NOAA Technical Memorandum 

NWS ER-101 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

A SEVERE WEATHER CLIMATOLOGY FOR THE RALEIGH, NC, 

COUNTY WARNING AREA

CLYDE BRANDON LOCKLEAR 

National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office 

Raleigh, NC 

Scientific Services Division 

Eastern Region Headquarters 

Bohemia, New York 

May 2008 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Oceanic and National Weather Service

 Atmospheric Administration 
NOAA TECHNICAL MEMORANDA

National Weather Service, Eastern Region Subseries 

The National Weather Service Eastern Region (ER) Subseries provides an informal medium for the documentation and quick dissemination of 

results not appropriate, or not yet ready for formal publications. The series is used to report on work in progress, to describe technical procedures and practices, or to relate progress to a limited audience. These Technical Memoranda will report on investigations devoted primarily to regional and local problems of interest mainly to ER personnel, and usually will not be widely distributed. 

Papers 1 to 22 are in the former series, ESSA Technical Memoranda, Eastern Region Technical Memoranda (ERTM); papers 23 to 37 are in the 

former series, ESSA Technical Memoranda, Weather Bureau Technical Memoranda (WBTM). Beginning with 38, the papers are now part of the 

series, NOAA Technical Memoranda NWS. 

Papers 1 to 22 are available from the National Weather Service Eastern Region, Scientific Services Division, 630 Johnson Avenue, Bohemia, NY, 

11716. Beginning with 23, the papers are available from the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Sills Bldg., 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. Prices vary for paper copy and for microfiche. Order by accession number shown in parentheses at end of each entry. 

ESSA Technical Memoranda

ERTM 1 Local Uses of Vorticity Prognoses in Weather Prediction. Carlos R. Dunn. April 1965. ERTM 2 Application of the Barotropic Vorticity Prognostic Field to the Surface Forecast Problem. Silvio G. Simplicio. July 1965. ERTM 3 A Technique for Deriving an Objective Precipitation Forecast Scheme for Columbus, Ohio. Robert Kuessner. September 1965. 

ERTM 4 Stepwise Procedures for Developing Objective Aids for Forecasting the Probability of Precipitation. Carlos R. Dunn. November 1965. 

ERTM 5 A Comparative Verification of 300 mb. Winds and Temperatures Based on NMC Computer Products Before and After Manual Processing. Silvio G. Simplicio. March 1966. 

ERTM 6 Evaluation of OFDEV Technical Note No. 17. Richard M. DeAngelis. March 1966. ERTM 7 Verification of Probability of Forecasts at Hartford, Connecticut, for the Period 1963-1965. Robert B. Wassall. 

 March 1966. 

ERTM 8 Forest-Fire Pollution Episode in West Virginia, November 8-12, 1964. Robert O. Weedfall. April 1966. ERTM 9 The Utilization of Radar in Meso-Scale Synoptic Analysis and Forecasting. Jerry D. Hill. March 1966. 

ERTM 10 Preliminary Evaluation of Probability of Precipitation Experiment. Carlos R. Dunn. May 1966. ERTM 11 Final Report. A Comparative Verification of 300 mb. Winds and Temperatures Based on NMC Computer Products Before and After Manual Processing. Silvio G.Simplicio. May 1966. 

ERTM 12 Summary of Scientific Services Division Development Work in Sub-Synoptic Scale Analysis and Prediction - Fiscal Year 1966. Fred L. Zuckerberg. May 1966. 

ERTM 13 A Survey of the Role of Non-Adiabatic Heating and Cooling in Relation of the Development of Mid-Latitude Synoptic Systems. Constantine Zois. July 1966. 

ERTM 14 The Forecasting of Extratropical Onshore Gales at the Virginia Capes. Glen V. Sachse. August 1966. ERTM 15 Solar Radiation and Clover Temperatures. Alex J. Kish. September 1966. ERTM 16 The Effects of Dams, Reservoirs and Levees on River Forecasting. Richard M. Greening. September 1966. ERTM 17 Use of Reflectivity Measurements and Reflectivity Profiles for Determining Severe Storms. Robert E. Hamilton. October 

 1966. 

ERTM 18 Procedure for Developing a Nomograph for Use in Forecasting Phenological Events from Growing Degree Days. John C. Purvis and Milton Brown. December 1966. 

ERTM 19 Snowfall Statistics for Williamsport, Pa. Jack Hummel. January 1967 

ERTM 20 Forecasting Maturity Date of Snap Beans in South Carolina. Alex J. Kish. March 1967. 

ERTM 21 New England Coastal Fog. Richard Fay. April 1967. 

ERTM 22 Rainfall Probability at Five Stations Near Pickens, South Carolina, 1957-1963. John C. Purvis. April 1967. WBTM ER 23 A Study of the Effect of Sea Surface Temperature on the Areal Distribution of Radar Detected Precipitation Over the South 

 Carolina Coastal Waters. Edward Paquet. June 1967. (PB-180-612). 

WBTM ER 24 An Example of Radar as a Tool in Forecasting Tidal Flooding. Edward P. Johnson. August 1967 (PB-180-613). 

