of the 

shore; in Massachusetts Bay, principally on the outer slope of Middle 

Bank and the southern slope of the shoal ground that lies to the eastward 

of Cape Ann, usually called 'the Southeast,'"125

 122 George H. Proctor, Fishermen’s Own Book, Gloucester: Proctor Bros., 1882, p. 213-214. The following 

paragraph is an interpretation of Captain Stephen J. Martin’s first-hand account of the Gloucester 

haddock fishery.

123 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 85-86. 124 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 73. 125 U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 

1881, Washington: USGPO, 1882, p. 226.
50

Haddock remained relatively resilient to fishing pressures through the 19th 

century, and very large catches were occasionally reported in the early 1880s:

“Haddock are more plentiful this year in the month of April than they have 

been for eight years. On a fine day the dories get from three to four 

hundred pounds half a mile from the Point. There were three Lynn boats 

here yesterday; they had 20,000 pounds of haddock to a boat, caught on 

Middle bank in two days’ fishing. That has not been done during the past 

five years.”126

“Haddock remain plenty in-shore. The vessels carrying their fish fresh to 

market do not go farther than Middle bank. They get 10,000, 12,000 and 

15,000 a day. The dories, with one man, go one mile from the mouth of 

the harbor and bring home from 400 to 600 pounds at 2 p. m. This has not 

been done for the last ten years. In the month of May there is a small 

school of haddock that comes in-shore and stays about a week. This has 

been the case for the last four years.”127

Figure 11. Annual haddock catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.

 126 U.S. Fish Commission, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1881, Washington: GPO, 

1882, p. 426.

127 U.S. Fish Commission, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1881, Washington: GPO, 

1882, p. 427.
51

Mackerel

One of the most important commercial fisheries on Stellwagen Bank and in the 

Gulf of Maine in the 19th century was mackerel. A migratory species, mackerel catch 

varied greatly from year to year. At its greatest historical abundance in 1884, 

243,000,000 pounds of mackerel were landed by U.S. and Canadian fishermen, and at its 

worst, in 1910, 12,600,000 pounds were landed.128 This variability was a risky, boom-orbust undertaking for fishermen. The U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries was 

established in 1871 in part to document the causes for this variability, distribution and 

migratory routes of the species.129 A comprehensive study on Atlantic mackerel was 

finally issued in two parts by Oscar Sette and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1943 

and 1950.130

Mackerel fishing was underway in Massachusetts Bay by the mid-1600s, with 

concerns of their depletion noted and season of capture regulated by the Plymouth 

Colony as early as 1670. Cape Ann vessels fished for mackerel on Stellwagen Bank at 

least by 1800, initially on Inner Bank, and transported their fresh catch to the Boston 

market.131 Mackerel catch and landing statistics for Boston and the New England fleet are 

known beginning in 1804, but a wholesale operation and market was not opened on Long 

Wharf until 1807.132 In 1851, the Massachusetts mackerel fleet numbered 853 vessels, a 

quarter belonging to Gloucester.133

 128 Oscar E. Sette, "Biology of the Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) of North America, Part I – Early 

Life History, Including the Growth, Drift, and Mortality of the Egg and Larval Population " Fishery Bulletin 

of the Fish and Wildlife Service, Vol. 50, Fishery Bulletin 38, Washington: GPO, 1943, p. 150.

In 1853 the largest hook-and-line, or jigging catch on 

record; 329,000 barrels (ca. 67,000,000 Ibs.) was recorded. In 1870, Provincetown had 41 

vessels in mackerel fishing deployed entirely on the Massachusetts shore and in Cape 

Cod Bay. By 1876, the fleet declined by one quarter and the catch per barrel was nearly 

half of previous years, pushing vessels for the first time into the Gulf of Saint of St. 

129 Spencer F. Baird, Part I: Report on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England 

in 1871 and 1872, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington: GPO, 1873, p. xviii-xiv. 130 Oscar E. Sette, "Biology of the Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) of North America, Part I – Early 

Life History, Including the Growth, Drift, and Mortality of the Egg and Larval Population" Fishery Bulletin 

of the Fish and Wildlife Service, Vol. 50, Fishery Bulletin 38, Washington: GPO, 1943; "Part II –

Migrations and Habits," Fishery Bulletin of the Fish and Wildlife Service, Vol. 51, Fishery Bulletin 49, 

Washington: GPO, 1950.

131 George H. Proctor, The Fishermen's Memorial and Record Book: Containing a List of Vessels and Their 

Crews Lost from the Port of Gloucester from the Year 1830 to October 1, 1873, Gloucester: Procter 

Brothers, 1873, p. 60. George B. Goode, et al., “IV - Materials for a History of the Mackerel Fishery,”

Report of the Commissioner for 1881, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington: GPO, 1884, p. 

309 [219].

132 W. A. Wilcox, Seventh Annual Report of the Boston Fish Bureau, Boston: Ellis, Robinson 

Co., 1882, p. 4. 133 George B. Goode, et al., "IV -Materials for a History of the Mackerel Fishery," Report of the 

Commissioner for 1881, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington: GPO, 1884, p. 340 [250].
52

Lawrence.134 In 1880, however, mackerel proved more abundant than in any previous 

decades:

“The vast strike-in of mackerel all long our coast is really phenomenal. 

Nobody remembers anything like it. Thousands were caught yesterday and 

the day before, even without bait, as if mackerel were as simple as 

"Hancock Union soldiers" who snap at a bare rebel hook. Every boat, from 

the craziest old dory to the fashionable yacht, is pressed into service, and 

there are as many "kits" going to Boston and Lynn, and Salem and 

Gloucester, as the unwary boy supposes are on their way to St. Ives, when 

the famous problem of Pike's old arithmetic is propounded. From any 

look-out the schools can be seen on the surface of the water, hunting 

around for somebody to catch them, like bummer politicians seeking for 

bids. The theory that the mackerel had been depopulated in our waters is 

annihilated. There are still as good fish in the sea as ever were caught, and 

apparently more of them.”135

Although large catches were reported for the next five years, mackerel abundance 

quickly dropped and continued to wax and wane, seemingly invariably, through the early 

20th century (FIG. 12). The catch was particularly low in the 1910s, with but one period 

of resurgence in the mid-1920s. Mackerel migrated past Cape Ann during their southern 

migration in October and November. After leaving the coast of Maine during their 

autumnal migrations, they passed back through Cape Ann and entered Massachusetts 

Bay, where they were taken by purse seines, gill and pound nets. There were hundreds of 

pounds nets in Cape Cod Bay in the early 1900s, which caught a large share of inshore 

mackerel and herring schools.

 134 George B. Goode, et al., "IV -Materials for a History of the Mackerel Fishery," Report of the 

Commissioner for 1881, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington: GPO, 1884, p. 340 [331]. 135 George B. Goode, et al., “IV - Materials for a History of the Mackerel Fishery,” Report of the 

Commissioner for 1881, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington: GPO, 1884, p. 440 [350].
53

136

Figure 12. Annual mackerel catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.

Hake and Cusk 

The gadoids cusk (Brosmius brosme) and hake (Phycis chuss and Phycis tenuis) 

had commercial value beginning ca. 1800. Other Gulf of Maine species known invariably 

as 'hake,' such as Phycis chesteri and Merlucius bilinearis (i.e., silver hake or whiting), 

generally found at depth along the continental margin and slope, were barely marketable 

 136 Ibid., p. 316 [226].

Mackerel migration across Stellwagen Bank, September 22, 1833:

“I recollect well the great school of mackerel that struck Middle Bank that 

year. Sept. 22nd at ten o’clock at night, there were some two hundred sail at 

anchor, twenty-five miles southeast of Eastern Point light, in a dead calm, 

when our skipper sang out, “Here they are, boys!” At the same moment every 

vessel in the fleet commenced the catch. We fished for three days and filled 

everything, even our boat, and struck on deck until we were in fish kneedeep. Then, a breeze springing up, we ran in and packed out two hundred and 

eighty barrels, and returned to the Bank just as the wind left us. We fished 

three days more, when they struck off as suddenly as they had come.”
54

in the 19th century and fetched very low prices. However, they were reportedly caught 

along the eastern coast of Cape Cod in the mid-19th century at various depths while 

hook-and-line or net fishing for mackerel. Silver hake were caught and discarded in such 

significant numbers that "the board of health is sometimes called upon to interfere and to 

compel the fishermen to bury them from the fear of sickness being produced by their 

decomposition.”137

Large quantities of cusk, occasionally referred to in historical texts as 'tusk,' were 

frequently caught on Stellwagen Bank in first half of the century:

Statistical records of the U.S. Fish Commission generally distinguish 

the catch of silver hake from the more marketable Phycis chuss and tenuis species (FIG. 

13 & 14).

"at a rocky spot near the eastern portion of Middle Bank, between Cape 

Cod and Cape Ann, large numbers had been taken prior to 1866, and in 

that year 400 quintals, or probably 60,000 pounds of Cusk, had that year 

been taken by one Provincetown firm." 138

Despite these significant catches, the prices and demand for cusk was especially 

low in comparison to that of haddock and mackerel. Hake were also remarkable to 

Massachusetts fishermen because their abundance appeared to be localized, and cusk 

could be extirpated by fishing within a year or two of their discovery.139

Hake fishing was prosecuted primarily between June and November. The coast of 

Maine was particularly renowned for its abundant, muddy-bottom hake grounds, but hake 

was also an important fishery in the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary in the 19th and early 20th 

centuries. Fishing was conducted mostly at night and by tub trawls or long-lining. In the 

earlier period, the size of fish caught were generally less than 20 pounds, but 30-40 

pound specimens were occasionally caught.140 Hake was split and sold fresh and dried, 

but the sounds and livers of hake were particularly prized for use in the manufacture of 

isinglass and oil. 

 137 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History 

of Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 241. 138 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 233. 139 139 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section V: History and 

Methods of the Fisheries, Vol. 1, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 233, 235. 140 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section V: History and 

Methods of the Fisheries, Vol. 1, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 242.
55

Figure 13. Annual hake catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.

Figure 14. Annual cusk catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.
56

Pollock 

Pollock was and is today frequently caught within Massachusetts Bay and on 

Stellwagen Bank (FIG. 15). Historically, schools would round Race Point and enter the 

bay as early as May, but spawning (and subsequently fishing) for pollock occurred 

primarily in October and November.141 The fish were known to spawn around the rocky 

grounds of Cape Ann at this time of year, which was also the prime time for fishing this 

species. A dramatic shift in pollock abundance on Stellwagen Bank was remarked upon 

as early as the 1810s by a fishing captain from Gloucester, Captain E. W. Merchant:

"Pollock were very abundant in Massachusetts Bay early in this century –

before the war of 1812. They were especially abundant on Middle Bank. 

They were at that time chiefly caught with bait of herring, taken in seines 

from the beaches. The fishing boats were of about thirty tons, and carried 

three men and a boy. Fishing was carried on chiefly at night, when the 

vessels would all "fleet up," and the bait on their hooks would toll the 

schools of fish together. The vessels would take about fifty quintals in a 

night. There were about thirty fish to the quintal. This abundance of 

Pollock lasted until about 1820. These Pollock were salted, and consumed

at home or carried to Maine. They sold for about two dollars a quintal. 

The oil of their livers was tried out in kettles on the shore. Their roe was 

exported largely in those days. It was sold by the bushel, at the rate of 

about sixty cents.”142

Early in the century the primary means of capture was by surface trolling bait 

with hook-and-line. By the mid-1800s, long-liners were "seizing-up" their lines a few 

fathoms from the seafloor to catch the fish.143 Beginning in the 1870s, however, the purse 

seine became the primary method for capturing schooling pollock.144 The average size of 

pollock in this latter period was 10-12 lbs., "but individuals of twenty, and even of thirty 

pounds, [were] by no means uncommon.”145

 141 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 230. 142 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 229. 143 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 230. 144 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 232. 145 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals, Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 231.
57

Figure 15. Annual pollock catch on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935.
58

'Other' and 'Miscellaneous' Fisheries 

The U.S. Fish Commission statistical bulletins, from which landing trends are 

derived in this report, also list a variety of species and products that were landed and 

grouped statically into an 'Other' or 'Miscellaneous' fish category (FIG. 16). The data 

summarized in this category refers to statistics that are footnoted on the bulletins and lists 

the additional species and products landed for each individual fishing ground or bank. 

After 1913, however, the footnotes summarize 'other' fish landed for the entire Northwest 

Atlantic region and do not compile statistics for individual banks or grounds. From 1903 

to 1913, species that were included in this category for Stellwagen Bank were primarily 

swordfish and herring, but other fishery products listed occasionally included shad, 

menhaden, redfish (rosefish), shark, butterfish, flounder, catfish or wolfish, skate, livers, 

sounds, and spawn. Because continuous, long-term trends cannot be derived from the 

bulletins for most of these fisheries, the historical contexts presented in this section are 

limited to a regional perspective for flounder, swordfish and herring.

Figure 16. Catch of ‘Other’ fish category in Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and 

Fisheries (1893-1935).
59

Flounder 

The common flounder, referred to historically as 'plaice' by Provincetown 

fishermen, was somewhat unsuccessfully marketed as 'turbot' in the 1880s.146 The 

flounder population, once abundant in Cape Cod Bay, diminished significantly from 1855 

to 1885, but remained prolific elsewhere and on offshore sandy and muddy bottoms.147

The primary method of catching these fish in the bay at that time was by shore weir, but 

in 1879, 7-8 boats from Provincetown engaged in the fishery with hook-and-line around 

Race Point, and mostly in the month of June.148

As inshore populations plummeted, Provincetown fishermen began to exploit 

flounder offshore within sanctuary waters on a large scale, particularly in the 1890s 

following the introduction of the beam trawl. Significant catches of flounder were made 

by dragging and bottom trawling the muddy bottoms between Stellwagen and Si’s and 

Brewer's Spots (FIG. 4 & 17).

Figure 17. Flounder catch on Stellwagen Bank 1928-1935.

 146 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A Geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 

1887, p. 175.

147 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A Geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 1887, 

p. 178. 148 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A Geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 1887, 

p. 181.
60

Swordfish

Swordfish inhabited inshore water in the Gulf of Maine for at least 5,000 years, 

but it took only 50 years of steady fishing pressure for them to be nearly extirpated from 

these waters.149 In the early years of the fishery, in the 1840s, swordfish were pursued 

primarily south of Cape Cod between Block Island and Nantucket. A market in Boston 

and steady demand for swordfish, however, was not prominent until the 1860s.150 In the 

latter half of the 19th century, the best grounds for swordfish were between Cape Ann 

and Casco Bay, and into the Bay of Fundy. In August, the peak season for swordfishing, 

the most productive grounds were Inner Jeffreys, 12-15 nm offshore Boone Island, and 3-

4 nm from Wood Island and the mouth of the Saco River.151 According to Goode, in the 

1870s and 80s there was no evidence of change in their abundance.152 In 1879, 863,154 

pounds of swordfish captured by harpoons were marketed in Boston.153 Very large fish 

were often caught within and near to sanctuary waters including one caught in 1893 that 

reportedly had a 'dressed' ( i.e., gutted, head and tail removed) weight of 850 pounds.154

Gloucester and Portland had substantial swordfishing fleets by the 1870s (FIG. 

18). In 1900, the Block Island swordfishery was in decline and pursuit of swordfish 

moved offshore.

The fresh weight must have exceeded 1,000 pounds.

155 Georges and Browns Bank became the predominant fishing grounds. 

The primary method of hunting was by harpoon or 'lily iron' and prosecuted by schooners 

modified with a stand at the bow for a 'striker' or harpooner. Dories were also deployed 

from schooners to harpoon and lance these fish, which is surprising considering their 

reputation for thrashing and piercing both ship hulls and fishermen with their sharp bills. 

In the early years of the fishery, a single sail would typically take 100 fish over an entire 

season, but when motorized and diesel-powered craft were introduced in the 20th 

century, 200-300 could be caught in a single trip.156

 149 Arthur E. Spiess and Robert A. Lewis, The Turner Farm Fauna: 5000 Years of Hunting and Fishing in 

Penobscot Bay, Maine, Augusta: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, Maine Archaeological Society, 

2001.

Portland had assembled a significant 

fleet for the fishery. In 1884, a total of 7,000 swordfish weighing 2,000,000 pounds was 

150 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 92-94. 151 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 59. 152 George B. Goode, "Materials for a History of the Swordfishes," Report of the Commissioner for 1880, 

U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part VIII, Washington: GPO, 1883, p. 328.

153 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II: A Geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 

1887, p. 194.

154 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 32. 155 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 94. 156 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 73.
61

landed in New England.157 Portland accounted for more than half of this total catch. In 

1929, a record 31,044 fish weighing 4.5 million pounds was landed in New England.158

Georges Bank accounted for 91% of this catch, indicating that inshore swordfish 

populations were significantly diminished by this time (FIG. 18). In addition, the average 

weight of inshore fish caught in the 1920s declined to nearly half of that in the 1880s 

from an average of nearly 300 to 150 pounds.

Figure 18. Swordfishing fleet and season in Gulf of Maine 1914-1927.159

 157 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 96. 158 Walter H. Rich, "The Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New England," Proceedings of the Portland 

Society of Natural History, Portland: Portland Society of Natural History, 1947, p. 86-87. 159 Data extracted from “Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries 1893-1935.” See 

App. C.
62

Herring

In the Gulf of Maine, Atlantic herring was caught with fixed-gear (e.g., weirs) on 

inshore grounds "practically continuous" from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Cod.160

Although Native Americans had fished with weirs in Massachusetts Bay for millennia,161

herring fishing by Euro-Americans using large brush weirs did not begin until ca. 1820.162

Spurred by a heightened demand for products such as canned 'sardines' (i.e., small 

herrings) , smoked and salted herring, and the need for baitfish for the hand- and trawlline fisheries, weir fishing was widespread by 1828 and continued to expand through the 

19th century.163 Eastern Maine, particularly the Passamaquoddy Bay and Grand Manan 

regions became focal areas for these industries by the mid-1800s. Cape Ann fishermen 

usually acquired frozen herring bait from Downeast Maine, New Brunswick and 

Newfoundland,164 but the traditional Native American method of torching and dip-netting 

for herring was also conducted around Cape Ann and in lpswich Bay to supply shore 

fishermen with bait.165

The shallow waters of Cape Cod Bay at this time were also littered with pound 

nets, traps, and weirs (FIG. 19). The Cape Cod traps and weirs focused on supplying the 

trawl fisheries with a steady stream of baitfish that included herring, alewives and squid. 

In 1871, some 15 weirs were located in Cape Cod Bay between Barnstable and 

Wellfleet.166 By 1880, there were at least 68 weirs or pounds that extended from 

Gloucester all the way to Truro,167 and the total Massachusetts herring catch in 1879 was 

nearly 7.8 million pounds.168

 160 H. F. Moore, "Observations Upon the Herring and Herring Fisheries of the Northeast Coast, With 

Special Reference to the Vicinity of Passamaquoddy Bay," Part XXII, Report of the Commissioner for the 

Year Ending June 30, 1896, Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 389. 161 Lawrence Kaplan, et al., "The Boylston Street Fishweir: Revisited," Economic Botany 44.4 (1990): 516-

528.

162 Ansley Hall, "The Herring Industry of the Passamaquoddy Region, Maine," Part XXII, Report of the 

Commissioner for the Year Ending June 30, 1896, Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 445. 163 Ansley Hall, "The Herring Industry of the Passamaquoddy Region, Maine," Part XXII, Report of the 

Commissioner for the Year Ending June 30, 1896, Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 445-446; H. F. Moore, 

"Observations Upon the Herring and Herring Fisheries of the Northeast Coast, With Special Reference to 

the Vicinity of Passamaquoddy Bay," Part XXII, Report of the Commissioner for the Ending June 30, 1896. 

Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 392-394 164 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery lndustries of the United States, Section II: A Geographical 

Review of the Fisheries Industries and Fishing Communities for the Year 1880. Washington: USGPO, 1887, 

p. 161-162. 165 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery lndustries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Useful Aquatic Animals. Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 566; R. Edward Earll, "Part VI. The Herring Fishery 

and the Sardine Industry," The Fisheries and Fishery lndustries of the United States, Section V: History and 

Methods of the Fisheries, Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 499. 166 Spencer F. Baird, Part I, Report on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England 

in 1871 and 1872, Washington: USGPO, 1873, p. xxvi. 167 Frederick W. True, "The Pound-net Fisheries of the Atlantic States," The Fisheries and Fishery Industries 

of the United States, Section V: History and Methods of the Fisheries, Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 604. 168 R. Edward Earll, "Part VI. The Herring Fishery and the Sardine Industry," The Fisheries Industries of the 

United States, Section V: History and Methods of the Fisheries, Washington: USGPO, 1887, p. 432.
63

Figure 19. Locations of fish pounds in Cape Cod Bay in 1871.169

By the 1890s, it was broadly believed that herring populations were healthy, as 

catches had increased throughout the century.170 However, fishermen in the second half of 

the 1800s voiced concern that catches were increasingly sparse and in some cases failed 

entirely in weirs along the Maine coast. Reports of decreases in herring are known from 

at least 1850 and continued through the 1890s.171

 169 Spencer F. Baird, Part I, Report on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England 

in 1871 and 1872, Washington: USGPO, 1873, Plate XXXIX.

While good year classes were reported 

170 Ansley Hall, "The Industry of the Passamaquoddy Region, Maine," Part XXII, Report of the 

Commissioner for the Year Ending June 30, 1896, Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 443-487; H. F. Moore, 

"Observations Upon the Herring and Herring Fisheries of the Northeast Coast, With Special Reference to 

the Vicinity of Passamaquoddy Bay," Part XXII, Report of the Commissioner for the Ending June 30, 1896. 

Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 387-442. 171 Emily Klein, "A New Perspective: Atlantic Herring (Clupea harengus) as a Case Study for Time Series 

Analysis and Historical Data," M.A. Thesis, Durham: University of New Hampshire, 2008.
64

on Stellwagen Bank in the early 1880s, the inshore stocks were comparatively smaller in 

abundance and size than in previous decades:

"The herring are more plentiful in-shore than they have been during the 

past fifteen years – I mean spring herring. Eighty barrels were in a trap at 

Kettle Island on Friday night and 60 barrels last night. Schooner Phantom

came in this morning with 60 barrels caught with a seine four miles from 

the mouth of the harbor. The herring caught outside are large – as large as 

the spawn-herring caught in the fall; those caught in the harbor are half 

size.”172

Reasons for declines in catches varied by location and fishermen, but most often 

herring scarcity was attributed to weirs that captured too many juveniles and kept the fish 

from reaching their spawning grounds. In addition, gill netters and seiners were accused 

of breaking up schooling fish, and waste from industries as well as noise pollution from 

foghorns and steamboats caused herring to avoid certain areas. Whatever the reason, the 

U.S. Fish Commission concluded in 1871 that net fishing was not to blame for excessive 

destruction of herring spawn and immature fishes.173 Again in 1896, the commission 

concluded that claims of decline were exaggerated, no significant decrease in the herring 

populations had occurred, and that weirs and gill nets would not significantly affect the 

fishery in the future.174 Despite these general conclusions, no explanations were offered 

for the extirpation of stocks such as Quoddy River herring in Maine.175

Historical environmental, socio-economic and political conditions appear to have 

some explanatory power for dramatic shifts in herring catch, particularly in the 20th

century (FIG. 20). 

Such information can be valuable for understanding a fishery over time, but does not lend 

itself easily to quantitative analysis. To incorporate this information, historical events are 

summarized into a timeline (TAB. 4). This information was restricted to significant 

social, political, or fishery-related events and ranged from changes in fishing gear and 

technology to the World Wars.

 172 U.S. Fish Commission, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1881, Washington: USGPO, 

1882, p. 426. 173 George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: Natural History of 

Animals. Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 567-568. 174 H. F. Moore, "Observations Upon the Herring and Herring Fisheries of the Northeast Coast, With 

Special Reference to the Vicinity of Passamaquoddy Bay," Part XXII, Report of the Commissioner for the 

Year Ending June 30, 1896.Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 425, 430. 175 H. F. Moore, "Observations Upon the Herring and Herring Fisheries of the Northeast Coast, With 

Special Reference to the Vicinity of Passamaquoddy Bay," Part XXII, Report of the Commissioner for the 

Year Ending June 30, 1896.Washington: USGPO, 1897, p. 442.
65

Figure 20. Maine herring landings 1880-2005.176

The Gulf of Maine herring industry was heavily fished for bait up until the early 

1900s. With reduced catches apparent in the late 1800s, and under pressure from the weir 

fishery, laws were enacted to limit the use of purse and haul seines to catch herring.177

Although the introduction of net trawls limited the need for baitfish, low prices and an 

overcrowded market contributed to a broad decline in the herring industries at this 

time.178 There was a short-lived boom in the sardine industry as a result of WWI and 

European sardine embargoes, and simultaneously an increased need for a cheap and 

nutritious domestic food source.179 However, lowered demand during the Great 

Depression forced the closing of numerous canning and processing plants, from which 

the Maine canning industry did not recover until WWII.180

 176 Emily Klein, "A New Perspective: Atlantic Herring (Clupea harengus) as a Case Study for Time Series 

Analysis and Historical Data," M.A. Thesis, Durham: University of New Hampshire, 2008, p. 66.

Later in the 20th century, the 

impact of offshore foreign fleets and the collapse of the Georges Bank fishery likely 

affected landing trends in Maine.

177 R. Edward Earll, "Part VI. The Herring Fishery and the Sardine Industry," The Fisheries and Fishery 

Industries of the United States, Section V: History and Methods of the Fisheries, Washington: USGPO, 

1887, p. 419-524; F. C. Webber, "The Maine Sardine Industry," Maine Sardine Industry History: An 

Anthology, Brewer, ME: Maine Sardine Council, 1986 (1921). 178 M. Pike, "A Short History of the Sardine Business in Lubec," Maine Sardine Industry History 1875-2000, 

ed. J. L. Warren, Brewer, ME, 2000, p. 144; J. Gilman, History of the Sardine Industry, St. Stephen, NB: 

Parsons Printing, 2001, p. 66. 179 H. A. Davis, "Eastport and the Sardine Industry," Maine Sardine Industry History: An Anthology, Brewer, 

ME: Maine Sardine Council, 1986 (1950). 180 H. A. Davis, "Eastport and the Sardine Industry," Maine Sardine Industry History: An Anthology, Brewer, 

ME: Maine Sardine Council, 1986 (1950); M. Pike, "A Short History of the Sardine Business in Lubec," 

Maine Sardine Industry History 1875 -2000, ed. J. L. Warren, Brewer, ME, 2000, p. 145-146.
66

Period Trend Event

1882  Lagged response to growth of Lubec sardine industry, seining begins 1880

1890  Smoked herring industry important, but trade with southern US declines

1897-98  1897 reported as poor year (some sardine factories closed early), improvement reported 

for 1898

1900-3  Competition up and market overcrowded for sardines, US syndicates attempt but fail to 

regulate industry

1905 

Processing improvements: fish driers replace reel ovens (1901), machine-made, sealed 

cans replace handmade, soldered cans (1903), factories mass produce drawn cans (1904), 

sealing machines improved (1905)

1906-8  No corresponding event found

1909-11  Possible lag due to increased production from processing advances, increased use of 

machines to replace employees, mass-production of cans, railroad reaches Eastport

1912-13  Sanitation legislation in US expanded and enforced

1914-7  World War I – increased demand overseas (esp. sardines)

1917-27  industry slumps with no recovery following WWI,; demand and production declines 

begins in early 1920s

1928-33  Great Depression 1929-33

1939-48  WWII and end of Great Depression in 1941, boom maintained until 1948

1948-52  Poor run of herring (1948) and decline in demand

1951  Decrease in US reports - no corresponding event found

1953-8  Increase in US reports - No corresponding event found

1955-68  Offshore foreign fleet fishing in early 1960s

1961  Decrease in US reports - No corresponding event found

1968-71  Offshore otter trawling and purse seining, especially by foreign fleet on Georges Bank 

(decrease reported as early as 1964)

1977-79 

Herring crash in 1977 due to intense fishing pressure on Georges Bank; Magnuson 

Fishery Conservation & Management Act (MFC) passed in 1976; US EEZ established; 

herring placed on prohibited species list – no-take for foreign fleets within US EEZ

1980-90  Georges Bank populations rebuilds, domestic fleet and fishery re-focus inshore

1990-6  MFC adopts new Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) to address growth of herring 

resource (1994)

1992  Sudden decrease in US reports - No corresponding event found

1997-8  Possible lagged increase from mid-water trawling that began in 1994

2005-6  Lagged response to MFC & New England Fishery Management Council (NEFMC) 

amendments in 2003

2007  Amendment 1 to Herring FMP (2006) – limited entry for vessels

Table 4. Timeline of historical events and conditions that may have affected the herring fishery in the Gulf 

of Maine.
67

V. ANALYSIS

In the following statistical analyses we use historical data sets, namely the 

statistical bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries (1893-1935) and 

scientific survey data logged by the Commission’s research vessel Fishhawk (1880-

1925), to examine trends in trophic level, species richness, catch/landing composition, the 

impact of historical climate variability, and examine inter-bank and -species 

relationships. We also compare the results of our historical analyses with modern 

fisheries data, namely Vessel Trip Report (VTR) data recorded from within SBNMS for 

the period 1995-2005 and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) bottom-trawl 

survey data (1963-present). Complete descriptions of these data sets are provided in 

Appendix A. Geographically, we explore the relationship of SBNMS fisheries to the 

broader Gulf of Maine region in order to determine if trends and indicators for the region 

are representative of sub-regions such as Stellwagen Bank and vice versa (FIG. 21). 

Figure 21. Fishing banks and grounds in this study that comprise the Gulf of Maine region.
68

Abundance

Trophic levels of marine ecosystems are widely recognized in marine science as 

an important abundance indicator and broad measure of relative ecosystem health.181

Using the global database of fish landings of the Food and Agriculture Organization of 

the United Nations (FAO), Pauly et al. (1998) were able to illustrate an overall decline in 

the mean trophic level of fisheries worldwide and the process of what is now known as 

“fishing down marine food webs.”182 Their analysis assumes that the relative abundance 

of landings reflect ecosystem conditions, therefore, a decline in mean trophic level would 

be an indication of declining abundances of top predators or large fishes that 

consequently impacts biodiversity. These assumptions and the construction of a mean 

trophic index (MTI) using FAO landing statistics were criticized by Caddy et al. (1998), 

as lacking taxonomic and spatial resolution.183 Caddy postulated that overfishing cannot 

alone account for trophic level declines – natural oscillations and eutrophication of 

coastal areas (i.e., bottom-up processes) may contribute to shifts in mean trophic level. In 

addition, in order to extrapolate safely from “trophic level of landings” to “trophic level 

of ecosystems,” Caddy argued that knowledge of local fisheries is necessary.184

The landings and statistical records of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries 

(1893-1935) were used to derive a MTI of Stellwagen Bank and for comparison a MTI 

for the Gulf of Maine (FIG. 22). Modern data sets could not be used for comparison to 

these historical MTI trends. Modern era landings tabulations available to this study, such 

as the Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf Large Marine Ecosystems (LME), encompass a 

significantly larger area than the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries catch records. 

Additionally, region-wide Vessel Trip Report (VTR) data was not available to this study. 

Consequently, trends are developed for the historical record set, and only for targeted and 

long-lived demersal species (halibut, cod, haddock, hake, cusk, and pollock). Species 

lower in the food chain as well as fisheries with significant natural oscillations, such as 

mackerel, are not included in the analysis and consequently do not influence trophic level 

shifts. Therefore, any shifts in this analysis can be attributed primarily to overfishing and 

changes in fishing technology. In fact, the critique of this method by Caddy et al. notes 

that “there seems to be few other hypotheses to account for declines in landings of top 

predators than overfishing.” 185

 181 Convention on Biological Diversity, Kuala Lumpur, February 9-10 and 27, 2004, Montreal: Secretariat of 

the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2004.

While changes in trophic levels may also be representative 

of trends in bio-diversity, this analysis assumes that the Stellwagen Bank and Gulf of 

Maine MTIs measure and document shifts only in local and regional abundance of 

commercial fisheries.

182 Daniel Pauly, et al. “Fishing Down Marine Food Webs,” Science 279: 860-863. 183 J. F. Caddy et al., “How Pervasive is “Fishing Down Marine Food Webs?” Science 202.5393 (1998): 1383. 184 J. F. Caddy et al., “How Pervasive is “Fishing Down Marine Food Webs?” Science 202.5393 (1998): 1383. 185 J. F. Caddy et al., “How Pervasive is “Fishing Down Marine Food Webs?” Science 202.5393 (1998): 1383.
69

MTIs for Stellwagen Bank (1893-1935) and Gulf of Maine (1902-1935) were 

computed for each year based on the following equation:

TLk = ∑i ( TLi × Yi,k)/∑i Yi,k . . . . . 1) 186

where Yi refers to the landings of species (group) i, as included in fisheries statistics. For 

example:

TL1893 = (TLcod x landingcod,1893) + (TLhaddock x landinghaddock,1893) . . . . . 

catchcod,1893 + catchhaddock,1893. . . . .

The results of this analysis shows that the trophic level of commercial species in 

the Gulf of Maine declined steadily from a high of almost 3.89 in 1908 to a low of 3.72 in 

1927. The trophic level of Stellwagen Bank exhibits a somewhat similar pattern but with 

one significant deviation: a steady rise from a low of 3.73 in 1903 to 3.99 in 1917. The 

marked increase in trophic level on Stellwagen Bank over this period can be explained as 

a result of a shift in fishing technology, namely the widespread adoption of steampowered, net-trawling vessels (see e.g., Caddy et al. 1998). This technology shift and 

resulting increase in fishing pressure acted to artificially drive-up trophic levels. The 

subsequent decline in 1919 suggests that abundance of commercial species on Stellwagen 

Bank were significantly reduced within 10 years of net trawling, so much so that trawlers 

abandoned the bank for more lucrative grounds such as Jeffrey Ledge initially and then 

further offshore to Georges and Browns Banks.

The trophic level for Stellwagen Bank is on average 0.05 greater in 1925-1935 

than 1893-1903. Trophic level and species abundance may have rebounded in the latter 

period as fishing efforts focused to offshore bank fishing. Dismal economic conditions in 

the late 1920s and early 1930s may also have contributed to a positive shift in trophic 

levels. However, fishing technology improvements in the form of gas-powered vessels 

deploying Vigneron-Dahl trawls (beginning in 1928), we believe account primarily for 

this shift, just as steam-powered otter trawls had two decades earlier. The decline in 

trophic level in the late-19th century suggests that the Stellwagen ecosystem was already 

overfished by this early period, and that new technologies such as net-trawls were needed 

to meet increased demand for fish products as well as to improve efficiency in the face of 

declining yields.

 186 http://www.seaaroundus.org/doc/saup_manual.htm#19. 
70

Mean Trophic Index (MTI)

4.054.003.953.903.853.803.753.703.653.603.55

1893189418951896189718981899190019011902190319041905190619071908190919101911191219131914191519161917191819191920192119221923192419251926192719281929193019311932193319341935

Figure 22. MTI based on USFC statistical bulletin landings 1893-1935 for Stellwagen Bank (in dark blue) and 1902-1935 for Gulf of Maine (in light blue).
71

Diversity

Ecosystem-based fisheries management integrates sustainable fisheries and 

marine biodiversity conservation.187 Establishing ecological baselines can provide 

indications of possible trajectories for marine fish populations, communities, and 

ecosystems. In particular, historical baselines may reveal clues about past marine 

communities and human impacts.188

Alpha diversity (community diversity) is measured in a variety of ways such as 

species richness, evenness, and diversity.

One key difficulty, however, is how to compare 

historical records of marine biodiversity with those from the recent past. Statistical 

analysis of community level data, as presented here, provides one mechanism for 

comparing historic survey data and biodiversity from different eras.

189

To provide a broad context to the current management of groundfish, this study 

used rarefaction analysis comparing genus level presence data from two fisheriesindependent surveys that span more than 100 years. Comprehensive documentation of the 

methods, analyses and results of this study are published in the 2009 Ph.D. dissertation 

by Jamie Cournane.

‘Biodiversity’ is defined here by the simplest 

measure, richness. Richness took three forms throughout this study: genera, fish genera 

and fish species richness. In all cases, richness was the count of unique genera or species 

present in a particular sample (or tow). A concurrent objective was to determine if spatial 

and temporal factors provide evidence for richness patterns in the historical data. 

190 Rarefaction models, developed by Saunders (1968) and refined 

later by Hurlburt (1971), allow for the removal of sampling bias and comparison of 

species richness.191 Gotelli and Colwell (2001) explain rarefaction further as a method for 

standardizing species richness, particularly in instances with unequal sample sizes.192

This study incorporated two historical datasets from fisheries-independent 

research surveys in order to compare species richness in the western Gulf of Maine over 

the long term. The first dataset was taken from the logbooks of the U.S. Commission of 

Fish and Fisheries survey vessel Fishhawk between 1880 and 1900. The second dataset 

was derived from National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) bottom-trawl monitoring 

It 

can also be used to analyze richness for various taxonomic levels including genus.

 187 Jason S. Link, “What does ecosystem-based fisheries management mean?” Fisheries 27.4 (2002):18-21; 

Michael J. Fogarty, Ecology of the Northeast Continental Shelf: Toward an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries 

Management, Northeast Fisheries Science Center and Northeast Regional Office, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, 2006. 188 Jeremy B. C. Jackson, et al., “Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystem,”

Science 293.5530 (2001): 629 – 637. 189 A. E. Magurran, Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988; 

A. E. Magurran, Measuring Biological Diversity, Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 2004. 190 Jamie Cournane, “Spatial Management of Marine Fish Resources in the Gulf of Maine and Georges 

Bank,” Ph.D. diss., University of New Hampshire, 2009. 191 Howard L. Saunders, “Marine benthic diversity: a comparative study,” American Naturalist 102 (1968): 

243-282; Stuart H. Hurlburt, “The non-concept of species diversity: a critique and alternative parameters,”

Ecology 52.4 (1971): 577-585; Nicholas J. Gotelli and Gary R. Graves, Null Models in Ecology, Washington:

Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996. 192 Nicholas J. Gotelli and Robert K. Colwell, “Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the 

measurement and comparison of species richness,” Ecology Letters 4.4 (2001):379-391.
72

surveys conducted by research vessels Delaware and Albatross from 1963 to the present. 

