MEASURE DHS+ assists countries worldwide in the collection and use of data to 

monitor and evaluate population, health, and nutrition programs. Funded by the U.S. 

Agency for International Development (USAID), MEASURE DHS+ is implemented by 

ORC Macro in Calverton, Maryland. 

 

The main objectives of the MEASURE DHS+ project are: 

1) to provide decisionmakers in survey countries with information useful for informed 

 policy choices, 

2) to expand the international population and health database, 

3) to advance survey methodology, and 

4) to develop in participating countries the skills and resources necessary to conduct 

high-quality demographic and health surveys. 

This publication was made possible through support provided by the U.S. Agency for 

International Development under the terms of Contract No. HRN-C-00-97-00019-00. 

The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 

the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development. 

 

Information about the MEASURE DHS+ project or the status of MEASURE DHS+ 

surveys is available on the Internet at http://www.measuredhs.com or by contacting: 

ORC Macro 

11785 Beltsville Drive, 

Suite 300 

Calverton, MD 20705 USA 

Telephone: 301-572-0200 

Fax: 301-572-0999 

E-mail: reports@orcmacro.com 
DHS Comparative Reports No. 4

Childhood Mortality 

in the Developing World

A Review of Evidence from the Demographic 

and Health Surveys 

Mary Mahy 

December 2003 

ORC Macro 

Calverton, Maryland USA 
Recommended citation: 

Mahy, Mary. 2003. Childhood Mortality in the Developing World: A Review of 

Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys. DHS Comparative Reports 

No. 4. Calverton, Maryland: ORC Macro. 
iii

Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................................ v 

Executive Summary ..........................................................................................................vii 

 1 Introduction............................................................................................... 1 

 2 Data Quality.............................................................................................. 2 

 3 Age Patterns of Childhood Mortality........................................................ 4 

 4 Perinatal Mortality Levels......................................................................... 6 

 5 Childhood Mortality Levels...................................................................... 9 

 5.1 Recent Estimates of Childhood Mortality.................................... 9 

 5.2 Biodemographic Differentials in Childhood Mortality ............. 11 

 5.3 Socioeconomic Differentials in Childhood Mortality................ 24 

 6 Trends in Under-five Mortality............................................................... 30 

 7 Conclusions............................................................................................. 34 

References......................................................................................................................... 35 

Appendix A Calculation of Synthetic Cohort Probabilities of Dying ......................... 37 

Appendix B Ratio of Infant to Under-five Mortality, Five-year Rates ....................... 39 

Appendix C Childhood Mortality Rates by Background Characteristics, 

 Ten-year rates ......................................................................................... 41 
v

Preface 

 

One of the most significant contributions of the MEASURE DHS+ program is the 

creation of an internationally comparable body of data on the demographic and health 

characteristics of populations in developing countries. The DHS Comparative Reports series 

examines these data across countries in a comparative framework. The DHS Analytical Studies

series focuses on specific topics. The principal objectives of both series are to provide information for policy formulation at the international level and to examine individual country 

results in an international context. Whereas Comparative Reports are primarily descriptive, 

Analytical Studies take a more analytical approach. 

 The Comparative Reports series covers a variable number of countries, depending on 

the availability of data sets. Where possible, data from previous DHS surveys are used to 

evaluate trends over time. Each report provides detailed tables and graphs organized by region. 

Survey-related issues such as questionnaire comparability, survey procedures, data quality, and 

methodological approaches are addressed as needed. 

 The topics covered in Comparative Reports are selected by MEASURE DHS+ staff in 

conjunction with the MEASURE DHS+ Scientific Advisory Committee and USAID. Some 

reports are updates and expansions of reports published previously. 

 

 It is anticipated that the availability of comparable information for a large number of 

developing countries will enhance the understanding of important issues in the fields of 

international population and health by analysts and policymakers. 

Martin Vaessen 

Project Director
vii

Executive Summary 

 This report is a review of childhood mortality in 56 developing countries. The mortality estimates 

are based on data from 102 Demographic and Health Surveys carried out between 1990 and 2002. 

Differentials are compared for key variable that are known to influence childhood mortality. 

Biodemographic variables include: mother’s age at birth, length of the preceding birth interval, birth 

order, sex of the child, and multiplicity. Socioeconomic variables include: residence (urban or rural) and 

mother’s education. Perinatal mortality estimates are presented where data are available and trends in 

childhood mortality are examined in countries that have had multiple surveys. 

 In all regions except sub-Saharan Africa the vast majority of deaths among children under five 

years occur in the first year of life. In sub-Saharan Africa, large numbers of children also die between the 

age of one and four—the age range with potentially the most preventable childhood deaths. 

 The limited number of countries with data available on perinatal mortality emphasizes the difficulty of collecting data on stillbirths. A quality check of the data suggests that improvements need to be 

made in collecting pregnancy histories. The few countries that have trend data on perinatal mortality show 

mixed results: six countries show improvements while six countries show increasing levels of perinatal 

mortality. 

 Estimates of childhood mortality for the five years preceding the survey are presented for the 

most recent surveys. The results show that under-five mortality ranges from 25 deaths per 1,000 live 

births in Turkey to 274 per 1,000 in Niger. Only three of the 29 countries surveyed in sub-Saharan Africa 

have under-five mortality rates below 100 per 1,000. 

 Variations in childhood mortality are examined by looking at differentials in mortality by biodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics for the ten years preceding the survey. The results indicate that children of women who have births in quick succession, at young ages, or at high birth orders, 

have poorer child survival outcomes. Male births and multiple births are also at increased risk of dying 

because of increased biological risks. In almost all countries, children of women with less education or 

who live in rural areas have higher levels of mortality than children of other women. 

 Trend data on childhood mortality (based on the five years preceding the survey) suggest that 

under-five mortality has been declining in most of the countries in Asia and Latin America. At the same 

time, past improvements in child survival in much of sub-Saharan Africa are being reversed. There are 

statistically significant increases in under-five mortality in four countries for which trend data are 

available. 
1

1 Introduction 

Mortality of children under the age of five remains unacceptably high in many developing countries. A special edition of the Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2000) stressed this point 

and noted that 10.5 million children still die each year. In Lopez’s (2000) introductory comments to the 

WHO Bulletin, he emphasizes that child mortality needs to remain the focus of public policy to protect 

the gains in child survival from new threats such as HIV/AIDS. This report compares child mortality data 

from 56 countries and indicates where child survival gains are slipping and where they have yet to be 

made. 

Although initially there was controversy over whether childhood mortality levels were reversing 

direction (i.e., increasing), this phenomenon has been proven in a number of countries, primarily in subSaharan Africa. Some researchers thought that the increase was only a blip in the data and did not necessarily indicate a trend change (Ahmad et al., 2000). However, others found evidence of increasing childhood mortality due primarily to the increasing prevalence of AIDS in the population (Hill et al., 2001; 

Claeson et al., 2000; and Adetunji, 2000). 

Numerous causes have been cited for the reversal or stagnation of child survival. Adetunji (2000) 

concludes that not all of the stagnation in child mortality levels can be directly attributed to the prevalence 

of HIV/AIDS. The resurgence of malaria and lower levels of vaccination coverage and health care utilization have also contributed to the reversal of child survival trends (Rutstein, 2000). Deteriorating health 

systems have resulted in fewer children being vaccinated against childhood diseases, and thus increases or 

stagnation in mortality levels have occurred. Recent data from two states in India (Rajastan and Arunachal Pradesh) show stagnation of child mortality coinciding with lower vaccination coverage between 

1992 and 1998 (Claeson et al., 2000; IIPS 1995; and IIPS and ORC Macro, 2000). 

Changes in socioeconomic conditions such as women’s level of education and investment in the 

health sector have affected child survival. Biodemographic and socioeconomic changes are explored in 

this report. 

The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) program publishes comparative reports as reference 

documents. Previous DHS comparative studies of child mortality were published in 1994 (Sullivan et al., 

1994) and 1996 (Bicego and Ahmad, 1996). This report covers data from DHS surveys conducted between 1990 and 2000. Recent estimates of childhood mortality are presented by country for population 

subgroups. Mortality levels are compared; mortality age patterns are analyzed; and trends (including sampling errors) are described for countries where multiple surveys have been conducted. Information on 

perinatal mortality is presented for 20 countries that have stillbirth data available. 

Childhood mortality consists of deaths occurring among children from birth until exact age five. 

It can be broken down by age classification: perinatal mortality, neonatal mortality, postneonatal mortality, infant mortality, child mortality (not to be confused with overall childhood mortality), and under-five 

mortality. The age classifications used in this analysis are as follows: 

Perinatal mortality (PN): the sum of fetal deaths after seven months of gestation (stillbirths) and deaths in the first week of life divided by the number of pregnancies of seven 

or more months duration 

Neonatal mortality (NN): the probability of dying between birth and exact age one 

month 

Postneonatal mortality (PNN): the difference between infant and neonatal mortality 

rates 
2

Infant mortality (1q0): the probability of dying between birth and exact age one year 

Child mortality (4q1): the probability of dying between exact ages one and five years 

Under-five mortality (5q1): the probability of dying between birth and exact age five 

years 

In this report, national-level estimates of childhood mortality are calculated for the five years preceding the survey. For subnational estimates, the rates are calculated for the ten years preceding the survey. Ten-year rates are used for subgroups to ensure a reasonable sample size. Data from a total of 102 

surveys in 56 countries were used in this analysis. 

2 Data Quality 

The quality of DHS survey data on child mortality has been reviewed in other publications (Curtis, 1995; Sullivan et al., 1990). The following is a brief discussion of the changes that have occurred in 

the data collection and tabulation process since those papers were written and the biases that affect childhood mortality. The unique data quality issues regarding perinatal mortality are discussed in section 4. 

Direct estimates of childhood mortality are calculated from complete maternal birth histories collected from women age 15 to 49. The birth history includes the date of every live birth (multiple births are 

recorded individually), survival status, current age for living children, and age at death for children who 

died. 

Changes in survey procedures in the DHS survey program during the 1990s 

The DHS program has addressed survey biases by improving data collection methods (Sullivan et 

al., 1990). While the content of the birth history section of the standard DHS questionnaire has remained 

the same, advances have been made in interviewer training, including adding quality control measures to 

check data quality. 

To avoid heaping on one year of age, interviewers are trained to probe for the child’s age at death 

if the woman says that the death occurred at age 12 months. Despite training emphasizing the importance 

of this information, there are still cases where the interviewer does not get a more precise estimate than 

one year. In countries where female literacy is low, some women may not know or understand years or 

dates. In these situations, interviewers work with the respondent to find an event that will provide an approximate date for the demographic event. In some cases, the data still need to be imputed because there 

are inconsistencies between responses. In these cases, as much data as possible are used to impute an estimated date using a hotdeck procedure. The number of dates of birth or death that need to be imputed 

varies by country and by survey, but there has been a decline over time as women become more educated 

(and more likely to recall dates) and as the training of interviewers has improved. 

Once data entry has started (usually two weeks after interviewing has begun), tables can be produced alerting supervisors of heaping problems associated with individual interviewers or teams. These 

tables are produced throughout the fieldwork and allow the supervisor to retrain the interviewer and ensure probing in future interviews. 

Data quality can vary by survey depending on the implementing agency and survey staff. In previous comparative reports, data for the same survey were used to show trends over time. This method relies on women reporting about events that occurred more than five years in the past, and may be prone to 

error. In this report, we examine trends by comparing multiple surveys from the same country to avoid 

bias due to misdating. 
3

Mortality rates are calculated using a life-table approach to estimate the probability of dying between two exact ages. The probability of dying is based on the number of deaths among children in a specific age range and the exposure of those children to the risk of dying in a particular calendar period. (The 

calculation is described in Appendix A.) 

Biases 

Maternal birth histories present a number of potential biases that could affect mortality estimates. 

It is assumed that the biases affect all countries approximately the same way, thus making cross-national 

comparisons possible. If there are differences in the effects of the biases by country, caution needs to be 

taken when making comparisons. The following is a description of potential biases and their effects: 

Omission of a child death occurs when the mother does not report a child who lived for only a 

short time after birth. This happens because either the event was painful to remember so the mother does 

not mention the child or she does not understand that any child who lived for a short time after birth needs 

to be recorded. Omission results in an underestimate of child mortality. Without accurate hospital records 

or birth certificates, it is difficult to estimate the degree to which event omission underestimates child 

mortality. Trends between surveys might provide some insight; however, it is difficult to gage how omission varies between surveys. 

Misdating errors occur when the respondent does not remember the date of birth or age at death 

of a child. These errors are least likely to occur when the time frame is recent (e.g., the five years preceding the survey). Mortality estimates based on events that occurred more than ten years ago are less reliable. 

Selection bias occurs when data from a group of people with distinct mortality levels are overlooked. For example, if the survey collects only data on children whose mothers are alive, the mortality 

rates could be biased. Children whose mothers have died are likely to have higher mortality levels because of disease being transmitted from mother to child or because the child received inadequate care 

when the mother was sick or after she died. 

The AIDS epidemic exacerbates the selection bias. Data on children who have lost their mother to 

AIDS are omitted, and it is these children who are most likely to die following the death of their mother. 

Assuming that these children have higher mortality levels, this bias would result in underestimates of 

child mortality and inaccuracies in comparisons of child mortality levels at different points in the epidemic or between countries at different stages of the epidemic. However, recent studies suggest that under-five mortality estimates for the five years prior to a survey (five-year rates) will be underestimated by 

no more than 3 to 5 percent in countries with high HIV prevalence, but 10-year rates might be biased by 

up to 7 percent (Mahy, 2003). In this paper, the 10-year rates are only used at the subnational level. If the 

bias is assumed to be consistent across subgroups, comparisons can still be made within a country. 

Heaping of age at death is common in survey data. Heaping occurs when a respondent chooses a 

convenient (rounded) number as the age at death such as one, two, or five years instead of an exact age 

such as 11 months or 19 months. Heaping can be prevented somewhat through training and supervision of 

interviewers. However, even after probing, some mothers may be unable to provide a precise age at death 

for their children. Thus, a substantial amount of heaping remains, especially among respondents with little 

or no education. 
4

Another possible bias in survey data is transference, which is assigning an age to a child that excludes the child from the age group for which additional data are collected. In DHS surveys, additional 

questions are asked about living children under age five (or under age three in a few countries). Transference results when interviewers transfer the ages of children from five to six years (or three to four years) 

to avoid having to ask the additional questions. Transference affects child mortality by reducing the denominator of children who survived the first five years of life, thus increasing estimates of child mortality. 

3 Age Patterns of Childhood Mortality 

The age distribution of childhood deaths is influenced by the causes of death in a community. For 

example, in communities where deaths due to congenital anomalies, birth complications, or infections at 

birth (such as tetanus) are common, infant mortality constitutes a greater part of under-five mortality. In 

communities where immunization coverage and malnutrition are problems, child mortality constitutes the 

majority of under-five mortality. The ratio of infant mortality to under-five mortality can thus provide 

insight into the causes of childhood death in a country. We would expect that as countries develop, improvements in under-five survival will occur first among children age 1 to 4 because of improved immunization coverage against preventable childhood diseases. Improvements in the survival of children less 

than one year of age comes later, with the capacity to treat ailments affecting children during the earliest 

months of life. Neonatal deaths are usually less easily addressed by contextual (environmental) improvements. Determining the age patterns of mortality helps to focus interventions on the appropriate age 

groups and causes. 

The portion of under-five mortality that consists of infant mortality is shown in Figure 1. In general, as under-five mortality increases, the proportion made up of infant mortality decreases. For example, 

in Jordan, where under-five mortality is low—34 deaths per 1,000 births—83 percent of deaths occur during infancy (see Appendix B for values). In Niger, under-five mortality is 274 deaths per 1,000 live births, 

and the infant mortality/under-five mortality ratio (1q0/5q0) is 0.45. Less than half of under-five deaths are 

infant deaths, suggesting that many childhood deaths may have been caused by infectious diseases. In 

Jordan, childhood deaths are more likely due to problems during delivery. This is suggested by the large 

portion of under-five deaths that occur in the first year of life. As overall health conditions improve, more 

deaths are clustered in the first months of life. 

It should be noted that if a large amount of heaping of age at death occurs at age one, the results 

of analysis will be biased. Deaths recorded as occurring at 12 months are considered child mortality, 

while deaths occurring at 11 months and 30 days are infant deaths. Therefore, the ratio of 1q0 to 5q0 will be 

higher when age at death heaping occurs at age one (more deaths recorded as child deaths, decreasing the 

numerator of the ratio). 

Figure 1 shows the differences in infant and under-five mortality by region. In the majority of regions, the difference between infant and under-five mortality increases as under-five mortality increases 

(see the ratios in Appendix B). 
5

Figure 1 Infant and Under-five Mortality Rates, Demographic and Health Surveys, 

1990-2002 

Sub-Saharan Africa

South Africa 1998

Namibia 1992

Gabon 2000

Zimbabwe 1999

Comoros 1996

Ghana 1998

Kenya 1998

Sudan 1990

Eritrea 1995

Senegal 1997

Nigeria 1999

Togo 1998

Tanzania 1999

Cameroon 1998

Uganda 2000/01

CAR 1994/95

Madagascar 1997

Benin 2001

Ethiopia 2000

Zambia 2001/02

Guinea 1999

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99

Malawi 2000

Chad 1996/97

Rwanda 2000

Mozambique 1997

Burkina Faso 1998/99

Mali 2001

Niger 1998

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Infant mortality Under-5 mortality

North Africa/West Asia/Central Asia/Europe

Jordan 1997

Armenia 2000

Turkey 1998

Egypt 2000

Uzbekistan 1996

Kazakhstan 1999

Kyrgyz Republic 1997

Morocco 1992

Turkmenistan 2000

Yemen 1997

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Infant mortality Under-5 mortality
6

4 Perinatal Mortality Levels 

Perinatal mortality refers to the death of a fetus after seven months of pregnancy (stillbirths) or 

the death of a newborn in the first week after birth (Table 1). The perinatal mortality rate is thus defined 

as the number of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths per 1,000 births and stillbirths. (If stillbirths were 

not included in this calculation the result would be a perinatal ratio.) Information on perinatal mortality is 

difficult to estimate in many developing countries because in data-deficient settings it is often difficult to 

South/Southeast Asia

Vietnam 1997

Philippines 1998

Indonesia 1997

Nepal 2001

Bangladesh 1999/2000

India 1998/99

Pakistan 1990/91

Cambodia 2000

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Infant mortality Under-5 mortality

Latin America/Caribbean

Colombia 2000

Dominican Republic 1999

Paraguay 1990

Peru 2000

Brazil 1996

Nicaragua 1997/98

Guatemala 1998/99

Bolivia 1998

Haiti 2000

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Infant mortality Under-5 mortality
7

determine when a fetus or infant died. Perinatal mortality rates are presented only for the countries where 

data on stillbirths were collected. 

In DHS surveys, perinatal data are collected in two ways, and the differences between them are 

likely to affect estimates of perinatal mortality. The first method summarizes data on women’s pregnancy 

status for each of 60 months preceding the survey. The interviewer asks the respondent for a birth history, 

in chronological order, for all births in the 60 months preceding the survey. The interviewer enters the 

length of the pregnancy and the birth event in a calendar format. In addition, women are asked about any 

pregnancies that did not result in a live birth in the last 60 months and these are entered on the same calendar. Thus, the calendar provides information about all pregnancies whether they resulted in a live birth 

or a stillbirth. 

Table 1 Perinatal mortality rates (per 1,000), Demographic and Health Surveys, 

1990-2000 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Pregnancies 

 Number of 7 or 

 Number of early Perinatal more 

 of neonatal mortality months 

Country stillbirths deaths1 rate2 duration 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Ghana 1998 76 78 47.1 3,271 

Kenya 1998 53 116 30.0 5,610 

Malawi 2000 163 341 40.8 12,364 

Uganda 2000 126 179 39.2 7,798 

Zimbabwe 1994 59 67 31.3 4,036 

Zimbabwe 1999 53 75 35.5 3,612 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Jordan 1990 98 127 26.9 8,359 

Jordan 1997 53 84 21.3 6,417 

Morocco 1992 110 96 38.8 5,307 

Turkey 1993 66 79 38.0 3,802 

Turkey 1998 55 76 37.2 3,514 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 21 38 40.3 1,467 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1993 208 233 59.9 7,349 

Bangladesh 1996 203 172 58.3 6,433 

Bangladesh 1999 198 202 56.0 7,137 

Indonesia 1991 123 270 26.9 14,616 

Indonesia 1994 189 346 31.2 17,172 

Indonesia 1997 162 249 25.1 16,378 

Philippines 1993 79 117 21.8 8,937 

Philippines 1998 93 106 25.9 7,659 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1994 72 137 33.6 6,219 

Brazil 1991 47 56 29.8 3,461 

Brazil 1996 44 67 22.9 4,826 

Colombia 1990 50 31 21.6 3,781 

Colombia 1995 48 75 24.3 5,098 

Colombia 2000 53 53 22.9 4,615 

Dom. Republic 1991 63 68 33.5 3,911 

Dom. Republic 1996 86 86 38.5 4,464 

Egypt 1995 170 216 33.2 11,624 

Egypt 2000 166 182 30.2 11,526 

Guatemala 1995 102 185 31.0 9,252 

Guatemala 1999 75 80 33.5 4,620 

Peru 1992 81 143 26.0 8,621 

Peru 1996 149 251 25.4 15,788 

Peru 2000 114 155 21.8 12,337 

Paraguay 1990 70 57 31.5 4,045 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

1

 Deaths occurring within 0-6 days after birth 

2

 Perinatal mortality rate is the sum of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths divided 

by the number of pregnancies of seven or more months duration. 
8

The second method for obtaining data on perinatal mortality—which was used in a number of 

central Asian countries—collects pregnancy histories for the woman’s entire reproductive period (as opposed to only the past 60 months). Information about the pregnancies is collected in reverse chronological 

order so the most recent pregnancy is reported first. The pregnancies are not entered in a calendar format, 

but information on the length of the pregnancy is collected. 