WBTM ER 25 Average Mixing Depths and Transport Wind Speeds over Eastern United States in 1965. Marvin E. Miller. August 1967. (PB-180-614). 

WBTM ER 26 The Sleet Bright Band. Donald Marier. October 1967. (PB-180-615). 

WBTM ER 27 A Study of Areas of Maximum Echo Tops in the Washington, D.C. Area During the Spring and Fall Months. Marie D. Fellechner. April 1968. (PB-179-339). 

WBTM ER 28 Washington Metropolitan Area Precipitation and Temperature Patterns. C.A. Woollum and N.L. Canfield. June 1968. 

 (PB-179-340). 

WBTM ER 29 Climatological Regime of Rainfall Associated with Hurricanes after Landfall. Robert W. Schoner. June 1968. (PB-179-341). 

WBTM ER 30 Monthly Precipitation - Amount Probabilities for Selected Stations in Virginia. M.H. Bailey. June 1968. (PB-179-342). 

WBTM ER 31 A Study of the Areal Distribution of Radar Detected Precipitation at Charleston, S.C. S.K. Parrish and M.A. Lopez. October 1968. (PB-180-480). 

WBTM ER 32 The Meteorological and Hydrological Aspects of the May 1968 New Jersey Floods. Albert S. Kachic and William Long. February 1969. (Revised July 1970). (PB-194-222). 

WBTM ER 33 A Climatology of Weather that Affects Prescribed Burning Operations at Columbia, South Carolina. S.E. Wasserman and

 J.D. Kanupp. December 1968. (COM-71-00194). 

WBTM ER 34 A Review of Use of Radar in Detection of Tornadoes and Hail. R.E. Hamilton. December 1969. (PB-188-315). 

WBTM ER 35 Objective Forecasts of Precipitation Using PE Model Output. Stanley E. Wasserman. July 1970. (PB-193-378). 

WBTM ER 36 Summary of Radar Echoes in 1967 Near Buffalo, N.Y. Richard K. Sheffield. September 1970. (COM-71-00310). 

WBTM ER 37 Objective Mesoscale Temperature Forecasts. Joseph P. Sobel. September 1970. (COM-71-0074). 

NOAA Technical Memoranda NWS

NWS ER 38 Use of Primitive Equation Model Output to Forecast Winter Precipitation in the Northeast Coastal Sections of the United 

 States. Stanley E. Wasserman and Harvey Rosenblum. December 1970. (COM-71-00138). NWS ER 39 A Preliminary Climatology of Air Quality in Ohio. Marvin E. Miller. January 1971. (COM-71-00204). NWS ER 40 Use of Detailed Radar Intensity Data in Mesoscale Surface Analysis. Robert E. Hamilton. March 1971. (COM-71-00573). NWS ER 41 A Relationship Between Snow Accumulation and Snow Intensity as Determined from Visibility. Stanley E. Wasserman and Daniel J. Monte. (COM-71-00763). January 1971. 

NWS ER 42 A Case Study of Radar Determined Rainfall as Compared to Rain Gage Measurements. Martin Ross. July 1971. (COM-71-00897). 

NWS ER 43 Snow Squalls in the Lee of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Jerry D. Hill. August 1971. (COM-72-00959). NWS ER 44 Forecasting Precipitation Type at Greer, South Carolina. John C. Purvis. December 1971. (COM-72-10332). 

NWS ER 45 Forecasting Type of Precipitation. Stanley E. Wasserman. January 1972. (COM-72-10316). 

(CONTINUED ON INSIDE REAR COVER) 
 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS ER-101

A SEVERE WEATHER CLIMATOLOGY FOR THE RALEIGH, NC 

COUNTY WARNING AREA 

CLYDE BRANDON LOCKLEAR 

National Weather Service Office 

Raleigh, NC 

 

Scientific Services Division 

Eastern Region Headquarters 

Bohemia, New York 

 May 2008

United States National Oceanic and National Weather Service 

Department of Commerce Atmospheric Administration John L. Hayes Carlos M. Gutierrez Conrad C. Lautenbaucher, Jr. Assistant Administrator 

Secretary Under Secretary and Administrator 
Table of Contents 

1. Introduction.............................................................................................. 3 

2. Data and Methodology ................................................................................. 3 

3. Topography and Demographics of County Warning Area........................................ 3 

3.1 Topography.................................................................................... 3 

 3.2 Demographics............................................................................. 4 

 

4. Tornado Climatology..................................................................................... 5 

4.1 Monthly Distribution......................................................................... 5 

4.2 Hourly Distribution......................................................................... 5 

4.3 Intensity (Fujita)............................................................................5 

 4.4 Association with Tropical Systems..................................................... 6 

5. Hail Climatology...................................................................................... 6 

5.1 Monthly Distribution..................................................................... 6 

5.2 Hourly Distribution....................................................................... 7 

 5.3 Magnitude (Hail Size).................................................................... 7 

6. Severe Thunderstorm Wind Climatology........................................................... 7 

6.1 Monthly Distribution...................................................................... 7 

 6.2 Hourly Distribution....................................................................... 7 

7. Conclusions............................................................................................... 8 

i 
Acknowledgements......................................................................................... 9 

References.................................................................................................... 9 

Figures....................................................................................................... 10 

ii 
1. INTRODUCTION

The National Weather Service's (NWS) primary responsibility is the protection of life and 

property. NWS Weather Forecast Offices (WFO) are tasked with issuing severe weather 

watches and warnings for their areas of responsibility or County Warning Area (CWA). 

