Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries 

in the United States, 1996–2005

Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5198

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Flow of cadmium from rechargeable 

batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

By David R. Wilburn

Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5198

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark D. Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2007

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Suggested citation:

Wilburn, D.R., 2007, Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5198, 27 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Contribution of the NiCd Battery Sector to the Rechargeable Battery Industry in the 

United States.....................................................................................................................................2

Study Methodology........................................................................................................................................4

Analysis of the Data.......................................................................................................................................5

Total Consumption ................................................................................................................................5

Recycling................................................................................................................................................8

Summary........................................................................................................................................................12

References cited..........................................................................................................................................14

Appendix........................................................................................................................................................16

Figures

1. Diagram showing principal cadmium sources and end uses in the United States...........3

2–4. Graph showing—

2. Percentage of global rechargeable battery sales for the principal battery 

types, 1986–2005 ..................................................................................................................4

3. Distribution of cadmium metal contained in batteries and battery products

imported to the United States, 1996–2005........................................................................7

4. Distribution of cadmium metal contained in batteries and battery products

exported from the United States, 1996–2005...................................................................7

5. Diagram showing total consumption of cadmium metal in the United States 

in 2004 .............................................................................................................................................8

6–7. Graph showing—

6. Estimated service life distribution pattern for a 15-year life battery ..........................9

7. Estimated quantity of cadmium recovered from the recycling of batteries 

in the United States, 1996–2005.......................................................................................10

8. Diagram showing estimates for cadmium municipal solid waste (MSW) 

generation in the United States for 2004 from nickel-cadmium batteries.........................13

Tables

1. Estimates of the amount of cadmium metal contained in nickel-cadmium batteries 

imported to and exported from the United States, for selected years. ...............................6

2. Estimated amount of contained cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries available 

for recovery and recovery rates in the United States for 1996–2005.................................11

3. Estimates of cadmium metal attributed to rechargeable batteries in the 

United States, 1996–2005...........................................................................................................12
iv

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

ounce, troy (tr. oz) 0.0311 gram (g) 

pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 

ton, short (2,000 lb) 0.9072 megagram (Mg) 
Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the 

United States, 1996–2005

By David R. Wilburn

Abstract

Cadmium metal has been found to be toxic to humans 

and the environment under certain conditions; therefore, a 

thorough understanding of the use and disposal of the metal 

is warranted. Most of the cadmium used in the United States 

comes from imported products. In 2005, more than 80 percent 

of the cadmium used in the United States was contained in 

batteries, mostly in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries 

used in popular consumer products such as cordless phones 

and power tools. The flow of cadmium contained in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries used in the United States was 

tracked for the years 1996 to 2005. The amount of cadmium 

metal contained in imported products in 2004 was estimated to 

be about 3,000 metric tons, or about three times the reported 

cadmium production in the United States from all primary and 

secondary sources. More than 40,000 metric tons of cadmium 

were estimated to be contained in rechargeable batteries that 

became obsolete during the 10-year study period. As much as 

11 percent of this material was recycled, and the balance was 

placed in municipal solid waste landfills.

Introduction

More than 350 million rechargeable batteries are purchased annually in the United States (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2002b). Rechargeable batteries, including 

nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries and sealed lead-acid batteries, contain toxic heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and 

mercury, which, when used and disposed of properly, present little threat to human health. These materials can cause 

harm to the environment and humans if they are discarded or 

incinerated improperly. In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) classified cadmium as a Group B1 

probable human carcinogen (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2000). In that same year, about 146,000 metric tons 

(t) of consumer batteries of all types, many of which contained 

cadmium, were discarded in the United States (Klimasauskas, 

Kuck, and Plunkert, 2006). In recognition of the potential 

environmental hazards associated with cadmium metal exposure, some States have limited cadmium use in some consumer 

products and are regulating cadmium disposal. Similarly, the 

European Union issued regulations in 1999 designed to regulate cadmium disposal. Recent regulatory emphasis appears to 

have shifted from the complete elimination of cadmium use 

to proper risk management of cadmium-containing products 

(Morrow, 2005).

Environmental concerns regarding the use of cadmium 

and increased reliance on foreign production of cadmium 

compounds have contributed to reduced cadmium production 

and consumption in the United States since 1990. Cadmium 

use in coating and plating, pigments, and plastics has dropped 

from 78 percent of cadmium apparent consumption in 1980 

to 19 percent in 2005, whereas cadmium use in batteries has 

increased from 22 percent of cadmium apparent consumption in the United States in 1980 to 81 percent of apparent 

consumption in 2005. During the same period, cadmium use 

in batteries on a tonnage basis has decreased about 32 percent 

(Kuck, 2006). Although substitution by alternative battery 

chemistries (such as nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion 

batteries) during this period has reduced demand for NiCd 

batteries in some applications, millions of rechargeable batteries are in use, in storage, or have been discarded as municipal 

solid waste (MSW) in landfills. Available data on cadmium 

battery recycling in the United States indicate that only a small 

portion of this material is currently being recycled. 

In order to estimate the affects of cadmium from the battery sector on the environment, it is necessary to quantify the 

amounts of cadmium contained in batteries that are recycled or 

discarded as waste. There are several reasons why it is difficult 

to make such estimates. One impediment to quantifying the 

amount of cadmium that is being recycled from NiCd batteries 

is that data on the amount of obsolete NiCd batteries are not 

readily available. Detailed production data by International 

Metals Reclamation Co., Inc. (INMETCO), the only cadmium 

recycler in the United States, are considered proprietary.

The United States passed legislation in 1996 [U.S.C. 

14301-14336 (Battery Act)] which, among other purposes, 

removed certain barriers to the collection and recycling of 

rechargeable batteries (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2002b). Although no mandatory Federal regulations exist 

requiring cadmium recycling, 13 States (as of 2004) have 
2 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

passed legislation regulating battery labeling and removability from consumer products and 8 States have “takeback” 

requirements that apply to NiCd batteries (Klimasauskas, 

Kuck, and Plunkert, 2006). A voluntary collection program 

for rechargeable batteries in Canada and the United States 

was initiated in 1994 by the Rechargeable Battery Recycling 

Corporation (RBRC). The RBRC data are reported in terms 

of the number of batteries recycled; statistics on the types of 

batteries collected and their cadmium content are not released. 

Although the RBRC is the largest rechargeable battery recovery organization in the United States, other organizations also 

collect batteries for recycling, and some larger battery manufacturers collect batteries internally and send them directly to 

INMETCO or European recyclers (Boehme and Panero, 2003, 

p. 41).

Another difficulty in estimating the cadmium battery 

recycling rate in the United States is the measurement of 

cadmium battery consumption in the Nation. Cadmium metal 

consumption data attributed to battery production are not collected by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), although estimates of apparent consumption by end-use sector are available 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2005). Data on cadmium contained 

in manufactured products that are imported to or exported 

from the United States also are not reported. Although the 

U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC) reports data on the 

number of individual NiCd batteries imported to and exported 

from the United States annually, the ITC does not provide a 

direct source of information as to the quantity of cadmium 

contained in these batteries, nor does it account for batteries 

contained in prepackaged products (containing both the product and a battery to power the product).

A third impediment to estimation of the domestic cadmium battery recycling rate is the lack of data showing the 

distribution of cadmium content among the numerous battery 

types and products that become available for recycling each 

year. Although large industrial batteries are easy to collect and 

are recycled at a reported rate of about 80 percent, smaller 

consumer NiCd batteries have a much lower reported recycling rate of no more than 20 percent (Klimasauskas, Kuck, 

and Plunkert, 2006). The reported recycling information does 

not provide separate estimates of the metal content of consumer and industrial battery type, so it is difficult to quantify 

the amount of cadmium recovered from each type.

In an attempt to overcome these limitations, this study 

integrated information on the domestic production and 

consumption of batteries containing cadmium, the quantity 

of cadmium that was imported and exported either in separate batteries or contained in prepackaged products, and the 

quantity of cadmium that was recovered by recycling of both 

consumer and industrial NiCd batteries. The scope of this 

study was limited by its assumptions related to average battery 

weight, cadmium content by battery class, and trade category 

distribution. The assumptions that were made for this analysis are shown in the appendix. The study supplements USGS 

reported mineral production and mineral commodity consumption statistics, which provide information essential for government, non-government organizations, and the public to gain a 

better understanding of how and where materials are used and 

draw inferences as to their possible effect on the environment 

and society.

This report describes the flow of cadmium contained in 

rechargeable NiCd batteries used in the United States for the 

period 1996 to 2005 and presents estimates of the amount of 

cadmium that was in use, in consumer storage, and recovered 

by recycling during this period. It also presents an estimate of 

how much cadmium entered the municipal solid waste stream 

between 1996 and 2005. 

