U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Prepared in cooperation with the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation

Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5201

Water Quality on the Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern 

Kansas, June 1996 Through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern 

Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

By Heather C. Ross Schmidt, Heidi E. Mehl, and Larry M. Pope

Prepared in cooperation with the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation

Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5201

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark D. Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2007

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Suggested citation:

Schmidt, H.C.R., Mehl, H.E., and Pope, L.M., 2007, Water quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5201, 

75 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

Principal Results from Previous Study Periods ...............................................................................2

Description of Study Area ...................................................................................................................4

Methods of Sample Collection and Analysis ............................................................................................5

Sample Collection.................................................................................................................................5

Surface Water..............................................................................................................................6

Ground Water...............................................................................................................................7

Sample Analysis....................................................................................................................................8

Quality Assurance and Quality Control .............................................................................................8

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation...............................................................14

Physical Properties.............................................................................................................................15

Dissolved Solids..................................................................................................................................23

Major Ions............................................................................................................................................28

Nutrients...............................................................................................................................................31

Trace Elements....................................................................................................................................41

Pesticides.............................................................................................................................................46

Chemical Oxygen Demand and Volatile Organic Compounds.....................................................54

Bacteria................................................................................................................................................62

Sediment...............................................................................................................................................67

Comparison of Water-Quality Results to Previous Study Periods.......................................................70

Summary and Conclusions.........................................................................................................................71

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................72

Figures

1. Map showing ecoregions and location of water-quality monitoring sites on and near 

Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas ..............................................3

2. Map showing land use in Soldier and Little Soldier Creek Basins within Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, 1993 ...................................................................................................6

3. Map showing generalized geology underlying Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation...7

4–17. Graphs showing: 

4. Average monthly precipitation at Holton, Kansas, and departure from average 

during current study period, September 2003 through August 2006...........................8

5. Average monthly streamflow at Soldier Creek near Delia streamflow-gaging 

station and departure from average during current study period, September 2003 

through August 2006............................................................................................................9

6. Concentrations of dissolved solids in surface- and ground-water-quality samples, 

November 2003 through August 2006.............................................................................27

7. Concentrations of dissolved sodium in surface- and ground-water-quality 

samples, November 2003 through August 2006............................................................30
iv

8. Concentrations of dissolved sulfate in surface- and ground-water-quality 

samples, November 2003 through August 2006............................................................32

9. Concentrations of dissolved chloride in surface- and ground-water-quality 

samples, November 2003 through August 2006............................................................33

10. Concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate in surface- and ground-waterquality samples, November 2003 through August 2006...............................................38

11. Concentrations of total phosphorus in surface-water-quality samples, November 

2003 through August 2006.................................................................................................41

12. Concentrations of dissolved arsenic in ground-water-quality samples, July 2004, 

July 2005, and August 2006 ..............................................................................................46

13. Concentrations of dissolved iron in ground-water-quality samples, July 2004, 

July 2005, and August 2006 ..............................................................................................47

14. Relation between triazine herbicide concentrations determined by enzymelinked immunosorbent assay and atrazine concentrations determined by gas 

chromatography/mass spectrometry for samples collected from surface-water 

monitoring sites during June 1996 through August 2006 ............................................47

15. Concentrations of triazine herbicide screen determined using enyme-linked 

immunosorbent assay in surface-water-quality samples, November 2003 

through August 2006..........................................................................................................54

16. Seasonal distribution of median streamflow and median densities of fecalindicator bacteria in surface-water samples, November 2003 through August 

 2006 ......................................................................................................................................67

17. Median concentrations of suspended sediment and total suspended solids in 

surface-water-quality samples, November 2003 through August 2006....................70

Tables

1. Drainage area and land-use percentages in Soldier and Little Soldier Creek Basins 

within Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, 1993 ........................4

2. Surface- and ground-water-quality monitoring sites on Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Reservation, northeastern Kansas ............................................................................................9

3. Constituents analyzed as part of water-quality assessment on Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006 10

4. Streamflow measurements and results of analysis of physical properties in surfacewater-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern 

Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.......................................................................17

5. Results of analysis of physical properties in ground-water-quality samples from 

Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, 

and August 2006..........................................................................................................................20

6. Results of analysis of dissolved solids and major ions in surface-water-quality 

samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, 

November 2003 through August 2006......................................................................................24

7. Results of analysis of dissolved solids and major ions in ground-water-quality 

samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, 

July 2005, and August 2006 .......................................................................................................29

8. Results of analysis of nutrients in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 

2006 ...............................................................................................................................................35
9. Results of analysis of nutrients in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 

2006 ...............................................................................................................................................39

10. Results of analysis of trace elements in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie 

Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 

2006 ...............................................................................................................................................42

11. Results of analysis of trace elements in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie 

Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 

2006 ...............................................................................................................................................46

12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 

2006 ...............................................................................................................................................48

13. Results of analysis of pesticides in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 

2006 ...............................................................................................................................................55

14. Results of analysis of chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds in 

ground-water-quality samples from monitoring wells MW04 and MW07 on Prairie 

Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and 

August 2006..................................................................................................................................59

15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommended water-quality criteria for fecalindicator bacteria .......................................................................................................................63

16. Results of analysis of fecal-indicator bacteria in surface-water-quality samples from 

Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through 

August 2006..................................................................................................................................64

17. Results of analysis of fecal-indicator bacteria in ground-water-quality samples from 

Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, 

and August 2006..........................................................................................................................66

18. Results of analysis of total suspended solids and suspended sediment in surfacewater-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern 

Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.......................................................................68
vi

Conversion Factors, Abbreviations, and Datums

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2) 

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

Weight

milligram per day (mg/d) 0.0000353 ounce per day (oz/d) 

ton (short) 0.9072 megagram (Mg)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F= (1.8×°C) +32.

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C= (°F-32)/1.8.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (μS/cm at 

25°C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or 

micrograms per liter (μg/L).
vii

Water-Quality Abbreviations

col/100 mL colonies per 100 milliliters of water

E. coli Escherichia coli

FNU formazin nephelometric unit

μg/L micrograms per liter

μS/cm microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius

meq/L milliequivalents per liter

mg/L milligrams per liter

mV millivolts 

NTRU nephelometric turbidity ratio unit

Acronyms

ANC acid neutralizing capacity

CaCO3 calcium carbonate

COD chemical oxygen demand

DWA Drinking-Water Advisory

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

GC/MS gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

HCO3 bicarbonate 

KDHE Kansas Department of Health and Environment

MCL Maximum Contaminant Level

NWQL National Water-Quality Laboratory

OGRL Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory

PVC polyvinyl chloride

RPD relative percentage difference

SDWR Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation

SSC suspended-sediment concentration

TSS total suspended solids

USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VOC volatile organic compound

YSI Yellow Springs Instruments, Yellow Springs, Ohio
viii
Abstract

This report describes surface- and ground-water-quality 

data collected on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 

in northeastern Kansas from November 2003 through August 

2006 (hereinafter referred to as the “current study period”). 

Data from this study period are compared to results from June 

1996 through August 2003, which are published in previous 

reports as part of a multiyear cooperative study with the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation. Surface and ground water are 

valuable resources to the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation as 

tribal members currently (2007) use area streams to fulfill subsistence hunting and fishing needs and because ground water 

potentially could support expanding commercial enterprise 

and development.

Surface-water-quality samples collected from November 

2003 through August 2006 were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, 

pesticides, fecal-indicator bacteria, suspended-sediment concentration, and total suspended solids. Ground-water samples 

were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major 

ions, nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, and fecal-indicator 

bacteria. Chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds were analyzed in all three samples from one monitoring well located near a construction and demolition landfill 

on the reservation, and in one sample from another well in the 

Soldier Creek drainage basin.

Previous reports published as a part of this ongoing study 

identified total phosphorus, triazine herbicides, and fecal 

coliform bacteria as exceeding their respective water-quality 

criteria in surface water on the reservation. Previous groundwater assessments identified occasional sample concentrations 

of dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, boron, iron, and manganese as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria.

Fifty-six percent of the 55 surface-water samples collected during the current study period and analyzed for 

total phosphorus exceeded the goal of 0.1 mg/L (milligram 

per liter) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA) to limit cultural eutrophication in flowing 

water. Concentrations of dissolved solids frequently exceeded 

the USEPA Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation (SDWR) 

of 500 mg/L in samples from two sites. Concentrations of 

sodium exceeded the Drinking-Water Advisory of 20 mg/L set 

by USEPA in almost 50 percent of the surface-water samples. 

All four samples analyzed for atrazine concentrations showed 

some concentration of the pesticide, but none exceeded the 

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) established for drinking water by USEPA of 3.0 μg/L (micrograms per liter) as 

an annual average. A triazine herbicide screen was used on 

55 surface-water samples, and triazine compounds were frequently detected. Triazine herbicides and their degradates are 

listed on the USEPA Contaminant Candidate List. In 41 percent of surface-water samples, densities of Escherichia coli 

(E. coli) bacteria exceeded the primary contact, single-sample 

maximum in public-access bodies of water (1,198 colonies per 

100 milliliters of water for samples collected between April 1 

and October 31) set by the Kansas Department of Health and 

Environment (KDHE).

Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations in all three water 

samples from 1 of 10 monitoring wells exceeded the MCL of 

10 mg/L established by USEPA for drinking water. Arsenic 

concentrations in all three samples from one well exceeded the 

proposed MCL of 10 μg/L established by USEPA for drinking water. Boron also exceeded the drinking-water advisory 

in three samples from one well, and iron concentrations were 

higher than the SDWR in water from four wells. There was 

some detection of pesticides in ground-water samples from 

three of the wells, and one detection of the volatile organic 

compound diethyl ether in one well. Concentrations of dissolved solids exceeded the SDWR in 20 percent of groundwater samples collected during the current study period, 

and concentrations of sulfate and chloride exceeded their 

respective SDWR in 10 percent of the ground-water samples. 

Concentrations exceeded the Drinking-Water Advisory Level 

set by USEPA for sodium in 50 percent of the ground-water 

samples.

Results from the current study period remained similar 

to results from previous study periods. The median triazine 

herbicide concentration (triazine screen by ELISA) for the 

current study period decreased slightly compared to past study 

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through 

August 2006

By Heather C. Ross Schmidt, Heidi E. Mehl, and Larry M. Pope
periods. In the event that ground water on the reservation is 

to be used as a drinking-water source, additional treatment 

may be necessary to remove excess dissolved solids, sulfate, 

sodium, and chloride.

Introduction

Water quality is important to the Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Nation. Three of the four creeks draining the reservation (Soldier, Little Soldier, and South Cedar Creeks) in northeastern 

Kansas provide fishing and hunting resources for tribal members (fig. 1). Ground water is used as a domestic water supply 

within the reservation boundaries, and the potential of developing a stable ground-water supply is important as the tribe 

expands commercial enterprise and development. Establishing 

a baseline for ground-water quality on the reservation will help 

identify any potential treatment concerns for this prospective 

water source (Trombley, 2001). Presently, all drinking water 

on the reservation is purchased from Rural Water District #3 

in Jackson County (Sharon Bosse, Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Nation Department of Planning and Environmental Protection, 

oral commun., 2007).

Nonpoint sources such as runoff from agricultural lands 

and point-source seepage from septic systems or sewage 

lagoons servicing a rural population are considered to be the 

primary sources of potential water-quality problems on the 

reservation (Trombley, 2001). Three documented wastewater 

facilities (including a sewage-treatment lagoon) are operated 

by the tribe on the reservation (fig. 1) and are potential sources 

of point-source wastewater discharge (Sharon Bosse, Prairie 

Band Potawatomi Nation Department of Planning and Environmental Protection, oral commun., 2006).

Under the Federal Clean Water Act of 1972, an Indian 

tribe is sovereign for the purposes of delegating the authority 

to regulate water within reservation boundaries. The Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, in cooperation with the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS), began a water-quality monitoring program in 1996 with the purpose of establishing waterquality standards for the reservation. The program began as 

a surface-water assessment focused on nutrients, pesticides, 

bacteria, and total suspended solids and now includes major 

ions, dissolved solids, trace elements, and suspended-sediment 

analysis of surface-water samples as well as the addition of a 

ground-water-quality monitoring component using dedicated 

ground-water monitoring wells.

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to describe surface- and 

ground-water quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation from November 2003 through August 2006 (hereinafter 

referred to as the “current study period”) and to compare 

results from this study period to results from June 1996 

through August 2003, which are published in previous reports 

as part of this ongoing study. Surface-water samples were 

collected approximately every 3 months from November 2003 

through August 2006, and ground-water samples were collected annually in July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006 to 

describe the distribution of inorganic and organic constituents 

and bacteria in water on the reservation.

This report is the fourth in a series of reports resulting 

from the ongoing cooperative study with the Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Nation. Previous reports describe the surfacewater quality on the reservation from June 1996 through 

November 1998 (Trombley, 1999), the surface- and groundwater quality on the reservation from February 1999 through 

February 2001 (Trombley, 2001), and the surface- and groundwater quality on the reservation from May 2001 through 

August 2003 (Schmidt, 2004).

Principal Results from Previous Study Periods

Total phosphorus and triazine herbicide concentrations, 

and fecal coliform bacteria densities in surface water were 

identified as exceeding water-quality criteria established by 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and 

the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE) 

during the June 1996 through November 1998 study period 

(Trombley, 1999). The same constituents in surface water 

exceeded water-quality criteria established by USEPA and 

KDHE during the study period February 1999 through February 2001 (Trombley, 2001). Dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, 

boron, iron, and manganese concentrations occasionally 

exceeded their respective water-quality criteria established by 

USEPA for drinking water during the February 1999 through 

February 2001 ground-water assessment and were related to 

large mineral concentrations resulting from dissolution of the 

surrounding sedimentary rocks (Trombley, 2001).

During the study period May 2001 through August 

2003, 40 percent of surface-water samples exceeded the 

water-quality goal of 0.10 mg/L established by USEPA for 

total phosphorus. Triazine herbicides, specifically atrazine, 

were detected frequently in surface-water samples but did not 

exceed the USEPA Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 

3.0 μg/L for atrazine as an annual average (Schmidt, 2004). 

Fecal-indicator bacteria were detected in the majority of 

surface-water samples and exceeded water-quality criteria in 

45 samples (12 of 65 exceeded USEPA recommended criterion 

for E. coli; 33 of 36 exceeded USEPA recommended criterion 

for enterococci). Dissolved-solids concentrations in some 

surface-water samples exceeded water-quality criteria established by USEPA and were greatest in water samples from 

Big Elm Creek, at a site located downstream from a sewagetreatment lagoon. Dissolved-solids concentrations exceeded 

USEPA Secondary Drinking-Water Regulations (SDWRs) 

in 20 percent of ground-water samples (Schmidt, 2004). 

Sodium, sulfate, nitrite plus nitrate, and boron concentrations 

in ground-water samples occasionally exceeded their respective water-quality criteria for drinking water as established by 

   Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Figure 1. Ecoregions and location of water-quality monitoring sites on and near Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, 

northeastern Kansas.

Introduction 

39°25'

50' 95°40'

39°15'

20'

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:24,000, 1991

Albers Equal Area Conic projection

Standard parallels 29°30' and 45°30; central meridian 96° 

0 1 2 3 4 5 KILOMETERS

0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES

EXPLANATION

Ecoregions

 IV, Great Plains Grass and Shrublands

 VI, Corn Belt and Northern Great Plains

 Boundary of ecoregion

Boundary of drainage basin

Boundary of reservation

U.S. Geological Survey surface-water-

 quality monitoring site and identifier—

 Red identifier indicates quarterly samples 

 collected at site

U.S. Geological Survey ground-water-

 quality monitoring site and identifierK Rd. J Rd. H Rd. G Rd. F Rd. E Rd.

M Rd.

N Rd.

Q Rd.

158 Rd.

150 Rd.

142 Rd.

134 Rd.

126 Rd.

118 Rd.

110 Rd.

166 Rd.

174 Rd.

182 Rd.

190 Rd.

196 Rd.

158 Rd.

158 Rd.

95°55' 45'

Mayetta

Hoyt

75

75

16

Creek

Soldier

Little

Creek

Creek

James

Crow

Creek

Creek

South

Cedar

Bills

Soldier

Creek

Big Elm

Litt

Cr

le Elm

eek

Creek

SC03

SC04

SC08

SC09

SCC01

SC05

SC06

SC01

SC02

MW09

MW10 MW11

LSC01

LSC02

BC01

MW06 MW07 MW08 S28-4

pumping

well

MW03

MW01

MW04

Wastewatertreatment plant

Prairie Band

Potawatomi

Nation Casino Sewagetreatment

lagoon

MW02

MW02

MW05

LSC03

LSC06

LSC07

LSC04

LSC05

LSC05

LSC09 LSC08

Index map

KANSAS

Prairie Band

Potawatomi

Nation Reser- vation

Prairie Band

Potawatomi

Nation

Reservation

Jackson

County

Ecoregion boundary from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000b, 2001)

Kansas River

Delaware River

Soldier Creek

SC07

Wastewatertreatment

facility

Construction

and demolition

landfill

U.S. Geological Survey

streamflow-gaging station

and number

06889200

Topeka

Holton
USEPA. Arsenic concentrations in two ground-water samples 

exceeded the MCL for arsenic; the largest arsenic concentration also corresponded to the largest iron concentration. Arsenic was detected in other ground-water samples as well but 

in concentrations that were substantially less than the MCL. 

Three volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were detected in 

one ground-water sample; these were carbon disulfide, ethyl 

methyl ketone, and tetrahydrofuran. The presence of these 

compounds may be explained by a nearby construction and 

demolition landfill (fig. 1; Schmidt, 2004).

Description of Study Area

The Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation is located 

approximately 20 mi north of the city of Topeka in northeastern Kansas and encompasses approximately 121 mi2

 of 

Jackson County (fig. 1). Primary land uses in the two major 

drainage basins (Soldier and Little Soldier Creek Basins), 

which comprise about 86 percent of the reservation, are cropland (26 and 27 percent, respectively) and pastureland (68 and 

64 percent, respectively) (Kansas Applied Remote Sensing 

Program, 1993). Cropland is mostly along the streams, and 

pastureland is in upland areas (table 1, fig. 2).

The Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation is located 

within the Kansas Drift Plains section of the Central Lowland 

Province of the Interior Plains (Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman 

and Johnson, 1946; Schoewe, 1949). The topography of the 

Kansas Drift Plains reflects a gently undulating, glacial-driftdominated, erosional surface. The broad, smooth, wellrounded, interstream areas are remnants of the uneroded original basal till deposited by the last retreating glacial ice sheet. 