Across central North Carolina, the combination of abundant low-level moisture from both the 

Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico along with frontal boundaries that interact with this 

moisture often set the stage for strong to severe thunderstorm development. As a result, 

WFO Raleigh’s CWA experiences a wide variety of severe weather phenomena, including 

severe thunderstorms that produce tornadoes, large hail, and damaging wind gusts. A local 

severe weather climatology is essential for determining the severe weather risk. This study 

provides a severe weather climatology for central North Carolina including topographical 

and demographic influences, frequency, magnitude, season and time of day. 

2. DATA AND METHODOLOGY

The data used for this study includes 4,150 documented severe weather reports (tornado, hail, 

and severe convective wind damage or gust reports) for all counties in the Raleigh CWA 

over the Period of Record (POR) of January 1, 1950 through December 31, 2005. The 

SVRPLOT program (Hart 1993; Available from 

[http://www.spc.noaa.gov/software/svrplot2/]), which utilizes a database of severe weather 

events collected by the National Severe Storms Forecast Center (NSSFC) and NOAA’s 

National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) in Asheville, NC (National Climatic Data Center 

2008) provided online access to documented severe weather events. In addition, the 

determination of tropical-related tornadoes was derived using the “Historical Hurricane 

Tracks” tool from the NOAA Coastal Services Center in Charleston, SC (NOAA Coastal 

Services Center 2008). All times are referenced to Local Standard Time (LST). 

As defined by the NWS, a severe local storm is one that is sufficiently intense to threaten life 

and/or property, including thunderstorms with large hail, damaging wind, or tornadoes. 

More specifically, severe thunderstorms (National Weather Service 2005) are further defined 

as a storm that includes one or more of the following: 

• A tornado 

• Hail of 0.75 inches (in.) in diameter or larger 

• Wind of at least 50 knots (58 mph) or wind which causes damage, including trees or 

power lines blown down 

3. TOPOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE COUNTY WARNING 

AREA

3.1 Topography

3 
WFO Raleigh’s CWA (Fig. 1) is comprised of 31 counties including 10 counties in the 

northern Piedmont, 5 counties in the central Piedmont, 4 counties in the southern Piedmont, 4 

counties in the northern Coastal Plain, 3 counties in the central Coastal Plain and 5 counties 

in the southern Coastal Plain. Raleigh’s CWA covers 16,459 square miles and includes the 

metropolitan areas of Raleigh, Durham and Chapel Hill (Triangle), Greensboro, WinstonSalem and High Point (Piedmont Triad), Rocky Mount-Wilson and Fayetteville. 

Topography has an influence on the initiation and evolution of convective storms (Fig. 2). 

The two principal topographic regions that encompass Raleigh’s CWA are the Piedmont and 

Coastal Plain. The geologic boundary between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain is called the 

“fall line” which stretches from near Roanoke Rapids in Halifax County southwest to near 

Smithfield in Johnston County to near Laurinburg in Scotland County. The Piedmont is 

characterized by rolling hills and soils that are mainly loam and clay loam. A notable 

increase in elevation occurs across the Piedmont region in the RAH CWA. Elevations 

generally range around 250 feet near the “fall line” and increase to around 1100 feet in the 

extreme northwest part of the CWA. The Coastal Plain is characterized by flat terrain with a 

variety of soil types that are sedimentary in nature. The elevation generally ranges from 50 

feet over the extreme eastern part of the CWA to approximately around 250 feet over the 

western portion of the Coastal Plain near the “fall line.” Within the Coastal Plain is a smaller 

topographic area called the “Sandhills,” where sand is the primary soil type. 

On sunny days, as the sun heats the earth’s surface, the air mass over the Sandhills often 

heats up more quickly than the air over the surrounding area. The differences in these soil 

types can create a differential heating boundary that enhances thunderstorm development 

(North Carolina State Climate Office 2004). While this phenomenon alone does not 

determine the severity of thunderstorms, it does have an impact in defining the areas that are 

more or less likely to experience convective storms. 

The Sandhills and Coastal Plain are in the southeastern most portion of the RAH CWA and 

these areas typically experience the greatest instability relative to other parts of the RAH 

CWA. In addition, the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean and the Piedmont Trough (Koch and 

Ray 1997) is a preferred location of thermal moisture boundaries that can provide enhanced 

convergence for thunderstorm development. 

During specific synoptic patterns, a dome of cold, stable air can become established along the 

eastern slopes of the Appalachian Mountains. This situation is called Cold Air Damming 

(CAD) and it can have a significant impact on the weather between the crest of the 

Appalachian Mountains and the coastal plain. CAD can at times inhibit surface-based 

convection across the Piedmont, especially the Northwest Piedmont, which can curtail the 

potential for severe weather. CAD can also enhance the possibility of severe weather since 

the difference in temperature between the damming region and the coast can exceed 20°C 

during strong CAD events (Bell and Bosart 1988) and result in the development of a 

significant surface boundary. 