The study area included the western portion of the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, and the 

northern section of the Mid-Atlantic Bight east of Block Island (FIG. 23). Both surveys 

sampled the bottom community of the Gulf of Maine and contain presence data.

Figure 23. Study area with locations for the Fishhawk (black triangles) and NMFS surveys (gray circles) 

separated into three spatial sub-areas (coastal-bight, shelf and slope) and the location of the Stellwagen 

Bank National Maine Sanctuary (gridded polygon).
73

There are several key differences and similarities between the two surveys and 

data sets (TABS. 5 & 6). Tow sample data (survey station number, year, month, latitude, 

and longitude) and biological data (genus, species, and common name) were included in 

this study. Sampling gear were substantially different as the Fishhawk surveys used 

predominantly beam trawls for sampling and NMFS surveys deployed otter trawls, which 

must be borne in mind in interpreting the results. 

For the biological data, taxonomic standardization was a particular challenge. 

Fishhawk surveys and expeditions to discover and identify marine species often resulted 

in multiple scientific names for the same species. Consequently, taxonomies were 

constructed by tracing historical naming conventions to the most current taxonomic 

synonyms. Finally, a total of 140 Fishhawk tow samples were selected based on presence 

of genera, trawl type, and precise geographic coordinates. Using GIS, NMFS data was 

sub-sampled to tows located within 10 nm (18.5 km) of Fishhawk bottom sampling 

stations. This buffer effectively limits the spatial variability between the two datasets, 

assuming that nearby locations have more in common than locations farther apart. If 

more detailed data on habitat were available, alternative assumptions might be possible 

that are not feasible for the present study. A total of 1,613 NMFS survey sites are 

compared to the Fishhawk data set. 

Survey Sampling Years Season CoML Regions Gear Tow Duration

Fishhawk Targeted 

sampling

1880-

1882, 

1889, 

1893

1898-1899

Summer 

Fall

Continental Slope, 

Central Gulf of 

Maine, Southern 

Coastal Shelf, 

Georges Bank, 

Mid-Atlantic Bight

Various 

trawls

Variable and 

less than 1 

hour

NMFS Stratified 

random 

sampling

1963-2007 Winter 

Spring

Summer 

Fall

Continental Slope, 

Central Gulf of 

Maine, Southern 

Coastal Shelf, 

Georges Bank, 

Mid-Atlantic Bight, 

Wilkinson Basin

Otter trawl 30 minutes

Table 5. Characteristics of Fishhawk and NMFS survey operations.

Fishhawk

Tows with a genus identified 510

Tows with latitude and longitude 202

Tows using only a trawl 140

NMFS

Tows within 10NM of Fishhawk tows 1,614

Tows with a genus identified 1,613

Table 6. Selected Fishhawk and NMFS bottom-trawl samples.
74

We compared genus diversity for the two time periods and data sets through sitebased rarefaction analysis. Community and environmental matrices for Fishhawk and 

NMFS data were developed first and edited in Microsoft Access and Excel following 

procedures outlined by Kindt and Coe (2005).193 Rarefaction was then run using the 

statistical software package R with the library BiodiversityR. Rarefaction was run on all 

spatial and temporal sub-divisions and data. Output includes accumulation curves with 

confidence intervals (two standard deviations) for each sub-division. The process was 

repeated for fish genera richness in order to remove some of the sampling differences 

between the surveys due to gear effects (TAB. 7). 

 193 Roeland Kindt and Richard Coe, Tree Diversity Analysis: a Manual and Software for Common Statistical 

Methods for Ecological and Biodiversity Studies, Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), 2005.
75

Table 7. Fish species sampled by Fishhawk (FH) and NMFS surveys.
76

Figure 24. Frequency of genera by class for Fishhawk (black) and NMFS (gray) surveys.

Rarefaction reveals the expected genera accumulation curve over both sample 

sets, indicating that genus richness was far greater during the Fishhawk surveys (FIG. 

25). When scaled to the total number of Fishhawk tows, the expected genus richness after 

40 tows is 139, while the diversity in NMFS tows is 72 – a difference in genus richness 

of almost half over a period of approximately 100 years. However, Fishhawk surveys 

sampled many more invertebrate species than NMFS surveys (FIG. 24), which is 

expected from a beam trawl compared to an otter trawl.

In the analysis of fish genera, , the trajectory of rarefaction curves is more similar, 

falling within the 95% confidence intervals of each other (FIG. 25), with slightly higher 

richness in the later NMFS survey. The two-fold difference in genera overall is likely a 

result of more sampling and recording of benthic species by Fishhawk. Alternatively, it 

may suggest predator release due to increased fishing pressure or extirpation of 

community types. It is important to note that the trajectory of the Fishhawk rarefaction 

curve does not approach a maximum expected genus diversity; therefore, more genera 

would be expected with additional sampling by Fishhawk but not NMFS surveys. 

Simulated guild analysis using contingency tables and re-sampling demonstrates further 

that NMFS surveys sampled many more pelagic species than Fishhawk as may be 

expected from the difference in gear type.194

 194 Jamie Cournane, “Spatial Management of Marine Fish Resources in the Gulf of Maine and Georges 

Bank,” Ph.D. diss., University of New Hampshire, 2009.
77

Figure 25. Site-based rarefaction results for the entire study area for Fishhawk (black) and NMFS (gray) 

surveys. Expected genera richness located in the top two panels and expected fish genera richness in the 

bottom two panels. Results scaled to Fishhawk survey tows in the left two panels and to NMFS surveys 

tows in the right two panels. Confidence intervals (dashed lines) based on 2 standard deviations.

There are key assumptions to consider in this analysis. We reviewed the survey 

methods used by the Fishhawk and NMFS research vessels and determined that they both 

used standardized sampling and collection methods, so that differences are more likely to 

be gear related than due to other sampling factors. We also assume samples collected 

within close spatial proximity to each other (i.e., 10 nm) are more alike than those 

collected further apart despite their temporal distance. Moreover, we assume that 

locations sampled are broadly representative of community type. Finally, from presence 
78

data we infer patterns across the community without necessarily having information 

about abundance.

Richness patterns may be a result of differences in sampling technology and intent 

of the two surveys. Fishhawk surveys sought to characterize bottom habitats and identify 

species new to science while NMFS surveys have traditionally focused on groundfish 

abundance sampling. Also, the swept areas and mesh sizes of Fishhawk trawls are 

considerably smaller than NMFS trawls. Consequently, the differences in diversity as a 

result of fishing gear and sampling strategy must be considered. Despite the sampling 

gear differences in the surveys, it is notable that fewer pelagic species in the Fishhawk

dataset is consistent with other published analyses that show that increased fishing 

pressure over time on large pelagic species and commercially valuable demersal species 

has impacted trophic structures resulting in an increase of smaller pelagic species.195

 195 M. J. Fogarty and S. A. Murawski, Large-Scale Disturbance and the Structure of Marine Systems: Fishery 

Impacts on Georges Bank. Supplement: Ecosystem Management for Sustainable Marine Fisheries.

Ecological Applications, 8.1 (1998): S6-S22.
79

Species Composition

Using landings data from the USFC statistical bulletins and Vessel Trip Report 

(VTR) data, we examined changes in the composition of landings over time on 

Stellwagen Bank, and between Stellwagen Bank and the Gulf of Maine region. In order 

to provide estimates for the magnitude of the relative changes in the catch composition 

between these two areas as well as the uncertainty of these estimates, a multinomial 

model was developed and analyzed using the software program WinBugs. The statistical 

significance of the changes in distribution may be assessed from the posterior 

distributions shown in APP. B (FIGS. A-F). In each analysis, we compared the catch of 

cod, haddock, hake, cusk, pollock, mackerel, and ‘other’ fish.

Figure 26. Catch composition of historically valuable commercial species on Stellwagen Bank (top) and 

Gulf of Maine (bottom). Catches are in millions of pounds.
80

In the first analysis we modeled the 1902-1935 landings data. The data was 

divided into two eras: 1902-1915 and 1916-1935. These eras were assigned to examine 

how catch composition may have changed before and after the widespread adoption of 

steam-powered, net-trawling vessels, ca. 1915. For each era, we estimated the 

composition of the catch for the Stellwagen Bank area and for the Gulf of Maine 

(excluding Stellwagen). The 1902-1915 landings on Stellwagen Bank were dominated by 

haddock, with cod and hake also making up significant proportions of the catch (FIG. 

25). From 1916-1935, haddock and mackerel comprised the larger share of landings; cod 

and hake also making up a significant proportion of the catch.

We then compared the composition of catch between Stellwagen Bank and the 

Gulf of Maine for each era. This was accomplished by subtracting the estimated

proportion for a given species on Stellwagen from the estimated proportion for that 

species in the Gulf of Maine. Our results show that in 1902-1915, cod, pollock and 

‘other’ comprised a larger proportion of the catch in the Gulf of Maine, while haddock 

and hake comprised a larger proportion of the catch on Stellwagen (FIG. 26). In 1916-

1935, cod, haddock, pollock, cusk and ‘other’ comprised a larger proportion of the catch 

in the Gulf of Maine, while hake and mackerel comprised the larger proportions of the 

Stellwagen catch. 

Figure 27. Change in catch composition of commercial species on Stellwagen Bank over time.

The second analysis compared catch composition on Stellwagen Bank for the 

1901-1915 and 1916-1935 eras to a modern era: 1995-2005, based on VTR data which 

was ‘clipped’ to the sanctuary’s boundaries and also categorized by cod, haddock, hake, 

cusk, pollock, mackerel and ‘other’ fish. In stark contrast to the earlier eras, the catch 

from Stellwagen in 1995-2005 was dominated by the ‘other’ category, with only cod 

making a significant contribution (FIG. 26). However, if we exclude the ‘other’ category, 

a very different picture emerges. In comparing the proportions in 1901-1915 to 1995-

2005, the proportion of cod has increased considerably while haddock catch has 

plummeted (APP. B, FIG. G). The change in all other species was relatively minor. 

Similar results were revealed when comparing the proportions of the catch in 1916-1935 
81

to 1995-2005, except that there is a significant decrease in the proportion of haddock as 

well as mackerel caught in the modern era (APP. B, FIG. H).

Figure 28. Average annual catch for commercial species on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935 compared to 

1995-2005.

Figure 29. Maximum annual catch for commercial species on Stellwagen Bank 1893-1935 compared to 

1995-2005.

Historic haddock catches on Stellwagen Bank far exceed the modern era in 

volume and proportion; however, cod landings and its proportion of the catch in the 

modern era is far greater than all other historically important commercial species (FIGS. 

27 & 28). Compared to historic levels, haddock, cusk, hake, halibut and pollock make up 

a surprisingly small proportion of the modern era catch on Stellwagen Bank, in relative 
82

comparison to earlier eras. The decline in these species proportions and landings and 

concomitant increase in cod in the modern era may be explained by multiple factors. 

First, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, haddock was preferred by consumers over cod. 

Therefore, this shift may be a result of consumer taste and market demand, with cod a 

more prized, valued and targeted species in the modern era. Although market analyses are 

not included in this study, a comparative analysis of historical prices and values for these 

fish would identify the influence of this externality. The catchability and efficiency of 

modern fishermen to target and fish cod may also account for greater volumes and 

proportions of catch, but it cannot be ruled out that the dramatic increase in catch in the 

modern era means that local cod populations on Stellwagen Bank are recovering to pre1900 levels. The resurgent abundance and proportion of cod caught suggests further that 

there are significant sub-regional variations in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean where the 

presence of a trophic cascade phenomenon, as illustrated in the previous report section, 

and that has been broadly identified in other regional studies.196 On the other hand, 

dramatically lower catches of all other commercial species, haddock in particular, 

indicates that fishing pressure and possibly climate fluxes are disrupting and reorganizing the Stellwagen system. As far back as the 1830s, and through the 19th and 

early 20th centuries, the proportional catch ratio of haddock to cod in Massachusetts Bay 

was consistently 3:1.197

 

196 Kenneth T. Frank et al. “Trophic Cascades in a Formerly Cod-Dominated Ecosystem,” Science

308.5728 (2005): 1621-1623.

Contrary to regional trends, VTR data collected from the 

sanctuary between 1995 and 2005 shows a ratio on average of 1:7, signaling that haddock 

populations are in broad decline in this Gulf of Maine sub-region.

197 George B. Goode, George B. Goode, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section I: 

Natural History of Useful Aquatic Animals. Washington: USGPO, 1884, p. 224.
83

Marine Climate

Sea surface temperature (SST) in the SBNMS has risen nearly 2°C between 1900 

and 2000, with a particularly dramatic rise in SST in the first half of the 20th century 

(FIG. 29). Climate indicators such as SST and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) play 

a dominant role in shaping marine ecosystems and the abundance, diversity and 

migratory patterns of fish in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean.198 However, there is currently 

a lack of tools and methods, and substantial uncertainty about projecting or back-casting, 

and correlating climate variables with historic marine animal population data.199 For 

example, visualization of SST and cod landings from SBNMS and the Gulf of Maine for 

the period 1900-1935 suggest a positive correlation between SST and Gulf of Maine cod 

landings but a negative correlation in the case of Stellwagen Bank (FIGS. 30 & 31).

7

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185418571860186318661869187218751878188118841887189018931896189919021905190819111914191719201923192619291932193519381941194419471950195319561959196219651968197119741977198019831986198919921995199820012004

Figure 30. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) for SBNMS 1854-2004. 200

 198 J. Hurrell, NAO Index Data, Boulder: Climate Analysis Section, NCAR, 1995, 

http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/jhurrell/indices.html#refinfo; T.M. Smith, R.W. Reynolds, Thomas C. 

Peterson, and Jay Lawrimore, “Improvements to NOAA's Historical Merged Land-Ocean Surface 

Temperature Analysis (1880-2006),” Journal of Climate, 21 (2008): 2283-2296, 

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/sst/ersstv3.php. 199 Michael Fogarty et al., “Potential Climate Change Impacts on Marine Resources of the Northeastern 

United States,” Northeast Climate Impacts Assessment, Union of Concerned Scientists, 2007, p. 26-27, 

http://www.northeastclimateimpacts.org/pdf/miti/fogarty_et_al.pdf. 200 Extracted from ERSST.V2 using LAS server http://nomads.ncdc.noaa.gov:8085/las/servlets/dataset. 

T.M. Smith and R.W. Reynolds, “Improved Extended Reconstruction of SST (1854-1997),” Journal of 

Climate, 27 (2004): 2466-2477, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/sst/ersstv3.php. 
84

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Figure 31. Visualization of sea surface temperature (SST) and cod catch on Stellwagen Bank 1902-1935.

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Figure 32. Visualization of sea surface temperature (SST) and cod catch in the Gulf of Maine 1902-1935.
85

We investigated whether environmental factors such as SST and NAO were 

correlated with changes in catch over time. As preliminary analysis, we applied 

hierarchical clustering to the full suite of bank-specific and species-specific time series. 

Results clearly indicate that groundfish taken from a particular bank tend to group 

together, as opposed to the same species from multiple banks grouping together (FIG. 

32). To reduce the dimensionality of our dataset, we applied factor analysis, an approach 

commonly used in financial time-series models to examine a large suite of indicators, 

referred to as latent variables, to extract trends. As with the hierarchical cluster analysis, 

factor loadings grouped the groundfish species within each of the 13 banks analyzed 

(APP. B., FIG. I). In addition to this, we created time series for the monthly catch of 

individual species (cod, haddock, mackerel, hake, pollock, cusk, and halibut) by applying 

factor analysis to the suite of time-series for that species across multiple banks (APP. B., 

FIG. J). In each case, the time series spanned from April 1901 through December 1935. 

We treated each factor as dependent variables and SST and NAO indices as independent 

variables. We allowed the indices to lag up to 24 months. In no time series, including 

migratory species such as mackerel which are known to respond to temperature gradients, 

did we find a significant correlation between environmental indices and any groundfish 

factors. Although climate databases provide regional perspectives and trends back into 

the 1800s, methods are still needed to refine long-term, coarse-scale climate models and 

trends, and to correlate these models with biological data for specific geographic locales 

such as Stellwagen Bank. Our findings are therefore inconclusive regarding the 

contribution of climate change to historical catch trends in SBNMS.
86

Figure 33. Hierarchical cluster analysis of 13 fishing banks in the Gulf of Maine for the period 1901-1935.
87

Place-based and Species Indicators

By grouping indicators using factor analysis, as described above, we investigated 

if certain indicators (i.e., species and ground/bank locations) were correlated with any 

underlying system processes that occurred within the Gulf of Maine ecosystem and 

affected catch rates. Specifically, we asked whether catches on Stellwagen Bank (as 

defined by the Stellwagen Bank factor) were correlated with catch on other banks, either 

contemporaneously or with time lags. In this case, the groupings (or ‘factors’) created by 

factor analysis were defined by applying weights to time series and then adding them 

together. Ideally, each factor consists of only a few time series with very large weights, 

and the latent processes can then be defined by the commonalities in those heavilyweighted time series.

As in our marine climate study, time series were created for each fishing 

ground/bank and the monthly catch of cod, haddock, mackerel, hake, pollock, cusk, and 

halibut that spanned from April 1901 through December 1935. If a species was caught 

less than 35 times in the series for a particular bank (i.e., once per year on average), that 

bank was excluded from the analysis. A total of 82 monthly species- and bank-specific 

time series were analyzed. The analysis produced 41 factors, with each factor explaining 

less than 10% of the overall variance in Gulf of Maine catch. Of the first 16 factors, 14 of 

them were bank-specific groupings of groundfish (APP. B, TAB. A & FIG. I).

The first factor, which explained the most variance in overall catch, was the sum

of the cod, cusk, hake, pollock, haddock, and halibut catch from Platts Bank. The second 

factor was the sum of catch of cod, cusk, haddock, hake, pollock, and halibut from 

Fippenies Bank. The groundfish catch from Stellwagen Bank was the third mostdominant factor. Two of the top sixteen factors were grouped by species, specifically 

mackerel and halibut on a variety of banks. Factors 17-41 largely consisted of a single 

variable that was bank and species specific (e.g. cusk caught on near-shore banks). Given 

that the historical records provide statistics for a multi-species fishery, it is not surprising 

that the dominant latent processes are related to geography, or ecosystem, rather than 

single species caught across the region. Unlike groundfish which may exist in somewhat 

isolated populations, mackerel are migratory and it was not unexpected that mackerel 

would comprise a separate factor. Although providing little explanatory power, the 

halibut factor provided the strongest species indication of the variance in groundfish 

across all banks and grounds in the region.

Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) plots were used to compare the 41 factors we 

derived and examine which factors were most similar to one another. MDS weights the 

sum of species- and bank-specific landings for each factor. The factors were projected 

onto a 2-dimensional space to visualize which factors are weighted similar to one another 

(FIG. 33). Interestingly, the factors close to one another also tend to be proximal in 

geographic space. For example, the Stellwagen Bank groundfish factor and Jeffreys Bank 

groundfish factor are similarly weighted and far from other groups of banks and grounds. 

Additionally, to examine whether there were latent patterns that might link species across 

banks, we repeated the factor analysis for single species independently (e.g., cod, 

haddock, hake). However, the grouping of these time series into factors did not produce 

any patterns or clearly identifiable factor loadings. It appeared to be random groupings of 

seemingly-unrelated banks that were inconsistent across species.
88

Figure 34. Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) of the 41 factors identified through factor analysis. Factors 

close to one another are more similar than factors farther apart. Similar bank factors appear to relate closely 

to geography.

While the above approach is suitable for interpreting time series data, it does not 

account for time lag relationships. Consequently, we performed a standard time series 

study using the results of the factor analysis (APP. B, FIG. J). In this approach, the series 

were modeled to ensure stationarity. Stationarity is intended to remove trends and make 

variance constant over time. To remove the trends in each of the time series we 

seasonally differenced the data. Seasonal differencing was performed by subtracting one 

time point from another with a lag of 12 months. For example, the factor score in April 

1902 was subtracted from the factor score in April 1901, the factor score from April 1903 

was subtracted from the factor score from April 1902, and so on. This is carried out 

across all years and months to produce differenced time series. However, the variance 

produced was not constant throughout the time series. This non-constant variance, also 

called heteroskedastic variance, is extremely problematical to model.201

 201 Peter Romilly, “Time series modeling of global mean temperature for managerial decision-making,” 

Journal of Environmental Management 76.1 (2005): 61-70; Mary W. Downton and K.A. Miller,

“Relationships between Alaskan salmon catch and North Pacific climate on interannual and interdecadal 

time scales,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55 (1998): 2255–2265; Christelle Ravier 

and Jean-Marc Fromentin, “Are the long-term fluctuations in Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) 

population related to environmental changes?” Fisheries Oceanography 13.3 (2004): 145–160; A.F. Zuur, 

et al., “Dynamic factor analysis to estimate common trends in fisheries time series,” Canadian Journal of 

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60 (2003): 542–552.

Therefore, rather 

than use a seasonal auto-regressive moving average model, we opted to use an Ordinary 

Least Squares regression (OLS) analysis. When combined with a Newey West correction, 
89

OLS allowed us to make valid statistical inferences irrespective of heteroskedastic 

variance and without having to specifically model this variance.202

For this analysis, we treated each bank’s factor as a dependent variable. We then 

tested for the presence of time lags within each factor. With these lags included, we 

examined whether the Stellwagen Bank factor had any explanatory power either 

contemporaneously or at a 1-month lag. Because we were looking at Stellwagen Bank 

according to these two criteria, we applied a Bonferonni correction for multiple 

comparisons to each of the 15 bank/ground time series. The test was significant at an 

alpha level of 0.00167, which is above the norm of 0.05. Within each dependent factor, 

significant lags were found at 1 month, 1 year, 2 years, and most factors also showed a 

significant 3-year lag. With these lags included in the model, contemporaneous catch on 

Stellwagen Bank was negatively correlated with catch on Jeffreys Ledge, but positively 

correlated with region-wide mackerel and halibut catches (TAB. 7). That is to say, if 

mackerel or halibut catch was good throughout the region for a particular year, a good 

groundfish catch would be expected for the following 1-3 years on Stellwagen Bank.

This approach was 

particularly applicable because we were more concerned about the correlation between 

ground/bank series rather than correctly modeling within-bank, time-series correlations.

Factor Correlation

Halibut 0.158

Mackerel 0.142

Georges Bank 0.131

Nantucket Shoals 0.091

South Channel 0.068

New England Shore 0.056

Seal Island Bank 0.033

Cashes Bank -0.001

Platts Bank -0.022

Browns Bank -0.034

Nova Scotia Shore -0.044

Off Chatham -0.075

Fippenies Bank -0.079

Off Highland Light -0.131

Jeffreys Ledge -0.363

Table 8. Estimated correlations between Stellwagen Bank groundfish factor and other factors.

The negative correlation between Stellwagen Bank and Jeffreys Ledge is likely a 

result of fleet dynamics rather than ecology. Given the close geographic proximity of 

these fishing grounds, it is probable that the same fleet fished both banks – if the fleet 

was on Stellwagen it was not on Jeffreys, and vice versa. If the catch is only slightly 

better on one bank than another, then this could also produce a strong negative 

 202 Whitney K. Newey and Kenneth D. West, “A Simple Positive Semi-definite Heteroskedasticity and 

Autocorrelation Consistent Covariance Matrix,” Econometrica 55 (1987): 1029–1054.
90

correlation. The magnitude of the correlation, however, suggests a spatial component to 

the correlation. The closer a bank is to Stellwagen the stronger the negative correlation; 

banks more distant have a stronger positive correlation. Months in which catch is good 

(or bad) on Stellwagen Bank, catch is also good (or bad) on distant banks. While this 

correlative structure may signal fleet dynamics, alternatively the positive correlation with 

distant banks point to a regional pattern in overall catch levels. Future research into crossbank correlations may determine if spatial structure is related to these temporal 

correlations.
91

Summary

Qualitative as well as quantitative methods and analyses of historical records in 

this study has shown that the fish populations of SBNMS are resilient but have declined 

significantly in abundance and diversity over time. SBNMS was fished by Europeans for 

nearly 400 years. Cod were the primary targeted species until the 1800s, at which time 

public demand, markets and infrastructure were developed for other fisheries including 

haddock, halibut, hake, cusk, pollock, mackerel, herring and swordfish. Human 

interaction with the Stellwagen ecosystem shifted significantly in the late 19th and early 

20th century, with the development of new technologies such as gill and trawl nets, steam 

and gas-powered sea-going vessels, refrigeration as well as improved infrastructure, 

resulting in the expansion of markets for the region’s fisheries, increased fishing pressure, 

and consequently a degraded ecosystem. The findings of our SBNMS historical marine 

ecosystem assessment are as follows:

a) Decline of near-shore fish populations and micro-banks occurred by ca. 1800.

b) Top predators in SBNMS, such as halibut and swordfish, were overfished to near 

extirpation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

c) Decline in the abundance (i.e., MTI) of commercial species suggests the presence 

of a cascading trophic level phenomenon in the Gulf of Maine in the first half of 

the 20th century, but with specific historical events and technological innovation 

of fishing gear affecting MTI trends in sub-regions such as SBNMS.

d) Diversity of bottom-dwelling species in the western Gulf of Maine appears to 

have declined significantly from ca. 1900 to 2000.

e) Composition of catch in the Gulf of Maine is variable across geographic space, 

but catch for the entire region has shifted over time toward exploitation of lowerlevel trophic animals.

f) Maximum annual catch levels of historically-important commercial species in 

SBNMS have declined by nearly 50% over a 100 year period.

g) Proportional catch ratios of haddock and cod in SBNMS have inverted in the last 

100 years from 3:1 to 1:7, signaling a resurgence of cod but concomitant decline 

of haddock.

In consideration of the relatively short period of time (ca. 100 years) that these 

changes have occurred, and qualified by the historical observations and descriptions 

presented in this report, we conclude that the introduction and deployment of net fishing 

technologies is the primary cause for the change in the condition of SBNMS ecosystems 

and marine animal populations. The decline of near shore populations led not only to 

expansion of shore fishing to offshore areas, but also development of new fishing 

technologies (i.e., seines, gill nets, trawl nets), which were developed and adopted to 

improve efficiency and catchability in an environment of declining catch per unit of 

effort and increasing market demand.
92

 

Figure 35. Advertisements of the federal government to market net-trawled by-catch.203

Net fishing also created markets for historically unmarketable species such as 

flounder, silver hake, monkfish, wolfish, skate and dogfish. In the early years of steampowered net trawling, the federal government assisted with the marketing of immature 

commercial species and unmarketable by-catch, which represented more than 50% of net 

trawl catches (FIG. 34).204

 203 United States Fisheries Heritage Digital Collection. 

Fisheries science also developed at this time in part out of the 

need to assess the assertions of hook fishermen that trawling was detrimental to the 

fisheries. Net fishing, by mechanical means and steam-powered vessels, was 

overwhelmingly de-cried by mackerel ‘jiggers’ and hook-and-line fishermen as 

destructive to benthic habitats and biota, and that it disturbed feeding grounds and caught 

spawning fish. Armed with historical and contextual information about the development 

of fisheries in SBNMS and the Gulf of Maine, and the catch and diversity data analyses 

presented here, we conclude that the caveats issued and impacts of net fishing described 

by the vast majority of fishermen of the past were largely correct. Dismissal of their 

warnings and observations as subjective, unscientific and untenable has to some degree 

resulted in the relatively degraded condition of marine environments and animal 

populations today.

http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/USFISH/. Silver 

Spring, MD: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National 

Marine Sanctuary Program, 2005.

204 A. B. Alexander, H. F. Moore and W. C. Kendall, “Report on the Otter-Trawl Fishery,” Doc. No. 1519, 

63rd Congress, 3rd Session, Washington: USGPO, 1915, p. 27-33.
93

VI. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS

There are numerous additional research opportunities and topics that can expand 

and improve upon understanding of the cumulative and long-term changes in SBNMS 

resources. These research areas include (but are not limited to) 1) establishing baselines

for fish populations, biodiversity and habitat conditions, 2) documenting climate change

drivers that impact biota, and 3) identifying socio-economic and cultural drivers and 

responses related to marine climate and baseline shifts. Additionally, as historical and 

archaeological records are explored for these purposes, there will be an increasing need 

for data management, as well as for the development of education and outreach products

for broad public dissemination. The following research directives are recommended:

Catch Trends and Baselines

Our study provided a broad-based assessment of Stellwagen Bank fisheries, but it 

was focused temporally on the period 1890-1935. Both historical and archaeological 

records may contribute toward the in-filling of temporal gaps. Historical research into 

earlier periods may provide rebuilding targets for specific fisheries, and long-term catch 

trends for Stellwagen Bank and the Gulf of Maine may be extended feasibly to ca. 1800. 

Archaeological data, namely faunal material from fishing stations and fish-processing 

sites may be used to extend size-based indictors (see below) to earlier eras, but will 

generally be limited to meta-analyses and establishing regional baselines.205 Research into 

the recent past is also needed, as a significant data gap exists between 1935 and the 1990s 

– a time when scientific survey data is increasingly available and standardized. Monthly 

catch records are available for Stellwagen Bank and Gulf of Maine sub-regions up until 

1944.206 The National Archives in Waltham, MA, contain thousands of daily catch 

records for vessels that fished out of Boston, which was the primary homeport for vessels 

fishing on Stellwagen Bank. If these records are correlated with vessel registrations, they 

may provide a precise measure of effort, fish removals, and biomass estimations for 

specific species in the early- to mid-20th century. 207 The mid-20th century is surprisingly 

understudied, and may be an important era to assess the rate of habitat and stock recovery 

in times of decreased fishing pressure resulting from economic stagnation, war and 

depressed post-war, socio-economic conditions.

 205 Matthew W. Betts and Herbert D. G. Maschner, “Zoo-archaeology of the ‘Fish that Stops’: Using 

Archaeofaunas to Construct Long-term Time Series of Atlantic and Pacific Cod Populations,” Paper 

Presented at the 73rd Society for American Archaeology Annual Conference, Vancouver, BC, March 29, 

2008. Unpub.

206 The National Archives in Waltham, MA, contain the monthly statistical bulletins of the U.S. Bureau of 

Fisheries (i.e., U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries). Records for 1935-1944 were not recovered by this 

project. See metadata in Appendix B for a complete description of this historical data set.

207 Record Group 22, “Records of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,” National Archives, Northeast Region, 

Waltham, MA.
94

Climate

Setting targets and thresholds for rebuilding and sustaining ecological integrity 

requires consideration of the long-term effects of climate change on fish stocks and 

habitats.208 This means developing climate models and re-constructing long-term climate 

trends in order to document how stocks and habitats responded to climate change in the 

past and ultimately to predict how they may be affected in the future. Historical surveys 

and explorations of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, U.S. Navy, and U.S. 

Coast Survey, as well as foreign vessel surveys contain atmospheric and oceanographic 

data that can be used to extend and refine climate trends and models for Stellwagen Bank 

and the Gulf of Maine. For these purposes, protocols and standards for data recovery and 

digitization are needed so that historical and legacy marine environmental data may be 

easily incorporated into existing marine climate models and database formats such as the 

International Maritime Meteorological Archive (IMMA) format, which has been adopted 

by the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) and the 

Joint WMO-IOC Technical Committee for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology 

(JCOMM).

Size-Based Indicators (SBI)

The statistical bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries may be 

used to derive size-based and size-spectra indicators. Pinpointing where size and 

abundance decline in tandem as a result of overfishing, as opposed to declines or 

increases in size which are inversely correlated to abundance (likely as a result of climate 

change), will be important thresholds to establish.209 SBIs may also be derived from 

analysis of archaeo-faunal collections that could be used to extend regional SBI baselines 

hundreds and probably thousands of years into the past.

Biodiversity 

Biodiversity has been identified as an essential measure for setting conservation

targets and ensuring environmental stability.210

 208 Michael Fogarty, et al., Potential Climate Change Impacts on Marine Resources of the Northeastern 

United States, Northeast Climate Impacts Assessment, 2007; Michael Fogarty, et al., “Potential Climate 

Change Impacts on Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) off the Northeastern United States,” Mitigation and 

Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 13.5-6 (2008): 453-466.

The rarefaction methods applied to 

historical fisheries survey data and presented in this report effectively measured changes 

in species richness or biodiversity over time. We strongly recommend that historical 

209 See e.g., Yunne-Jai Shin, et al., “Using size-based indicators to evaluate the ecosystem effects of 

fishing,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 62 (2005): 384-396. 210 Katherine J. Willis, et al., “Biodiversity hotspots through time: an introduction,” Philosophical 

Transactions of the Royal Society B 362 (2007): 169-174.
95

fisheries survey logbooks and data be mined and extracted for biological data and to 

refine rarefaction analytical techniques. This type of analysis provides a measure of 

change in biodiversity as well as targets for rebuilding.

Habitat Conservation

Fishing is determined by this study as a major driver for change in species 

richness, catch composition and bottom habitat. Therefore, establishment of no take, no 

drag, net or trawl-fishing areas in representative habitats of Stellwagen Bank is 

recommended in order to assess and understand the impacts of these fishing methods and 

recovery potential.211 Establishing these areas with higher levels of protection would 

provide an opportunity to assess the compatibility of these fishing techniques with the 

sanctuary goals of maintaining ecological integrity. Furthermore, areas could be 

designated in areas adjacent to maritime heritage resources such as shipwrecks, which 

would serve the dual purpose of cultural heritage protection and opportunity to measure 

habitat recovery and food web conditions after long-term seafloor disturbance by net 

trawling and scallop dragging. A variety of species richness assessment techniques, 

including those applied in this study, and habitat assessment methods could be used to 

compare ecological characteristics over space and time. 212

Socio-economic Indicators

Our research indicated that the warnings and concerns voiced by fishermen in the 

past about deteriorating stocks, poor catches, unusual weather conditions, and 

social/cultural conflict are significant indicators of marine ecosystem changes. As fishers’ 

familiarity with the maritime landscape provides first-hand knowledge and observations 

of the environment, any such warnings should be investigated and addressed with 

urgency. The observations of historic (and living) fishers may also offer an added 

measure of certainty in decision-making and policy formulation, in that they may stand 

alongside quantitative analyses, as well as offer sub-regional perspectives that are often 

over-shadowed by broad, regional quantitative assessments. We support sanctuary efforts 

to provide a forum and process for fishers to submit, or sanctuary staff to collect, 

qualitative observations of fishers about the sanctuary's marine resources and ecosystem 

conditions, and incorporate these observations and perspectives into resource 

assessments.

Although we did not perform any historical economic analyses for this study, the 

data tabulated from the statistical bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries 

allows for supply-and-demand analyses of specific fisheries. Such measures could help to 

 211 S. R. Palumbi, Marine Reserves: A Tool for Ecosystem Management and Conservation, Arlington, VA: 

Pew Oceans Commission, 2002.

212 B. Gratwicke, M. R. Speight, “The relationship between fish species richness, abundance and habitat 

complexity in a range of shallow tropical marine habitats,” Journal of Fish Biology, 66.3 (2005): 650-667; J. 

S. Collie, G. A Escanero & P. C. Valentine, “Effects of bottom fishing on the benthic megafauna of George’s 

Bank,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 155 (1997): 159-172.
96

identify trends and isolate socio-economic externalities that affected catch rates on 

Stellwagen Bank and in the Gulf of Maine. The bulletins can be used further to make 

intra- and inter-regional fishing ground comparisons, studies on the catchability of 

specific fishing gears, and identification of fleet efforts and patterns, based on the number 

of vessels and trips made to specific fishing grounds and days absent from port. Research 

into the affects of various fishing-gear technologies on the demographics of individuals 

employed in the fisheries is also a relevant research area. The results of this research 

could be used to predict and gauge the impact of new fishing gears, and regulations that 

may restrict use of certain types of gear, on fishing communities.

Research Coordination and Data Clearinghouse

A challenge for future historical ecology research and scientific analyses will be 

the management and warehousing of scanned and digitized historical source materials. 

While archives such as NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) provide storage 

of historical climate-related records, there are currently no clearinghouses for storage of 

and access to historical ecology source materials.213

 213

Historical record formats are nonstandardized, diverse, and disparate, and standard protocols and methods for document 

scanning, file formatting, digitization, tabulation, and compilation are needed. The 

development of a ‘metadata’ standard for historical data sets is also strongly 

recommended to facilitate future research and analysis of historical and archaeological 

source materials.

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/cdmp/cdmp.html
97

VII. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS

If New England wishes to fish in the future it must begin to harvest with 

discretion . . . . in New England waters no regulation, no limitation is 

undertaken until a fishery in not merely threatened, but seriously 

impaired.

214

– Edward A. Ackerman (1938)

Critical to the restoration of Stellwagen Bank is the identification of historic 

stable states and the services and benefits afforded by its productive and diverse 

ecosystems. This study of SBNMS marine history and ecology reinforces the importance 

of the sanctuary’s ecosystems and marine resources to the broader Gulf of Maine system, 

and highlights the historical role of Stellwagen Bank’s marine resources in the 

development and well-being of the Gulf of Maine’s coastal communities. To this end, the 

assessment of late 19th- and early 20th-century fisheries of Stellwagen Bank, as 

presented in this report, provides baselines for comparison to current ecosystem 

conditions. Through this comparative analysis, long-term trends have been identified, 

which may be used to direct future management decisions. For example, our research has 

shown significant declines in biodiversity and abundance as well as major shifts in the 

composition of the Stellwagen fisheries. These baselines are significantly different from 

the SBNMS “Condition Report (2006)” and consequently the direction of management 

actions needed to improve these conditions and overall ecosystem integrity (TAB. 8).215

The widely held belief that SBNMS and Gulf of Maine haddock populations are 

healthy and sustainable is of particular concern.216

 214 Edward A. Ackerman, “Depletion in New England Fisheries,” Economic Geography, 14.3 (1938): 233, 

236.

While the scientific consensus is likely 

correct for the post-1960s haddock populations in the Gulf of Maine, historical data 

suggests that a decline in abundance for this fishery occurred first in the 19th century and 

then a more abrupt drop in productivity in the early-20th century, especially for nearshore, sub-regional ecosystems such as Stellwagen Bank. Although climate plays a major 

role in long-term shifts in abundance and diversity, the historical record and our analyses 

suggest that fishing pressure is the primary reason for changes in SBNMS haddock 

distribution and catch declines. The inverted proportional catch of cod-haddock may also 

signal that the Stellwagen system has shifted from its historical ‘steady state,’ is unstable, 

and undergoing trophic level re-organization.