Glacial deposits of boulder till, sand and gravel, silt, and clay 

lie beneath the erosional surface. A preglacial bedrock valley, 

buried by glacial deposits, lies along the course of Soldier 

Creek within the reservation (Dreeszen and Burchett, 1971).

Geologically, the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 

lies within the stable interior of the North American Continent. Since Precambrian time (about 600 million years ago), 

most of this part of the continent has undergone gentle upwarp 

and downwarp of the Earth’s crust over large areas. Structurally, this part of the continent is characterized by broad basins 

and arches, with subtle folding of sedimentary rocks and few 

major fault zones (Jorgensen and others, 1993). Uppermost 

bedrock within the reservation consists mostly of limestone 

and shale of Permian and Pennsylvanian age (about 245 to 

320 million years ago) (Walters, 1953). Unconsolidated glacial 

and stream (alluvial) deposits overlie the erosional surface of 

sedimentary rocks (fig. 3). The composition of these unconsolidated deposits varies vertically and horizontally and ranges 

from fine-grained sediment consisting of till, silt, and clay to 

coarse-grained sediment consisting of sand, gravel, pebbles, 

cobbles, and boulders (Trombley and others, 1996). The 

unconsolidated glacial and alluvial deposits are the primary 

source of ground water on the reservation. Well yields from 

these deposits are largely variable and are generally less than 

300 gal/min (Trombley and others, 1996).

The average monthly precipitation received on the Prairie 

Band Potawatomi Reservation over a 30-year period (1971 

through 2000) and the monthly divergence from the average 

during the current study period (September 2003–August 

2006) is shown in figure 4. During the current study period, 

the amount of precipitation received on the reservation was 

below the monthly average for 23 out of 36 months (fig. 4). 

The basin experienced precipitation significantly above average (3 in. or more above the monthly average) in June and 

October 2005, and August 2006. Precipitation data for the 

reservation are estimated from data collected near Holton, 

Kansas (fig. 1) by the High Plains Regional Climate Center 

(long-term average monthly precipitation) and the National 

Climatic Data Center (monthly precipitation for September 

2003–August 2006). Precipitation data are available on the 

Web at http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/ and http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.

gov, respectively.

The average monthly streamflow in Soldier Creek near 

Delia (station 06889200, fig. 1) over a 30-year period (1971 

through 2000) and the monthly divergence from the average 

during the current study period (September 2003–August 

2006) is shown in figure 5. Streamflow was below average 

at this Soldier Creek site for most of the current study period 

(32 out of 36 months). Streamflow was markedly higher 

than the 30-year average in June and October 2005 (275 and 

786 ft3/s, respectively). Low streamflow during the current 

study period probably affected some water-quality constituents 

such as suspended-sediment concentration, total suspended 

solids, and bacteria densities. Streamflow data for the Soldier 

Creek near Delia gaging station are available on the Web at 

http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis .

Months with above-average precipitation amounts generally increased streamflow in Soldier Creek, at least relative to 

preceding months. However, large precipitation months did not 

necessarily produce large mean monthly streamflow, relative 

Table 1. Drainage area and land-use percentages in Soldier and Little 

Soldier Creek Basins within the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, 

northeastern Kansas, 1993. 

[Land-use data from Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program, 1993]

Soldier Creek 

Basin

Little Soldier Creek 

Basin

Drainage area (acres) 43,720 23,090

Land-use classes Land use (percent)

Cropland 25.6 27.0

Pastureland 68.5 63.7

Woodland 5.7 8.9

Water .15 .33

Other .05 .07

 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
to the 30-year average. For example, in August 2006, the total 

precipitation was 9.32 in. for the month but was split between 

11 days. The largest daily total was 2.83 in. on August 26th. 

Antecedent dry conditions for the four preceding months 

produced extreme low flow at the site for the first 2 weeks in 

August. These conditions resulted in an average streamflow 

for the month that was less than the 30-year average. Similar conditions contributed to lower-than-average streamflow 

despite above-average precipitation in August 2005.

Methods of Sample Collection and 

Analysis

Sample Collection

Water samples were collected from surface- and groundwater sites on and near the reservation to assess the quality 

of the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation’s water resources. 

Analyses were performed to identify potential contaminants 

and treatment concerns. This section describes the sampling 

sites, methods used to collect samples, analyses performed on 

the water-quality samples, and quality-assurance and qualitycontrol measures.

Methods of Sample Collection and Analysis 

Figure 2. Land use in Soldier and Little 

Soldier Creek Basins within Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation, 1993.

Creek

Land use from Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery

Kansas Geological Survey, 1993

Cropland

Pastureland

Woodland

Water

Other

Boundary of reservation

Boundary of drainage basin

Land-use classes

EXPLANATION

0 1 2 3 4 MILES

0 1 2 3 4 KILOMETERS

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1991

Albers Equal Area Conic projection

Standard parallels 29°30' and 45°30; central meridian 96°

39°25'

20'

39°15'

James Creek

Dutch

Creek

Crow

Creek

Soldier

Creek

Soldier

Little

Soldier Creek

Big

E

ml Creek

Hoyt

Delia

Mayetta

95°55' 50' 95°45'
Surface Water

A network of 20 monitoring sites (referred to herein 

as “synoptic sites”) was established in 1996 to evaluate the 

spatial and temporal variability of water quality on and near 

the reservation (fig. 1, table 2). Eighteen of the 20 sites were 

located within the two major drainage basins on the reservation, Soldier Creek and Little Soldier Creek, which eventually 

drain into the Kansas River at Topeka (fig. 1). Surface-waterquality sampling sites were spatially distributed across the 

reservation, representing surface water flowing into and out 

of the reservation, as well as surface water downstream from 

potential sources of contamination. Two sites (BC01 and 

SCC01) were located on streams that flow eastward into the 

Delaware River. All 20 sites were sampled at least annually 

from 1996 to 2001 as part of previous study periods (results 

from these previous study periods are published in Trombley 

1999, 2001; Schmidt, 2004). Six synoptic sampling events 

were conducted from 1996–2001. The last synoptic sampling 

event was conducted in June 2001 (Schmidt, 2004). Synoptic 

sampling is the collection of samples from many locations 

during a short period of time, typically a few hours.

Since November 1996, a subset of 5 of the 20 surfacewater-quality monitoring sites have been sampled approximately quarterly (referred to herein as “quarterly sites”) 

(fig. 1). Two sites are located on Soldier Creek (sites SC03 and 

SC07), two are located on Little Soldier Creek (sites LSC03 

and LSC04), and one is located on Big Elm Creek 

(site LSC06) (fig. 1) downstream from a sewage-treatment 

lagoon in operation on the reservation (Sharon Bosse, Prairie 

Figure 3. Generalized geology 

underlying Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Reservation.

   Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

20' 

95°55' 50' 95°45'

39°15' 

39°25' 

Geology modified from Walters, 1953

0 1 2 3 4 MILES

0 1 2 3 4 KILOMETERS

Established

1846

Established 

1861 

EXPLANATION

Alluvial deposits

Glacial deposits

Limestone and shale 

 (sedimentary rocks)

Boundary of reservation

Soldier 

Creek 

Soldier 

Little 

Creek

Creek 

South 

Cedar 

Bills 

Mayetta 

Delia Hoyt 

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1991

Albers Equal Area Conic projection

Standard parallels 29°30' and 45°30; central meridian 96° 
Band Potawatomi Nation Department of Planning and Environmental Protection, oral commun., 2006) and approximately 

1 mi upstream from its confluence with Little Soldier Creek.

Fifty-five surface-water samples were collected from 

November 2003 through August 2006. These samples were 

analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, 

nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, fecal-indicator bacteria, 

suspended sediment, and total suspended solids (table 3). 

Streamflow was measured concurrently with each surfacewater-quality sample. Surface-water sampling and streamflow 

measurement techniques are described in Wilde and others 

(1999).

Ground Water

Ground-water samples were collected from 11 wells 

installed in August 2002 and July 2003 and dedicated solely 

for water-quality-monitoring purposes (fig. 1, table 2). A 

previous ground-water assessment on the reservation used 

water collected from domestic and pumping wells (Trombley, 

2001). For the current study period, a total of 10 ground-water 

monitoring wells within the reservation were sampled in July 

2004, July 2005, and August 2006. Monitoring well MW05 

had been sampled during a previous study period (2003) but 

was omitted for the current study period because of low water 

production. Monitoring wells were located to provide a spatial 

assessment of the ground-water quality across the reservation. 

The monitoring wells, installed by a private contractor through 

the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, consist of 2-in. polyvinyl 

chloride (PVC) pipe and are completed at various depths in 

the local water-bearing formation (table 2) (Gregory Wold, 

Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, Department of Planning 

and Environmental Protection, oral commun., 2004). Water 

in these wells is derived from alluvial and glacial deposits of 

Pleistocene age as well as carbonate deposits of Pennsylvanian 

age (Walters, 1953).

Ground-water-quality samples were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace 

elements, pesticides, and fecal-indicator bacteria (table 3). 

Additional analyses for chemical oxygen demand (COD) 

and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were completed on 

all three annual samples from monitoring well MW04 and 

one annual sample collected from well MW07 in July 2004. 