3.2 Demographics

4 
One statistical bias that appears in the data and that should be noted is the population density. 

Population statistics were obtained from the 2005 Census. The population of WFO Raleigh’s 

CWA is approximately 3.95 million people (North Carolina State Demographics 2005). 

WFO Raleigh’s CWA is home to 7 of the 10 largest municipalities in the state. Although the 

CWA contains these large population centers, the CWA has a low population density. 

Outside of these population centers, the CWA is mainly rural farmland or heavily forested, 

and contains sparse population. This uneven distribution of people across the CWA (Fig. 3) 

can lead to skewing of observed severe weather events toward the more heavily populated 

locations (e.g., Wake County). 

4. TORNADO CLIMATOLOGY

There have been 284 tornadoes reported across the WFO Raleigh CWA from 1950 to 2005. 

All 31 counties in the WFO Raleigh CWA have had at least 2 confirmed tornadoes during 

that time frame. On average, five tornadoes occur within the WFO Raleigh CWA each year. 

4.1 Monthly Distribution

The monthly distribution of tornadoes (Fig. 4) shows the Raleigh CWA has experienced 

tornadoes at any time of the year. However, tornadoes are most likely to occur during the 

spring (March through May) when 43% or 122 of the total 284 tornadoes have occurred (Fig. 

5). The most active month is May when 59 of the total 284 tornadoes or 21% have been 

reported. Spring is the peak tornado season in the Raleigh CWA because instability is 

increasing while the area is still vulnerable to strong synoptic scale systems with jet stream 

influence. The number of tornadoes decreases dramatically during the summer months (June 

through August), as the jet stream migrates north. There is a pronounced, secondary peak of 

tornadoes in the fall (September through November) (Fig 4). The secondary peak tornado 

season is explained by land-falling tropical systems or their remnants and the southward 

migration of the jet stream from the U.S.-Canadian border. 

4.2 Hourly Distribution

Diurnal trends indicate an increase in tornadoes after the noon hour (Fig. 6). Over half of all 

tornadoes (53%) occur between the afternoon and evening hours of 3 pm to 8 pm (LST). 

Tornado activity peaks in the late afternoon between 5 pm and 7 pm LST. Seventy-eight 

tornadoes (27% of the total) occurred during the 5 pm to 7 pm LST time frame. The data 

shows a gradual decrease in the occurrence of tornadoes during the evening hours, and that 

tornadoes occur infrequently during the late night through the mid-morning. Atmospheric 

instability is a key ingredient in the generation of tornadic thunderstorms and is typically 

maximized during the mid- to late-afternoon hours. 

4.3 Intensity 

The Fujita Scale (F-scale) (Table 1) attempts to classify tornado intensity based on the extent 

of the associated wind damage (Fujita, 1981). The F-scale was updated in February, 2007 

and renamed the Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-scale). The EF-scale value can simply be 

5 
substituted for the F-scale value since only the wind speeds that are associated with a 

particular category (either EF or F) have been updated. Since the F-scale value, not the 

associated wind speed, is included in the historic tornado database, the previous data is still 

valid. 

Of the 284 tornadoes that have been confirmed in Raleigh’s CWA, over three-quarters (218 

of the 284) were classified as F0 or F1 tornadoes (Fig. 7). Sixty-one tornadoes (22%) were 

rated strong (F2 or F3) and only 5 (2%) were rated as F4 tornadoes. Of the five F4 tornadoes, 

three occurred during the March 28, 1984 Carolina Tornado Outbreak. There has never been 

a documented F5 tornado in the RAH CWA. 

A majority of the strong to violent tornadoes in the RAH CWA touch down in the Sandhills 

and Coastal Plain regions (Fig. 8). The Sandhills and Coastal Plain are in the southeastern 

most portion of the RAH CWA and these areas typically experience the greatest instability 

relative to other parts of the Raleigh CWA. In addition, the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean 

and the Piedmont Trough (Koch and Ray 1997) is a preferred location of thermal moisture 

boundaries that can provide enhanced shear needed for tornadogenesis. 

4.4 Association with Tropical Systems

During hurricane season, tropical cyclones or their remnants can track through the Southeast 

and Mid-Atlantic region. Tornadoes frequently occur in the northeast quadrant of northward 

advancing tropical systems or their remnants. Of the 284 tornadoes that were reported in 

Raleigh’s CWA, 48 tornadoes (17%) were associated with tropical systems or their remnants. 

Of these, almost all (96%) were classified as weak (F0-F1) tornadoes. Additionally, tropical 

cyclones that produce tornadoes in the WFO Raleigh CWA can make landfall anywhere 

along the Gulf Coast states, the Southeast, or directly on the North Carolina coast (Fig. 9). 