Both approaches allow for the calculation of a perinatal mortality rate. However, the first method 

is more likely to exclude recent births, as the respondent has already mentioned previous births and pregnancies and might avoid mentioning more recent births to avoid having to respond to the list of questions. 

In the second method, which asks for pregnancies in reverse chronological order, the respondent has just 

begun the recall process and is more likely to report recent pregnancies fully and accurately. The shift in 

chronological order would not affect stillbirths to the same degree as live births because the first method 

asks only about stillbirths in the past five years. Thus, responses might not be censored because of respondent fatigue. 

 One measure of the quality of the perinatal mortality data is to look at trends in the ratio of stillbirths to early neonatal deaths. We would expect a consistent ratio between the two, representing the biological relationship. However, there is no consistency in this ratio. The ratio of stillbirths to perinatal 

deaths is less than 0.5 for Indonesia, Kenya, and Malawi, while it is more than 1.5 for Colombia (ratio not 

shown). These variations suggest that data quality for stillbirths may be poor and more research needs to 

be done on the collection of this data. 

Despite possible data quality issues, perinatal rates are presented in this study to encourage dialog 

on the collection of data on perinatal mortality. Figure 2 shows the most recent estimates of perinatal mortality for surveys with calendar or pregnancy history data. The latest estimate for Jordan is the lowest at 

21 perinatal deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 7 or more months. The highest estimate is for Bangladesh 

with a perinatal mortality rate of 56. Figure 3 shows trends in perinatal mortality where available. Improvements can be seen in Bangladesh, Turkey, Egypt, Brazil, Peru, and Jordan, while the Dominican 

Republic, Zimbabwe, Guatemala, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Colombia suggest deteriorating levels of 

perinatal mortality. 

Figure 2 Recent estimates of perinatal mortality, 

Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2000 

Jordan 1997

Peru 2000

Colombia 2000

Brazil 1996

Indonesia 1997

Philippines 1998

Kenya 1998

Egypt 2000

Paraguay 1990

Guatemala 1999

Bolivia 1994

Zimbabwe 1999

Turkey 1998

Dom. Republic 1996

Morocco 1992

Uganda 2000

Kazakhstan 1999

Malawi 2000

Ghana 1998

Bangladesh 1999

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
9

Figure 3 Trends in perinatal mortality, 

Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2000 

5 Childhood Mortality Levels 

This section examines levels of mortality by selected background variables. Rates are shown for 

neonatal through under-five mortality so that variations in the age patterns can be seen for each variable. 

Estimates at the national level are for the five years preceding the survey. However, in the presentation of 

mortality rates by selected variables, rates have been calculated for the ten years preceding the survey in 

order to ensure an appropriate sample size. 

The biodemographic and socioeconomic differentials are presented here through relative risk ratios. These ratios can be misleading if the level of mortality is not taken into consideration. For example, a ratio of 4 is relatively insignificant if the difference is between a mortality level of 2 and 8 as opposed to a difference in mortality levels from 50 to 200. For that reason the under-five mortality rate 

(U5MR) for the reference group is provided in each table. The average (or median) of these risks is provided at the bottom of the table for summary purposes. These averages are not weighted. 

5.1 Recent Estimates of Childhood Mortality 

Table 2 presents childhood mortality rates for each country by region. Countries in West Africa 

tend to have the highest rates of child mortality. Very few countries in Asia or Latin America have underJordan 1990

Jordan 1997

Peru 1992

Peru 1996

Peru 2000

Brazil 1991

Brazil 1996

Colombia 1990

Colombia 1995

Colombia 2000

Indonesia 1991

Indonesia 1994

Indonesia 1997

Philippines 1993

Philippines 1998

Egypt 1995

Egypt 2000

Guatemala 1995

Guatemala 1999

Zimbabwe 1994

Zimbabwe 1999

Dom. Republic 1991

Dom. Republic 1996

Turkey 1993

Turkey 1998

Bangladesh 1993

Bangladesh 1996

Bangladesh 1999

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10

Table 2 Estimates of childhood mortality arranged by level of under-five mortality in each region, five-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

South Africa 1998 20 26 45 15 59 

Namibia 1992 32 25 57 29 84 

Gabon 2000 30 27 57 33 89 

Zimbabwe 1999 29 36 65 40 102 

Comoros 1996 38 39 77 29 104 

Ghana 1998 30 27 57 54 108 

Kenya 1998 28 45 74 41 112 

Sudan 1990 44 26 70 58 124 

Eritrea 1995 25 41 66 76 136 

Senegal 1997 37 30 68 77 139 

Nigeria 1999 37 38 75 70 140 

Togo 1998 41 39 80 72 146 

Tanzania 1999 40 59 99 53 147 

Cameroon 1998 37 40 77 80 151 

Uganda 2000/01 33 55 88 69 152 

CAR 1994/95 42 55 97 67 158 

Madagascar 1997 40 56 96 70 159 

Benin 2001 38 51 89 78 160 

Ethiopia 2000 49 48 97 77 166 

Zambia 2001/02 37 58 95 81 168 

Guinea 1999 48 50 98 88 177 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 62 50 112 77 181 

Malawi 2000 42 62 104 95 189 

Chad 1996/97 44 59 103 102 194 

Rwanda 2000 44 64 107 100 196 

Mozambique 1997 54 81 135 77 201 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 41 65 105 127 219 

Mali 2001 57 56 113 131 229 

Niger 1998 44 79 123 172 274 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Jordan 1997 19 10 29 6 34 

Armenia 2000 20 17 36 3 39 

Turkey 1998 26 17 43 10 52 

Egypt 2000 24 20 44 11 54 

Morocco 1992 31 26 57 20 76 

Yemen 1997 34 42 75 32 105 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Uzbekistan 1996 23 26 49 11 59 

Kazakhstan 1999 34 28 62 10 71 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 32 30 61 12 72 

Turkmenistan 2000 34 40 74 22 94 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Vietnam 1997 18 10 29 9 38 

Philippines 1998 18 17 35 14 48 

Indonesia 1997 22 24 46 13 58 

Nepal 2001 39 26 64 29 91 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 42 24 66 30 94 

India 1998/99 43 24 68 29 95 

Pakistan 1990/91 49 37 86 29 112 

Cambodia 2000 37 58 95 33 124 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Colombia 2000 15 7 21 4 25 

Dominican Republic 1999 14 8 22 8 30 

Paraguay 1990 19 14 34 9 43 

Peru 2000 18 15 33 14 47 

Brazil 1996 19 20 39 10 49 

Nicaragua 1997/98 17 22 40 11 50 

Guatemala 1998/99 23 22 45 14 59 

Bolivia 1998 34 34 67 26 92 

Haiti 2000 32 48 80 42 119 
11

five mortality rates over 100 deaths per 1,000 births, while almost all under-five mortality rates in subSaharan Africa are above 100. The range of under-five mortality varies from 25 per 1,000 live births in 

Colombia to 274 per 1,000 live births in Niger. 

Numerous factors are associated with high levels of childhood mortality. In the following analysis, we explore seven influential variables and show the differences in mortality levels between countries. 

The variables are categorized into two groups: biodemographic characteristics and socioeconomic characteristics. These variables are known to affect childhood mortality. The goal here is not to reemphasize the 

previously made points, but to show how these factors affect childhood mortality differently in different 

settings or countries. 

5.2 Biodemographic Differentials in Childhood Mortality 

Biodemographic characteristics affect the health of the child before and after delivery and, in 

some cases, can affect caretaker behavior toward the child. Differences in mortality levels by biodemographic characteristics of the child (and mother) have been demonstrated in many studies (Bicego and 

Ahmad, 1996; Rutstein, 1984; Sullivan et al., 1994). The data presented here provide additional evidence 

of the differences in childhood mortality in various settings. 

Mother’s age at birth 

For most countries the relationship between mother’s age at birth and level of mortality risk exhibits a U-shaped curve. When women give birth at a young age, they are at increased risk of complications, and the child is at increased risk of low birth weight and prematurity. There are also potentially adverse social and economic consequences for these women. When women give birth at an older age, they 

are more likely to have pregnancy complications, and the baby is more likely to have congenital anomalies, which increases the risk of dying in early childhood. In addition, risk to older women is often increased because of higher parity. 

Most countries in this analysis show the expected U-shaped relationship between mother’s age 

and childhood mortality (see Appendix C.1 for values). All of the countries show a higher risk of underfive mortality for young mothers. However, some countries such as Haiti do not show evidence of higher 

risk for births to older women. In general, mother’s age appears to have the greatest impact in the first 

month of life. On average, infants born to mothers under the age of 20 are 45 percent more likely to die in 

the first month of life than infants born to mothers age 20 to 29; and infants born to women age 40 to 49 

are 30 percent more likely to die in the first month of life. The relative risks of dying for children born to 

younger mothers and children born to older mothers are shown in Tables 3 and 4. 
12

Table 3 Relative risk of dying before age five among children born to younger women (<20 years versus 

20-29 years), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 mortality –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 rate for Post- 

 children Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 of mothers mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country age 20-29 (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 151 1.56 1.17 1.33 1.12 1.23 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 222 1.70 1.12 1.34 1.10 1.19 

Cameroon 1998 133 1.45 1.51 1.48 1.27 1.35 

CAR 1994/95 153 1.54 1.40 1.46 0.87 1.21 

Chad 1996/97 194 1.41 1.09 1.22 1.06 1.13 

Comoros 1996 104 2.03 0.86 1.44 1.22 1.37 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 153 1.50 1.35 1.42 1.37 1.38 

Eritrea 1995 156 1.15 1.26 1.21 0.91 1.04 

Ethiopia 2000 179 1.67 1.19 1.43 1.09 1.26 

Gabon 2000 83 1.28 1.13 1.21 1.27 1.22 

Ghana 1998 105 1.93 0.88 1.35 1.15 1.25 

Guinea 1999 183 1.45 1.21 1.33 1.15 1.22 

Kenya 1998 89 1.71 1.62 1.66 1.50 1.58 

Madagascar 1997 159 1.51 1.12 1.27 1.10 1.19 

Malawi 2000 193 1.79 1.21 1.42 1.27 1.32 

Mali 2001 219 1.87 1.34 1.62 1.27 1.40 

Mozambique 1997 218 1.09 1.21 1.16 0.91 1.07 

Namibia 1992 91 1.13 0.95 1.05 1.24 1.11 

Niger 1998 299 1.71 1.24 1.41 1.06 1.17 

Nigeria 1999 122 1.06 1.21 1.13 1.51 1.30 

Rwanda 2000 207 1.11 1.30 1.22 1.05 1.13 

Senegal 1997 130 1.64 1.28 1.47 1.18 1.30 

South Africa 1998 55 1.05 1.07 1.06 1.29 1.12 

Sudan 1990 133 1.32 0.97 1.15 1.28 1.20 

Tanzania 1999 149 2.17 1.65 1.86 1.12 1.52 

Togo 1998 137 1.36 1.19 1.27 1.28 1.26 

Uganda 2000/01 147 1.42 1.23 1.30 1.18 1.23 

Zambia 2001/02 166 1.50 1.10 1.23 1.00 1.12 

Zimbabwe 1999 90 1.39 0.95 1.14 0.97 1.08 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 41 1.43 1.22 1.34 0.48 1.25 

Egypt 2000 58 1.51 1.75 1.62 1.17 1.52 

Jordan 1997 30 1.63 2.48 1.94 1.17 1.82 

Morocco 1992 80 2.01 1.58 1.82 0.90 1.56 

Turkey 1998 58 0.99 1.38 1.14 1.32 1.17 

Yemen 1997 114 1.78 1.32 1.53 1.18 1.42 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 61 (2.14) 1.03 1.56 0.47 1.38 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 76 (1.55) 1.40 1.48 0.96 1.40 

Turkmenistan 2000 88 (1.73) 0.88 1.24 1.26 1.24 

Uzbekistan 1996 55 (1.60) 0.69 1.07 1.08 1.07 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 102 1.75 1.08 1.47 0.85 1.27 

Cambodia 2000 116 1.25 1.08 1.14 0.92 1.09 

India 1998/99 90 1.55 1.31 1.46 1.08 1.34 

Indonesia 1997 64 1.42 1.27 1.34 1.27 1.31 

Nepal 2001 98 1.77 1.36 1.60 0.87 1.36 

Pakistan 1990/91 117 1.38 1.28 1.34 0.94 1.24 

Philippines 1998 51 1.62 0.88 1.24 1.06 1.18 

Vietnam 1997 44 1.82 0.54 1.36 0.49 1.16 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 91 1.14 1.74 1.44 1.20 1.37 

Brazil 1996 51 1.17 1.42 1.30 1.23 1.28 

Colombia 2000 24 1.25 2.03 1.49 0.68 1.37 

Dominican Republic 1999 38 3.69 1.64 2.54 0.93 2.10 

Guatemala 1998/99 54 1.49 2.06 1.73 1.50 1.66 

Haiti 2000 135 1.40 1.70 1.58 1.26 1.43 

Nicaragua 1997/98 48 1.24 1.60 1.44 1.05 1.35 

Paraguay 1990 39 1.96 1.65 1.81 1.37 1.69 

Peru 2000 56 1.26 1.37 1.32 0.95 1.20 

Median (unweighted) 1.45 1.25 1.36 1.12 1.26 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on fewer than 250-499 births. 
13

Table 4 Relative risk of dying before age five among children born to older women (40-49 years versus 

20-29 years), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 mortality ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 rate for Post- 

 children Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 of mothers mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country age 20-29 (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 151 1.17 1.29 1.24 0.99 1.12 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 222 1.30 0.85 1.02 0.95 0.99 

Cameroon 1998 133 1.30 1.35 1.33 0.75 1.04 

CAR 1994/95 153 2.17 0.95 1.47 1.10 1.30 

Chad 1996/97 194 1.17 1.52 1.38 1.10 1.23 

Comoros 1996 104 2.43 1.55 1.99 0.88 1.68 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 153 (1.06) 0.89 0.97 2.01 1.32 

Eritrea 1995 156 0.41 0.73 0.57 1.10 0.87 

Ethiopia 2000 179 1.04 1.15 1.10 0.96 1.04 

Gabon 2000 83 3.21 0.60 1.88 0.97 1.55 

Ghana 1998 105 0.73 0.64 0.68 1.06 0.87 

Guinea 1999 183 1.48 1.03 1.24 0.79 1.01 

Kenya 1998 89 1.83 1.88 1.86 2.13 1.91 

Madagascar 1997 159 1.91 1.24 1.50 0.88 1.22 

Malawi 2000 193 1.79 0.92 1.23 0.83 1.04 

Mali 2001 219 1.30 0.99 1.15 0.92 1.03 

Mozambique 1997 218 1.23 0.70 0.91 0.73 0.85 

Namibia 1992 91 1.36 0.69 1.05 1.58 1.21 

Niger 1998 299 1.16 0.87 0.97 0.75 0.84 

Nigeria 1999 122 2.25 2.50 2.37 1.56 1.92 

Rwanda 2000 207 1.46 1.14 1.27 0.58 0.95 

Senegal 1997 130 1.68 0.85 1.29 0.93 1.09 

South Africa 1998 55 0.94 2.69 1.85 2.03 1.88 

Sudan 1990 133 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.07 1.06 

Tanzania 1999 149 0.93 1.32 1.17 0.05 0.71 

Togo 1998 137 1.42 0.84 1.13 1.11 1.11 

Uganda 2000/01 147 1.31 0.95 1.08 1.05 1.06 

Zambia 2001/02 166 1.33 1.19 1.24 1.08 1.15 

Zimbabwe 1999 90 1.29 1.71 1.53 1.29 1.43 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 41 * * * * * 

Egypt 2000 58 1.22 1.67 1.43 1.09 1.35 

Jordan 1997 30 2.11 0.86 1.65 1.81 1.67 

Morocco 1992 80 0.90 1.23 1.05 1.12 1.07 

Turkey 1998 58 2.99 1.39 2.37 0.87 2.08 

Yemen 1997 114 0.98 0.92 0.95 1.23 1.02 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 61 (3.71) 2.11 2.88 0.00 2.41 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 76 (1.20) 2.79 1.97 0.00 1.72 

Turkmenistan 2000 88 0.90 0.62 0.74 0.64 0.72 

Uzbekistan 1996 55 (4.50) 0.00 1.89 0.56 1.56 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 102 0.41 0.50 0.45 0.74 0.55 

Cambodia 2000 116 1.12 1.47 1.33 1.43 1.34 

India 1998/99 90 1.52 1.94 1.67 1.99 1.74 

Indonesia 1997 64 0.92 0.83 0.87 0.32 0.73 

Nepal 2001 98 2.00 0.58 1.42 0.71 1.20 

Pakistan 1990/91 117 1.10 1.26 1.17 0.95 1.12 

Philippines 1998 51 2.17 0.98 1.56 0.88 1.32 

Vietnam 1997 44 1.20 0.00 0.77 1.54 0.96 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 91 1.48 1.15 1.32 0.80 1.18 

Brazil 1996 51 1.00 1.88 1.46 2.45 1.59 

Colombia 2000 24 2.56 0.79 2.01 * 1.73 

Dominican Republic 1999 38 * * * * * 

Guatemala 1998/99 54 3.02 2.55 2.82 3.85 2.99 

Haiti 2000 135 0.87 1.04 0.97 0.38 0.75 

Nicaragua 1997/98 48 2.37 1.12 1.68 0.20 1.36 

Paraguay 1990 39 2.60 0.93 1.80 3.39 2.19 

Peru 2000 56 2.56 1.48 2.04 1.35 1.82 

Median (unweighted) 1.30 1.05 1.30 0.97 1.19 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on fewer than 250-499 births. An asterisk signifies an estimate was 
14

Birth intervals 

Births that occur in quick succession often have poor outcomes for reasons related to maternal 

health and environmental factors. Research has found that maternal nutrition and maternal depletion are 

key factors affecting mortality levels for births following a short birth interval. Also, competition for resources with similar-aged siblings can affect the well-being of a child. In this paper, we examine three 

birth intervals—less than 24 months, 24 to 47 months, and 48 months or more. These cutoffs were chosen 

to match other analyses of these data (see Bicego et al., 1996 and Sullivan et al., 1994). In addition, research has shown that after about 48 months the benefits of a longer birth interval diminish. The additional risk associated with shorter and longer birth intervals is shown in Tables 5 and 6. 