Ground-water-quality samples were collected and processed 

in a mobile water-quality laboratory following ground-watersampling protocols described in detail in Gibs and Wilde 

(1999). Each well was purged of at least three well volumes 

before samples were collected. Well purging was necessary to 

assure that water samples were representative of aquifer conditions. During the purging period, physical properties of the 

water (specific conductance, pH, water temperature, dissolved 

oxygen, oxidation-reduction potential, and turbidity) were 

observed and recorded every 5 minutes. Water-quality samples 

were collected after the three-volume purge was complete and 

physical properties stabilized (Gibs and Wilde, 1999).

After onsite processing, all water-quality samples were 

chilled to a temperature of 4oC during transport to the USGS 

laboratory in Lawrence, Kansas. Samples then were processed, 

preserved, and shipped according to the desired analysis to 

the USGS National Water-Quality Laboratory (NWQL), 

Lakewood, Colorado; the Organic Geochemistry Research 

Methods of Sample Collection and Analysis 

Figure 4. Average monthly precipitation at Holton, Kansas, and departure 

from average during current study 

period, September 2003 through 

August 2006.

Departure from long-term

average (1971–2000) 

monthly precipitation 

recorded at Holton,

Kansas (fig. 1), during

month and year indicated 

-4

-2

0

2003 2004 2005

Departure from long-term average monthly precipitation, in inches

2006

2

4

6

8

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Average annual precipitation for 

Holton, Kansas, over a 30-year 

period (1971−2000)
Laboratory (OGRL), Lawrence, Kansas; and the USGS Sediment Laboratory, Iowa City, Iowa.

Sample Analysis

Water-quality samples were analyzed at NWQL for 

physical properties, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, 

COD, and VOCs using methods described in Fishman and 

Friedman (1989), Zaugg and others (1995), Connor and others 

(1998), and Jones and Garbarino (1999). Dissolved pesticides, 

including herbicides and insecticides, were analyzed at OGRL 

using two different methods. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used for all surface-water samples 

to screen for triazine herbicides using procedures described 

in Thurman and others (1990). Selected surface-water and 

all ground-water samples were analyzed using gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for concentrations of 

selected pesticides using methods described in Kish and others 

(2000). Suspended-sediment concentrations in surface-water 

samples were determined at the USGS Sediment Laboratory in 

Iowa City, Iowa, using methods described in Guy (1977).

Fecal coliform, Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal streptococcus, and enterococci indicator bacteria in water samples 

were processed onsite by USGS or tribal personnel. Bacteria 

samples were returned to the USGS laboratory in Lawrence, 

Kansas, to complete incubation and subsequent enumeration of bacteria colonies in each water sample. All bacteria 

(samples) were processed within 6 hours of collection using 

membrane-filtration methods presented in Myers and Wilde 

(2003). Fecal coliform bacteria were cultured using the mFC 

method (American Public Health Association and others, 

1992), E. coli bacteria were cultured using a modified mTec 

agar (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002a), and 

enterococci bacteria were cultured using the mEI method EPA 

1600 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000a).

Constituents that were detected at concentrations less 

than minimum laboratory reporting levels and that could be 

identified are reported as estimated. Estimated concentrations 

are noted with a remark code of “E” preceding the value in the 

data tables and should be used with the knowledge that there 

are increased uncertainties associated with these data (Childress and others, 1999). The remark code “E” also is used in 

the reporting of bacterial data where calculations to determine 

concentrations were based on nonideal counts of colonies. 

Ideal counts are ranges of colony counts that are defined for 

the individual bacteria types. The maximum limit of the range 

is established because overcrowding of the colonies inhibits 

the full growth of individual colonies causing atypical growth 

and increased errors in counting colonies. The lower limit of 

the ideal range is set as a number below which statistical validity becomes questionable (Britton and Greeson, 1989).

Quality Assurance and Quality Control

Field blank and replicate samples were collected and 

analyzed to identify variability in the collection and processing 

Figure 5. Average monthly streamflow at Soldier Creek near Delia streamflow-gaging station and departure from 

average during current study period, September 2003 through August 2006.

 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

-400

-200

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

2003 2004 2005

Departure from long-term average monthly streamflow,

in cubic feet per second

2006

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Departure from long-term 

(1971–2000) average monthly 

streamflow for Soldier Creek 

near Delia gaging station 

(06889200, fig.1) during 

month and year indicated

Average annual streamflow for 

Soldier Creek near Delia gaging 

station over a 30–year period

(1971–2000)
Methods of Sample Collection and Analysis   

Table 2. Surface- and ground-water-quality monitoring sites on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas.[ --, not determined; *, asterisk indicates quarterly samples collected at site]

Stream basin and site 

grouping

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1)

U.S. Geological 

Survey site 

identification 

number

Local number 

(township, range, and 

section)1

Site name Years sampled

Approximate 

well 

depth 

(feet)

Approximate 

depth of 

screened 

interval 

(feet)

Age of 

water-bearing 

formation

Surface-water monitoring sites

Bills Creek Basin BC01 392425095445100 7S 15E 28CDD Bills Creek, U.S. Highway 

75 near Holton

2001 -- -- --

Little Soldier Creek Basin LSC01 392328095490300 7S 14E 35DCDC Little Soldier Creek, 190 

Road near Mayetta

-- -- --

LSC02 392143095482700 8S 14E 12CCDD Little Soldier Creek, 174 

Road near Mayetta

-- -- --

LSC03* 391915095463100 8S 15E 29CCBC Little Soldier Creek, O Road 

near Mayetta

1996–2006 -- -- --

LSC04* 391720095454200 9S 15E 08ABAA Little Soldier Creek, 134 

Road near Mayetta

1996–2006 -- -- --

LSC05 391721095460900 9S 15E 05CDCD Little Soldier Creek tributary, 134 Road near Hoyt 1996–2001 -- -- --LSC06* 391720095445400 9S 15E 04CDDD Big Elm Creek, 134 Road 

near Hoyt

1996–2006 -- -- --

LSC07 391704095441700 9S 15E 10BCBB Little Elm Creek, Q Road 

near Hoyt

1996–2001 -- -- --

LSC08 391629095452400 9S 15E 09CCCC Big Elm Creek, P Road near 

Hoyt

1996–2001 -- -- --

LSC09 391628095452800 9S 15E 17AAAA Little Soldier Creek, 126 

Road near Hoyt

1996–2001 -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin SC01 392603095563000 7S 13E 23BBBB Soldier Creek, 214 Road 

near Circleville

1996–2001 -- -- --

SC02 392512095552800 7S 13E 23DDDD Soldier Creek tributary, G 

Road near Circleville

1996–2001 -- -- --

SC03* 06889180 8S 13E 12BABB Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

1996–2006 -- -- --

SC04 391956095544000 8S 13E 25ABAB Soldier Creek, 158 Road 

near Saint Clere

-- -- --
Table 2. Surface- and ground-water-quality monitoring sites on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas.—Continued

[ --, not determined; *, asterisk indicates quarterly samples collected at site]

Stream basin and site 

grouping

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1)

U.S. Geological 

Survey site 

identification 

number

Local number 

(township, range, and 

section)1

Site name Years sampled

Approximate 

well 

depth 

(feet)

Approximate 

depth of 

screened 

interval 

(feet)

Age of 

water-bearing 

formation

Surface-water monitoring sites—Continued

Soldier Creek Basin SC05 392049095531300 8S 14E 18DDDD Crow Creek, 166 Road near 

Saint Clere

-- -- --

SC06 391852095534500 8S 14E 31BADD South Branch Soldier Creek, 

H.5 Road near Saint Clere

1996–2001 -- -- --

SC07* 391557095531100 9S 14E 17CBBC Soldier Creek, I Road near 

Delia

1996–2006 -- -- --

SC08 391813095513200 8S 14E 33CDDD James Creek, 142 Road near 

Delia

1996–2001 -- -- --

SC09 391630095520800 9S 14E 08DDDD James Creek, 126 Road near 

Delia

1996–2001 -- -- --

South Cedar Creek Basin SCC01 392212095441800 8S 15E 09ADDA South Cedar Creek, U.S. 

Highway 75 near Mayetta

-- -- --

Ground-water monitoring sites

Little Soldier Creek Basin MW01 391707095445901 09S 15E 09BADC01 Monitoring well #1 2003–2006 33.5 -- PleistoceneSoldier Creek Basin MW02 391644095505601 09S 14E 10CBCC01 Monitoring well #2 2003–2006 26.0 9–25 PennsylvanianLittle Soldier Creek Basin MW03 391907095441901 08S 15E 28DDDD01 Monitoring well #3 2003–2006 96.5 73–93 PleistoceneSoldier Creek Basin MW04 391850095483801 08S 14E 36BCBD01 Monitoring well #4 2003–2006 40.0 10–30 Pleistocene

Do. MW05 391700095544601 09S 13E 12ACCA01 Monitoring well #5 2003 22.8 10–20 PleistoceneDo. MW06 392010095552301 08S 13E 24CBCC01 Monitoring well #6 2003–2006 40.1 20–40 PennsylvanianDo. MW07 391948095512201 08S 14E 28ABCA01 Monitoring well #7 2003–2006 28.6 16–26 Pennsylvanian

Little Soldier Creek Basin MW08 391955095465301 08S 15E 30ABAB01 Monitoring well #8 2003–2006 37.2 15–35 PleistoceneSoldier Creek Basin MW09 392325095542101 08S 13E 01AAAB01 Monitoring well #9 2003–2006 73.7 20–70 Pennsylvanian

Do. MW10 392315095505801 08S 14E 04AADD01 Monitoring well #10 2003–2006 41.1 10–40 Pennsylvanian

Little Soldier Creek Basin MW11 392310095473501 08S 14E 01ADAD01 Monitoring well #11 2003–2006 63.0 15–60 Pleistocene

1Local numbers are assigned according to a modification of the Bureau of Land Management’s system of land subdivision. In this system, the first set of digits in the number refers to the township north (N) 

or south (S) of the Kansas-Nebraska State line; the second set refers to the range east (E) or west (W) of the sixth principal meridian; and the third set refers to the section in which the site is located. The terminal letters refer to the 160-acre, 40-acre, 10-acre, and 2.5-acre tracts within the section. The letters A, B, C, D are assigned in a counterclockwise direction beginning in the northeast quadrant. For example, the local number 7S 14E 35DCDC indicates a site located in the southwest quarter of the southeast quarter of the southwest quarter of the southeast quarter of sec. 35, T.7 S., R.14 E.

