By Erica L. Smith

and Matthew R. Durose 

BJS Statisticians

Drivers in the United States totaled

192.7 million persons in 2002, or about

89% of the 215.5 million U.S. residents

age 16 or older. Approximately 16.8

million, or 8.7%, of those drivers were

stopped by police at least once that

year. These traffic stops include stops

of all kinds of motor vehicles — motorcycles, buses, and private and

commercial cars and trucks — and

both personal and business travel.

These findings come from the 2002

Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS).

Driver characteristics

Driver gender

The 192.7 million residents who represent the U.S. driving population were

evenly divided between males and

females (table 1). By contrast, of the

16.8 million drivers stopped by police in

2002, males (60.8%) were more likely

than females (39.2%) to be among

those stopped.

Driver age

Young drivers were more likely to be

pulled over by police than older drivers.

One measure of this difference is that

young drivers age 16 to 24 were a 

larger percentage (26%) of drivers

stopped by police than they were of

drivers in the United States (15.3%). 

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Characteristics of Drivers

Stopped by Police, 2002

 Highlights

• In 2002 an estimated 8.7% of drivers

age 16 or older were stopped by

police, representing nearly 17 million

of the 193 million drivers in the United

States.

• Males were more likely than females

to be pulled over by police, and young

drivers were more likely than their

older counterparts to be stopped.

• White drivers were more likely than

both black and Hispanic drivers to be

stopped by police for speeding.

Subsequent to being stopped for

speeding, blacks (78%) and Hispanics

(85%) were more likely than whites

(70%) to receive a ticket. 

• Among traffic stops of young male

drivers in 2002, 11% were physically

searched or had their vehicle

searched by police. Among these

young male drivers who were stopped,

blacks (22%) and Hispanics (17%)

were searched at higher rates than

whites (8%).

• Of the estimated 329,000 drivers

who were both searched and arrested

during a traffic stop, police found

evidence of criminal wrongdoing in

approximately 20% of cases.

• In 2002 an estimated 45.3 million

people had a face-to-face contact with

police; of these, 1.5% indicated police

used or threatened force during the

contact. 

• Drivers stopped by police (1.1%)

were less likely than persons who had

other types of face-to-face contacts

with police (1.7%) to indicate police

used or threatened force against

them. 

• Among drivers involved in a traffic

stop who also indicated police used or

threatened force against them, 87%

characterized the force as excessive.

June 2006, NCJ 211471
Driver race/Hispanic origin

In 2002 whites, blacks, and Hispanics

were stopped by police at similar rates.

Specifically, each group represented

approximately the same percentage of

stopped drivers as they did of drivers in

the United States. For example —

• whites were 76.2% of U.S. drivers and

76.5% of drivers stopped by police 

• blacks were 10.5% of persons who

drive and 11% of stopped drivers

• Hispanics accounted for 9.7% of

drivers and 9.5% of stopped drivers.

Drivers of other races were a smaller

percentage of stopped motorists (2.9%)

than of the driving population (3.6%).

Driver gender, age, and race/Hispanic

origin

Young white male, young black male,

and young Hispanic male drivers were

all more likely to be pulled over by

police than their older counterparts.

Each of these groups of younger male

drivers was a larger percentage of

drivers stopped by police in 2002 than

of the U.S. driving population (table 2). 

2 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures.

Other race 493,256 2.9 7,000,729 3.6

Hispanic 1,595,872 9.5 18,619,405 9.7

Black 1,852,086 11.0 20,260,621 10.5

White 12,842,254 76.5% 146,779,643 76.2%

Race/Hispanic origin

25 or older 12,422,193 74.0 163,245,009 84.7

16-24 4,361,274 26.0% 29,434,855 15.3%

Age

75 or older 250,480 1.5 10,867,718 5.6

70-74 208,994 1.2 7,028,204 3.6

65-69 313,104 1.9 8,317,154 4.3

60-64 599,061 3.6 10,324,572 5.4

55-59 859,629 5.1 13,609,756 7.1

50-54 1,214,760 7.2 17,018,579 8.8

45-49 1,497,266 8.9 19,868,465 10.3

40-44 1,737,807 10.4 21,720,402 11.3

35-39 1,976,042 11.8 19,890,322 10.3

30-34 1,765,379 10.5 18,303,679 9.5

25-29 1,999,671 11.9 16,268,499 8.4

20-24 2,707,711 16.1 17,301,693 9.0

16-19 1,653,563 9.9% 12,125,184 6.3%

Age

Female 6,573,016 39.2 96,387,512 50.0

Male 10,210,452 60.8% 96,291,891 50.0%

Gender

Total 16,783,467 100.0% 192,687,190 100.0%

characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

Drivers in the

United States

Drivers stopped

Demographic by police in 2002

Table 1. Characteristics of drivers stopped by police compared 

to characteristics of drivers in the United States, 2002: Gender, age, 

and race/Hispanic origin

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures.