The relative risks associated with of childhood mortality are remarkably consistent across countries. Regardless of the overall level of under-five mortality, there is a stable association between the risk 

of dying and the length of the birth interval. On average, under-five mortality for births within 24 months 

of a previous birth is 64 percent higher than births with a 24- to 47-month interval (see Table 5). Births 

after a 48-month interval have a reduced risk of 28 percent compared with births after a 24- to 47-month 

interval (see Table 6). 
15

Table 5 Relative risk of dying before age five among children born after a short birth interval (<24 year versus 24-47 months), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 mortality –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 rate for Post- 

 children Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 of mothers mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country age 24-47 (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 151 2.37 1.63 1.90 1.13 1.50 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 207 1.94 1.56 1.70 1.29 1.42 

Cameroon 1998 127 1.88 1.65 1.75 1.58 1.63 

CAR 1994/95 122 2.21 2.07 2.12 1.49 1.79 

Chad 1996/97 190 1.61 1.42 1.50 1.27 1.35 

Comoros 1996 96 1.84 1.85 1.85 0.89 1.48 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 162 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.54 1.54 

Eritrea 1995 130 2.06 1.87 1.95 1.50 1.65 

Ethiopia 2000 168 2.18 1.87 2.02 1.30 1.62 

Gabon 2000 79 1.76 1.60 1.67 1.46 1.58 

Ghana 1998 108 2.54 1.64 2.03 1.09 1.51 

Guinea 1999 199 1.40 1.30 1.35 1.02 1.18 

Kenya 1998 99 1.55 1.48 1.51 1.59 1.51 

Madagascar 1997 137 2.59 1.76 2.04 1.41 1.70 

Malawi 2000 171 2.18 1.73 1.90 1.58 1.68 

Mali 2001 197 2.01 1.77 1.89 1.55 1.64 

Mozambique 1997 199 1.64 1.73 1.70 1.45 1.55 

Namibia 1992 83 2.32 1.32 1.84 1.36 1.65 

Niger 1998 282 1.81 1.37 1.51 1.28 1.32 

Nigeria 1999 126 2.00 1.55 1.75 1.11 1.39 

Rwanda 2000 183 2.03 1.77 1.88 1.50 1.64 

Senegal 1997 131 1.56 1.76 1.65 1.12 1.33 

South Africa 1998 52 1.93 2.06 2.00 1.86 1.95 

Sudan 1990 111 1.51 1.59 1.55 1.68 1.58 

Tanzania 1999 152 1.33 1.65 1.52 0.98 1.29 

Togo 1998 130 2.56 1.79 2.15 1.58 1.81 

Uganda 2000/01 131 2.13 1.84 1.94 1.26 1.56 

Zambia 2001/02 144 2.76 1.89 2.16 1.40 1.72 

Zimbabwe 1999 80 3.03 2.20 2.54 1.31 1.95 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 57 1.01 1.25 1.11 0.71 1.07 

Egypt 2000 54 2.50 2.20 2.35 2.91 2.42 

Jordan 1997 24 2.09 1.49 1.84 1.59 1.80 

Morocco 1992 67 2.53 1.96 2.23 1.46 1.97 

Turkey 1998 46 2.96 2.47 2.68 1.90 2.44 

Yemen 1997 79 2.32 2.23 2.27 1.86 2.10 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 54 2.86 1.30 1.80 0.64 1.62 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 58 1.76 1.87 1.81 1.21 1.71 

Turkmenistan 2000 79 1.47 1.48 1.47 1.78 1.52 

Uzbekistan 1996 44 1.10 1.79 1.44 1.91 1.51 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 100 1.94 1.71 1.84 1.35 1.63 

Cambodia 2000 113 1.96 1.38 1.60 1.36 1.52 

India 1998/99 88 2.02 1.67 1.88 1.57 1.75 

Indonesia 1997 72 2.09 1.93 2.00 1.66 1.88 

Nepal 2001 92 2.27 1.79 2.07 1.60 1.87 

Pakistan 1990/91 88 2.06 2.18 2.11 1.71 1.97 

Philippines 1998 49 1.48 1.78 1.63 1.31 1.48 

Vietnam 1997 42 1.84 2.12 1.94 1.82 1.90 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 90 1.79 1.90 1.85 1.84 1.82 

Brazil 1996 51 1.51 2.32 1.94 1.64 1.88 

Colombia 2000 28 1.52 1.55 1.53 1.65 1.54 

Dominican Republic 1999 20 4.93 6.76 5.59 1.09 3.57 

Guatemala 1998/99 52 1.60 2.09 1.82 2.18 1.89 

Haiti 2000 119 1.95 1.54 1.69 1.65 1.64 

Nicaragua 1997/98 37 2.28 2.73 2.53 2.59 2.51 

Paraguay 1990 49 0.95 1.38 1.13 1.17 1.14 

Peru 2000 60 1.94 1.82 1.89 1.61 1.78 

Median (unweighted) 1.95 1.77 1.85 1.49 1.64 
16

Table 6 Relative risk of dying before age five among children born after a long birth interval (48+ versus 24-

47 months), ten year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 mortality –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 rate for Post- 

 children Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 or mothers mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country age 24-47 (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 151 1.25 0.52 0.78 0.88 0.83 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 207 0.62 0.48 0.53 0.49 0.52 

Cameroon 1998 127 0.71 0.53 0.62 0.58 0.61 

CAR 1994/95 122 0.63 0.92 0.80 0.73 0.77 

Chad 1996/97 190 0.67 0.59 0.63 0.46 0.55 

Comoros 1996 96 1.40 0.67 1.03 0.35 0.78 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 162 0.58 0.38 0.48 0.78 0.61 

Eritrea 1995 130 0.73 0.57 0.64 0.52 0.58 

Ethiopia 2000 168 0.58 0.71 0.65 0.47 0.57 

Gabon 2000 79 1.36 0.74 1.02 0.94 0.99 

Ghana 1998 108 0.76 0.62 0.68 0.54 0.61 

Guinea 1999 199 0.53 0.41 0.47 0.50 0.49 

Kenya 1998 99 0.49 0.76 0.65 0.73 0.68 

Madagascar 1997 137 0.90 0.49 0.63 0.70 0.68 

Malawi 2000 171 0.77 0.96 0.89 0.63 0.77 

Mali 2001 197 0.61 0.68 0.65 0.67 0.67 

Mozambique 1997 199 0.39 0.73 0.60 0.62 0.62 

Namibia 1992 83 0.95 0.86 0.91 0.81 0.87 

Niger 1998 282 0.70 0.67 0.68 0.48 0.57 

Nigeria 1999 126 0.95 0.78 0.85 0.63 0.74 

Rwanda 2000 183 0.61 0.69 0.66 0.66 0.67 

Senegal 1997 131 0.88 0.83 0.86 0.69 0.77 

South Africa 1998 52 0.76 0.99 0.88 0.94 0.90 

Sudan 1990 111 0.68 0.50 0.60 0.53 0.57 

Tanzania 1999 152 0.73 0.94 0.85 0.54 0.74 

Togo 1998 130 1.07 0.58 0.81 0.52 0.67 

Uganda 2000/01 131 1.05 1.01 1.02 0.68 0.85 

Zambia 2001/02 144 1.15 0.92 0.99 0.91 0.95 

Zimbabwe 1999 80 1.20 1.24 1.22 0.67 0.97 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 57 0.94 0.81 0.89 0.54 0.85 

Egypt 2000 54 0.88 0.72 0.80 0.71 0.78 

Jordan 1997 24 1.30 1.40 1.34 1.46 1.36 

Morocco 1992 67 0.86 0.51 0.68 0.66 0.68 

Turkey 1998 46 1.76 0.38 0.97 0.23 0.78 

Yemen 1997 79 0.66 0.64 0.65 0.74 0.68 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 54 1.59 0.54 0.88 0.72 0.85 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 58 1.08 1.04 1.05 0.86 1.02 

Turkmenistan 2000 79 1.24 0.43 0.77 0.56 0.73 

Uzbekistan 1996 44 1.50 1.16 1.34 1.09 1.29 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 100 0.65 0.74 0.69 0.47 0.61 

Cambodia 2000 113 0.70 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.72 

India 1998/99 88 0.68 0.64 0.66 0.43 0.59 

Indonesia 1997 72 0.68 0.56 0.61 0.78 0.67 

Nepal 2001 92 0.62 0.69 0.65 0.59 0.63 

Pakistan 1990/91 88 0.38 0.67 0.50 0.54 0.52 

Philippines 1998 49 1.61 1.05 1.33 0.51 0.98 

Vietnam 1997 42 0.62 0.75 0.67 0.95 0.74 

LATIN AMERICA /CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 90 0.57 0.42 0.49 0.59 0.52 

Brazil 1996 51 1.25 0.69 0.95 0.54 0.88 

Colombia 2000 28 1.22 0.29 0.83 0.68 0.81 

Dominican Republic 1999 20 2.69 4.95 3.51 2.00 2.82 

Guatemala 1998/99 52 0.44 1.35 0.84 0.49 0.76 

Haiti 2000 119 0.71 0.66 0.68 0.36 0.57 

Nicaragua 1997/98 37 1.20 0.93 1.06 1.21 1.08 

Paraguay 1990 49 0.47 0.55 0.51 0.59 0.53 

Peru 2000 60 0.78 0.57 0.68 0.47 0.62 

Median (unweighted) 0.76 0.69 0.74 0.63 0.72 
17

The reduced risk of a long birth interval exists throughout a child’s first five years. Infants and 

children age 1 to 4 have an increased risk of dying after a short birth interval. Figure 4 presents the relative risks by country. Much of the variation in risk is due to the low levels of under-five mortality in some 

countries. 

Figure 4 Relative risk of dying before age five among children born after a 

birth interval of less than 24 months, Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2002 

Guinea 1999 

Tanzania 1999 

Niger 1998 

Senegal 1997 

Chad 1996/97 

Nigeria 1999 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 

Comoros 1996 

Benin 2001 

Ghana 1998 

Kenya 1998 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99

Mozambique 1997 

Uganda 2000/01 

Gabon 2000 

Sudan 1990 

Ethiopia 2000 

Cameroon 1998 

Mali 2001 

Rwanda 2000 

Eritrea 1995 

Namibia 1992 

Malawi 2000 

Madagascar 1997 

Zambia 2001/02 

CAR 1994/95 

Togo 1998 

South Africa 1998 

Zimbabwe 1999 

Armenia 2000 

Philippines 1998 

Uzbekistan 1996 

Cambodia 2000 

Turkmenistan 2000 

Kazakhstan 1999 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 

India 1998/99 

Jordan 1997 

Nepal 2001 

Indonesia 1997 

Vietnam 1997 

Morocco 1992 

Pakistan 1990/91 

Yemen 1997 

Egypt 2000 

Turkey 1998 

Paraguay 1990 

Colombia 2000 

Haiti 2000 

Peru 2000 

Bolivia 1998 

Brazil 1996 

Guatemala 1998/99 

Nicaragua 1997/98 

Dominican Republic 1999 

01234

SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA

NORTH AFRICA/ASIA

LATIN AMERICA/

CARIBBEAN

Birth order 

First births and high-order births have poor outcomes compared with other births. However, not 

all of the association is due to birth order. Maternal age is also associated with differentials in mortality 

by birth order. Typically, younger women have had fewer births than older women. In addition, there is 

often a correlation between short birth intervals and high-order births because women who have had 

many children are more likely to have had short birth intervals on the way to high parity. 

Most of the additional risk between first births and second- to third-order births occurs in the 

neonatal period (see Table 7). Between second- and third-order births and seventh- or higher-order births 

the additional risk exists throughout childhood (see Table 8). On average, babies born after six other 
18

Table 7 Relative risk of dying before age five among children of low birth order (1st birth versus 2nd to 5th 

birth), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 mortality –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 rate for Post- 

 children Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 of birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country order 2-3 (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 147 1.35 0.93 1.10 0.99 1.05 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 208 1.68 1.41 1.53 1.04 1.23 

Cameroon 1998 140 1.46 0.91 1.17 0.98 1.07 

CAR 1994/95 155 1.79 1.28 1.48 0.84 1.20 

Chad 1996/97 200 1.23 0.96 1.08 0.89 0.98 

Comoros 1996 104 1.51 0.91 1.24 0.75 1.09 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 160 1.25 1.60 1.42 0.84 1.17 

Eritrea 1995 155 1.44 1.10 1.26 0.82 1.01 

Ethiopia 2000 177 1.73 1.18 1.45 0.83 1.16 

Gabon 2000 86 1.31 0.74 0.99 1.13 1.04 

Ghana 1998 103 1.54 0.82 1.17 1.04 1.11 

Guinea 1999 174 1.56 1.14 1.34 1.15 1.23 

Kenya 1998 93 0.91 1.05 1.00 1.07 1.02 

Madagascar 1997 155 1.23 1.14 1.18 0.84 1.02 

Malawi 2000 202 1.44 1.18 1.28 1.10 1.18 

Mali 2001 224 1.91 1.23 1.59 1.00 1.26 

Mozambique 1997 207 1.44 1.11 1.24 0.87 1.11 

Namibia 1992 92 0.93 0.80 0.87 1.04 0.92 

Niger 1998 298 1.66 0.97 1.21 1.01 1.08 

Nigeria 1999 111 1.51 0.90 1.19 1.04 1.11 

Rwanda 2000 198 1.23 0.95 1.06 1.02 1.04 

Senegal 1997 131 1.66 0.92 1.30 1.02 1.14 

South Africa 1998 47 1.25 1.21 1.23 1.06 1.18 

Sudan 1990 128 1.87 1.06 1.48 0.98 1.22 

Tanzania 1999 171 1.52 1.01 1.21 0.89 1.08 

Togo 1998 134 1.38 1.11 1.24 0.90 1.07 

Uganda 2000/01 150 1.87 1.17 1.40 0.96 1.18 

Zambia 2001/02 169 1.52 1.11 1.24 0.91 1.07 

Zimbabwe 1999 86 1.37 1.13 1.23 0.74 1.04 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 52 0.92 0.46 0.70 0.31 0.66 

Egypt 2000 55 1.11 0.93 1.02 0.75 0.97 

Jordan 1997 30 1.03 1.18 1.08 1.17 1.10 

Morocco 1992 83 1.35 1.01 1.19 0.69 1.05 

Turkey 1998 54 1.04 0.59 0.85 0.94 0.87 

Yemen 1997 120 1.48 0.99 1.22 0.76 1.10 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 57 1.13 0.84 0.99 2.15 1.09 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 70 1.47 0.88 1.14 1.54 1.18 

Turkmenistan 2000 92 1.00 0.86 0.92 0.72 0.88 

Uzbekistan 1996 53 1.12 1.00 1.06 1.10 1.06 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 99 1.93 1.08 1.59 0.61 1.26 

Cambodia 2000 117 1.06 1.05 1.05 0.57 0.92 

India 1998/99 91 1.26 1.00 1.17 0.65 1.01 

Indonesia 1997 66 1.14 0.83 0.97 0.65 0.89 

Nepal 2001 98 1.29 1.16 1.24 0.80 1.12 

Pakistan 1990/91 113 1.35 0.98 1.18 0.40 0.98 

Philippines 1998 46 1.25 0.72 1.00 0.73 0.92 

Vietnam 1997 40 1.13 1.22 1.16 0.79 1.07 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 88 0.88 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.90 

Brazil 1996 51 0.93 0.75 0.83 0.76 0.82 

Colombia 2000 29 0.87 0.64 0.78 0.65 0.76 

Dominican Republic 1999 42 0.81 1.25 1.01 1.20 1.04 

Guatemala 1998/99 54 1.91 0.88 1.32 0.78 1.18 

Haiti 2000 135 1.25 0.96 1.07 1.01 1.04 

Nicaragua 1997/98 49 1.17 1.03 1.09 0.90 1.05 

Paraguay 1990 35 1.85 1.07 1.46 0.88 1.29 

Peru 2000 54 0.83 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.84 

Median (unweighted) 1.33 1.00 1.17 0.89 1.07 
19

Table 8 Relative risk of dying before age five among children of high birth order (7th or higher birth versus 

2nd - 5th birth), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 mortality –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 rate for Post- 

 children Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 of birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country order 2-3 (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 147 1.69 1.32 1.47 1.20 1.33 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 208 1.25 1.24 1.25 1.02 1.11 

Cameroon 1998 140 1.44 0.98 1.19 1.05 1.11 

CAR 1994/95 155 1.66 0.91 1.21 0.88 1.07 

Chad 1996/97 200 1.29 1.18 1.23 1.19 1.20 

Comoros 1996 104 1.23 1.31 1.27 1.13 1.22 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 160 1.23 1.31 1.27 1.34 1.28 

Eritrea 1995 155 1.16 1.13 1.15 0.90 1.00 

Ethiopia 2000 177 1.35 1.22 1.28 0.91 1.11 

Gabon 2000 86 1.88 1.34 1.59 0.78 1.31 

Ghana 1998 103 1.29 0.89 1.08 1.11 1.09 

Guinea 1999 174 1.47 1.47 1.47 1.12 1.27 

Kenya 1998 93 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.69 1.67 

Madagascar 1997 155 1.43 1.48 1.46 0.95 1.21 

Malawi 2000 202 1.25 0.88 1.02 0.95 0.99 

Mali 2001 224 1.14 1.28 1.21 1.08 1.13 

Mozambique 1997 207 0.89 1.13 1.04 1.48 1.18 

Namibia 1992 92 1.30 0.67 0.99 1.51 1.15 

Niger 1998 298 1.05 1.04 1.05 1.00 1.02 

Nigeria 1999 111 2.13 2.04 2.08 1.45 1.72 

Rwanda 2000 198 1.63 1.12 1.32 0.85 1.09 

Senegal 1997 131 1.47 1.24 1.35 1.08 1.20 

South Africa 1998 47 2.04 3.37 2.76 0.52 2.09 

Sudan 1990 128 1.33 1.20 1.27 0.96 1.11 

Tanzania 1999 171 1.37 0.77 1.00 0.40 0.78 

Togo 1998 134 1.72 1.21 1.46 1.02 1.23 

Uganda 2000/01 150 1.73 1.01 1.24 0.89 1.07 

Zambia 2001/02 169 1.35 0.95 1.08 0.93 1.00 

Zimbabwe 1999 86 1.17 1.56 1.39 1.12 1.28 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 52 8.96 3.02 6.09 * 5.49 

Egypt 2000 55 1.98 2.33 2.14 2.75 2.23 

Jordan 1997 30 1.48 1.26 1.40 1.44 1.40 

Morocco 1992 83 1.33 1.37 1.35 0.77 1.18 

Turkey 1998 54 0.68 1.90 1.19 3.03 1.46 

Yemen 1997 120 0.91 1.13 1.02 1.13 1.05 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 57 * * (2.72) * 2.48 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 70 * 1.14 1.17 2.24 1.27 

Turkmenistan 2000 92 1.29 0.81 1.02 0.56 0.92 

Uzbekistan 1996 53 * 1.21 1.91 0.63 1.59 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 99 0.98 1.25 1.09 1.41 1.19 

Cambodia 2000 117 1.41 1.54 1.49 1.04 1.35 

India 1998/99 91 1.73 1.77 1.75 1.84 1.74 

Indonesia 1997 66 1.95 2.03 1.99 1.60 1.86 

Nepal 2001 98 1.43 1.13 1.31 1.79 1.43 

Pakistan 1990/91 113 1.41 1.13 1.28 1.01 1.20 

Philippines 1998 46 1.62 1.71 1.66 2.78 1.98 

Vietnam 1997 40 1.73 3.37 2.19 2.14 2.16 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 88 1.78 1.48 1.62 1.55 1.59 

Brazil 1996 51 1.88 2.00 1.94 3.68 2.16 

Colombia 2000 29 (1.19) 0.63 0.98 0.50 0.91 

Dominican Republic 1999 42 0.43 3.89 1.98 * 1.69 

Guatemala 1998/99 54 2.19 1.34 1.70 1.36 1.61 

Haiti 2000 135 1.63 1.07 1.27 0.98 1.16 

Nicaragua 1997/98 49 2.39 1.61 1.94 1.97 1.93 

Paraguay 1990 35 2.24 1.99 2.11 1.23 1.85 

Peru 2000 54 1.79 1.64 1.71 1.94 1.76 

Median (unweighted) 1.43 1.26 1.32 1.12 1.25 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on fewer than 250-499 births. An asterisk signifies an estimate was 

supressed because it was based on fewer than 250 births.
20

births are 43 percent more likely to die during the neonatal period compared with births of second to third 

order, and are also 11 percent more likely to die between ages 1 and 4. First births are, on average, at a 33 

percent increased risk of dying during the neonatal period than births of second through third order. However, this additional risk diminishes as children age. The risk for first births varies by country. In Mali, the 

chances of a first-born child dying during the first month of life are almost two times greater than those of 

the next two children, while in parts of Latin America, first-born children are more likely to survive than 

the next two. Birth order is highly correlated with age of the mother at birth, so the decreased risk for a 

first child in Latin America is probably due to older age at first birth among mothers. 

Sex 

Much research has been done on the sex differentials in childhood mortality, especially in situations where the usual male disadvantage is not evident (Hill and Upchurch, 1995). Males have higher 

mortality rates during the first six months of life for genetic reasons (primarily because of higher vulnerability to infectious disease). Excess male mortality risk declines after six months. However, in situations 

where girl children are considered more of a financial burden to the family than boys, health care patterns 

tend to favor boys (Arnold, 1992). Where these situations exist, there is some evidence of a reduced risk 

of mortality for boys in the ages 1 to 4. 

Table 9 indicates that, on average, boys are 28 percent more likely to die in the first month of life. 

During the remainder of the first year they are 6 percent more likely to die. However, for ages 1 to 4, 

there is no real difference in the average risk of mortality for girls and boys. 