Contribution of the NiCd Battery Sector 

to the Rechargeable Battery Industry in 

the United States

It is necessary to understand the contribution of the NiCd 

battery sector to the U.S. rechargeable battery industry before 

it is possible to determine the material flow of cadmium in the 

United States from this sector. The 2005 sources and principal 

end uses of cadmium metal in the United States are shown in 

figure 1. Domestic production of cadmium metal in the United 

States occurs in two principal ways. It is a byproduct of the 

smelting and refining of zinc and a remnant of the recycling 

of scrap containing cadmium. Other sources of secondary 

cadmium, such as electric arc furnace dust, electroplating 

waste, filter cakes, and sludges, are small and diminishing 

(Plachy, 2003b), so are not considered in this study. Although 

domestic cadmium consumption data are not compiled by 

the USGS, end use distribution data are reported annually 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2005; Kuck, 2006), on the basis of 

global end use distribution percentages reported in the Mining Journal, Annual Mining Review issue by Hugh Morrow, 

President of the International Cadmium Association (Hugh 

Morrow, oral commun., 2007). Distribution data on mineral 

consumption in the United States are not readily available by 

individual end use, so international estimates were used in 

this study to estimate the amount attributed to batteries. For 

2005, approximately 81 percent of the cadmium consumed 

in the United States was estimated to have been consumed 

in batteries (Kuck, 2006), and most of the cadmium that was 

consumed came from batteries imported primarily from China 

and Japan. Although battery end-use applications vary over 

time, the principal end uses for NiCd batteries in 2005, based 

upon the amount of cadmium contained in each type, are 

industrial batteries (such as batteries used in the transportation sector for emergency lighting), batteries for electrically 

powered vehicles, and small consumer rechargeable batteries 

(such as batteries used in cordless phones, electric lamps, and 

power tools). Batteries are imported separately and as part of 

prepackaged consumer products.

Environmental concerns about cadmium toxicity and 

technological advances have led to the development and 
Contribution of the NiCd Battery Sector to the Rechargeable Battery Industry in the United States 3

Sources ofcadmium in theUnited States1

Domestic cadmium metal production from zinc refiningDomestic secondary metal production from battery recycling, electric arc furnace dust, and other wastesMetal imports for consumptionIndustry stocks and Government shipmentsImported products containing cadmium

End uses of cadmium in the United States1

Batteries - 81%Pigments - 10%Coatings - 7%Stabilizers - 1.5%Other - 0.5%

Industrial - 7%Consumer - 93%

Industrial storage batteries (850738090)Emergency lighting (860800)Military applications (910400)

7% of imported cadmium by weight

Separate storage batteries - 75%Batteries enclosed in products - 18%

Batteries for electrically-powered vehiclesSmall consumer storage batteriesCamcorders (852540)Clocks with batteries (9103, 9105, 9106, 9109)Cordless phones (851711)Electric toothbrushes (850980)Flashlights with batteries (8513102000)Portable lamps (8513104000)Portable radios with batteries (8527120000)Portable vacuum cleaners (8509100020)Power tools (8508100010)Shavers (8510100000)

55% of imported cadmium by weight20% of imported cadmium by weight

18% of imported cadmium by weight

1Sources of cadmium in the United States as reported by Plachy (2003b) in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1196-O.

End use percentages reported for 2005 by Kuck (2006) in U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries 2006, p. 42–43.

ning batteries in the Harmonized 

eight percentage estimates for 2005 were developed from ITC data for each of the reported 

Principal cadmium sources and end uses in the United States. [Numbers in parentheses reflect classifications of cadmium-contai

rade Commission (ITC). W

Figure 1.Tariff Schedule (HTS) as reported by the U.S. International THTS classifications and average battery content data as reported by selected battery manufacturers.]
4 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

increased use of alternative battery chemistries (such as the 

nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries) within the 

rechargeable battery sector. Data on rechargeable battery sales 

in the United States are not readily available, but worldwide 

data published by the Battery Association of Japan (2006) 

show that (1) NiCd battery sales peaked in 1992, (2) the 

nickel-metal hydride battery market share increased significantly between 1992 and 2000, and (3) the market share for 

the lithium-ion rechargeable battery has grown rapidly since 

2000. These trends are shown in figure 2. In 2004, NiCd 

batteries accounted for about 25 percent of the worldwide 

rechargeable battery market, nickel-metal hydride batteries accounted for about 20 percent, and lithium-ion batteries accounted for about 52 percent (Battery Association of 

Japan, 2006). In spite of declining NiCd battery sales, ITC 

data indicate that the United States imported over 72 million 

NiCd batteries in 2004, and many more NiCd batteries were 

imported as part of prepackaged electronic products (U.S. 

International Trade Commission, 2006). Although this study 

focuses on the 1996 to 2005 period, some batteries produced 

prior to this period (when NiCd batteries accounted for a much 

larger market share, as shown in figure 2) are included when 

considering the amount of cadmium available for recycling 

during the study period.

Study Methodology

The study methodology applies a materials flow approach 

to help gain an understanding of what happens to materials we use from the time a material is extracted, through its 

processing and manufacturing, to its ultimate disposition. In 

order to describe the cadmium flows in the United States, it 

is necessary to estimate cadmium consumption in the Nation. 

Apparent consumption of cadmium metal in the United States, 

as calculated by the USGS using the production data of individual companies, U.S. foreign trade statistics, and reported 

inventory stock changes, is reported annually in the USGS 

Minerals Yearbook and USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries series. For this study, apparent consumption is defined 

as mine production + secondary refined production + metal 

imports for consumption – metal exports + adjustments for 

industry and Government stock changes. Such consumption 

data, however, do not include the amount of mineral commodities contained in manufactured products that are imported 

to and exported from the United States. Available data indicate 

that the amount of cadmium metal contained in products 

imported into the United States, particularly from the NiCd 

battery sector, is much larger than the amount of cadmium that 

is annually consumed from domestic refined metal production.

TOTAL GLOBAL RECHARGEABLE BATTERY SALES, IN PERCENT

Other rechargeable battery types

Nickel-cadmium batteries

Nickel metal hydride batteries

Lithium-ion batteries

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

YEAR

Figure 2. Percentage of global rechargeable battery sales for the principal battery types, 1986–2005. [Data modified from Battery 

Association of Japan (2006).]
Analysis of the Data 5

Import and export trade data, expressed in terms of the 

number of battery units, as reported by the ITC (U.S. International Trade Commission, 2006) were reviewed for this 

study. Data were available for 1996 to 2005, so this period 

was chosen for study. The 10-digit Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) classifications were reviewed to determine which 

classifications contained NiCd batteries or products using 

these batteries. Import and export data were collected for each 

selected classification, including classifications for separate 

storage batteries and prepackaged products thought to contain 

NiCd batteries.

Because NiCd battery trade data are reported by the ITC 

in very general categories for separate batteries and batteries contained in prepackaged products, it was necessary to 

estimate the battery distribution within each category prior to 

determining the amount of cadmium included in that category. 

The distribution of some categories was straightforward; for 

others, many assumptions were required. Assumptions are 

presented in the appendix.

Battery distribution assumptions related to the category 

“nickel-cadmium storage batteries, not elsewhere specified” 

(HTS code 8507308090), which includes most industrial NiCd 

batteries, requires further discussion because of the quantity 

of batteries found in this category. The data indicate that this 

category includes large industrial batteries and small consumer 

batteries and battery components. Trade data were reported as 

both units of quantity and value, by country. After discussions 

with ITC personnel and the USGS cadmium specialist, it was 

decided that the calculated unit value ($/unit) would provide 

a means of estimating the relative percentage of distribution 

between these two imported battery types, by country. A sliding scale was set up to determine the percentage attributed to 

industrial batteries by using the reported unit value. In general, 

the higher the unit value reported for a particular country, the 

greater was the percentage of industrial batteries attributed 

to that country. The total number of units attributed as either 

industrial type batteries or consumer type batteries were developed by aggregating the estimates for the individual countries. 

Estimates were found to be in close agreement with nonpublic 

information available to the ITC, which provided support for 

this data estimation methodology.

Estimates of the average cadmium content included in 

each selected HTS NiCd battery classification were developed. 