Other race 116,527 0.7 2,670,295 1.4

Hispanic 348,846 2.1 6,514,042 3.4

Black 598,707 3.6 8,919,530 4.6

White 3,850,871 22.9 64,054,219 33.2

Females age 25 or older 4,914,951 29.3% 82,170,336 42.6%

Other race 40,170 0.2 575,921 0.3

Hispanic 158,791 0.9 1,826,776 0.9

Black 188,725 1.1 1,676,328 0.9

White 1,270,378 7.6 10,125,260 5.3

Females age 16 to 24 1,658,064 9.9% 14,213,642 7.4%

Other race 248,014 1.5 3,092,184 1.6

Hispanic 665,271 4.0 7,792,027 4.0

Black 811,825 4.8 7,922,346 4.1

White 5,782,132 34.5 62,258,493 32.3

Males age 25 or older 7,507,242 44.7% 81,067,748 42.1%

Other race 88,545 0.5 659,388 0.3

Hispanic 422,964 2.5 2,482,500 1.3

Black 252,828 1.5 1,736,157 0.9

White 1,938,873 11.6 10,338,108 5.4

Males age 16 to 24 2,703,210 16.1% 15,220,111 7.9%

Total 16,783,467 100.0% 192,687,190 100.0%

Number Percent Number Percent

Drivers in the

United States

Drivers stopped

Demographic by police in 2002

characteristic

Table 2. Characteristics of drivers stopped by police compared to 

characteristics of drivers in the United States, 2002: Combined categories 

of gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin

Racial differences in traffic stops

may not signal racial profiling

To form evidence of racial profiling,

survey findings would have to

demonstrate (all other things being

equal) — 

Blacks and/or Hispanics were no

more likely than whites to violate

traffic laws, 

and

Police pulled over blacks and/or

Hispanics at a higher rate than

whites.

Because the survey has information

only on how often persons of different races are stopped, not on how

often they actually break traffic laws,

analysis of data from the 2002

Police-Public Contact Survey has no

basis for determining whether or to

what extent racial profiling exists.
Likelihood of drivers being stopped

The likelihood of being pulled over in

2002 did not differ among white (8.7%),

black (9.1%), and Hispanic (8.6%)

drivers.

Among both male and female drivers,

younger drivers age 16 to 24 were

more likely than drivers age 25 or older

to be stopped by police (table 3). In

addition —

• young white male drivers (18.8%)

were more likely than their older

counterparts (9.3%) to be stopped by

police

• among Hispanic males, younger

drivers were pulled over at higher rates

(17%) than older drivers (8.5%).

No real difference in the probability of

being stopped was found between

younger (14.6%) and older (10.2%)

black male drivers. 

Driver opinion on being stopped

An estimated 83.7% of drivers stopped

by police, or about 14 million drivers,

felt they were pulled over for a legitimate reason (table 4). While the majority of drivers felt the police were

justified in stopping them, opinion was

not uniform across different segments

of the population.

Young male drivers were less likely

than other stopped drivers to feel they

were pulled over for a legitimate

reason. Among these young male

drivers, blacks (57.9%) were less likely

than both whites (81%) or Hispanics

(81%) to feel the stop was legitimate. 

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002 3

Hispanic 18,619,405 1,595,872 8.6

Black 20,260,621 1,852,086 9.1

White 146,779,643 12,842,254 8.7%

Number Percent

Drivers stopped 

by police in 2002

Drivers in

the United

States

Race/

Hispanic

origin

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures. 

Other race 2,670,295 116,527 4.4

Hispanic 6,514,042 348,846 5.4

Black 8,919,530 598,707 6.7

White 64,054,219 3,850,871 6.0

Females age 25 or older 82,170,336 4,914,951 6.0%

Other race 575,921 40,170 7.0

Hispanic 1,826,776 158,791 8.7

Black 1,676,328 188,725 11.3

White 10,125,260 1,270,378 12.5

Females age 16 to 24 14,213,642 1,658,064 11.7%

Other race 3,092,184 248,014 8.0

Hispanic 7,792,027 665,271 8.5

Black 7,922,346 811,825 10.2

White 62,258,493 5,782,132 9.3

Males age 25 or older 81,067,748 7,507,242 9.3%

Other race 659,388 88,545 13.4

Hispanic 2,482,500 422,964 17.0

Black 1,736,157 252,828 14.6

White 10,338,108 1,938,873 18.8

Males age 16 to 24 15,220,111 2,703,210 17.8%

Total 192,687,190 16,783,467 8.7%

Number Percent

Drivers stopped

Drivers in the by police in 2002

United States

Demographic

characteristic

Table 3. Of all drivers in the United States, percent stopped by police in 2002:

Combined categories of gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin

Comparing estimates from the

1999 and 2002 surveys

In 1999 the Police-Public Contact

Survey found that 10.3% of licensed

drivers were stopped by police. In

2002 the survey found that 8.7% of

drivers in the United States were

pulled over by police. Due to changes

to the survey instrument, these two

estimates are based on different

denominators. Because of this difference in the denominators, these two

estimates of the likelihood of drivers

being stopped by police are not directly

comparable. See Methodology on

page 10 for more information.

Other race 81.9

Hispanic 84.4

Black 79.1

White 87.2

85.9%

Females age 25 or

older

Other race 92.6

Hispanic 78.0

Black 79.4

White 86.8

Females age 16 to 24 85.3%

Other race 80.3

Hispanic 81.7

Black 70.3

White 85.7

Males age 25 or older 83.5%

Other race 88.0

Hispanic 81.0

Black 57.9

White 81.0

Males age 16 to 24 79.3%

Total 83.7%

Percent of stopped

drivers who felt they

had been stopped for

a legitimate reason

Demographic

characteristic

Table 4. Driver opinion on being

stopped by police, 2002: Combined

categories of gender, age, and

race/Hispanic origin
Drivers not informed of reason 

for traffic stop

A relatively small percentage of

stopped drivers (2.1%) indicated police

did not give a reason for pulling them

over (table 5). No differences were

found by gender or age in whether

police informed drivers of the reason

for being stopped.