Sex differences in mortality exist between age 1 and 4 in some countries. For example, in Pakistan, the male child mortality rate is 60 percent that of females. Other countries that show a male advantage of more than 20 percent include Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Turkey, and Vietnam (see Figure 5). The large ratios from Turkey and Vietnam are likely due to small sample sizes. 
21

Table 9 Relative risk of dying before age five by sex of child (males versus females), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 Under-5 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 mortality Post- 

 rate for Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 female mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country children (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 163 1.14 1.00 1.06 0.91 0.99 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 216 1.47 0.98 1.15 1.02 1.07 

Cameroon 1998 144 1.44 0.89 1.14 0.92 1.03 

CAR 1994/95 152 1.33 1.04 1.16 0.99 1.09 

Chad 1996/97 189 1.42 1.05 1.20 1.07 1.13 

Comoros 1996 103 1.28 1.19 1.24 1.06 1.18 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 146 1.39 1.43 1.41 1.42 1.39 

Eritrea 1995 141 1.59 0.92 1.19 1.14 1.16 

Ethiopia 2000 178 1.38 1.10 1.24 0.96 1.11 

Gabon 2000 80 1.56 1.45 1.51 0.95 1.28 

Ghana 1998 106 1.30 0.94 1.11 1.04 1.08 

Guinea 1999 188 1.35 0.94 1.12 1.03 1.07 

Kenya 1998 103 1.22 1.06 1.12 0.93 1.05 

Madagascar 1997 152 1.42 1.09 1.21 1.10 1.16 

Malawi 2000 199 1.23 1.00 1.09 0.99 1.04 

Mali 2001 226 1.42 0.95 1.18 1.06 1.11 

Mozambique 1997 213 1.11 1.06 1.08 1.03 1.06 

Namibia 1992 89 1.24 1.10 1.18 0.88 1.07 

Niger 1998 306 1.40 0.93 1.08 0.91 0.98 

Nigeria 1999 132 1.21 0.96 1.08 0.96 1.02 

Rwanda 2000 198 1.35 0.95 1.10 1.08 1.09 

Senegal 1997 134 1.24 1.02 1.13 1.03 1.08 

South Africa 1998 48 1.62 1.23 1.39 1.36 1.38 

Sudan 1990 129 1.42 0.96 1.19 0.99 1.09 

Tanzania 1999 150 1.61 1.00 1.21 1.05 1.15 

Togo 1998 132 1.40 1.10 1.25 1.13 1.18 

Uganda 2000/01 150 1.14 1.06 1.09 1.10 1.09 

Zambia 2001/02 160 1.06 1.01 1.03 1.20 1.10 

Zimbabwe 1999 85 1.17 1.08 1.12 1.13 1.12 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 45 1.30 0.87 1.10 1.58 1.13 

Egypt 2000 70 1.29 0.76 1.01 0.91 0.99 

Jordan 1997 30 1.46 1.49 1.47 0.56 1.27 

Morocco 1992 80 1.33 1.06 1.20 0.87 1.10 

Turkey 1998 58 1.36 0.87 1.12 0.78 1.04 

Yemen 1997 114 1.25 1.21 1.23 0.90 1.13 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 53 1.36 1.27 1.31 1.66 1.35 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 70 1.24 1.16 1.19 0.94 1.16 

Turkmenistan 2000 76 1.26 1.51 1.39 1.12 1.33 

Uzbekistan 1996 46 1.25 1.50 1.37 1.66 1.42 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 112 1.20 0.88 1.07 0.75 0.97 

Cambodia 2000 110 1.29 1.22 1.25 1.10 1.21 

India 1998/99 105 1.14 0.91 1.05 0.68 0.93 

Indonesia 1997 64 1.20 1.43 1.32 0.98 1.21 

Nepal 2001 112 1.20 0.85 1.05 0.69 0.93 

Pakistan 1990/91 119 1.30 1.07 1.19 0.60 1.03 

Philippines 1998 50 1.16 1.29 1.22 1.12 1.18 

Vietnam 1997 40 1.73 1.31 1.56 0.72 1.28 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 96 1.28 0.99 1.12 0.90 1.06 

Brazil 1996 53 0.98 1.35 1.16 0.94 1.12 

Colombia 2000 23 1.49 1.29 1.42 1.18 1.38 

Dominican Republic 1999 43 0.99 1.26 1.11 1.62 1.20 

Guatemala 1998/99 65 1.16 0.92 1.04 0.82 0.98 

Haiti 2000 132 1.16 1.17 1.17 0.96 1.08 

Nicaragua 1997/98 51 1.21 1.28 1.25 1.12 1.22 

Paraguay 1990 45 1.20 1.20 1.20 0.80 1.09 

Peru 2000 57 1.22 1.07 1.14 1.11 1.13 

Median (unweighted) 1.28 1.06 1.17 1.01 1.11 
22

Figure 5 Relative risk of dying for boys age 1 to 4 (child mortality), 

Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2002 

Namibia 1992 

Benin 2001 

Niger 1998 

Cameroon 1998 

Kenya 1998 

Gabon 2000 

Ethiopia 2000 

Nigeria 1999 

CAR 1994/95 

Malawi 2000 

Sudan 1990 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 

Guinea 1999 

Mozambique 1997 

Senegal 1997 

Ghana 1998 

Tanzania 1999 

Comoros 1996 

Mali 2001 

Chad 1996/97 

Rwanda 2000 

Madagascar 1997 

Uganda 2000/01 

Togo 1998 

Zimbabwe 1999 

Eritrea 1995 

Zambia 2001/02 

South Africa 1998 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99

Jordan 1997 

Pakistan 1990/91 

India 1998/99 

Nepal 2001 

Vietnam 1997 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 

Turkey 1998 

Morocco 1992 

Yemen 1997 

Egypt 2000 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 

Indonesia 1997 

Cambodia 2000 

Philippines 1998 

Turkmenistan 2000 

Armenia 2000 

Kazakhstan 1999 

Uzbekistan 1996 

Paraguay 1990 

Guatemala 1998/99 

Bolivia 1998 

Brazil 1996 

Haiti 2000 

Peru 2000 

Nicaragua 1997/98 

Colombia 2000 

Dominican Republic 1999 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA

NORTH AFRICA/ASIA

LATIN AMERICA/

CARIBBEAN

The relative risks for Armenia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and the Dominican Republic suggest that 

boys age 1 to 4 are at increased risk of dying compared with girls the same age. These results again are 

likely due to the low levels of mortality in these countries and not to actual differences in mortality levels. 

Multiple births 

Another biological factor that plays a role in the survival of infants and, in some cultures, plays a 

role in the care of the child is whether the child was part of a multiple birth. Children of multiple births 

are often not fully developed in the womb, resulting in low birth weight. In addition, complications at delivery and competition for resources after birth often result in greater risk of dying for multiple births. In 

some countries, bad luck and misfortune are associated with twins, and can lead to neglect and higher 

mortality for multiple births. Variations in mortality by multiplicity are shown in Table 10. (A few countries are not included in this table due to data limitations.) 
23

Table 10 Relative risk of dying among children under five years, by multiple birth status (multiple birth/single 

birth), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2000 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 

 mortality Relative risk of dying before age five 

 rate for –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 children Post- 

 who were Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 singleton mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country births (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 1996 169 5.78 2.06 3.50 1.42 2.36 

Burkina Faso 1999 217 4.21 1.77 2.71 2.24 2.23 

Cameroon 1998 142 4.17 1.76 2.94 1.27 2.05 

CAR 1994 151 6.77 2.33 4.19 1.42 2.96 

Chad 1997 192 5.09 2.32 3.46 2.32 2.63 

Comoros 1996 106 4.86 (0.79) 2.82 (1.92) 2.50 

Côte d’Ivoire1998 169 3.42 (1.89) (2.63) (1.80) 2.19 

Eritrea 1995 143 6.12 4.79 5.40 1.97 3.27 

Ethiopia 2000 179 7.13 2.61 4.84 2.33 3.36 

Gabon 2000 86 5.97 1.56 3.67 0.30 2.44 

Ghana 1998 102 6.51 3.09 4.80 1.46 3.06 

Guinea 1999 186 3.70 2.34 2.98 1.68 2.21 

Kenya 1998 100 6.64 2.00 3.63 2.23 3.01 

Malawi 2000 192 6.05 1.66 3.27 1.31 2.19 

Mali 1996 244 3.73 2.32 3.02 1.35 2.02 

Morocco 1992 80 5.29 3.23 4.32 0.98 3.39 

Mozambique 1997 211 3.03 2.55 2.73 1.16 2.09 

Namibia 1992 87 3.98 3.69 3.85 0.52 2.64 

Niger 1998 293 4.46 2.54 3.23 1.19 1.85 

Nigeria 1999 127 4.64 2.26 3.39 1.15 2.19 

Rwanda 2000 156 4.99 1.34 2.83 0.77 1.83 

Senegal 1997 133 5.31 2.83 4.14 1.47 2.59 

Tanzania 1999 157 3.76 1.69 2.53 0.96 1.93 

Togo 1997 136 5.71 1.39 3.48 0.96 2.20 

Uganda 2000 149 6.61 2.45 3.98 1.78 2.78 

Zambia 1996 183 5.76 2.15 3.26 1.50 2.28 

Zimbabwe 1999 86 6.81 2.11 4.01 1.51 3.02 

NORTH AFRICA/WESTASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 43 11.56 3.47 8.02 0.00 7.30 

Egypt 2000 62 6.45 3.91 5.19 2.20 4.41 

Turkey 1998 56 6.38 (3.00) (4.90) (2.20) 4.28 

Yemen 1997 116 5.88 3.00 4.28 2.70 3.64 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 57 11.94 * * * (6.72) 

Kyrgyzstan 1997 69 7.94 * * * (5.09) 

Turkmenistan 1999 84 7.23 (2.79) 4.72 0.56 3.82 

Uzbekistan 1996 48 14.96 * (9.59) (3.09) 7.83 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 2000 102 7.37 (4.26) 6.20 (3.97) 5.10 

Cambodia00 117 7.02 1.94 3.97 0.88 3.14 

India 1999 97 6.17 3.05 5.06 1.88 3.98 

Indonesia 1997 69 5.31 2.08 3.60 1.74 3.04 

Nepal 1996 132 7.87 (2.51) 5.79 (2.14) 4.19 

Pakistan 1991 116 4.37 2.16 3.39 2.21 3.01 

Philippines 1998 52 7.35 1.80 4.67 3.86 4.22 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 96 4.24 3.01 3.61 2.07 3.10 

Brazil 1996 54 4.53 2.43 3.37 1.20 3.01 

Colombia 2000 27 5.99 (2.90) 4.93 * 4.25 

Dom. Republic 1996 57 6.10 2.86 4.64 0.61 3.74 

Guatemala 1999 63 4.83 (1.63) (3.27) (1.36) 1.00 

Haiti 2000 131 6.27 2.07 3.66 2.55 3.03 

Nicaragua 1997 53 7.40 3.15 5.00 1.90 4.29 

Paraguay 1990 44 4.80 (3.12) 4.03 1.85 3.47 

Peru 2000 57 6.17 5.03 5.62 2.14 4.48 

Median (unweighted) 5.97 2.16 3.66 1.39 3.01 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: The number of cases used to calculate neonatal mortality is less than 500 child years in all countries 

except Ethiopia, Malawi, Zambia, Benin, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, Egypt, India, and Indonesia. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 250-499 child years. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 250 

child years and has been suppressed. 
24

One example of the difference in mortality associated with multiple birth status is in Eritrea, 

where children of multiple births are five times more likely to die in the first year of life than children of 

singleton births. The highest differential, which is seen in Uzbekistan, is likely due to the small numbers 

of deaths in that country. The smallest differential is seen in Tanzania where infant mortality associated 

with multiple births is 153 percent higher than that for singletons. In Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Bangladesh, 

and Nepal, more than half of the children born in multiple births died before their fifth birtday (see Appendix Table C.5). 

5.3 Socioeconomic Differentials in Childhood Mortality 

While many other factors also influence childhood mortality, we have chosen to limit our discussion to two programmatically important socioeconomic characteristics to highlight differences between 

countries. The characteristics considered here are residence and mother’s education.1

 

Residence 

In DHS surveys, the location or place where the mother slept the night before the interview determines residence (urban or rural) and is based on the country’s classification system; respondents are 

not asked to classify their location. Some childhood deaths may have occurred in locations other then the 

respondent’s current residence, and these instances reduce the differentials between the two areas. 

Residence indirectly affects mortality by determining a woman’s access to health care facilities. It 

affects a woman’s ability to find transportation to a health facility, her ability to have cash to pay for 

medicines, her opportunities for education, and her ability to allocate household resources for her children’s health. These mediating factors affect child mortality independently; however, they are difficult to 

measure individually and are thus combined in this variable. 

Mortality levels by urban-rural residence are presented in Table 11. The data suggest that children 

in rural areas have higher mortality than children in urban areas. On average, the greatest differences in 

childhood mortality between urban and rural areas are seen in the age group one to four (child mortality). 

This age group has, on average, a 61 percent greater risk of dying in rural areas than in urban areas, compared with a 27 and 39 percent increased risk for neonatal mortality and infant mortality, respectively. In 

a number of Latin American countries, child mortality in rural areas is almost twice as high as in urban 

areas. Figure 6 shows the relative risk of dying for rural children by country. 

 

1 Additional characteristics that might have associations include father’s occupation, houshold wealth, and mother’s 

literacy. The first two are difficult to compare between countries and the latter is discussed below under maternal 

education. 
25

Table 11 Relative risk of dying among children under five years, by residence (rural versus urban), ten-year 

rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Relative risk of dying before age five 

 Under-5 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 mortality Post- 

 rate for Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 children in mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country urban areas (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 134 1.39 1.47 1.43 1.21 1.31 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 129 1.46 1.87 1.68 2.07 1.82 

Cameroon 1998 111 1.40 1.45 1.42 1.51 1.45 

CAR 1994/95 129 1.44 1.46 1.46 1.33 1.39 

Chad 1996/97 190 1.31 1.03 1.14 1.02 1.07 

Comoros 1996 81 1.22 1.71 1.41 1.99 1.52 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 125 1.29 1.68 1.46 1.88 1.57 

Eritrea 1995 129 0.92 0.95 0.93 1.73 1.24 

Ethiopia 2000 149 1.29 1.10 1.19 1.52 1.30 

Gabon 2000 88 0.91 1.16 1.02 1.36 1.13 

Ghana 1998 77 1.53 1.65 1.58 1.64 1.59 

Guinea 1999 149 1.34 1.60 1.46 1.42 1.42 

Kenya 1998 88 1.40 1.29 1.33 1.08 1.23 

Madagascar 1997 127 1.10 1.57 1.35 1.44 1.37 

Malawi 2000 148 1.61 1.31 1.41 1.49 1.42 

Mali 2001 185 1.22 1.27 1.25 1.59 1.37 

Mozambique 1997 150 1.05 2.21 1.58 1.66 1.58 

Namibia 1992 86 1.07 0.84 0.96 1.46 1.10 

Niger 1998 178 2.03 1.73 1.84 1.98 1.84 

Nigeria 1999 108 0.96 1.74 1.26 1.42 1.32 

Rwanda 2000 141 1.72 1.50 1.59 1.54 1.53 

Senegal 1997 90 1.49 1.69 1.58 2.26 1.85 

South Africa 1998 43 1.34 1.86 1.60 1.83 1.65 

Sudan 1990 117 1.22 0.90 1.06 1.53 1.23 

Tanzania 1999 142 0.83 1.97 1.29 1.00 1.17 

Togo 1998 101 1.05 1.72 1.30 2.06 1.55 

Uganda 2000/01 101 1.63 1.79 1.72 1.59 1.63 

Zambia 2001/02 140 1.13 1.48 1.34 1.29 1.30 

Zimbabwe 1999 69 1.29 1.46 1.38 1.61 1.44 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 37 1.28 1.82 1.47 4.86 1.59 

Egypt 2000 53 1.15 1.89 1.43 1.83 1.50 

Jordan 1997 31 1.14 2.10 1.46 1.47 1.46 

Morocco 1992 59 1.21 1.50 1.34 4.28 1.67 

Turkey 1998 51 1.14 1.80 1.39 1.67 1.43 

Yemen 1997 96 1.08 1.41 1.24 1.74 1.34 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 50 1.20 1.81 1.46 1.51 1.46 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 58 1.17 1.44 1.30 3.18 1.41 

Turkmenistan 2000 73 1.04 1.67 1.33 1.61 1.37 

Uzbekistan 1996 52 0.89 1.18 1.02 1.46 1.10 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 97 1.25 0.88 1.09 1.44 1.17 

Cambodia 2000 93 1.51 1.21 1.32 1.54 1.36 

India 1998/99 65 1.54 1.78 1.62 2.04 1.70 

Indonesia 1997 48 1.41 1.86 1.62 1.77 1.65 

Nepal 2001 66 1.33 2.28 1.58 2.12 1.70 

Pakistan 1990/91 94 1.44 1.29 1.37 1.60 1.41 

Philippines 1998 46 1.17 1.47 1.30 1.51 1.36 

Vietnam 1997 30 1.17 3.66 1.58 1.66 1.59 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 72 2.12 1.69 1.88 1.92 1.87 

Brazil 1996 49 1.23 1.85 1.54 2.16 1.62 

Colombia 2000 24 1.27 1.92 1.46 1.83 1.50 

Dominican Republic 1999 46 1.12 1.09 1.11 0.92 1.06 

Guatemala 1998/99 58 0.72 1.50 1.00 2.19 1.19 

Haiti 2000 112 1.39 0.87 1.04 2.40 1.34 

Nicaragua 1997/98 49 1.31 1.25 1.28 1.52 1.32 

Paraguay 1990 45 1.37 1.01 1.19 0.78 1.07 

Peru 2000 39 2.06 2.18 2.12 2.43 2.19 

Median (unweighted) 1.27 1.54 1.39 1.61 1.42
26

Figure 6 Relative risk of dying for children age 1 to 4 (child mortality) in rural 

areas versus urban areas (10-year rates), Demographic and 

Health Surveys, 1990-2002 

Tanzania 1999 

Chad 1996/97 

Kenya 1998 

Benin 2001 

Zambia 2001/02 

CAR 1994/95 

Gabon 2000 

Guinea 1999 

Nigeria 1999 

Madagascar 1997 

Namibia 1992 

Malawi 2000 

Cameroon 1998 

Ethiopia 2000 

Sudan 1990 

Rwanda 2000 

Mali 2001 

Uganda 2000/01 

Zimbabwe 1999 

Ghana 1998 

Mozambique 1997 

Eritrea 1995 

South Africa 1998 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99

Niger 1998 

Comoros 1996 

Togo 1998 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 

Senegal 1997 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 

Uzbekistan 1996 

Jordan 1997 

Kazakhstan 1999 

Philippines 1998 

Cambodia 2000 

Pakistan 1990/91 

Turkmenistan 2000 

Vietnam 1997 

Turkey 1998 

Yemen 1997 

Indonesia 1997 

Egypt 2000 

India 1998/99 

Nepal 2001 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 

Morocco 1992 

Armenia 2000 

Paraguay 1990 

Dominican Republic 1999 

Nicaragua 1997/98 

Colombia 2000 

Bolivia 1998 

Brazil 1996 

Guatemala 1998/99 

Haiti 2000 

Peru 2000 

0123456

SUB-SAHARAN 

AFRICA

NORTH AFRICA/ASIA

LATIN AMERICA/

CARIBBEAN

Mother’s education 

Research suggests that women with more education are likely to have a better understanding of 

hygiene and are more likely to seek medical attention for a sick child than their less educated counterparts. Studies have shown a strong correlation between mother’s education and childhood mortality. Literacy was not used as a socioeconomic characteristic in this analysis because the benefits of schooling 

include exposure to diverse ideas by being outside of the household. Although literacy opens up one 

means of communication through reading, a woman’s knowledge of hygiene and child care is likely to 

come from experiences she has had rather than from reading about these health topics. 

Education is defined here as the highest year of schooling completed. Although countries define 

primary and secondary differntly, that variation is overcome in this analysis because primary is defined as 

completing at least eight years of school and secondary as completing more than eight years. 

Tables 12 and 13 show that in all the countries in this analysis under-five mortality is lower for 

children of mothers with more education. For example, children of women who have no formal schooling 
27

Table 12 Relative risk of dying before age five by mother's education (no schooling versus secondary), tenyear rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 

 mortality Relative risk of dying before age five 

 rate for chil- –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 dren whose Post- 

 mothers have Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 secondary mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country education (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 81 1.50 2.29 1.89 2.82 2.16 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 100 (1.02) 1.88 1.40 5.76 2.30 

Cameroon 1998 90 2.43 1.76 2.08 2.51 2.21 

CAR 1994/95 83 2.15 2.23 2.20 2.10 2.11 

Chad 1996/97 133 1.73 1.37 1.50 1.66 1.54 

Comoros 1996 75 (1.02) 1.87 1.30 4.59 1.62 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 79 (1.77) 2.29 2.00 4.17 2.43 

Eritrea 1995 101 1.11 1.15 1.13 2.45 1.56 

Ethiopia 2000 89 2.48 1.49 1.88 3.25 2.21 

Gabon 2000 87 1.26 0.82 1.05 1.90 1.29 

Ghana 1998 87 1.29 1.29 1.29 1.83 1.50 

Guinea 1999 104 2.19 1.61 1.85 2.22 1.96 

Kenya 1998 60 1.65 2.34 2.06 2.12 2.05 

Madagascar 1997 105 1.42 2.39 1.96 1.89 1.88 

Malawi 2000 118 1.50 2.04 1.78 1.97 1.82 

Mali 2001 90 2.26 2.89 2.51 3.37 2.76 

Mozambique 1997 123 (4.57) 1.60 2.15 1.61 1.87 

Namibia 1992 76 1.11 0.91 1.02 2.08 1.28 

Niger 1998 130 2.18 1.92 2.01 3.15 2.42 

Nigeria 1999 88 1.08 1.82 1.38 2.55 1.79 

Rwanda 2000 117 2.40 2.17 2.27 1.86 1.99 

Senegal 1997 55 2.13 3.81 2.65 3.20 2.83 

South Africa 1998 46 1.13 2.09 1.63 2.70 1.84 

Sudan 1990 84 1.39 1.24 1.32 3.24 1.80 

Tanzania 1999 63 1.58 2.73 2.07 9.02 2.64 

Togo 1998 83 1.66 1.55 1.61 2.65 1.93 

Uganda 2000/01 93 1.58 2.42 2.03 2.10 2.01 

Zambia 2001/02 121 1.45 1.59 1.54 1.84 1.63 

Zimbabwe 1999 79 2.18 1.11 1.50 1.56 1.51 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 48 * * * * * 

Egypt 2000 40 1.46 2.64 1.90 4.96 2.21 

Jordan 1997 29 2.06 2.26 2.13 2.21 2.13 

Morocco 1992 22 2.60 4.54 3.24 15.88 4.08 

Turkey 1998 32 1.53 5.60 2.38 4.85 2.65 

Yemen 1997 71 1.05 1.84 1.38 9.25 1.79 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 63 * * * * * 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 76 * * * * * 

Turkmenistan 2000 88 * (1.72) (1.59) (1.22) 1.51 

Uzbekistan 1996 55 * * * * * 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 68 1.35 2.67 1.68 3.13 1.93 

Cambodia 2000 75 1.59 1.81 1.72 2.22 1.80 

India 1998/99 51 1.81 2.72 2.06 4.67 2.46 

Indonesia 1997 35 2.40 3.31 2.77 4.51 3.08 

Nepal 2001 50 2.07 2.34 2.16 3.41 2.40 

Pakistan 1990/91 65 1.68 1.63 1.66 5.91 1.98 

Philippines 1998 39 1.98 4.10 2.77 5.59 3.48 

Vietnam 1997 37 1.44 2.14 1.68 3.42 2.02 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 54 2.77 2.68 2.72 3.48 2.84 