A record number of tornadoes were reported in 2004, and this was in large part due to the 

active hurricane season (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2004). Tropical 

Storm Bonnie and five land-falling hurricanes (Charley, Frances, Gaston, Ivan and Jeanne) 

affected the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast states during August and September. In fact, the 

active tropical season of 2004 accounted for 10% of all of the tornadoes reported within the 

WFO Raleigh CWA from 1950 to 2005. 

 

5. HAIL CLIMATOLOGY

5.1 Monthly Distribution

The monthly distribution of severe hail events (hail diameter equal to or exceeding 0.75 in.) 

indicates a strong inclination toward the spring season (Fig. 10). There is a sharp increase in 

the number of hail reports from March (150) to the peak month of May (417). The large 

majority (78%) of the hail events occur during the months of April through July. There is a 

significant decrease in thunderstorms that produce hail during the transition from summer to 

fall (103 events in August and 29 events in September). The four month period between 

November and February is very inactive (15 events). The peak occurrence of hail in the 

6 
spring is largely due to the existence of warm boundary layer temperatures along with 

relatively low cool mid levels of the atmosphere. 

5.2 Hourly Distribution

Consistent with the hourly tornado distribution, there is a dramatic increase in severe hail 

after the noon hour (Fig. 11). Nearly two-thirds of the severe hail events, 955 of the 1,453 

total occurrences (66%), were during the hours of 3 pm to 8 pm (LST). A steady decline of 

severe hail occurrences was indicated during the late afternoon and evening hours. Severe 

hail was rare during the overnight and morning hours. The peak of severe hail reports during 

the early-to-mid afternoon hours can largely be attributed to the peak of instability during this 

period. Strong updrafts are important to hail formation and they largely depend on the 

degree of atmospheric instability. 

5.3 Magnitude (Hail Size) 

More than half of the severe hail events (737 events or 51% of the total) in the Raleigh CWA 

were less than one-inch in diameter (Fig. 12). Occurrences of hailstones ranging from one to 

two inches accounted for 45% of the reports. Severe hail in excess of 2 inches in diameter 

accounted for only a small percentage of all severe hail events (~4%). The largest hailstone 

ever reported in the Raleigh CWA during the period was 4.5 inches in diameter. This 

softball-sized hailstone fell in Montgomery County on May 27, 1998 at 625 pm (LST) with a 

non-tornadic supercell thunderstorm. 

6. SEVERE THUNDERSTORM DAMAGING WIND CLIMATOLOGY

6.1 Monthly Distribution

Strong, damaging winds resulting from severe thunderstorms are the most frequently 

observed severe weather event across the Raleigh CWA. The minimum wind speed for a 

thunderstorm to be considered severe is 58 mph (50 kts.). Over the 55-year period between 

1950 and 2005, there were 2413 severe convective wind events (58% of all severe events). 

The frequency of severe convective wind events shows a steady increase during the spring 

and peaks in June (Fig. 13). Nearly 23% of the severe convective wind events (545) 

occurred in June. During the late spring and early summer months of May, June and July, 

1,451 events or 61% of the total occurred. 

6.2 Hourly Distribution

Severe convective wind damage is most common during the mid-afternoon through evening 

hours (Fig. 14). Although severe convective wind events peak between 4 pm and 7 pm 

(LST), they do not decline significantly until after 9 pm (LST), when the contribution of 

daytime heating on atmospheric instability is lost. The majority (74% or 1,597) of all severe 

convective wind events occurred during the 2 pm to 9 pm (LST) time frame. Severe 

thunderstorm damaging wind events drop off significantly between 3 am and 8 am (LST). 

However, severe convective wind events may occur during any hour of the day (Fig. 13). 

7 
7. CONCLUSIONS

The severe weather climatology for the WFO Raleigh CWA provides a historical resource 

for forecasters to use to increase their situational awareness and to better anticipate severe 

weather threats. Understanding the type and frequency of seasonal and diurnal severe 

weather events, as well as the local topography and demographics will greatly enhance 

severe weather warning decisions. In summary: 

• Of all severe thunderstorm events in the Raleigh CWA during the 55 year study period, 

58% of the events resulted from severe convective winds, 34% from hail, and less than 7% 

from tornadoes. 

• While tornadoes can and do develop at any time of the year, over half of the tornadoes 

(55%) occurred between March and June, peaking during the month of May. 

• A secondary peak in tornado events occurred in September, and is likely due to the impact 

of tropical cyclones or their remnants along with a southward adjustment of the polar jet. 

• Nearly 17% of all tornadoes reported in the WFO Raleigh CWA from 1950 to 2005 were 

associated with a tropical cyclone or its remnants. 

• More than half (53%) of all tornadoes occurred between the afternoon hours of 3 pm and 8 

pm (LST) with the activity peaking between 5 pm and 7 pm (LST). 

• Over three quarters (77%) of all tornado events were classified as weak tornadoes (F0 or 

F1). Only 5 tornadoes (2% of the total) have been reported at an F4 intensity. There were no 

reports of tornadoes rated as F5 intensity over the POR. 

• Nearly 78% of severe hail events occurred between April and July, with 66% of events 

observed between the hours of 3 pm and 8 pm (LST). 