Blacks (4.5%) were more likely than

whites (1.8%) and somewhat more

likely than Hispanics (2.3%) to indicate

police did not give them a reason for

being stopped.

Drivers stopped for speeding

The chances that a driver in the United

States will be pulled over by police for

speeding are relatively low. In 2002,

4.8% of the 192.7 million drivers in the

United States indicated police stopped

them for speeding.

Among stopped drivers, however,

speeding was the leading reason for

being pulled over by police in 2002,

cited by more than half (54.8%) of

stopped drivers (table 6). 

Driver gender

Of all the Nation's drivers, males

(5.6%) were more likely than females

(4%) to be stopped by police for

speeding.

Among all drivers stopped by police,

female drivers (58.2%) were more likely

than male drivers (52.6%) to indicate

speeding was the reason for the stop.

Driver age

Of all the Nation's drivers, younger

drivers (8.5%) were more likely than

older drivers (4.1%) to be stopped by

police for speeding. 

Among all drivers stopped by police in

2002, younger drivers (57.6%) were

slightly more likely than older drivers

(53.8%) to report police stopped them

for speeding.

Driver race/Hispanic origin

Of all the drivers in the United States,

whites (5%) were more likely than

Hispanics (3.8%) and somewhat more

likely than blacks (4.4%) to be pulled

over by police for speeding. 

Among drivers stopped by police,

whites (57.2%) were more likely than

both blacks (48%) and Hispanics

(44.3%) to indicate speeding was the

reason for the stop.

Driver gender, age, and race/Hispanic

origin

Of the 10.3 million young white male

drivers in the United States, 10.9%

were stopped for speeding compared

to 8.5% of the 10.1 million young white

female drivers. Among drivers stopped

by police, young white male drivers

(58.3%) were less likely than their

female counterparts (67.6%) to indicate

speeding as the reason for the stop. 

4 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures.

Other race 251,817 493,256 51.1 7,000,729 3.6

Hispanic 707,437 1,595,872 44.3 18,619,405 3.8

Black 889,547 1,852,086 48.0 20,260,621 4.4

White 7,350,541 12,842,254 57.2% 146,779,643 5.0%

Race/Hispanic

origin

25 or older 6,686,683 12,422,193 53.8 163,245,009 4.1

16-24 2,512,659 4,361,274 57.6% 29,434,855 8.5%

Age

Female 3,827,423 6,573,016 58.2 96,387,512 4.0

Male 5,371,919 10,210,452 52.6% 96,291,891 5.6%

Gender

Total 9,199,342 16,783,467 54.8% 192,687,190 4.8%

Percent

stopped for

Number speeding

Percent

stopped for

Number speeding

Drivers in the United States

Drivers stopped by police

Speeding in 2002

reported as

reason for

traffic stop

Demographic

characteristic

Table 6. Drivers who reported speeding as the reason for the traffic stop, 2002:

Gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Other race 493,256 3,238* 0.7*

Hispanic 1,595,872 37,446 2.3

Black 1,852,086 83,232 4.5

White 12,842,254 227,665 1.8%

Race/Hispanic origin

25 or older 12,422,193 227,540 1.8

16-24 4,361,274 123,432 2.8%

Age

Female 6,573,016 129,041 2.0

Male 10,210,452 221,909 2.2%

Gender

Total 16,783,467 350,916 2.1%

Number Percent

Drivers not given a reason 

Drivers stopped for the traffic stop

by police in 2002

Demographic

characteristic

Table 5. Of drivers stopped by police in 2002, percent not given a reason 

for the traffic stop: Gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin 

 Hispanic 45.2 3.9

 Black 50.3 5.7

 White 67.6% 8.5%

Females 

 Hispanic 43.8 7.5

 Black 36.9 5.4

 White 58.3% 10.9%

Males

Drivers in the

United States

Drivers stopped 

by police 

Percent stopped for speeding of C

Drivers

age 16 to 24
Among the Nation's drivers, white

females age 16 to 24 (8.5%) were

more likely than their black (5.7%) and

Hispanic (3.9%) counterparts to

indicate speeding as the reason for

being stopped. 

Among young male drivers in the

United States, whites (10.9%) were

more likely than both blacks (5.4%) and

Hispanics (7.5%) to indicate they were

stopped for speeding.

Of drivers stopped by police, white

males age 16 to 24 (58.3%) were more

likely than black (36.9%) and Hispanic

(43.8%) males in the same age group

to report speeding as the reason for

being stopped.

Drivers stopped for speeding 

who were ticketed

Drivers stopped for speeding were

more likely to be ticketed than other

stopped drivers. According to Contacts

between Police and the Public:

Findings from the 2002 National

Survey, 58.6% of all drivers stopped by

police were ticketed. Among drivers

stopped for speeding, 72.5% were

ticketed (table 7).

The percentage of ticketed speeders

does not necessarily indicate that those

speeders who were ticketed by police

were actually issued a ticket for speeding. The 2002 PPCS did not ask

respondents who were ticketed to

identify the specific reason for receiving

the ticket. A driver stopped for speeding could have been ticketed for a

different reason, such as a broken

headlight or failure to wear a seat belt.

The analysis can only determine the

reason a ticketed driver was pulled

over, not the reason the police had for

issuing the ticket. 

Driver gender

Males (74.8%) stopped for speeding

were more likely than females (69.3%)

to be ticketed.

Driver age

Younger drivers (74.4%) and older

drivers (71.8%) stopped for speeding

were about equally likely to receive a

ticket.

Driver race/Hispanic origin

Among drivers stopped for speeding,

police were more likely to ticket blacks

(77.5%) and Hispanics (84.5%) than

whites (70.3%). 