Because individual HTS classifications may include more than 

one battery type, it was necessary to review each classification and make assumptions as to the distribution of battery 

types for each category. Worldwide market data were used as 

an approximation for the types of batteries included in each 

of the major battery applications in the United States (Pillot, 

2004). Because data were most often expressed in terms of 

the quantity of batteries, an estimate for the average amount 

of cadmium contained within each battery or battery product 

classification was developed, so that an estimate of the total 

amount of cadmium contained in that classification could be 

made. The amount of cadmium contained in NiCd batteries 

varies substantially with battery type and slightly by manufacturer. Estimates of cadmium content were based on data 

provided by selected battery manufacturers for various battery 

types. On the basis of the reported description for each classification, a specific battery or group of batteries was selected 

to depict the “average” battery for that classification. From 

the weights of these batteries as reported by the manufacturers 

and assuming a typical cadmium content for that battery type 

(Vangheluwe, Verdonck, and Versonnen, 2005, p. 11), cadmium content for each classification was determined. In cases 

where the classification was thought to contain battery types 

other than NiCd batteries, the percentage attributable to NiCd 

batteries was based on the reported distribution of battery 

types, by application, in the European battery market (Pillot, 

2004, 2005). Estimates for the average amount of cadmium 

contained in generalized battery types are summarized in the 

appendix.

Analysis of the Data

Total Consumption

Estimates for the amount of cadmium contained in NiCd 

batteries imported to and exported from the United States for 

selected years within the 1996–2005 study period, based on 

ITC data, are summarized in table 1. Trade classifications 

included in this analysis also are reported in table 1. Estimates 

for the entire study period indicate that the United States 

imports many more NiCd batteries than it exports, making it 

a net importer of cadmium contained in rechargeable batteries. The distribution of cadmium metal contained in imported 

and exported batteries for the study period is shown in figures 

3 and 4, respectively. In 2005, about 55 percent (by weight) 

of the imported cadmium in NiCd batteries was contained in 

batteries for electrically powered vehicles, about 20 percent 

of the cadmium was contained in small sealed consumer 

batteries, about 18 percent of the cadmium was contained in 

batteries enclosed in prepackaged consumer products, and 

about 7 percent of the cadmium was contained in industrial 

batteries. NiCd batteries are not used in mass-produced passenger vehicles but may be used in industrial vehicle applications and passenger vehicle research. About 60 percent of the 

exported cadmium contained in NiCd batteries (by weight) 

was contained in separate batteries, and about 40 percent of 

the cadmium was in batteries enclosed in prepackaged products in 2005. The United States imported about 2,500 t more 

cadmium in NiCd batteries than it exported in 2005.

Combining these data with cadmium production and 

consumption data reported annually by the USGS allows the 

total consumption of cadmium metal in the United States to 

be calculated for each year of the study period. For this study, 

total consumption in the United States is defined as apparent consumption + cadmium contained in imported products 

– cadmium contained in exported products. The quantity of 
6 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005 Table 1. Estimates of the amount of cadmium metal contained in nickel-cadmium batteries imported to and exported from the United States, for selected years. [Data are reported in metric tons of cadmium metal contained in selected batteries and products containing batteries, modified from U.S. International Trade Commission (2006), and discussions with Peter Kuck (U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 2006). All values expressed as metric tons of contained cadmium metal. Values may not total because of rounding; <. less than] Classification 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2005 Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Storage batteries, separate1 NA 130 NA 150 NA 140 NA 85 NA 41 NA 52 Electrically-powered vehicle batteries2 2,600 NA 360 NA 410 NA 450 NA 1,000 NA 1,400 NA Sealed consumer batteries3 1,600 NA 1,000 NA 960 NA 630 NA 530 NA 520 NA Industrial batteries4 130 NA 82 NA 390 NA 150 NA 250 NA 180 NA Miscellaneous batteries and battery waste5 32 NA 31 NA 18 NA 13 NA < 10 NA < 10 NA Subtotal: nickel-cadmium batteries 4,300 130 1,500 150 1,800 140 1,200 85 1,800 41 2,100 52 Batteries enclosed in products Power tools6 15 < 10 25 < 10 38 < 10 46 0 56 0 68 0 Cordless phones7 140 < 10 210 19 260 21 270 29 250 20 230 15 Camcorders8 83 < 1 47 < 1 41 < 1 42 < 1 16 < 1 < 10 < 1 Portable radios9 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 1 < 1 < 1 < 1 Shavers10 13 < 1 15 < 1 16 < 1 16 < 10 33 < 10 24 < 10 Electric toothbrushes11 < 10 0 < 10 0 13 0 47 0 51 0 40 0 Portable vacuum cleaners12 31 15 38 15 50 16 76 14 39 10 21 < 10 Flashlights13 18 < 1 25 < 1 29 < 1 28 < 1 28 0 20 0 Portable electric lamps (bicycle, etc.)14 69 29 63 33 100 50 92 34 81 19 69 13 Clock batteries, reported separately15 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 10 < 1 Military batteries, reported separately16 < 10 < 1 < 1 < 1 < 1 < 10 < 1 < 1 < 1 0 < 1 < 1 Subtotal: nickel-cadmium batteries in products 380 54 430 70 500 90 620 80 570 50 480 35 Totals 4,700 180 1,900 220 2,300 230 1,900 160 2,400 90 2,600 90 Net cadmium from imported batteries17 4,500 1,700 2,100 1,700 2,300 2,500 1 Includes cadmium contained in separate nickel-cadmium storage batteries exported as Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) codes 8507300000 and 8507300050 (8.4 g/unit) as reported by the International Trade Commission.

2 Includes cadmium contained in separate nickel-cadmium storage batteries imported as HTS code 8507304000 (2.3 kilograms per unit).3 Includes cadmium contained in separate nickel-cadmium storage batteries imported as HTS code 8507308010 (8.4 grams per unit).4 Includes cadmium contained in separate nickel-cadmium storage batteries imported as HTS code 8507308090 (1.2 kilograms per unit). Industrial batteries determined by country on a unit value basis.5 Includes cadmium contained in separate nickel-cadmium storage batteries imported as HTS code 8507308090 (8.4 grams per unit), estimated from residual after industrial battery component removed.6 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in power tools imported as HTS codes 8467210000 and 8508100010 and export code 8508100010 (6 grams per unit).7 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in cordless phones imported and exported as HTS code 8517110000 (11.2 grams per unit).8 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in camcorders imported and exported as HTS codes 8525408020 and 8525408050, and import codes 8525400020 and 8525400050 (22.4 grams per unit).

 For the years 1996-99, still image cameras containing nickel cadmium batteries HTS codes 8525400090, 8525404000, and 8525408085 were included in this classification.

9 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in portable radios imported and exported as HTS code 8527120000 (2.9 grams per unit).10 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in shavers imported and exported as HTS code 8510100000 (2.9 grams per unit).11 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in electric toothbrushes imported as HTS code 8509800045 (2.9 grams per unit).12 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in portable vacuum cleaners imported and exported as HTS code 8509100020 (13.6 grams per unit).13 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in flashlights imported as HTS code 8513102000 (6.9 grams per unit).14 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in portable lamps imported as HTS code 8513104000 and export code 8513100000 (9 grams per unit).15 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in clocks imported as HTS codes 9103102020, 9103102040, 9103104030, 9103104060, 9103108030, 9103108060, 9105114030, 9105114050, 9105118040, 

9105118070, 9105214030, 9105218050, 9105914030, 9105918050, 9106905520, 9109111030, 9109112030, 9109114030, 9109116030, 9109191030, 9109192030, 9109194030, 9109196030, and export code 9103100000 (2.9 grams per unit).

16 Includes cadmium contained in nickel-cadmium batteries enclosed in military products imported as HTS codes 91040000520, 9104001020, 9104002520, 9104003020, 9104004520, and 9104005030, and export code 9104000000 

(2.9 grams per unit).

17 Net value reflects quantity imported minus quantity exported; a positive number indicates that the quantity imported is greater than the quantity exported; totals may not add owing to rounding of data. 
Analysis of the Data 7

Batteries enclosed in prepackaged products

Industrial storage batteries

Electrically powered vehicle batteries

Consumer storage batteries

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

CADMIUM CONTENT, IN METRIC TONS

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

YEAR

CADMIUM CONTENT, IN METRIC TONS

300

275

250

225

200

175

150

125

100

75

50

25

0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

YEAR

Batteries enclosed in prepackaged products

Ni-Cd storage batteries, separate

Figure 3. Distribution of cadmium metal contained in batteries and battery products imported to the United States, 1996–2005. 

[Based on data available from the U.S. International Trade Commission (2006).]

Figure 4. Distribution of cadmium metal contained in batteries and battery products exported from the United States, 1996–2005. 