Brazil 1996 37 1.82 4.34 2.91 5.61 3.22 

Colombia 2000 23 (1.62) 3.47 2.16 0.50 1.94 

Dominican Republic 1999 24 1.53 2.11 1.94 0.71 1.64 

Guatemala 1998/99 42 1.17 1.65 1.36 20.17 1.86 

Haiti 2000 74 1.83 1.51 1.63 3.41 2.03 

Nicaragua 1997/98 34 1.41 2.85 2.00 6.47 2.39 

Paraguay 1990 29 (2.09) 2.52 2.28 4.32 2.69 

Peru 2000 35 2.45 2.99 2.68 4.40 3.02 

Median (unweighted) 1.58 2.12 1.92 3.14 2.02 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on fewer than 250-499 births. An asterisk signifies an estimate was 

supressed because it was based on fewer than 250 births. 
28

Table 13 Relative risk of dying before age five by mother's education (primary versus secondary), ten-year 

rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Under-5 

 mortality Relative risk of dying before age five 

 rate for chil- –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 dren whose Post- 

 mothers have Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 secondary mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country education (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 2001 81 1.78 1.50 1.65 1.99 1.74 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 100 (0.96) 1.49 1.20 3.60 1.70 

Cameroon 1998 90 1.45 1.52 1.48 1.37 1.42 

CAR 1994/95 83 1.84 2.00 1.93 1.98 1.91 

Chad 1996/97 133 1.41 1.32 1.36 1.55 1.42 

Comoros 1996 75 (0.90) 1.72 1.17 2.66 1.31 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 79 (1.36) 1.75 1.53 3.42 1.93 

Eritrea 1995 101 1.16 1.13 1.15 1.75 1.34 

Ethiopia 2000 89 1.85 1.01 1.34 2.48 1.65 

Gabon 2000 87 0.92 0.96 0.94 1.41 1.07 

Ghana 1998 87 1.57 1.16 1.37 1.20 1.29 

Guinea 1999 104 1.62 1.07 1.29 1.95 1.56 

Kenya 1998 60 1.85 2.09 1.99 2.02 1.97 

Madagascar 1997 105 1.59 1.62 1.61 1.76 1.64 

Malawi 2000 118 1.51 1.96 1.75 1.77 1.72 

Mali 2001 90 2.09 2.77 2.37 2.78 2.45 

Mozambique 1997 123 (4.23) 1.48 1.98 1.52 1.75 

Namibia 1992 76 1.26 1.02 1.15 1.74 1.29 

Niger 1998 130 1.76 1.25 1.42 2.18 1.74 

Nigeria 1999 88 1.10 1.52 1.27 1.60 1.38 

Rwanda 2000 117 1.70 2.09 1.91 1.60 1.71 

Senegal 1997 55 1.22 3.13 1.82 1.74 1.76 

South Africa 1998 46 1.27 1.36 1.32 2.08 1.47 

Sudan 1990 84 1.25 0.98 1.12 1.76 1.29 

Tanzania 1999 63 1.29 2.63 1.86 * 2.62 

Togo 1998 83 1.50 1.15 1.33 1.99 1.54 

Uganda 2000/01 93 1.43 1.90 1.68 1.70 1.66 

Zambia 2001/02 121 1.29 1.48 1.41 1.59 1.46 

Zimbabwe 1999 79 1.45 0.94 1.12 1.35 1.19 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Armenia 2000 48 * * * * * 

Egypt 2000 40 1.36 2.11 1.64 3.56 1.83 

Jordan 1997 29 1.03 1.68 1.25 2.45 1.41 

Morocco 1992 22 2.30 3.06 2.55 4.63 2.69 

Turkey 1998 32 1.22 3.31 1.66 2.69 1.77 

Yemen 1997 71 1.00 1.17 1.07 5.40 1.30 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1999 63 * * * * * 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 76 * * * * * 

Turkmenistan 2000 88 * * * * 0.34 

Uzbekistan 1996 55 * * * * * 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 68 1.17 1.93 1.36 2.03 1.48 

Cambodia 2000 75 1.51 1.62 1.57 1.90 1.63 

India 1998/99 51 1.46 1.91 1.59 2.32 1.70 

Indonesia 1997 35 1.58 2.85 2.10 2.89 2.24 

Nepal 2001 50 1.65 1.40 1.56 1.16 1.46 

Pakistan 1990/91 65 1.49 1.56 1.52 3.27 1.65 

Philippines 1998 39 1.14 2.35 1.59 2.63 1.87 

Vietnam 1997 37 1.49 1.50 1.49 2.04 1.60 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1998 54 2.00 2.19 2.10 2.44 2.15 

Brazil 1996 37 1.36 2.42 1.82 1.84 1.81 

Colombia 2000 23 1.35 1.67 1.44 1.57 1.46 

Dominican Republic 1999 24 5.55 1.68 2.83 2.36 2.69 

Guatemala 1998/99 42 0.91 1.49 1.13 11.83 1.42 

Haiti 2000 74 1.92 1.64 1.74 2.47 1.90 

Nicaragua 1997/98 34 1.03 2.08 1.46 3.56 1.65 

Paraguay 1990 29 1.69 1.73 1.71 1.87 1.74 

Peru 2000 35 1.68 2.33 1.95 3.03 2.18 

Median (unweighted) 1.45 1.64 1.53 2.01 1.65 

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on fewer than 250-499 births. An asterisk signifies an estimate was 

supressed because it was based on fewer than 250 births. 
29

have the highest level of under-five mortality while children of women with secondary education have the 

lowest level. In Burkina Faso and Mali, almost one-fourth of children of mothers with no education die 

before age five, while only about one-tenth of children of women with secondary education die before age 

five (see Appendix Table C.7). In the central Asian countries very few women have less than secondary 

education. For this reason, relative risk is not calculated for women with no education or women with 

primary education. 

The largest education effect is seen at age 1 to 4 (child mortality). On average, children age 1 to 4 

are two times more likely to be at risk of dying if their mother has primary education than if their mother 

has secondary education. The differences in survivial among children 1 to 4 are often attributed to transmission of disease and lack of hygiene. This suggests that education might affect women’s understanding 

of health and hygiene and their utilization of health care facilities and vaccinations. Figure 7 shows the 

relative risk of dying by mother’s education for all children under the age of five. 

Figure 7 Relative risk of dying for children under age five (under-five mortality) 

whose mothers have no education versus those with primary education, 

Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-2002 

Namibia 1992 

Gabon 2000 

Ghana 1998 

Zimbabwe 1999 

Chad 1996/97 

Eritrea 1995 

Comoros 1996 

Zambia 2001/02 

Nigeria 1999 

Sudan 1990 

Malawi 2000 

South Africa 1998 

Mozambique 1997 

Madagascar 1997 

Togo 1998 

Guinea 1999 

Rwanda 2000 

Uganda 2000/01 

Kenya 1998 

CAR 1994/95 

Benin 2001 

Cameroon 1998 

Ethiopia 2000 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 

Niger 1998 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99

Tanzania 1999 

Mali 2001 

Senegal 1997 

Turkmenistan 2000 

Yemen 1997 

Cambodia 2000 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 

Pakistan 1990/91 

Vietnam 1997 

Jordan 1997 

Egypt 2000 

Nepal 2001 

India 1998/99 

Turkey 1998 

Indonesia 1997 

Philippines 1998 

Morocco 1992 

Dominican Republic 1999 

Guatemala 1998/99 

Colombia 2000 

Haiti 2000 

Nicaragua 1997/98 

Paraguay 1990 

Bolivia 1998 

Peru 2000 

Brazil 1996 

012345

SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA

NORTH AFRICA/ASIA

LATIN AMERICA/

CARIBBEAN
30

6 Trends in Under-five Mortality 

Figure 8 shows the variation in under-five mortality in countries with more than one DHS survey 

carried out between 1990 and 2002. The rates are for the five-year period preceding the survey (unlike the 

rates in the previous section, which are ten-year rates). Mortality levels estimated for the surveys indicate 

the trends in each country. The 95 percent confidence intervals are shown to indicate where differences 

are statistically significant. In some countries, the sampling errors overlap, suggesting that variation in 

under-five mortality is not significantly different between the surveys. 

Figure 8 Trends in under-five mortality (five-year rates) for countries with more than 

one DHS survey, and sampling errors (95 percent confidence intervals) 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Niger

Mali

Malawi

Nigeria

Zambia

Burkina

Benin

Madagascar

Rwanda

Côte d'Ivoire

Uganda

Tanzania

Senegal

Cameroon

Ghana

Kenya

Zimbabwe

Note: The standard error for Rw anda 1992 w as estimated by the 2000 standard error.

DHS2 1990-1993

DHS3 1994-1997

DHS4 1998-2000

Northern Africa and Asia 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Bangladesh Nepal India Indonesia Egypt Turkey Philippines Kazakhstan

Note: The standard error for Nepal 1996 is the standard error for the 10-year rate instead of a 5-year rate.

DHS2 1990-1993

DHS3 1994-1997

DHS4 1998-2000
31

Latin America and Caribbean 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Haiti Bolivia Brazil Peru Guatemala Dominican Colombia

DHS2 1990-1993

DHS3 1994-1997

DHS4 1998-2000

In all countries surveyed in Asia and Latin America, except for Kazakhstan, under-five mortality 

is declining. As mentioned earlier in the discussion of perinatal mortality (Section 4), there may be some 

differences in the level of reporting between the two Kazakhstan surveys. In much of sub-Saharan Africa, 

improvements in child survival over the past few years are being reversed. There are significant increases 

in under-five mortality in four of the sub-Saharan countries for which comparative data are available. An 

additional five countries appear to have non-significant increases. Rwanda and Zimbabwe are the most 

notable examples, with under-five mortality estimates increasing from 151 to 196 in Rwanda and 77 to 

102 in Zimbabwe. 

Statistically significant declines in under-five mortality have occurred in Malawi, Niger, Nigeria, 

Egypt, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Brazil, and Peru. The largest declines were in the three African countries where there was the most room for improvement. Bangladesh and Indonesia also showed 

impressive gains in child survival with drops in under-five mortality of 40 deaths per 1,000 births. 

Much of the observed increase in child mortality in some countries and the stagnation of the decline in child mortality in other countries is related to HIV/AIDS, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. There 

is a correlation between the prevalence of HIV/AIDS and child survival in the survey countries (Adetunji, 

2000). HIV/AIDS affects child mortality through transmission of the virus from an infected mother to her 

child. In addition to the increasing number of children with the disease, there is an increasing number of 

orphans at risk of illness and death because of insufficient care. Finally, the increased load of HIV-related 

illnesses on health systems diverts limited resources from child survival programs. The breakdown of 

health care systems and increases in AIDS-related diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria have contributed to increases in mortality levels. 
32

Table 14 Trends in childhood mortality, five-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 

1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Benin 1996 38 56 94 80 167 

Benin 2001 38 51 89 78 160 

 

Burkina Faso 1992/93 43 51 94 103 187 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 41 65 105 127 219 

Cameroon 1991 33 32 64 65 125 

Cameroon 1998 37 40 77 80 151 

Côte d’Ivoire 1994 42 47 89 67 150 

Côte d’Ivoire 1998/99 62 50 112 77 181 

Ghana 1993 41 26 66 57 119 

Ghana 1998 30 27 57 54 108 

Kenya 1993 26 36 62 37 96 

Kenya 1998 28 45 74 41 112 

Madagascar 1992 39 54 93 77 163 

Madagascar 1997 40 56 96 70 159 

Malawi 1992 41 94 135 115 234 

Malawi 2000 42 62 104 95 189 

Mali 1995/96 60 62 123 131 238 

Mali 2001 57 56 113 131 229 

Niger 1992 41 82 123 223 318 

Niger 1998 44 79 123 172 274 

Nigeria 1990 42 45 87 116 193 

Nigeria 1999 37 38 75 70 140 

Rwanda 1992 39 46 85 72 151 

Rwanda 2000 44 64 107 100 196 

Senegal 1992/93 35 33 68 68 132 

Senegal 1997 37 30 68 77 139 

Tanzania 1992 38 54 92 54 141 

Tanzania 1996 32 56 88 54 137 

Tanzania 1999 40 59 99 53 147 

 

Uganda 1995 27 54 81 72 147 

Uganda 2000/01 33 55 88 69 152 

 

Zambia 1992 43 65 107 94 191 

Zambia 1996 35 74 109 98 197 

Zambia 2001/02 37 58 95 81 168 

Zimbabwe 1994 24 28 53 26 77 

Zimbabwe 1999 29 36 65 40 102 

NORTH AFRICA/WEST ASIA/ 

EUROPE 

Egypt 1992 33 29 62 25 85 

Egypt 1995 30 32 63 19 81 

Egypt 2000 24 20 44 11 54 

 

Jordan 1990 21 12 34 5 39 

Jordan 1997 19 10 29 6 34 

Turkey 1993 29 23 53 9 61 

Turkey 1998 26 17 43 10 52 

Yemen 1991/92 41 44 85 40 121 

Yemen 1997 34 42 75 32 105 

 Continued... 
33

Table 14—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (4q1) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

CENTRAL ASIA 

Kazakhstan 1995 20 20 40 6 46 

Kazakhstan 1999 34 28 62 10 71 

 

SOUTH/SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Bangladesh 1993/94 52 35 88 50 134 

Bangladesh 1996/97 48 34 82 37 116 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 42 24 66 30 94 

 

India 1992/93 49 30 79 34 109 

India 1998/99 43 24 68 29 95 

Indonesia 1991 32 36 68 32 97 

Indonesia 1994 30 27 57 26 81 

Indonesia 1997 22 24 46 13 58 

Nepal 1996 50 29 79 43 118 

Nepal 2001 39 26 64 29 91 

Philippines 1993 18 16 34 22 54 

Philippines 1998 18 17 35 14 48 

LATIN AMERICA/CARIBBEAN 

Bolivia 1994 37 39 75 44 116 

Bolivia 1998 34 34 67 26 92 

Brazil 19911 26 48 75 12 85 

Brazil 1996 19 20 39 10 49 

 

Colombia 1990 10 6 17 6 23 

Colombia 1995 19 10 28 8 36 

Colombia 2000 15 7 21 4 25 

Dominican Republic 1991 24 19 43 17 59 

Dominican Republic 1996 27 20 47 11 57 

Dominican Republic 1999 14 8 22 8 30 

Guatemala 1995 26 25 51 18 68 

Guatemala 1998/99 23 22 45 14 59 

Haiti 1994/95 31 43 74 61 131 

Haiti 2000 32 48 80 42 119 

Peru 1992 25 29 55 24 78 

Peru 1996 24 19 43 17 59 

Peru 2000 18 15 33 14 47 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

1

 Northeast region 
34

7 Conclusions 

This report presents estimates of child mortality based on data from the Demographic and Health 

Surveys program, 1990 through 2002. Childhood mortality levels vary greatly among the 56 countries 

included in the analysis. Sub-Saharan Africa continues to have the highest levels of childhood mortality 

and the most countries with increasing mortality. 

Age patterns of childhood mortality indicate that as conditions improve more childhood deaths 

are concentrated in the first year of life. In most countries, children of women with less education and 

women who live in rural areas have higher levels of mortality than other women. There is continued evidence that children of women who have births in quick succession, at young ages, or at high birth orders 

have higher levels of mortality. Finally, male births and multiple births are at increased risk of dying because of biological factors and perhaps behavioral factors. Reaction to the biological factors may also influence caretakers’ behavior, which in turn can affect children’s survival chances. These factors are examined comparatively for individual countries and regions. Multiplicity of births has the most dramatic association with child survival. 

Levels of childhood mortality continue to vary widely across countries and regions. The largest 

differentiation is in the age group 1 to 4, where levels vary from 4 to 168 deaths per 1,000 children who 

have reached the age of one. Child mortality is 42 times higher in Niger than in Colombia. These values 

represent the diversity of mortality rates in the countries in this analysis. 

 

For the countries with trend data, prospects for childhood mortality are not as hopeful as they 

were in the past. Increasingly, countries are witnessing stagnation of progress in child survival and even 

reversal; the countries most affected are in sub-Saharan Africa. Efforts to improve child survival should 

be focused on the most vulnerable populations and those that have the greatest room for improvement in 

the age group 1 to 4. 

Programmatic efforts aimed at educating women, improving access to health care in rural areas, 

lengthening birth intervals, avoiding adolescent births, and avoiding high-order births, can bring about 

reductions in childhood mortality. 
35

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Sullivan, J.M., G.T. Bicego, and S.O. Rutstein. 1990. Assessment of the quality of data used for the direct estimation of infant and child mortality in the Demographic and Health Surveys. In Assessment of 

DHS-I data quality. DHS Methodological Report No. 1. Columbia, Maryland: IRD/Macro Systems, Inc. 

Sullivan, J.M., S.O. Rutstein, and G.T. Bicego. 1994. Infant and child mortality. DHS Comparative Studies No. 15. Calverton, Maryland: Macro International Inc. 
37

Appendix A Calculation of Synthetic Cohort Probabilities of Dying 

 The procedure for calculating synthetic cohort probabilities of dying is based on the procedure first 

developed by Somoza (1980) and modified by Rutstein (1984). Probabilities of dying are built up from 

probabilities calculated for specific age intervals: less than 1 month, 1-2 months, 3-5 months, 6-11 months, 

12-23 months, 24-35 months (2 years), 36-47 months (3 years), and 48-59 months (4 years). The probability 

of dying is the result of dividing the number of deaths occurring in the relevant age interval for children who 

were exposed to death in a specific calendar period by the number of children exposed in the calendar period. 

 The figure below shows that three groups of children are exposed to death between ages a and b

during the time t to t': 

(1) children born between t-a (age a at time t) and t'-b (age b at time t'), 

(2) children born between t-b and t-a, and 

(3) children born between t'-b and t'-a. 

 Children in the first group were exposed during the entire period in question, while children in the 

latter groups have been exposed only during part of that period. Due to the short length of the intervals used 

to code age at death, it can be safely assumed that in the latter case half of the deaths and exposure occurred 

in the relevant period. The numerator thus becomes the sum of all deaths at ages a to b among children born 

between t-a and t'-b, plus half of the deaths among children born between t-b and t'-a, plus half of the deaths 

among children born between t'-b and t'-a. Similarly, the denominator becomes the number of children born 

between t-a and t'-b who survived to age a plus half of the children born between t-b and t-a who survived to 

age a, plus half the children born between t'-b and t'-a who survived to age a. 

 An exception must be made for the period immediately before the survey since all deaths recorded 

for children exposed during this period must have occurred before the date of the survey. Therefore, all the 
38

deaths (rather than half) are counted for children born between t'-b and t'-a, although the children have been 

exposed on average for half of the time. 

 To calculate the conventional probabilities of dying, which are presented in the tables in this report, 

the authors first calculated the probability of surviving through the subinterval by subtracting the probability 

of dying (the quotient given above) from 1. Then they multiplied together the subinterval survival 

probabilities included in the conventional age limits and, finally, subtracted this product from 1 to give the 

probability of dying within the conventional limits: 

∏

= +

=

= − −

i x n

i x

(n)q(x) 1 (1 q[i])

where (n)q(x) is the conventional probability of dying between ages x and x+n and q[i] is the subinterval 

probabilities of dying. 

 The conventional postneonatal mortality rate is defined differently from conventional rates. 