215 Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Draft Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, 

Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Marine Sanctuary Program, April 2008, p. 174-175. 216 http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/sos/spsyn/pg/haddock; 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/fishwatch/species/haddock.htm
98

Table 9. 2006 condition report for specific resources from the SBNMS Draft Management Plan, compared 

to the 1900-period baseline and findings from this marine historical ecology assessment.217

Questions/

 Resource 2006 1900 Basis for Judgment Description of Findings

Habitat

What is the 

abundance and 

distribution of major 

habitat types and 

how are they 

changing?

— 

Alteration of 

microhabitat due to 

bottom dragging & 

dredging.

Selected habitat loss or 

alteration may inhibit the 

development of 

assemblages, and may 

cause measurable, but not 

severe declines in living 

resources or water quality.

What is the 

condition of 

biologicallystructured habitats 

and how is it 

changing?

— 

Fishing gear 

impacts.

Selected habitat loss or 

alteration has caused or is 

likely to cause severe 

declines in some, but not all 

living resources or water 

quality.

What are the 

contaminant 

concentrations in 

sanctuary habitats 

and how are they 

changing?

— ?

Limited monitoring 

results.

Selected contaminants may 

preclude full development 

of living resource 

assemblages, but are not 

likely to cause substantial 

or persistent degradation.

What are the levels 

of human activities 

that may influence 

habitat quality and 

how are they 

changing?

 

Fishing gear 

impacts, shipping.

Selected activities have 

caused or are likely to 

cause severe impacts, and 

cases to date suggest a 

pervasive problem.

Living Resources

What is the status of 

biodiversity and 

how is it changing? — 

Long-term changes 

in fish diversity.

Selected biodiversity loss 

has caused or is likely to 

cause severe declines in 

some, but not all ecosystem 

components, and reduce 

ecosystem integrity.

0

What is the status of 

environmentally 

sustainable fishing 

and how is it 

changing?

— 

Published and 

unpublished 

literature on regional 

and local groundfish 

populations.

Extraction has caused or is 

likely to cause severe 

declines in some, but not all 

ecosystem components, and 

reduce ecosystem integrity.

 217 After “Condition Report (2006)” table in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Draft 

Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuary Program, April 2008, p. 

174-175.
99

Table 9. Continued.

1

What is the status of 

non-indigenous species 

and how is it changing?

 ?

Recent 

invasives 

discovered.

Non-indigenous specie exist, 

precluding full community 

development and function, but 

are unlikely to cause 

substantial or persistent 

degradation of ecosystem 

integrity.

2

What is the status of 

key species and how is 

it changing?

 

Cod Cod catch has increased 

significantly from early 1900s 

levels.

3

What is the status of 

key species and how is 

it changing?

? 

Haddock The reduced abundance of 

haddock has caused or is likely 

to cause severe declines in 

some, but not all ecosystem 

components, and reduce 

ecosystem integrity; and 

prospects for recovery are 

uncertain.

Status:  Good,  Good/Fair,  Fair,  Fair/Poor,  Poor,  Undetermined.

Trends:  Conditions appear to be improving toward one of the higher categories.

— Conditions do not appear to be changing.

 Conditions appear to be declining toward one of the lower categories.

? Undetermined trend.

The lack of specific conservation measures for living resources within the 

SBNMS is a major impediment to restoring and maintaining Gulf of Maine fisheries for 

fishermen and the general public. In fact, there presently are no regulations to mitigate 

damage to benthic habitats, spawning grounds, as well as destruction of cultural resources 

such as shipwrecks, and entanglement of whales caused by dragging and net trawl 

fishing. Additionally, there are no restrictions on fishing vessel sizes, fishing gears and 

areas of operation in sanctuary waters. This lack of restrictions has led in part to the 

deterioration of the region’s fishing communities. Lower impact fishing methods, which 

coastal communities’ social and economic structures were based upon for centuries, have 

given way to higher-impact methods such as net trawling causing significant damage to 

the abundance and diversity of marine resources, and consequently deterioration of 

coastal communities’ maritime cultural heritage. Therefore, a compatibility analysis and 

determination, as outlined in the SBNMS “Compatibility Determination Action Plan,” of 

fixed and towed fishing gears relative to the goals of the sanctuary, is warranted and 

necessary.218

 218 Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Draft Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, 

Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Marine Sanctuary Program, April 2008, p. 203-205.

A compatibility determination should also consider the cultural and socioeconomic impacts of these fishing methods. Without such a determination, as well as
100

inter-agency cooperation between NMFS and NMSP,219

To restore SBNMS resources to historic levels, and sustain these productive 

capabilities for future generations, will require the collective effort of fishermen, 

scientists, government and an informed and concerned public. In the past, uncertainty in 

the condition of fishery resources was rarely approached with precaution. Rather, 

uncertainty and lack of scientific data resulted in business-as-usual management 

responses. Today, fishery regulations are implemented for broad regions (e.g., Gulf of 

Maine), without consideration of sub-regional population, habitat and forage base affects. 

The results of our historical study show that significant differences exist between the 

condition of large and sub-regional marine ecosystems. In addition, it shows that subregional baselines do not parallel one another temporally and may vary significantly in 

exploitation rates and biological trends. The application of regional indicators to subregions should not be made without sub-regional assessments, as lifting of regional 

regulations may result in further deterioration of localized stocks and habitats. 

Ultimately, not only are the opinions of stakeholders relevant and necessary in any future 

discussion of sanctuary management and conservation efforts, but also the voices of past 

explorers, fishermen and scientists, whose observations document the shifting baselines 

in the condition of marine resources and environmental quality.

efforts to restore fish populations 

to historic levels or even maintain current levels of ecological integrity in SBNMS are 

unlikely.

 219 See e.g., “Interagency Cooperation Action Plan,” Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Draft 

Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuary Program, April 2008, p. 

192-196.
101

VIII. APPENDICES
102

APPENDIX A: Metadata for Primary Historical Data Sets
103

Statistical Bulletins of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries/Bureau of 

Fisheries

This data set is derived from statistical bulletins printed by the historic federal 

fisheries management agencies, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries and U.S. Bureau 

of Fisheries. The bulletins contain monthly commercial fish landings for the Boston and 

Gloucester, MA, and Portland, ME, fishing fleets between 1898 and 1935. The data set 

was developed by Stefan Claesson of the Gulf of Maine Cod Project (GMCP), University 

of New Hampshire (UNH), for the purposes of documenting the maritime history and 

marine ecology of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS). These 

historical data are used further to map and track changes in the population and 

composition of marine species in the vicinity of SBNMS.

The complete set of U.S. Fish Commission and Bureau of Fisheries statistical bulletins is 

believed to date from 1892 to 1944. This tabular data set includes only the monthly 

records from 1898 to 1935. Bulletin records for the years 1892-1897 and 1899-1900 are 

missing, but will be updated if located in archives. Other data gaps include all the months 

of 1898 except January, and the 1901 months of January, February, March and May. 

Additionally, a change in the format of the statistical sheets in December 1928 omitted 

landing data by fishing bank or ground for June-December. The annual landings by 

species for 1928 are available, however. Cod and haddock landings for December 1932 

are also missing. The fishing banks and grounds were re-organized into regional zones 

beginning in 1936 and therefore the landings 1936-1944 are not included in this data set.

The formats of the bulletins, or statistical sheets, are inconsistent and vary in 

layout from month to month depending on the types and places of fish caught. The 

pounds and values of fresh and salted fish landed are recorded for each fishing bank, 

ground, or area. It is noted on some bulletins sheets that “the weight of salted fish landed 

has been converted to the basis of fresh fish.” The number of vessel trips made to each 

fishing area is also recorded.

There are significant format changes to the bulletins in 1913. In this year, some 

species are categorized by size according to weight: cod (large [10 and over], market 

[under 10 and over 21⁄2], scrod [1 to 21⁄2]), haddock (large [over 21⁄2], scrod [1 to 21⁄2]), 

hake (large [6 and over], small [under 6]), and mackerel (large [over 21⁄2], medium [11⁄2 to 

21⁄2], small [under 11⁄2]). These size categories are consistent throughout the series (1913-

1935). Landing statistics for flounder, wolffish and rosefish are added to the data tables 

beginning in 1928. From November 1913 to May 1928, the bulletins note the number of 

vessels engaged in the bank, market, mackerel, swordfish, herring, and shore fisheries. 

Only the fishing fleets of Boston and Gloucester, MA, are included from October 1913 to 

December 1915; from January 1916 to May 1928, the records also include the fishing 

fleet of Portland, ME. Beginning in August 1914, a summary of each month’s fishing 

industry-related events is described. The summaries address weather conditions, 

abundances and qualities of various fisheries and fishing locations, overall size of 

landings, size and operations of fishing fleets, market supply and demand, and sociopolitical events that affected the fishing industry. Temporally, these summaries extend to 

December 1935.
104

This data set does not include species listed in the footnotes of the bulletins. 

Generally, footnotes record catches of herring, large fish (e.g., swordfish, shark, tuna), 

and lesser-caught species in the “Other” or “Miscellaneous” data column. Footnotes in 

this column provide detailed information about the quantities and values of other types of 

fish landed, but they are not included in this data table. This data is accessible and may be 

extracted from the transcribed Microsoft Excel workbooks (described below).

The landing tables are printed on standard 8.5 x 11-inch sheets of paper from 

1929-1935. Previously, the statistical tables were printed on variable-sized paper; some 

sheets as large as 30 x 20 inches. There are important additions and alterations to the data 

tables beginning in 1929. First, there is a table that presents a summary of the fish landed 

at each port during the month, and a summary of and comparison to the previous year’s 

landings. The second set of tables is similar to the original bulletin format; however, the 

later tables provide statistics not only by fishing location but also fishing gear. Fishing 

gear categories include Danish seines, purse seines, drift gill nets, sink gill nets, 

harpoons, hand lines, line trawls, scallop drags, otter trawls (large, medium, small 

[according to vessel size]), and Vigneron-Dahl trawls (large, medium, small [according to 

vessel size]). Additionally, there are data columns for the number of “Vessels Fishing” on 

each bank and the number of “Days Absent” from shore or the lengths of the fishing 

trips. A second table at the bottom of each page summarizes the landing data by fishing 

bank.

The original statistical bulletins are located at National Archives and Records 

Administration (NARA) in Waltham, MA (Record Group 22, “Monthly Fishery 

Statistical Reports, 1901-1944” [Location: 15/16/11-5 – 15/16/11-6]). Digital 

photographs were taken of all monthly bulletin sheets and saved as .jpg formatted files. 

Each annual set of bulletin tables was imported into Adobe Acrobat 7.0, saved as .pdf 

files and named by year (e.g., 1901.pdf, 1902.pdf, etc.). Microsoft Excel 2003 workbooks 

were created for each year of data with a single worksheet representing each month’s 

bulletin data. The months are indicated on the worksheet tabs (e.g., Jan, Feb, etc.). Excel 

files (.xls) are also named according to year (e.g., 1901.xls). Data was manually 

transcribed from the .pdf files into the Excel worksheets. The worksheets are an exact 

transcription of the original documents including all tabular data, as well as headers, 

footers, and sidebar notes. Finally, from these sheets a single tabular database was 

populated with all statistical bulletin data (1898-1935). The database was imported into 

ArcGIS and exported as an ESRI .shp (Shapefile) format. Data field definitions are 

provided below. A quality check of the data was performed four times by three different 

individuals.

Point locations of all fishing grounds, banks, and areas referred to in the bulletins 

were derived from geographic name databases such as Geographic Names Information 

System (GNIS) and the Canadian Geographic Names Data Base (CGNDB). When names 

were not present in these databases, historical fishing maps published by Goode et al. in 

The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States (1887) and Rich in Fishing 

Grounds of the Gulf of Maine (1929) were used to identify fishing places referred to in 

the bulletins. The locations represent centroids of fishing bank and grounds, and are not 

exact but rather approximate locations of where fish were caught.

The spatial coverage of the data is the Northwest Atlantic Ocean from 

approximately Long Island, NY, in the south and north to Iceland, Greenland and the 
105

Davis Straits. Landing data are available for the following locations: Gulf of Maine, 

Grand Banks, Massachusetts Bay, Bay of Fundy, Scotian Shelf, Bacalieu Bank, Bank 

Comfort, Bay of Islands, Block Island, Browns Bank, Burgeo Bank, Canso Bank, Cape 

North, Cape Shore, Cashes Bank, Clark Bank, Curdo Bank, Davis Strait, Emerald Bank, 

Fippenies Bank, Flemish Cap, Georges Bank, German Bank, Grand Bank, Grand Manan, 

Green Bank, Greenland, Iceland, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Ipswich Bay, Jeffreys Ledge, La 

Have Bank, Labrador, Middle Bank, Stellwagen Bank, Misaine Bank, Nantucket Shoals, 

Chatham, Funks, Highland Light, Newfoundland, Race Point, Platts Bank, Quereau 

Bank, Roseway Bank, Sable Island Bank, Sambro Bank, Scatari Bank, Seal Island 

Grounds, South Channel, St. Anns Bank, St. Peters Bank, Strait of Belle Isle, The Gully, 

Tillies Bank, and Western Bank.

Data Fields and Attributes:

Month Month

Year Year

Landing City/Place where fish landed (Gloucester, Boston, or Portland)

Gear Fishing gear type

Ground Description of location where fish caught (e.g., Middle Bank)

X Longitude (decimal degrees)

Y Latitude (decimal degrees)

Add_Comment Additional comments – e.g., Canadian or American landings

Vessels Number of vessels fishing

Trips Numbers of trips made

Absent Days absent from port

cod_flp Cod Fresh Large Pounds

cod_flv Cod Fresh Large Value

cod_slp Cod Salted Large Pounds

cod_slv Cod Salted Large Value

cod_fmp Cod Fresh Medium Pounds

cod_fmv Cod Fresh Medium Value

cod_smp Cod Salted Medium Pounds

cod_smv Cod Salted Medium Value

cod_fsp Cod Fresh Small Pounds

cod_fsv Cod Fresh Small Value

cod_ssp Cod Salted Small Pounds

cod_ssv Cod Salted Small Value

cod_fp Cod Fresh Pounds

cod_fv Cod Fresh Value

cod_sp Cod Salted Pounds

cod_sv Cod Salted Value

had_flp Haddock Fresh Large Pounds

had_flv Haddock Fresh Large Value

had_slp Haddock Salted Large Pounds

had_slv Haddock Salted Large Value

had_fsp Haddock Fresh Small Pounds

had_fsv Haddock Fresh Small Value

had_ssp Haddock Salted Small Pounds

had_ssv Haddock Salted Small Value
106

had_fp Haddock Fresh Pounds

had_fv Haddock Fresh Value

had_sp Haddock Salted Pounds

had_sv Haddock Salted Value

hak_flp Hake Fresh Large Pounds

hak_flv Hake Fresh Large Value

hak_slp Hake Salted Large Pounds

hak_slv Hake Salted Large Value

hak_fsp Hake Fresh Small Pounds

hak_fsv Hake Fresh Small Value

hak_ssp Hake Salted Small Pounds

hak_ssv Hake Salted Small Value

hak_fp Hake Fresh Pounds

hak_fv Hake Fresh Value

hak_sp Hake Small Pounds

hak_sv Hake Small Value

pol_fp Pollock Fresh Pounds

pol_fv Pollock Fresh Value

pol_sp Pollock Salted Pounds

pol_sv Pollock Salted Value

cus_fp Cusk Fresh Pounds

cus_fv Cusk Fresh Value

cus_sp Cusk Salted Pounds

cus_sv Cusk Salted Value

hal_fp Halibut Fresh Pounds

hal_fv Halibut Fresh Value

hal_sp Halibut Salted Pounds

hal_sv Halibut Salted Value

flou_fp Flounder Fresh Pounds

flou_fv Flounder Fresh Value

wolf_fp Wolffish Fresh Pounds

wolf_fv Wolffish Fresh Value

rose_fp Rosefish Fresh Pounds

rose_fv Rosefish Fresh Value

mac_flp Mackerel Fresh Large Pounds

mac_flv Mackerel Fresh Large Value

mac_slp Mackerel Salted Large Pounds

mac_slv Mackerel Salted Large Value

mac_fmp Mackerel Fresh Medium Pounds

mac_fmv Mackerel Fresh Medium Value

mac_smp Mackerel Salted Medium Pounds

mac_smv Mackerel Salted Medium Value

mac_fsp Mackerel Fresh Small Pounds

mac_fsv Mackerel Fresh Small Value

mac_ssp Mackerel Salted Small Pounds

mac_ssv Mackerel Salted Small Value

mac_fp Mackerel Fresh Pounds

mac_fv Mackerel Fresh Value

mac_sp Mackerel Salted Pounds

mac_sv Mackerel Salted Value
107

her_fp Herring Fresh Pounds

her_fv Herring Fresh Value

her_sp Herring Salted Pounds

her_sv Herring Salted Value

swo_fp Swordfish Fresh Pounds

swo_fv Swordfish Fresh Value

swo_sp Swordfish Salted Pounds

swo_sv Swordfish Salted Value

oth_fp Other Fish Fresh Pounds

oth_fv Other Fish Fresh Value

oth_sp Other Fish Salted Pounds

oth_sv Other Fish Salted Value

total_fp Total Fresh Pounds

total_fv Total Fresh Value

total_sp Total Salted Pounds

total_sv Total Salted Value
108

Fishermen Interviews

The data set was developed by Stefan Claesson of the Gulf of Maine Cod Project 

(GMCP), University of New Hampshire (UNH), for the purposes of documenting the 

maritime history and marine ecology of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary 

(SBNMS). These historical data are used further to map and track changes in the 

population and distribution of marine species in the vicinity of SBNMS. Geographic 

coverage of the data set is from Virginia to Newfoundland, but most data points are 

located within the Gulf of Maine.

Nineteenth-century fishermen interview data were extracted from a set of five 

volumes that included interviews with fishermen, dam and mill owners and operators, 

fish commissioners, and wardens and customs districts’ officials. Fishermen interviews 

were conducted in 1893-1895 by U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries (USFC) officers 

Hugh M. Smith, Richard Rathbun, and William Wakeham pertaining primarily to the 

mackerel fishery in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. Other species addressed to a lesser 

extent include cod, herring, alewife, shad, menhaden, and salmon. Interviews regarding 

the mackerel fisheries were conducted in Gloucester, MA (25 interviews), Portland, ME 

(6), Woods Hole, MA (1), Yarmouth, NS (4), Lunenburg, NS (5), Magdalen Islands (1), 

and Prince Edward Island (2). Additionally, a group of interviews investigates the 

problem of sawdust from mills hindering fish runs in Downeast Maine and New 

Brunswick. These interviews were performed in New Brunswick at St. John (3), 

Campobello (1), and Milltown (2), and in Maine at Eastport (1), Calais (18), Forest City 

(3), Grand Lake Stream (1), and Princeton, ME (4). The total number of interviews 

included in this data set is 42.

The interviews were one part of a comprehensive study of the Northwest Atlantic 

mackerel fisheries. The study was issued in 1893 because the “recent serious decline in 

the mackerel fishery, and the great attention which the scarcity of mackerel had received, 

made it desirable to have full statistics and other information upon these subjects” (U.S. 

Commission of Fish and Fisheries 1893 [1895]: 13). Additionally, 1893 marked the end 

of the “close-time” law, which had suspended mackerel purse-seine fishing before June 1, 

for a period of 5 years (1888-1892) (U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries 1893 [1895]: 

75-76). At the time, this was one of the only legislative measures enacted by the U.S. 

Congress to regulate a fishery, and the USFC wanted to evaluate “if any immediate 

benefits had resulted from this series of close seasons” (U.S. Commission of Fish and 

Fisheries 1893 [1895]: 46). USFC research vessels Grampus and Fishhawk were 

commissioned in 1893-1895 to conduct oceanographic and biological studies pertaining 

to the mackerel fishery. Numerous shore studies were also instituted all along the 

northeastern U.S. coastline from North Carolina to Maine. Fishermen interviews were a 

small but important part of the USFC study into the migratory patterns and life history of 

mackerel, the impacts of various fishing techniques on their populations, and the 

perceived effectiveness of the aforementioned legislation, An Act Relating to the 

Importing and Landing of Mackerel Caught During the Spawning Season.

The original bound volumes of interviews are part of Record Group 22, Records 

of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the National Archives. These volumes are 

located at National Archives II in College Park, MD; however, one partial volume of 
109

Canadian interviews is stored at the New England Regional National Archives in 

Waltham, MA. The volumes were photographed with a digital camera at the archives and 

compiled into Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) files. These files were then transcribed into 

Microsoft Word. The Microsoft files were then printed to Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) 

documents. Source location information is provided in the headers of these transcribed 

documents. Pagination within the documents is organized by the page number of the 

digitized pdf volumes and by the internal pagination of the original bound volumes. 

Internal pagination is indicated by brackets in the transcribed documents.

The fishermen’s observations were compiled into a Microsoft Excel workbook 

file (“FishermenInterviews.xls”) containing 4 worksheets. Worksheet 1, the 

“Observation” table, includes the observations of the fishermen that were mapped in 

ArcGIS. Worksheet 2 lists the “Subjects” interviewed and the corresponding pdf source 

file information. This table can be used for reference to the original transcribed interview 

document. Worksheet 3, “PlaceNames”, contains a list of the place names or locations 

referred to by fishermen, the latitude and longitude of each place, and the source for the 

coordinate data. Coordinate information was generally taken from the USGS Geographic 

Names Information System (GNIS) or Geographical Name Search Service (GNSS) of 

Natural Resources Canada. Other sources for fishing bank locations include the fishing 

ground maps published by George B. Goode et al. and the U.S. Fish Commission in The 

Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States (1887). Worksheet 4, “Metadata,” is 

a description of the headers or fields used in the “Observation” table:

Obs_ID Number of interview subject in Subject Table and to 3 decimal places.

Subj_ID Identification number of interviewee in Subject Table (1-42).

ObsType abundance, bait, behavior, diet, distribution, effort, predator, regulation, 

seasonality, size, spawning, technology.

Month Month (1-12).

Day Day (1-31).

Year Year (4 digits).

Season spring, summer, fall, winter.

Locality Location of observation.

FishType Fish observed.

Pdf_Page Page of transcription document referred to in Subject Table.

Description Observation extracted from transcribed pdf document. Observations are 

repeated if they fell into multiple categories (ObsType).

From the Observation Excel worksheet, a Shapefile (.shp) was generated in ESRI 

ArcGIS. The GIS data layer, “Interviews.shp”, is identical to the Excel data table except 

that the field ‘pdf_Page’ is excluded from the Shapefile.
110

Fisheries Legislation

This data set was developed by Stefan Claesson and Katherine Magness of the 

Gulf of Maine Cod Project (GMCP), University of New Hampshire (UNH), for the 

purposes of documenting the maritime history and marine ecology of the Stellwagen 

Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS). This historical data set is used to map 

Massachusetts fisheries legislation and management efforts in the late 19th and early 20th 

centuries.

The data set contains fishery-related legislation enacted in Massachusetts coastal 

waters 1890-1935. The Report of the Commissioners on Inland Fisheries and Game was 

used as the primary source for the database for the period 1890-1901. These reports 

contain a list of all fisheries laws (sorted by subject) enacted in Massachusetts. The serial 

set, General and Special Acts Passed by the Legislature of Massachusetts, was used to 

cross check the accuracy of the information contained in the Commissioners’ reports. 

Acts and Resolves Passed by the General Court of Massachusetts, General Acts Passed 

by the General Court of Massachusetts, and Special Acts and Resolves Passed by the 

General Court of Massachusetts were also consulted, and contain similarly-formatted 

inventories of legislation listed in the Commissioners’ reports. These latter sources were 

used to inventory state fisheries legislation from 1901 to 1935. The United States Statutes 

at Large provided federal/international treaties, acts and resolves relevant to 

Massachusetts for years 1893 to 1935. Generally, the data set contains a complete 

inventory of Massachusetts state fisheries legislation enacted for the period 1890-1935; 

however, amendments to laws made during government hearings were not inventoried or 

included in this database.

The ‘Year’, ‘Title’ and ‘Description’ of each historical legislative record were 

manually transcribed into a Microsoft Excel worksheet. Places and locations that 

legislative efforts referred to were given geographic coordinates (Longitude, Latitude) 

derived primarily from the USGS Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). 

Legislation that was applicable to a region or the entire state was assigned a single, 

centroid geographic coordinate. If a legislation data record referred to multiple places, it 

was repeated in the data table and assigned an additional sequential decimal GMCP_ID 

number (e.g., 3.1 [Berkshire County], 3.2 [Franklin County], 3.3 [Hampshire County], 

3.4 [Hampden County]). Each legislation record was classified according to type of 

‘Legal’ instrument, ‘Fish’ species, fishing ‘Gear’, and ‘General’ theme (see field 

descriptions below). The source, physical location, and legal reference of each record are 

also provided.

The Excel data table was imported into ArcGIS and converted to an ESRIformatted Shapefile (Legislation.shp). The ‘Description’ field is excluded from this 

Shapefile, as ArcGIS had difficulty handling this lengthy text field. Currently, the 

‘Description’ field must be accessed via the Excel database (Legislation.xls).
111

Data fields are as follows:

GMCP_ID Internal sequential numbering or order of data entry by Gulf of Maine 

Cod Project staff (1.0-437.0)

Year Contains year the legislation was passed, repealed, or amended

Title The title of the act, bill, resolve, etc.

Location Place name, region, or area where legislation applicable

GeoSource Geographic name database consulted (e.g., Geographic Names 

Information System [GNIS])

GeoID Geographic name database identification number

X Longitude (decimal degrees)

Y Latitude (decimal degrees)

Legal Type of legal instrument

Fish Type of fish or species

Gear Type of fishing gear or technology

General General theme of legislation (see detailed descriptions below): 

Enforcement/Penalty, Government/Management, Fishing Gear, 

Pollution, Dams/Obstructions, Catch Limits, Trade/Economy, 

Aquaculture, Property Rights, and Vessel Regulation/Licensing

Source Historical source of legislation

Citation Legal reference

SourceLoc The library, archive, or institution of source (Woods Hole 

Oceanographic Institute [WHOI], Boston Public Library [BPL], or 

University of New Hampshire [UNH])

Description Text of the legislation or legal instrument

The database includes fisheries-related laws from Massachusetts’ waters 

including the following place names: Adams, Agawam River, Angelica Point, Barlows 

Pond, Barnstable, Barnstable County, Bass River, Berkley, Berkshire County, Beverly, 

Beverly Harbor, Black Point Pond, Blankinships Cove, Boston, Boston Harbor, Bristol 

County, Buzzards Bay, Cape Cod Bay, Cape Cod Canal, Chain Bridge, Charles River, 

Chilmark Pond, Clarks Cove, Cohasset, Cohasset Harbor, Connecticut River, Cottage 

City, Crystal Lake, Dartmouth, Deerfield River, Dukes County, Duxbury, Duxbury Bay, 

Duxbury Harbor, Eastern Harbor, Eastham, Edgartown, Essex County, Essex River, 

Fairhaven, Farm Pond, Five Pound Island, Franklin County, Gloucester, Gloucester 

Harbor, Great Pond, Hadley, Halfway Pond River, Hampden County, Hampshire County, 

Herring Pond, Herring River, Hingham Harbor, Holmes Hold Harbor, Hull Bay, 

Hummock Pond, Ipswich, Ipswich River, Katama Bay, Kingston, Kingston Bay, 

Kingston Harbor, Lake Chaubunagungamaug, Lake Quinsigamond, Laurel Lake, 

Lawrence Dam, Lewis Bay, Little Black Point Pond, Lynn Harbor, Manchester Harbor, 

Marblehead Harbor, Marion, Marshfield, Mashpee, Mattapoisett, Mattapoisett River, 

Menemsha Pond, Merrimack River, Middlesex Fells, Mill Creek, Mill Pond, Mill River, 

Missisquoi Bay, Monument River, Moon Island, Mystic River, Nahant Bay, Nantucket, 

Nantucket County, Nantucket Sound, Nashaquitsa Pond, Neponset River, New Bedford, 

Newbury, North River, Orleans, Oyster Pond, Palmer, Palmer River, Parker Mills Pond, 

Parker River, Pasque Island, Pemberton, Pines River, Planting Island Cove, Pleasant Bay, 
112

Plum Island Bay, Plum Island River, Plum Island Sound, Plymouth, Plymouth Bay, 

Plymouth County, Plymouth Harbor, Potanimicot River, Powder Hole, Quacumquasit 

Lake, Queenames Cove, Quincy Bay, Quincy Shore Reservation, Revere, Rochester, 

Rowley, Salem, Salem Bay, Saugus River, Scituate, Sherman Pond, Somerset, 

Squawbetty Village, Squibnocket Pond, Swan Pond River, Swansea, Tashmoo Pond, 

Taunton Great River, Tihonet Pond, Tisbury, Tisbury Great Pond, Vineyard Sound, 

Wachusett Reservoir, Wankinco River, Wareham, Weir River, Wellfleet, Wellfleet Bay, 

West Falmouth Harbor, Westport, Westport River, Weweantic River, Weymouth, 

Weymouth Back River, Weymouth Fore River, and Winthrop.

The ‘General’ data field may include any one or more of the following 11 primary 

themes as well as sub-categories of the primary themes:

Theme Sub-Category

Enforcement/

Penalty

Conviction, Detection, District Police, Evidence, 

Enforcement, Fines, Fish Seizure, Fish Wardens, FishForfeiture, Forfeitures, Imprisonment, Law Enforcement, 

Liability, Materially Injure, Penalties, Permits, Prohibition, 

Prosecute, Punishment, Regulate, Riparian Proprietor 

Control, Trespassers, Violations, Warrant, Written Permits

Government/

Management

Ecosystem, Fish Commission(er), US Fish Commission(er), 

Massachusetts Fish Commission(ers), Powers, Fishing 

Regulations, Fish-Protection, Free Passage, Governor, Local 

Jurisdiction, Local Regulations, , Preservation, State Fish 

Commissioners, Town Limits, Town Petition

Fishing Gear Angling, Apparatus, Artificial Fly (Bait, Hook, Light), 

Beam Trawl, Boat, Craft, Circular Net, Contrivance, Dip 

Net, Drag Net, Drag Seine, Dredge, Dynamite, Eel-Pots, 

Firearms, Float, Fork, Gill Net, Hand Line and Hook, HandNets, Hanging Net, Hand Line, Hand Net, Hoe, Hook, Hoop 

Net, Instruments, Lamp, Light, Line, Mesh, Natural (Bait, 

Hook), Net, Otter Trawl, Pole, Pot, Pound, Purse Net, Purse 

Seine, Rake, Rectangular Net, Rod, Single Hand Line, 

Salmon Pot, Set Net, Shovels, Spear, Spoon, Stationary 

Apparatus, Steamer, Sweep Net, Sweep Seine, Toggle, 

Tong, Torch, Trap, Trawl, Vessel, Weirs, Yard

Pollution Acids, Alkalies, Drugs, Dye-Stuffs, Pollution Control, 

Sawdust, Substance Deposit Limits

Dams/Obstructions Dam, Dam Disturbance, Dam Examining, Dam Repair, Fish 

Weirs, Fishway Repairs, Fishway, Obstruction, Outlets, 

Outlet Construction, Saw-mills

Catch Limits Catch Limits, Closed Seasons, Closed Times, Daily Fishing 

Limits, Legal Fishing Limits, Limitations, Restricted 

Fishing Areas, Restricted Propagation Areas, Restricted 

Seeding Areas, Seasonal Sale Limits, Size Limits, Size 

Restrictions, Sustenance Fishing, Weekly Limits

Trade/Economy Commerce, Improvements, Leases, Lease Permits, Price 
113

Control, Taxation, Treasury, Water Rental

Aquaculture Fish Cultivation, Fish Hatchery, Fish Hatching Station, Fish 

Propagation, Oyster Culture, Quahaug Culture, Pisciculture, 

Propagation, Stocking, Stocking Regulations

Property Rights Common Property Resource, Corporate Fishing Rights, 

Possession, Private Land Protection, Private Property, 

Public Access, Public Fishery, Public Interest, Public 

Meeting, Public Property, Public Rights

Vessel 

Regulation/License

Boats, Licenses, Vessel Limits, Vessel Seizure, Vessel 

Transportation

Fish-General Refers to generalizations about fish and their role within 

society, economy, and industry
114

Marine Scientific Survey Logbooks

This data set contains sea temperature and salinity measures taken by U.S. Fish 

Commission research vessels in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The data set was 

developed by Stefan Claesson of the Gulf of Maine Cod Project (GMCP), University of 

New Hampshire (UNH). Data set development focused on survey stations made within or 

adjacent to Massachusetts Bay, for the purposes of evaluating changes over time in the 

ecosystem of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS) and the greater 

Gulf of Maine. Geographic coverage of the data set, however, is inclusive of the 

northeastern United States from Chesapeake Bay to Nova Scotia.

Temperature and salinity measurements include those recorded by Bluelight 

(1873), Bache (1872-1874), Speedwell (1877-1879), Grampus (1913-1916), Halcyon

(1912-1921), Yvonne (1924), Gannet (1924-1925), and Fishhawk (1882-1905). These 

measurements were transcribed from digital images of the original survey logbooks, 

which are archived at the Smithsonian Institution Archives, Record Unit 7184. This data 

set does not include survey logbooks Lookout, Albatross, and only a partial listing for 

Yvonne is included. These U.S. Fish Commission survey vessels operated through the late 

19th and early 20th centuries. Also, approximately 350 stations of Grampus and Halcyon

are not included in this data set. Although the logbook formats vary over time and the 

data recorded variable to the purpose of the research cruise, generally logbooks contain 

the following fields and information:

Station No.

Date

Time of day

Tide (condition of tide, e.g., ebb or flood)

Locality (general description of location)

Position (latitude/longitude, or origin point, bearing and range)

Nature of bottom (description of bottom type and sediment)

Sampling instrument used (e.g., nets, dredges)

Direction and distance of drift (this is rarely recorded)

Temperature of air (usually in Fahrenheit, occasionally Celsius)

Temperature of surface water (usually in Fahrenheit, occasionally Celsius)

Temperature at depth (depth variably fathoms, feet, meters)

Density

Water color/visibility

Equipment type and identification number

Barometer/Pressure

State of sky and sea (qualitative description)

Wind direction (compass heading)

Wind force (numerical scale, typically Beaufort, occasionally qualitative description)

Rain (rarely given, typically noted under ‘state of sky’ field, qualitative description)

Direction of surface and bottom currents (knots)

Speed of surface and bottom currents (knots)

Name of vessel, commanding officer, and observer

Notes relating to station (lists of marine species sampled or counted, observations of marine mammals, 

additional notation of unusual at-sea conditions, sketches, etc.)
115

Sea temperature measures are mostly surface temperatures, but there are 

numerous stations with water column and bottom temperature readings. There are, 

comparably, a dearth of salinity measurements taken in the Gulf of Maine by Grampus

(1914-1916) and Halcyon (1912-1914).

Data from Bluelight, Bache, and Speedwell were transcribed from survey tables 

published in “Lists of the Dredging Stations of the United States Fish Commission from 

1871 to 1879, Inclusive, with Temperature and Other Observations,” Report of the 

Commissioner for 1879 (1882), p. 559-615. The report further documents the activities of 

these survey vessels and the intent of their survey work. Regarding the precision and 

accuracy of vessel position of these early steamers the report offers the following:

“From the nature of the operations of dredging and trawling, it 

becomes almost impossible to estimate exactly the changes of position 

caused by currents, &c., especially when out of sight of land, and in a 

few cases the positions were not placed on the charts at the time, and 

the bearings given do not suffice to fix them very accurately. It is 

believed, however, that but few positions laid down on the chart are 

rendered uncertain to any great extent by either of these causes.” (p. 

559-560)

Temperature measurements for these early surveys are also described in the report:

“The temperature observations recorded in the two following tables 

were mostly taken with much care. Former experiences had proved 

that the Miller-Casella thermometers were slow in acting, requiring 

from three to ten minutes (according to the depth of water) to obtain a 

correct reading, and they were, therefore, always left down a suitable 

length of time. The bottom and surface temperatures, in nearly all 

cases, were taken with Miller-Casella self-registering thermometers; 

occasionally a United States naval thermometer was employed for 

surface temperature, and the same instrument was generally employed 

for the air.” (p. 574)

It is noted further that:

“The bottom temperatures in 1877 were mostly taken with MillerCasella self-registering, deep-sea thermometers, but in 1878 and 1879 

Negretti-Zambra thermometers were used for that purpose. All the 

temperatures for 1879 were taken with more than usual care, the 

thermometers employed being frequently compared with a reliable 

standard.”

The Negretti-Zambra thermometers became the standard measuring device for 

most U.S. Fish Commission cruises following on the work of Speedwell in 1879: “We 

received some new Negretti-Zambra thermometers to-day, which seem to perform their 

work perfectly, so that our observations will; doubtless, be more satisfactory in the 
116

future.” (p. 604-605). An exhaustive description of the Negretti-Zambra thermometer and 

its methods of use on Fishhawk is provided in the Report of the Commissioner for 1883 

(1885), p. 71-77. A description of vessel navigation and methods is also found in this 

report (p. 212-217).

Logbooks were photographed by digital camera and compiled into Adobe Acrobat 

.pdf files. These documents were then manually transcribed into Microsoft Excel 

workbooks and compiled into a master spreadsheet (‘EnviroData.xls’). Water depths, 

typically given in fathoms, were converted to meters, and temperatures, often provided in 

Fahrenheit, were converted to Celsius. Position coordinates recorded in degrees, minutes 

and seconds were converted to decimal degrees. Positions referenced by shore features 

(e.g., lighthouses), bearings (which are boxed into 213 compass directions [e.g., N by W 

1⁄4 W]), and range (in nautical miles) were converted to decimal degrees and kilometers. 

Bearings were adjusted further for magnetic variation using National Geophysical Data 

Center (NGDC) declination/variation calculators (see e.g., 

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomagmodels/USHistoric.jsp). These adjustments were 

calculated based on the location of origin points and dates of observations. 