[Based on data available from the U.S. International Trade Commission (2006).]
8 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

each component of total cadmium consumption in the United 

States for all sectors in 2004 is shown in figure 5; the battery 

sector accounted for 78 percent of cadmium consumption for 

all sectors in that year. For 2004, the United States apparent 

consumption of cadmium metal is reported as 1,170 t (Kuck, 

2007). When the quantity of cadmium contained in imported 

and exported manufactured products (shaded boxes) is taken 

into account, however, the total consumption of cadmium 

metal in the United States is estimated to be about 4,000 t. 

Much of the difference between the two estimates can be 

attributed to the inclusion of cadmium contained in imported 

and exported manufactured products in the total consumption 

statistics.

Recycling

Estimates of the amount of cadmium that is available for 

possible recycling were developed on the basis of cadmium 

metal apparent consumption and cadmium use attributed to 

batteries as reported by the USGS [Kuck, 2006; Plachy, 2001, 

2002, 2003a, 2004, 2005; U.S. Geological Survey, 2005] 

and the net amount of cadmium contained in traded batteries 

(imports minus exports, as reported in table 1). An estimated 

battery service life distribution pattern (shown in figure 6 for 

an industrial battery with an assumed 15-year life) was developed for each of the four principal NiCd battery groupings 

(batteries enclosed in products, consumer batteries, electrically 

U.S. production of 

primary and secondary 

cadmium metal

U.S. imports 

for consumption, 

cadmium metal

Cadmium contained in 

imported products

U.S. exports of metal, 

alloys, and scrap

Cadmium contained in 

exported products

Industry stocks 

(2,540)

Government 

shipments

U.S. total consumption 

of cadmium metal 

for all sectors is estimated 

at 4,000 metric tons

1,010

102

3,100

40

154

120

0

Figure 5. Total consumption of cadmium metal in the United States in 2004. [Total consumption is defined as primary and secondary 

cadmium metal production + cadmium metal imports for consumption + cadmium contained in imported products - cadmium contained 

in exported products + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes. Boxes represent sources of cadmium. Values 

represent 2004 flow estimates expressed in metric tons of cadmium metal, as adapted from data reported by the U.S. International Trade 

Commission, 2006 (shaded boxes) and the U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries 2007 (Kuck, 2007). Units are expressed 

in metric tons. Values may not total because of rounding.]
Analysis of the Data 9

powered vehicle batteries, and industrial batteries) on the basis 

of data reported by Sanyo Corporation (Sanyo Energy (USA) 

Corporation, 2006) and discussions with C. Norman England, 

President, Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (oral 

commun., 2006). Battery discards are assumed to be a function of rates of acquisition of replacement batteries or associated products by the consumer, battery or associated product 

failure, and rates of removal of obsolete batteries from storage. 

The discard rate was determined to be greatest near the end 

of battery life (fig. 6). The amount of cadmium contained in 

batteries discarded for each year within the 1996-2005 study 

period was estimated from battery consumption data from 

prior years, estimated battery service life distribution patterns, 

and battery lives assigned to each group of batteries. Because 

each battery classification was assigned a different battery life, 

separate evaluations of each type had to be performed. Further 

assumptions related to battery life are reported in the appendix. The amount of cadmium that has been recovered from 

recycling in the United States and the amount of cadmium 

available for recycling but not recovered for the entire 10-year 

study period was then determined on the basis of an aggregation of these annual estimates. These data for 1996 to 2005, 

including estimates of average service life for each of the four 

principal battery groups, are shown in figure 7 and table 2.

An adjustment was made for the period 1996 to 1997 to 

account for the large amount of cadmium in batteries that were 

imported during these years (as shown on figure 3) to be used 

for electric vehicle development and testing. These batteries 

were not used in production vehicles; consequently, the life of 

such batteries was assumed to be shorter than a typical electric 

vehicle battery. A life of 3 years was assumed for these batteries.

The overall cadmium recovery rate has been increasing 

(table 2). The average amount of cadmium that was recovered 

from batteries increased from about 4 percent of the total 

amount of cadmium believed to be contained in such batteries in 1996 to about 11 percent in 2004. The rates reported in 

table 2 reflect estimated cadmium recovery rates rather than 

battery recovery rates, as reported by RBRC (2005). Estimates 

provided by RBRC indicate that the 4.4 million pounds (2,000 

t) of batteries recovered in 2004 fell about 70 percent short 

of its 2004 recycling goal (INFORM, Inc., 2005) estimated 

in 1998. Cadmium recovery rates reported here for the years 

1996 through 2000 likely are lower than rates reported elsewhere because of the relatively large amount of cadmium from 

developmental electric vehicle batteries that was assumed to 

become available for recycling during 1996-2000 (a major 

contributor to the large amount of cadmium available for 

recycling during these years as illustrated in figure 7). The 

estimates reported in table 2 are in line with an overall battery 

recovery rate for RBRC of less than 10 percent reported in 

2002 (Sheehan, 2003). The USEPA issued a report in 2003 

that stated that although lead-acid batteries had the highest 

recycling rate in 2003, about 93 percent, metals contained in 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

BATTERY DISCARDS, IN PERCENT

YEAR

Discards of worn out batteries or products

Random discards

Initial battery failure discards

Figure 6. Estimated service life distribution pattern for a 15-year life battery. [Based on data provided by Sanyo Energy (USA) 

Corporation (2006) and C. Norman England, Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, oral commun., 2006.]
10 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

Unrecycled cadmium

Cadmium recovered from

recycling of batteries

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

YEAR

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

CADMIUM BATTERIES, IN METRIC TONS

Figure 7. Estimated quantity of cadmium recovered from the recycling of batteries in the United States, 1996–2005. [Weight units 

expressed in metric tons. Estimated from U.S. International Trade Commission and U.S. Geological Survey data using an exponential 

distribution to estimate the amount of material available for recovery based on an assumed battery life of 15 years for an industrial 

battery, 6 years for an electric vehicle battery, 3 years for research testing batteries, and 3 years for sealed, consumer batteries and 

those contained in prepackaged products.]

consumer electronics (including cadmium in batteries) had a 

recycling rate of about 10 percent (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003).

Ancillary unpublished data provided by INMETCO indicated that the effective recovery rate of all types of consumer 

batteries in 2005 was about 16 percent; the effective recovery 

rate for industrial batteries (excluding electric vehicle batteries) was about 86 percent. These figures are generally in line 

with reported recycling rates of about 20 percent for consumer batteries and 80 percent for industrial batteries (Plachy, 

2003b).

An important corollary to the cadmium recovery data 

reported in table 2 is shown in figure 7, which reveals that, 

although the amount of NiCd batteries collected for recycling 

(Warren, 2006) is gradually growing, the amount of cadmium 

recovered from these batteries is still small in comparison to 

the amount that is unrecovered. After use, millions of NiCd 

batteries are “retired”; they are either stored or discarded. 

The magnitude of unrecycled cadmium contained in batteries, 

estimated at about 40,000 t for the 10-year period since 1996 

(the implementation date of the Battery Act), is illustrated in 

figure 7. The general downward trend in the overall quantity 

of unrecycled material since 1996 reflects increased recycling 

and the decreasing consumption of NiCd batteries in favor of 

other battery types. The cumulative amount of unrecycled cadmium in batteries provides an indication of the total amount of 

cadmium that is discarded by consumers, stockpiled, and (or) 

emitted into the environment.

A 2005 survey conducted by the RBRC found that, in the 

United States, consumers daily use an average of six wireless products that require rechargeable batteries (Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, 2005). About half of the 

survey respondents reported that they had obsolete batteries or 

old unused electronic products containing batteries of various types stored in their homes. Others reported that they had 

discarded obsolete batteries. The RBRC also assumes at least 

50 percent of batteries not in use but not yet recycled are being 

“hoarded” (C. Norman England, Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, oral commun., 2006). Similarly, in a study 

conducted by Franklin Associates, Ltd., for the USEPA (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2002a), it was assumed that 

50 percent of NiCd rechargeable consumer batteries are discarded within the year purchased and 50 percent are retained 

for a period of up to 4 years. Therefore, for the purpose of 

estimating the quantity of batteries that are available for recycling in any year of the study period, it was assumed that up to 

50 percent of the consumer batteries that become available for 

recycling in any given year do not immediately get recycled; a 

lag time of up to 4 years was assumed for this material. 