Police searches

During a traffic stop the police

sometimes conduct a search of the

vehicle, the driver, or both the vehicle

and the driver. In 2002, 5% of traffic

stops involved a search of the driver,

the vehicle, or both (table 8). This 5%

figure in 2002 represents a decrease

from 1999, when an estimated 6.6% of

traffic stops resulted in some kind of

search.3

Searching the driver, vehicle, 

or both

Police conducted approximately

838,000 searches of drivers and

vehicles in 2002. Black (10.2%) and

Hispanic (11.4%) drivers stopped by

police were more likely than white

(3.5%) drivers to be physically

searched or have their vehicle

searched.

Search rates for young black male and

young Hispanic male drivers did not

change between 1999 and 2002.

Approximately 1 in 5 young black male

and young Hispanic male drivers

stopped by police were searched in

1999, as well as 2002. 

Among drivers stopped in 2002, young

black and young Hispanic males were

more likely than young white males to

be searched. Approximately 21.7% of

young black male stopped drivers and

16.8% of young Hispanic male stopped

drivers had their vehicle and/or person

searched, compared to 8.2% of young

white male stopped drivers.

Among stopped male drivers age 25 or

older, blacks (13.8%) and Hispanics

(12.9%) were more likely to be

searched than whites (4%).

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002 5

Other race 251,817 213,175 84.7

Hispanic 707,437 597,984 84.5

Black 889,547 689,583 77.5

White 7,350,541 5,168,819 70.3%

Race/Hispanic origin

25 or older 6,686,683 4,799,469 71.8

16-24 2,512,659 1,870,092 74.4%

Age

Female 3,827,423 2,653,666 69.3

Male 5,371,919 4,015,895 74.8%

Gender

Total 9,199,342 6,669,561 72.5%

Number Percent

Drivers stopped for speeding

who were also ticketed

Number of drivers

stopped for

speeding

Demographic

characteristic

Table 7. Of drivers stopped for speeding by police in 2002, percent who were

ticketed: Gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin

3

See Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by

Police, 1999, NCJ 191548, March 2002.

Hispanic 11.4

Black 10.2

White 3.5%

Percent of drivers stopped

by police who experienced

a driver or vehicle search 

in 2002 

Demographic

characteristic
Black and Hispanic male drivers age 25

or older were 4.8% and 4%, respectively, of all drivers stopped by police

but accounted for larger percentages

— 13.1% and 10.3%, respectively — 

of drivers who had their vehicle and/or

person searched.

White male drivers age 25 or older

were a smaller percentage of all

searches (27.4%) than of drivers

stopped by police in 2002 (34.5%).

Searching the driver

Young male drivers age 16 to 24 (9%)

were more likely than their older

counterparts (4.1%) to experience a

physical search by police (table 8).

Among these young stopped male

drivers, no real difference was found

between blacks (21.2%) and Hispanics

(15.5%) in their likelihood of being

physically searched, while both groups

were more likely than young white male

stopped drivers (6.1%) to experience a

personal search.

Young male drivers experienced

disproportionately high rates of

personal searches by police. Young

white, black and Hispanic male drivers

were 11.6%, 1.5% and 2.5%, respectively, of stopped motorists but were

19.5%, 8.7% and 10.8%, respectively,

of drivers who experienced personal

searches. 

Among stopped male drivers age 25 or

older, blacks (10%) and Hispanics

(8.8%) were more likely than whites

(2.9%) to be personally searched. 

Black and Hispanic male drivers age 25

or older were 4.8% and 4%, respectively, of all traffic stops but accounted

for larger percentages — 13.1% and

9.5%, respectively — of all physical

searches. By contrast, older white male

drivers were 34.5% of stopped drivers

but a smaller 27.4% of personal

searches.

Searching the vehicle

Among young stopped male drivers,

Hispanics (14.9%) were more likely to

have their vehicles searched than

whites (6.8%). 

Among older stopped male drivers,

whites (3.1%) had their vehicles

searched less frequently than both

blacks (10%) and Hispanics (11.5%).

Black and Hispanic male drivers age 25

or older were 4.8% and 4%, respectively, of drivers pulled over by police,

but accounted for 11.8% and 11.4% of

vehicle searches. 

Searched drivers who were also

arrested

Police searched an estimated 838,000

drivers in 2002. Of these searched

drivers, 39.3% were also arrested

(table 9). About half of these 329,000

searched and arrested drivers were

searched after police arrested them, 

while more than a third were searched

prior to being arrested. About a tenth of

stopped drivers did not know whether

the search or the arrest occurred first

(not in a table).

Driver gender

Male drivers who were searched by

police (39%) were about as likely as

searched females (41.6%) to be

arrested.

Driver age

Drivers age 25 or older (45%) who

were searched by police were more

likely to be arrested than their younger

counterparts (31.3%).

Driver gender and race/Hispanic origin

Among drivers who were stopped and

searched, no measurable differences

were found in the likelihood of arrest

among white, black, and Hispanic male

drivers. (See Methodology section for

information on significance testing.)