GMCP developed an Internet calculator 

(http://fishhistory.org/LatLonRngBrg.php) in php scripting language to compute 

coordinates based on latitude and longitude of the origin point, decimal bearing, and 

kilometer range (based on quadratic mean radius [see e.g., 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Quadratic_mean_radius:_Qr]). A quality check 

of geographic positions in ArcGIS revealed that reverse bearing were occasionally and 

incorrectly recorded in the logbooks. In such cases, bearings were adjusted and positions 

of survey stations re-calculated.

The final data table was imported into ArcGIS and saved as an ESRI Shapefile 

(‘PhysicalData.shp’).

Data Fields and Attributes in this data set:

Vessel Name of research vessel

Station Identification number of station where observation made

Year Year of observation

Month Month of observation

Day Day of observation

X Longitude in decimal degrees

Y Latitude in decimal degrees

Z Depth in meters

SeaTemp Water temperature in Celsius

Salinity Salinity measure

Source Location and reference of historical source material
117

Biological Specimens

This data set contains marine species sampled, collected or reported during 

fishing and research expeditions 1875-1935. The data set was developed by Stefan 

Claesson of the Gulf of Maine Cod Project (GMCP), University of New Hampshire 

(UNH). The geographic extent of the data set includes the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks 

to the east and the Continental Shelf to the south and west. However, data recovery 

focused on areas within or adjacent to Massachusetts Bay, for the purposes of 

documenting the maritime history and marine ecology of the Stellwagen Bank National 

Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS). These data were compiled primarily for the purpose of 

modeling historical species distributions in SBNMS and the greater Gulf of Maine.

This data set is a collection of disparate historical sources:

Gloucester Donations. Gloucester fishermen participated in a U.S. Fish Commission 

survey in the late 1870s that sought to collect unusual or particularly exquisite examples 

of marine species for study and curation. The 1879 Annual Fish Commission Report, 

which was printed in 1882, contains an annotated list of 532 specimens collected at 

Gloucester, MA, during the 1870s (Report of the Commissioner for 1879 [1882], p. 787-

835). The report provides the following information:

“The fishes included in the following list were identified by Mr. G. Brown 

Goode and Dr. T. H. Bean. The Invertebrata were either originally

identified or have subsequently been revised by Prof. A. E. Verrill, who is, 

therefore, to be considered responsible for the accuracy of the names. The 

nomenclature adopted for the Invertebrata is very nearly that of the 

Preliminary Check-list of the Marine Invertebrata of the Atlantic Coast, by 

A. E. Verrill, Edition of 1879.” (p. 787)

Additionally:

“When the United States Fish Commission established its station at 

Gloucester, Mass., in 1878, from which to prosecute its researches into the 

history and condition of the fisheries, the opportunity of securing the cooperation of the fishermen of the port in collecting the deep-sea animals 

was gladly embraced. With scarcely an exception, the captains and crews 

of the vessels engaged in the Banks fisheries undertook to preserve all the 

miscellaneous objects brought up on their lines or trawls and place them in 

alcohol furnished by the Commission. Such was the extent and variety of 

their collections that it was found expedient to keep an agent at Gloucester 

permanently, at the office occupied at first by the Commission.” (p. 787)

Although the program did not officially begin until 1878, a few specimens are 

dated as early as 1875, but most specimens (1-532) published in the U.S. Fish 

Commission report are undated. Undated specimens were assigned a terminus ante quem
118

of 1879. A total of 972 specimen numbers were assigned during the Fish Commission 

collection project, but the latter half of the specimen list went unpublished. Specimens 

533-972, which are included in this database, were tabulated from an unpublished 

manuscript found at the National Museum of Natural History, Division of Fishes 

Cataloguing Room (Smithsonian Institution Archives, Record Unit 7220). The latter 

unpublished list provides month and year of capture and date 1879-1881.

U.S. Fish Commission Survey Logbooks. These historical specimen reports were 

gathered from U.S. Fish Commission survey logbooks belonging to the Grampus, 

Gannett, Halcyon, Fishhawk, and Josie Reeves. The logbook data included here include 

specimens and reports on benthic and pelagic species, marine mammals, birds, and 

zooplankton, mostly from the Gulf of Maine. Logbook records date from the early 1880s 

to the mid 1920s. In addition to specimens collected during various marine surveys, the 

logbooks contain physical oceanographic data. This information was compiled in a 

separate data set. The original logbooks are located at the Smithsonian Institution 

Archives, Record Unit 7184.

Natural History Museum Collection Databases. Although databases such as OBIS and 

Fishbase.org were utilized to query museum collections, the origin databases, specifically 

the National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), Fisheries Department, eMu database 

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/vert/fishes/fishcat/index.html was cross-validated for specimen 

identifications, geographic coordinates, and descriptions. Most of the NMNH specimens 

lack precise geography. Point coordinates are not provided for these specimens, but a 

description of their geographic location is included. 

Unpublished Papers and Reports. A NOAA-sponsored publication, An Annotated List of 

the Fishes of Massachusetts Bay (B. B. Collette and K. E. Hartel, 1988), contains a 

comprehensive list of historical fish specimens collected from Massachusetts Bay. A very 

few of these specimens have exact coordinates, but their geographical or place-name 

descriptions are included in the data set.

With the exception of USNM and Fishbase.org data sets, historical sources and 

texts were manually transcribed into Excel workbooks, and integrated into a single 

specimen table (‘Specimens.xls’). This table was imported into ArcGIS and converted to 

an ESRI Shapefile (‘Specimens.shp’). The data set includes scientific as well as common 

names for species, as provided in the original historical sources. Coordinates for 

specimens are listed only if they are given in the original data source in latitude and 

longitude, or provide exact location descriptions in the form of a known origin point (e.g., 

a lighthouse), bearing, and range. In the latter case, latitude and longitude was derived by 

measuring these factors as well as magnetic variation at the origin point and date of the 

specimen location description. Generally, coordinates for place names, towns, rivers, 

regions, fishing banks or grounds were not used to derive point coordinates, as they are 

unreliable for the purposes of modeling species distributions. However, if a place name 

could be tied to a specific place that could be located, e.g., “specimen caught in a net off 

Doanes Wharf in Gloucester”, coordinates were assigned. Typically, place names refer to 

larger bodies of water (Gloucester Harbor) and regions (Eastern Georges Bank, Nova 
119

Scotia coast), which lack the spatial precision needed for species distribution modeling. 

However, these records are included within the database, as they may be useful for 

broader ecosystem studies or analyses.

Data Fields and Attributes:

ID Sequential identification number assigned by GMCP

Database Database that specimen data was extracted

CatNum Catalog number of specimen, according to database

Month Month specimen collected or reported

Year Year specimen collected or reported

Scientific Genus and species

Common Common name for species

Longitude Longitude in decimal degrees

Latitude Latitude in decimal degrees

Location Place name or description of location

Source Source of historical material, archive location, or document reference
120

APPENDIX B: Supplementary Analysis
121

Figure A. Species composition of catch from Stellwagen Bank, 1901-1915. The estimated proportion is on 

the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the MCMC chain is on the Y-axis.

Cod

 0.12 0.14 0.16

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0 Haddock

 0.475 0.5 0.525 0.55

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

Hake

 0.14 0.16 0.18

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0 Cusk

 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0

 200.0

Pollock

 0.04 0.05 0.06

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0 Mackerel

 0.04 0.06 0.08

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0

Other

 0.0 0.005 0.01

 0.0

 100.0

 200.0

 300.0

 400.0
122

Figure B. Species composition of catch from Stellwagen Bank, 1916-1935. The estimated proportion is on 

the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the MCMC chain is on the Y-axis.

Cod

 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0 Haddock

 0.25 0.3 0.35

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0

Hake

 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Cusk

 0.02 0.04 0.06

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

Pollock

 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0 Mackerel

 0.25 0.3 0.35

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

Other

 0.0 0.01 0.02 0.03

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0
123

Figure C. Change in the proportions in the catch from Stellwagen Bank, 1901-1915 vs. 1916-1935. The 

estimated proportion is on the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the MCMC chain is on the Y-axis. 

Positive values indicate and increase in the proportion from the earlier era to the later.

Cod

 -0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Haddock

 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0

Hake

 -0.1 -0.05 0.0

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Cusk

 0.0 0.02 0.04

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0

Pollock

 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0 Mackerel

 0.2 0.25 0.3

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0

Other

 0.0 0.01 0.02

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0
124

Figure D. Difference in the proportions in the catch from Stellwagen Bank and Gulf of Maine, 1901-1915. 

The estimated difference in the proportion in the catch is on the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the 

MCMC chain is on the Y-axis. Positive values indicate a greater proportion from the Gulf of Maine than 

from Stellwagen.

Cod

 0.08 0.1 0.12

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0 Haddock

 -0.18 -0.16 -0.14 -0.12

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

Hake

 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0 Cusk

 -0.02 -0.01 0.0

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0

 200.0

Pollock

 0.06 0.08

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0 Mackerel

 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0

Other

 0.025 0.03 0.035

 0.0

 100.0

 200.0

 300.0
125

Figure E. Difference in the proportions in the catch from Stellwagen Bank and Gulf of Maine, 1916-1935. 

The estimated difference in the proportion in the catch between the two areas is on the X-axis, the 

frequency of this value from the MCMC chain is on the Y-axis. Positive values indicate a greater 

proportion from the Gulf of Maine than from Stellwagen.

Cod

 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0 Haddock

 0.05 0.1 0.15

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0

Hake

 -0.15 -0.125 -0.1 -0.075

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Cusk

 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

Pollock

 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0 Mackerel

 -0.25 -0.2

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

Other

 0.05 0.06 0.07

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0
126

Figure F. Species composition of catch from Stellwagen Bank, 1995-2005. The estimated proportion is on 

the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the MCMC chain is on the Y-axis.

Cod

 0.08 0.1 0.12

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0 Haddock

 0.01 0.015 0.02

 0.0

 100.0

 200.0

 300.0

 400.0

Hake

 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035

 0.0

 100.0

 200.0

 300.0 Cusk

 0.0 0.001 0.002 0.003

 0.0

 500.0

Pollock

 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

 0.0

 100.0

 200.0

 300.0 Mackerel

 0.005 0.01 0.015

 0.0

 100.0

 200.0

 300.0

 400.0

Other

 0.79 0.8 0.81 0.82

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0
127

Figure G. Change in the proportions in the catch from Stellwagen Bank if we ignore the “other” category, 

1901-1915 vs. 1995-2005. The estimated proportion is on the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the 

MCMC chain is on the Y-axis. Positive values indicate and increase in the proportion from the earlier era 

to the later.

Cod

 0.35 0.4 0.45

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0 Haddock

 -0.5 -0.45 -0.4

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

Hake

 -0.1 -0.05 0.0

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Cusk

 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01

 0.0

 50.0

 100.0

 150.0

Pollock

 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Mackerel

 -0.02 0.0 0.02 0.04

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0
128

Figure H. Change in the proportions in the catch from Stellwagen Bank if we ignore the “other” category, 

1916-1935 vs. 1995-2005. The estimated proportion is on the X-axis, the frequency of this value from the 

MCMC chain is on the Y-axis. Positive values indicate and increase in the proportion from the earlier era 

to the later.

Cod

 0.4 0.45 0.5

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0 Haddock

 -0.35 -0.3 -0.25

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0

Hake

 -0.05 0.0 0.05

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0 Cusk

 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0

 80.0

Pollock

 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

 0.0

 20.0

 40.0

 60.0 Mackerel

 -0.35 -0.3 -0.25 -0.2

 0.0

 10.0

 20.0

 30.0

 40.0
129

Table A. Grounds and species codes used in factor analysis.

Fishing Grounds Code

Stellwagen (Middle) Bank MIDDLE

Platts Bank PLATTS

Fippenies Bank FIPPS

Cashes Bank CASHES

Jeffreys Ledge JEFFREYS

Georges Bank GEORGES

Browns Bank BROWNS

Off Chatham CHATHAM

Off Highland Light HIGHLAND

South Channel SOUTH.CHANNEL

Nantucket Shoals NANTUCKET.SHOALS

Seal Island Bank SEAL

New England Shore SHORE 1 (Shore)

Nova Scotia Shore SHORE 2 

Species Code

Cod Cod

Haddock Had

Halibut Hal

Hake Hak

Cusk Cus

Pollock Pol

Mackerel Mac
130

Figure I. Factor loadings for species- and bank-specific monthly catch from the Gulf of Maine, 1901-1935.
131

Figure I (continued)
132

Figure I (continued)
133

Figure I (continued)
134

Figure I (continued)
135

Figure J. Time series for fishing banks created by the factor analysis.
136

Figure J. (continued)
137

Figure J. (continued)
138

Figure J. (continued)
139

Figure J. (continued)
140

Figure J. (continued)
141

Figure J. (continued)
142

Figure J. (continued)
143

Figure J. (continued)
144

Figure J. (continued)
145

Figure J. (continued)
146

Figure J. (continued)
147

Figure J. (continued)
148

APPENDIX C: New England Fishing Fleet Operations 1914-1935 

(Extracted from the Statistical Bulletins of the Bureau of Fisheries)
149

Month Year Summary

8 1914 Foggy weather interfered with fishing operation to a consideration extent during the month. Herring have been scarce, and 

the bait supply has been short. The line trawlers have continued to meet with good success fishing off Chatham, on a rocky 

bottom, where fishing has been the best for a number of years. The otter trawlers fishing in the South Channel have reported 

fish scarce. The mackerel fleet has been quite successful off the Cape Shore. Swordfish have been less plentiful than they 

were last year at this time.

9 1914 Weather condition have been good for fishing this month. Arrivals from Georges early in the month reported fish very 

scarce, but this fishing improved later in the month. Large sharks have been numerous in South Channel, and greatly 

hindered fishing operations. Mackerel have been scarce. Large school of blueback herring appeared, and good catches were 

made. Most of the salt halibut fleet has arrived from the North, and, owing to adverse conditions, brought home light catches. 

The swordfish fleet, which is now mostly in, has had small catches, but the fish have run large in size.

10 1914 The weather conditions during the month of October were unfavorable on Cape Shore and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but 

good on the western and shore grounds. Dogfish have been numerous and bothersome on the shore grounds. The catches of 

cod, haddock, and other ground fish have been light. Mackerel and herring have been scarce. Quite a number of halibut 

vessel have changed over to haddock fishing. The swordfish fleet has all returned, and the total catch is much smaller than 

last year. Twelve vessels of the Newfoundland herring fleet have sailed. The gill netters have commenced fishing, but the 

fleet promises to be much smaller this year owing to poor success last year.

11 1914 Fishing during the month of November has been hindered by high winds, especially to the eastward. The Provincetown fleet 

has discontinued the market fishery for the season, and, as a rule, the vessels have made good stocks. The gill netters for 

pollock, and the mackerel netters, have made good catches off Cape Ann. Some of the vessels in the shore fishery for fresh 

ground fish have also made good stocks.

12 1914 Weather conditions during the month of December were unfavorable for fishing. Vessels fishing on Browns Bank and Cape 

Shore report good indication of fish, but those fishing on Georges and in South Channel report fish scarce. One steamer went 

to Cape Shore, but, owing to bad weather and lack of coal, the voyage was unsuccessful. A large part of the gill-net fleet has 

discontinued fishing, but will resume operations when the haddock strike in on the shore. Herring fishing by American 

vessels at Bonne Bay has been a failure, but good cargoes have been secured at Bay of Islands.

1 1915 During the month of January the weather was not very cold, but much windy weather prevailed, interfering with fishing 

operations along the coast and on the fishing banks. Steamers fishing in South Channel and on Georges Bank reported fish 

scarce. The vessels from Cape Shore and Browns Bank brought in moderate trips. The herring vessels operating on the west 

coast of Newfoundland all left for home, but some of them had to leave with partial trips to avoid being caught in the ice. 

The hospital ship, Androscoggin, made her first cruise among the fishing vessels on Cape Shore and Browns Bank and 

rendered valuable aid.

2 1915 Unusually mild weather prevailed during the month of February, and quite a number of large trips of ground fish were landed 

from the offshore grounds. The steam trawlers operated on Georges Bank, and brought in some good catches. The offshore 

fleet fished mostly on Browns Bank, and reported good fishing. The gill netters have met with indifferent success, and at the 

end of the month only a few were fishing. The shore fishermen reported fish scare. The first vessel of the bank fleet for salt 

cod sailed from Gloucester on the 27th of the month.

3 1915 The month of March was very windy, and vessels fishing to the east-ward reported frequent snow storms. The operations on 

the shore grounds were light, owing to windy weather. The gill netters reported good catches of haddock. The southern 

seining fleet for mackerel is being put in readiness, and the first vessel sailed March 29, sixteen days earlier than last year.

4 1915 Bad weather prevailed much of the time during April and hindered fishing operations, especially on the shore grounds. The 

steam trawlers, however, had good fishing on Western Bank, where all of these vessels have been fishing. The haddock taken 

by these steamers have been of larger size than usual. The hand liners have begun fishing on Georges Bank and the Rips, and 

have reported moderate catches. The shore fishermen reported fish scarce. The first mackerel of the season were seined April 

8, the catch consisting of 3,240 fish, taken 100 miles east by south of Cape Henlopen in 40 fathoms of water, and landed at 

Lewes, Del. The mackerel taken so far this season by the southern fleet of seiners have been of small size. The greater part of 

the catch has been landed at New York, and the remainder at Lewes, Del.
150

5 1915 Considerable fair weather prevailed during May, but in most cases the vessels brought in light catches, due to the scarcity of 

fish on the fishing grounds. The dogfish gave the fishermen much annoyance on the shore grounds, especially in South 

Channel and off Chatham, where more or less fishing gear has been lost. The southern mackerel fleet, which has landed its 

catch mainly at New York and Newport, both seiners and netters, has had the best season for several years.

6 1915 During the month of June there was considerable foggy weather, which interfered with fishing operations. The hand-line cod

fleet, fishing mostly on Georges, brought in small catches, and reported fishing not so good as last year. Some of the vessels 

of the Cape North fleet arrived home and brought good catches. The Cape Shore mackerel fleet landed good catches, and a 

number of vessels made two trips for fresh mackerel from that ground, the first time that this has ever been done. The catch 

of shore mackerel has been largely tinkers. The first vessel of the swordfish fleet arrived from Georges June 21 with a fare of 

21 fish.

7 1915 During the month of July the weather was foggy and calm almost continuously, which greatly hampered the movements of 

the fishing fleet. Catches of ground fish as a rule have been good. The shore fishermen report the dogfish numerous and 

bothersome. The mackerel fishermen have made good catches of mixed mackerel on the northern part of Georges Bank. 

While most of the swordfish have been caught on Georges Bank the fishermen report these fish moving farther to the 

eastward every year.

8 1915 Unusually foggy weather prevailed on the fishing banks during the month of August. Large catches of haddock have been 

taken by line and other trawlers in South Channel. Georges Bank also furnished a considerable supply of this species. Small 

mackerel have been very plentiful on the inshore grounds off the coast of Massachusetts, where good catches have been 

made by some of the small vessels. Large mackerel have been abundant on Georges Bank, but reported to be exceptionally 

"wild," in consequence of which few schools were captured. The swordfish fleet operated mostly on the Cape Shore grounds, 

and reported good fishing.

9 1915 There was considerable stormy weather during the month of September, and fishing operations were hampered by heavy 

gales the latter part of the month. The mackerel fleet made good catches of small mackerel off Cape Cod and in 

Massachusetts Bay. Most of the swordfish vessels arrived home, and have had a very good season. One of the bank fleet 

arrived at Gloucester with the largest trip of hand-line salt cod landed since 1909.

10 1915 During the month of October the shore fishermen had considerable good weather, but on the off shore grounds there was 

more or less bad weather which to some extent hindered fishing. Vessels engaged in taking ground fish made moderate 

catches. There was a large body of small and medium mackerel on Middle Bank and off Cape Cod, and seiners made the 

biggest catches of the season. The North Bay mackerel fishermen met with poor success owing to bad weather. A number of 

the herring fleet on the west coast of Newfoundland reported that they were getting some fish.

11 1915 During the month of November fishing operations were interrupted to some extent by stormy weather, especially on the offshore grounds. Moderate trips of ground fish were landed. Early in the month the fishermen were bothered considerably by 

dog fish on Georges Bank. The gill netters made good catches of pollock. A strike the latter part of the month tied up most of 

the otter trawlers. The mackerel seiners have all discontinued fishing, but the netters are making unusually good catches for 

this time of the season.

12 1915 A number of violent storms occurred during the month of December. The vessels arriving have as a rule had small catches. 

Most of the steamers were not fishing owing to a strike. The first fares of tilefish were received direct from the fishing fleet 

and met with a ready sale. The fish varied in size from 8 to 40 pounds each and were caught 90 miles southeast of New York. 

Herring are reported plentiful at Bonne Bay, Newfoundland, and indications point to a successful season. Netters made good 

catches of mackerel early in the month, but were obliged to discontinue fishing on account of the stormy weather.

1 1916 Rough weather with snow storms interfered with fishing operations during January. Both the shore and off-shore fleet as a 

rule landed small catches of ground fish. Many of the gill netters discontinued fishing owing to the scarcity of fish. At the

beginning of the season there were 28 vessels engaged in gill-net fishing, but now there are only five or six. The steam 

trawlers that were idle because of a strike have resumed operations and are fishing on Georges. The Newfoundland herring 

fleet is returning with good fares, and the season promises to be a successful one.

2 1916 Cold and stormy weather prevailed during February, especially the latter part of the month, when snow storms were frequent. 

Both the shore and offshore vessels landed light catches. Some of the otter trawlers fishing on Georges brought in good 

catches of haddock. The gill netters landed chiefly catches of cod during the latter part of the month.
151

3 1916 The weather during March was very stormy until the last week of the month, when it was fine, and the vessels made good

catches. The otter trawlers operated on Western and Georges banks, and landed some big trips. The first trawl salt-cod 

bankers sailed during the month from Gloucester. The first vessels of the mackerel seining fleet sailed south the latter part of 

the month.

4 1916 The weather during April was favorable for fishing operations. Good trips of fish were landed by vessels from Western and 

Browns banks. The hand liners fishing on Georges reported finding a larger school of fish than at any time for a number of

years, and a considerable proportion of the fish were large. The first catch of mackerel of the season consisted of 7 barrels of 

small fish taken by a seiner April 5, 80 miles south of Cape Henlopen in 50 fathoms of water. Schools of herring were 

reported along the shore. Shore fishermen reported hake scarce in the Gulf of Maine.

5 1916 Weather conditions during May were good, and an unusually large quantity of ground fish was landed by the fishing fleet. 

Dogfish, however, have greatly hampered fishing operations in South Channel. The southern mackerel fleet has met with 

good success. The catch consisted chiefly of large and medium fish. The large vessels engaged in seining have shifted to 

Cape Shore. Herring have been schooling along the shore, and good catches have been made.

6 1916 Although there was considerable rain during the month of June the weather was quite favorable for fishing. The arrivals of 

fresh ground fish have been largely from shore grounds and South Channel. Fishermen have been bothered more or less by 

dogfish. Mackerel fishermen have been successful on Cape Shore, and a large body of mackerel was reported along the shore 

from Nantucket to South Shoal Lightship. The first vessels of the swordfish fleet arrived and reported fish scarce. Mackerel 

are now all sold in the Boston market by the pound instead of by count as formerly.

7 1916 The weather was foggy much of the time during the month of July. Small mackerel are schooling off the Massachusetts coast 

and the vessels have landed good catches. The swordfish fleet has landed good catches from Georges Bank. As sharks are 

very numerous in the south, and have done much damage to fishing gear, it is probable that some of the tilefish vessels will 

abandon that kind of fishing for the present.

8 1916 Considerable foggy weather and easterly winds prevailed during the month of August, but in the intervals of favorable 

weather the fishermen have made some good catches. The steam trawlers, as a rule, have done well. The mackerel fishermen 

have made good hauls on Georges and off the Massachusetts shore. Swordfish have been scarce. Owing to the high prices 

received by the fishermen for mackerel and swordfish, large stocks and shares have been made.

9 1916 Considerable good weather prevailed during the month of September, and the line and steam trawlers, as a rule, landed good 

catches of fish. The principal catches of mackerel were made off the coast of Maine. The weather was unfavorable for taking 

swordfish on Cape Shore, where the swordfish fleet was operating, and consequently the vessels in that fishery made poor 

catches. The tilefish fishermen were greatly bothered by sharks.

10 1916 Although good weather prevailed during the month of October, the arrivals of groundfish were only moderate. There was a 

large body of mackerel, mostly large and medium fish, off the coast of Massachusetts. A large quantity of these fish was 

landed, yielding profitable return to the fishermen. Only a small quantity of herring was landed. The gill netters have begun

active preparations for the fall fishing season.

11 1916 During the month of November the operations of the groundfish fleet were hampered by rough weather, and moderate trips 

have been landed. There was a large body of mackerel on Middle Bank the first part of the month and the mackerel fleet 

made good catches of large and medium fish. The gill net fleet has been successful in making catches of pollock. A number 

of vessels have been engaged in taking tilefish, but have made small catches owing to the abundance of dogfish.

12 1916 The fares of ground fish in December have averaged small on account of unfavorable weather conditions most of the time 

during the month. The weather was especially bad the first part of the month on Cape Shore where the haddock fleet was 

mostly fishing. The mackerel netters caught a few mackerel in Cape Cod Bay. The gill netters have done well catching 

pollock off Cape Ann. Reports from the Newfoundland herring fleet so far are rather disappointing.

1 1917 Bad weather hampered fishing operations during the month of January. The prices paid to the fishermen have ruled high. The 

steam trawlers nearly all fished on Western Bank, but as a rule have had moderate catches. The schools of pollock have 

struck off from Cape Ann. The Newfoundland herring fleet has experienced the poorest season for many years, and its arrival 

has been delayed by bad weather. The Atlantic halibut fleet is getting away and from present indications will be smaller than

last year.
152

2 1917 Weather conditions during the month of February were unfavorable for fishing. The harbors along the coast were frozen 

over, which greatly hindered the movements of the fishing fleets. The steam trawlers operated chiefly on Western Banks, and 

landed some good trips. Part of the fresh halibut fleet has sailed, and indications are that the fleet this year will be small, the 

gill netters have met with indifferent success.

3 1917 At the beginning of March a very heavy snowstorm retarded fishing operations, and during the month there has been much 

bad weather. The strike of the fishermen, begun last month and still unsettled, has had a deleterious effect on fishing 

operations, and a large number of vessels are idle. The steam trawlers, so far not included in the strike, have landed good 

trips from Georges and Western banks. High prices have prevailed, and the fishermen have made large shares. No tilefish 

were landed owing to bad weather and the abundance of grayfish. None of the mackerel fleet has sailed thus far.

4 1917 Seasonable weather prevailed during the month of April, but as the strike of the fishermen was not called off until the latter 

part of the month the receipts were light. Owing is the fact that the Government has taken over a number of the steamers for 

war purposes there are only five steam trawlers now fishing. Mackerel are reported schooling in southern waters and about 

20 vessels have sailed south is engage in that fishery. Hand liners fishing on Georges Bank for cod report good catches. 

Schools of spring herring have appeared off the coast of Massachusetts. Good catcher of flounders have been made by the 

dredgers south of Nantucket.

5 1917 Weather conditions during a large part of the month of May were unfavorable for fishing. Ground fish were in light receipt 

except cod, which were in good supply from Georges by the hand liners. Good catches of large herring were made by the 

fleet on Cashes and Jeffreys Bank. The latter part of May the grayfish struck in along the shore, and the boats changed from 

trawling to seining. The mackerel seiners. numbering 32 sail, are now on Cape Shore.

6 1917 Weather conditions during the month at June have been quite favorable for fishing. The Cape Shore Fleet all arrived home 

with good catches of mackerel, having found mackerel in abundance on that ground. Quite a number of the vessels made two 

trips, and one vessel made three trips. The first vessels of the salt codfish fleet have arrived at Gloucester. The first vessel of 

the swordfish fleet arrived this month, eight days earlier than last year. Fishing vessels are making record stocks and shares 

in almost every branch of the industry.

7 1917 During the month of July the weather was unusually foggy especially an Georges Bank where the fishermen reported 

continuous fog for seventeen days. The steamers and sail vessels have landed moderate catches of ground fish, but owing to 

the high prices received have continued to make large stocks. Good catches of medium mackerel have been taken off No 

Man's Land and vicinity, and small mackerel off Chatham. Swordfish have been in moderate supply from Georges. Herring 

have been scarce. The fisherman report a scarcity of tilefish. Grayfish are quite numerous, but of small size.

8 1917 The weather was favorable for fishing during the month of August except that in the latter part of the month there was more 

or less fog. The fishermen continue to make unprecedented shares in all branches of the fisheries. There was a large body of 

small and tinker mackerel off Chatham and South Shoal Light where the fishermen made good catches, but were bothered by 

sharks which were quite numerous. The swordfish fishermen report fish scarce on Georges, and have mostly gone to the 

eastward. Shackers have landed good catches of ground fish.

9 1917 The weather was unusually cold and windy during the month of September. Encouraged by the high prices of fish, the 

groundfish fleet fully utilized the periods of favorable weather, landing considerable quantities of fish. Grayfish were 

troublesome, particularly in the Gulf of Maine, interfering with the taking of hake. Good catches of mackerel were made off 

Monhegan and Portland. The catch of swordfish on the Cape Shore has been light. Large spawn herring have been abundant 

off Cape Ann.

10 1917 The weather conditions were favorable for fishing during the month of October, and the market fishermen landed fair catches 

of ground fish that sold at high prices. Good catches of mackerel, mostly medium and large fish, were made off Cape Cod by 

the mackerel fishermen. Good catches of salt codfish were landed by the Bank fishermen. Gill netters fishing off Cape Ann 

made good catches of pollock. The vessels of the Newfoundland herring fleet are sailing daily. A number of vessels are 

fitting for tilefish fishing, and the indications are that the fleet this winter will be large.

11 1917 Fishing operations during the month of November were hampered to some extent by high winds, and unusually cold weather 

the latter part of the month. The catches of ground fish were light. The netters, when able to lift their nets, made good catches 

of pollock. The mackerel vessels have all discontinued fishing, but boats have made small catches of large mackerel off Cape 

Ann. Herring have been scarce.

12 1917 Weather conditions have been unfavorable for fishing much of the time during the month of December, resulting in light 

receipts from the fishing fleet. Prices have ruled high for all kinds of fish. Herring are plentiful on the west coast of 

Newfoundland, and indications are that the American vessels will obtain good fares.
153

1 1918 The weather was unusually cold during the month at January, and fishing vessels found navigation difficult, as the harbors 

were frozen over part of the time and there were great fields of ice along the shore. A number of good trips of fish were 

landed from Georges Bank. Vessels arriving from Cape Shore and shore grounds landed very light fares. The herring fleet 

has been quite successful on the coast of Newfoundland.

2 1918 The weather during February was cold and stormy, and the shore fleet was hampered by large fields at ice along the shore. 

Provincetown and Gloucester Harbors were frozen over much of the time. Large codfish were more abundant on Georges 

Bank than for many years, and some of the shore fleet engaged in that branch of fishing. The fishermen reported fish scarce 

on the shore grounds. The latter part of the month, trawlers fishing off Chatham caught some very large herring on their 

haddock trawls.

3 1918 Weather conditions during the month of March were better than ordinarily prevails during this month. A noteworthy fact was 

the large receipts of large codfish from Georges Bank. The catch has been the best for many years, and the spring schools 

have remained much longer than usual. Shore fishing has been light, and many vessels that usually fish on the shore grounds 

turned to Georges fishing. The first vessels of the bank salt codfish fleet for the coming season sailed this month. The 

flounder fishermen have landed good catches of flounders from Massachusetts Bay.

4 1918 Seasonable weather prevailed on the northern fishing grounds during the month of April. The catch of ground fish has 

consisted chiefly of large codfish from Georges Bank, where the catch of this species has exceeded all expectations. On April

11, a vessel from Yarmouth, N.S., brought into Boston a fare of ground fish direct from the fishing grounds, the first to arrive 

at that port under the new regulations. Two trips by Canadian vessels were landed at Boston and two at Portland during the 

month. Gill netters have landed good catches of codfish. The tilefish fishermen report fish scarce, and dogfish bothersome.

5 1918 The weather was favorable for fishing during the month of May. Good prices were received for all kinds of fish and the 

vessels made good stocks. The steamers fishing on Western Bank have landed large catches, but those fishing in South 

Channel and on Georges Bank had moderate catches. The shore seiners landed good catches of herring and pollock. The 

mackerel seiners, returning from the South, report quite a body of fish there this spring, but they were wild and could not be 

caught, and schooled only in the daytime. The tilefish fishermen report fish scarce, and are changing to other branches of 

fishing.

6 1918 The weather was unfavorable for fishing during the month of June. The mackerel fleet made good hauls of large and medium 

mackerel off the coast of Nova Scotia, but reported fish in smaller schools than usual. Good catches of mackerel ware also 

taken off South Shoal Light the latter part at the month. Ground fish hare been in moderate receipt, and sold at good prices. 

The first swordfish of the season were landed this month. The vessels made good catches of herring of large size, and the 

spring schools are remaining late this year. The shackers arriving at Gloucester report good catches.

7 1918 There was a good deal at foggy weather during the month of July, which interfered with fishing operations. The steamers 

fishing in South Channel landed good trips of haddock. Mackerel seiners landed good catches of large and medium mackerel 

from off South Shoal Light, and light catches of small mackerel were taken in the vicinity of Newport. The swordfish vessels 

landed small catches of swordfish from Georges. The catch of herring was light.

8 1918 Considerable foggy weather prevailed during the month of August, which was very unfavorable for seining operations. The 

catch of mackerel and herring was light. The fleet engaged in the market fishery landed good catches of haddock from South 

Channel. Swordfish have been in light receipt. During the month 17 vessels were sunk by enemy submarines, 8 of which 

were swordfish vessels. The vessels fishing in South Channel lost considerable gear owing to strong tides.

9 1918 Much inclement weather prevailed during the month of September. Haddock were more abundant than usual at this season of 

the year in South Channel, and the steam trawlers made good catches the latter part of the month. Cod, hake, pollock, and 

other kinds of ground fish have been scarce. The mackerel fleet made moderate catches of mixed fish, mostly mediums. 

Herring fishing has been light. The swordfish fleet has practically all arrived, and the catch has been light.

10 1918 Weather conditions during the month of October were quite favorable for fishing. The steam trawlers landed good catches of 

haddock. One new steamer began fishing this month, and it is expected that by next winter seven or eight new steamers will 

be in operation. The mackerel seiners have hauled up for the season, but a few netters are still operating, and report fish 

scarce. The gill netters are making unusually good hauls of fish off Gloucester, mostly pollock. A number of vessels are now 

engaged in fishing for tilefish, and have met with fair success.
154

11 1918 Weather condition during the month at November were good, except the last two weeks of the month, when heavy winds 

retarded fishing operations. Good catches of mackerel were made by the netters on Middle Bank and in the vicinity of 

Provincetown, and these fish are being caught later than usual this year. Pollock have been plentiful off Cape Ann, and the 

gill netters have made large catches of these fish. The last vessel of the Bank salt codfish fleet has arrived at Gloucester. A 

number of vessels of the herring fleet have cleared for Newfoundland.

12 1918 Unsettled weather interrupted fishing operations to some extent during the month of December, although it was unusually 

mild. Moderate catches were landed by the fishing fleet. Owing to a strike, night steamers were idle nearly the whole month. 

Mackerel were caught by netters near Provincetown up to the middle of the month, which was later than usual. The herring 

fleet reported good fishing on the west coast of Newfoundland. Herring were scarce along the shore.

1 1919 The weather was unusually mild during the month of January, but heavy winds interfered more or less with fishing 

operations. The trawlers landed good catches of haddock from off Chatham. Some unusually large haddock were landed 

from Georges. Eight fishing steamers were idle owing to the strike. Most of the gill netters are hauled up for the present as 

the fish have struck off. The Newfoundland herring fleet had a successful season.

2 1919 Weather conditions during the month of February were quite favorable for fishing. Good trips of groundfish, largely cod, 

were landed from Georges Bank. Most of the steam trawlers continued idle owing to the strike of the masters and mates. A 

small number of gill netters operated, securing fair catches of haddock. Large schools of herring were reported on Middle 

Bank, but only a few were taken.

3 1919 During the month of March the weather was unusually mild, and large catches of cod and haddock were landed from 

Georges Bank, where most of the large vessels and steamers operated. Fishing on the shore grounds was hampered the 

greater part of the month by unsettled weather. Low prices prevailed for cod and haddock. The strike of the fishermen, which 

was to take place on March 15, has been referred to the National War Board for arbitration. A number of the bank salt cod 

fleet sailed during the month.

4 1919 Weather conditions during the month of April were quite favorable for fishing, and the steamers and other vessels landed 

good catches of haddock, which sold at low prices. A number of good catches of cod were landed from Western Bank. 

Encouraging reports have been received from the South as to the presence of schools of mackerel in those waters. The 

southern fleet will be about the same size as last year. Good catches of large herring were taken the latter part of the month 

by boats fishing off Thatchers Island.

5 1919 The weather during the month of May was unusually warm, and quite favorable for fishing. The vessels landed good catches 

of cod and haddock, which sold at low prices. The pollock seiners landed good catches of pollock from Nantucket Shoals. 

The southern mackerel fleet, both seiners and netters, have been quite successful. The mackerel landed were practically all 

large and medium fish.

6 1919 Seasonable weather prevailed during the month of June. The steam trawlers landed good catches of haddock from South 

Channel, and prices ruled low. Owing to the low prices, three of these steamers have gone on salt fish voyages. The first sail 

bankers arrived with good catches of salt codfish. All of the Cape Shore mackerel vessels arrived home with good catches. 

Mackerel, mostly tinkers, were taken on the shore from Cape Ann to Chatham.

7 1919 Owing to a strike of the fishermen, which began July 3, and was still in progress at the end of the month, fishing operations 

have been very light. Tinker mackerel have been quite plentiful along the shore, and some of the small vessels engaged in 

shore seining, that were not in the strike, made good catches. Part of the swordfish fleet continued fishing and landed good 

catches, for which they received high prices.

8 1919 The strike of the fishermen which began July 3 was finally settled for a period of two months from August 15, 1919, to 

October 15, 1919. Prior to August 15 very few fish were landed direct from the fishing fleet, but good trips of haddock from 

South Channel were landed after that date. The weather was unfavorable for seining and very few mackerel were landed 

although these fish are reported along the shore. Swordfishermen from Georges Bank report that the weather was 

unfavorable and the fish scarce.