Although it refers to the age interval between 1 and 11 months (completed), it is not a probability, but rather 

is the arithmetic difference between the infant mortality rate (the probability of dying in the first year of life) 

and the neonatal mortality rate (the probability of dying in the first month of life). 
39

Appendix B Ratio of Infant to Under-five Mortality, Five-year Rates, 

Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

Table B.1 Ratio of infant to under-five mortality, five-year rates, 

Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2001 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Infant Under-5 

 mortality mortality 

Country (1q0) (5q0) Ratio 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

South Africa 1998 45 59 0.76 

Zimbabwe 1994 53 77 0.68 

Namibia 1992 57 84 0.67 

Gabon 2000 57 89 0.65 

Kenya 1993 62 96 0.64 

Zimbabwe 1999 65 102 0.64 

Comoros 1996 77 104 0.74 

Ghana 1998 57 108 0.53 

Kenya 1998 74 112 0.66 

Ghana 1993 66 119 0.56 

Sudan 1990 70 124 0.57 

Cameroon 1991 64 125 0.51 

Senegal 1992/93 68 132 0.52 

Eritrea 1995 66 136 0.48 

Tanzania 1996 88 137 0.64 

Senegal 1997 68 139 0.49 

Nigeria 1999 75 140 0.54 

Tanzania 1992 92 141 0.65 

Togo 1998 80 146 0.54 

Tanzania 1999 99 147 0.68 

Uganda 1995 81 147 0.55 

Cote d'Ivoire 1994 89 150 0.59 

Cameroon 1998 77 151 0.51 

Rwanda 1992 85 151 0.56 

Uganda 2000/01 88 152 0.58 

CAR 1994/95 97 158 0.61 

Madagascar 1997 96 159 0.60 

Benin 2001 89 160 0.56 

Madagascar 1992 93 163 0.57 

Ethiopia 2000 97 166 0.58 

Benin 1996 94 167 0.56 

Zambia 2001/02 95 168 0.56 

Guinea 1999 98 177 0.55 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 112 181 0.62 

Burkina Faso 1992/93 94 187 0.50 

Malawi 2000 104 189 0.55 

Zambia 1992 107 191 0.56 

Nigeria 1990 87 193 0.45 

Chad 1996/97 103 194 0.53 

Rwanda 2000 107 196 0.55 

Zambia 1996 109 197 0.55 

Mozambique 1997 135 201 0.67 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 105 219 0.48 

Mali 2001 113 229 0.49 

Malawi 1992 135 234 0.58 

Mali 1995/96 123 238 0.52 

Niger 1998 123 274 0.45 

Niger 1992 123 318 0.39 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Jordan 1997 29 34 0.83 

Jordan 1990 34 39 0.87 

Armenia 2000 36 39 0.93 

Turkey 1998 43 52 0.82 

Egypt 2000 44 54 0.80 

Turkey 1993 53 61 0.86 

Morocco 1992 57 76 0.75 

Egypt 1995 63 81 0.78 

Egypt 1992 62 85 0.72 

Yemen 1997 75 105 0.72 

Yemen 1991/92 85 121 0.70 

Continued...
40

Table B.1—Continued

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Infant Under-5 

 mortality mortality 

Country (1q0) (5q0) Ratio 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1995 40 46 0.87 

Uzbekistan 1996 49 59 0.83 

Kazakhstan 1999 62 71 0.87 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 61 72 0.85 

Turkmenistan 2000 74 94 0.78 

South/Southeast Asia 

Sri Lanka 1987 25 34 0.73 

Vietnam 1997 29 38 0.76 

Thailand 1987 35 44 0.80 

Philippines 1998 35 48 0.73 

Philippines 1993 34 54 0.62 

Indonesia 1997 46 58 0.79 

Indonesia 1994 57 81 0.70 

Nepal 2001 64 91 0.71 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 66 94 0.70 

India 1998/99 68 95 0.71 

Indonesia 1991 68 97 0.70 

Indonesia 1987 67 98 0.69 

India 1992/93 79 109 0.72 

Pakistan 1990/91 86 112 0.77 

Bangladesh 1996/97 82 116 0.71 

Nepal 1996 79 118 0.66 

Cambodia 2000 95 124 0.76 

Bangladesh 1993/94 88 134 0.66 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Colombia 1990 17 23 0.73 

Colombia 2000 21 25 0.86 

Dominican Republic 1999 22 30 0.73 

Colombia 1995 28 36 0.79 

Paraguay 1990 34 43 0.79 

Peru 2000 33 47 0.71 

Brazil 1996 39 49 0.81 

Nicaragua 1997/98 40 50 0.79 

Dominican Republic 1996 47 57 0.81 

Guatemala 1998/99 45 59 0.77 

Peru 1996 43 59 0.72 

Dominican Republic 1991 43 59 0.72 

Guatemala 1995 51 68 0.75 

Peru 1992 55 78 0.70 

Brazil 19911 75 85 0.87 

Bolivia 1998 67 92 0.73 

Bolivia 1994 75 116 0.65 

Haiti 2000 80 119 0.68 

Bolivia 1989 82 129 0.63 

Haiti 1994/95 74 131 0.56 

South Africa 1998 45 59 0.76 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

1

 Northeast region 
41

Appendix C Childhood Mortality Rates by Background Characteristics, 

Ten-year Rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

Table C.1 Childhood mortality rates by mother's age at birth (less than 20, 20-29, 30-39 and 40-49 years), tenyear rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2001 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Mother’s Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 age at mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country birth (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin 2001 < 20 56 59 115 79 185 

Benin 2001 20-29 36 51 86 71 151 

Benin 2001 30-39 45 54 99 81 172 

Benin 2001 40-49 42 65 107 70 170 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 < 20 68 74 142 143 265 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 20-29 40 66 106 130 222 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 30-39 35 60 94 121 204 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 40-49 52 56 108 124 219 

Cameroon 1998 < 20 52 50 102 88 181 

Cameroon 1998 20-29 36 33 69 69 133 

Cameroon 1998 30-39 40 41 81 67 142 

Cameroon 1998 40-49 47 45 92 52 139 

CAR 1994/95 < 20 59 74 133 59 184 

CAR 1994/95 20-29 39 53 91 68 153 

CAR 1994/95 30-39 43 49 92 55 142 

CAR 1994/95 40-49 84 50 134 75 198 

Chad 1996/97 < 20 59 67 126 106 219 

Chad 1996/97 20-29 42 62 104 101 194 

Chad 1996/97 30-39 49 56 104 103 196 

Chad 1996/97 40-49 49 94 143 111 238 

Comoros 1996 < 20 77 33 110 36 142 

Comoros 1996 20-29 38 38 76 30 104 

Comoros 1996 30-39 36 40 76 32 106 

Comoros 1996 40-49 93 59 152 26 174 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 < 20 73 73 145 77 211 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 20-29 49 54 102 57 153 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 30-39 56 48 104 91 185 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 40-49 51 48 99 114 201 

Eritrea 1995 < 20 41 49 90 80 163 

Eritrea 1995 20-29 36 39 74 89 156 

Eritrea 1995 30-39 36 41 77 76 147 

Eritrea 1995 40-49 15 28 43 97 136 

Ethiopia 2000 < 20 85 63 149 90 225 

Ethiopia 2000 20-29 51 53 104 83 179 

Ethiopia 2000 30-39 57 52 109 84 184 

Ethiopia 2000 40-49 53 61 114 80 185 

Gabon 2000 < 20 34 31 65 39 101 

Gabon 2000 20-29 27 27 54 30 83 

Gabon 2000 30-39 35 32 67 29 95 

Gabon 2000 40-49 85 16 102 29 128 

Ghana 1998 < 20 49 28 76 59 131 

Ghana 1998 20-29 25 31 57 51 105 

Ghana 1998 30-39 38 26 65 51 112 

Ghana 1998 40-49 18 20 39 54 91 

Guinea 1999 < 20 66 61 127 111 224 

Guinea 1999 20-29 45 50 96 96 183 

Guinea 1999 30-39 51 59 110 97 196 

Guinea 1999 40-49 67 52 119 76 185 

Kenya 1998 < 20 37 60 97 48 141 

Kenya 1998 20-29 22 37 59 32 89 

Kenya 1998 30-39 31 44 75 37 109 

Kenya 1998 40-49 39 70 109 69 171 

Madagascar 1997 < 20 54 65 119 80 190 

Madagascar 1997 20-29 36 58 94 73 159 

Madagascar 1997 30-39 34 55 89 64 148 

Madagascar 1997 40-49 69 71 140 64 195 

Continued...
42

Table C.1—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Mother’s Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 age at mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country birth (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Malawi 2000 < 20 68 81 148 126 255 

Malawi 2000 20-29 38 67 104 99 193 

Malawi 2000 30-39 41 56 96 89 176 

Malawi 2000 40-49 67 61 129 83 201 

Mali 2001 < 20 111 70 181 154 306 

Mali 2001 20-29 59 52 111 121 219 

Mali 2001 30-39 52 61 112 124 223 

Mali 2001 40-49 77 52 128 112 226 

Mozambique 1997 < 20 63 107 170 76 233 

Mozambique 1997 20-29 58 89 146 84 218 

Mozambique 1997 30-39 46 84 130 93 211 

Mozambique 1997 40-49 71 62 133 61 186 

Namibia 1992 < 20 39 28 67 36 100 

Namibia 1992 20-29 34 29 64 29 91 

Namibia 1992 30-39 33 21 54 34 87 

Namibia 1992 40-49 47 20 67 46 110 

Niger 1998 < 20 77 101 178 209 350 

Niger 1998 20-29 45 82 126 198 299 

Niger 1998 30-39 40 81 121 174 274 

Niger 1998 40-49 52 71 123 148 253 

Nigeria 1999 < 20 36 38 74 92 159 

Nigeria 1999 20-29 34 31 65 61 122 

Nigeria 1999 30-39 32 39 71 61 128 

Nigeria 1999 40-49 76 78 154 95 234 

Rwanda 2000 < 20 53 84 138 111 234 

Rwanda 2000 20-29 48 65 113 106 207 

Rwanda 2000 30-39 50 65 115 96 200 

Rwanda 2000 40-49 70 74 144 61 196 

Senegal 1997 < 20 53 36 89 88 169 

Senegal 1997 20-29 32 28 60 74 130 

Senegal 1997 30-39 38 36 73 71 139 

Senegal 1997 40-49 54 24 78 69 142 

South Africa 1998 < 20 20 22 43 19 61 

South Africa 1998 20-29 19 21 40 15 55 

South Africa 1998 30-39 18 24 43 13 55 

South Africa 1998 40-49 18 56 75 30 103 

Sudan 1990 < 20 53 35 87 79 159 

Sudan 1990 20-29 40 36 76 62 133 

Sudan 1990 30-39 43 30 73 53 122 

Sudan 1990 40-49 42 38 80 66 140 

Tanzania 1999 < 20 76 88 164 75 227 

Tanzania 1999 20-29 35 54 89 67 149 

Tanzania 1999 30-39 46 61 107 40 142 

Tanzania 1999 40-49 33 71 103 3 106 

Togo 1998 < 20 50 45 95 85 172 

Togo 1998 20-29 37 38 75 67 137 

Togo 1998 30-39 47 36 83 64 142 

Togo 1998 40-49 52 32 84 74 152 

Uganda 2000/01 < 20 43 63 106 84 181 

Uganda 2000/01 20-29 30 52 82 71 147 

Uganda 2000/01 30-39 38 53 91 70 155 

Uganda 2000/01 40-49 39 49 89 75 157 

Zambia 2001/02 < 20 43 67 110 84 185 

Zambia 2001/02 20-29 29 61 89 84 166 

Zambia 2001/02 30-39 34 53 87 75 155 

Zambia 2001/02 40-49 38 72 110 90 191 

Zimbabwe 1999 < 20 35 32 66 33 97 

Zimbabwe 1999 20-29 25 33 58 34 90 

Zimbabwe 1999 30-39 21 33 54 28 80 

Zimbabwe 1999 40-49 32 57 89 44 129 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Armenia 2000 < 20 30 19 50 2 52 

Armenia 2000 20-29 21 16 37 4 41 

Armenia 2000 30-39 44 25 69 5 73 

Armenia 2000 40-49 - - - - - 

Egypt 2000 < 20 37 38 74 15 88 

Egypt 2000 20-29 24 22 46 13 58 

Egypt 2000 30-39 36 29 65 21 85 

Egypt 2000 40-49 30 36 66 14 79 

Continued...
43

Table C.1—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Mother’s Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 age at mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country birth (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Jordan 1997 < 20 26 23 50 6 55 

Jordan 1997 20-29 16 9 26 5 30 

Jordan 1997 30-39 19 10 29 5 34 

Jordan 1997 40-49 34 8 42 9 50 

Morocco 1992 < 20 65 42 107 20 125 

Morocco 1992 20-29 33 27 59 22 80 

Morocco 1992 30-39 29 29 59 23 80 

Turkey 1998 < 20 28 25 54 15 67 

Turkey 1998 20-29 29 18 47 11 58 

Turkey 1998 30-39 22 23 45 12 56 

Turkey 1998 40-49 86 26 111 10 120 

Yemen 1997 < 20 67 61 128 38 161 

Yemen 1997 20-29 37 46 84 33 114 

Yemen 1997 30-39 33 46 79 36 112 

Yemen 1997 40-49 37 43 80 40 116 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1999 < 20 52 27 80 5 84 

Kazakhstan 1999 20-29 24 27 51 10 61 

Kazakhstan 1999 30-39 26 25 50 5 56 

Kazakhstan 1999 40-49 91 56 146 0 146 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 < 20 53 45 98 10 107 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 20-29 34 32 67 10 76 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 30-39 21 27 48 11 58 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 40-49 41 90 131 0 131 

Turkmenistan 2000 < 20 51 35 87 24 109 

Turkmenistan 2000 20-29 30 40 70 19 88 

Turkmenistan 2000 30-39 38 36 75 15 88 

Turkmenistan 2000 40-49 27 25 51 12 63 

Uzbekistan 1996 < 20 28 17 45 15 59 

Uzbekistan 1996 20-29 18 24 42 14 55 

Uzbekistan 1996 30-39 29 17 46 7 52 

Uzbekistan 1996 40-49 79 0 79 8 86 

South/Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 < 20 72 32 104 29 130 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 20-29 41 29 70 34 102 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 30-39 40 26 66 37 100 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 40-49 17 15 32 25 56 

Cambodia 2000 < 20 45 56 101 28 126 

Cambodia 2000 20-29 36 52 88 30 116 

Cambodia 2000 30-39 42 53 94 34 126 

Cambodia 2000 40-49 41 77 117 43 156 

India 1998/99 < 20 63 30 93 31 121 

India 1998/99 20-29 41 23 63 29 90 

India 1998/99 30-39 49 28 77 37 111 

India 1998/99 40-49 62 44 106 57 157 

Indonesia 1997 < 20 32 32 63 22 84 

Indonesia 1997 20-29 23 25 47 17 64 

Indonesia 1997 30-39 27 30 57 24 80 

Indonesia 1997 40-49 21 21 41 6 47 

Nepal 2001 < 20 71 37 108 29 134 

Nepal 2001 20-29 40 27 68 33 98 

Nepal 2001 30-39 43 30 73 43 112 

Nepal 2001 40-49 80 16 96 23 117 

Pakistan 1990/91 < 20 70 51 121 27 145 

Pakistan 1990/91 20-29 51 40 91 29 117 

Pakistan 1990/91 30-39 49 35 84 32 113 

Pakistan 1990/91 40-49 56 50 107 27 131 

Philippines 1998 < 20 26 15 41 19 60 

Philippines 1998 20-29 16 17 33 18 51 

Philippines 1998 30-39 21 17 38 23 60 

Philippines 1998 40-49 35 17 52 16 67 

Vietnam 1997 < 20 40 6 46 5 51 

Vietnam 1997 20-29 22 12 34 11 44 

Vietnam 1997 30-39 18 17 35 14 48 

Vietnam 1997 40-49 26 0 26 17 43 

Continued...
44

Table C.1—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Mother’s Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 age at mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country birth (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia 1998 < 20 39 58 97 31 125 

Bolivia 1998 20-29 34 33 67 26 91 

Bolivia 1998 30-39 38 34 72 31 100 

Bolivia 1998 40-49 50 38 89 21 107 

Brazil 1996 < 20 25 32 57 10 66 

Brazil 1996 20-29 21 23 44 8 51 

Brazil 1996 30-39 22 29 51 11 62 

Brazil 1996 40-49 21 42 64 19 82 

Colombia 2000 < 20 18 13 31 2 33 

Colombia 2000 20-29 14 6 21 3 24 

Colombia 2000 30-39 18 8 26 6 31 

Colombia 2000 40-49 37 5 42 0 42 

Dominican Republic 1999 < 20 45 26 71 10 80 

Dominican Republic 1999 20-29 12 16 28 10 38 

Dominican Republic 1999 30-39 10 16 26 11 36 

Dominican Republic 1999 40-49 - - - - - 

Guatemala 1998/99 < 20 35 36 71 21 90 

Guatemala 1998/99 20-29 23 18 41 14 54 

Guatemala 1998/99 30-39 19 24 43 15 57 

Guatemala 1998/99 40-49 71 45 116 54 163 

Haiti 2000 < 20 48 83 131 71 192 

Haiti 2000 20-29 34 49 83 56 135 

Haiti 2000 30-39 35 48 83 44 123 

Haiti 2000 40-49 30 51 81 22 101 

Nicaragua 1997/98 < 20 21 34 55 11 65 

Nicaragua 1997/98 20-29 17 21 38 11 48 

Nicaragua 1997/98 30-39 25 25 50 14 64 

Nicaragua 1997/98 40-49 40 24 64 2 66 

Paraguay 1990 < 20 30 23 53 14 66 

Paraguay 1990 20-29 15 14 29 10 39 

Paraguay 1990 30-39 20 18 38 9 47 

Paraguay 1990 40-49 40 13 53 35 86 

Peru 2000 < 20 26 27 52 17 68 

Peru 2000 20-29 20 19 40 18 56 

Peru 2000 30-39 22 19 41 19 60 

Peru 2000 40-49 52 29 80 24 102 
45

Table C.2 Childhood mortality rates by length of preceding birth interval (less than 24, 24-47, and 48+ 

months), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country interval (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin 2001 <24 mos 70 84 154 86 227 

Benin 2001 24-47 mos 30 52 81 76 151 

Benin 2001 48+ mos 37 27 64 66 126 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 <24 mos 64 91 155 165 294 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 24-47 mos 33 59 91 128 207 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 48+ mos 20 28 48 62 107 

Cameroon 1998 <24 mos 59 59 117 102 208 

Cameroon 1998 24-47 mos 31 36 67 65 127 

Cameroon 1998 48+ mos 22 19 41 38 78 

CAR 1994/95 <24 mos 64 82 146 85 219 

CAR 1994/95 24-47 mos 29 40 69 58 122 

CAR 1994/95 48+ mos 18 37 55 42 95 

Chad 1996/97 <24 mos 63 83 146 129 256 

Chad 1996/97 24-47 mos 39 58 97 102 190 

Chad 1996/97 48+ mos 26 35 61 47 105 

Comoros 1996 <24 mos 54 58 112 33 142 

Comoros 1996 24-47 mos 29 31 61 38 96 

Comoros 1996 48+ mos 41 21 63 13 75 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 <24 mos 81 80 161 105 249 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 24-47 mos 51 51 101 68 162 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 48+ mos 29 19 48 53 99 

Eritrea 1995 <24 mos 52 61 113 115 216 

Eritrea 1995 24-47 mos 25 33 58 77 130 

Eritrea 1995 48+ mos 18 19 37 40 76 

Ethiopia 2000 <24 mos 92 86 178 115 272 

Ethiopia 2000 24-47 mos 42 46 88 88 168 

Ethiopia 2000 48+ mos 25 33 57 41 96 

Gabon 2000 <24 mos 41 46 87 42 125 

Gabon 2000 24-47 mos 24 29 52 28 79 

Gabon 2000 48+ mos 32 21 53 27 79 

Ghana 1998 <24 mos 58 48 106 65 164 

Ghana 1998 24-47 mos 23 29 52 60 108 

Ghana 1998 48+ mos 17 18 36 32 66 

Guinea 1999 <24 mos 67 74 142 108 234 

Guinea 1999 24-47 mos 48 57 105 105 199 

Guinea 1999 48+ mos 25 24 49 52 99 

Kenya 1998 <24 mos 42 61 102 54 150 

Kenya 1998 24-47 mos 27 41 68 34 99 

Kenya 1998 48+ mos 13 31 44 25 68 

Madagascar 1997 <24 mos 66 87 153 95 233 

Madagascar 1997 24-47 mos 25 50 75 67 137 

Madagascar 1997 48+ mos 23 25 47 47 93 

Malawi 2000 <24 mos 73 93 166 144 287 

Malawi 2000 24-47 mos 33 54 88 91 171 

Malawi 2000 48+ mos 26 52 78 58 131 

Mali 2001 <24 mos 94 84 177 176 322 

Mali 2001 24-47 mos 47 47 94 114 197 

Mali 2001 48+ mos 28 32 61 76 132 

Mozambique 1997 <24 mos 78 135 212 122 308 

Mozambique 1997 24-47 mos 47 78 125 84 199 

Mozambique 1997 48+ mos 18 57 75 52 124 

Namibia 1992 <24 mos 64 34 98 43 136 

Namibia 1992 24-47 mos 28 25 53 31 83 

Namibia 1992 48+ mos 26 22 48 25 72 

Niger 1998 <24 mos 68 109 176 240 374 

Niger 1998 24-47 mos 37 79 117 187 282 

Niger 1998 48+ mos 26 53 79 89 162 

Nigeria 1999 <24 mos 52 52 104 79 174 

Nigeria 1999 24-47 mos 26 34 59 71 126 

Nigeria 1999 48+ mos 24 26 51 44 93 

Rwanda 2000 <24 mos 83 103 186 139 299 

Rwanda 2000 24-47 mos 41 58 99 93 183 

Rwanda 2000 48+ mos 25 40 66 61 123 

Senegal 1997 <24 mos 49 49 98 85 174 

Senegal 1997 24-47 mos 31 28 59 76 131 

Senegal 1997 48+ mos 27 23 51 53 100 

Continued...
46

Table C.2—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country interval (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

South Africa 1998 <24 mos 35 42 77 26 101 

South Africa 1998 24-47 mos 18 20 39 14 52 

South Africa 1998 48+ mos 14 20 34 13 47 

Sudan 1990 <24 mos 50 47 97 86 175 

Sudan 1990 24-47 mos 33 30 63 51 111 

Sudan 1990 48+ mos 23 15 37 27 63 

Tanzania 1999 <24 mos 52 90 141 63 195 

Tanzania 1999 24-47 mos 39 54 93 64 152 

Tanzania 1999 48+ mos 29 51 80 35 112 

Togo 1998 <24 mos 79 63 142 108 234 

Togo 1998 24-47 mos 31 35 66 68 130 

Togo 1998 48+ mos 33 20 53 36 87 

Uganda 2000/01 <24 mos 49 76 125 89 203 

Uganda 2000/01 24-47 mos 23 41 64 71 131 

Uganda 2000/01 48+ mos 24 42 66 48 111 

Zambia 2001/02 <24 mos 62 96 157 107 247 

Zambia 2001/02 24-47 mos 22 51 73 76 144 

Zambia 2001/02 48+ mos 26 46 72 70 137 

Zimbabwe 1999 <24 mos 54 58 112 49 155 

Zimbabwe 1999 24-47 mos 18 26 44 37 80 

Zimbabwe 1999 48+ mos 21 33 54 25 78 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Armenia 2000 <24 mos 29 27 56 5 60 

Armenia 2000 24-47 mos 28 22 50 7 57 

Armenia 2000 48+ mos 27 18 45 4 48 

Egypt 2000 <24 mos 52 48 100 34 130 

Egypt 2000 24-47 mos 21 22 43 12 54 

Egypt 2000 48+ mos 18 16 34 8 42 

Jordan 1997 <24 mos 24 12 37 6 43 

Jordan 1997 24-47 mos 12 8 20 4 24 

Jordan 1997 48+ mos 15 12 27 6 32 

Morocco 1992 <24 mos 57 47 104 31 132 

Morocco 1992 24-47 mos 22 24 47 21 67 

Morocco 1992 48+ mos 19 12 32 14 45 

Turkey 1998 <24 mos 44 48 91 24 113 

Turkey 1998 24-47 mos 15 19 34 13 46 

Turkey 1998 48+ mos 26 7 33 3 36 

Yemen 1997 <24 mos 54 70 124 48 166 

Yemen 1997 24-47 mos 23 32 55 26 79 

Yemen 1997 48+ mos 15 20 36 19 54 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1999 <24 mos 42 40 83 6 88 