The USEPA estimated that about 1,900 t of cadmium 

from household batteries was discarded as MSW in 2000 (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2002a, p. 7, 157). Considering that this figure did not include industrial or military 
Analysis of the Data 11

Table 2. Estimated amount of contained cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries available for recovery and recovery rates in the United States for 1996–2005.[Units reported in metric tons of contained cadmium. Battery life estimated using data reported by selected manufacturers. Values may not total because of rounding. Amounts available for recycling derived from Kuck (2006), Plachy (2001, 2002, 2003a, 2004, 2005), and U.S. International Trade Commission (2006). Amounts recycled derived from Burchill (2000), Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (2006), and Warren (2006). NA, Not available; --, Not applicable]

Industrial 

batteries

Electric vehicle 

batteries1

Consumer 

batteries

Batteries in 

products

Total all 

battery types

Total cadmium recovery 

rate, in percent

Estimated battery life (years) 15 6 3 3 NA --

Cadmium available for recycling in 1996 220 81 4,700 450 5,500 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 19962 NA NA NA NA 200 4

Cadmium available for recycling in 1997 210 390 4,600 430 5,600 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 19972 NA NA NA NA 210 4

Cadmium available for recycling in 1998 290 670 4,700 480 6,100 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 19982 NA NA NA NA 270 4

Cadmium available for recycling in 1999 350 670 4,300 540 5,900 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 19992 NA NA NA NA 190 3

Cadmium available for recycling in 2000 450 120 3,400 850 4,800 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 20002 NA NA NA NA 210 4

Cadmium available for recycling in 2001 590 230 1,700 740 3,300 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 20012 NA NA NA NA 230 7

Cadmium available for recycling in 2002 740 78 1,400 810 3,000 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 20022 NA NA NA NA 250 8

Cadmium available for recycling in 2003 830 210 1,300 820 3,200 --

Cadmium in batteries collected for recycling in 20032 NA NA NA NA 330 10

Cadmium available for recycling in 2004 900 580 890 750 3,100 --

Cadmium in batteries recycled in 20043 NA NA NA NA 340 11

Cadmium available for recycling in 2005 970 530 880 880 3,300 --

Cadmium in batteries recycled in 20053 NA NA NA NA 340 10

Total cadmium available for recycling 1996-2005 5,600 3,600 28,000 6,700 44,000 --

1 Assumed life of electric vehicle production battery is 6 years; for 1995-1997, however, a battery life of 3 years is assumed for prototype development batteries.2 Calculated on the basis of reported pounds of batteries collected for recycling x estimated contained cadmium percentage x assumed 95% refinery recovery rate.3 Calculated on the basis of battery recovery figures reported by Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (2006) and unpublished data from International Metals Reclamation Company, Inc., 

oral commun., 2006.
12 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

batteries (assumed by Franklin Associates, Ltd., to account 

for about 25 percent of cadmium in batteries), this estimate is 

in general agreement with an estimate from this analysis for 

the same year (approximately 2,300 t of cadmium contained 

in consumer batteries that entered the MSW stream, assuming 50 percent of the batteries enter the MSW stream and 50 

percent continue to be held by the consumer). Estimates of 

cadmium from batteries that become available for recycling, 

are recycled, or that enter MSW landfills on an annual basis 

for the period 1996 to 2005 are listed in table 3.

About 3,100 t of cadmium was contained in batteries 

available for recycling in 2004 (fig. 8). This material came 

from three principal sources: (1) waste from battery production in the United States, (2) battery discards, and (3) cadmium 

contained in spent batteries previously held in temporary 

storage. Approximately 340 t of this cadmium was recovered 

by recycling and about 2,800 t of cadmium in batteries entered 

MSW landfills. The USEPA reports that about 20 percent of 

the MSW material that was not recycled was incinerated and 

about 80 percent was sent to landfills (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2003). About 540 t (98 percent) of metals is currently recovered from incineration by air pollution 

abatement devices; cadmium-bearing ash from the incineration process is collected and sent to MSW or hazardous waste 

landfills. In 2004, approximately 11 t of cadmium attributed to 

batteries entered the atmosphere from MSW incineration.

Summary

Because cadmium is toxic to humans and the environment under certain conditions, a thorough understanding of 

the use of products containing this metal and the pattern of use 

and disposal is warranted. In 2005, nickel-cadmium batteries 

accounted for more than 80 percent of the cadmium apparent 

consumption in the United States. The cadmium metal content 

of imported products (for all end uses) in 2004 was estimated 

at about 3,000 t, or about three times the reported production 

of cadmium metal from all primary and secondary sources in 

the United States. Since nickel-cadmium batteries began to be 

commercially recycled in 1995, the recycling rate has steadily 

increased to the 2004 level of about 11 percent, much of 

which comes from the recycling of industrial and commercial 

battery types. Although the market share of nickel-cadmium 

batteries has decreased since 1996, many of these batteries 

are still being produced domestically or are imported into the 

United States each year; others continue to be used, are being 

stored, or have been discarded. More than 40,000 t of cadmium contained in batteries are estimated either to have been 

discarded over the 10-year study period or remain temporarily 

in household storage. In 2004, about 90 percent of the cadmium contained in batteries potentially available for recycling 

ended up in municipal solid waste landfills. Incinerator losses 

account for about 11 t of cadmium in 2004.

Table 3. Estimates of cadmium metal attributed to rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005.

[Weight units are reported in metric tons. Values may not add because of rounding. Annual estimates of material available for recycling were developed 

using a schedule for the number of spent batteries that are placed in temporary storage in one year and either recycled or sent to Municipal Solid Waste 

(MSW) in a subsequent year. Data are derived from Kuck, 2006; U.S. International Trade Commission, 2006.]

Year

Cadmium metal 

attributed to domestic 

battery production

Cadmium metal in 

net battery trade

Cadmium metal in 

recycled batteries

Cadmium metal 

available for 

recycling

Cadmium metal 

entering MSW

1996 1,500 4,500 200 5,500 5,300

1997 1,700 3,800 210 5,600 5,400

1998 1,500 1,700 270 6,100 5,900

1999 1,400 1,700 190 5,900 5,700

2000 1,500 2,100 210 4,800 4,600

2001 800 1,800 230 3,300 3,000

2002 1,100 1,700 250 3,000 2,800

2003 500 1,400 330 3,200 2,900

2004 900 2,300 340 3,100 2,800

2005 500 2,500 340 3,300 2,900
Summary 13

Consumer batteries (29%)

Industrial batteries (28%)

Batteries in products (24%)

Electric vehicle batteries (19%)

Waste from battery

production in the

United States

Imported battery 

discards

Recovered from spent 

batteries previously 

in storage

Dissapative loss of

cadmium of 11 metric

tons from MSW incinerator

Municipal waste landfilled (80%)

(cadmium contained in batteries)

Municipal waste incinerated (20%)

(cadmium contained in collected

incinerator residual byproducts)

3,100 metric tons 

of cadmium in 

batteries available 

for recycling 2,800 metric tons of

cadmium in batteries

sent to municipal solid

waste (MSW) landfill

340 metric tons of

cadmium in batteries

recovered by recycling

Figure 8. Estimates for cadmium municipal solid waste (MSW) generation in the United States for 2004 from nickel-cadmium batteries. 

[Units are expressed in metric tons and may not total owing to rounding. Estimates are based on the assumption that 50 percent of 

batteries spent in any given year remain in temporary storage for up to 4 years prior to entering the municipal solid waste stream 

(Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, 2005) and that waste is split between incinerator (20%) and landfill disposition (80%) (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2003). Values and percentages were found to vary from year to year.]
14 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

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statistics by volume: Tokyo, Japan, Japanese Ministry of 

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Sciences, November, 64 p.

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org/RBRC520Release030305.pdf

Klimasaukas, E.P., Kuck, P.H., and Plunkert, P.A., 2006, 

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commodity/cadmium/cadmimyb04.pdf

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mcs/2006/mcs2006.pdf)

Kuck, P.H., 2007, Cadmium: U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries 2007, p. 38–39. (Also available online at http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/

mcs/2007/mcs2007.pdf)

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Pillot, Christophe, 2004, The world rechargeable battery market 2003–2008: Paris, France, Avicenne Developpement, 

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April 24, 2006, at http://www.avicenne.com/download/

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in 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1196-O, accessed 

May 30, 2006, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1196o/

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commodity/cadmium/cadmimcs04.pdf)

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16 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

Appendix

The estimates used in this study related to cadmium 

content of various battery types are summarized in table A-1. 

The table includes batteries designated as representative types, 

assumed battery weights assigned for principle classifications, 

and cadmium content assumptions. For each classification, 

the percentage estimate of NiCd batteries contained within 

that classification also is reported. For some classifications, 

different allocations for the percentage of NiCd batteries are 

assumed for 2003, 2004, and 2005 on the basis of recent trend 

data (Pillot, 2004, 2005). Variations were necessary owing to 

changing market trends for some applications.