9 1919 The prevalence of rain and wind during the month greatly retarded mackerel fishing. Some large mackerel were landed from 

the coast of Maine, and monthly small mackerel from the coast of Massachusetts. As there was a large school of haddock in 

South Channel, quite a number of good catches were landed from that fishing ground, and considerable quantities were 

disposed of for salting. The gill netters have begun operations, but so far the catches have been light.
155

10 1919 The weather was quite favorable for trawling during the month of October and the steam trawlers and other vessels landed 

good catches of ground fish, principally haddock. The price of haddock ruled low, and considerable quantities were disposed 

of for smoking and salting. The mackerel catches were light during the month, only small schools of these fish being seen. 

The catch of herring has been light this fall. The fill netters made good catches of pollock.

11 1919 Rough weather, especially the first part of the month, retarded fishing operations during the month of November, and the 

steamers and other vessels landed moderate catches of ground fish. The gill netters fishing off Cape Ann landed good catches 

of pollock. Small boats landed good catches of mackerel from Boston Bay. Herring are reported plentiful on the west coast of 

Newfoundland, but present indications are that the American fleet in this fishery will be small.

12 1919 During the month of December the weather was unusually cold, and many of the vessels coming in were heavily coated with 

ice. As a rule they had light catches of ground fish, as fish are not taken in so great abundance on the fishing grounds at this 

season of the year. Most of the netters fishing on the shore grounds have discontinued operations, and will not star out again 

until the haddock strike in. Shore fishing of all kinds has been very light.

1 1920 The weather was unusually cold, unsettled, and stormy during the month of January, but during the latter part of the month 

the steam trawlers landed good catches of haddock from Georges Bank. All kinds of shore fishing operations were very light. 

Four vessels of the herring fleet are caught in the ice on the west coast of Newfoundland with no chance of release until 

spring.

2 1920 During the month of February the weather was cold and stormy with heavy winds, which greatly interfered with fishing 

operations. The weather on Georges Bank, where the steamers were mostly fishing, was not so severe as on the shore 

grounds and to the eastward. The steamers fishing on that bank landed most of the fish. Sailing vessels, owing to the bad 

weather, had poor success. The gill netters landed small catches of ground fish, and operations on the shore grounds were 

very light. Four vessels of the herring fleet are still held in the ice at Bay of Islands, Newfoundland, with no chance of release 

until the latter part of April.

3 1920 The weather was stormy during the early part of March, but was more favorable for fishing the remainder of the month. The 

fleet landed good catches of cod and haddock, but, as is usual at this time of the year, prices ruled low and were 

unremunerative. Preparations began for the southern mackerel fishery, and the fleet will probably be about the same size as 

last year. The gill netters made larger catches of ground fish than for many weeks.

4 1920 The weather during the month of April was unusually cold and rainy, retarding fishing operations. The demand for ground 

fish was moderate, and prices ruled low. Owing to the low prices a number of the steam trawlers discontinued fishing and 

will not resume until the market improves. The gill netters have landed moderate catches of ground fish. The southern 

mackerel fleet is about the same size as last year. The netters have been quite successful, but the seiners have not done so 

well. The draggers have landed good catches of flounders, which were sold at low prices.

5 1920 The weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing during the month of May, and the steamers and other vessels landed 

good catches of ground fish, but prices ruled low and large quantities were sold for curing. The Georges hand liners landed 

good trips of codfish. Never in the history of the mackerel fishery has the fleet landed so many mackerel at Boston direct 

from the fishing grounds as in the present month. Mackerel fishermen reported large bodies of menhaden in the South. Shore 

fishermen have been hampered by grayfish.

6 1920 During the month of June weather conditions for the most part were favorable for fishing operations. The fleet landed good 

catches of ground fish, but prices were unremunerative and quite a number of the steam trawlers were not operated. The 

Cape Shore mackerel fleet experienced the poorest season for a number of years owing to the scarcity of fish on that ground 

this season. The first vessels of the swordfish fleet arrived June 29, and reported fair fishing.

7 1920 The weather during the month of July was favorable for fishing operations. Owing to the moderate demand for ground fish, 

and the low prices prevailing, the fleet engaged in this branch of fishing has been small. The shackers have brought in good 

catches from Western Bank. The mackerel fishermen report sharks, bonito, and blackfish on the fishing grounds, and have 

landed but few fish. The swordfish vessels have been very successful, landing good catches of swordfish from Georges 

Bank.

8 1920 The weather was unusually foggy during the month of August. The swordfish fleet landed good catches of swordfish early in 

the month. The latter part of the month the fish were not found so plentiful and fog interfered with the fishing. Mackerel 

fishing this month has been very light. Only about 25 per cent of the steam trawlers were operating, but they landed good 

catches of haddock from South Channel.
156

9 1920 Weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing operations during the month of September. The catches of haddock and 

other ground fish were good, but the market prices ruled low and were unsatisfactory to the fishermen. Mackerel have been 

scarce, schools showing occasionally off Chatham and off Cape Cod. The swordfish season ended this month, and the 

fishermen engaged in this fishery have done well. The gill netters began operations, but so far have landed small catches. 

Some spawn herring have been taken off Cape Ann, but so far the catch of fall herring has been very light.

10 1920 During the month of October the weather was unusually fine for the time of year on Georges Bank and the Shore grounds, 

but fishing vessels arriving from the eastward reported more or less unsettled weather. The steamers and other vessels landed

good catches of ground fish, consisting mainly of haddock of larger size than usual. The mackerel seiners landed only a few 

fish, but the netters have had fair success catching mackerel off Cape Ann. The catch of the gill netters improved, and larger 

catches of pollock were landed.

11 1920 As is usual during the month of November, the winds and stormy weather interfered to some extent with fishing operations. 

The prices of ground fish showed some improvement. Both the steam trawlers and line trawlers landed moderate catches. 

The gill netters operating at Cape Ann reported light fishing. Small boats made good catches of large and medium mackerel 

from Thatchers to Boon Island. Herring were reported plentiful on the west coast of Newfoundland, but the number of 

American vessels in this fishery will be small.

12 1920 As usual during the month of December windy weather interfered to some extent with fishing operations, but the weather 

was unusually mild. The steam trawlers fished principally in South Channel and landed light catches of fish, mostly haddock. 

The sail vessels fishing to the eastward landed light catches consisting chiefly of codfish. The fleet of gill netters is smaller 

than last year, and have had indifferent success.

1 1921 During the early part of January the weather was cold and stormy, retarding fishing operation, but the latter part of the month 

finer weather prevailed and good catches of fish were made, especially on Georges Bank. Prices have ruled low. The halibut 

fleet is making preparations for the season's fishing and will be larger than last year. The operations of the gill netters have 

been light.

2 1921 The weather conditions were favorable for fishing operations except on the eastern banks. There was a large school of 

codfish on Georges Bank, and the vessels landed good catches of these fish. The steamers landed good catches of haddock. 

The gill netters, beginning about the middle of the month, made good catches of haddock on the shore grounds. Other kinds 

of ground fish were in light supply. The steamers fishing in South Channel and on Georges Bank reported seeing unusual 

quantities of herring and squid for this time of the year, and also got a few mackerel in their trawls.

3 1921 Considerable unfavorable weather was experienced during the month of March, but vessels landed good trips of codfish from 

Georges Bank. The steam trawlers have all discontinued fishing, as the fishermen declined to accept the lower scale of wages 

offered to them by the owners. The flounder dredgers have landed good catches, but prices have ruled low, and this fishing 

has not been very profitable. The mackerel seiners and netters are getting ready for the southern fishery, and the fleet will be 

a little larger than last year. The first seiner sailed March 30.

4 1921 The prevalence of easterly winds and rain during the month of April was unfavorable for fishing operation. The vessels 

landed moderate catches, and haddock sold at high prices. The American steam trawlers were not in operation owing to the 

reduced compensation offered to the fishermen. The gill netters landed small catches. The mackerel fishermen report seeing 

considerable quantities of mackerel in the South this spring, but have landed light catches owing to the unfavorable weather 

conditions. The mackerel taken so far have been of large size. The halibut fleet as a rule has had small catches and reports 

fish scarce.

5 1921 During the month of May easterly winds prevailed much of the time, and seriously interfered with mackerel fishing in the 

South. About 28 vessels have sailed for Cape Shore, and the reports from that locality are quite encouraging. The vessels 

taking ground fish have landed good catches, largely from South Channel, but prices have ruled low. A number of steam 

trawlers have resumed operations. Herring, suitable for canning and bait, are being caught along the shore.

6 1921 The weather during early of the month of June was quite favorable for fishing operations. The vessels and steamers landed 

good catches of ground fish, but prices ruled low. The Cape Shore mackerel fleet returning with good catches owing to the 

good weather and abundance of mackerel in that locality during the first part of the month. The catch of mackerel on this 

shore was light. A number of halibut vessels arrived, and prices of halibut ruled low. During the latter part of the month 

schools of menhaden were observed in Boston Bay.

7 1921 The weather was favorable for fishing during the month of July, and the vessels landed good catches of ground fish, but 

prices ruled low. Some large mackerel were taken in Boston Bay and also on the coast of Maine, but the catch has been 

disappointing. The fishermen reported swordfish scarce. The emergency war measure permitting Canadian fishing vessels to 

land their fares at American ports direct from the fishing grounds was canceled to take effect July 15, 1921.
157

8 1921 The weather was quite favorable for fishing during the month of August and the fleet landed large quantities of fish. The 

vessels engaged in mackerel fishing have found fish very scarce, and most of the large vessels remained in port. The 

swordfish fleet reported fish scarce, and, as a rule have had small catches. The halibut fleet has kept the market well supplied 

and prices were low. A number of cargoes of halibut were sold for freezing. 

9 1921 Weather conditions were favorable for fishing during the month of September, and the catches of haddock and other 

groundfish were good. Mackerel continued scarce. The landings of the swordfishing fleet were light and the fishermen have 

had a comparatively poor season. Good catches of the halibut were landed. Sharks were reported to be numerous in the South 

Channel.

10 1921 The first part of October was favorable for fishing and the fleet landed good catches of ground fish, but the latter part of the 

month heavy winds greatly interfered with fishing operations. The mackerel netters report a very poor season to date, and 

only a few seiners are fishing. The gill netters landed large catches of fish, mostly pollock. A number of the halibut vessels 

have discontinued this branch of fishing for the year. The catch of herring on the shore grounds has been light.

11 1921 Weather conditions during the month of November were quite unfavorable for fishing. Easterly winds with rain prevailed, 

and vessels from the eastward reported much snow. Consequently the arrivals have had small catches but realized good 

prices. The gill netters, when weather permitted, made fair catches of ground fish, mainly pollock. The seiners discontinued 

mackerel fishing, but the netters have taken small catches off Cape Ann. The halibut vessels have about all discontinued 

fishing for the season.

12 1921 The weather was quite cold and windy during the month of December and unfavorable for fishing operations. The steamers 

and other vessels landed light catches of fish, but prices were good. Only a few vessels are now engaged in halibut fishing, 

and these have met with poor success. Herring have been plentiful on the west coast of Newfoundland, and the small fleet 

engaged in this fishery has obtained full cargoes. The gill netters have had indifferent success.

1 1922 The weather was unfavorable on the fishing grounds during the month of January, and as a consequence the catch of fish was 

light, and prices ruled high. The first part of the month some of the ground-fish vessels were tied up owing to labor trouble. 

The gill netters found fish scarce, and had poor success. Many of the halibut vessels that have been hauled up since the latter 

part of 1921 have sailed for the fishing grounds.

2 1922 The weather conditions were unfavorable for fishing early in February, but improved the latter part of the month. Good 

catches of fish were taken on Georges and other banks, but prices ruled low. Shore fishermen landed some good trips of 

haddock, but hake, cusk, and pollock were in light receipt. The gill netters landed considerable quantities of haddock.

3 1922 Weather conditions during the month of March were better than usual, and large catches of fish were landed from Georges 

and other banks. The halibut vessels fishing to the eastward and south of Newfoundland reported large fields of ice 

interfering with fishing operations. The first of the mackerel vessels has sailed south, and the seining fleet will be a little 

smaller than last year. The gill netters made fair catches of haddock.

4 1922 Weather conditions were favorable for fishing during the month of April. The mackerel fleet began operations in southern 

waters and have landed several thousand barrels of large and medium mackerel at New York, Cape May, and other ports. 

Ground fish were in good supply from the fishing fleet. The draggers made good catches of flounders, which were sold at 

low prices. Only a few gill netters are now engaged in fishing.

5 1922 Weather conditions during the month of May were fairly good for fishing, and the steamers and other vessels landed good 

catches of haddock from South Channel. The Southern mackerel fleet, though far from successful, landed more mackerel 

than last year. The fishermen reported seeing large schools of very small fish. A steam trawler, the first one is shift into 

mackerel fishing, landed a good trip of mackerel from Cape Shore. The halibut fleet as a rule had light catches and reported 

fish scarce.

6 1922 The prevalence of fog and rain during the month of June hampered fishing operations on the shore grounds. Ground fish 

have been in moderate supply by steamers and other vessels. The demand for these fish at this season of the year is light. The 

first vessel of the swordfish fleet arrived June 21, nine days earlier than the first arrival last year. Swordfish are more 

abundant this year than for several years. The first salt banker arrived at Gloucester, June 23, two days later than the first 

arrival last year. The catch of mackerel by the fleet on Cape Shore was less than last year owing to the abundance of 

jellyfish, which prevented the seining of mackerel.

7 1922 There was considerable foggy weather during the month of July, but otherwise fishing conditions were quite favorable. The 

steamers and other vessels landed good catches of ground fish. Very few mackerel were caught, and those taken were mostly 

"tacks" running three or four to a pound. The swordfish fleet had good fishing on Georges Bank, and the catch promises to be 

a record one. The halibut fleet landed good catches of halibut, mostly from Grand Bank, but prices have ruled low.
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8 1922 The weather was unusually foggy and rainy during the month of August, but when favorable the fishing fleet made good 

catches of ground fish, mostly on Georges Bank and in South Channel. Mackerel were scarce, and those taken were mainly 

"tacks," running three fish to a pound. The swordfish fleet has continued to do well on Georges Bank. The halibut receipts 

were largely from Grand Bank, but halibut were not as plentiful there as last year.

9 1922 Weather conditions were favorable for fishing during the month of September. Steamers and sailing vessels landed good 

catches of ground fish, mostly haddock. Some at the sailing vessels made unusually quick trips. The latter part of the month 

the fishermen reported sharks and dogfish bothersome in South Channel. Handliners landed moderate trips of fish from 

Georges Bank. Halibut have been in moderate supply. Mackerel weighing about one-half pound each were quite plentiful 

inshore from Boon Island to Cape Porpoise, and a large number of small seiners made good catches.

10 1922 Heavy winds greatly retarded fishing operations during the month of October, and the prices received for groundfish have 

been higher in consequence. Returning halibut fishing vessels landed small catches and report scarcity of fish. Small 

mackerel were quite numerous inshore on the coast of Maine, and small vessels made good catches.

11 1922 Weather conditions during the month of November were better than usual for this time of the year. More steam trawlers were 

operating than for a number of years, but as a rule they landed moderate catches of ground fish. A few steamers landed good 

catches of haddock from off South Shoal Lightship. Mackerel netters landed good catches of large and medium mackerel 

from off Cape Ann. A few seiners want to Cape Shore but met with indifferent success. Prices of ground fish have ruled low 

for this season of the year.

12 1922 Heavy winds with snow and rain interfered to a large extent with fishing operations in December. The steam trawlers landed 

moderate catches of fish, and some of the steamers made good catches of pollock in South Channel, where there was a large 

school of these fish. A number of the sailing vessels landed good catches of ground fish from Browns Bank. Owing to the 

bad weather the gill netters landed small catches. Herring were plentiful on the west coast of Newfoundland, but only a few 

American vessels were engaged in that branch of fishing.

1 1923 During the month of January snowstorms and windy weather interfered with fishing operations. Fish were reported scarce on 

most of the fishing grounds. Owing to the light receipts, prices ruled high, especially during the first three weeks of the 

month. The halibut fleet usually sails during this month, and the indications are that the fleet will be about the same size as 

last year. Two American vessels on herring voyages were caught in the ice on the west coast of Newfoundland with no 

prospect of getting out until April.

2 1923 The weather during the month of February was unusually cold, and the snow and rough weather interfered with fishing 

operations. The harbors were filled with ice and conditions in that respect were worse than in any year since 1918. Fishermen

fishing on the eastern fishing grounds reported seeing much field ice. During a moderate spell the latter part of the month the 

vessels made good catches of codfish on Georges Bank. Shore fishing was very light.

3 1923 Weather conditions during the month of March were unfavorable for fishing operations, being unusually cold with snow and 

heavy winds. The vessels from the eastward, with light catches of halibut, reported that large fields of floating ice extending 

farther south than usual interfered with fishing. Gill-net fishing improved somewhat, but the catches are still running light. 

Some preparations are being made by the southern mackerel fleet, but the first vessels are not expected to leave before the 

first of April.

4 1923 Windy weather interfered considerably with shore fishing during the month of April. The steamers landed good prices of 

haddock from Western Bank, and other vessels landed some good trips of haddock and codfish from Georges and Browns 

Banks. The operations of the gill netters netter were light. Flounder draggers landed considerable quantities of fish. Mackerel 

seiners landed several trips of tinker mackerel at southern ports, and the netters landed small catches of medium and large 

mackerel. Trips along the shore made good catches of herring.

5 1923 Weather conditions during the month of May were better than usual, but the vessels and steamers fishing for ground fish 

reported fish scarce to South Channel and on Georges Bank. The vessels from Browns Bank and Western Bank reported 

good fishing. Although a number of big trips of halibut were landed, the catches on the average have not been large. 

Fishermen from Grand Bank reported halibut scarce. Mackerel fishermen in the south have had indifferent success. The 

seiners made some catches of tinker mackerel, which is regarded as an encouraging sign. Preparations are being made for 

swordfish fishing, and a few vessels have already sailed.
159

6 1923 During the month of June ground fish were in good supply, and prices ruled low. The handliners landed good trips of codfish 

from Georges Bank. Most of the vessels fishing on Cape Shore returned with light catches of mackerel, and the total catch in 

those waters was the lightest for many years, owing to bad weather and scarcity of fish. Shore vessels made small catches of 

tinker mackerel. The catch of swordfish on Georges Bank so far has been very light, owing to a scarcity of fish. The catch of 

large shore herring was also very light.

7 1923 Weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing during the month of July, and vessels landed good catches of ground fish 

from the certain fishing grounds. Handliners landed good catches of codfish from Browns Bank. Light catches at small 

mackerel were made off Cape Ann and Cape Cod. The catch of swordfish on Georges Bank was light compared with last 

year, and the fishermen reported fish scarce. The halibut fishermen also reported fish scarce. Menhaden were schooling off 

this coast, and some of them were seined.

8 1923 Weather conditions during the month of August were quite favorable for fishing operations except on Georges Bank, where 

the fishermen reported much fog, especially the sword fishermen. The ground-fish fleet as a rule made moderate catches of 

small mackerel on Middle Bank. Most of the larger mackerel vessels, discouraged with the outlook, discontinued mackerel 

fishing. The swordfish fishery improved, but the fishermen experienced much foggy weather and reported fish scarce.

9 1923 Good weather prevailed during the month of September, resulting in good catches of almost all kinds of seasonable fish. 

More mackerel were caught this month than at this season for many years. The fish were practically all small, weighing 

about 1 pound each, and were caught them from Boston Light to Boon Island. Hand-line pollock fishermen, starting fall 

operations, report fish scarce.

10 1923 Weather conditions were favorable for fishing during October until the latter part of the month when heavy winds and rain 

retarded fishing operations, especially the seining of mackerel. Receipts of ground fish, however, were large. Small mackerel

have been in good supply and were caught monthly in the vicinity of Cape Cod. Herring have been scarce. Mackerel netters 

have begun fishing but so far have made light catches. Only a few halibut vessels are now operating.

11 1923 The weather during the month of November was unusually mild, and favorable for fishing operations. Ground fish were in 

good supply from both steamers and sailing vessels. The mackerel receipts were light as seiners have quit fishing. and the fall 

netters have had an unsuccessful season. Gill netters report an improvement in fishing and are catching mainly pollock. The 

catch of herring has been very light.

12 1923 The weather during the month of December was milder than usual and favorable for fishing operations. The mackerel netters 

fished later in the season than for many years, making small catches of large mackerel chiefly off Cape Ann. Ground fish 

were in good supply. Only a few gill netters operated this season, and their catches were mostly pollock. A number of 

cargoes of herring were received from the west coast of Newfoundland.

1 1924 Early in January ground fish were in light supply and sold at comparatively high prices, but during the mild weather that 

prevailed about the middle of the month the receipts of ground fish were heavy. The latter part of the month cold and stormy 

weather prevailed. A number of the halibut vessels have sailed for the fishing grounds. The Newfoundland herring catch has 

been very light.

2 1924 Although the weather during the month of February was unusually cold and more or less stormy, the arrivals of ground fish 

were large, especially from Georges Bank. The arrivals from Georges had good catches running from 40 to 50 per cent 

codfish, mostly large fish. Hake, cusk, and pollock were in light supply. Operations on the shore grounds were light. A few 

vessels of the halibut fleet arrived and, as usual at this season of the year, brought in small catches of fish.

3 1924 During the month of March much stormy weather prevailed, including the worst northeast blizzard of the winter, and there 

was a long period of windy weather. The vessels, however, landed some good catches from Georges Bank, practically all 

haddock and codfish. The first seiner of the southern mackerel fleet sailed south on the 24th of the month, 11 days earlier 

than the first vessel sailed last year. The fleet will be about the same size as last year.

4 1924 Easterly winds with rain and snow squalls interfered with fishing operations during the month of April. Near the end of the 

month the mackerel fleet fishing in southern waters made good catches of small fresh mackerel, which were landed at New 

York. The mackerel netters, however, have done very little to date. A number of the vessels this month changed from 

ground-fish fishing to mackerel or halibut fishing. Herring of medium size, suitable for bait, appeared off this coast and good 

catches were made at Provincetown.
160

5 1924 The fishermen reported grayfish very bothersome along the shore the latter part of May from Fire Island to Browns Bank.

Some of the vessels have returned with small catches of ground fish and mackerel, owing to the presence of grayfish on the 

fishing grounds. The mackerel seiners in the south have landed good catches of small mackerel, and the netters have landed 

good catches of large and medium mackerel. The season has been quite successful. The swordfish fleet is fitting out. Good 

catches of herring of a size suitable for bait have been taken along the shore.

6 1924 The mackerel netters have landed better catches of large and medium mackerel caught off this coast than far many years. The 

catch of fresh mackerel on Cape Shore was about 75 per cent as large as that of the previous year. The early arrivals had 

small-sized fish, which was unusual. Good catches of herring have been made, which were disposed of for salting and 

freezing purposes. Two vessels of the swordfish fleet, the first arrivals, landed 119 fish on June 25. There have been good 

catches of ground fish landed.

7 1924 There was considerable foggy weather during the month of July which interfered with fishing, especially on Georges Bank, 

where the swordfish fleet operated. Good catches of codfish were taken on Western Bank. The mackerel fleet made good 

catches of blink mackerel along the shore from Block Island, R. I., to Portland, Me. The latter part of the month, when the 

fog disappeared, good catches of swordfish were taken on Georges Bank.

8 1924 Mackerel weighing about three-fourths of a pound each were quite plentiful on Middle Bank and the mackerel fleet landed 

good catches of these fish. Mackerel of a larger size were taken on the Maine coast near Matinicus. The catches of swordfish 

have been moderate. The swordfish fleet suffered considerable damage in a heavy gale the latter part of the month. Good 

catches of cod and haddock, but small catches of halibut, were landed during the month.

9 1924 There was considerable windy weather during September which interfered with the fishing operations of the mackerel fleet. 

Mackerel of mixed sizes, but mostly about one pound in weight, have been schooling along the shore from Chatham, Mass., 

to Seguin, Me. Good catches of ground fish were landed, and a considerable number of steam trawlers operated, as market 

conditions have improved. Gill-net fishing and halibut fishing have been light. Small catches of large herring have been 

taken along the shore.

10 1924 The weather during the month of October was quite favorable for fishing, and the catch of ground fish, particularly haddock, 

was large. The arrivals were largely from South Channel. A number of steamers that have been laid up for some time 

resumed operations. The landings of the mackerel, which have been moderate, comprised mostly small fish. Gill netters 

made moderate catches of fish, largely pollock. The halibut fleet have nearly all discontinued fishing. Boats landed only a 

small catch of herring.

11 1924 The mackerel seiners made good catches of small mackerel off Block Island the first part of the month, but did very little 

thereafter, and discontinued fishing for the season. The mackerel netters made light catches of large and medium mackerel 

off Cape Ann. They have had a poor season. Ground fish have been in good supply, especially from the shore grounds, from 

which more fish have been taken than for many years. The fishermen report grayfish remaining on the grounds later than 

usual this year. A few small salmon were caught off Gloucester, which is unusual.

12 1924 During the month of December rain, snow, winds, and cold weather curtailed fishing operations, especially on the offshore 

fishing grounds. Most of the vessels, however, operated on the shore grounds, making short trips. Light catches of large and 

medium mackerel were made off Cape Ann up to about the middle of the month by the netters. The fishing operations of the 

gill-netters have been light.

1 1925 Owing to the stormy weather during a large part of January, fishing operations were light. One vessel out eleven days had 

only one and a half days of fishing. Some trips of good-sized fish were brought in from Browns Bank. One vessel landed a 

haddock from Browns Bank that weighed 16 pounds and measured 38 1/2 inches in length, probably the largest ever landed 

from there. The fishermen reported fish scarce on Western Bank.

2 1925 Fishing operations at this season of the year are confined almost entirely to ground fish. A very long spell of moderate 

weather prevailed during February and resulted in good catches of fish, especially on Georges Bank. Steamer Whitecap, 

while fishing on Georges Bank, caught a large mackerel in her otter trawl. A number of vessels of the halibut fleet have 

resumed fishing, having been laid up for several months.

3 1925 The weather was unusually good during March and resulted in good trips of fish being landed, especially from Georges Bank 

and South Channel. The gill-net fishing has also improved. The first vessel of the southern mackerel seining fleet sailed 

March 24. The present indications are that the southern fleet will be larger than last year. Vessels arriving from the eastward 

with ground fish as a rule have had moderate catches. Schooner "Ingomar" landed a big trip of halibut which weighed out 

79,930 pounds and stocked $16,828,74.
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4 1925 Good trips of ground fish were landed by the fishing fleet from Browns Bank, Georges Bank, and South Channel. Vessels 

fishing on shore grounds made good catches of haddock and flounders. The southern seining fleet, which is larger than last 

year, landed more mackerel from that locality than for several years. The mackerel varied in size from blinks, weighing 1/4 

of a pound, to large, weighing 3 pounds each. The halibut fleet landed small catches as a rule, and reported fish scarce. 

Herring made their appearance off Cape Cod and Cape Ann.

5 1925 During the month of May the weather was mild and conditions were favorable for fishing operations. Good catches of 

ground fish were landed by vessels operating on Browns Bank, South Channel, and Georges Bank. Larger catches were 

landed by vessels fishing on Western Bank and the eastern fishing banks. Vessels of the mackerel fleet that went south are 

returning home, and report the most successful season for many years. The halibut fleet as a rule have landed small catches, 

and report fish scarce. Preparations are now being made for the swordfishery.

6 1925 The Cape Shore mackerel catch was quite successful, being about 60 per cent larger than last year. The fish landed were all 

of large and medium size. The shore fleet have landed some good catches of mackerel weighing about a pound each, caught 

from Block Island to Cape Ann. Small catches of swordfish have been landed from Georges Bank, and more have been taken 

this season in the Block Island region than for several years. Hand-line fishermen have landed moderate catches of codfish, 

principally from Georges Bank. The bank halibut fleet has landed light catches.

7 1925 Small mackerel, weighing from 1 to 1 1/4 pounds each, were plentiful in South Channel and off South Shoal Light, and the 

mackerel seiners made good catches. Sharks were numerous and quite bothersome off South Shoal, and did considerable 

damage to the seines. The groundfish fleet landed good catches of haddock from South Channel and Western Bank. Handline fishermen for cod had fair fishing on Georges and Browns banks. Halibut fishermen reported fish scarce. Swordfish 

fishermen have had moderate success. Swordfish are more scattered this season than usual.

8 1925 More mackerel were landed in August than for many years. They weighed from 1 to 1 1/4 pounds each, and were caught 

mostly off Chatham and on Middle Bank. The largest mackerel landed weighed 7 1/4 pounds and was the largest one landed 

in a number of years. The swordfish catch has been light. Good catches of haddock were taken in South Channel. The halibut 

vessels continue to land light catches of fish.

9 1925 Weather conditions were good during September and ground fish were in good supply. The Gloucester gill netters landed 

good catches of cod and pollock. The mackerel seiners were very successful, landing catches of medium mackerel caught 

from Thatchers Island to South Channel. The halibut fleet as a rule brought in small catches. The swordfish vessels are all in, 

and the catch is about 20 per cent less than last year.

10 1925 The weather during the month of October was unusually cold and windy. The mackerel fleet landed good catches of medium 

mackerel caught mostly off Chatham and Block Island, but the latter part of the month the schools disappeared. The groundfish vessels are now operating largely on the shore grounds. Vessels operating in South Channel have had moderate catches. 

The fleet has been augmented by the addition of a number of steamers. Gill netters have landed some good catches of 

pollock. Vessels fishing in South Channel have been bothered by small grayfish.

11 1925 Heavy winds interfered with fishing operations during the month of November. The mackerel netters made light catches of 

large and medium mackerel off Cape Ann. Shore mackerel seiners had very little chance to fish, and discontinued operations. 

Three seiners went to Cape Shore, but returned without any fish. Ground-fish arrivals were largely from shore grounds, but 

the steamers landed some good fares of haddock from South Shoal. Handline fishermen for cod reported good fishing on 

Georges Bank when the weather permitted fishing, but all except two of these vessels have discontinued fishing for the 

season.

12 1925 During the month of December the fishermen experienced one of the longest spells of windy weather on record, and had very 

little chance to operate. The receipts were landed largely by the steam trawlers. Fish were not very plentiful in South Channel 

and on the shore grounds, but fishing vessels from La Have Bank and the eastward reported good fishing. The hand-line 

vessels have all discontinued fishing, and have had quite a profitable season.

1 1926 The weather during the month of January was very windy, which interfered with fishing operations. Moderate catches of 

ground fish were landed from Georges Bank and the fishing banks to the eastward. Steamers and vessels landed some good 

catches from South Channel and from off Chatham. Light catches were landed from the shore grounds. A cargo of frozen 

herring was received at Gloucester from Newfoundland. There is only one vessels engaged in that fishery this season.
162

2 1926 During the month of February the weather was very unfavorable for fishing operations, especially on the shore grounds. The 

snow fall was the largest in twenty years, and strong winds prevailed most of the time. The receipts were largely codfish 

from Georges Bank, from which a number of vessels landed good catches. The steamers landed some good trips of haddock, 

which were in good demand. The first arrivals of the halibut fleet had small catches, and reported rough weather.

3 1926 The fishing fleet, during the month of March, landed a large amount of fish from South Channel and Georges Bank. The 

steamers operating in South Channel made good catches of haddock, and the vessels operating on Georges Bank made good 

catches of codfish. The vessels fishing on shore grounds, as a rule, landed small catches. The first vessels of the mackerel 

fleet sailed south on March 27, four days later than the first vessels sailed last year. Indications are the southern fleet will be 

the largest for many years.

4 1926 Weather conditions during the month of April were not very favorable for fishing. The mackerel fleet operating in the south 

is larger this year than for a number of year. The first catch of mackerel was landed at Cape May on April 11, two days 

earlier than last year. The mackerel were of mixed sizes, but mostly medium. Ground fish have been in good supply from 

both shore and offshore grounds. The fishermen in the hand-line cod fishery on Georges Bank reported fish scarce. The 

draggers made good catches of haddock off Chatham.

5 1926 Weather conditions were fairly good during the month of May, and the steamers landed good catches of ground fish. Other 

vessels landed good catches of codfish from Western Bank. A handline vessel arrived having 100,000 pounds of large 

codfish, the largest trip of large codfish ever brought in from that place by a handline market fisherman. Mackerel seiners 

fishing in the south landed good catches of medium and small mackerel. The halibut vessels fishing on Georges Bank made 

fair catches of halibut.

6 1926 Ground fish have been in good supply during June, especially by steamers of South Channel. A larger number of vessels than 

usual engaged in the Cape Shore mackerel fishery, and landed good catches of mackerel of mixed sizes. The first arrival was 

five days later than the first arrival last year. Seiners landed good catches of small mackerel from off No Man's Land. The 

netters as a rule landed small catches from shore grounds. The first swordfish trips were landed on June 23; the first last year 

on June 25.

7 1926 Weather conditions during the month of July were quite favorable for fishing operations, and the fishing fleet landed good 

catches for mackerel, swordfish, and ground fish. The mackerel which were caught along the shore from Cape Ann to 

Chatham were nearly all small and medium fish, very few tinkers, and practically no large. Swordfish vessels from Georges 

Bank landed the best trips for years, but the fish averaged small in size. The large vessels operating on Western Bank landed 

good catches of codfish.

8 1926 Mackerel seiners landed good catches of small and medium mackerel, which were caught from Chatham, Mass., to Portland, 

Me. The price of mackerel owing to the large receipts, has ruled low. The swordfish fleet landed good catches of swordfish 

from Georges Bank. Only a small number of steam trawlers are now operating, but have landed good catches of haddock 

from South Channel and Nantucket Shoals.

9 1926 Easterly winds and fog hampered fishing operations more or less during the month of September. The mackerel fleet made 

catches of mackerel from Boon Island southward to Chatham. The fish were practically all of medium size, with a few large. 

The swordfish season is closed and the catch is about 60 per cent larger than last year. The vessels engaged in this fishery 

had a successful season. Gill netters now operating are making light catches of ground fish. The halibut fleet has found fish

scarce. Steamers and vessels have landed fair catches of ground fish.

10 1926 During the first two weeks of this month fair catches of mackerel were made by the fleet off Chatham and as far north as 

Jeffreys Ledge, but during the latter part of the month mackerel fishing was interrupted by unfavorable weather. Ground fish 

were largely from South Channel. Vessels that came from La Have and Browns Banks reported grayfish bothersome, and 

lost more or less fishing gear. The gill netters the latter part of the month made good catches of pollock. A few good trips of 

halibut were received from Quereau Bank.

11 1926 The weather in November was favorable for fishing operation. Early in the month there was a large school of mackerel off 

Cape Cod, and the mackerel seiners landed the best catches ever landed so late in the season. The fish were 11⁄2 to 2 pounds 

each in weight. Most of the seiners discontinued fishing the middle of the month. Netters made some fair catches the latter 

part of the month off Cape Cod. The ground-fish vessels and steamers have made moderate catches, and have been bothered 

by grayfish. The steamer "Wave," while fishing 50 miles southeast of Highland Light, November 24, caught a 6-pound 

tilefish in her trawl.
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12 1926 Much stormy weather interrupted fishing operations during the month of December. The mackerel netters landed small 

catches of large and medium mackerel the first part of the month, caught off Cape Cod and Thatchers Island. The last netters 

arrived on December 10. Vessels engaged in the market fishery landed moderate catches from shore and offshore grounds. 

Gill netters landed fair catches, mostly pollock. The draggers landed moderate catches of flounders.

1 1927 The fishermen reported the weather unusually mild on the fishing banks for the month of January, and obtained good catches 

of fish, especially codfish on Georges Bank. Codfish struck in on Georges Bank early this year. Steamers from off South 

Shoal Light brought in good catches of haddock. The first vessel of the halibut fleet sailed January 27, about two weeks 

earlier than the first vessel sailed last year.

2 1927 Owing to mild weather on the fishing banks during the month of February, the fishing fleet landed a large quantity of fish. 

The steamers landed good catches of haddock from South Channel, and other vessels landed good catches of large codfish 

from Georges Bank. Prices ruled low. A vessel of the halibut fleet arrived February 2, with a good catch from St. Peters 

Bank, and was the first arrival from there this year. Gill netters landed light catches of fish, mostly codfish.

3 1927 Mild weather prevailed during the month of March, and conditions were favorable for fishing operations. The steamers 

landed good catches of haddock from South Channel, and other vessels landed good catches of codfish from Georges Bank. 

The southern mackerel fleet will be the largest for many years, and quite a number have already sailed south. The halibut 

fleet which is now operating has landed some good catches, and gill netters have landed fair catches, mostly codfish.

4 1927 During the first half of the month of April the weather conditions were unfavorable for fishing, and steamers and vessels 

were more or less hampered in their operations. The ground-fish fleet landed moderate catches. The mackerel fleet operating 

in the South the latter part of the month was very successful in making catches of mackerel that averaged about 1 1/4 pounds 

each in weight. Gill netters landed good catches of haddock. Prices of fish have ruled low.

5 1927 The mackerel fleet made good catches of Medium mackerel in the month, but prices ruled low. More mackerel were received 

from the fleet direct than ever before. Owing to the lighter demand for ground fish and haddock, a number of the steamers 

have hauled out of this branch of fishing. Hand-line fishermen fishing for cod on Georges Bank have averaged small catches 

and report fish scarce. A number of the swordfish fleet have sailed for the fishing grounds.

6 1927 The mackerel fleet landed good catches of mackerel of small and medium size from off No Mans Land, Block Island, and 

South Shoal Light. Steamers landed good catches of haddock from South Channel. Handliners reported codfish scarce on 

Georges Bank, and trawlers reported fish scarce on Western Bank. There have been only 3 arrivals this season from Cape 

Shore with mackerel compared with 53 last year. The first arrival from Georges with swordfish was on June 16, a week 

earlier than the first arrival last year. Swordfish fishermen reported bad weather and landed small catches.

7 1927 The weather was unusually foggy during the month of July. The mackerel fleet made good catches of mackerel averaging 

about 1 1/2 pounds in weight each, which were caught from South Channel to Middle Bank. Catches of mackerel were made 

on Middle Bank the latter part of the month. Trawlers made good catches of haddock in South Channel. Codfish fishermen 

from Georges and Western banks reported light fishing. The swordfish catch has been about 40 per cent less than last year, 

and the fish have run small in size.