6 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002

Hispanic 4.0 10.3

Black 4.8 13.1

White 34.5% 27.4%

Males 

All driver

or vehicle

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 2002

Demographic

characteristic

Drivers age 25 or older

as a percent of— 

Note: Total includes female drivers. Because

of relatively small sample sizes, data for

female drivers are not shown by gender, age,

and race/Hispanic origin. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Other race 2.3* 0.0* 2.3*

Hispanic 12.9 8.8 11.5

Black 13.8 10.0 10.0

White 4.0 2.9 3.1

5.8% 4.1% 4.5%

Males age

25 or older

Other race 7.1* 7.1* 3.4*

Hispanic 16.8 15.5 14.9

Black 21.7 21.2 12.2*

White 8.2 6.1 6.8

10.7% 9.0% 8.4%

Males age

16 to 24

Total 5.0% 3.6% 4.0%

Driver Vehicle

Driver or

vehicle

Type of search

Demographic

characteristic

Table 8. Of drivers stopped, percent

who experienced a search, 2002:

Combined categories of gender, age,

and race/Hispanic origin

Hispanic 2.5 10.8

Black 1.5 8.7

White 11.6% 19.5%

Males 

All 

driver

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 2002

Demographic

characteristic

Drivers age 16 to 24

as a percent of— 

Hispanic 4.0 9.5

Black 4.8 13.1

White 34.5% 27.4%

Males 

All 

driver

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 2002

Demographic

characteristic

Drivers age 25 or older

as a percent of— 

Hispanic 4.0 11.4

Black 4.8 11.8

White 34.5% 26.3%

Males

All 

vehicle

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 2002

Drivers 

age 25 or older

 Percent of— 
Searches of arrested and 

nonarrested drivers

In many jurisdictions police officers are

required to search the vehicle, driver,

or both when making an arrest during a

traffic stop. Consequently, arrested

drivers may have experienced a vehicle

and/or personal search as a procedural

step during the arrest process.

Of the 448,000 drivers arrested during

a traffic stop, 73.8% experienced a

vehicle and/or personal search (table

10). A smaller percentage of nonarrested drivers were searched (3.1%).

Driver gender

Among stopped drivers who were

arrested, males (75.2%) and females

(66.8%) were searched at similar rates.

Of stopped drivers who were not

arrested, males (4.5%) were more

likely than females (1.1%) to be

searched.

Driver age

Among drivers arrested by police in

2002, no difference was found between

younger (77.3%) and older (72.2%)

drivers in their likelihood of experiencing a personal or vehicle search.

Among nonarrested drivers, younger

drivers (5.6%) were more likely to be

searched than older drivers (2.2%). 

Driver race/Hispanic origin

Among arrested motorists, no measurable difference was found between

whites, blacks, and Hispanics in their

likelihood of being searched. (See

Methodology section for information on

significance testing.) 

Among nonarrested motorists —

• Blacks (5.9%) and Hispanics (8.8%)

were searched at higher rates than

whites (2.1%).

• Hispanics (8.8%) were searched at

somewhat higher rates than blacks

(5.9%).

• Among males, blacks (9.1%) and

Hispanics (10.9%) were more likely than whites (3.1%) to be searched

(table 11). 

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002 7

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures. Drivers of other races not shown

separately. Total includes "other races."

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

25 or older 492,081 221,426 45.0

16-24 345,741 108,132 31.3%

Age

Hispanic 24,620* 2,972* 12.1*

Black 23,864* 9,861* 41.3*

White 65,401 35,596 54.4

Female 116,462 48,443 41.6%

Hispanic 157,379 45,574 29.0

Black 166,497 77,630 46.6

White 388,531 158,997 40.9

Male 722,627 281,467 39.0%

Total 837,809 329,347 39.3%

Number Percent

Drivers who were searched

Total number and arrested

of searches

Demographic

characteristic

Table 9. Of the total number of persons searched, percent of drivers

who were also arrested, 2002: Gender, age and race/Hispanic origin

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures. Drivers of other races not shown

separately. Total includes "other races."

Hispanic 82,230 59.5 1,513,642 8.8

Black 106,540 81.6 1,745,546 5.9

White 259,783 75.1% 12,582,470 2.1%

Race/Hispanic

origin

25 or older 305,294 72.2 12,116,899 2.2

16-24 142,816 77.3% 4,218,458 5.6%

Age

Female 74,071 66.8 6,498,945 1.1

Male 373,664 75.2% 9,836,788 4.5%

Gender

Total 448,094 73.8% 16,335,373 3.1%

Driver or 

Number vehicle search

Driver or 

Number vehicle search

Demographic

characteristic

Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers

Table 10. Among arrested and nonarrested drivers, percent who experienced

a search, 2002: Gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures. Drivers of other races not shown

separately. Total includes "other races."

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Hispanic 12,986* 22.7* 494,651 4.4*

Black 17,193* 66.3* 770,239 1.8*

White 43,991 80.0% 5,077,257 0.6%

Female

Hispanic 69,207 66.6 1,019,028 10.9

Black 89,121 84.1 975,532 9.1

White 215,605 74.1% 7,505,401 3.1%

Male

Total 448,094 73.8% 16,335,373 3.1%

Driver or 

Number vehicle search

Driver or 

Number vehicle search

Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers

Gender and

race/Hispanic origin

Table 11. Among arrested and nonarrested drivers, percent who experienced

a search, 2002: Combined categories of race/Hispanic origin and gender
Police use of force

In addition to gathering data on

contacts between police and the public

during traffic stops, the 2002 PPCS

also collected information on other

face-to-face contacts with police. Other

face-to-face contacts include situations

in which the respondent contacted

police (for instance to report a crime or

to ask for assistance) as well as situations in which police initiated contact

with the respondent (for instance to

investigate a crime, serve a warrant, or

disseminate crime prevention

information).

Survey findings indicate an estimated

45.3 million people had a face-to-face

contact with police during 2002 (table

12). Of that 45.3 million, 16.8 million

were drivers in a traffic stop, and 28.5

million were involved in other forms of

contact with police. 