In HTS code 8507308090, “nickel-cadmium storage batteries, not elsewhere specified”, multiple NiCd battery types 

are grouped into one category, so additional assumptions were 

needed regarding which batteries were included in this general 

category. Because specific information on batteries in this category is not available, a methodology using the average unit 

value, by country, as reported by the U.S. International Trade 

Commission was developed in order to estimate the relative 

distribution of batteries in this category into two general types, 

small consumer batteries with a relatively low unit value and 

large industrial batteries with a higher average unit value. It 

was assumed on the basis of the unit values for consumer and 

industrial batteries, as reported by selected manufacturers, that 

the price of a typical industrial battery/battery pack is greater 

than $300/unit and the typical price of a consumer battery/

battery pack is less than $15/unit. Then the percent distribution of consumer and industrial battery imports by country 

was estimated using the unit value attributed to each importing 

country, which was based on the reported customs values and 

total number of batteries imported. The sliding scale of percentages allocated to industrial batteries, based on the reported 

unit value for each specified category, is shown in table A-2. 

Values, quantities, and percentages used are listed, by country, 

in table A-3. In order to obtain the most reliable estimate, the 

data were evaluated by country, rather than as a whole. For 

example, if the reported $/unit value of a specified category, as 

determined by U.S. International Trade Commission data, fell 

within the range of $75 to $150 per unit, then it was assumed 

that 75 percent of the batteries reported for that category were 

of the industrial type. Because of the rough nature of these 

assumptions, no adjustments were made for inflation over time 

or variations in country costs of production.

The assumptions made for average battery life and battery recovery distribution for each of the four principal battery 

groups are shown in table A-4. A special distinction was 

made for electrically powered vehicle (EV) research batteries imported into the United States prior to 2000. Although an 

average life of 6 years was assumed for EV batteries, batteries 

used in EV research were assigned a life of 3 years because 

these batteries probably were used intensively over a short 

period of time while battery research was ongoing. For each 

battery group, it was assumed that 10 percent of the batteries 

in that group would be recoverable in the year following the 

last year of battery life. These estimates were developed from 

information derived from Sanyo Energy (USA) Corporation 

(2006) and discussions with C. Norman England, President, 

RBRC (C. Norman England, Rechargeable Battery Recycling 

Corporation, oral commun., 2006).
Appendix 17

Table A–1. Selected material content assumptions and estimates for nickel-cadmium batteries used in this analysis to determine the flow of cadmium in theUnited States, 1996–2005.[g, grams; NA, Not available; --, Not applicable]

Classification

Manufacturer and 

battery type assumed 

as representative1

Weight range2

(g)

Average 

weight2

(g)

Cadmium 

content2

(percent)

Cadmium 

content/cell 

or pack3 (g)

Cobalt 

content2

(percent)

Cobalt content/cell or 

pack3 (g)

Nickel 

content2

(percent)

Nickel content/cell or 

pack3 (g)

Nickel-cadmium, 

in percent of total 

estimate4

General nickel-cadmium storage battery5 NA NA NA 14 NA 0 NA 22 NA NA

Storage batteries, separate -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Electrically-powered vehicle batteries Saft STM 12,900–17,000 14,400 16 2,300 1 100 22 3,200 100

Sealed consumer batteries Saft VRE 19–150 60 10–15 8.4 0.4–1 0.4 20–28 13.2 100

Sanyo Cadnica NA NA 11–26 NA 0 0 13–29 NA 100

Industrial batteries Saft SLM 1,000–45,000 14,900 8 1,200 0.2 30 9 1,300 100

Saft SPH NA NA 16 NA 1 0 22 NA 100

Batteries enclosed in products -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Power tools Saft VRE-C NA 43 10–15 6 0.4–1 0.3 20–28 9.5 91

Cordless phones Battery selection6 63–113 80 14 11.2 0.9 0.7 22 17.6 40

Camcorders Battery selection6 59–376 160 14 22 0.9 1.4 22 35 (1996–2003) 30

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2004) 18

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 6

Cameras Battery selection6 20–318 130 14 19 0.5 0.5 22 29 (1996–2003) 30

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2004) 18

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 6

Portable radios Saft VRE-AA 14–32 21 10–15 2.9 0.4–1 0.1 20–28 4.6 6

Sanyo Cadnica-AA NA NA 11–26 NA 0 0 13–29 NA 6

Shavers Saft VRE-AA 14–32 21 10–15 2.9 0.4–1 0.1 20–28 4.6 (1996–2003) 45

Sanyo Cadnica-AA NA NA 11–26 NA 0 0 13–29 NA (2004) 34

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 22

Electric toothbrushes Saft VRE-AA 14–32 21 10–15 2.9 0.4–1 0.1 20–28 4.6 (1996–2003) 45

Sanyo Cadnica-AA NA NA 11–26 NA 0 0 13–29 NA (2004) 34

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 22

Portable vacuum cleaners Saft VRE-Cs 43–150 97 10–15 13.6 0.4–1 0.7 20–28 21.3 (1996–2003) 45

Saft VRE-D NA NA 10–15 NA 0.4–1 NA 20–28 NA (2004) 34

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 22

Flashlights Sanyo Cadnica 19–145 49 11–26 6.9 0 0 13–29 10.8 (1996–2003) 4

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2004) 3

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 2

Energizer NA NA 13–22 NA 0.5–2 NA 20–32 NA --

Panasonic 26–51 40 NA NA NA NA NA NA --

Portable electric lamps 

(bicycle, for example)

Saft VE 18–150 64 10–15 9 0.4–1 0.4 20–28 14 (1996–2003) 24

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2004) 18

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 12

Clock batteries, reported separately Saft VRE-AA 14–32 21 10–15 2.9 0.4–1 0.1 20–28 4.6 (1996–2003) 4

Sanyo Cadnica-AA NA NA 11–26 NA 0 0 13–29 NA (2004) 3

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2005) 2

Military batteries, reported separately Saft VRE-AA 14–32 21 10–15 2.9 0.4–1 0.1 20–28 4.6 16

Sanyo Cadnica-AA NA NA 11–26 NA 0 0 13–29 NA 16

1Manufacturer was selected on the basis of volume of production and availability of data. Battery selection was based on applicability to end-use category.2Based on reported weights given by manufacturer for all batteries in that classification. Data obtained from specified manufacturer’s website.3Calculated using (average weight) x (selected commodity content). When a percent range is shown, the average percent, reported by Vangheluwe, Verdonck, and Versonnen, 2005, was used for calculations.4Percent allocation of the number of batteries attributed as nickel-cadmium batteries, based on end–use distributions reported by Pillot, 2004, 2005a. In some cases, the 2004 and 2005 percentages were reported to be lower than the 

percentages of prior years. Where no years are reported, value applies to entire study period.

5Vangheluwe, Verdonck, and Versonnen (2005). 6Based on a random selection of batteries used for each of these applications, as reported by Zbattery, 2006, accessed November 22, 2006, at http://www.zbattery.com.
18 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005

Table A-2. Industrial battery allocation, by percent.

[Allocations were based on the premise that the typical price of an industrial battery is greater than $300/unit, while the typical price of a consumer 

battery is less than $15/unit. An allocation of the percentage of industrial 

batteries was assigned using the average unit value of batteries imported, by 

country, as shown in table A-3.]

Reported unit value

Percent attributed to 

industrial batteries

$0-$15 0

$15-$25 25

$25-75 50

$75-150 75

$150-$300 90

>$300 100
Appendix 19

Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and 

non-industrial batteries.—Continued

[By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.]

Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Antigua/Barbuda Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 2,600 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 400 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 6.50 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Australia Customs value 5,973 8,198 0 0 75,000 0 3,337 0 0 17,758

Units of quantity 94 1,145 0 0 320,000 0 9 0 0 6

Unit value ($/unit) 63.54 7.16 0 0 0.23 0 370.78 0 0 2,959.67

% to industrial 50 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 100

Industrial units 47 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 6

Austria Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7,848 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 255 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30.78 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 64 0 0

Belgium Customs value 18,795 1,546 213,847 4,203 119,909 191,519 187,367 0 5,774 0

Units of quantity 895 50 736,140 900 36,050 35,715 44,077 0 41 0

Unit value ($/unit) 21.00 30.92 0.29 4.67 3.33 5.36 4.25 0 140.83 0

% to industrial 25 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 0

Industrial units 224 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 0

Br Virgin Is Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 30,570 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 2,150 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 14.22 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Brazil Customs value 0 0 0 63,354 3,389 2,054 27,360 0 407,060 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 810 579 277 7,817 0 127,423 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 78.21 5.85 7.42 3.50 0 3.19 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 75 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 608 0 0 0 0 0 0