8 1927 Much foggy and rainy weather prevailed during the month of August, and one of the worst gales on record was experienced 

August 24, in which three of the swordfish fleet were lost on the Nova Scotia shore and many of the seiners lost seines and 

boats. Mackerel have been quite plentiful, the fleet making the best catches in South Channel, but some catches were made 

as far north as Jeffreys Bank. Steamers and vessels have made fair catches of haddock in South Channel. The handliners 

fishing for codfish as a rule have had light catches of fish. The swordfish catch has been light, but improved some during the 

month.

9 1927 The mackerel seiners landed fair catches of mackerel weighing 1 1/2 to 2 pounds each, which were caught mostly in South 

Channel and on Georges Bank. Bull's-eye mackerel weighing about half a pound each have been quite plentiful in the 

vicinity at Cape Cod. These fish have been more abundant than for many years. The swordfish season is practically over, and 

the catch by the fleet is about 10 percent less than last year. Haddock have been in good supply by steamers and vessels. The 

halibut fleet, as a rule, has landed light catches of fish. Some large spawn herring have been landed by the shore seiners.
164

10 1927 The weather was unusually good during the month of October and the fishing fleet landed good catches of haddock, but other 

ground fish were not so plentiful on the fishing grounds as during the summer months. The handliners fishing on Georges 

Bank reported codfish scarce. Gill netters made light catches of cod and pollock. Mackerel seiners made light catches, mostly 

on Georges Bank. Mackerel netters made light catches off Cape Ann.

11 1927 Owing to rough weather and the scarcity of fish, the vessels and steamers engaged in catching ground fish averaged small 

catches during the month of November. The mackerel seiners landed very few mackerel, but the netters made light catches 

off Thatcher's Island. The gill netters landed good catches of pollock. The vessels of the halibut fleet have all discontinued 

fishing for the season. except eat, and will not resume operations again until after the beginning of next year.

12 1927 The mackerel netters made catches of large and medium mackerel off Cape Ann much later this season than usual, making 

catches nearly to the close of the year. Haddock, codfish, and other kinds of ground fish were in moderate supply, and sold at 

good prices. Fish were reported source on the fishing grounds, and the weather was unsettled much of the time. The catch of 

the gill netters consisted largely of codfish, and trips were small.

1 1928 Weather conditions during the month of January were unfavorable for fishing operations owing to heavy winds, but arrivals 

reported good fishing on Georges Bank, and in South Channel when the weather permitted. The gill netters all discontinued 

fishing except a few boats that made light catches of codfish. All kinds of operations on the shore were very light.

2 1928 Weather conditions during the first part of the month were quite favorable for fishing, but during the latter part of the month 

were bad. Vessels operating on Georges Bank secured moderate catches of codfish, and fish were not so abundant as last 

year. Steamers made good catches of haddock in South Channel when weather permitted, but found haddock scarce on 

Georges Bank. Steamers operating in South Channel caught a few struggling tinker mackerel in their trawls. The gill netters 

made light catches of cod and haddock on the shore. Prices of fish have ruled high, and fishermen have made good shares.

3 1928 The fishing fleet landed good catches of fish, especially haddock, from Georges Bank during the month of March, although 

there was considerable wind and some foggy weather. A number of vessels hauled out of haddock fishing to get ready for the 

southern mackerel fishery, and will sail the first week in April. The halibut fleet landed good catches. Gill netters made 

moderate catches of haddock and codfish.

4 1928 Not withstanding the fact that the weather was unusually windy on the fishing grounds during the month of April, the 

fishermen made good catches. Prices of ground fish ruled low. Mackerel were received overland from the northern fleet, and 

comprised fish weighing mostly 1 1/4 to 1 3/4 pounds each. The first catch was landed April 12, a week earlier than last year. 

Handline codfish vessels landed light catches of fish from Georges Bank. The gill netters landed good catches of cod and 

haddock.

5 1928 The mackerel seiners landed good catches of mackerel, weights from 1 1/4 to 2 pounds each, that were caught mostly south 

of Long Island, in the vicinity of Fire Island and Shinnecock. The mackerel netters the latter part of the month also landed 

good catches of large mackerel. Steamers landed good catches of haddock, principally from South Shoal Light. The 

handliners fishing on Georges Bank and the line trawlers from Western Bank reported improved fishing. The gill netters 

landed light catches of fish, mostly codfish. Flounders were in good supply from the draggers.

6 1928 Much foggy weather prevailed during the month of June, especially on the southern fishing grounds. The mackerel seiners 

landed fair catches of large mackerel that were caught mostly southeast and southwest of No Man's Land. The mackerel 

netters landed good catches, doing better than for several years. A large fleet was engaged in the swordfish fishery on 

Georges, and had fair success, as well as steamers and vessels fishing for groundfish. Arrivals of the halibut fleet reported

fish scarce.

7 1928 Foggy weather hampered fishing operations in South Channel and on Georges Bank, but good weather prevailed on the 

fishing banks to the eastward. Quite a number of steamers engaged in otter trawling, hauled out for repairs or inspection, and 

thus operations were somewhat curtailed. Fishermen reported a large body of mackerel in South Channel and on Georges 

feeding on live bait, but they were wild and hard to catch. The catch of swordfish promises to be the best for a number of 

years, but the fish are running small in size. The cod gill netters have discontinued fishing. The handline cod fishermen 

reported fish scarce.
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8 1928 Foggy weather has hampered fishing operations during the past month, especially in the mackerel fishery. Quite a body of 

mackerel were reported in South Channel and on Georges Bank, but they were feeding down deep in the water and were hard 

to locate. Some good catches of large mackerel were made on the coast of Maine. Steamers and vessels have landed good 

catches of haddock from South Channel. Late arrivals from the swordfish fleet reported fish scarce, and have had small 

catches. Hand line codfish vessels have had light catches, and the fishermen reported bait scarce on the fishing grounds. 

Halibut fishermen, both on Georges and Grand Bank, reported fish scarce.

9 1928 During the month of September fishing operations were hampered more or less by unsettled weather, especially in the 

mackerel fishery, Blink or tinker mackerel, averaging about three-quarters of a pound each, were caught in the vicinity of 

Cape Cod and Nantucket. Large mackerel were reported on Georges Bank, but wild and hard to catch. Bulls-eye mackerel, 

weighing about a half pound each, were caught in the Block Island region. Seiners made an unusual catch of butterfish off 

Cape Cod; they weighed about a pound each. Groundfish vessels as a rule reported fish scarce. The swordfish fleet are all in, 

and the last arrivals from Cape Shore had light catches.

10 1928 During the month of October mackerel operations were light. Very few large mackerel were landed. Catches of blinks and 

bulls-eye mackerel were made in the Block Island region, and quite a lot of spike mackerel also were reported in those 

waters. Netters landed small catches of large mackerel caught off Cape Ann. Ground fish were in good supply. Steamers 

landed good trips of haddock from Georges Bank. Good catches of codfish were landed from the Rips, where these fish were 

caught in larger quantities than for quite a number of years. Handline cod fishermen reported good fishing on Cape Shore 

when weather permitted. Gill netters made moderate catches of pollock, cod, and hake. Grayfish bothered the fishermen in 

South Channel.

11 1928 Early in the month mackerel netters made fair catches of large and medium mackerel off Cape Cod. The mackerel netters 

have been quite successful operating off Cape Ann, and the latter part of the month made unusually good catches. Very few 

mackerel were landed by seiners, and this class of vessels have discontinued operations for the season. The gill netters made

good catches of pollock. In the ground-fish fishery the steamers and vessels as a rule have had moderate catches, reporting 

fish on the fishing grounds scarcer than usual this fall. Dogfish have been bothersome in some parts of the South Channel.

12 1928 The weather was quite mild during the month of December, but periodic winds hampered fishing operations. A large number 

of steamers and vessels landed moderate catches of ground fish. Mackerel netters were quite successful early in the month 

fishing off Cape Ann, catching large and medium mackerel, but by the middle of the month practically all had given up 

operations. The gill netters landed fair catches of pollock when weather permitted fishing. With the exception of a few 

vessels the hand liners have given up fishing for the season.

1 1929 During the month of January heavy winds prevailed almost continuously, and greatly interfered with fishing operations. One 

steamer, the Seiner, was lost with her entire crew of 20 men. The shore vessels were confined in port most of the time. The 

gill netters landed small catches of groundfish, mostly codfish. Vessels fishing off Newfoundland were successful in 

obtaining fares of herring. A few vessels of the halibut fleet have fitted and sailed.

2 1929 Moderate weather during the month of February, on the off shore grounds, favored fishing operations, and as a result the 

steamers, as well as the vessels, landed good catches of codfish and haddock. Operations on the shore, however, were on a 

moderate scale. The gill netters landed moderate catches of codfish and haddock. A few trips of halibut arrived, the first 

arrivals of the year, and had good catches. Draggers operating in South Channel reported catching in the trawl a few 

straggling mackerel about 8 inches in length.

3 1929 During the month of March good catches of haddock were landed from Georges Bank by the fishing fleet. The fleet 

operating on Browns Bank reported fish scarce. The Georges hand-line fleet is getting ready for fishing, and the indications 

are that it will be smaller than last year. The first mackerel seiner sailed south for mackerel fishing March 29, about a week 

earlier than the first sailed last year.

4 1929 Heavy rains and winds hampered fishing operations to a greater extent than usual during the month of April. Good catches of 

haddock were made on Georges Bank the first part of the month, but later they were found scarce. A few codfish handliners 

operating reported finding fish scarce. The mackerel seining fleet is now operating in southern waters, and is about the same

size as last year. The netting fleet is a little larger. The first mackerel were taken April 8, a small catch of two-pound fish. 

The gill netters have shifted over to haddock nets, and have made some fair catches. The halibut fleet report fish scarce.
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5 1929 Most of the mackerel seiners returned from the south during the latter part of the month of May reported having a poor 

season as they experienced much bad weather. The netters, however, had a comparatively good season. The mackerel caught 

averaged about two pounds each. The fishermen reported seeing quite a lot of spike mackerel in the south this spring. 

Groundfish have been in good supply, but fishing has been rather "spotty" on Georges Bank and in South Channel. Gill 

netters made moderate catches, mostly codfish.

6 1929 Weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing operations during the month of June and consequently the fishing fleet 

landed good catches of ground fish, mackerel, and swordfish. Prices have been low, owing to the large supply. Good catches 

of large mackerel were landed from No Man's Land, and from South Channel. The vessels fishing with handlines on Georges 

Bank, for codfish, reported better catches. The gill netters have practically all discontinued fishing for ground fish. The 

halibut fleet reported fish scarce.

7 1929 Weather conditions were unusually good for fishing operations during the month of July. Due to the good weather the 

swordfish fleet fishing on Georges Bank has been very successful and the production of these fish this season promises to be 

a record. The receipts to date are nearly 100 per cent larger than last year. Ground fish have been in good supply. The 

mackerel fleet made good catches early in the month, but later did not do so well. The halibut fleet landed light catches from 

Georges Bank.

8 1929 The production of most kinds of fish during the month of August was large, and is ascribed in a large measure to the good 

weather conditions that prevailed this period. The receipts of ground fish the week ending August 22 were the largest of any 

week since April 4. Good catches of large mackerel were made in South Channel, and tinker mackerel nearer the shore. The 

swordfish fishermen are now hauling out of that branch of fishing, and have had a very successful season. The halibut catch 

has continued light. Gill netters have begun operations, and recent catches have comprised largely codfish.

9 1929 The mackerel fleet has been quite successful along shore during the past month in the area from Highland Light, Cape Cod, 

as far east as Boothbay Harbor, Maine. The catch has consisted mainly in mackerel weighing from three-quarters to one and 

one-quarter pounds each. Craft engaged in catching groundfish report finding them scarce in most cases. The swordfish fleet 

has completed a very successful season. Only a few vessels are now operating in the halibut fishery and are finding these fish 

scarce.

10 1929 There was a large body of small mackerel in Cape Cod Bay in the month of October, and seiners made good catches of 

mackerel that were of small size. Netters made good catches of large mackerel off Cape Ann the latter part of the month 

when the weather permitted. There were 73 arrivals at Boston from the fishing fleet on October 14, and was, without doubt, 

the largest number of arrivals on record for one day. Recent arrivals of groundfish vessels report cod and haddock scarcer 

than usual this fall. Some good catches of hake have been landed. Gill netters landed good catches of pollock.

11 1929 Mackerel netters made light catches off Cape Ann, while the mackerel seiners have done practically nothing during the past 

month. Gill netters operating off Gloucester have made good catches of pollock as well as good catches of shad that weighed 

from 3 to 5 pounds each. The groundfish fleet as a rule have had light catches of fish, and report fish scarcer than usual on 

the fishing grounds. Grayfish on the southern part of Georges Bank interfered somewhat with fishing operations.

12 1929 The fleet engaged in catching groundfish landed light catches, as a rule, during the month of December. At this season of the 

year these fish are usually not found in such large numbers on the fishing grounds as in the other seasons. Prices paid the 

fishermen have ruled high. The gill netters made good catches of pollock. The light catches of groundfish were ascribed, in a 

large measure, to the bad weather conditions that prevailed this month. The mackerel netters continued fishing until the latter 

part of the month, but made light catches, and had the poorest season for many years.

1 1930 The early part of the month the weather was mild, but the vessels of the fishing fleet made moderate catches owing to the 

scarcity of fish on the fishing grounds. A large part of the month the usual January weather prevailed. Some of the best 

catches were brought in from La Have Bank and Browns Bank, but the rough bottom on these banks is very destructive to 

the otter trawls of the draggers. Gill netters made moderate catches of groundfish, mostly pollock and codfish. Several 

vessels of the halibut fleet have sailed for the fishing banks.

2 1930 There was an unusually long spell of mild weather around February 20, and the fishing fleet made good catches of 

groundfish at that time. The landings by the fleet at Boston February 24 were the largest ever recorded landed there in one 

day. Catches during the month came mostly from Georges and Browns Banks. Operations on the shore grounds were very 

light. The gill netters made light catches of fish, mostly codfish and pollock.
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3 1930 During the month of March the weather was unusually windy, much more so than in several years. For this reason fishing 

was somewhat restricted. Some good catches of haddock were landed from various parts of Georges Bank, where fish were 

found quite plentiful. The gill netters made light catches of haddock, codfish and pollock. The handline fleet, which usually 

fishes on Georges Bank, is making preparations for the season, and will be about the same size as last year. The southern 

mackerel fleet now outfitting will be the largest for a number of years. This is undoubtedly due to the optimistic report of the 

government which has stated that a larger catch of mackerel is expected this year than last year.

4 1930 The mackerel fleet, which is larger than last year, began operations in the south, and the first catch was landed by a netter at 

Cape May on April 11, three days later than the first mackerel were landed last year. It is the first time that a netter ever

landed the first catch of mackerel in the south. Good catches of groundfish were landed from Georges and Browns Banks 

during the periods of moderate spring weather that prevailed during the month of April. Handline codfish vessels, a few of 

which are now operating on Georges Bank, reported moderate catches.

5 1930 During May the weather was quite favorable for fishing operations, as it was unusually clear for this season of the year. The

mackerel fleet operating in the south reported mackerel quite plentiful, but low prices have been received for the catch. Quite 

a large number of vessels have sailed swordfishing, and this fleet promises to be the largest that ever engaged in that branch 

of fishing. As a rule the vessels employed in the groundfishery reported fish scarce, as did the Georges handline 

codfishermen.

6 1930 The mackerel seiners made good catches of small mackerel off No Mans Land the first part of the month, and the latter part 

of the month made good catches of large mackerel off No Mans Land and in South Channel. Only a few seiners operated on 

Cape Shore as mackerel were abundant on the shore. So far this season the swordfish fleet has landed moderate catches, and 

reports fish scarce. Many of the large trawl vessels are now being overhauled. Those vessels operating for groundfish, as a 

rule, find fish scarce.

7 1930 Favored by good weather conditions, the fleet engaged in catching groundfish landed a large quantity of fresh fish during the

month. A feature of the receipts was the large amount of market codfish caught in South Channel. The catch of mackerel 

continued to increase, and comprised mostly large mackerel caught in South Channel. The catch of swordfish increased over 

last month but is only about 62 per cent as large as that for July of last year, when the catch was abnormally large.

8 1930 Good weather prevailed during the month of August, except for a short period. Mackerel fishing was carried on largely in the 

vicinity of Cape Cod. Tinker mackerel dominated the receipts. Small and medium sized trawlers fishing on Georges Bank 

reported fish scarce. Handliners have experienced a poor season so far this year. Line trawlers fishing to the eastward have 

landed good catches of groundfish.

9 1930 The weather conditions during the month of September were better than the average. Mackerel seiners landed good catches 

of tinker mackerel, averaging a little less than a pound each in weight. They were caught mostly from Cape Ann to the Rips. 

Vessels engaged in fishing for swordfish found them more abundant toward the end of the season. The Gloucester gillnetters 

made moderate catches of fish, mostly pollock.

10 1930 During the first part of the month a long spell of easterly winds retarded fishing operations. The groundfish fleet, augmented 

somewhat by vessels from the mackerel and swordfish fleets, landed moderate catches of groundfish, and reported finding 

fish scarce. Vessels fishing to the eastward reported grayfish numerous and bothersome. The halibut fleet has returned for the 

season of 1930. Most of the mackerel seiners have changed over to netting. Gill netters have made good catches of pollock.

11 1930 Mackerel netters made good catches of large and medium mackerel off Cape Ann the latter part of the month. A few 

mackerel seiners operated but were unsuccessful. The groundfish vessels in all branches of that fishery found fish scarce and 

brought home light catches. Grayfish were bothersome to the fishermen, especially on northern Georges Bank, and on 

eastern fishing banks. The late departure of these fish is ascribed in a measure to the higher temperature of the water this 

season on the fishing banks. Gill netters made good catches of pollock.

12 1930 Except for a short time at the beginning and the end of December weather conditions were quite unfavorable for fishing 

operations. Mackerel fishing was entirely suspended about the middle of the month. Operations of steamers and vessels 

engaged in the groundfish fishery, reported finding fish scarce, and therefore landed light catches. The prices for fish ex 

vessel during December ruled higher than for a number of years. The gill netters landed good catches of pollock when the 

weather permitted.
168

1 1931 Weather conditions were worse than usual during the month of January, and catches by the fishing fleet averaged small, 

although a few good catches consisting mostly of codfish and pollock, were brought from Sable Island Bank. Owing to the 

unfavorable conditions there has been some curtailment in steamer operations, and owing to the scarcity of fish on the shore 

only a small number of gill netters were operating. Two of the vessels of the bank halibut fleet sailed from Gloucester on the 

27th, the first to sail this year.

2 1931 During the month of February the weather conditions proved very unfavorable to fishing operations. However, with the 

approach of spring fish are beginning to appear on the fishing grounds, and some of the vessels are making better catches. 

Very few gill-net vessels operated on the shore grounds, these catching mostly codfish. The first trip of halibut landed this 

year from the banks arrived on February 17. This first trip was five days later than the first trip landed in the year 1930.

3 1931 Almost continuous easterly winds during the month of March, hampered fishing operations, especially those along the shore. 

Fishing for groundfish improved during the brief intervals when fishing was permitted and resulted in a number of good 

catches being made. The gill-netters made moderate catches of fish, mostly haddock. The southern mackerel seiners have 

practically all sailed. This fleet is about the same size as last year. The mackerel-netters are preparing, and will sail shortly. 

According to present indications this fleet will be a little larger than last year.

4 1931 During the month of April weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing operations. Groundfish were in good supply, 

but owing to moderate demand sold at low prices. The gill netters made good catches of groundfish, mostly haddock. 

Mackerel seiners and netters operating in the south have made moderate catches of medium mackerel. The first catches of 

mackerel were the size known as spikes, four or more to a pound. Only a few of these fish, however, were landed.

5 1931 Quite a lot of rainy and foggy weather characterized the month of May. The mackerel seiners and netters made moderate 

catches of large and medium fish. Near the end of the month there was a larger percentage of medium fish. Owing to the low 

prices that prevailed for ground fish the operations by this fleet were curtailed. The swordfish fleet this year promises to be 

larger than ever before.

6 1931 Foggy weather hampered fishing operations to a large extent during the month of June. The mackerel fleet operated mostly in 

the vicinity of No Man's Land, but the latter part of the month made catches in South Channel. The mackerel caught were 

practically all large and medium sizes. The catch of swordfish to date has been less than half of what it was to the 

corresponding date last year. The fishermen state that the fish are not as plentiful as last year. Ground-fish craft continue to 

report fish scarce, and as a rule have light catches.

7 1931 During the month of July fog and unfavorable winds hindered fishing operations. Large mackerel were reported in quite 

large schools on the off shore grounds, but were wild and hard to catch. Tack mackerel, or fish about three to a pound, were 

plentiful along the shore. Large and medium mackerel were taken in small Quantities from Portland to South Shoals. The 

swordfish vessels landed light catches, owing largely to unfavorable weather conditions. As usual in the summer the gill 

netters landing at Gloucester have discontinued fishing. Groundfish operations were on a moderate scale.

8 1931 Mackerel seiners landed good catches of large and medium mackerel during the past month. These fish were caught on the 

coast of Maine between Seguin and Mr. Desert Grounds, largely off Matinicus Grounds, where weather conditions were very 

favorable. Small fish, about one-half pound in weight, have been plentiful along the shore. Vessels fishing for ground fish 

report fish scarcer than usual at this season of the year. The catch of swordfish has been disappointing.

9 1931 During the past month the weather has been fairly good for fishing operations. As a result the mackerel fleet made good 

catches, especially of large and medium fish, off the coast of Maine from Seguin Grounds to Mt. Desert Grounds. This was 

the best catch made on that coast for many years. Swordfishing operations are practically over for the season. The amount of 

this species landed through September is only about 50 percent of the landings for the same period of last year. Draggers 

continue to report haddock, and other ground fish scarce on the fishing banks. Line trawlers operating on hard bottom in 

South Channel have landed large quantities of fish. Mackerel netters have begun fall fishing, but so far have made light 

catches.

10 1931 Good weather conditions early in the month resulted in somewhat increased receipt of ground fish. However, the fishermen 

continue to report fish scarce on the fishing banks. This is especially true with those operating small otter trawls, which gear 

as a rule has made light catches. Grayfish were reported more bothersome than usual at this season of the year. Mackerel 

fishing has been moderate. Some fishermen seining for mackerel have quit fishing for the season, while those engaged in 

netting mackerel have made only light catches. Fishermen operating sink gill nets have made fair catches of pollock. The 

halibut fleet has discontinued operations for the season.
169

11 1931 During November the weather was milder than usual. Late in the month a large fleet of mackerel netters operated 20 to 30 

miles east and southeast of Cape Ann, making fair catches of large and medium mackerel. Fishermen seining for mackerel 

landed only a small amount of this species, as all except a few fishermen have hauled out of this branch of fishing. The 

ground-fish fleet, although bothered more or less by grayfish, continued to land moderate catches of haddock and cod. Gillnet fishermen made fair catches of ground fish, mostly pollock.

12 1931 During the month of December the weather was unsettled, and heavy winds prevailed much of the time, especially on the 

off-shore banks. Netters made good catches of large and medium mackerel 20 to 30 miles east and southeast of Eastern Point 

when the weather permitted. After the middle of the month only a few mackerel were landed. Gill netters landed small 

catches of ground fish. A few vessels engaged in the Newfoundland herring fishery obtained full cargoes of herring.

1 1932 The month of January was marked by unsettled weather. The weather was also mild, in fact the mildest weather in the history 

of the weather bureau for the month of January. Small haddock were reported more abundant in some localities, but large 

haddock continued scarce. The gill netters, only a few of which operated, made light catches of ground fish. The draggers 

fishing off South Shoal Light reported catching a few mixed mackerel in their trawls, and those fishing to the eastward 

caught scattering eight inch mackerel.

2 1932 The weather during February was more unsettled than usual. However, when the weather permitted the fishing fleet made 

somewhat improved catches on practically all the banks. Catches by a few vessels still fishing for halibut have been light, 

although one vessel landed a good catch from St. Peters Bank. Gill netters landed light catches of ground fish, but are now 

catching a little larger percentage of haddock.

3 1932 The weather was very severe during the month of March, especially during the first of the month. The fishing steamers 

operated largely on Georges Bank and Sable Island Bank, where they made good catches of haddock and cod. Operations on 

the shore were very light. Prices paid to vessels ruled low. The vessels that will engage in the southern mackerel fishery in 

seining, began to fit out the latter part of the month, and the indications are that the fleet will be at least 20% larger than last 

year, and will be one of the largest of recent years. The first seiners will sail south early in April.

4 1932 Weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing operations during the month of April, and many of the steamers and 

vessels landed good catches of groundfish. The fishermen had better fishing on some of the eastern banks than for a number 

of years. A large number of vessels are engaged in the southern mackerel fishery, and the first catch was landed at Cape May 

April 15, six days later than the first catch last year, and comprised half-pound mackerel. Prices of all kinds of fish have 

ruled low owing to a light demand.

5 1932 Weather conditions were quite good during the month of May. Good catches of mackerel, mostly of large fish, were made by 

the southern mackerel fleet off Fire Island the early part of the month, and the latter part of the month off Block Island and 

No Man's Land. The early catch landed at Cape May was about 50 per cent of the quantity landed there last year. Many of 

the vessels in the swordfish fleet have sailed. The fleet will number 50 or more vessels this year. Gill net fishermen are 

landing light catches of groundfish. Other groundfish operations are on a moderate scale, and fishermen report fish scarce on

the fishing banks.

6 1932 The first catches of swordfish this season were landed during the month about the same time of the year as usual. The 

vessels, however, made light catches because of bad weather, and scarcity of fish. Early in the month, and up to the middle of 

the month, the mackerel fleet made fair catches of large and medium sized fish, but the latter part of the month very few of 

these fish were caught as they were reported wild and hard to catch. The fleet, however, landed moderate catches of tinker 

mackerel throughout the month. The catch of mackerel on Cape Shore was the best for a number of years. The catch of 

groundfish has been light, fishermen reporting fishing spotty. Unusually foggy weather obtained on South Channel during 

the month.

7 1932 The mackerel fleet have landed good catches of tinker mackerel that were caught, mostly off the coast of Massachusetts, but 

recently some good catches of these fish were made as for east as Mt. Desert. Vessels report finding large mackerel very 

scarce. Due to low prices some of the mackerel fleet contemplate hauling up for a short time. Swordfish boats have had 

better catches which are attributed to better weather conditions. Groundfish production is moderate. The vessels fishing to 

the eastward report unseasonably cold weather for this season of the year.

8 1932 Good weather conditions prevailed during the month of August, but sharks and dogfish were bothersome. Mackerel seiners 

operating from Cape Cod to Mt. Desert made good catches of tinker mackerel early in the month, but from the middle to the 

latter part of the month found fish scarce. The fishing steamers operating large otter trawls, have operated monthly on 

Georges Bank, and obtained fair catches of groundfish. The small draggers have found fish scarce. The swordfish fleet 

landed some good catches, but prices of these fish have ruled low as well as all other kinds of fish landed.
170

9 1932 During the month of September there were two heavy gales; otherwise weather conditions were quite favorable resulting in 

good catches of mackerel, swordfish, and ground fish. The mackerel were taken from a school located off the Massachusetts 

coast, and comprised of fish weighing from three-quarters to a pound catch. Prices ruled low. The fleet fishing for ground 

fish made fair catches largely on the northern edge of Georges Bank. The season for swordfish is practically over. More of 

these were landed by the fleet than last year, but prices have ruled low.

10 1932 During the month mackerel seiners found tinker and small mackerel plentiful in Massachusetts Bay and landed large fares of 

these fish. They sold at low prices and were bought mainly for salting and freezing, mostly for the latter purposes. Large 

mackerel were very scarce. Netters are making preparations for the fall mackerel fishery. Fishermen engaged in catching 

ground fish reported dogfish bothersome, and that they found fish scarce. Gill netters for ground fish obtained light catches. 

The halibut fleet is all in except for one or two vessels, this branch of fishing being over for the season.

11 1932 During the month of November there was considerable rough weather on the fishing banks which interfered with fishing 

operations. The vessels engaged in the haddock and other ground fish fisheries had moderate catches, and fish were reported 

scarce. Dogfish were bothersome to the fishermen in the many localities. The mackerel netters made fair catches of large and 

mediums-sized mackerel, the schools of fish being mainly off the coast of Massachusetts. The mackerel seiners have 

practically all quit fishing.

12 1932 During the month rough weather interfered somewhat with fishing operations. However, good catches of large medium 

mackerel were made by the netters off Eastern Point the first part of the month. Most of the netters quit fishing by the middle 

of the month, but a few continued until the end of the year. Some good catches were made by the ground fish fleet the latter 

part of the month on Sable Island Bank. Draggers fishing on Georges Bank and shore grounds reported fishing fish scarce.

1 1933 Considerable mild weather prevailed during the month of January, but at times the weather was windy and interfered with 

fishing. During the mild weather small otter trawl vessels fishing near shore caught and landed more ground fish than usual. 

Gill netters made light catches of ground fish along the shore. Several vessels have departed for the banks to fish for halibut.

2 1933 During the month of February the weather was in general mild and warm, which was favorable to fishing operations, 

especially for small boats operating on the shore grounds. Steamers and vessels operating on Georges Bank brought home 

larger catches of fish. The line trawl vessels operating on Browns Bank and Cape Shore encountered some bad weather. Gill 

net fishermen operating off Gloucester had light catches of ground fish. The first arrival of halibut this year, direct from the 

banks, arrived February 7, five days earlier than last year.

3 1933 During the month of March heavy winds and rough seas greatly interfered with operations of the fishing fleet. There were 

only a few days favorable for fishing operations during the whole month. However good catches of cod and haddock were 

made on Sable Island, La Have, Brown, and Georges Banks. A fare of halibut exceeding 80,000 pounds was landed by a

vessel from the Grand Banks. This was one of the best catches of halibut in recent years. The mackerel fleet is preparing for

the southern fishery, but indications are that the size of this fleet will be much smaller than last year.

4 1933 Vessels engaged in fishing for cod, haddock, and other ground fish made good catches during the past month, especially 

those fishing on Browns Bank. Prices ruled low on these fishes. Vessels in the mackerel fleet fishing in southern waters 

landed good catches of three-quarter pound mackerel which also have sold at low prices. The gill netters landed fair catches 

of cod and haddock.

5 1933 During the month of May weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing operations, and good catches of ground fish 

and mackerel were made. Prices ruled low. The mackerel fishermen have organized an association to stabilize production. 

The first mackerel catches direct from the South were landed two weeks earlier than last year. The dogfish appearing on the 

fishing banks are bothersome to the fishermen. Operations of the swordfish fleet are making preparations for the summer 

fishery, and the fleet will probably be larger than last year.

6 1933 During the month of June weather conditions were quite favorable for fishing operations on most of the fishing banks. The 

mackerel seiners found schools of mackerel plentiful along the coast from South Shoal Light to Middle Bank. They 

comprised large fish weighing about two pounds each and small fish weighing about one pound each. The association of 

mackerel fishermen limited the catch of each mackerel vessel to 20,000 pounds a week, but even in view of this, difficulty 

was experienced in marketing the catch. Vessels engaged in catching ground fish have found fish scarce. Gill netters, only a 

few of which are now operating, have landed light catches of cod. The swordfish fleet landed small catches. The weather has 

not been very good in the South where the swordfishing vessels are operating.
171

7 1933 During the month of July the weather was unusually foggy on the fishing banks. This condition was very unfavorable for the 

fleet engaged on Georges Bank in the swordfishery, and the catch of these fish to date has been comparatively light. The 

vessels engaged in catching groundfish have made fair catches, but prices have ruled low. Mackerel vessels have landed 

good catches of mackerel that were caught mostly off the Massachusetts Coast where there has been a large body of small 

mackerel. The fishing fleet on July 4 experienced a heavy gale, and of the severest of recent years.

8 1933 Considerable foggy weather prevailed during the month of August. Fishermen also were bothered by sharks and grayfish. 

Groundfish boats as a rule had moderate catches, and the fishermen reported fishing "spotty". There were large schools of 

small mackerel off the coast of Massachusetts and good catches were general. Light catches of swordfish were made off 

Georges Bank where most of the fleet operated.

9 1933 The weather was unusually foggy during September and interfered with fishing operations, especially for swordfish. Small 

mackerel were plentiful along the coast, but the fish were close in shore and seiners damaged their nets in some cases. The 

groundfish fleet as a rule reported fish scarce on the banks, but in a few instances good fishing was found on Western and 

Georges Banks. The swordfish season is practically over.

10 1933 During the month of October weather conditions varied considerably. The vessels engaged in catching groundfish as a rule 

found fish scarce on the fishing banks, and were bothered considerably by dogfish. The gill netters made fair catches of 

codfish and pollock. Mackerel seining catches are diminishing as usual at this season of the year. Mackerel gill netters are 

making preparations for the fall fishery.

11 1933 The weather was unusually cold during the month of November and heavy winds and rough seas retarded fishing operations, 

resulting in a sharp decline in the receipts. Quite a number of catches were received from Western Banks where groundfish 

boats found the best fishing. Seining operations for mackerel were suspended early in the month. From the middle to the 

latter part of the month mackerel netters made fair catches of large and medium-sized mackerel. The gill netters made good 

catches of pollock and cod.

12 1933 Weather conditions were unfavorable for fishing operations, especially the latter part of the month when very cold weather 

prevailed. The first of the month the mackerel netters made fair catches of large and medium size mackerel off Cape Ann. 

Good catches of pollock were landed by the gill netters and draggers. Steam trawlers operated largely on Sable Island Bank 

where they made good catches of codfish.

1 1934 Receipts of fish during January were affected by unusually cold weather, which retarded fishing operations on the fishing 

banks and by a strike of the fishermen which lasted the greater part of the month, tying up nearly all the large trawlers. Some 

fair catches of fish were made on the eastern banks, but vessel fishermen found fish scarce on shore grounds and Georges 

Bank. The halibut fleet this season promises to be small as in other recent years. The first vessels sailed this month.

2 1934 The cold weather and heavy winds during February retarded fishing operations, resulting in good prices. The gill netters 

landed light catches of fish, mostly codfish. The first vessel of the halibut fleet arrived with a good catch.

3 1934 News from the South indicates that mackerel have been seen schooling off the Virginia Capes, and several vessels of the 

mackerel fleet have sailed South. The mackerel fleet will number about the same as last year from present indications. Good 

catches of haddock and codfish have been made by the groundfish fleet on Western and Browns Banks; however, the 

fishermen report fishing "spotty". Fish on the shore grounds as well as on Georges are scarce. The gill netters have made 

light catches of codfish. The price level has been well maintained, and many of the fishing boats have made good stocks.

4 1934 The mackerel fleet is now practically all in southern waters and have made moderate catches of mackerel averaging in 

weight about one pound each. Cod and haddock have been plentiful on Sable Island Bank where the steamers have made 

good catches. The line trawlers have been hampered by the scarcity of desirable bait. The gill netters are making fair catches 

of codfish on shore grounds. shore boats report haddock scarce.

5 1934 During the month of May the weather was unusually moderate, and quite favorable for fishing operations. There was a body 

of large, medium, and small mackerel off shore, general. Owing to the large quantities caught and landed prices ruled low. 

The swordfish boats are fitting out, mostly at Gloucester, and the first will sail about June 1. Herring, which were much 

needed by the line trawl fishermen for bait struck in at Provincetown and are now plentiful. The dogfish are a considerable 

bother to the fishermen.

6 1934 Excepting for fog, weather conditions were favorable for fishing operations during June. Mackerel of mixed sizes were 

plentiful along the coast, and good catches were landed. The fishermen reported seeing large schools of "spike" mackerel on 

the fishing grounds. The sword fishermen found fish scarce on the banks until late in the month, at which time some good 

catches were made. There have been good supplies of groundfish.
172

7 1934 With the exception of some very foggy spells weather conditions were fair during the month of July. Small mackerel, 

weighing about a pound each, were plentiful along the shore from Chatham to Gloucester. Large mackerel are now scarce, 

and the groundfish fleet report finding fish scarce. The catch of swordfish on Georges Bank has been disappointing, but 

recent landings from Browns Bank indicate an improvement in fishing.

8 1934 The mackerel fleet has continued to find large mackerel scarce on all fishing grounds. Small mackerel or "tacks" that weigh 

about a half pound each have comprised a large percentage of the catch. Schools of small tuna fish or albacore, were reported 

on the coast of Maine. Prices of mackerel have been low owing to the large production. The catch of swordfish has been 

disappointing, and the fish caught were smaller in size than usual. The fishermen report groundfish scarce on the banks, and 

much annoyance from sharks this summer. Small boats have made good catches of whiting which are in good demand.

9 1934 The mackerel fleet has landed fair catches; however, mackerel are wild and harder to catch and are mixed with blueback 

herring. The receipts comprise 85 to 90 percent small fish that weigh about 3/4 of a pound each. The larger mackerel average 

about 1 3/4 pounds each. The catch of swordfish has been less than last year, and they have been smaller in size than for a 

number of years. The catch of haddock by the groundfish fleet has been very light. Groundfish boats have been molested by 

sharks and dogfish, there being more sharks than usual this year.

10 1934 Record missing.

11 1934 The weather was unusually wild during the month of November, and conditions unusually favorable for fishing operations. 

As customary at this season of the year the fishermen found fish scarce on the banks. Pollock which are commonly found on 

the coast at this season of the year have been plentiful. Codfish or rosefish which are found in 60 fathoms of water or deeper, 

are in better demand than formerly, and boats landed more of these fish than usual. With the strike over, conditions are now 

back to normal.

12 1934 During the month of December there were many snow storms and heavy winds that retarded fishing operations on the fishing 

banks. The fall mackerel netting season was very disappointing and all craft have now quit this type of fishing. The boats 

engaged in catching groundfish continue to find fish scarce on offshore grounds; however, the pollock boats have made good 

catches of these fish on shore grounds.