One purpose of the PPCS was to

gather information about police use of

force during both traffic stops and other

face-to-face contacts between police

and the public. Specifically, respondents were asked whether the police

officer(s) used or threatened to use

force against them. Of the nearly 45.3

million people who had a face-to-face

contact with police, approximately 1.5%

indicated police used or threatened

force during the contact (hereafter,

“use of force” includes force and threat

of force). 

Drivers stopped by police (1.1%) were

less likely than persons who had other

types of face-to-face contacts with

police (1.7%) to indicate police used or

threatened force against them. 

Use of force during traffic stops

Approximately 664,500 persons age 16

or older had force used or threatened

against them by police at least once

during 2002 (table 13). About a quarter

of these force contacts involved a

driver during a traffic stop.

Driver gender

An estimated 520,000 males were

threatened with force or had force used

against them by police in 2002. About a

third (31.2%) of these males were

drivers in a traffic stop. 

Driver age

For both younger and older persons

against whom force was used or threatened, about the same proportion of

force contacts involved a driver during

a traffic stop (26.5% and 30%, respectively). 

Driver race/Hispanic origin

For whites, blacks and Hispanics who

experienced police use of force, no

differences were found in the proportion of force contacts that occurred

during a traffic stop. (See Methodology

section for information on significance

testing.)

8 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002

Other contacts 28,495,417 475,636 1.7

16,783,467 188,822 1.1%

Drivers in 

traffic stops

Total 45,278,884 664,458 1.5%

Number Percent

Contacts with

police in which

force was used 

or threatened

Number of

persons

with police

contact

Reason for

contact

Table 12. Among persons age 16 or

older who had contact with police in

2002, percent whose contact involved

police use of force, by reason for

contact

Likelihood of finding criminal evidence 

in a traffic stop search

Of the nearly 838,000 searches conducted following a

traffic stop in 2002, about 1 in 10 uncovered criminal

evidence, such as illegal weapons or drugs (not in a table).

Approximately 329,000 drivers who were searched were

also arrested. Of these searches in conjunction with an

arrest, the search turned up evidence of criminal

wrongdoing in about 20% of cases. *Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

262,745 79.8 475,957 93.6

No evidence

found

Evidence found 66,602 20.2% 32,505* 6.4%*

Total 329,347 100.0% 508,462 100.0%

Number Percent Number Percent

Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers

Drivers who were searched

Criminal

evidence

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Other race 15,284* 5,477* 35.8* 9,807* 64.2*

Hispanic 102,670 37,724 36.7 64,946 63.3

Black 172,658 49,247 28.5 123,411 71.5

White 373,847 96,375 25.8% 277,472 74.2%

Race/Hispanic

origin

25 or older 366,370 109,880 30.0 256,490 70.0

16-24 298,088 78,942 26.5% 219,146 73.5%

Age

Female 144,281 26,513* 18.4* 117,768 81.6

Male 520,178 162,309 31.2% 357,869 68.8%

Gender

Total 664,458 188,822 28.4% 475,636 71.6%

Number Percent Number Percent 

Demographic Drivers in traffic stops Other contacts

characteristic

Contacts with police in which force

was used or threatened

Number of persons

against whom

force was used 

or threatened

Table 13. Reason for contact with police among persons age 16 or older whose

contact involved police use of force in 2002: Gender, age, and race/Hispanic

origin 
Use of force during traffic stops 

and other face-to-face contacts

Police used or threatened force against

an estimated 189,000 drivers during a

traffic stop in 2002 (table 14). An

additional 476,000 persons experienced force during other types of faceto-face contacts with police. 

Driver gender

Males were more likely than females 

to have reported police used or threatened force against them. In 2002

males were 53% of all persons with

police contact but 78% of those who

experienced force by police. 

Males accounted for a slightly larger

percentage of traffic stop force contacts

(86%) than other contacts involving

police use of force (75.2%). 

Driver age

Younger persons were more likely than

older persons to experience force

during a contact with police. The

percentage of young people involved in

a force incident (44.9%) was almost 

twice as high as their percentage of all

contacts with police in 2002 (22.9%).

By comparison, their older counterparts

accounted for a smaller percentage

(55.1%) of force incidents compared to

their percentage of all contacts with

police (77.1%).

Young people were not more likely to

indicate that force was used or threatened against them during a traffic stop

(41.8%) than during other face-to-face

contacts with police (46.1%). 

Driver race/Hispanic origin

Whites were less likely than blacks and

Hispanics to have force used or threatened against them. In 2002 whites

were 76.7% of persons who had

contact with police and 56.3% of

persons who had force used against

them.

By contrast, blacks were 11% of policepublic contacts but 26% of force

contacts, and Hispanics were 9.3% of

police-public contacts but 15.5% of

contacts involving police use of force.

White persons were as likely to indicate

that force was used or threatened

against them during a traffic stop (51%)

as during other face-to-face contacts

with police (58.3%).

A similar percentage of blacks were

involved in traffic stop force contacts

(26.1%) as other contacts involving

police use of force (25.9%).

Conduct of persons who had

contact with police and the 

likelihood police used force

Approximately 706,000 persons age 16

or older indicated they argued with,

cursed at, insulted, or verbally threatened the police at some point during

the contact. An estimated 22.8% of

persons who engaged in one or more

of these behaviors also reported that

police used or threatened to use force

against them (table 15). The data

cannot determine whether the person's

conduct led to or was in response to

the use or threat of force by police.