• Just over half (51%) of all severe hail reports were less than one inch in diameter. 

• Over half (61%) of all severe convective wind events occurred in the late spring and early 

summer months of May, June and July and peaked in June. 

• A large majority (74%) of all severe convective wind events occurred during the 2 pm to 9 

pm (LST) time frame, peaking between 4 pm and 7 pm (LST). 

• Counties with a higher population density are more likely to report events while counties 

with lower population densities are more likely to have events that are unreported. This 

results in an inherent bias of severe weather events toward counties with a larger population 

density. 

• The population in Raleigh’s CWA has grown tremendously during the past 55 years. The 

reporting of severe weather events has increased as a result during this period. 

8 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The author would like to thank Jeff Orrock, Warning Coordinator Meteorologist, and Scott 

Sharp, Lead Forecaster, at WFO Raleigh for assistance in validating data. The author would 

particularly like to thank Jonathan Blaes, Science Operations Office at WFO Raleigh and 

Kermit Keeter, former Science Operations Officer at WFO Raleigh, for their careful review 

of this paper and offering many helpful suggestions for improvement. 

REFERENCES 

Bell, B. D. and L. F. Bosart, 1988: Appalachian cold-air damming. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 

137–161. 

Fujita, T.T., 1981: Tornadoes and downbursts in the context of generalized planetary scales. 

J. Atmos. Sci. 38, 1511-34. 

Hart, J. A., 1993: SVRPLOT: A new method of accessing and manipulating 

the NSSFC Severe Weather Database. Preprints, 17th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, St. 

Louis, MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 40–41. 

Koch, S.E., and C.A. Ray, 1997: Mesoanalysis of summertime convergence zones in Central 

and Eastern North Carolina. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 56–77. 

National Climatic Data Center, 2008: Storm Events. [Available online at 

http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwEvent~Storms] 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2004: NOAA Reports Record Number of 

Tornadoes in 2004. [Available online at 

http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2004/s2359.htm] 

National Weather Service, 2005: National Weather Service Instruction 10-511. [Available 

on-line at http://www.nws.noaa.gov/directives/sym/pd01005011curr.pdf] 

NOAA Coastal Services Center, 2008: Historical Hurricane Tracks. [Available online at 

http://maps.csc.noaa.gov/hurricanes/] 

NOAA, Storm Prediction Center, 2008: Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage. [Available 

on-line at http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ef-scale.html] 

North Carolina State Climate Office, 2004: Thunderstorms more frequent in the Sandhills 

Region. [Available on-line at http://www.nc-climate.ncsu.edu/climate/sandhills.html] 

North Carolina State Demographics, 2005 : County/State Population Projections. [Available 

online at http://demog.state.nc.us/ ] 

9 
Figure 1. WFO Raleigh, NC (RAH) County Warning Area (CWA).

Figure 2. Topographic map of the WFO RAH CWA. Elevation shown in thousands of feet.

10 
Figure 3. Comparison of projected county population density (dashed) to the number of severe events reported f

(solid) for the WFO Raleigh CWA.

11
Figure 5. Seasonal tornado climatology (1950 to 2005) in the WFO Raleigh CWA.

12 

Figure 4. The monthly distribution of tornadoes (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh CWA. 
Figure 6. The hourly distribution of tornadoes (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh CWA. 

Figure 7. The tornado intensity distribution by Fujita Scale (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh 

CWA. 

13 
Table 1. A comparison of the Fujita Scale and the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. The Fujita scale was used to a

tornadoes prior to February 1, 2007 (Table obtained from the NOAA, Storm Prediction Center on-line at http://spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ef-scale.html). 

14
15

Figure 8. Historical F3-F5 tornado tracks (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh CWA. Graphic produced via SVRPthe Storm Prediction Center, Norman, OK. The SVRPLOT software is available on-line at http://www.spc.noaa.gov/software/svrplot/index.html
Figure 9. Historical tropical cyclone tracks that produced tornadoes within the WFO Raleigh CWA from 1950-2

of the NOAA Coastal Services Center [Data is available on-line at http://maps.csc.noaa.gov/hurricanes]. 

16
17 

Figure 11. The hourly distribution of severe hail events (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh CWA.

Figure 10. The monthly distribution of severe hail events (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh CWA. 
18 

Figure 12. The distribution of hail size for severe hail events (1950-2005) in the WFO Raleigh 

CWA. 

Figure 13. The monthly distribution of severe convective wind events (1950-2005) in the WFO 

Raleigh CWA.
19 

Figure 14. The hourly distribution of severe convective wind events (1950-2005) in the WFO 

Raleigh CWA.
NWS ER 46 An Objective Method of Forecasting Summertime Thunderstorms. John F. Townsend and Russell J. Younkin. May 1972. (COM-72-10765). 

NWS ER 47 An Objective Method of Preparing Cloud Cover Forecasts. James R. Sims. August 1972. (COM-72-11382). NWS ER 48 Accuracy of Automated Temperature Forecasts for Philadelphia as Related to Sky Condition and Wind Direction. Robert B. Wassall. September 1972. (COM-72-11473). 