1 1935 Weather conditions during the month of January were more severe than usual, and the latter part of the month there occurred 

a snow storm that hampered fishing operations as well as the distribution of fish. Steamers operating on Western Bank made 

good catches when the weather permitted fishing. One or two vessels of the halibut fleet have sailed. Some of the fleet will 

try fishing with the halibut long line such as used on the Pacific Coast.

2 1935 Weather conditions during the month of February were unsettled much of the time, cold weather making fishing operations 

difficult. The gill netters ceased operating save for a few boats. Steamers landed some good catches of haddock and codfish 

from Sable Island Bank, and the catch of fish on Georges Bank showed an improvement.

3 1935 During the month of March the weather was unusually cold on the eastern fishing Banks. Windy weather and floating ice 

hampered fishing operations. The groundfish fleet of steamers operated mainly on Sable Island Bank where they had good 

fishing when the weather was favorable. Groundfish were scarce on Georges Bank and Shore grounds.

4 1935 The mackerel seiners went South, as usual at this season of the year, but had bad weather most of the month. The latter part 

of the month they made some good catches of small mackerel off Cape May. Groundfish have been plentiful, but sold at low 

prices. Good catches of haddock were made on Sable Island Bank. The first vessel of the Georges handline codfish fleet 

arrived, and reported finding fish scarce. The gill netters are making moderate catches of cod and haddock.

5 1935 The mackerel fleet made good catches of large and medium mackerel during the month, principally off No Man's Land and 

Fire Island. Towards the end of the month, however, the percentage of large fish was smaller. The swordfish fleet has sailed,

but after cruising in the South several weeks report no fish. Some good catches of groundfish have been landed by the fleet 

operating on Sable Island and Quereau Banks, but the fleet operating on Georges Bank and New England Shore grounds 

report fish scarce.

6 1935 The weather conditions during the month of June were quite favorable for fishing operations with the exception of some 

foggy weather that prevailed part of the time. The mackerel fleet that are now operating off Cape Cod are making fair catches

of mackerel of mixed sizes. The catch of swordfish to date has been light, and most of the fleet have gone to Georges Bank. 

Gill netters are making light catches of codfish.
173

7 1935 During the month of July the weather was foggy most of the time. There was a large school of mackerel off the coast of 

Massachusetts and the boats engaged in this fishery landed good catches of mackerel weighing from one to two pounds each. 

The boats engaged in swordfish fishing are making fair catches when the weather permits. Owing to the fact that many of the 

boats engaged in catching groundfish are being overhauled, this branch of fishing is somewhat curtailed. The gill net 

fishermen have discontinued operations due to the abundance of dogfish on the shore.

8 1935 Vessels engaged in mackerel seining have made fair catches of small mackerel in Cape Cod Bay and also off No Mane Land. 

Large mackerel were scarce. Foggy weather the first part of the month made seining difficult. The groundfish fleet, 

especially the line trawlers, are finding fish scarce, and report numerous sharks in South Channel. The gill netters are making 

light catches of cod and pollock. The swordfish fleet have been quite successful.

9 1935 The mackerel fleet during the past month has landed moderated catches of mackerel from Cape Cod Bay, off No Man's Land 

and South Shoal Light; however, they comprised mostly small fish. Supplies of large fish have been small. The late arrivals 

of the swordfish fleet had small catches, and reported bad weather. Line trawlers report good weather conditions as a rule, 

but are finding fish scarce. The gill netters operating off Gloucester are making fair catches of groundfish, mostly pollock.

10 1935 The first part of the month of October was cold and a bad northeast storm occurred in which a number of fishing boats were 

lost. The latter part of the month, however, was mild. Mackerel of mixed sizes but mostly small were plentiful off No Man's 

Land, and boats landed some good catches. Few haddock and codfish were reported on the fishing banks, but some good 

catches of hake were landed. Gill netters made good catches of pollock. Good catches of rosefish have been landed from off 

Cape Cod.

11 1935 During November weather conditions for operating on the fishing banks were better than usual at this time of the year; 

however, haddock and codfish are usually scarce on the fishing banks during this month and consequently vessels landed 

light catches. There were good catches of pollock which are usually plentiful at this season. Mackerel seiners and netters 

have landed moderate catches; however, many of the seiners now have discontinued operations for the season. The fishermen 

in the haddock fishery report much annoyance from dogfish.

12 1935 The mackerel netters, a few of which operated up to the end of December, made fair catches; however, seining operations 

were discontinued the first part of the month. Stormy weather prevailed a large part of the month, and temperatures were 

lower than usual for this time of the year. Some of the craft landed good catches of pollock from off Cape Cod, and some 

made good catches of haddock on Georges Bank. Most of the groundfish vessels found fish scarce.

1 1936 The first half of the month was quite mild, and on several days the fishing fleet made better catches on Georges Bank than 

for a number of years, however, during the latter part of the month the weather was cold and stormy and fishing operations 

very light. Two vessels of the halibut fleet have sailed for the Banks, leaving about a week earlier than the first sailed last 

year. A number of the medium-sized draggers have sailed South, and others are preparing to go.
174

APPENDIX D: Phase I Report
STELLWAGEN BANK MARINE HISTORICAL ECOLOGY

Phase 1: Historical Sources Survey Report

Gulf of Maine Cod Project

University of New Hampshire

Durham, NH

www.fishhistory.org 

Principal Investigator: Andrew Rosenberg, Ph.D.

Written by: 

Stefan Claesson, M.A., University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH

Matthew McKenzie, Ph.D., Sea Education Association, Woods Hole, MA
This study was supported by Contract/Grant No. NA04NO54290190 between the University of New 

Hampshire and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration’s (NOAA) National Marine 

Sanctuary Program. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 

the views of NOAA or any of its sub-agencies. 

Copyright 2005 by the Gulf of Maine Cod Project, University of New Hampshire. All rights reserved. 

Design/DTP: Athena Trakadas 
TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES • ii 

ABSTRACT • iii 

1. INTRODUCTION • 1 

2. MARINE HISTORICAL ECOLOGY AND SANCTUARY MANAGEMENT • 3 

3. DEVELOPING A HISTORIC CONTEXT FOR THE STELLWAGEN BANK FISHERIES • 4 

3.1 Introduction • 5 

3.2 Human Environment • 6 

3.3 Economy • 8 

3.4 Politics and War • 9 

3.5 Legislation and Regulation • 9 

3.6 Technology • 10 

3.7 Fisheries Science • 10 

3.8 Conclusion • 13 

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY • 14 

5. SOURCES • 15 

5.1 Maps and Charts (1614-1940) • 17 

5.2 Early Exploration Narrative Accounts (1524-1700) • 17 

5.3 Newspapers (1720-1940) • 18 

5.4 Fisheries’ Customs Records (1780-1940) • 19 

5.5 Scientific Survey Logbooks (1870-1940) • 20 

5.6 Serial Sets • 20 

5.6.1 U.S. Fish Commission Publications (1871-1940) • 20 

5.6.2 Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (1863-1940) • 21 

5.6.3 Massachusetts Records of Fish and Game (1866-1940) • 22 

5.6.4 Boston and Portland Societies of Natural History (1834-1942, 1862-1947) • 23 

5.7 Federal Fisheries Statistics • 24 

5.7.1 Treasury Circulars (1886-1890) • 24 

5.7.2 Monthly Fishery Statistical Bulletins for Northwest Atlantic (1892-1944) • 24 

5.8 Census Records (1835-1940) • 25 

5.9 Commercial Accounts (1790-1940) • 25 

5.10 Letters and Correspondences (1860-1940) • 26 

5.11 Diaries or Daily Journals (1600-1940) • 26 

5.12 Fishermen Interviews (1850-1900) • 26 

5.13 Legal Documents and Legislation (1630-1940) • 27 

6. PROPOSED HISTORICAL RESEARCH • 28 

7. SUMMARY • 29
ii

LIST OF FIGURES 

FIGURE 1. Stellwagen Bank, shown at scale 1:125,000 • 1 

FIGURE 2. Lambert Map of Stellwagen or “Middle Bank” in 1812 • 6 

FIGURE 3. English fishing colonies and settlements in Massachusetts • 7 

FIGURE 4. Schematic of long-lines with gangings • 11 

FIGURE 5. Postcard of early 20th-century inshore fishing boats in Gloucester • 11 

FIGURE 6. Timeline of primary source materials relevant to SBNMS • 17 

FIGURE 7. The Durrell Map from 1734 depicting fishing grounds of Stellwagen Bank • 18 

FIGURE 8. John Brereton’s A Briefe and True Relation, on the 1602 Bartholomew

Gosnold expedition • 18 

FIGURE 9. A typical marine intelligence column or “Ship News” from the Independent 

Chronicle and Boston Patriot (Dec. 14, 1822) • 19 

FIGURE 10. U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Fish Hawk • 20 

FIGURE 11. Original logbook pages of Grampus with scallop dredge sample data 

from 1913 • 21 

FIGURE 12. The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, published in 1887 • 22 

FIGURE 13. Cover of the 1869 volume of the Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries •22 

FIGURE 14. Walter Rich map of the swordfishing grounds in the Gulf of Maine, 1947 • 23 

FIGURE 15. A treasury circular issued by Spencer Baird in the late 19th century • 24 

FIGURE 16. A U.S. Fish Commission monthly statistical bulletin, January 1898 • 25 

FIGURE 17. Sample of Baird correspondence records • 26 

FIGURE 18. Page from a 1893 interview with a mackerel fisherman from Gloucester • 27 
iii

ABSTRACT

This report is provided to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) 

National Marine Sanctuary Program and Gerry E. Studds Stellwagen Bank National Marine 

Sanctuary (SBNMS), by the Gulf of Maine Cod Project (GMCP), University of New Hampshire 

(UNH). The report presents the results of a historic sources survey of documents and 

manuscripts relevant to SBNMS marine historical ecology. The initial research phase, as 

reported on here, examines the efficacy and limitations of these sources in providing information 

about the marine animal populations and environmental history of SBNMS. This report presents 

a summary of the hundreds of documents found in federal, state, and local repositories that relate

directly or indirectly to the historical ecology of SBNMS and from which biological indicators 

and fish population trends may be derived.
1

. Nathalie Ward, Stellwagen Bank: A Guide to the Whales, Seabirds, and Marine Life of the Stellwagen Bank 

National Marine Sanctuary (Camden, ME: Downeast Books, 1995).

1

Figure 1. 

Stellwagen Bank, 

shown at scale 

1:125,000 (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 

Geologic Investigation 

Map I-2734, 2003). 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Covering 638 square nautical miles (or 

842 square miles), Stellwagen Bank National 

Marine Sanctuary is a marine threshold 

between the Gulf of Maine and the sheltered 

waters of the Massachusetts and Cape Cod 

Bays (FIG. 1). The bank is 18.75 miles long 

and roughly 6.25 miles across at its widest 

point. The depths vary from approximately 

300 ft at the base of its northerly edge near 

Cape Ann, MA, to just under 61 ft at its 

shallowest mid-point. As the bank extends 

south near the tip of Cape Cod, its depth 

drops back down to approximately 200 ft. 

Upwellings caused by the dramatic shifts in 

Stellwagen Bank’s bathymetry create a 

particulaly productive environment for 

plankton, species that feed on plankton, and 

the species that feed on them. A variety of 

ground-fish species can be found on the 

bank, including cod, pollock, haddock, skate, 

yellowtail founder, winter flounder, 

goosefish, sculpin, and dogfish. Migratory 

species include sea herring, alewives, 

bluefish, tuna, and mackerel. The bank is also 

famous for its many visiting whale species, 

including finbacks, minkes, humpbacks, and 

North Atlantic right whales.1
2

This interim report describes the initial 

results of research conducted by the Gulf of 

Maine Cod Project (GMCP) at the University 

of New Hampshire (UNH) to review the 

potential of historical sources in providing 

biological indicators and population trends 

for fishes in the SBNMS. GMCP is a multiyear research project within the History of 

Marine Animal Populations (HMAP) 

program of the Census of Marine Life 

(CoML) that uses historical documents as 

well as paleo-ecological and archaeological 

data to document long-term changes in the 

marine environment of the Gulf of Maine. As 

part of this broader research mission, GMCP 

is working with NOAA’s National Marine 

Sanctuary Program to survey historical 

documents that contribute significantly to the 

history and understanding of marine resource 

exploitation in SBNMS. The methods used in 

this study may serve as a model for 

extracting data about the historical ecology 

or environmental history of other marine 

sanctuaries. 

This three-year study of SBNMS seeks to 

extract historical data and identify what can 

be known about the sanctuary’s past 

abundances and distributions of marine 

species as well as changes in overall 

ecosystem health. Historically, marine 

mammals, anadromous species, and demersal 

species have been the primary marine 

resources harvested in and around SBNMS. 

However, targeted species and rates of 

removal on Stellwagen Bank have changed 

over time and significantly affected the 

quality of the marine environment. 

In Phase 1 of this research project 

presented here, conducted in 2004-2005, 

GMCP focused on identifying historical 

sources that document fish population 

composition, and changes within the 

distribution and diversity of these fish 

populations. To date, GMCP researchers 

have found and catalogued hundreds of 

historical documents present in federal, state, 

and local repositories that relate, directly or 

indirectly, to SBNMS fisheries and marine 

ecology. The research findings presented in 

this report are annotated as a catalogue of 

these sources. 

In Phase 2 of this research project, data 

from the historic source material will be 

extracted and compiled into relational or 

tabular databases and Geographical 

Information Systems (GIS). In Phase 3 of 

this project, the data will be used to analyze 

and reconstruct the ecological and fishery 

history of the region, estimate temporal 

changes in fisheries and fish population 

composition and distribution. Moreover, the 

ecological knowledge of fishermen gleaned 

through historical records will provide 

critical information about the impact of 

specific gear on fish populations, descriptions 

of local bathymetry, local differences in 

natural and human-induced ecological 

change, the relations between fishermen, as 

well as the relations of fishermen, 

government and the scientific community. To 

this end, a marine environmental history of 

Stellwagen Bank will be developed that not 

only documents anthropogenic or 

environmental factors that have affected fish 

populations in the past, but also a history that 

illustrates the social, cultural and economic 

consequences of declining marine animal 

resources for Gulf of Maine fishing 

communities. 
2. National Maritime Sanctuaries Act of 1972, 16 U.S.C. § 1431, Section 301. 3. National Maritime Sanctuaries Act of 1972, Section 301. 4. Jeremy B. C. Jackson et al., “Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems,” Science 

293.5530 (2001): 629-638. 5. Jackson et al. 636.

3

2. MARINE HISTORICAL 

ECOLOGY AND SANCTUARY 

MANAGEMENT 

SBNMS was authorized as a National 

Marine Sanctuary by the U.S. Congress in 

1992 under the National Maritime 

Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (NMSA). The 

NMSA authorizes the Secretary of 

Commerce and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to

establish discrete areas of marine 

environment, out to 200 nautical miles or the 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), as 

sanctuaries which “possess conservation, 

recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, 

educational, cultural, archaeological, or 

esthetic qualities which give them special 

national, and is some cases international, 

significance.”2 Currently, there are 13 

national marine sanctuaries in the United 

States. 

A historical perspective can be a 

significant contribution toward the goals of 

the NMSA and sanctuary conservation 

efforts, which are also to “maintain the 

natural biological communities in the 

national marine sanctuaries, and to protect, 

and, where appropriate, restore and enhance 

natural habitats, populations, and ecological 

processes.”3 But at what levels should such 

communities be maintained? Without 

historical baselines, resource managers’ 

restoration and enhancement determinations 

are limited to extrapolation of modern 

fisheries statistical data. Jeremy Jackson et al. 

in the journal Science point to the importance 

of a historical perspective to document the 

long-term effects of fishing on marine 

ecosystems.

4 They also call for historical 

perspectives, based on historical, 

archaeological, and paleo-ecological data, as 

essential tools for “successful management 

and restoration of coastal marine 

ecosystems.”5 Marine ecological histories can 

support sanctuary management and 

conservation efforts by providing historical 

baseline data needed to restore, enhance, and 

achieve sustainable fish population levels, 

provide contexts for understanding and 

explaining change in the marine 

environment, as well as the impact of such 

changes upon fishing communities.
6. Alexander Starbuck provides a brief summary on indigenous whaling in New England based on explorer 

accounts in History of the American Whale Fishery (Secaucus, NJ: Castle Books, 1989) 5-6.

4

3. DEVELOPING A HISTORIC 

CONTEXT FOR THE STELLWAGEN 

BANK FISHERIES

Our research starts with the premise that 

although SBNMS is a specific marine area, it 

is intrinsically related to land-based activities 

and the ecosystems that surround it. Quantitative data extracted from historic sources may 

provide identifiable trends or fish population 

estimates. However, without a historical 

context to explain why or how fish populations 

have changed over time, biased interpretations 

and poor resource management or research 

decisions may result. Therefore, a concise 

historic context for the SBNMS region is 

provided here in order to assist in interpreting 

the state of past fish populations that may have 

been affected by specific historical events. 

Although it is relatively certain that Native 

Americans fished or whaled the waters of 

Stellwagen Bank, there is a dearth of historical 

records relating to any such activity.6 The 

documentation of fish populations and human 

exploitation efforts prior to European 

exploration and settlement will only be 

gleaned through archaeological and paleoenvironmental data. Consequently, this 

research project focuses solely on the study of 

European and American fishing efforts on 

Stellwagen Bank as seen through historical 

documents beginning in the early 1600s. 

There are numerous sources, both primary 

and secondary, regarding the maritime and 

fishing history of Massachusetts Bay, Cape 

Cod Bay and the larger Gulf of Maine 

ecosystem, of which SBNMS is a part. 

Secondary sources that broadly address the 

region’s maritime history include: 

Albion, Robert Greenhalgh, William A. Baker, and Benjamin W. Labaree. New England and the Sea.

Mystic, CT: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1994. 

Burrage, Henry S. Early English and French Voyages, Chiefly from Hakluyt 1534-1658. New York: C. 

Scribner’s Sons, 1906. 

Hall-Arber, Madeleine. New England’s Fishing Communities. MITSG 01-15. Cambridge: MIT Sea Grant 

College Program, 2001. 

Holmes, Richard D., Carolyn D. Hertz, and Mitchell T. Mulholland. Historic Cultural Land Use Study of 

Lower Cape Cod: A Study of the Historical Archeology and History of the Cape Cod National Seashore and 

the Surrounding Region. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, Archaeological Services, 1998. 

Innis, Harold Adams. The Cod Fisheries: The History of an International Economy. New Haven: Yale 

University Press, 1940. 

McFarland, Raymond. A History of the New England Fisheries. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 

1911.

Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Maritime History of Massachusetts 1783-1860. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 

1961. 

Vickers, Daniel. Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-

1850. Chapel Hill: Institute of Early American History and Culture, University of North Carolina Press, 

1994. 
7. See e.g., Harold Innis, The Cod Fisheries: The History of an International Economy (New Haven: Yale 

University Press, 1940); Samuel E. Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783-1860 (Boston: 

Houghton Mifflin, 1961); Robert G. Albion, William A. Baker, and Benjamin W. Labaree, New England and the 

Sea (Mystic, CT: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1994). 8

. Daniel F. Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 

(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994). 9. The statistical bulletins of the U.S. Fish Commission are reviewed in the sources section of this report. 

 5

A general history for fishing, based 

primarily on secondary sources, is also 

provided in the Stellwagen Bank National 

Marine Sanctuary Site Characterization 

Report 1995 (http://stellwagen.nos.noaa.gov/ 

about/sitereport/toc.html). This characterization report provides detailed information 

about the natural resources and environmental 

characteristics of the sanctuary. 

A background in regional history, 

particularly maritime and fishing history, is a 

prerequisite for interpreting data and 

comprehending short and long-term changes 

in the marine environment. The information 

provided in this section serves primarily as an 

introduction to the fishing history of the 

Massachusetts Bay region. As research 

progresses and data is extracted from primary 

source materials, a more complete and 

detailed historic and environmental context 

for Stellwagen Bank will be developed in 

Phases 2 and 3 of this project. 

3.1 Introduction 

As the codfish displayed on the 

Massachusetts statehouse once symbolically 

reminded law makers, much of the early 

survival of the Massachusetts Bay and Cape 

Cod Bay settlements depended heavily upon 

the region’s rich fish resources. While most 

historical studies of the area’s early European 

settlement acknowledge this, these same 

studies have seen Massachusetts’ connection 

to the fisheries mediated through the offshore 

fleets that brought profits in from the Scotian 

Shelf and the Grand Banks.7 Inshore waters 

such as those in and around Stellwagen Bank 

played a pivotal, but more mundane role, 

especially in the early stages of English 

settlement. These inshore fisheries allowed 

Massachusetts settlers to develop a complex 

subsistence blending farming and small-scale 

manufacturing with inshore fishing and 

coastal trade, and supported a brisk economy 

by 1650.8

Even after the American Revolution, when 

inshore fisheries were in all likelihood 

constituting a preponderance of fish products 

landed, inshore fishery operations were still 

too routine to attract much attention in printed 

materials. For example, “marine intelligences”

published in newspapers such as the 

Barnstable Patriot, while noting the arrival and 

departure of larger vessels, rarely, if ever, 

mention the small inshore boats fishing for a 

day that returned with a small catch for 

domestic consumption or sale in local 

markets. Harbor master records from 

Plymouth in the 1820s also neglect to mention 

the catch of small inshore fishing boats, even 

though journals and notebooks kept by 

Plymouth residents from the same period 

document daily “cunnering” trips. Ironically, 

while generating few explicit records of 

inshore fish landings, and failing to even be 

worthy of governmental record keeping until 

the 1870s, the small boats of the inshore 

fisheries of Massachusetts, including the 

waters of Massachusetts Bay and Stellwagen 

Bank, historically constitute a significant 

portion of fish caught. Although bank 

fishermen had greater returns per trip or 

vessel, a far greater number of vessels and 

fishermen plied the near shore of the Gulf of 

Maine. Preliminary analysis of data collected 

by the U.S. Fish Commission in the late 1890s 

and early 1900s reveals that landings for the 

inshore Gulf of Maine fisheries were 

minimally equal to, but generally greater then, 

Scotian Shelf and Grand Bank landings.9

Consequently, it is the human impact upon the 

inshore or near shore fisheries, including 

Stellwagen Bank, which will help to understand and document long-term changes in the
10. Henry S. Burrage, Early English and French Voyages, Chiefly from Hakluyt 1534-1658 (New York: C. 

Scribner’s Sons, 1906). 11. John Smith, A description of New-England, or, The observations, and discoveries, of Captain John Smith, in the 

north ofAmerica, in the year of our Lord 1614 (London, 1616) 14. 12. Samuel Lambert, New Chart of Massachusetts Bay Drawn From the Latest Authorities (Salem, MA: Cushing, 

Appleton andLambert, 1812).

6

Figure 2. Lambert Map of Stellwagen or “Middle Bank” in 1812 (Library of Congress). 

region’s marine environment, as well as 

illuminate how environmental conditions and 

events shaped the culture and economy, and 

furthered the development of this maritime 

region. 

3.2 Human Environment 

The population of marine animals prior to 

European settlement and resource 

exploitation is difficult to determine, if not 

impossible to imagine, particularly in light of 

early historical accounts that conveyed an 

unbelievable abundance of fish. Numerous 

European explorers, such as Bartholomew 

Gosnold, who in 1602 charted New 

England’s coasts and waters, brought back to 

Europe news of the area’s rich marine 

resources.10 

John Smith, who sailed to New 

England in 1614 and mapped the coast from 

Penobscot Bay to Cape Cod, also promoted 

the New England fisheries, noting that “here 

is ground also as good as any lyeth in the 

height of forty one, forty two, forty three, 

&c.”11

Certainly, Stellwagen Bank was wellknown to fishermen by the 17th century, as 

any seagoing vessel could not enter into 

Massachusetts Bay to reach the region’s 

plantations and colonies without crossing its 

fertile fishing grounds. However, maps from 

the early 1800s refer to the fishing area there 

as “Middle Bank”12 (FIG. 2). Stellwagen 

Bank was not officially charted by the federal 

government until 1854, when Henry S. 

Stellwagen, then commander of a U.S. Coast 
13. Ward 20.

14. Simeon L. Deyo, ed., History of Barnstable County (New York, 1890); H. Roger King, Cape Cod and Plymouth

Colony in the Seventeenth Century (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994).

7

Figure 3. English 

fishing

colonies and 

settlements in

Massachusetts.

Survey team informed Survey 

Superintendent Alexander Dallas Bache that “I 

consider I have made an important discovery in 

the location of a 15-fathom bank lying in a line 

between Cape Cod and Cape Ann . . .” 

13

Undoubtedly, the bank’s rich marine 

resources helped the residents of all nearby 

Massachusetts towns fill out diets and make 

livings from the time of the earliest European 

settlement. The coastal geography and marine 

resources of Stellwagen Bank, Cape Cod and 

mainland Massachusetts helped shape the 

direction of this settlement (FIG. 3). The first 

towns on Cape Cod that spread along its shores 

were primarily places that had protected harbors and easy access to fishing grounds. South 

of Plymouth (1620), Sandwich was settled in 

1637. In 1639, colonists moved into areas 

around what became Barnstable Harbor to 

create the towns of Barnstable and Yarmouth. 

Further east, both Wellfleet and Eastham, 

abutting Wellfleet Harbor, were settled in 1644. 

Lands on the southeast corner of Cape Cod Bay 

were organized into the town of Harwich in 

1653. Only after the areas along Cape Cod Bay 

were settled was it that other areas on the south 

shore of the Cape organized into towns 

including Chatham (1656) and Falmouth 

(1661).14

To the north of Plymouth, fishing camps and 

plantations were established in the vicinity of 

Boston Harbor including Weymouth (1622),

Hull (late 1620s), and Salem (1626). The towns 

of Charlestown, Boston, Roxbury, and 

Cambridge were incorporated between 1629 

and 1631. Further along the north shore and 

Cape Ann the fishing towns of Gloucester and 

Marblehead were settled in 1623 and 1629,
15. Raymond McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1911) 

51-52. See also Emerson Baker, “Salem as Frontier Outpost,” Salem: Place, Myth, and Memory, eds. Dane 

Morrison and Nancy Schultz (Boston : Northeastern University Press, 2004) 21-40.

16. Madeleine Hall-Arber, New England’s Fishing Communities (Cambridge: MIT Sea Grant College Program, 

Report #MITSG 01-15, 2001).

17. Peter E. Pope, Fish into Wine: the Newfoundland Plantation in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill: North 

Carolina University Press, 2004).

18. Benjamin Bangs, Diary, 1742-1765, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Microfilm P-363.

19. On the New England economy and the role of fishing, see Vickers (1994), John J. McCusker and Russell R. 

Menard,The Economy of British America, 1607-1789 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 

and Anne E. Yentsch, “Farming, fishing, whaling, trading: land and sea as resource on eighteenth-century Cape 

Cod,” Documentary Archaeology in the New World, ed. Mary C. Beaudry (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 

1988) 138-160.

8

respectively. As described by 

Raymond McFarland in 1911, “by the time 

the settlement of Massachusetts Bay colony 

was well established, there was a chain of 

settlements . . . from Plymouth on the south 

to farthest bounds of territory claimed by the 

English on the coast of Maine.”15 Many of 

the early fishing communities of 

Massachusetts Bay still remain faithful to the 

industry and retain some level of economic 

dependency on the region’s fisheries.16

3.3 Economy 

During the 17th and into the 18th 

centuries, as Massachusetts towns developed 

a strong agricultural base and continued to 

pursue the fisheries, dried and salted fish 

emerged as one major commodity that the 

New England colonies could export into the 

Atlantic trading network. Cod, in particular, 

linked European capital and manufactures, 

African slave labor and West Indian tropical 

products. Best quality “merchantable” dried 

cod was sent to Southern European ports for 

trade in wine,17 while lower quality “jack 

and jill” or “junk” fish was sent to the 

Caribbean to feed growing slave populations. 

“Junk” fish was traded for molasses. The 

prosperous fishing industry also helped 

develop New England’s industrial base. As 

shipbuilding needs grew, so did the need for 

mills, foundries and other related maritime 

industries, adding to the region’s burgeoning 

manufacturing operations. 

Fishing in New England rapidly emerged 

as an economic mainstay. By the 18th 

century, Marblehead had developed into a

major fishing center, followed by Salem, 

Boston, and Plymouth. For most every other 

minor town, however, inshore fishing offered 

both occasional employment and sustenance.18 In Farmers and Fishermen Daniel 

Vickers has shown that small day boat fishing 

operations played an essential role in fleshing 

out annual subsistence strategies that also 

involved agriculture, farm labor, and smallscale manufacturing.19

In the last quarter of the 18th century, the 

American Revolution disrupted the 

traditional export-based economy in which 

New Englanders had exported fish products 

to Europe and the Caribbean. After peace 

negotiations in Paris (1783), the British

government closed its Caribbean ports to 

American vessels, and while French colonies 

stepped in to fill the gap to some degree, the 

prosperous international trade never truly 

returned. However, by the 19th century, New 

England was again at the center of a growing

demand for fish. But this time domestic 

industrial centers began to spring up with 

large numbers of urban factory workers 

seeking fish as a cheap source of protein. An 

expanding plantation system in the southern 

United States also sought a steady food 

supply to feed slaves. Finally, in the late

1830s, railways that linked Cape Ann towns 

to Boston would soon make fresh fish 

available in domestic markets as far away as 

Chicago. With the expansion of railroads and 

the ability to keep ice, domestic markets for 

salt and fresh fish grew as Euro-Americans 

migrated west. 
20. McFarland 81.

21. Richard D. Holmes, Carolyn D. Hertz, and Mitchell T. Mulholland, Historic Cultural Land Use Study of Lower 

Cape Cod: A Study of the Historical Archeology and History of the Cape Cod National Seashore and the 

Surrounding Region (Amherst: University of Massachusetts, Archaeological Services, 1998) 71.

22. H.C. Kittredge, Cape Cod, Its People and Their History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930) 172.

23. Morison 134-135.

9

3.4 Politics and War 

Throughout the Colonial and early Federal 

periods, fishing was significantly affected by 

conflict and war. Following King William’s 

War (16891697) the New England fisheries 

were relatively depressed.20 It was not until 

after Queen Anne’s War and the expulsion of 

the French from Nova Scotia and 

Newfoundland under the Treaty of Utretcht 

in 1713 that New England expanded its 

fishery.21 However, King George’s (1744-

1748) and the French and Indian Wars (1754-

1763) would again disrupt fishing activities. 

Although these early conflicts disturbed 

offshore fishing, New England fishermen 

likely fished inshore grounds such as 

Stellwagen more intensely, choosing to stay 

closer to home rather than risk the voyage to 

the profitable but internationally disputed 

fishing grounds off Nova Scotia and 

Newfoundland. 

The presence of the British Navy 

throughout New England waters all but 

ended fishing during the American 

Revolution. As profitable targets for 

information, food supplies, labor, and 

commercial rewards, naval and privateering 

forces targeted American-based fishing 

vessels. Significant declines in Cape Cod 

fishing fleets were reported.22 After the 

Treaty of Paris in 1783, Americans were 

allowed to fish the Grand Banks and areas of 

Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 

but were not allowed to dry their fish on 

Newfoundland or establish any settlements 

for fishing purposes on Nova Scotia, the 

Magdalen Islands, and Labrador. 

Additionally, the British prohibited trade 

with American vessels in the West Indies. 

Because of the British closure of the trade 

network and the loss of what was for nearly 

two centuries an essential export-based 

commodity, the federal government began in 

1789 to help fishermen recover costs incurred 

from the exorbitant taxes placed on imported 

salt.23 Government bounties served to sustain 

the region’s fishing fleets and preserve the 

cod-fishing industry. Although fish trade 

would resume with the British West Indies in 

the early 19th century, domestic demand for 

fish would eventually eclipse European and 

Caribbean market demands. In the latter 19th 

century, few political events –not even the 

Civil War – hampered fishing efforts, as the 

Massachusetts coast and fishery was located 

relatively far from any war front. 

3.5 Legislation and Regulation 

As early as 1623, Plymouth colony 

enacted laws ensuring all private citizens free 

access to fishing and hunting, and in 1633 

assured their right to invest, if they chose, in 

stocking ponds and streams with fish.24

However, by 1670, European settlers along 

Cape Cod began to raise concerns about 

depleting the bay’s fish resources. Citing “the 

providence of God” for making “Cape Cod 

commodious for us fishing with seines,” 

lawmakers banned the dumping of ballast 

and fish offal and required a license fee for 

mackerel seining. Furthermore, “Whereas we 

have formerly seen inconvenience of taking 

mackerel at unseasonable times, whereby 

their increase is greatly diminished,” the 

court imposed seasonal limits upon fishing 

CONFLICT TIMELINE

King William’s War 1689-1697

Queen Anne’s War 1702-1713

King George’s War 1744-1748

French and Indian Wars 1754-1763

American Revolution 1775-1783

War of 1812 1812-1814

American Civil War 1861-1865

Spanish-American War 1889

World War I 1914-1918
25. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 3-4.

26. Tim D. Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (New York: 

Cambridge University Press, 1994).

10

mackerel.25

Numerous regulations have governed the 

fisheries over the past three centuries. 

Although the battle between industrial 

development and anadromous spawning runs 

shaped much of the fisheries laws of the 19th 

century, both fishermen and early fisheries 

scientists perceived open ocean fish stocks to 

be inexhaustible. Only a few laws limited 

catches of ocean fish before the late 20th 

century.26 This laissez-faire climate reflected 

beliefs about the limits of governmental 

control over offshore fishing and the reluctance of the federal government to impose 

regulations or back the science behind such 

regulations until well after the Civil War. 

What little regulatory energy was linked to 

the fisheries was promoted by fishing 

bounties, fishing ground explorations, and 

aquaculture. Not until the later 20th century 

did state and federal authorities impose restrictions that affected fishermen on the bank. 

3.6 Technology 

Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bay inshore 

fishermen used simple technologies from the 

17th through the 19th century. Schooling 

fish—mackerel and sea herring—were caught 

with baited hooks and lines, or fishermen 

“shot” long seine nets out from the beach to 

encircle fish and haul them inshore. Persistent 

laws banning the use of traps and bush weirs 

also indicate that settlers used these 

stationary devices to catch fish swimming up 

streams and within a couple of miles of the 

shore. Most commonly, day fishermen 

utilized dories and clam-baited hooks and 

lines to catch cod, pollock, haddock and 

cunner (or tautog).

Beginning in the late 1850s, bank 

fishermen shifted over to tub trawls (now 

commonly referred to as long-lines). Trawls 

were made of long lines to which hundreds of 

hooks were attached by short lines called 

gangings (FIG. 4). Inshore fishermen took to 

trawling by the 1870s, dramatically expanding the number of hooks in use and the inshore area covered by hooks. Unlike handlining, in which sufficient bait for a day’s use 

could be caught the previous night at sea, 

tub-trawling required vast quantities of prepackaged, ready-to-use bait to pre-bait trawls. 

Consequently, extensive inshore weir and 

trap fishing developed in Cape Cod Bay and 

Massachusetts Bay to meet this new demand. 

Beginning in the early 20th century, steam 

otter-trawlers and gas-screw boats began to 

replace tub-trawling operations in the 

Stellwagen Bank area. Steam trawlers began 

operating out of Boston in 1910. Although 

inshore fishermen began installing oil engines 

in their boats after World War I, they 

continued to fish Stellwagen Bank primarily 

with long-lines well into the 1940s (FIG. 5). 

Access to the fisheries of Stellwagen Bank 

changed dramatically after this period, as

internal combustion-powered fishing vessels 

with gill nets and otter trawls were able to 

reach the fishing grounds within a few hours.
11

Figure 4. (above) Schematic of long-lines with gangings (from Goode, The Fisheries and 

Fishery Industries of the United States [1887] Sec. V, Plate 27). 

Figure 5. (below) Postcard of early 20th-century inshore fishing boats in Gloucester (private 

collection of W. Leavenworth). 
27. Bruce B. Collette and Karsten E. Hartel, An Annotated List of the Fishes of Massachusetts Bay, NOAA 

Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/NEC-51. Woods Hole, MA: Northeast Fisheries Center, 1988.

12

3.7 Fisheries Science

Over a century before the designation of 

Stellwagen Bank as a marine sanctuary in 

1992 and the directed fisheries conservation 

efforts of the Magnuson Fisheries 

Conservation and Management Act of 1976, 

New England’s explorers, settlers, fishermen, 

scientists, conservationists and politicians 

collectively recognized and recorded 

numerous declines in fish species. For 

example, “A Report on the Fishes of 

Massachusetts,” in the Boston Journal of 

Natural History by David Humphreys Storer 

(1839), one of the earliest catalogues of marine animals in Massachusetts Bay, records 

numerous changes in the composition, size, 

and distribution of the region’s fish

populations. Much of that report was based 

upon the accounts and concerns of fishermen, 

who informed scientists of the disappearance 

of inshore and riverine fish. For example, he 

writes that “upon some portions of our coast, 

herring have been limited in quantity for the 

last few years, and during the years 1835 and

6 very few, comparatively speaking, were 

taken. Their scarcity has been attributed by 

the fishermen to torching them at night” 

(Storer 1839: 436). 

. In another example he reports on the 

decline of salmon in the Merrimac River: 

“The building of dams and manufacturing 

establishments, by preventing the fishes 

from going up the rivers to deposit their 

spawn, has almost entirely annihilated 

this species in our State. Forty-five years 

since, it was very abundant in the 

Merrimac river, so much so that nine 

individuals have been taken in an 

afternoon by one person with a dip net; 

and the usual price was eight cents per 

pound. About seventeen years since, two 

wagons, each bringing from 30 to 40 fine 

salmon from the Merrimac river, supplied 

the Boston market every week during the 

season of the fish. Now the few 

specimens taken are looked upon as 

rarities, and our market is supplied by the 

fishery of the Kennebec.” (Storer 1839: 

426) 

The foundations of fisheries science in 

New England were established in part on the 

efforts of Storer; however, Louis Agassiz 

(1807-1873) who established the Museum of 

Comparative Zoology at Harvard University 

in 1859 was instrumental in promoting 

marine biology and the study of the Gulf of 

Maine fisheries. In the 1850s and 60s, relatively little was known about the physiology 

and behavior of fish, and scientists relied 

predominantly upon the accounts of fishermen, who also provided them with samples 

of fish species for dissection. Many New 

England samples collected by Agassiz 

remain at the Museum of Comparative 

Zoology.27

With mounting evidence that humaninduced problems such as river damming 

contributed to the decline of fish populations, 

solutions were needed by government 

officials to resolve public concerns. Scientific 

data was necessary for 1) understanding the 

impacts of manufacturing pollution from 

tanneries and saw mills upon the fisheries, 2) 

determining the potential response of fish 

from fish-egg propagation and stocking 

efforts, and 3) predicting the effectiveness of 

technological solutions such as fish ladders to 

support fish migrations. Rarely was scientific 

or anthropological data collected to study the 

impact of offshore overfishing. 