10 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Methods of Sample Collection and Analysis 11

Table 3. Constituents analyzed as part of water-quality assessment on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 

through August 2006. 

[Unless otherwise noted, constituents were analyzed in both surface- and ground-water samples; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]

Physical properties (various units)

Specific conductance Hardness

pH Oxidation-reduction potential (Eh)

Water temperature Acid neutralizing capacity as CaCO3, field, total1

Turbidity Acid neutralizing capacity as CaCO3, laboratory, total

Oxygen, dissolved Alkalinity as CaCO3, dissolved2

Dissolved solids (milligrams per liter)

Major ions (milligrams per liter)

Calcium, dissolved Fluoride, dissolved 

Magnesium, dissolved Silica, dissolved

Sodium, dissolved Sulfate, dissolved

Potassium, dissolved Bicarbonate as HCO3, dissolved

Chloride, dissolved 

Nutrients (milligrams per liter)

Nitrogen, ammonia, dissolved Nitrogen, nitrite plus nitrate, dissolved

Nitrogen, ammonia plus organic nitrogen, dissolved Phosphorus, dissolved

Nitrogen, ammonia plus organic nitrogen, total Phosphorus, total

Nitrogen, nitrite, dissolved Phosphorus, orthophosphate, dissolved

Trace elements (micrograms per liter)

Arsenic, dissolved Iron, dissolved

Selenium, dissolved Boron, dissolved

Triazine pesticides or metabolites (micrograms per liter)

Triazine screen (ELISA), dissolved Flufenacet, dissolved

2-Chloro-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, dissolved Metolachlor, dissolved 

2-Chloro-6-ethylamino-4-amino-s-triazine, dissolved Pendimethalin, dissolved

Acetochlor, dissolved Prometon, dissolved

Alachlor, dissolved Prometryn, dissolved

Ametryn, dissolved Propachlor, dissolved

Atrazine, dissolved Propazine, dissolved

Cyanazine amide, dissolved Simazine, dissolved

Cyanazine, dissolved Terbutryn, dissolved

Dimethenamid, dissolved

Other pesticides (micrograms per liter)

2,6-Diethylaniline, dissolved Disulfoton, dissolved

2-Hydroxy-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, dissolved Diuron, dissolved

2-Hydroxy-4-isopropylamino-6-ethylamino-s-triazine, dissolved EPTC, dissolved

2-Hydroxy-6-ethylamino-4-amino-s-triazine, dissolved Ethoprop, dissolved

alpha-HCH, dissolved Fluometuron, dissolved

Azinphos-methyl, dissolved Fonofos, dissolved
Table 3. Constituents analyzed as part of water-quality assessment on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 

through August 2006.—Continued

[Unless otherwise noted, constituents were analyzed in both surface- and ground-water samples; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]

Other pesticides (micrograms per liter)—Continued

Benfluralin, dissolved Lindane, dissolved

Bromacil, dissolved Linuron, dissolved

Butylate, dissolved Malathion, dissolved

Carbaryl, dissolved Methyl parathion, dissolved

Carbofuran, dissolved Molinate, dissolved

Chlorodiamino-s-triazine, dissolved Napropamide, dissolved

Chlorodiamino-s-triazine, dissolved p,p’-DDE, dissolved

Chlorpyrifos, dissolved Parathion, dissolved

cis-Permethrin, dissolved, Pebulate, dissolved

Cyanazine acid, dissolved Phorate, dissolved

DCPA, dissolved Pronamide, dissolved

Deethylcyanazine acid, dissolved Propanil, dissolved

Deethylcyanazine amide, dissolved Propargite, dissolved

Deethylcyanazine, dissolved Tebuthiuron, dissolved

Demethylfluometuron, dissolved Terbacil, dissolved

Diazinon, dissolved Terbufos, dissolved

Dieldrin, dissolved Thiobencarb, dissolved

Hydroxysimazine, dissolved Triallate, dissolved

Trifluralin, dissolved

Chemical oxygen demand (milligrams per liter)2

Volatile organic compounds (micrograms per liter)2

Acetone, total Ethylbenzene, total

Acrylonitrile, total Ethyl methacrylate, total

Benzene, total Ethyl methyl ketone, total 

Bromobenzene, total 2-Ethyltoluene, total

Bromochloromethane, total Hexachlorobutadiene, total

Bromodichloromethane, total Hexachloroethane, total

Bromoethene, total Iodomethane, total

Bromomethane, total Isobutyl methyl ketone, total

n- Butylbenzene, total Isopropylbenzene, total

sec-Butylbenzene, total 4- Isopropyltoluene, total 

tert-Butylbenzene, total Methacrylonitrile, total

tert-Butyl ethyl ether, total Methyl acrylate, total

n-Butyl methyl ketone, total Methyl methacrylate, total

Carbon disulfide, total Methyl tert-butyl ether, total

12 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Methods of Sample Collection and Analysis 13

Table 3. Constituents analyzed as part of water-quality assessment on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 

through August 2006.—Continued

[Unless otherwise noted, constituents were analyzed in both surface- and ground-water samples; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]

Volatile organic compounds (micrograms per liter)2—Continued

Chlorobenzene, total Methyl tert-pentyl ether, total

Chloroethane, total Naphtalene, total

Chloromethane, total n-Propylbenzene, total

3- Chloropropene, total Styrene, total

2-Chlorotoluene, total Tetrachloroethane, total

4-Chlorotoluene, total 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane, total

Dibromochloromethane, total Tetrachloromethane, total

1,2-Dibromoethane, total Tetrahydrofuran, total

Dibromomethane, total 1,2,3,4-Tetramethylbenzene, total

1,2,-Dibromo-3-chloropropane, total 1,2,3,5-Tetramethylbenzene, total

1,2-Dichlorobenzene, total Tribromomethane, total

1,3-Dichlorobenzene, total 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene, total

1,4-Dichlorobenzene, total 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene, total

Dichlorodifluoromethane, total Trichloroethene, total

1,1-Dichloroethane, total 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, total

1,2-Dichloroethane, total 1,1,2-Trichloroethane, total

cis-1,2-Dichloroethane, total Trichlorofluoromethane, total

trans-1,2-Dichloroethane, total Trichloromethane, total

Dichloromethane, total 1,2,3-Trichloropropane, total

1.2-Dichloropropane, total 1,1,2,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane, total

1,3-Dichloropropane, total 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene, total

2,2-Dichloropropane, total 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene, total

1,1-Dichloropropene, total 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene, total

cis-1,3-Dichloropropene, total Toluene, total

trans-1,3-Dichloropropene, total Vinyl chloride, total

trans-1,4-Dichloro-2-butene, total m-Xylene plus p-xylene, total

Diethyl ether, total o-Xylene, total

Diisopropyl ether, total

Fecal indicator bacteria (colonies per 100 milliliters)

Fecal coliform bacteria Fecal streptococcus bacteria

Escherichia coli bacteria Enterococci bacteria

Sediment (milligrams per liter)1

Suspended-sediment concentration Total suspended solids

1

Sampled in surface water only.

2

Sampled in ground water only.
of water-quality data. Water-quality samples were collected 

and processed in the field; therefore, field blank samples were 

collected throughout the study. Field blank samples were 

collected by passing blank water through the same sampling 

equipment as the environmental samples and processing the 

blank sample in the same manner as an environmental sample 

would be processed. The inorganic and organic blank water 

used are quality assured by the USGS National Field Supply 

Services Unit (Denver, Colorado). Quality-assurance data are 

on file with the USGS office in Lawrence, Kansas, and are 

available upon request.

 The purpose of a field blank sample is to determine the 

concentrations of the analytes of interest that could be present in the environment in which the samples are collected 

and processed (Wilde and others, 1999). Field blanks incorporate contamination from all potential sources, including 

environmental contamination, sample equipment, and laboratory analysis. For the current study period (November 2003 

through August 2006) reported herein, one ground-water field 

blank was collected and analyzed in July 2004 for major ions, 

nutrients, and selected trace elements. Analytical results of this 

sample detected small concentrations of calcium (0.02 mg/L), 

boron (12 μg/L), and iron (estimated at 5 μg/L). All other 

analyzed constituents were less than reporting levels. These 

concentrations are small relative to environmental sample 

results; therefore, equipment and procedures used in collection of ground-water samples for the study period described in 

this report are environmentally insignificant sources of sample 

contamination. The field blank sample was not analyzed 

for pesticides in the 2004 sample; however, a blank sample 

collected in 2000, during the previous reporting period, was 

analyzed for pesticides and had no detection of the pesticides 

listed in table 3. Results from the previous study period, May 

2001 through August 2003, indicated similar analytical results 

in field blank samples relative to the major ions, nutrients, and 

selected trace elements (Schmidt, 2004).