Kazakhstan 1999 24-47 mos 15 31 46 9 54 

Kazakhstan 1999 48+ mos 24 17 40 7 46 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 <24 mos 40 47 87 12 98 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 24-47 mos 23 25 48 10 58 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 48+ mos 24 26 51 9 59 

Turkmenistan 2000 <24 mos 39 55 94 28 119 

Turkmenistan 2000 24-47 mos 27 37 64 16 79 

Turkmenistan 2000 48+ mos 33 16 49 9 57 

Uzbekistan 1996 <24 mos 20 30 51 16 66 

Uzbekistan 1996 24-47 mos 19 17 35 9 44 

Uzbekistan 1996 48+ mos 28 20 48 9 57 

South/Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 <24 mos 70 47 116 53 163 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 24-47 mos 36 27 63 40 100 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 48+ mos 23 20 44 19 61 

Cambodia 2000 <24 mos 63 71 133 45 172 

Cambodia 2000 24-47 mos 32 51 83 33 113 

Cambodia 2000 48+ mos 23 37 60 23 81 

India 1998/99 <24 mos 72 38 110 49 153 

India 1998/99 24-47 mos 36 23 58 31 88 

India 1998/99 48+ mos 24 14 39 14 52 

Indonesia 1997 <24 mos 47 57 103 35 135 

Indonesia 1997 24-47 mos 22 29 52 21 72 

Indonesia 1997 48+ mos 15 17 32 17 48 

Nepal 2001 <24 mos 80 45 124 55 172 

Nepal 2001 24-47 mos 35 25 60 34 92 

Nepal 2001 48+ mos 22 17 39 20 58 

Continued...
47

Table C.2—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country interval (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

South/Southeast Asia 

Pakistan 1990/91 <24 mos 75 60 135 44 172 

Pakistan 1990/91 24-47 mos 36 27 64 25 88 

Pakistan 1990/91 48+ mos 14 18 32 14 45 

Philippines 1998 <24 mos 21 25 46 29 73 

Philippines 1998 24-47 mos 14 14 28 22 49 

Philippines 1998 48+ mos 23 15 38 11 48 

Vietnam 1997 <24 mos 36 24 60 20 79 

Vietnam 1997 24-47 mos 20 12 31 11 42 

Vietnam 1997 48+ mos 12 9 21 11 31 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia 1998 <24 mos 60 63 123 46 163 

Bolivia 1998 24-47 mos 33 33 67 25 90 

Bolivia 1998 48+ mos 19 14 33 15 47 

Brazil 1996 <24 mos 29 52 81 17 96 

Brazil 1996 24-47 mos 19 22 42 10 51 

Brazil 1996 48+ mos 24 15 40 6 45 

Colombia 2000 <24 mos 22 16 38 7 44 

Colombia 2000 24-47 mos 14 10 25 4 28 

Colombia 2000 48+ mos 17 3 20 3 23 

Dominican Republic 1999 <24 mos 36 28 63 10 72 

Dominican Republic 1999 24-47 mos 7 4 11 9 20 

Dominican Republic 1999 48+ mos 19 20 40 18 57 

Guatemala 1998/99 <24 mos 34 36 70 30 98 

Guatemala 1998/99 24-47 mos 21 17 39 14 52 

Guatemala 1998/99 48+ mos 9 23 33 7 39 

Haiti 2000 <24 mos 54 73 127 79 196 

Haiti 2000 24-47 mos 28 47 75 48 119 

Haiti 2000 48+ mos 20 32 51 17 68 

Nicaragua 1997/98 <24 mos 31 44 75 20 93 

Nicaragua 1997/98 24-47 mos 14 16 30 8 37 

Nicaragua 1997/98 48+ mos 17 15 31 9 40 

Paraguay 1990 <24 mos 20 22 42 14 56 

Paraguay 1990 24-47 mos 21 16 37 12 49 

Paraguay 1990 48+ mos 10 9 19 7 26 

Peru 2000 <24 mos 41 37 78 32 107 

Peru 2000 24-47 mos 21 21 42 20 60 

Peru 2000 48+ mos 16 12 28 9 37 
48

Table C.3 Childhood mortailty rates by birth order (1, 2-3, 4-6, and 7+), ten-year rates, Demographic and 

Health Surveys 1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country order (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin 2001 1 47 46 93 69 155 

Benin 2001 2-3 35 50 84 69 147 

Benin 2001 4-6 36 55 92 81 165 

Benin 2001 7+ 58 65 124 83 197 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 1 68 77 144 131 256 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 2-3 40 54 95 125 208 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 4-6 30 67 97 134 218 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 7+ 50 68 118 127 230 

Cameroon 1998 1 49 35 84 71 149 

Cameroon 1998 2-3 34 38 72 73 140 

Cameroon 1998 4-6 39 43 82 70 146 

Cameroon 1998 7+ 48 38 86 76 156 

CAR 1994/95 1 66 69 135 59 186 

CAR 1994/95 2-3 37 54 91 70 155 

CAR 1994/95 4-6 33 53 85 58 139 

CAR 1994/95 7+ 61 50 110 62 166 

Chad 1996/97 1 57 59 116 92 197 

Chad 1996/97 2-3 46 62 107 104 200 

Chad 1996/97 4-6 38 60 98 98 186 

Chad 1996/97 7+ 59 73 132 124 239 

Comoros 1996 1 61 30 91 25 113 

Comoros 1996 2-3 40 33 73 33 104 

Comoros 1996 4-6 38 46 84 29 110 

Comoros 1996 7+ 49 43 93 38 127 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 1 63 72 136 59 187 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 2-3 51 45 96 71 160 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 4-6 52 54 105 67 165 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 7+ 62 59 121 95 205 

Eritrea 1995 1 46 41 87 77 157 

Eritrea 1995 2-3 32 37 69 93 155 

Eritrea 1995 4-6 30 43 73 77 145 

Eritrea 1995 7+ 37 42 79 83 156 

Ethiopia 2000 1 85 59 144 73 206 

Ethiopia 2000 2-3 49 50 99 87 177 

Ethiopia 2000 4-6 46 54 100 90 182 

Ethiopia 2000 7+ 66 60 126 80 196 

Gabon 2000 1 34 23 57 34 90 

Gabon 2000 2-3 26 32 58 30 86 

Gabon 2000 4-6 27 25 52 37 87 

Gabon 2000 7+ 49 43 92 24 113 

Ghana 1998 1 43 25 69 49 114 

Ghana 1998 2-3 28 31 59 47 103 

Ghana 1998 4-6 27 30 57 61 114 

Ghana 1998 7+ 36 27 64 52 113 

Guinea 1999 1 65 54 119 108 214 

Guinea 1999 2-3 42 47 89 94 174 

Guinea 1999 4-6 50 57 107 97 194 

Guinea 1999 7+ 61 69 130 105 221 

Kenya 1998 1 22 41 63 34 95 

Kenya 1998 2-3 24 39 63 32 93 

Kenya 1998 4-6 27 41 67 37 102 

Kenya 1998 7+ 41 66 107 54 155 

Madagascar 1997 1 45 57 102 63 159 

Madagascar 1997 2-3 37 50 87 75 155 

Madagascar 1997 4-6 33 59 91 75 159 

Madagascar 1997 7+ 52 74 126 71 188 

Malawi 2000 1 60 80 140 114 238 

Malawi 2000 2-3 42 68 109 104 202 

Malawi 2000 4-6 36 59 95 92 178 

Malawi 2000 7+ 52 59 111 99 199 

Mali 2001 1 115 65 180 124 282 

Mali 2001 2-3 60 53 113 125 224 

Mali 2001 4-6 50 53 103 129 219 

Mali 2001 7+ 69 67 136 134 252 

Continued...
49

Table C.3—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country order (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Mozambique 1997 1 77 97 174 67 229 

Mozambique 1997 2-3 53 87 140 77 207 

Mozambique 1997 4-6 50 87 136 90 214 

Mozambique 1997 7+ 48 99 146 114 243 

Namibia 1992 1 31 25 56 31 85 

Namibia 1992 2-3 33 31 65 30 92 

Namibia 1992 4-6 38 23 62 31 91 

Namibia 1992 7+ 43 21 64 45 106 

Niger 1998 1 78 84 162 191 322 

Niger 1998 2-3 47 87 134 189 298 

Niger 1998 4-6 41 81 122 199 297 

Niger 1998 7+ 49 91 140 190 303 

Nigeria 1999 1 39 27 66 61 123 

Nigeria 1999 2-3 26 29 55 59 111 

Nigeria 1999 4-6 33 37 70 74 139 

Nigeria 1999 7+ 55 60 115 85 190 

Rwanda 2000 1 52 63 115 102 206 

Rwanda 2000 2-3 42 66 109 100 198 

Rwanda 2000 4-6 48 66 113 109 210 

Rwanda 2000 7+ 69 74 143 85 216 

Senegal 1997 1 53 28 81 75 149 

Senegal 1997 2-3 32 30 62 73 131 

Senegal 1997 4-6 30 31 61 75 132 

Senegal 1997 7+ 47 37 84 79 156 

South Africa 1998 1 19 21 41 15 55 

South Africa 1998 2-3 15 18 33 14 47 

South Africa 1998 4-6 23 27 50 20 69 

South Africa 1998 7+ 31 60 91 7 98 

Sudan 1990 1 64 34 97 65 156 

Sudan 1990 2-3 34 32 66 66 128 

Sudan 1990 4-6 37 34 71 58 125 

Sudan 1990 7+ 46 38 84 63 141 

Tanzania 1999 1 64 66 130 63 186 

Tanzania 1999 2-3 42 66 108 71 171 

Tanzania 1999 4-6 27 63 90 59 144 

Tanzania 1999 7+ 58 51 108 29 134 

Togo 1998 1 48 38 86 63 143 

Togo 1998 2-3 35 35 69 70 134 

Togo 1998 4-6 40 40 80 71 145 

Togo 1998 7+ 59 42 101 72 166 

Uganda 2000/01 1 48 62 111 74 176 

Uganda 2000/01 2-3 26 53 79 77 150 

Uganda 2000/01 4-6 30 51 82 75 150 

Uganda 2000/01 7+ 45 54 98 68 160 

Zambia 2001/02 1 42 65 107 81 180 

Zambia 2001/02 2-3 28 59 87 90 169 

Zambia 2001/02 4-6 31 62 93 72 157 

Zambia 2001/02 7+ 37 56 93 83 169 

Zimbabwe 1999 1 31 35 66 25 89 

Zimbabwe 1999 2-3 22 31 53 34 86 

Zimbabwe 1999 4-6 26 29 55 37 90 

Zimbabwe 1999 7+ 26 48 74 38 110 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Armenia 2000 1 22 10 32 2 34 

Armenia 2000 2-3 24 22 46 5 52 

Armenia 2000 4-6 46 21 67 5 72 

Armenia 2000 7+ 215 68 283 0 283 

Egypt 2000 1 26 20 46 8 54 

Egypt 2000 2-3 24 21 45 11 55 

Egypt 2000 4-6 32 30 62 22 82 

Egypt 2000 7+ 47 49 96 30 123 

Jordan 1997 1 17 12 29 5 33 

Jordan 1997 2-3 17 10 26 4 30 

Jordan 1997 4-6 17 10 28 6 34 

Jordan 1997 7+ 24 12 37 6 42 

Continued...
50

Table C.3—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country order (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Morocco 1992 1 42 29 70 17 86 

Morocco 1992 2-3 31 28 59 25 83 

Morocco 1992 4-6 28 25 53 24 75 

Morocco 1992 7+ 41 39 80 19 98 

Turkey 1998 1 28 11 39 8 47 

Turkey 1998 2-3 27 19 46 9 54 

Turkey 1998 4-6 35 35 70 19 87 

Turkey 1998 7+ 18 36 54 26 79 

Yemen 1997 1 63 48 110 25 132 

Yemen 1997 2-3 42 48 90 33 120 

Yemen 1997 4-6 32 45 76 38 111 

Yemen 1997 7+ 38 54 93 37 126 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1999 1 30 21 51 11 62 

Kazakhstan 1999 2-3 26 26 52 5 57 

Kazakhstan 1999 4-6 24 38 61 14 74 

Kazakhstan 1999 7+ 86 55 141 0 141 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 1 42 31 73 10 83 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 2-3 29 35 64 7 70 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 4-6 30 31 60 16 75 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 7+ 35 40 75 15 89 

Turkmenistan 2000 1 32 35 67 15 81 

Turkmenistan 2000 2-3 32 41 73 21 92 

Turkmenistan 2000 4-6 35 41 76 18 92 

Turkmenistan 2000 7+ 41 33 74 12 85 

Uzbekistan 1996 1 21 21 42 15 56 

Uzbekistan 1996 2-3 19 21 40 14 53 

Uzbekistan 1996 4-6 23 23 46 8 54 

Uzbekistan 1996 7+ 50 26 76 9 84 

South/Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 1 77 29 106 21 125 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 2-3 40 27 67 35 99 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 4-6 42 32 74 36 108 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 7+ 39 34 72 49 118 

Cambodia 2000 1 39 51 90 19 108 

Cambodia 2000 2-3 37 49 86 34 117 

Cambodia 2000 4-6 35 50 85 36 118 

Cambodia 2000 7+ 53 75 128 35 158 

India 1998/99 1 52 22 75 19 92 

India 1998/99 2-3 42 23 64 29 91 

India 1998/99 4-6 47 30 77 40 114 

India 1998/99 7+ 72 40 112 54 159 

Indonesia 1997 1 26 22 48 12 59 

Indonesia 1997 2-3 23 26 49 18 66 

Indonesia 1997 4-6 21 29 50 28 76 

Indonesia 1997 7+ 45 53 98 29 124 

Nepal 2001 1 57 32 89 23 110 

Nepal 2001 2-3 44 28 72 29 98 

Nepal 2001 4-6 40 30 69 45 111 

Nepal 2001 7+ 63 31 94 51 140 

Pakistan 1990/91 1 61 38 99 13 110 

Pakistan 1990/91 2-3 45 39 84 32 113 

Pakistan 1990/91 4-6 52 43 95 34 125 

Pakistan 1990/91 7+ 63 44 107 32 136 

Philippines 1998 1 21 11 32 11 42 

Philippines 1998 2-3 17 15 32 14 46 

Philippines 1998 4-6 19 20 39 28 66 

Philippines 1998 7+ 27 26 53 40 91 

Vietnam 1997 1 25 11 35 8 43 

Vietnam 1997 2-3 22 9 31 10 40 

Vietnam 1997 4-6 16 21 37 18 54 

Vietnam 1997 7+ 38 29 67 21 87 

Continued...
51

Table C.3—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country order (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia 1998 1 28 32 59 21 79 

Bolivia 1998 2-3 32 34 66 24 88 

Bolivia 1998 4-6 40 39 79 34 110 

Bolivia 1998 7+ 56 51 107 37 140 

Brazil 1996 1 18 18 37 5 42 

Brazil 1996 2-3 20 25 44 7 51 

Brazil 1996 4-6 32 35 67 14 80 

Brazil 1996 7+ 37 49 86 26 110 

Colombia 2000 1 14 6 20 3 22 

Colombia 2000 2-3 16 9 25 4 29 

Colombia 2000 4-6 25 10 35 6 41 

Colombia 2000 7+ 19 6 24 2 26 

Dominican Republic 1999 1 16 20 37 8 44 

Dominican Republic 1999 2-3 20 16 36 7 42 

Dominican Republic 1999 4-6 23 10 33 26 58 

Dominican Republic 1999 7+ 9 63 72 0 72 

Guatemala 1998/99 1 33 20 52 11 63 

Guatemala 1998/99 2-3 17 23 40 15 54 

Guatemala 1998/99 4-6 25 23 48 21 67 

Guatemala 1998/99 7+ 37 30 68 20 86 

Haiti 2000 1 39 54 93 53 141 

Haiti 2000 2-3 31 56 87 53 135 

Haiti 2000 4-6 31 48 79 54 129 

Haiti 2000 7+ 51 59 110 51 156 

Nicaragua 1997/98 1 19 24 43 9 51 

Nicaragua 1997/98 2-3 17 23 39 10 49 

Nicaragua 1997/98 4-6 16 23 38 13 50 

Nicaragua 1997/98 7+ 40 37 76 19 94 

Paraguay 1990 1 23 13 36 9 45 

Paraguay 1990 2-3 12 12 25 10 35 

Paraguay 1990 4-6 22 19 41 14 54 

Paraguay 1990 7+ 28 25 52 13 64 

Peru 2000 1 17 16 33 13 45 

Peru 2000 2-3 21 18 39 15 54 

Peru 2000 4-6 26 25 51 24 73 

Peru 2000 7+ 37 30 67 30 95 
52

Table C.4 Childhood mortality rates by sex (male, female), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 

1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Sex mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country of child (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin 2001 M 44 54 98 72 162 

Benin 2001 F 39 53 92 79 163 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 M 52 64 116 131 232 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 F 35 66 101 128 216 

Cameroon 1998 M 48 37 85 69 149 

Cameroon 1998 F 34 41 75 75 144 

CAR 1994/95 M 52 58 109 63 165 

CAR 1994/95 F 39 55 94 64 152 

Chad 1996/97 M 56 64 120 106 213 

Chad 1996/97 F 39 61 100 99 189 

Comoros 1996 M 50 42 93 32 122 

Comoros 1996 F 40 35 75 31 103 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 M 65 66 130 83 203 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 F 47 46 93 58 146 

Eritrea 1995 M 43 39 82 89 163 

Eritrea 1995 F 27 42 69 78 141 

Ethiopia 2000 M 67 57 124 83 197 

Ethiopia 2000 F 49 52 101 86 178 

Gabon 2000 M 39 35 74 32 103 

Gabon 2000 F 25 24 49 33 80 

Ghana 1998 M 36 28 64 53 114 

Ghana 1998 F 28 30 58 51 106 

Guinea 1999 M 59 53 112 101 202 

Guinea 1999 F 44 57 101 98 188 

Kenya 1998 M 30 45 75 36 108 

Kenya 1998 F 24 42 67 38 103 

Madagascar 1997 M 47 61 109 75 176 

Madagascar 1997 F 33 56 90 68 152 

Malawi 2000 M 50 67 117 101 207 

Malawi 2000 F 41 67 108 102 199 

Mali 2001 M 80 57 136 132 250 

Mali 2001 F 56 59 116 125 226 

Mozambique 1997 M 60 93 153 85 225 

Mozambique 1997 F 54 88 142 82 213 

Namibia 1992 M 39 27 67 30 95 

Namibia 1992 F 32 25 57 34 89 

Niger 1998 M 59 82 141 184 299 

Niger 1998 F 42 89 131 202 306 

Nigeria 1999 M 38 35 73 66 134 

Nigeria 1999 F 32 36 68 69 132 

Rwanda 2000 M 58 65 123 105 215 

Rwanda 2000 F 43 69 112 97 198 

Senegal 1997 M 42 32 74 76 144 

Senegal 1997 F 34 31 65 74 134 

South Africa 1998 M 24 25 49 18 66 

South Africa 1998 F 15 21 35 13 48 

Sudan 1990 M 50 34 84 62 141 

Sudan 1990 F 35 35 70 63 129 

Tanzania 1999 M 56 63 118 61 172 

Tanzania 1999 F 34 63 97 58 150 

Togo 1998 M 49 40 89 73 156 

Togo 1998 F 35 36 71 65 132 

Uganda 2000/01 M 37 56 93 78 164 

Uganda 2000/01 F 33 53 86 70 150 

Zambia 2001/02 M 34 61 95 89 176 

Zambia 2001/02 F 32 60 93 74 160 

Zimbabwe 1999 M 28 35 63 35 95 

Zimbabwe 1999 F 24 32 56 31 85 

Continued...
53

Table C.4—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Sex mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country of child (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Armenia 2000 M 29 17 46 5 51 

Armenia 2000 F 23 19 42 3 45 

Egypt 2000 M 33 22 55 15 69 

Egypt 2000 F 25 29 55 16 70 

Jordan 1997 M 22 13 34 4 38 

Jordan 1997 F 15 9 23 7 30 

Morocco 1992 M 39 30 69 21 88 

Morocco 1992 F 29 28 57 24 80 

Turkey 1998 M 32 19 51 10 61 

Turkey 1998 F 24 22 46 13 58 

Yemen 1997 M 45 53 98 33 128 

Yemen 1997 F 36 44 80 36 114 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1999 M 33 30 62 11 72 

Kazakhstan 1999 F 24 23 47 6 53 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 M 37 35 72 10 81 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 F 30 31 60 11 70 

Turkmenistan 2000 M 37 46 83 19 101 

Turkmenistan 2000 F 29 31 60 17 76 

Uzbekistan 1996 M 24 26 50 15 65 

Uzbekistan 1996 F 19 17 37 9 46 

South/Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 M 55 28 82 28 108 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 F 46 31 77 38 112 

Cambodia 2000 M 44 59 103 34 133 

Cambodia 2000 F 34 48 82 30 110 

India 1998/99 M 51 24 75 25 98 

India 1998/99 F 45 27 71 37 105 

Indonesia 1997 M 27 32 59 19 77 

Indonesia 1997 F 23 22 45 20 64 

Nepal 2001 M 52 27 79 28 105 

Nepal 2001 F 43 32 75 40 112 

Pakistan 1990/91 M 60 42 102 22 122 

Pakistan 1990/91 F 46 39 86 37 119 

Philippines 1998 M 21 19 39 21 59 

Philippines 1998 F 18 15 32 19 50 

Vietnam 1997 M 28 14 42 10 51 

Vietnam 1997 F 16 11 27 13 40 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia 1998 M 41 37 78 26 102 