NWS ER 49 A Procedure for Improving National Meteorological Center Objective Precipitation Forecasts. Joseph A. Ronco, Jr. November 1972. (COM-73-10132). 

NWS ER 50 PEATMOS Probability of Precipitation Forecasts as an Aid in Predicting Precipitation Amounts. Stanley E. Wasserman. December 1972. (COM-73-10243). 

NWS ER 51 Frequency and Intensity of Freezing Rain/Drizzle in Ohio. Marvin E. Miller. February 1973. (COM-73-10570). 

NWS ER 52 Forecast and Warning Utilization of Radar Remote Facsimile Data. Robert E. Hamilton. July 1973. (COM-73-11275). NWS ER 53 Summary of 1969 and 1970 Public Severe Thunderstorm and Tornado Watches Within the National Weather Service, 

 Eastern Region. Marvin E. Miller and Lewis H. Ramey. October 1973. (COM-74-10160) 

NWS ER 54 A Procedure for Improving National Meteorological Center Objective Precipitation Forecasts - Winter Season. Joseph A. Ronco, Jr. November 1973. (COM-74-10200). 

NWS ER 55 Cause and Prediction of Beach Erosion. Stanley E. Wasserman and David B. Gilhousen. December 1973.(COM-74-10036). 

NWS ER 56 Biometeorological Factors Affecting the Development and Spread of Planet Diseases. V.J. Valli. July 1974. (COM-74-11625/AS). 

NWS ER 57 Heavy Fall and Winter Rain In The Carolina Mountains. David B. Gilhousen. October 1974. (COM-74-11761/AS). 

NWS ER 58 An Analysis of Forecasters' Propensities In Maximum/Minimum Temperature Forecasts. I. Randy Racer. November 1974. 

 COM-75-10063/AS). 

NWS ER 59 Digital Radar Data and its Application in Flash Flood Potential. David D. Sisk. March 1975. (COM-75-10582/AS). 

NWS ER 60 Use of Radar Information in Determining Flash Flood Potential. Stanley E. Wasserman. December 1975. (PB250071/AS). NWS ER 61 Improving Short-Range Precipitation Guidance During the Summer Months. David B. Gilhousen. March 1976. (PB256427). 

NWS ER 62 Locally Heavy Snow Downwind from Cooling Towers. Reese E. Otts. December 1976. (PB263390/AS). 

NWS ER 63 Snow in West Virginia. Marvin E. Miller. January 1977. (PB265419/AS). NWS ER 64 Wind Forecasting for the Monongahela National Forest. Donald E. Risher. August 1977. (PB272138/AS). NWS ER 65 A Procedure for Spraying Spruce Budworms in Maine during Stable Wind Conditions. Monte Glovinsky. May 1980. (PB80-203243). 

NWS ER 66 Contributing Factors to the 1980-81 Water Supply Drought, Northeast U.S. Solomon G. Summer. June 1981. 

 (PB82-172974). 

NWS ER 67 A Computer Calculation and Display System for SLOSH Hurricane Surge Model Data. John F. Townsend. May 1984. (PB84-198753). 

NWS ER 68 A Comparison Among Various Thermodynamic Parameters for the Prediction of Convective Activity. Hugh M. Stone. April 1985. (PB85-206217/AS). 

NWS ER 69 A Comparison Among Various Thermodynamic Parameters for the Prediction of Convective Activity, Part II. Hugh M. Stone. December 1985. (PB86-142353/AS). 

NWS ER 70 Hurricane Gloria's Potential Storm Surge. Anthony G. Gigi and David A. Wert. July 1986. (PB86-226644/AS). NWS ER 71 Washington Metropolitan Wind Study 1981-1986. Clarence Burke, Jr. and Carl C. Ewald. February 1987. (PB87-151908/AS). 

NWS ER 72 Mesoscale Forecasting Topics. Hugh M. Stone. March 1987. (PB87-180246/AS). NWS ER 73 A Procedure for Improving First Period Model Output Statistics Precipitation Forecasts. Antonio J. Lacroix and Joseph A. 

 Ronco. Jr. April 1987. (PB87-180238/AS). 

NWS ER 74 The Climatology of Lake Erie's South Shoreline. John Kwiatkowski. June 1987. (PB87-205514/AS). 

NWS ER 75 Wind Shear as a Predictor of Severe Weather for the Eastern United States. Hugh M. Stone. January 1988. (PB88-157144). NWS ER 76 Is There A Temperature Relationship Between Autumn and the Following Winter? Anthony Gigi. February 1988. (PB88-173224). 

NWS ER 77 River Stage Data for South Carolina. Clara Cillentine. April 1988. (PB88-201991/AS). NWS ER 78 National Weather Service Philadelphia Forecast Office 1987 NOAA Weather Radio Survey & Questionnaire. Robert P. Wanton. October 1988. (PB89-111785/AS). 

NWS ER 79 An Examination of NGM Low Level Temperature. Joseph A. Ronco, Jr. November 1988. (PB89- 122543/AS). 

NWS ER 80 Relationship of Wind Shear, Buoyancy, and Radar Tops to Severe Weather 1988. Hugh M. Stone. November 1988. (PB89-1222419/AS). 