Replicate samples are a set of samples collected close 

in time and space. Replicate samples are collected to provide 

information on the variability introduced from collection, 

processing, shipping, and laboratory handling and analysis of 

the sample (Wilde and others, 1999). The current study period 

used concurrent replicate samples, meaning that two or more 

samples were collected consecutively from the same place 

using the same methods and analyzed identically.

The target goal for variability among analyses of replicate samples was a relative percentage difference (RPD) of 

±20 percent except when constituent concentrations were at 

or near analytical detection limits. RPD was calculated as 

the difference in replicate analyses divided by the mean and 

expressed as a percentage.

 Thirteen surface-water and three ground-water replicate samples were collected and analyzed during the current study period described in this report. In the analyses 

of these 16 replicate-sample pairs, only three physical 

property analyses exceeded the ±20 percent RPD qualityassurance goal; the largest was a turbidity pair with an RPD of 

29 percent collected from well MW09 on August 17, 2006. All 

replicate analyses for major ions were within the established 

quality-assurance goal except for replicate surface-water 

samples collected on May 19, 2004, from site LSC03 (fig. 1). 

This replicate-sample pair had RPDs for dissolved fluoride, 

silica, and sulfate, as well as dissolved solids and total suspended solids that exceeded the ±20 percent RPD goal. These 

excesses ranged from 24 percent (dissolved solids and total 

suspended solids) to 33 percent (chloride). The results for this 

one replicate-sample pair from site LSC03 were examined, but 

no apparent reason for the relative inconsistent RPDs could be 

determined.

Nutrient and trace element constituents had replicatesample RPDs within the ±20 percent quality-assurance goal 

except for two instances of dissolved ammonia plus organic 

nitrogen (23 and 26 percent, respectively) and one instance 

of dissolved iron (48 percent). Bacteria analyses showed the 

largest variability between replicate samples of all constituent groups. Among the four bacterial groups or species listed 

in table 3, a total of 27 paired-replicate analyses of surfacewater samples were performed. RPDs for these paired analyses ranged from 0 to 39 percent with 10 (37 percent of the 

replicates) exceeding the ±20-percent quality-assurance goal. 

This relatively large variability probably is a combination of 

factors that may include (1) nonrandom distribution of bacteria 

in surface water and samples of surface water, (2) nonrandom 

distribution in sample bottles, (3) interferences with colony 

development during the incubation period (turbidity, nontarget 

bacteria, water/chemical matrix), and (4) analyst inconsistency 

in distinguishing and counting target bacteria. However, with 

the possible exception of bacterial results and the sample of 

major ions from site LSC03 on May 19, 2004, variability in 

sample collection and analysis was within acceptable limits.

During the current reporting period, replicate analysis 

samples for pesticides listed in table 3 were not collected. 

However, during previous reporting periods (1996–2003), five 

surface-water replicate samples were collected and analyzed 

for pesticides. Most of the pesticides listed in table 3 had 

concentrations less than laboratory reporting levels. Replicate 

analyses of surface-water samples with concentrations of 

pesticides greater than laboratory reporting levels generally 

did not exceed the ±20-percent quality-assurance goal, with 

the exception of one paired analyses of metolachlor and simazine. RPDs for these paired analyses were 23 and 21 percent, 

respectively. For sampling sites or wells with replicate analyses, analytical results of these paired samples were averaged 

prior to assessment, presentation, and discussion in this report.

Water Quality on the Prairie Band 

Potawatomi Reservation

Surface-water-quality samples collected during November 2003 through August 2006 were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace 

14  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
elements, pesticides, fecal-indicator bacteria, suspendedsediment concentration, and total suspended solids. Groundwater samples were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved 

solids, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, and 

fecal-indicator bacteria. COD and VOCs were analyzed in 

selected ground-water samples. This section describes the 

constituents analyzed and the results obtained from sample 

analysis.

Physical Properties

Physical properties of water include specific conductance, 

pH, water temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, 

oxidation-reduction potential, and acid neutralizing capacity 

or alkalinity (table 3). Physical properties of surface water 

were measured onsite with a multiparameter water-quality 

instrument that determined specific conductance, pH, water 

temperature, turbidity (YSI 6136 sensor, Yellow Springs 

Instruments, Yellow Springs, Ohio), and dissolved oxygen. 

Specific conductance, pH, water temperature, and dissolved 

oxygen also were measured in ground water with a multiparameter water-quality instrument. Ground-water turbidity 

was measured with a portable benchtop turbidimeter (HACH 

2100AN, Hach Company, Loveland, Colorado). Specific conductance, pH, and turbidity also were measured in all water 

samples submitted to NWQL. The acid neutralizing capacity 

of surface-water samples and the alkalinity of ground-water 

samples were determined onsite through digital titration 

techniques (HACH digital titrator, Hach Company, Loveland, 

Colorado), and the acid neutralizing capacity for each sample 

also was determined in the laboratory.

The health of aquatic life in a stream may be affected 

by pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity. 

Fish and macroinvertebrate species, which some fish depend 

on as a food source, can be sensitive to changes in pH, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity. The physical properties of a 

water sample also can provide information about the major 

ion chemistry of a sample. For example, dissolved major ions 

(calcium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate) have a tendency to 

increase specific conductance values (Hem, 1992), which can 

have implications for drinking-water treatment.

Specific conductance is a measure of the capacity of a 

sample of water to conduct an electrical current and is associated with the concentration of ionized substances in the water. 

Therefore, the specific conductance becomes greater as the 

amount of ionized substances in the water increases (Hem, 

1992). The reporting units for specific conductance in this 

report are microsiemens per centimeter at 25oC (μS/cm).

Onsite specific conductance measurements made at 

the five quarterly surface-water sites ranged from 172 to 

1,170 μS/cm (table 4). The smallest specific conductance 

measurement of 172 μS/cm was recorded at site LSC04 on 

May 11, 2005, when streamflow was from runoff conditions 

(189 ft3/s). The largest specific conductance measurement, 

1,170 μS/cm, was recorded at site LSC06 on November 19, 

2003, when streamflow was 0.02 ft3/s. This site is downstream 

from a discharging sewage-treatment lagoon. Specific conductance measurements may be larger in streams affected by 

wastewater discharge (Pope and Putnam, 1997).

Specific conductance measurements made onsite in 

ground water ranged from 460 to 3,030 μS/cm (table 5). The 

median onsite specific conductance measurement in ground 

water was 692 μS/cm. The largest specific conductance was 

detected in monitoring well MW03, which is the deepest well 

sampled during the current study period (table 2). Monitoring well MW03 is located next to a pumping well (S28–4, 

fig. 1) that was sampled during the 1999–2001 study period 

when water sampled on September 22 and 24, 2000, had 

onsite specific conductance values of 2,650 and 2,560 μS/cm, 

respectively (table 7 in Trombley, 2001). These large specific 

conductance measurements also correspond to the largest 

concentrations of dissolved solids. The reason for these large 

values currently (2007) is not known.

The pH of water is a measure of the activity of the hydrogen ion and indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a 

solution. A pH of less than 7.0 standard units is considered 

acidic, and a pH greater than 7.0 standard units is considered 

alkaline. Generally, the pH of natural stream water ranges 

from 6.0 to 8.5 standard units (Hem, 1992). In water, extremes 

on the pH scale can stress aquatic organisms in addition to 

having effects on surface- or ground-water chemistry because 

water with a smaller pH can have an increased capacity for 

erosion (Hem, 1992).

The median onsite pH in all surface-water determinations 

was 8.0 standard units and ranged from 6.8 to 8.3 standard 

units (table 4). This range is within KDHE freshwater aquaticlife criterion of 6.5 to 8.5 standard units (Kansas Department 

of Health and Environment, 2001). Onsite pH measurements 

of ground-water samples from the Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Reservation ranged from 6.6 to 7.6 standard units, with a 

median of 7.0 standard units (table 5) and were within the 

USEPA primary drinking-water criterion (6.5–8.5 standard 

units) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006).

The specific conductance of water, pH, density, solubility of dissolved constituents, rate of chemical reactions, and 

biological activity in water are all temperature dependent. 

Water temperature in streams on the reservation ranged from 

0.1 to 27.2oC, with a median temperature of 13.0oC, and varied 

seasonally (table 4). Water temperature in ground water ranged 

from 13.2 to 17.0oC, with a median temperature of 14.0oC 

(table 5). The highest ground-water temperature was recorded 

in well MW11 on July 26, 2004. An open, hand-dug well, 

with a water-surface depth of about 10 ft below land surface, 

is located 10 ft from well MW11, and the warmer air temperatures may heat the water in the open well and possibly account 

for the higher water temperatures in well MW11. The other 

two samples collected from well MW11 in July 2005 and 

August 2006 were closer to the median value of the samples 

collected from all wells.