Bolivia 1998 F 32 37 69 29 96 

Brazil 1996 M 22 30 52 9 60 

Brazil 1996 F 22 22 44 9 53 

Colombia 2000 M 20 9 29 4 32 

Colombia 2000 F 13 7 20 3 23 

Dominican Republic 1999 M 19 20 39 13 51 

Dominican Republic 1999 F 19 16 35 8 43 

Guatemala 1998/99 M 28 22 50 15 64 

Guatemala 1998/99 F 24 24 48 18 65 

Haiti 2000 M 39 58 97 52 143 

Haiti 2000 F 33 49 83 54 132 

Nicaragua 1997/98 M 22 28 50 12 62 

Nicaragua 1997/98 F 18 22 40 11 51 

Paraguay 1990 M 21 18 39 10 49 

Paraguay 1990 F 18 15 33 12 45 

Peru 2000 M 25 21 46 19 64 

Peru 2000 F 20 20 40 17 57 
54

Table C.5 Childhood mortality rates by multiple birth status (multiple birth, singleton birth), ten-year rates, 

Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2000 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country status (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin96 M 201 114 315 123 399 

Benin96 S 35 55 90 87 169 

Burkina Faso99 M 168 113 281 283 485 

Burkina Faso99 S 40 64 104 127 217 

Cameroon98 M 152 67 220 92 292 

Cameroon98 S 37 38 75 73 142 

CAR94 M 265 127 391 90 446 

CAR94 S 39 54 93 63 151 

Chad97 M 214 139 353 231 503 

Chad97 S 42 60 102 100 192 

Comoros96 M 189 31 220 59 266 

Comoros96 S 39 39 78 31 106 

Côte d’Ivoire98 M 177 104 280 126 371 

Côte d’Ivoire98 S 52 55 107 70 169 

Eritrea95 M 192 175 368 159 468 

Eritrea95 S 31 37 68 81 143 

Ethiopia00 M 369 138 506 194 602 

Ethiopia00 S 52 53 105 83 179 

Gabon00 M 158 45 203 10 211 

Gabon00 S 27 29 55 33 86 

Ghana98 M 173 82 255 75 311 

Ghana98 S 27 27 53 51 102 

Guinea99 M 174 123 297 161 410 

Guinea99 S 47 52 99 96 186 

Kenya98 M 153 86 238 81 300 

Kenya98 S 23 43 66 36 100 

Madagascar97 M 166 126 291 123 378 

Madagascar97 S 37 57 95 69 158 

Malawi00 M 226 107 333 132 421 

Malawi00 S 37 64 102 100 192 

Mali96 M 234 145 380 183 493 

Mali96 S 63 63 126 135 244 

Morocco92 M 165 90 255 22 272 

Morocco92 S 31 28 59 22 80 

Mozambique97 M 161 219 380 97 440 

Mozambique97 S 53 86 139 83 211 

Namibia92 M 128 89 217 17 230 

Namibia92 S 32 24 56 33 87 

Niger98 M 202 206 408 228 543 

Niger98 S 45 81 126 191 293 

Nigeria99 M 142 76 217 77 278 

Nigeria99 S 31 34 64 67 127 

Rwanda92 M 301 83 384 89 439 

Rwanda92 S 42 43 85 78 156 

Senegal97 M 180 85 265 109 345 

Senegal97 S 34 30 64 74 133 

Tanzania99 M 155 104 259 58 302 

Tanzania99 S 41 61 103 60 157 

Togo97 M 198 51 249 66 298 

Togo97 S 35 37 71 69 136 

Uganda00 M 200 129 328 129 415 

Uganda00 S 30 53 83 72 149 

Zambia96 M 175 147 322 140 417 

Zambia96 S 30 69 99 94 183 

Zimbabwe99 M 151 69 220 49 258 

Zimbabwe99 S 22 33 55 33 86 

Continued...
55

Table C.5—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Birth mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country status (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Egypt00 M 156 91 247 32 271 

Egypt00 S 24 23 48 15 62 

Turkey98 M 161 59 220 26 240 

Turkey98 S 25 20 45 12 56 

Yemen97 M 223 142 365 91 423 

Yemen97 S 38 47 85 34 116 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan99 M 278 103 381 0 381 

Kazakhstan99 S 23 25 48 9 57 

Kyrgyzstan97 M 228 122 350 5 353 

Kyrgyzstan97 S 29 31 60 11 69 

Turkmenistan99 M 208 104 313 10 320 

Turkmenistan99 S 29 37 66 19 84 

Uzbekistan96 M 250 101 351 36 375 

Uzbekistan96 S 17 20 37 12 48 

South/Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh00 M 335 117 452 126 521 

Bangladesh00 S 45 28 73 32 102 

Cambodia00 M 246 102 348 28 366 

Cambodia00 S 35 53 88 32 117 

India99 M 273 75 348 56 385 

India99 S 44 25 69 30 97 

Indonesia97 M 125 55 181 34 208 

Indonesia97 S 24 27 50 19 69 

Nepal96 M 417 85 502 107 555 

Nepal96 S 53 34 87 50 132 

Pakistan91 M 220 86 306 63 350 

Pakistan91 S 50 40 90 29 116 

Philippines98 M 129 29 159 71 219 

Philippines98 S 18 16 34 18 52 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia98 M 147 109 256 56 297 

Bolivia98 S 35 36 71 27 96 

Brazil96 M 94 61 154 11 163 

Brazil96 S 21 25 46 9 54 

Colombia00 M 90 23 113 0 113 

Colombia00 S 15 8 23 4 27 

Dom. Republic96 M 150 58 208 8 214 

Dom. Republic96 S 25 20 45 13 57 

Guatemala99 M 118 38 156 22 175 

Guatemala99 S 25 23 48 16 63 

Haiti00 M 198 108 305 133 398 

Haiti00 S 32 52 83 52 131 

Nicaragua97 M 136 75 211 22 228 

Nicaragua97 S 18 24 42 11 53 

Paraguay90 M 88 48 137 20 154 

Paraguay90 S 18 16 34 11 44 

Peru00 M 130 97 226 37 255 

Peru00 S 21 19 40 18 57 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: All values for neonatal are based on fewer than 500 child years during the 10-year time frame except 

for Ethiopia, Malawi, Zambia, Benin, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, Egypt, India, and Indonesia. 
56

Table C.6 Childhood mortality rates by residence (Urban, rural), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health 

Surveys 1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country Residence (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin 2001 R 45 59 105 79 176 

Benin 2001 U 33 40 73 66 134 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 R 45 68 113 137 235 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 U 31 37 67 66 129 

Cameroon 1998 R 44 43 87 80 160 

Cameroon 1998 U 32 29 61 53 111 

CAR 1994/95 R 52 65 116 70 178 

CAR 1994/95 U 36 44 80 53 129 

Chad 1996/97 R 50 63 113 103 204 

Chad 1996/97 U 38 61 99 101 190 

Comoros 1996 R 47 43 90 36 123 

Comoros 1996 U 39 25 64 18 81 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 R 60 64 124 83 197 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 U 47 38 85 44 125 

Eritrea 1995 R 35 40 74 92 160 

Eritrea 1995 U 38 42 80 53 129 

Ethiopia 2000 R 60 55 115 88 193 

Ethiopia 2000 U 46 50 97 58 149 

Gabon 2000 R 30 33 62 40 100 

Gabon 2000 U 33 28 61 30 88 

Ghana 1998 R 35 32 68 58 122 

Ghana 1998 U 23 19 43 36 77 

Guinea 1999 R 55 61 116 107 211 

Guinea 1999 U 41 38 79 76 149 

Kenya 1998 R 28 45 74 38 109 

Kenya 1998 U 20 35 55 35 88 

Madagascar 1997 R 41 64 105 77 174 

Madagascar 1997 U 37 41 78 53 127 

Malawi 2000 R 48 69 117 106 210 

Malawi 2000 U 30 53 83 71 148 

Mali 2001 R 71 61 132 140 253 

Mali 2001 U 58 48 106 88 185 

Mozambique 1997 R 57 103 160 92 237 

Mozambique 1997 U 55 46 101 55 150 

Namibia 1992 R 36 25 61 36 95 

Namibia 1992 U 34 29 63 25 86 

Niger 1998 R 55 92 147 212 327 

Niger 1998 U 27 53 80 107 178 

Nigeria 1999 R 35 40 75 73 143 

Nigeria 1999 U 36 23 59 52 108 

Rwanda 2000 R 54 70 124 106 216 

Rwanda 2000 U 31 47 78 69 141 

Senegal 1997 R 43 36 79 94 165 

Senegal 1997 U 29 22 50 41 90 

South Africa 1998 R 22 30 52 20 71 

South Africa 1998 U 16 16 33 11 43 

Sudan 1990 R 46 33 79 71 144 

Sudan 1990 U 37 37 74 46 117 

Tanzania 1999 R 43 70 113 60 166 

Tanzania 1999 U 52 35 87 60 142 

Togo 1998 R 43 42 85 79 157 

Togo 1998 U 41 25 65 38 101 

Uganda 2000/01 R 36 57 94 77 164 

Uganda 2000/01 U 22 32 55 49 101 

Zambia 2001/02 R 35 68 103 89 182 

Zambia 2001/02 U 31 46 77 69 140 

Zimbabwe 1999 R 28 37 65 37 100 

Zimbabwe 1999 U 22 25 47 23 69 

Continued...
57

Table C.6—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country Residence (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Armenia 2000 R 30 23 53 7 59 

Armenia 2000 U 23 13 36 1 37 

Egypt 2000 R 31 31 62 19 79 

Egypt 2000 U 27 17 43 10 53 

Jordan 1997 R 20 19 39 7 46 

Jordan 1997 U 18 9 27 5 31 

Morocco 1992 R 36 33 69 31 98 

Morocco 1992 U 30 22 52 7 59 

Turkey 1998 R 30 28 59 16 74 

Turkey 1998 U 27 16 42 10 51 

Yemen 1997 R 42 52 94 38 128 

Yemen 1997 U 38 37 75 22 96 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1999 R 31 33 64 10 73 

Kazakhstan 1999 U 26 18 44 7 50 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 R 34 36 70 13 82 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 U 29 25 54 4 58 

Turkmenistan 2000 R 33 47 80 22 100 

Turkmenistan 2000 U 32 28 60 13 73 

Uzbekistan 1996 R 21 23 44 14 57 

Uzbekistan 1996 U 24 19 43 9 52 

South /Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 R 52 29 81 35 113 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 U 42 32 74 24 97 

Cambodia 2000 R 41 55 96 34 126 

Cambodia 2000 U 27 45 72 22 93 

India 1998/99 R 52 28 80 35 112 

India 1998/99 U 34 16 49 17 65 

Indonesia 1997 R 27 31 58 22 79 

Indonesia 1997 U 19 17 36 12 48 

Nepal 2001 R 49 31 79 35 112 

Nepal 2001 U 37 14 50 17 66 

Pakistan 1990/91 R 59 44 102 33 132 

Pakistan 1990/91 U 41 34 75 21 94 

Philippines 1998 R 21 20 40 23 63 

Philippines 1998 U 18 13 31 15 46 

Vietnam 1997 R 23 14 37 12 48 

Vietnam 1997 U 19 4 23 7 30 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia 1998 R 52 48 100 38 134 

Bolivia 1998 U 24 29 53 20 72 

Brazil 1996 R 26 40 65 15 79 

Brazil 1996 U 21 21 42 7 49 

Colombia 2000 R 19 12 31 5 36 

Colombia 2000 U 15 6 21 3 24 

Dominican Republic 1999 R 20 19 39 10 48 

Dominican Republic 1999 U 18 17 35 11 46 

Guatemala 1998/99 R 23 27 49 20 69 

Guatemala 1998/99 U 31 18 49 9 58 

Haiti 2000 R 40 51 91 65 149 

Haiti 2000 U 29 59 87 27 112 

Nicaragua 1997/98 R 23 28 51 14 64 

Nicaragua 1997/98 U 18 22 40 9 49 

Paraguay 1990 R 22 16 39 10 48 

Paraguay 1990 U 16 16 33 13 45 

Peru 2000 R 31 29 60 27 85 

Peru 2000 U 15 13 28 11 39 
58

Table C.7 Childhood mortality rates by mother's education (no education, primary education, and secondary 

or more education), ten-year rates, Demographic and Health Surveys 1990-2002 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Mother’s mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country education (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Benin 2001 N 41 59 100 83 175 

Benin 2001 P 49 39 88 58 141 

Benin 2001 S 27 26 53 29 81 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 N 44 66 110 134 230 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 P 41 53 94 84 170 

Burkina Faso 1998/99 S 43 35 79 23 100 

Cameroon 1998 N 58 46 104 106 198 

Cameroon 1998 P 35 40 74 58 128 

Cameroon 1998 S 24 26 50 42 90 

CAR 1994/95 N 51 63 114 69 175 

CAR 1994/95 P 44 56 100 65 159 

CAR 1994/95 S 24 28 52 33 83 

Chad 1996/97 N 50 63 113 104 205 

Chad 1996/97 P 41 61 102 98 189 

Chad 1996/97 S 29 46 75 63 133 

Comoros 1996 N 46 41 87 36 121 

Comoros 1996 P 40 38 79 21 98 

Comoros 1996 S 45 22 67 8 75 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 N 61 62 124 79 193 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 P 47 48 95 65 153 

Côte d'Ivoire 1998/99 S 35 27 62 19 79 

Eritrea 1995 N 35 41 76 89 158 

Eritrea 1995 P 37 40 77 63 136 

Eritrea 1995 S 32 36 67 36 101 

Ethiopia 2000 N 61 58 119 89 197 

Ethiopia 2000 P 46 39 85 68 147 

Ethiopia 2000 S 25 39 64 27 89 

Gabon 2000 N 41 25 66 50 112 

Gabon 2000 P 30 29 59 37 94 

Gabon 2000 S 32 30 63 26 87 

Ghana 1998 N 34 32 66 69 131 

Ghana 1998 P 41 29 70 45 113 

Ghana 1998 S 26 25 51 38 87 

Guinea 1999 N 54 58 112 103 204 

Guinea 1999 P 40 38 78 91 162 

Guinea 1999 S 25 36 61 47 104 

Kenya 1998 N 28 55 82 44 123 

Kenya 1998 P 31 49 80 42 118 

Kenya 1998 S 17 23 40 21 60 

Madagascar 1997 N 40 84 124 83 197 

Madagascar 1997 P 45 57 102 78 172 

Madagascar 1997 S 29 35 64 44 105 

Malawi 2000 N 46 70 117 111 215 

Malawi 2000 P 47 68 114 100 203 

Malawi 2000 S 31 35 65 56 118 

Mali 2001 N 70 60 130 134 247 

Mali 2001 P 65 57 122 111 220 

Mali 2001 S 31 21 52 40 90 

Mozambique 1997 N 60 95 156 87 229 

Mozambique 1997 P 56 88 144 82 214 

Mozambique 1997 S 13 59 73 54 123 

Namibia 1992 N 34 24 58 41 97 

Namibia 1992 P 39 27 66 35 98 

Namibia 1992 S 31 26 57 20 76 

Niger 1998 N 52 89 141 201 314 

Niger 1998 P 42 58 100 139 225 

Niger 1998 S 24 46 70 64 130 

Nigeria 1999 N 35 42 77 87 157 

Nigeria 1999 P 36 35 71 55 122 

Nigeria 1999 S 33 23 56 34 88 

Rwanda 2000 N 63 72 135 113 233 

Rwanda 2000 P 45 69 114 97 200 

Rwanda 2000 S 26 33 60 61 117 

Continued...
59

Table C.7—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Mother’s mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country education (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Senegal 1997 N 42 34 76 85 154 

Senegal 1997 P 24 28 52 46 96 

Senegal 1997 S 20 9 29 27 55 

South Africa 1998 N 20 39 59 27 84 

South Africa 1998 P 22 25 48 20 67 

South Africa 1998 S 18 19 36 10 46 

Sudan 1990 N 45 37 82 76 152 

Sudan 1990 P 41 29 70 41 108 

Sudan 1990 S 33 30 63 23 84 

Tanzania 1999 N 52 66 118 54 165 

Tanzania 1999 P 43 63 106 65 164 

Tanzania 1999 S 33 24 57 6 63 

Togo 1998 N 45 42 87 79 159 

Togo 1998 P 41 31 72 59 127 

Togo 1998 S 27 27 54 30 83 

Uganda 2000/01 N 39 68 107 90 187 

Uganda 2000/01 P 35 53 88 72 155 

Uganda 2000/01 S 25 28 53 43 93 

Zambia 2001/02 N 39 70 108 101 198 

Zambia 2001/02 P 34 65 99 87 177 

Zambia 2001/02 S 27 44 70 55 121 

Zimbabwe 1999 N 43 38 81 41 119 

Zimbabwe 1999 P 29 32 61 35 94 

Zimbabwe 1999 S 20 34 54 26 79 

North Africa/West Asia/Europe 

Armenia 2000 N * * * * * 

Armenia 2000 P * * * * * 

Armenia 2000 S 26 18 44 4 48 

Egypt 2000 N 33 35 68 22 89 

Egypt 2000 P 31 28 59 16 74 

Egypt 2000 S 23 13 36 5 40 

Jordan 1997 N 34 20 54 8 62 

Jordan 1997 P 17 15 32 9 41 

Jordan 1997 S 17 9 26 4 29 

Morocco 1992 N 36 32 68 25 91 

Morocco 1992 P 32 21 53 7 60 

Morocco 1992 S 14 7 21 2 22 

Turkey 1998 N 34 33 66 19 84 

Turkey 1998 P 27 19 46 11 56 

Turkey 1998 S 22 6 28 4 32 

Yemen 1997 N 41 51 93 37 126 

Yemen 1997 P 39 33 72 22 92 

Yemen 1997 S 39 28 67 4 71 

Central Asia 

Kazakhstan 1999 N * * * * * 

Kazakhstan 1999 P * * * * * 

Kazakhstan 1999 S 29 27 55 9 63 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 N * * * * * 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 P * * * * * 

Kyrgyz Republic 1997 S 33 33 66 10 76 

Turkmenistan 2000 N 48 66 114 22 133 

Turkmenistan 2000 P * 30 30 * 30 

Turkmenistan 2000 S 33 38 71 18 88 

Uzbekistan 1996 N * * * * * 

Uzbekistan 1996 P * * * * * 

Uzbekistan 1996 S 22 22 44 12 55 

South /Southeast Asia 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 N 55 37 92 42 130 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 P 48 26 75 27 100 

Bangladesh 1999/2000 S 41 14 55 14 68 

Cambodia 2000 N 42 60 103 37 136 

Cambodia 2000 P 40 54 94 32 122 

Cambodia 2000 S 27 33 60 17 75 

India 1998/99 N 56 32 87 41 125 

India 1998/99 P 45 22 67 20 86 

India 1998/99 S 31 12 42 9 51 

Continued...
60

Table C.7—Continued 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

 Post- 

 Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5 

 Mother’s mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality 

Country education (NN) (PNN) (1q0) (5q0) (5q0) 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

South/Southeast Asia 

Indonesia 1997 N 40 38 78 33 108 

Indonesia 1997 P 26 33 59 21 79 

Indonesia 1997 S 17 11 28 7 35 

Nepal 2001 N 52 33 85 40 121 

Nepal 2001 P 41 20 61 13 74 

Nepal 2001 S 25 14 39 12 50 

Pakistan 1990/91 N 56 43 99 33 128 

Pakistan 1990/91 P 50 41 90 18 107 

Pakistan 1990/91 S 33 26 60 6 65 

Philippines 1998 N 35 43 79 62 136 

Philippines 1998 P 20 25 45 29 73 

Philippines 1998 S 18 11 28 11 39 

Vietnam 1997 N 27 22 49 26 74 

Vietnam 1997 P 28 15 43 16 58 

Vietnam 1997 S 19 10 29 8 37 

Latin America/Caribbean 

Bolivia 1998 N 58 55 113 47 154 

Bolivia 1998 P 42 45 87 33 116 

Bolivia 1998 S 21 20 41 13 54 

Brazil 1996 N 33 60 93 29 119 

Brazil 1996 P 25 33 58 9 67 

Brazil 1996 S 18 14 32 5 37 

Colombia 2000 N 23 20 42 2 44 

Colombia 2000 P 19 10 28 5 33 

Colombia 2000 S 14 6 20 3 23 

Dominican Republic 1999 N 8 27 35 4 39 

Dominican Republic 1999 P 29 21 51 14 64 

Dominican Republic 1999 S 5 13 18 6 24 

Guatemala 1998/99 N 30 26 56 24 79 

Guatemala 1998/99 P 23 24 47 14 60 

Guatemala 1998/99 S 25 16 41 1 42 

Haiti 2000 N 37 54 91 66 151 

Haiti 2000 P 39 58 98 48 140 

Haiti 2000 S 20 36 56 19 74 

Nicaragua 1997/98 N 26 37 62 21 82 

Nicaragua 1997/98 P 19 27 45 11 56 

Nicaragua 1997/98 S 18 13 31 3 34 

Paraguay 1990 N 27 26 52 27 78 

Paraguay 1990 P 22 18 39 12 50 

Paraguay 1990 S 13 10 23 6 29 

Peru 2000 N 39 35 73 35 106 

Peru 2000 P 27 27 54 24 76 

Peru 2000 S 16 12 27 8 35 

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on less than 500 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure 

is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.