Drivers involved in traffic stops who

argued with, cursed at, insulted, or

verbally threatened the police were less

likely (15.3%) to have force used

against them than persons involved in

other nondriver contacts with police

who behaved in this manner (26.7%).

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002 9

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Estimated number 45,278,884 664,458 188,822 475,636

Other race 3.0 2.3* 2.9* 2.1*

Hispanic 9.3 15.5 20.0 13.7

Black 11.0 26.0 26.1 25.9

White 76.7% 56.3% 51.0% 58.3%

Race/Hispanic

origin

25 or older 77.1 55.1 58.2 53.9

16-24 22.9% 44.9% 41.8% 46.1%

Age

Female 47.2 21.7 14.0* 24.8

Male 52.8% 78.3% 86.0% 75.2%

Gender

Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Other contacts

Drivers in

Total traffic stops

Against whom force was used or threatened

With police

contact

Demographic

characteristic

Percent of persons —

Table 14. Demographic characteristics of persons age 16 or older whose

contact involved police use of force in 2002, by reason for contact

Other contacts 463,495 26.7

242,661 15.3%

Drivers in

traffic stops

Total 706,156 22.8%

Percent who

reported

police used

or threatened

force

Number who

argued with,

cursed at,

insulted, or

verbally

threatened

police 

Reason for

contact

Table 15. Among persons age 16 or

older who argued with, cursed at,

insulted, or verbally threatened the

police in 2002, percent whose contact

involved police use of force, by

reason for contact
Use of excessive force

Overall, about three-quarters (75.4%)

of persons who experienced force felt

the physical force used or threatened

against them was excessive (table 16).

Drivers who had force used against

them during a traffic stop (87%) were

more likely to report that the force was

excessive than persons who experienced force during other types of

contacts with police (70.8%).

Of all persons who had contact with

police in 2002, approximately 1.1%

indicated police used or threatened to

use excessive force against them

(table 17). The percentage of persons

who felt police used excessive force did

not differ by the type of contact. Among

drivers stopped by police, about 1%

reported that police used or threatened

excessive force. Similarly, excessive

force was reported by 1.2% of persons

involved in other contacts with police.

Methodology

The 2002 PPCS was conducted as a

supplement to the National Crime

Victimization Survey (NCVS). During

the last 6 months of 2002, the NCVS

sample consisted of 93,410 individuals

age 16 or older. About 18% of the

NCVS sample, or 16,500 individuals,

were excluded from the 2002 PPCS as

non-interviews or as proxy interviews. 

Of interviews excluded from the survey,

13,618 were classified as NCVS

non-interviews. Non-interviews include

respondents not available for the PPCS

interview, those who refused to participate in the PPCS, and non-English

speaking respondents (PPCS interviews, unlike NCVS interviews, are only

conducted in English). The remainder

were the 2,882 excluded proxy interviews. A proxy interview may be

conducted when a person is unable, for

physical, mental, or other reasons, to

participate. BJS staff determined that

proxy interviewees would have difficulty

describing the details of any contacts

between police and the sampled

respondent, and the decision was

made to exclude all proxy interviews.

In total, the PPCS failed to interview

16,500 persons and interviewed

76,910; this translates into an 82%

response rate among individuals eligible for the PPCS, compared to an

overall response rate of 87% for the

NCVS. Among the PPCS interviews

conducted, 25,993 (34%) were in

person and 50,917 (66%) were by

telephone. The PPCS sample, after

adjustment for nonresponse, weights to

a national estimate of 215,536,780

persons age 16 or older in 2002. 

Comparing estimates from the 1999

and 2002 surveys

While both the 1999 and 2002 studies

found about 1 in 10 drivers were

stopped, these estimates are not

directly comparable due to changes to

the survey instrument between 1999

and 2002 in the measurement of the 

number of drivers. Most notably, the

denominator used to calculate the likelihood of being stopped by police was

"licensed drivers" in 1999, as estimated

by the U.S. Department of Transportation's 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey. However, in 2002 the

denominator was changed to "drivers in

the United States," as estimated

directly from responses to newly added

questions included in the 2002 PolicePublic Contact Survey. The denominator change was made to account for all

persons who drive, licensed and not

licensed, to better approximate the

number of persons at risk of being

stopped by police. Excluded from the

new denominator were licensed drivers

who indicated they never drive.

The number of drivers stopped by

police was also estimated differently. In

1999, respondents were asked whether

they had been a driver stopped by

police at any time during the previous

12 months. Any respondent who had

been pulled over in a traffic stop was

then included in the count of the

number of drivers stopped by police,

regardless of whether the traffic stop

was their most recent contact with

police. In 2002, the survey was

changed so that respondents were

asked only about their most recent

contact with police during the previous

12 months. Respondents whose most

recent face-to-face contact was not a

traffic stop, but who had been pulled

over by police earlier in the year, were

not included in the count of the number

of drivers stopped by police. Due to this

change in the survey, the estimated

number of drivers stopped by police

was smaller in 2002 than in 1999.

Estimates of the characteristics of

drivers stopped by police, such as the

percentage of drivers searched or

ticketed, were unaffected by these

changes, and remain comparable

between 1999 and 2002. 