Turbidity refers to the murkiness of water and is caused 

by particles or “suspended matter.” Turbidity is measured by 

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 15
Table 4. Streamflow measurements and results of analysis of physical properities in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 

2003 through August 2006. [ft3/s, cubic feet per second; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; oC, degrees Celsius; YSI, Yellow Springs Instruments Incorporated, Yellow Springs, Ohio; Hach 2100 AN, HACH Company, Loveland, Colorado; FNU, formazin nephelometric units; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; --, not determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than; >, greater than]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1)

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/ 

day/ year)

Streamflow 

(ft3/s)

Specific 

conductance, 

onsite 

(μS/cm)

Specific 

conductance, 

laboratory 

(μS/cm)

pH, 

onsite 

(standard 

units)

pH, 

laboratory 

(standard 

units)

Air 

temperature 

(

oC)

Water 

temperature 

(

oC)

Turbidity, 

onsite, 

YSI 6136 

(FNU)

Turbidity, 

laboratory, 

Hach 

2100AN 

(NTRU)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

Total 

calculated 

hardness 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, total, 

laboratory 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Water-quality criteria -- -- -- -- 16.5–8.5 -- -- 2 6.4, 5.0 NTU 34.0–5.5 -- -- --

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O 

Road near Mayetta 

11/19/03 0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 .04 394 419 7.4 7.7 4.0 1.6 20 45 11.5 200 150 15005/19/04 41.0 319 339 8.0 7.7 25.5 18.5 100 130 8.3 170 -- 15008/25/04 3.9 290 303 8.0 7.7 27.0 21.8 110 120 7.6 140 -- 13012/08/04 .04 667 699 7.8 E7.7 -- 3.6 13 15 -- 290 -- 26002/10/05 2.6 499 626 7.9 7.8 -2.0 .6 16 13 11.3 250 -- 23006/01/05 .66 585 660 7.9 8.1 21.0 18.1 10 9.5 8.0 350 280 31008/16/05 .01 719 735 7.5 7.8 24.5 19.2 4.8 10 5.0 360 340 16011/09/05 .59 757 778 8.0 7.4 13.0 10.5 2.2 <2.0 9.8 400 360 26002/22/06 .55 868 892 4 -- 8.0 -- .7 .90 <2.0 14.6 450 400 34006/06/06 .26 569 542 7.4 8.1 30.0 26.2 8.1 9.5 9.4 260 260 27008/02/06 0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 

Road near Mayetta

11/19/03 0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 .12 336 361 7.4 7.7 0 1.0 20 23 13.0 170 120 13005/19/04 73.0 268 274 8.0 E7.2 24.5 18.1 280 250 8.5 130 -- 13008/25/04 6.7 243 247 8.0 7.8 25.0 21.8 210 210 7.6 120 -- 12012/08/04 .07 485 519 8.1 8.0 0 1.9 11 8.0 11.0 230 -- 230

16 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Table 4. Streamflow measurements and results of analysis of physical properities in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 

2003 through August 2006.—Continued[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; oC, degrees Celsius; YSI, Yellow Springs Instruments Incorporated, Yellow Springs, Ohio; Hach 2100 AN, HACH Company, Loveland, Colorado; FNU, formazin nephelometric units; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; --, not determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than; >, greater than]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1)

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/ 

day/ year)

Streamflow 

(ft3/s)

Specific 

conductance, 

onsite 

(μS/cm)

Specific 

conductance, 

laboratory 

(μS/cm)

pH, 

onsite 

(standard 

units)

pH, 

laboratory 

(standard 

units)

Air 

temperature 

(

oC)

Water 

temperature 

(

oC)

Turbidity, 

onsite, 

YSI 6136 

(FNU)

Turbidity, 

laboratory, 

Hach 

2100AN 

(NTRU)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

Total 

calculated 

hardness 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, total, 

laboratory 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 

Road near Mayetta

02/10/05 3.8 487 505 8.0 7.7 -- 0.1 21 19 11.4 250 -- 22005/11/05 189 172 154 8.0 7.3 -- 17.4 >1,500 3,600 7.8 61 -- 8208/16/05 .03 456 482 8.0 7.7 23.5 19.5 7.7 10 7.5 230 210 19011/09/05 .86 730 758 7.8 7.8 11.0 10.7 4.6 4.6 8.5 380 370 28002/22/06 .48 794 851 4 -- 7.8 .8 .3 2.3 <2.0 14.6 420 382 31206/06/06 .28 585 585 7.3 8.0 25.6 20.8 26 29 6.5 280 290 28008/02/06 0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 

Road near Hoyt

11/19/03 .02 1,170 1,200 7.8 7.9 -1.0 4.9 .90 3.2 8.9 300 220 22002/25/04 .21 1,095 1,140 6.8 8.2 -1.0 .3 7.7 11 13.1 300 200 19005/19/04 26.0 278 282 7.9 7.4 21.0 17.9 280 280 8.5 110 -- 10008/25/04 1.8 433 450 8.0 E7.6 26.0 22.1 23 24 7.6 150 -- 130

12/08/04 .30 786 850 8.1 8.0 -2.5 2.2 5.1 4.8 12.4 250 -- 21002/10/05 .99 842 872 7.7 E7.6 -- .1 8.5 7.8 11.1 310 -- 230

06/01/05 .49 768 816 7.8 8.2 19.0 17.1 .80 20 8.4 320 230 250

08/16/05 .10 848 875 7.6 8.1 23.0 19.1 .20 3.2 7.6 270 210 22011/09/05 .21 814 844 8.0 7.7 9.0 9.2 <.10 2.7 10.5 380 320 220

02/22/06 .32 1,120 1,160 4 -- 7.8 -- .1 4.6 3.0 11.8 370 280 280

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 17
Table 4. Streamflow measurements and results of analysis of physical properities in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 

2003 through August 2006.—Continued[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; oC, degrees Celsius; YSI, Yellow Springs Instruments Incorporated, Yellow Springs, Ohio; Hach 2100 AN, HACH Company, Loveland, Colorado; FNU, formazin nephelometric units; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; --, not determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than; >, greater than]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1)

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/ 

day/ year)

Streamflow 

(ft3/s)

Specific 

conductance, 

onsite 

(μS/cm)

Specific 

conductance, 

laboratory 

(μS/cm)

pH, 

onsite 

(standard 

units)

pH, 

laboratory 

(standard 

units)

Air 

temperature 

(

oC)

Water 

temperature 

(

oC)

Turbidity, 

onsite, 

YSI 6136 

(FNU)

Turbidity, 

laboratory, 

Hach 

2100AN 

(NTRU)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

Total 

calculated 

hardness 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, total, 

laboratory 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 

Road near Hoyt

06/06/06 0.42 742 700 7.4 8.2 24.0 20.1 2.4 3.2 8.0 250 230 22008/02/06 0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

11/19/03 1.0 848 871 8.1 8.0 12.0 6.8 3.6 4.2 10.0 460 270 10002/25/04 10.0 496 529 7.5 7.8 6.5 1.9 29 31 -- 260 170 17005/19/04 84.0 447 477 8.0 7.7 27.5 20.4 120 150 7.8 230 -- 20008/25/04 7.1 585 658 8.0 8.0 28.0 24.7 49 48 7.3 320 -- 20012/08/04 3.3 827 883 8.2 8.1 -- 2.9 7.9 6.6 12.9 430 -- 22002/10/05 9.6 621 635 8.3 8.0 5.0 .6 11 9.9 13.7 320 -- 24006/01/05 6.7 692 713 8.0 8.1 25.0 20.3 33 33 9.1 360 230 19008/16/05 1.6 654 687 7.9 7.9 -- 22.8 11 15 10.5 350 230 19011/09/05 4.8 762 786 8.1 7.9 15.0 11.2 3.1 4.0 13.5 400 290 20002/22/06 3.9 830 863 4 -- 7.8 8.0 1.5 2.7 <2.0 15.6 430 280 25006/06/06 4.0 768 794 7.7 8.2 28.0 23.0 23 24 8.1 380 280 27008/02/06 .23 627 628 4 -- 8.1 32.1 26.8 28 34 5.1 280 240 240

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road 

near Delia

11/19/03 1.8 723 746 8.2 7.9 14.0 8.1 3.8 5.4 10.2 350 280 15002/25/04 15.0 433 452 7.7 7.9 8.5 3.1 38 54 13.0 210 140 15005/19/04 173 347 370 8.0 7.8 -- 20.5 260 290 7.7 180 -- 170

18  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Table 4. Streamflow measurements and results of analysis of physical properities in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 

2003 through August 2006.—Continued[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; oC, degrees Celsius; YSI, Yellow Springs Instruments Incorporated, Yellow Springs, Ohio; Hach 2100 AN, HACH Company, Loveland, Colorado; FNU, formazin nephelometric units; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; --, not determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than; >, greater than]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1)

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/ 

day/ year)

Streamflow 

(ft3/s)

Specific 

conductance, 

onsite 

(μS/cm)

Specific 

conductance, 

laboratory 

(μS/cm)

pH, 

onsite 

(standard 

units)

pH, 

laboratory 

(standard 

units)

Air 

temperature 

(

oC)

Water 

temperature 

(

oC)

Turbidity, 

onsite, 

YSI 6136 

(FNU)

Turbidity, 

laboratory, 

Hach 

2100AN 

(NTRU)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

Total 

calculated 

hardness 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, total, 

laboratory 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road 

near Delia

08/25/04 23.0 376 426 8.1 8.0 32.5 24.7 68 69 7.3 200 -- 16012/08/04 5.0 712 743 8.3 8.1 11.0 4.7 13 9.5 12.8 360 -- 26002/10/05 23.0 599 623 8.2 8.0 2.0 0.9 29 28 12.3 310 -- 23006/01/05 10.0 612 683 8.2 8.2 -- 22.7 38 38 9.8 330 250 24008/16/05 3.9 578 599 8.2 7.9 28.5 22.3 23 28 9.0 280 200 21011/09/05 13.0 728 750 8.3 7.9 13.1 12.7 7.1 6.5 14.3 360 320 26002/22/06 6.7 806 819 4 -- 7.9 11.4 3.7 3.3 2.1 18.4 410 450 27006/06/06 7.4 676 701 7.9 8.4 30.0 27.1 44 49 8.8 320 270 26008/02/06 .26 520 522 4 -- 8.1 31.0 27.2 29 37 5.8 220 200 210

1 Water-quality criteria established by the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (2001) for protection of aquatic life. 2 Water-quality criteria established by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001; 2006) for the protection of surface water in ecoregion IV and finished drinking water, respectively. 3 Water-quality criteria established by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) in support of freshwater aquatic life for warm-water species.4 Value was determined to be erroneous due to equipment malfunction and was deleted from this data set.