Not until the late 1860s and early 1870s, 

when inshore trap and weir fishing interests 

conflicted with the livelihood of 

groundfishing fishermen in Massachusetts 

and Rhode Island, did the state and federal 

governments resolve to establish a scientific 

research institute to study declining fish 

populations.28 At the initiative of Spencer 

Fullerton Baird (1823-1887), the U.S. Fish 
28. Michael Weber, From Abundance to Scarcity: A History of U.S. Marine Fisheries Policy (Washington: Island 

Press, 2003) 3.

13

and Fisheries Commission (commonly 

referred to as the U.S. Fish Commission) was 

established in 1871 for the purposes of 

determining whether there was in fact an 

overall decline in fish populations, identifying the causes for these declines, and

recommending any necessary protective 

measures. The collective work and activities 

in marine biology, oceanography and 

anthropology by the commission was 

published in annual reports and bulletins of 

the U.S. Fish Commission. In addition, a 

defining multivolume work on the latest 

fisheries science was published by the 

commission in 1887, The Fisheries and the 

Fishery Industry of the United States. The 

U.S. Fish Commission would eventually be 

replaced by the Bureau of Fisheries in 1903 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

(FWS) in 1940. Out of the FWS evolved the 

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (1956). 

Finally, in 1970, with President Richard M. 

Nixon’s Executive Order 11564, the National 

Marine Fisheries Service was established as 

part of the Department of Commerce’s new 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA). 

Beginning in the 1880s, the U.S. Fish 

Commission, Museum of Comparative 

Zoology, and the Marine Biological 

Laboratory at Woods Hole intensively 

studied New England waters, including 

Stellwagen Bank. Late 19th- and early 20thcentury scientists such as George B. Goode, 

A. E. Verrill, Henry B. Bigelow, William C. 

Schroeder, and Alexander Agassiz, 

undertook investigations of the Gulf of 

Maine from Cape Cod Bay to the Bay of 

Fundy. They produced some of the most 

detailed information about marine life then 

known about any specific body of water. 

Much of the fisheries statistics and 

environmental data catalogued for this 

research project includes the early records 

and publications of these institutions.

3.8 Conclusion 

The relationships, issues, and interests of 

stakeholders in the fisheries as well as the 

goals of fisheries science today mirror many 

of the conditions of the 1870s. Today, fish 

populations are mostly in decline and 

remedial efforts continue to focus on the 

development of technological solutions and 

fish stocking programs. What is most 

different today is that legislation and policy 

beginning in the 1990s severely curtailed 

offshore fishing activities. Legislative action 

at least in the short-term appears to have 

prevented any wide-scale extinctions of 

groundfish in the region. Fishermen willingly 

contributed information and data to scientists 

through the 1960s, but during the 1970s, as 

policies resulting from scientific research 

were perceived by fishermen as threatening 

their livelihoods, fishermen and scientists 

grew suspicious of each other. In recent 

years, as the fisheries crisis intensified, 

guarded collaboration between fishermen and 

scientists has resumed. Charting the changing 

nature of the relationship between scientists 

and fishermen is a crucial component of 

Stellwagen Bank’s marine environmental 

history. 

By developing a historical perspective 

derived from accounts of fishermen and 

scientists, this research project hopes not 

only to document trends in fish populations 

but also contribute to understanding why 

changes in fish populations occur and how 

people are affected by these changes. Fishermen, in particular, possess on-the-water, 

first-hand and in-depth knowledge of marine 

ecosystems. Their voices and experiences, 

which have been documented in historical 

records such as interviews by scientists, or 

narratives in journals and diaries, offer 

detailed information about the condition 

of fish stocks and local environmental 

conditions, as well as how changes in these 

conditions have affected their livelihoods. 
14

The strategic location of Stellwagen Bank 

between the southerly Massachusetts Bay 

and northerly Gulf of Maine, its proximity to 

land, and abundant fish resources, have made 

it a primary food source and point of 

resource extraction for approximately 400 

years. While other bays and banks within the 

Gulf of Maine historically have yielded 

significantly greater amounts of fish 

products, few banks in the gulf have the 

consistent, well-documented, and long-term 

fishing history of Stellwagen Bank. 

Consequently, Stellwagen Bank presents an

excellent case for studying the affects of 400 

years of continuous human interaction with 

this marine environment
15

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

In this initial research phase, we located 

primary source materials such as explorers’ 

accounts, fishing logbooks, census records, 

newspapers, and early marine scientific 

survey data. These types of historic data may 

be used to extract information and posit the 

marine environmental conditions as well as 

the composition and distribution of historic 

fish populations on Stellwagen Bank. 

Sources were identified through on-line 

manuscript databases, library catalogs, 

references published in marine ecology and 

history books and journal articles, and 

communication with specialists in the fields 

of maritime history and fisheries science. 

Researchers traveled to libraries and 

historical societies in New England and 

visited federal archives in Washington 

D.C. and Maryland. Upon identification, 

sources were investigated in-person and 

catalogued in software such as Microsoft 

Excel or EndNote. In the cases where sources 

were assessed as valuable or tangentially 

relevant to the research project, a sample of 

the documents were photocopied or digitally 

photographed. The following is a summary 

of the primary sources found to date. A 

discussion of their potential as well as 

limitations in reconstructing the historic 

marine environment and fish populations of 

SBNMS is provided. 
16

5. SOURCES

Source (see FIG. 6) Date Range # of Records 

(ca.) *

Archives **

Maps and Charts 1614-1940 100 NARA, NOAACL,

OSHER

Early Exploration Narrative Accounts 1524-1700 30 BPL, HLBO

Newspapers 1720-1940 1,000+ AAS

Fisheries’ Customs Records 1780-1940 600 (record 

sets) NARA I, NARANR

Scientific Survey Logbooks 1870-1940 25 NARA I and II, SIL

U.S. Fish Commission Publications 1871-1940 200 NOAACL

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative 

Zoology 1863-1940 77 MCZ

Massachusetts Records of Fish and 

Game 1866-1940 74 MCZ, MBL

Boston Society of Natural History 1834-1942 100 MCZ, HLBO

Portland Society of Natural History 1862-1947 40 MHS

Treasury Circulars 1886-1890 100 NARANR

Monthly Fishery Statistical Bulletins 1892-1944 600 NARANR

Census Records 1835-1940 22 MA

Commercial Accounts 1790-1940 unknown NARANR

Letters and Correspondences 1860-1940 1,000+ NARA II, SIL

Diaries or Daily Journals 1600-1940 unknown - -

Fishermen Interviews 1850-1900 6 bound 

volumes

NARA II, 

NARANR

Legal Documents and Legislation 1630-1940 1,000+ MBL

* Numbers of records shown are approximate

** Lists only the main archives where these sources are available. Many of these sources can 

also be found in university libraries, historical society collections, and city and state libraries 

or archives. 
17

ARCHIVE ACRONYMS AND WEB SITES 

MBL – Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Library

(www.mblwhoilibrary.org/) 

MCZ – Museum of Comparative Zoology, Ernst Mayr Library, Harvard University 

(http://library.mcz.harvard.edu/)

NARA I – National Archives, Washington, DC (www.archives.gov/)

NARA II – National Archives, College Park, MD 

(www.archives.gov/facilities/md/archives_2.html) 

NARANR – National Archives, Northeast Region, Waltham, MA 

(www.archives.gov/northeast/waltham/waltham.html) 

SIL – Smithsonian Institution Libraries (http://siarchives.si.edu/) 

AAS – American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, MA 

(www.americanantiquarian.org/) 

BPL – Boston Public Library (http://www.bpl.org/) 

HLBO – Hancock Library of Biology and Oceanography, University of Southern 

California 

(http://www.usc.edu/isd/archives/arc/libraries/hancock/archives.html) OSHER – Osher 

Map Library, Portland, ME (http://www.usm.maine.edu/maps/home.html) 

NOAACL – NOAA Central Library, Silver Spring, MD (http://www.lib.noaa.gov/)

MA – Massachusetts Archives, Boston (Dorchester), MA 

(http://www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcidx.htm) 

MHS – Maine Historical Society, Portland, ME 

(http://www.mainehistory.org/library_overview.shtml) 
18

Figure 6. Timeline of primary source materials relevant to SBNMS. 

5.1 Maps and Charts (1614-1940) 

Often compiled from information collected 

from fishermen and mariners, charts and maps 

provide information of where fishermen 

believed shoals and fishing grounds to exist. 

These sources offer both local and global 

referencing to fishing grounds, but also serve as 

cultural indicators of communities’ 

understandings of their environment. Maps and 

charts were often made without highly 

sophisticated methods or plotting instruments, 

and they need to be viewed cautiously, 

particularly in regards to claims of their 

accuracy as both representations of land forms 

and locations of fishing banks. 

Although historical maps and charts 

typically do not provide statistical data, they do 

offer a glimpse of how the physical 

oceanographic characteristics of SBNMS have 

been interpreted and mapped over the centuries. 

Maps often depict bathymetric features, where 

people fished and where fish were caught over 

time. The spatial and temporal nature of maps 

is important for keying historical fisheries catch 

data to specific features such as fishing 

grounds. Dating to as early as 1734, nearly 100 

historical maps/charts have been located thus 

far that document some geographic or 

bathymetric characteristics of SBNMS (FIG. 

7). 

5.2 Early Exploration Narrative 

Accounts (1524-1700) 

Narrative accounts of early European voyages 

or explorations to New England provide 

evidence of the region’s varied and abundant 

marine resources prior to wide-scale 

exploitation (FIG. 8). Early published accounts 

include those of Giovanni da Verrazano (1524), 

Bartholomew Gosnold and John Brereton 

(1602), Martin Pring (1603), James Rosier and 

George Waymouth (1605), Samuel de 

Champlain (1605-1606), and John Smith 

(1614). One indisputable point made by these 

explorers was the richness and potential 

commercial value of the New England 

fisheries. Descriptive and qualitative data can 

be extracted from these narratives to provide a 

general sense of abundance, distribution, and 

perhaps diversity in Massachusetts Bay prior to

large-scale fisheries exploration. Publications 
19

Figure 7. 

(right) The Durrell 

Map from 1734 

depicting fishing 

grounds of Stellwagen 

Bank (U.K. Hydro-

graphic Office). 

Figure 8. (bottom) 

John Brereton’s A 

Briefe and True 

Relation, on the 1602 

Bartholomew Gosnold 

expedition. 

from the second half of the 17th century, such 

as William Wood’s New England’s Prospect

(1634) and John Josselyn’s New-Englands 

Rarities Discovered (1672), also document the 

condition of marine resources observed by early 

New England settlers. Most early narratives 

have been re-published and are widely available 

in literary collections and serials such as the 

Hakluyt Society (London) and the Proceedings 

of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 

5.3 Newspapers (1720-1940) 

Most Massachusetts coastal towns ran a 

newspaper beginning in the 19th century, and 

these smaller publications often contain 

fisheries data. For example, Hingham Journal

(1850-1880) in 1852 published a list of 

Massachusetts mackerel vessels and fish 

catches by town. Thus far, over 50 local 

Massachusetts and New England regional 

newspapers have been identified that may 

contain fisheries data

. 
20

Prior to the 1900s, newspaper columns or 

“marine intelligences” typically detail the 

dates of arrivals, departures, and in some 

cases vessels spoken to at sea, as such 

information came into port (FIG. 9). These 

columns also list the names of vessels, masters, rigs, and either destinations or last ports 

of call. In the case of fishing vessels, they 

intermittently mention whether they were 

“fishing” (meaning in the cod fishery) or 

“mackereling.” These columns offer snapshots of where, when, and what vessels were 

operating out of which ports. Occasionally, 

they provide a statement about the composition of a specific town’s fishing fleet; 

however, these descriptions usually focus on 

the larger bank fishing operations. Columns 

and intelligences surveyed to date tend to 

overlook inshore fishing activity except to 

report on storms, shipwrecks, and other 

unusual phenomena. Examples of papers 

specific to maritime news in the region 

include the following: 

5.4 Fisheries Customs Records (1780-

1940) 

This data set comprises an overwhelming 

number of documents, which are referred to 

collectively here as customs records. 

Customs records relevant to SBNMS include 

fishing agreements and journals (or 

logbooks), crew lists, vessel licenses and 

enrolment records. Records are available for 

numerous Massachusetts ports. There are 

also ledgers or accounting books that document the costs associated with owning, 

operating, and outfitting fishing vessels. Thus 

far, nearly 600 sets of customs records for the 

Figure 9. A typical marine intelligence 

column or “Ship News” from the 

Independent Chronicle and Boston Patriot 

(Dec. 14, 1822).

Boston Gazette, 1719-1742, 

1803-1816 

Barnstable Patriot, 1830-1915 

Cape Ann Advertiser, 1856-1901 

Cape Cod Advocate and Nautical Intelligencer, 

1850-1860 

Whaleman’s Shipping List, 1843-1894 
21

Massachusetts Bay region are catalogued in 

the National Archives. Numerous documents 

are also located in the collections of historical societies and local libraries in eastern 

Massachusetts. These records may provide 

landing figures, allow for the estimation of 

removals for some species, and contribute to 

the calculation of Catch Per Unit Effort 

(CPUE) based on data about vessel size, 

fishing gear, and crew composition.

5.5 Scientific Survey Logbooks (1870-

1940) 

Scientific marine cruises, explorations and 

fishery expeditions are an excellent source 

for marine biological and physical ocean 

data. Numerous records exist concerning the 

operation of federal government fisheries 

research vessels from approximately 1870-

1940. These records include logbooks and 

reports of U.S. Fish Commission and Bureau 

of Fisheries vessels (FIG. 10). The Gulf of 

Maine was an important proving ground for 

early oceanographic studies, and vessel 

trawls and survey logbooks in the 

Smithsonian Institution and National 

Archives are available for scientific cruises in 

the gulf and SBNMS, including: 

Survey reports published in serial sets 

such as the Annual Report or Bulletin of the 

U.S. Fish Commission and Museum of 

Comparative Zoology (see below) recount 

survey and sampling work undertaken by 

research vessels. More importantly, original 

sampling and deck logs now archived at the 

National Archives and Smithsonian Institute 

Libraries provide the locations (in latitude 

and longitude) as well as descriptions of 

hydrographic data, dredging samples, and 

surface trawls taken at sea (FIG. 11). These 

sources provide detailed surface, bottom, 

water column conditions, and species 

distribution data for the Gulf of Maine in the 

latter half of the 19th and the early 20th 

centuries. 

5.6 Serial Sets 

5.6.1 U.S. Fish Commission 

Publications (1871-1940) 

The U.S. Fish Commission was 

established in 1871 to investigate causes for 

the decrease of fish populations in U.S. 

coastal and inland waters. Fisheries data 

generated by the Commission is available for 

portions of SBNMS beginning in the early 

1870s. U.S. Fish Commission publications 

consist of a series of annual reports, 

bulletins, as well as occasional monographs 

or special publications such as the 7-volume 

set of The Fisheries and the Fishery Industry 

in the United States (1887). 

Figure 10. U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Fish Hawk (from 

Z.L. Tanner, “Report on the 

Construction and Work in 1880 

of United States Fish Commission Steamer FISH-HAWK,” 

Annual Report of the Commissioner [1881] Part IX, Plate 

I, p. 53)

Speedwell (1877) 

Albatross (1883) 

Fish Hawk (various years 1880-1925) 

Grampus (various years 1886-1917) 

Halcyon (various years 1912-1921) 

Blake (1880)
22

The Annual Reports of the U.S. Fish 

Commission were submitted to Congress each 

year beginning in 1871. All annual reports, 

from 1871/72 to 1940 are available online 

through NOAA’s Central Library in PDF 

format at:http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cof/data_rescue_fish_comission_annual_reports.html. They generally contain a 

report to Congress on the work of the commission, including field and survey reports from 

commission scientists, reports on propagation 

efforts, nationwide fishery statistics, fishery 

histories, and anthropological studies. 

Publication of the Bulletin of the United 

States Fish Commission began in 1881 (first 

printed in 1882). The bulletin is a publication 

of journal articles primarily by commissionsupported scientists. Articles often report on 

specific fisheries and the methods used to 

harvest or cultivate fish in the United States 

and abroad. Subjects include international 

efforts to develop aquaculture, reports of fish 

diseases, and fishing technology and techniques. Additionally, correspondence from 

fishermen, captains, and fishery scientists in 

the United States, Europe, and Australia was 

often published in the bulletins. 

Finally, The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, published under the 

supervision of George Brown Goode in 1887, 

provides an exhaustive report on the fisheries 

of the United States at that time (FIG. 12). The 

publication is divided into seven sections: 1) 

the natural history of marine products, 2) 

fishing grounds, 3) fishermen and fishing 

towns, 4) apparatus and methods of capture, 5) 

products of fisheries, 6) preparation, care, and 

manufacture of fishery products, and 7) 

economy of the fisheries. Detailed information 

is available for all aspects of the fisheries of 

Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bay, including 

Stellwagen Bank, or “Middle Bank,” as it is 

more commonly referred to in commission 

publications.

5.6.2 Bulletin of the Museum of 

Comparative Zoology (1863-1940)

The Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology began publication in 1863 

under the direction of Louis Agassiz, a 

zoologist from Neuchatel, Switzerland, who 

served as director of the Museum from 1859-

1873. The bulletins contain numerous article 

reprints from the U.S. Fish Commission 

annual reports and bulletins. The Museum of 

Comparative Zoology (MCZ) bulletins also 

contain survey operation reports, lists of 

sampling and dredging stations of survey

Figure 11. Original 

logbook cover and pages of 

Grampus with scallop 

dredge sample data from 

1913 (Smithsonian 

Institution Archives). 
29. Collette and Hartel.[Type text]

23

Figure 12. (above) The Fisheries and 

Fishery Industries of the United States, 

published in 1887.

Figure 13. (right) Cover of the 1869 volume 

of the Report of the Commissioners of 

Fisheries

vessels, articles on Pacific and northwest 

Atlantic explorations, and notes and reports 

on specific animals such as sharks and skates 

in the Gulf of Maine. The MCZ 

ichthyological collection also remains one of 

the best in the world, and its collections 

include specimens taken in New England 

waters beginning in the late 1700s by 

Harvard naturalists.29

5.6.3 Massachusetts Records of Fish and 

Game (1866-1940) 

The reports of this serial set, printed for 

the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 

Commissioners of Fisheries, are generally 

referenced as in the following example: 

Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries, 

for the year ending January 1, 1869. 

Massachusetts Commissioners on Fish and 

Game. Boston: Wright & Potter, State 

Printers, 1869. 

The reports focus predominantly on the 

inland and river fisheries (FIG. 13). In 

addition, they inventory relevant fishery 

regulatory and legislative actions taken 

within the state. Detailed statistics are 

available for the coastal and riverine fisheries 

in the reports, which may help provide a 

relative measure of the condition of fish 

populations on Stellwagen Bank. The annual 

reports were issued beginning in 1866. 

Subsequent titles for the reports in the late

19th and early 20th centuries are Report of 

the Fish and Game Commissioners of 

Massachusetts and Annual Report of the 

Division of Fisheries and Game.
24

5.6.4 Boston and Portland Societies of 

Natural History (1834-1942, 1862-1947) 

Originally formed as the Linnaean Society by 

Jacob Bigelow at Harvard University in 1814, 

the once fledgling organization would become 

the Boston Society of Natural History in 1830, 

the New England Museum of Natural History in 

1864, and finally the Boston Museum of Science 

in 1951. The Boston Society amassed one of the 

largest collections of natural history publications 

in the world, which is now housed in the 

Hancock Library of Biology and Oceanography 

at the University of Southern California. The 

society began publication of the Boston Journal 

of Natural History and Proceedings of Boston 

Society of Natural History in 1834. The journal 

ran irregularly until 1942. Seminal proceedings 

publications, such as David Humpreys Storer’s A 

Report on the Fishes of Massachusetts (1839), 

are an excellent source for qualitative or 

descriptive information about the condition of 

fish species within Massachusetts Bay well 

before any systematic fisheries science or 

government survey operations were established. 

The Portland Society of Natural History was 

founded in 1843 with the purpose of collecting 

and studying specimens and educating its members about the region’s natural history. To this 

end, it began a publication of the proceedings of 

occasional meetings and lectures titled 

Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural 

History (1862-1947). Some papers of the 

society, such as Walter H. Rich’s article on “The 

Swordfish and the Swordfishery of New 

England,” published in 1947, which incidentally 

was also the last publication by the society, 

provides a historical synthesis and maps of the 

traditional sword-fishing grounds in the Gulf of 

Maine (FIG. 14). Beginning in 1881, the 

Portland society also issued a “Circular To Sea 

Captains and Other Seafaring Men” that 

encouraged fishermen and merchants to bring 

natural history specimens home from their 

voyages and donate them to the society.30 Many 

Figure 14. Walter Rich map of the 

swordfishing grounds in the Gulf of 

Maine, 1947 (Portland Society of Natural 

History). 
30. Herbert Adams, “The First 150 Years,” Habitat (Falmouth, ME: Maine Audubon Society, 1993). 31. Paula Work, Maine State Museum, personal interview, 7 July, 2005.

25

specimens were sent to the Delaware Museum of 

Natural History when the society disbanded in 

1971, but most are presumed lost.31

Figure 15. A treasury circular issued 

by Spencer Baird in the late 19th century 

(National Archives, Waltham, MA).

5.7 Federal Fisheries Statistics

5.7.1 Treasury Circulars (1886-1890) 

Department of the Treasury circulars were 

issued by Spencer Baird and the U.S. Fish 

Commission in the last quarter of the 19th 

century, which required customs agents and 

fishermen to document the amounts and 

types of fish caught, vessel and crew 

information, approximate areas fished, and 

fishing methods employed (FIG. 15). These 

records can be used to extract catch and 

CPUE data for the largest bank vessels 

offshore as well as the smallest inshore boats. 

Unfortunately, only about 100 of these 

documents have been located representing 

only a snapshot of fishing efforts from 1886 

to 1890. A few of these records mention 

Middle Bank as an area fished, but typically 

only a general location is given (e.g., 

Massachusetts Bay).

5.7.2 Monthly Fishery Statistical Bulletins 

for Northwest Atlantic (1892-1944) 

These records, produced first by the U.S. 

Fish Commission in 1892 and then by the 

Bureau of Fisheries beginning in 1903, 

provide statistical information such as fish 

catch variety and volume, name and location 

of fishing grounds, the number of trips made 

to those grounds, where products were 

landed, and the values of fish sold (FIG. 16). 

The bulletins are unique in that they specify 

this information per month. Therefore, total 

removals of all fish species on Stellwagen or 

Middle Bank can be calculated for a 35-year 

period. Although the catch records range in 

date from 1892 to 1944, consistent monthly 

records for Stellwagen Bank are available 

from 1901 to 1935. Over this period, these 

records can also be utilized to track changes 

in species composition and seasonality. 

Furthermore, data is available for a number 

of fishing grounds in the Gulf of Maine, and 

Stellwagen Bank could be compared to total 

removals on other grounds. Spatial and 

comparative analysis could reveal the 

relationships between local and regional fish 

populations. Beginning in 1928, the bulletins 

also specify the type of fishing gear used to 

fish the various banks and grounds of the 

Gulf of Maine. If CPUE data can be derived 

from other historical sources for this same 

period, biomass estimates for various species 

on Stellwagen Bank are possible. GMCP has 

begun to extract data from the statistical 

bulletins to map change in catch/fish 

composition over time on Stellwagen Bank. 

We have also begun to integrate this data into 

a GIS in order to examine the spatial 

relationships of fish populations on Stell-
26

wagen to other banks fished in the Gulf of 

Maine. 

5.8 Census Records (1835-1940) 

Massachusetts census records are 

available for the fishing industry beginning in 

1835 with the Abstract of the Census of 

Massachusetts, which was later published as 

the Census of the Commonwealth of 

Massachusetts. These censuses were taken 

every 5-10 years until present times and 

document investments and products in and of 

the fisheries, the number of fishing vessels 

per town or county, tonnage and costs of 

outfitting, hands employed, amounts and 

values of specific fisheries, and where fish 

were caught, for each town. The data allow 

for five-year or decennial reconstructions of 

fleet sizes, inshore and banks landings, as 

well as rough calculations of CPUE. This 

data set can be used to broadly measure 

changes in the labor force, fishing effort, and 

catch for towns and counties in Massachusetts, and seems quite promising for 

assessing the changing nature of Stellwagen 

Bank (and Massachusetts Bay) fish stocks. 

5.9 Commercial Accounts (1790-1940) 

Perhaps some of the finest-grained information available about marine resource use is in 

the form of private business records that 

often provide fishermen’s names, catches, 

bait used, vessel outfitting, and financial 

settlements. Most of these records typically 

focus only on large, highly-capitalized bank 

fishing operations; however, business and 

personal papers also provide snapshots of 

smaller inshore and riverine fisheries, which 

may be used to develop proxies for catch and 

CPUE for certain Massachusetts Bay or 

Stellwagen Bank fisheries in the 18th and 

19th centuries. 

Figure 16. A U.S. Fish Commission monthly statistical bulletin, January 1898 (National 

Archives, Waltham, MA). 
27

5.10 Letters and Correspondences (1860-

1940) 

Collections of papers, for notable 

government officials such as Spencer Baird 

and George Goode of the U.S. Fish Commission and Theodore Lyman (fish commissioner of Massachusetts 1865-1882) contain 

hundreds of letters and correspondences with 

field scientists, captains, and fishermen. 

Although many letters were published in 

U.S. Fish Commission bulletins and reports, 

hundreds went unpublished and contain 

snippets of information that can be used to 

build historical contexts or fill in the 

historical gaps for specific fisheries and 

fishing grounds. Moreover, they often 

document conflicts between government, 

fishermen, and commercial or manufacturing 

enterprises, and provide reports of fish 

disease and pollution as well as observations 

of fishermen and captains in and around 

Massachusetts Bay (FIG. 17). Libraries and 

archives do not generally catalogue the 

contents of letters and correspondences; 

therefore, gleaning relevant historical 

information from these records is a laborintensive and time-consuming process. 

5.11 Diaries or Daily Journals (1600-1940) 

Personal accounts such as diaries or journals 

detail the daily routines, events, observations 

and life-ways of people relying upon fish 

resources and interacting with the marine 

environment. While other sources offer 

numerical or analytical descriptions of fish 

resources, diaries or journals document not 

only daily life of people that fished, but also 

how they viewed their place within the 

marine ecosystem and their reactions to 

environmental change. These rare documents 

offer valuable insights into the social, cultural 

and economic contexts in which decisions 

about resource use were made. While not 

offering systematic data susceptible to 

rigorous analysis, personal diaries and 

journals are important primary sources that 

complement the analysis of numerical data.

To date, no diaries or journals pertaining 

specifically to Stellwagen Bank have been 

located. 

Figure 17. Sample of Baird correspondence 

records (National Archives, College Park, 

MD).

5.12 Fishermen Interviews (1850-1900) 

In the late 19th century, the U.S. Fish Commission conducted numerous interviews with 

fishermen throughout the northeast United 

States including cod and mackerel fishermen 

from New York, New England and Nova 

Scotia. Most fishermen interviewed in the 

1890s by the commission were over 50 years 

of age and recollected changes in the marine 

environment. These interviews, or oral 

histories, are an excellent source for 

observations of Gulf of Maine fisheries. They 

provide first-hand accounts and observations 

of fish behavior and fishing activity on 

specific fishing grounds such as Stellwagen 

Bank (FIG. 18). Most interviewees discuss 

the migratory patterns and behaviors of 
32. Katherine Magness, Development of Fishing Policy in the Gulf of Maine, Late 19th Century (M.A. thesis, 

August 2005 Dept. of Natural Resources at UNH).

28

mackerel on the east coast. In addition, the 

fishermen offer descriptions of fish and catch 

sizes, the effects of certain gear on fish 

populations, as well as explanations and 

causes for the decline in cod and mackerel in 

the 19th century. These records are located at 

National Archives II in College Park, MD 

and National Archives in Waltham, MA. 

Figure 18. Page from a 1893 

interview with a mackerel fisherman from 

Gloucester (National Archives, College Park, 

MD). 

5.13 Legal Documents 

and Legislation (1630-1940) 

Federal, state, provincial and local laws 

and regulations directly and indirectly 

provide information about the state of the 

Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bay fisheries. 

Laws and ordinances regulated aspects of the 

fisheries. For example, a law prohibiting fish 

catch before spawning was drafted in the late 

17th century: 

“It is ordered by this court and the 

authority thereof, that no man shall 

henceforth kill any codfish, hake, 

haddock, or pollock, to be dried for sale 

in the month of December or January, 

because of their spawning time, nor any 

mackerel to barrel up in the month of 

May or June, under penalty of paying 

five shillings for each quintal of fish, and 

five shillings from each barrel of 

mackerel; nor shall any fisherman cast 

the garbage of the fish they catch 

overboard at or near the ledges or 

grounds where they take the fish” (1668) 

To date, GMCP researchers have identified 

almost 150 fishing laws and regulations 

dating to before 1900, some which may 

relate to the fisheries and fishing activity in 

SBNMS. By tracing regulatory or legislative 

efforts over time, we may be able to see how 

effective such efforts were at promoting or 

curbing fishing efforts and landings.32
29

6. PROPOSED HISTORICAL RESEARCH 

Based on the review of available historical 

resources, GMCP will extract data from the 

following primary source material for further 

analysis: 

1. Early Exploration Narrative Accounts 

2. Scientific Survey Logbooks 

3. U.S. Fish Commission Publications 

4. Monthly Fishery Statistical Bulletins 

for Northwest Atlantic 

5. Fishermen Accounts and Interviews 

This determination is based on the 

condition and integrity of the records, and 

their potential to yield specific and detailed 

information about fish population, changes 

affecting the populations, composition, 

distribution, and diversity within SBNMS 

and Massachusetts Bay. In addition, these 

records explore the social, cultural and 

economic consequences of over-exploitation, 

pollution, and government regulation of 

marine resources. 

Extraction and analysis of scientific 

survey logbook data will help to interpolate 

species richness on Stellwagen Bank. 

Because trawl and dredging sample logbooks 

provide both quantitative and qualitative 

data, it is possible to integrate this information into a relational database and 

Geographic Information System (GIS). Such 

a GIS can be used to model species 

abundance, diversity and changes in seafloor 

or surface characteristics in and around 

Stellwagen Bank in the late 19th and early 

20th centuries. 

An analysis of quantitative and qualitative 

information provided by fishermen as well as 

scientists will compare and contrast two 

historically different perspectives. From the 

scientific point of view, statistical data will 

be extracted from monthly statistical 

bulletins and other U.S. Fish Commission 

survey reports. Although information 

provided by fishermen in the 19th century 

was collected by scientists, interviews with 

fishermen relay first-hand experiences within 

the marine environment and therefore they 

are attuned to subtle changes in 

environmental conditions. Combined, these 

etic and emic perspectives will be important 

for both quantifying and qualifying fish 

population trends over time. 

While data extraction in Phase 2 and data 

analysis in Phase 3 will focus on the primary 

sources listed above, the remaining 

complementary sources will help build a 

historic context that will contrast and bridge 

observations of the marine environment 

made in the 17th century through to the 

rigorous collection of fisheries data made in

the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 

Additionally, a detailed historic context for 

the period 1870-1935 will help to interpret 

the social, cultural, economic, political, legal, 

and technological factors that may have 

affected fish catch and landings during these 

times.
30

7. SUMMARY 

This project seeks to create a historical 

map of marine resource use and exploitation, 

human responses to environmental change, 

and the effects of regulatory and management 

actions on Stellwagen Bank. Because 

fisheries tend not to adhere strictly to marine 

sanctuary jurisdictional boundaries, 

documenting the temporal and spatial change 

within a localized marine environment such 

as SBNMS is difficult. However, based on 

the best available historical research, data, 

and scientific analysis, we can begin to 

document fish population trends and 

comprehend the impact of human activities 

on Stellwagen Bank. Documenting change in 

species composition and distribution over 

time may provide a measure of local as well 

as regional ecosystem health, now and in the 

past. Moreover, a marine historical ecology 

of Stellwagen Bank may serve as a case 

study and model for documenting the 

cumulative and long-term effects of human 

activities on specific fisheries. Additionally, 

it documents the relationship of marine 

animal populations to social, cultural and 

economic stability and the human 

consequences of a declining marine resource 

base. With this knowledge, rational choices 

can be made that will help to identify 

sustainable fish population levels, guide 

future management action, and contribute 

toward the region’s long-term ecosystem 

health.
215

ONMS CONSERVATION SERIES PUBLICATIONS

To date, the following reports have been published in the Marine Sanctuaries 

Conservation Series. All publications are available on the Office of National Marine 

Sanctuaries website (http://www.sanctuaries.noaa.gov/).

The Application Of Observing System Data In California Current Ecosystem 

Assessments (ONMS-10-01)

Reconciling Ecosystem-Based Management and Focal Resource Conservation in the 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (ONMS-09-04)

Preliminary Comparison of Natural Versus Model-predicted Recovery of Vesselgenerated Seagrass Injuries in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-09-03) 

A Comparison of Seafloor Habitats and Associated Benthic Fauna in Areas Open and 

Closed to Bottom Trawling Along the Central California Continental Shelf (ONMS-09-

02) 

Chemical Contaminants, Pathogen Exposure and General Health Status of Live and 

Beach-Cast Washington Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) (ONMS-09-01) 

Caribbean Connectivity: Implications for Marine Protected Area Management (ONMS08-07) 

Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of Management Strategies and Regulations of 

FKNMS by Commercial Fishers, Dive Operators, and Environmental Group Members: A 

Baseline Characterization and 10-year Comparison (ONMS-08-06) 

First Biennial Ocean Climate Summit: Finding Solutions for San Francisco Bay Area's 

Coast and Ocean (ONMS-08-05) 

A Scientific Forum on the Gulf of Mexico: The Islands in the Stream Concept (NMSP08-04) 

M/V ELPIS Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2007 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-08-03) 

CONNECTIVITY Science, People and Policy in the Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary (NMSP-08-02) 

M/V ALEC OWEN MAITLAND Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring 

Events 2004-2007 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida 

(NMSP-08-01) 
216

Automated, objective texture segmentation of multibeam echosounder data - Seafloor 

survey and substrate maps from James Island to Ozette Lake, Washington Outer Coast. 

(NMSP-07-05) 

Observations of Deep Coral and Sponge Assemblages in Olympic Coast National Marine 

Sanctuary, Washington (NMSP-07-04) 

A Bioregional Classification of the Continental Shelf of Northeastern North America for 

Conservation Analysis and Planning Based on Representation (NMSP-07-03) 

M/V WELLWOOD Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-

2006 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-07-02) 

Survey report of NOAA Ship McArthur II cruises AR-04-04, AR-05-05 and AR-06-03: 

Habitat classification of side scan sonar imagery in support of deep-sea coral/sponge 

explorations at the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMSP-07-01) 

2002 - 03 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Science Report: An Ecosystem Report 

Card After Five Years of Marine Zoning (NMSP-06-12) 

Habitat Mapping Effort at the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary - Current Status 

and Future Needs (NMSP-06-11) 

M/V CONNECTED Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-

2005 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-010) 

M/V JACQUELYN L Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 

2004-2005 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-

09) 

M/V WAVE WALKER Coral Reef Restoration Baseline Monitoring Report - 2004 Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-08) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Habitat Mapping: Survey report and 

classification of side scan sonar data from surveys HMPR-114-2004-02 and HMPR-116-

2005-01 (NMSP-06-07) 

A Pilot Study of Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus Walbaum 1792) Movement in the 

Conch Reef Research Only Area (Northern Florida Keys) (NMSP-06-06) 

Comments on Hydrographic and Topographic LIDAR Acquisition and Merging with 

Multibeam Sounding Data Acquired in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary 

(ONMS-06-05) 

Conservation Science in NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries: Description and Recent 

Accomplishments (ONMS-06-04) 
217

Normalization and characterization of multibeam backscatter: Koitlah Point to Point of 

the Arches, Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary - Survey HMPR-115-2004-03 

(ONMS-06-03) 

Developing Alternatives for Optimal Representation of Seafloor Habitats and Associated 

Communities in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-02) 

Benthic Habitat Mapping in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-

01) 

Channel Islands Deep Water Monitoring Plan Development Workshop Report (ONMS05-05) 

Movement of yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus Block 1790) and black grouper 

(Mycteroperca bonaci Poey 1860) in the northern Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary as determined by acoustic telemetry (MSD-05-4) 

The Impacts of Coastal Protection Structures in California's Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary (MSD-05-3) 

An annotated bibliography of diet studies of fish of the southeast United States and 

Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary (MSD-05-2) 

Noise Levels and Sources in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary and the St. 

Lawrence River Estuary (MSD-05-1) 

Biogeographic Analysis of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (MSD-04-1) 

A Review of the Ecological Effectiveness of Subtidal Marine Reserves in Central 

California (MSD-04-2, MSD-04-3) 

Pre-Construction Coral Survey of the M/V Wellwood Grounding Site (MSD-03-1) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary: Proceedings of the 1998 Research Workshop, 

Seattle, Washington (MSD-01-04) 

Workshop on Marine Mammal Research & Monitoring in the National Marine 

Sanctuaries (MSD-01-03) 

A Review of Marine Zones in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (MSD-01-2)

Distribution and Sighting Frequency of Reef Fishes in the Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary (MSD-01-1) 
218

Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary: A Rapid Assessment of Coral, Fish, 

and Algae Using the AGRRA Protocol (MSD-00-3) 

The Economic Contribution of Whalewatching to Regional Economies: Perspectives 

From Two National Marine Sanctuaries (MSD-00-2) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Area to be Avoided Education and 

Monitoring Program (MSD-00-1) 

Multi-species and Multi-interest Management: an Ecosystem Approach to Market Squid 

(Loligo opalescens) Harvest in California (MSD-99-1)