Bulgaria Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,043 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 250 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.17 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005 Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and non-industrial batteries.—Continued [By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.] Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Canada Customs value 120,876 210,990 646,616 199,068 2,851,275 3,032,152 142,217 287,706 872,966 134,321 Units of quantity 5,890 4,693 20,895 3,455 46,390 36,950 3,133 2,601 19,263 9,000 Unit value ($/unit) 20.52 44.96 30.95 57.62 61.46 82.06 45.39 110.61 45.32 14.92 % to industrial 25 50 50 50 50 75 50 75 50 0 Industrial units 1,473 2,347 10,448 1,728 23,195 27,713 1,567 1,951 9,632 0 China Customs value 6,988,651 6,365,376 7,495,091 13,990,978 23,569,804 6,922,996 8,905,977 9,704,339 9,326,632 14,628,192 Units of quantity 2,547,016 3,454,307 3,831,207 5,827,274 5,326,195 3,935,637 3,745,607 5,622,212 4,965,911 5,453,973 Unit value ($/unit) 2.74 1.84 1.96 2.40 4.43 1.76 2.38 1.73 1.88 2.68 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Colombia Customs value 0 27,500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,530 Units of quantity 0 5,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Unit value ($/unit) 0 5.50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,765.00 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Cote d’Ivoire Customs value 0 23,395 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Units of quantity 0 42,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unit value ($/unit) 0 0.56 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Czech Republic Customs value 0 31,548 101,139 967,815 1,963,941 1,552,973 1,905,401 663,038 754,218 414,440 Units of quantity 0 1,900 3,311 8,034 15,006 20,161 36,151 17,393 5,430 4,133 Unit value ($/unit) 0 16.60 30.55 120.46 130.88 77.03 52.71 38.12 138.90 100.28

% to industrial 0 25 50 75 75 75 50 50 75 75

Industrial units 0 475 1,656 6,026 11,255 15,121 18,076 8,697 4,073 3,100

Denmark Customs value 0 37,719 73,728 10,615 11,186 6,166 19,434 7,728 4,070 10,800

Units of quantity 0 320 7,347 213 186 52 111 155 100 69

Unit value ($/unit) 0 117.87 10.04 49.84 60.14 118.58 175.08 49.86 40.70 156.52

% to industrial 0 75 0 50 50 75 90 50 50 90

Industrial units 0 240 0 107 93 39 100 78 50 62

Ecuador Customs value 0 0 0 0 14,213 0 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 56 0 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 253.80 0 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0
Appendix 21

Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and 

non-industrial batteries.—Continued

[By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.]

Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Finland Customs value 11,756 465,419 29,031 21,992 103,610 82,840 10,348 23,690 22,635 47,214

Units of quantity 110 46,268 2,353 1,705 1,076 560 198 347 375 686

Unit value ($/unit) 106.87 10.06 12.34 12.90 96.29 147.93 52.26 68.27 60.36 68.83

% to industrial 75 0 0 0 75 75 50 50 50 50

Industrial units 83 0 0 0 807 420 99 174 188 343

France Customs value 1,514,669 3,935,401 5,918,306 7,058,477 26,856,840 19,252,086 12,255,051 10,378,255 12,263,256 11,852,367

Units of quantity 62,115 87,273 805,423 91,063 295,348 3,218,145 3,529,610 1,783,711 137,497 45,810

Unit value ($/unit) 24.38 45.09 7.35 77.51 90.93 5.98 3.47 5.82 89.19 258.73

% to industrial 25 50 0 75 75 0 0 0 75 90

Industrial units 15,529 43,637 0 68,297 221,511 0 0 0 103,123 41,229

Germany Customs value 2,254,880 2,055,418 2,644,362 2,743,955 3,160,506 1,653,064 2,017,050 2,450,481 2,397,520 1,950,102

Units of quantity 667,388 679,016 3,815,368 607,048 554,707 48,033 74,240 164,383 83,907 103,746

Unit value ($/unit) 3.38 3.03 0.69 4.52 5.70 34.42 27.17 14.91 28.57 18.80

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 50 50 0 50 25

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 24,017 37,120 0 41,954 25,937

Hong Kong Customs value 5,361,647 4,314,125 3,282,865 2,682,463 1,931,103 2,128,550 2,891,720 1,573,809 2,360,376 1,630,512

Units of quantity 1,605,326 1,204,278 1,680,758 548,078 518,444 580,003 559,835 348,333 869,614 650,997

Unit value ($/unit) 3.34 3.58 1.95 4.89 3.72 3.67 5.17 4.52 2.71 2.50

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hungary Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 46,672 59,054 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 15,000 1,104 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.11 53.49 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 552 0 0

Iceland Customs value 3,825 5,641 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 15 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 255.00 235.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 90 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 14 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

India Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 61,787 0 58,668 250,488 56,584

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 100,880 0 343 206 52

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0.61 0.00 171.04 1,215.96 1,088.15

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 90 100 100

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 309 206 52
22 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005 Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and non-industrial batteries.—Continued [By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.] Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Indonesia Customs value 4,243,040 5,282,748 6,002,549 4,330,341 4,143,484 1,613,919 397,662 183,385 140,894 36,784 Units of quantity 2,244,072 2,790,075 2,939,889 2,771,510 2,581,526 1,074,387 780,242 145,524 237,101 64,800 Unit value ($/unit) 1.89 1.89 2.04 1.56 1.61 1.50 0.51 1.26 0.59 0.57 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ireland Customs value 2,338,872 228,562 483,248 120,382 972,366 1,321,618 124,045 12,159 0 0 Units of quantity 125,029 8,210 16,956 4,133 76,747 29,156 73,234 579 0 0 Unit value ($/unit) 18.71 27.84 28.50 29.13 12.67 45.33 1.69 21.00 0 0 % to industrial 25 50 50 50 0 50 0 25 0 0 Industrial units 31,257 4,105 8,478 2,067 0 14,578 0 145 0 0 Israel Customs value 630,497 146,800 374,353 423,548 111,181 90,008 90,000 2,070 0 0 Units of quantity 10,664 8,960 29,000 25,350 10,630 6,422 90 43 0 0 Unit value ($/unit) 59.12 16.38 12.91 16.71 10.46 14.02 1,000.00 48.14 0 0 % to industrial 50 25 0 25 0 0 100 50 0 0 Industrial units 5,332 2,240 0 6,338 0 0 90 22 0 0 Italy Customs value 27,077 3,201 20,986 0 7,127 209,728 606,271 316,158 669,179 946,284 Units of quantity 4,866 415 104 0 500 714 295 11,642 787 22,165 Unit value ($/unit) 5.56 7.71 201.79 0.00 14.25 293.74 2,055.16 27.16 850.29 42.69 % to industrial 0 0 90 0 0 90 100 50 100 50 Industrial units 0 0 94 0 0 643 295 5,821 787 11,083 Japan Customs value 64,137,101 39,717,506 29,890,272 17,886,592 16,846,744 11,350,615 12,231,392 8,420,501 5,161,582 3,829,577 Units of quantity 26,031,781 21,497,001 19,061,711 10,185,179 7,473,877 5,842,002 5,425,699 3,085,315 1,067,129 361,213 Unit value ($/unit) 2.46 1.85 1.57 1.76 2.25 1.94 2.25 2.73 4.84 10.60

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Korea Customs value 1,100,749 1,712,919 1,531,293 1,962,190 2,046,271 1,051,063 290,031 216,172 353,265 204,242

Units of quantity 1,085,316 191,788 79,232 1,158,414 960,340 329,921 92,361 15,083 24,819 13,433

Unit value ($/unit) 1.01 8.93 19.33 1.69 2.13 3.19 3.14 14.33 14.23 15.20

% to industrial 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 25

Industrial units 0 0 19,808 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,358

Macao Customs value 98,477 3,451,393 2,451,451 173,090 0 20,010 6,270 12,540 13,200 0

Units of quantity 10,742 363,286 166,803 18,976 0 18,000 9,500 19,000 20,000 0

Unit value ($/unit) 9.17 9.50 14.70 9.12 0 1.11 0.66 0.66 0.66 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Appendix 23

Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and 

non-industrial batteries.—Continued

[By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.]

Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Malaysia Customs value 506,188 1,398,293 1,419,265 692,960 598,569 617,004 316,044 873,364 1,315,722 68,926

Units of quantity 329,670 494,077 616,792 405,800 618,062 203,551 40,276 90,162 115,882 5,072

Unit value ($/unit) 1.54 2.83 2.30 1.71 0.97 3.03 7.85 9.69 11.35 13.59

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mali Customs value 0 0 2,678 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 450 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 5.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mexico Customs value 1,200,213 1,561,435 837,718 1,169,393 1,363,013 8,693,746 2,277,300 699,458 1,399,204 104,723

Units of quantity 173,691 330,669 251,708 386,502 382,323 1,468,185 441,745 111,856 177,136 12,025

Unit value ($/unit) 6.91 4.72 3.33 3.03 3.57 5.92 5.16 6.25 7.90 8.71

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Morocco Customs value 0 0 68,933 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 8,364 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 8.24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Netherlands Customs value 43,321 47,019 73,797 2,425 38,556 35,591 63,762 28,093 26,101 48,880

Units of quantity 2,845 2,035 4,330 6 5,342 3,112 18 32 71 13

Unit value ($/unit) 15.23 23.11 17.04 404.17 7.22 11.44 3,542.33 877.91 367.62 3,760.00

% to industrial 25 25 25 100 0 0 100 100 100 100

Industrial units 711 509 1,083 6 0 0 18 32 71 13

New Zealand Customs value 5,087 15,000 0 0 8,000 189,309 136,112 328,612 64,378 157,856

Units of quantity 168 151 0 0 40,000 5,397 4,267 13,650 2,282 6,774

Unit value ($/unit) 30.28 99.34 0 0 0.20 35.08 31.90 24.07 28.21 23.30

% to industrial 50 75 0 0 0 50 50 25 50 25

Industrial units 84 113 0 0 0 2,699 2,134 3,413 1,141 1,694

Nigeria Customs value 0 0 6,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
24 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005 Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and non-industrial batteries.—Continued [By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.] Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Norway Customs value 49,391 42,677 4,648 18,422 3,212 19,563 9,704 38,074 0 3,034 Units of quantity 1,210 698 105 168 59 41 36 173 0 60 Unit value ($/unit) 40.82 61.14 44.27 109.65 54.44 477.15 269.56 220.08 0 50.57 % to industrial 50 50 50 75 50 100 90 90 0 50 Industrial units 605 349 53 126 30 41 32 156 0 30 Philippines Customs value 56,763 3,365 0 227,643 45,256 60,265 82,247 3,553,420 36,813 14,815 Units of quantity 7,759 71 0 416,445 2,504 13,434 3,125 3,359,090 666 1,164 Unit value ($/unit) 7.32 47.39 0 0.55 18.07 4.49 26.32 1.06 55.27 12.73 % to industrial 0 50 0 0 25 0 25 0 50 0 Industrial units 0 36 0 0 626 0 781 0 333 0 Poland Customs value 0 0 0 0 172,056 0 0 0 0 0 Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 261,480 0 0 0 0 0 Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0.66 0 0 0 0 0 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Russia Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 2,500 0 0 0 0 Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 625.00 0 0 0 0 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 Singapore Customs value 4,412,071 5,294,243 1,704,182 1,264,525 650,623 480,169 64,590 245,121 309,137 391,377 Units of quantity 2,617,317 3,203,871 1,001,404 1,076,409 532,851 397,183 154,432 305,682 379,353 580,346 Unit value ($/unit) 1.69 1.65 1.70 1.17 1.22 1.21 0.42 0.80 0.81 0.67

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Slovak Republic Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53,900

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 154.00

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 90

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 315

South Africa Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 48,583 0 0 30,757 90,112

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 8,100 0 0 2,718 8,513

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 6.00 0 0 11.32 10.59

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Appendix 25

Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and 

non-industrial batteries.—Continued

[By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.]

Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Spain Customs value 210,344 17,393 4,000 96,592 25,109 0 14,318 2,634 17,291 0

Units of quantity 5,153 93 2 2,659 999 0 455 37 3,130 0

Unit value ($/unit) 40.82 187.02 2,000.00 36.33 25.13 0 31.47 71.19 5.52 0

% to industrial 50 90 100 50 50 0 50 50 0 0

Industrial units 2,577 84 2 1,330 500 0 228 19 0 0

Sweden Customs value 3,687,107 1,589,409 3,071,771 4,418,025 5,650,717 5,746,256 6,868,659 9,892,231 9,137,391 10,453,593

Units of quantity 58,644 22,241 35,195 48,957 56,594 47,643 64,612 62,283 62,263 77,513

Unit value ($/unit) 62.87 71.46 87.28 90.24 99.85 120.61 106.31 158.83 146.75 134.86

% to industrial 50 50 75 75 75 75 75 90 75 75

Industrial units 29,322 11,121 26,396 36,718 42,446 35,732 48,459 56,055 46,697 58,135

Switzerland Customs value 187,649 179,252 554,812 1,498,424 1,043,832 614,673 661,137 515,328 192,455 187,218

Units of quantity 28,336 44,010 78,889 34,282 20,462 35,899 14,025 26,652 3,756 18,410

Unit value ($/unit) 6.62 4.07 7.03 43.71 51.01 17.12 47.14 19.34 51.24 10.17

% to industrial 0 0 0 50 50 25 50 25 50 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 17,141 10,231 8,975 7,013 6,663 1,878 0

Taiwan Customs value 7,177,082 10,087,416 6,837,650 3,818,209 5,810,493 5,109,717 2,722,901 1,883,387 1,982,487 1,307,003

Units of quantity 712,290 877,151 1,243,919 839,195 1,354,331 2,135,725 693,325 313,046 312,300 209,383

Unit value ($/unit) 10.08 11.50 5.50 4.55 4.29 2.39 3.93 6.02 6.35 6.24

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Thailand Customs value 44,647 823,215 10,944 23,060 53,465 23,157 43,827 2,175 2,700 10,125

Units of quantity 53,872 142,092 1,824 4,000 6,684 13,555 11,564 118 200 750

Unit value ($/unit) 0.83 5.79 6.00 5.77 8.00 1.71 3.79 18.43 13.50 13.50

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 0 0

Turkey Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11,000

Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110.00

% to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75

Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75

United Arab Emirates Customs value 0 0 0 4,525 0 0 0 2,233 0 0

Units of quantity 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 950 0 0

Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 4,525.00 0 0 0 2.35 0 0

% to industrial 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industrial units 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
26 Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005 Table A-3. Values, quantities, and percentages used in the development of Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) code 8507308090, by country, for industrial and non-industrial batteries.—Continued [By applying average cadmium content values for both industrial and non-industrial batteries (table A-1) to the number of industrial and non-industrial units reported here, the amount of cadmium attributable to this HTS category was determined.] Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 United Kingdom Customs value 1,857,653 1,289,584 1,450,539 2,933,499 2,073,712 2,025,592 1,122,864 511,215 1,085,856 568,029 Units of quantity 84,189 94,051 497,748 67,913 22,878 70,971 18,528 20,348 423,346 24,481 Unit value ($/unit) 22.07 13.71 2.91 43.19 90.64 28.54 60.60 25.12 2.56 23.20 % to industrial 25 0 0 50 75 50 50 50 0 25 Industrial units 21,047 0 0 33,957 17,159 35,486 9,264 10,174 0 6,120 Venezuela Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,800 0 0 0 Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 400.00 0 0 0 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 Vietnam Customs value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9,673 Units of quantity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Unit value ($/unit) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,836.50 % to industrial 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 Industrial units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Total industrial units 108,303 65,300 68,026 174,446 327,901 165,465 125,295 94,350 210,162 151,555 Total units imported 38,476,463 35,597,219 36,937,237 24,534,479 21,522,226 19,682,365 15,843,629 15,522,352 9,042,706 7,675,041 Non industrial units 38,368,160 35,531,919 36,869,211 24,360,033 21,194,325 19,516,900 15,718,334 15,428,002 8,832,544 7,523,486
Appendix 27

Table A-4. Assumptions related to battery service life and battery recovery distribution.

[Data are derived from Sanyo Energy (USA) Corporation, 2006 and C. Norman England, Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, oral commun., 2006. 

Values for years 1 to 16 are expressed in percent.]

Battery recovery distribution assumptions Battery life 

(years)

Year 

1

Year 

2

Year 

3

Year 

4

Year 

5

Year 

6

Year 

7

Year 

8

Industrial batteries 15 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Electrically powered vehicle (EV) batteries 6 10 1 1 1 20 57 10

EV research batteries 3 10 20 60 10

Consumer batteries 3 10 20 60 10

Batteries enclosed in products 3 10 20 60 10

Battery recovery distribution assumptions Battery life 

(years)

Year 

9

Year 

10

Year 

11

Year 

12

Year 

13

Year 

14

Year 

15

Year 

16

Industrial batteries 15 1 1 1 1 1 20 50 10

Electrically powered vehicle (EV) batteries 6

EV research batteries 3

Consumer batteries 3

Batteries enclosed in products 3
For additional information, write to:

David Wilburn

U.S. Geological Survey

Box 25046, MS 750, Denver Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

Document prepared by the West Trenton Publishing Service Center
Wilburn—Flow of cadmium from rechargeable batteries in the United States, 1996–2005—Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5198

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