10 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002

Other contacts 28,495,417 336,551 1.2

16,783,467 164,255 1.0%

Drivers in

traffic stops

Total 45,278,884 500,806 1.1%

Number Percent

Contacts with

police in which

force used or

threatened was

excessive

Number of

persons

with police

contact

Reason for

contact

Table 17. Among persons age 16 or 

older who had contact with police in

2002, percent whose contact involved

police use of excessive force, by

reason for contact

Other contacts 475,636 336,551 70.8

188,822 164,255 87.0%

Drivers in

traffic stops

Total 664,458 500,806 75.4%

Number Percent

Contacts with

police in which

force used or

threatened was

excessive

Number of

persons

against 

whom force

was used or

threatened

Reason for

contact

Table 16. Among persons age 16 or

older whose contact involved police

use of force in 2002, percent who felt

the force used or threatened was

“excessive,” by reason for contact
Statistical significance

In comparisons indicated in the text, an

explicit or implied difference indicates a

test of significance was conducted, and

the difference was significant at the

.05-level. Certain differences were not

significant at the .05-level but were

significant at the .10-level. The terms

“somewhat” and “slightly” refer to differences significant at the .10-level. The

report also indicates that some

comparisons were not different,

meaning the difference between the

two estimates was not significant at

either the .05- or .10-levels.

Racial designations

Regarding racial designations given in

the report, "white" refers to nonHispanic whites, "black" refers to

non-Hispanic blacks, and "other races"

refers to non-Hispanics in the "other

races" category. White Hispanics, black

Hispanics, and Hispanics of "other

races" are categorized in the report

under the heading "Hispanic."

Due to small samples and concerns

about confidentiality, the report does 

not provide separate statistics on each

racial category that makes up "other

races" (Asians, Native Hawaiians,

Pacific Islanders, American Indians,

and Alaska Natives). 

Other BJS reports on police-public

contacts 

Each of the following publications are

available on the BJS website.

Police Use of Force: Collection of

National Data, November 1997;

<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/

puof.htm>

Contacts between Police and the

Public: Findings from the 1999 National

Survey, February 2001;

<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/

cpp99.htm>

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by

Police, 1999, March 2002;

<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/

cdsp99.htm>

Contacts between Police and the

Public: Findings from the 2002 National

Survey, April 2005;

<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/

cpp02.htm>

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002 11

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures.

*Includes licensed and unlicensed drivers who operate a motor vehicle a few

times a year or more.

Other race 8,513,815 82.2 7,000,729

Hispanic 23,955,183 77.7 18,619,405

Black 25,694,070 78.9 20,260,621

White 157,373,713 93.3% 146,779,643

Race/Hispanic origin

25 or older 179,889,676 90.7 163,245,009

16-24 35,647,104 82.6% 29,434,855

Age

75 or older 15,454,753 70.3 10,867,718

70-74 8,296,482 84.7 7,028,204

65-69 9,398,824 88.5 8,317,154

60-64 11,253,813 91.7 10,324,572

55-59 14,751,339 92.3 13,609,756

50-54 18,156,612 93.7 17,018,579

45-49 21,110,999 94.1 19,868,465

40-44 23,048,576 94.2 21,720,402

35-39 21,108,221 94.2 19,890,322

30-34 19,564,855 93.6 18,303,679

25-29 17,745,202 91.7 16,268,499

20-24 19,385,232 89.3 17,301,693

16-19 16,261,872 74.6% 12,125,184

Age

Female 111,548,061 86.4 96,387,512

Male 103,988,719 92.6% 96,291,891

Gender

Total 215,536,780 89.4% 192,687,190

Percent Number

U.S. population Drivers in the United States*

ages 16 or older

Demographic

characteristic

Appendix A. Of the U.S. population, the percent and number of drivers in the

United States, 2002: Gender, age, and race/Hispanic origin
12 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002

Note: Detail may not add to total due to estimation procedures.

*Includes licensed and unlicensed drivers who operate a motor vehicle a few times

a year or more.

Other race 3,494,338 76.4 2,670,295

Hispanic 8,845,054 73.6 6,514,042

Black 11,479,385 77.7 8,919,530

White 70,001,900 91.5 64,054,219

Females age 25 or older 93,820,678 87.6% 82,170,336

Other race 798,197 72.2 575,921

Hispanic 2,954,116 61.8 1,826,776

Black 2,682,633 62.5 1,676,328

White 11,292,437 89.7 10,125,260

Females age 16 to 24 17,727,383 80.2% 14,213,642

Other race 3,437,228 90.0 3,092,184

Hispanic 8,806,507 88.5 7,792,027

Black 9,153,201 86.6 7,922,346

White 64,672,062 96.3 62,258,493

Males age 25 or older 86,068,998 94.2% 81,067,748

Other race 784,051 84.1 659,388

Hispanic 3,349,506 74.1 2,482,500

Black 2,378,850 73.0 1,736,157

White 11,407,314 90.6 10,338,108

Males age 16 to 24 17,919,721 84.9% 15,220,111

Total 215,536,780 89.4% 192,687,190

Percent Number

U.S. population Drivers in the United States*

ages 16 or older

Demographic

characteristic

Appendix B. Of the U.S. population, the percent and number of drivers

in the United States, 2002: Combined categories of gender, age, and

race/Hispanic origin

Office of Justice Programs

Partnerships for Safer Communities

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

The Bureau of Justice Statistics is

the statistical agency of the U.S.

Department of Justice. Jeffrey L.

Sedgwick is Director. Erica L.

Smith and Matthew R. Durose, BJS

Statisticians, wrote this report.

Jessica Keating assisted with verification. Carolyn C. Williams edited

the report. Jayne Robinson

prepared the report for final

printing.

June 2006, NCJ 211471 

This report in portable document

format and in ASCII and its related

statistical data and tables are available at the BJS World Wide Web

Internet site:

<http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/>.