NWS ER 81 Relation of Wind Field and Buoyancy to Rainfall Inferred from Radar. Hugh M. Stone. April 1989. (PB89-208326/AS). NWS ER 82 Second National Winter Weather Workshop, 26-30 Sept. 1988: Postprints. Laurence G. Lee. June 1989.(PB90-147414/AS). 

NWS ER 83 A Historical Account of Tropical Cyclones that Have Impacted North Carolina Since 1586. James D. Stevenson. July 1990. (PB90-259201). 

NWS ER 84 A Seasonal Analysis of the Performance of the Probability of Precipitation Type Guidance System. George J. Maglaras and 

 Barry S. Goldsmith. September 1990. (PB93-160802) 

NWS ER 85 The Use of ADAP to Examine Warm and Quasi-Stationary Frontal Events in the Northeastern United States. David R. 

Vallee. July 1991. (PB91-225037) NWS ER 86 Rhode Island Hurricanes and Tropical Storms A Fifty-Six Year Summary 1936-1991. David R. Vallee. March 1993. (PB93- 162006) 

NWS ER 87 Post-print Volume, Third National Heavy Precipitation Workshop, 16-20 Nov. 1992. April 1993. (PB93-186625) NWS ER 88 A Synoptic and Mesoscale Examination of the Northern New England Winter Storm of 29-30 January 1990. Robert A. Marine and Steven J. Capriola. July 1994. (PB94-209426) NWS ER 89 An Initial Comparison of Manual and Automated Surface Observing System Observations at the Atlantic City, New Jersey, International Airport. James C. Hayes and Stephan C. Kuhl. January 1995. NWS ER 90 Numerical Simulation Studies of the Mesoscale Environment Conducive to the Raleigh Tornado. Michael L. Kaplan, Robert 

A. Rozumalski, Ronald P. Weglarz, Yuh-Lang Lin , Steven Businger, and Rodney F. Gonski. November 1995. 

NWS ER 91 A Climatology of Non-convective High Wind Events in Western New York State. Thomas A. Niziol and Thomas J. Paone. 

April 2000. NWS ER 92 Tropical Cyclones Affecting North Carolina Since 1586 - An Historical Perspective. James E. Hudgins. April 2000. NWS ER 93 A Severe Weather Climatology for the Wilmington, NC WFO County Warning Area. Carl R., Morgan. October 2001. NWS ER 94 Surface-based Rain, Wind, and Pressure Fields in Tropical Cyclones over North Carolina since 1989. Joel Cline. June 2002. 

NWS ER 95 A Severe Weather Climatology for the Charleston, South Carolina, WFO County Warning Area. Stephen Brueske, Lauren Plourd, Matthen Volkmer. July 2002. 

NWS ER 96 A Severe Weather Climatology for the WFO Wakefield, VA County Warning Area. Brian T. Cullen. May 2003. (PB2003-105462) 

NWS ER 97 Severe Weather Climatology for the Columbia, SC WFO County Warning Area. Leonard C. Vaughan. September 2003. (PB2004-100999) 

NWS ER 98 Climatology of Heavy Rainfall Associated with Tropical Cyclones Affecting the Central Appalachians. James Hudgins, Steve Keighton, Kenneth Kostura, Jan Jackson. September 2005. NWS ER 99 A Severe Weather Climatology for the WFO Blacksburg, Virginia, County Warning Area. Robert Stonefield, James Hudgins. January 2007. 

NWS ER 100 Tropical Cyclones Affecting North Carolina Since 1586 - An Historical Perspective.

 James E. Hudgins. October 2007. 
NOAA SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration was established as part of the Department of Commerce 

on October 3, 1970. The mission responsibilities of NOAA are to assess the socioeconomic impact of natural 

and technological changes in the environment and to monitor and predict the state of the solid Earth, the oceans 

and their living resources, the atmosphere, and the space environment of the Earth. 

The major components of NOAA regularly produce various types of scientific and technical information in the 

following kinds of publications: 

PROFESSIONAL PAPERS--Important definitive 

research results, major techniques, and special 

investigations. 

CONTRACT AND GRANT REPORTS--Reports 

prepared by contractors or grantees under NOAA 

sponsorship. 

ATLAS--Presentation of analyzed data generally in 

the form of maps showing distribution of rainfall, 

chemical and physical conditions of oceans and 

atmosphere, distribution of fishes and marine 

mammals, ionospheric conditions, etc. 

TECHNICAL SERVICE PUBLICATIONS--

Reports containing data, observations, instructions, 

etc. A partial listing includes data serials; prediction 

and outlook periodicals; technical manuals, training 

papers, planning reports, and information serials; and 

miscellaneous technical publications. 

TECHNICAL REPORTS--Journal quality with 

extensive details, mathematical developments, or 

data listings. 

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS--Reports of 

preliminary, partial, or negative research or 

technology results, interim instructions, and the like. 

Information on availability of NOAA publications can be obtained 

from:

NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

5285 PORT ROYAL ROAD 

SPRINGFIELD, VA 22161