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 19
Table 5. Results of analysis of physical properties in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006. 

[μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; oC, degrees Celsius; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; mV, millivolts; --, not determined or not applicable; ≤, less than or equal to; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoring-site 

identifier

(fig. 1)

Site name

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/

day/

year)

Specific 

conductance, 

onsite 

(μS/cm)

Specific 

conductance, 

laboratory

(μS/cm)

pH, 

onsite 

(standard 

units)

pH, 

laboratory 

(standard 

units)

Air temperature 

(

oC)

Water 

temperature 

(

oC)

Turbidity, 

onsite, 

Hach 

2100P 

turbidity meter 

(NTRU)

Turbidity, laboratory, Hach 

2100AN 

(NTRU)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

Total calculated 

hardness, 

water, 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Oxidation-reduction 

(redox) 

potential 

(mV relative to a 

standard 

hydrogen 

electrode)

Alkalinity, water, 

filtered, 

incremental 

titration, 

onsite, 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, total, 

laboratory (mg/L 

as CaCO3

)

1 Primary drinking-water criteria 6.5–8.5 ≤5 NTU

MW01 Monitoring 

well #1

7/28/2004 699 674 7.2 7.2 26.5 13.7 0.36 8.0 0.11 330 110 280 2107/11/2005 658 618 7.2 7.3 30.0 13.5 .54 12 .14 320 110 260 1508/16/2006 655 652 7.1 7.4 32.5 13.7 2.3 8.0 .10 280 110 270 270

MW02 Monitoring 

well #2

7/27/2004 476 470 6.8 6.9 -- 15.1 1.1 <2.0 .13 230 250 220 1607/11/2005 460 428 6.9 7.0 34.0 14.3 .22 <2.0 .19 240 250 240 1408/15/2006 509 511 6.8 7.2 33.5 14.6 5.5 3.6 .72 240 250 250 250

MW03 Monitoring 

well #3

7/26/2004 2,940 2,880 6.9 7.0 36.0 14.5 1.8 41 .14 1,100 110 320 2207/12/2005 2,770 2,740 7.1 7.0 31.0 14.2 .52 35 .13 1,100 30 330 1908/15/2006 3,030 3,020 7.0 7.2 29.5 14.4 .99 41 .94 1,100 110 300 310

MW04 Monitoring 

well #4

7/29/2004 677 654 7.2 7.6 -- 13.6 860 490 8.3 250 E430 300 3307/14/2005 646 630 6.6 7.4 32.0 14.0 320 220 8.1 250 510 300 2808/16/2006 661 653 7.6 7.6 27.5 13.6 -- 26 9.5 230 450 310 320

MW06 Monitoring 

well #6

7/29/2004 767 756 7.1 7.1 23.5 14.1 .99 44 .15 400 100 390 2407/13/2005 753 711 7.1 7.1 29.0 14.2 .45 42 .17 390 130 370 2808/14/2006 771 768 6.9 7.1 24.0 14.4 1.4 62 1.7 390 110 390 380

MW07 Monitoring 

well #7

7/27/2004 585 575 7.1 7.3 -- 13.4 3.1 8.0 0.17 310 210 310 2007/13/2005 564 534 7.2 7.3 -- 13.5 3.1 <2.0 .29 310 220 290 2208/15/2006 574 576 7.0 7.5 30.5 14.0 2.4 <2.0 1.3 300 200 300 310

20 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Table 5. Results of analysis of physical properties in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006.—

Continued[μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; oC, degrees Celsius; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; mV, millivolts; --, not determined or not applicable; ≤, less than or equal to; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoring-site 

identifier

(fig. 1)

Site name

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/

day/

year)

Specific 

conductance, 

onsite 

(μS/cm)

Specific 

conductance, 

laboratory

(μS/cm)

pH, 

onsite 

(standard 

units)

pH, 

laboratory 

(standard 

units)

Air temperature 

(

oC)

Water 

temperature 

(

oC)

Turbidity, 

onsite, 

Hach 

2100P 

turbidity meter 

(NTRU)

Turbidity, laboratory, Hach 

2100AN 

(NTRU)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

Total calculated 

hardness, 

water 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Oxidation-reduction 

(redox) 

potential 

(mV relative to a 

standard 

hydrogen 

electrode)

Alkalinity, water, 

filtered, 

incremental 

titration, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Acid 

neutralizing 

capacity, total, 

laboratory (mg/L 

as CaCO3

)

MW08 Monitoring 

well #8

7/27/2004 836 827 6.9 7.1 28.0 13.5 .83 <2.0 .68 430 230 380 220

7/12/2005 858 810 6.9 7.0 31.0 13.4 1.9 <2.0 1.0 470 260 380 1908/14/2006 856 880 6.8 7.1 25.0 13.7 2.6 <2.0 1.2 450 230 400 410

MW09 Monitoring 

well #9

7/29/2004 493 533 7.4 7.4 -- 14.8 4.5 3.1 11.2 300 320 280 1607/14/2005 530 496 7.4 7.5 29.5 14.8 3.9 <2.0 8.1 290 460 270 150

8/17/2006 541 546 7.3 7.7 30.5 13.9 >1,000 170 9.8 280 390 280 270

MW10 Monitoring 

well #10

7/28/2004 683 677 7.1 7.3 28.0 15.0 7.2 4.0 5.7 370 350 300 170

7/14/2005 665 670 7.2 7.2 29.0 14.8 5.1 9.7 4.0 360 470 290 1808/16/2006 685 683 7.0 7.3 33.5 15.6 6.6 2.4 4.6 330 400 300 310

MW11 Monitoring 

well #11

7/26/2004 813 773 7.0 7.5 -- 17.0 E190 220 1.7 400 270 320 3007/14/2005 799 754 6.7 7.4 32.5 13.4 92 71 3.5 370 480 320 260

8/18/2006 795 817 7.0 7.3 -- 13.2 220 240 2.0 390 260 360 380

1Primary drinking-water criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 21
quantifying the amount of light scattered by particles in the 

water. In this report, turbidity is described using three different 

units of measurement—formazin nephelometric units (FNUs), 

nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), and nephelometric turbidity ratio units (NTRUs). These three turbidity units are not 

comparable and should be differentiated (Ziegler, 2002). Some 

suspended matter that causes turbidity in water is known to 

be harmful and includes lead, bacteria, viruses, and protozoan 

cysts such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Turbidity also 

can interfere with the disinfection of drinking water (Anderson, 2005).

The water-quality criteria for turbidity in finished drinking water established by USEPA state that at no time can 

turbidity in finished drinking water exceed 5 NTU, and filtration systems must ensure that turbidity in finished drinking 

water does not exceed 1 NTU in at least 95 percent of daily 

turbidity samples (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2006). USEPA also has established water-quality criteria for 

onsite turbidity in streams and rivers according to ecoregions. 

An ecoregion is defined as an area of similar climate, landform, soil, potential natural vegetation, hydrology, or other 

ecologically relevant variables (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2001). The Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 

is located just north of the convergence of three of USEPA’s 

defined Level III ecoregions. These are ecoregion IV, Great 

Plains Grass and Shrublands; ecoregion VI, Corn Belt and 

Northern Great Plains; and ecoregion IX, Southeastern Temperate Forested Plains and Hills (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000 b,c; 2001). Ecoregions IV and VI converge 

within reservation boundaries (fig. 1). Each ecoregion is 

assigned a unique turbidity criterion; the largest turbidity 

criterion on the reservation is assigned to ecoregion IV and 

is 6.4 NTU (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001). 

Turbidity was measured onsite with a YSI 6136 turbidity sensor (Yellow Springs Instruments Incorporated, Yellow Springs, 

Ohio).

Onsite turbidity measurements in the streams ranged 

from less than 0.10 to greater than 1,500 FNU (table 4). The 

largest onsite turbidity was measured in Little Soldier Creek 

at 134 Road near Mayetta (site LSC04) on May 11, 2005. 

This sample was collected during runoff when streamflow 

was 189 ft3/s, the largest streamflow measured during sample 

collection (1996–2006) since a sample collected at 3,050 ft3/s 

from site SC03 on June 22, 1999 (Trombley, 2001). Turbidity was not measured during the 1999 sampling period. The 

median turbidity concentration for all sites was 13 FNU, and 

70 percent of turbidity measurements exceeded the water-quality criterion of 6.4 NTU for ecoregion IV. Turbidity samples 

also were collected and analyzed by NWQL using a HACH 

2100 AN in differential mode (HACH Company, Loveland, 

Colorado). These measurements ranged from less than 2 to 

3,600 NTRU (table 4). The largest laboratory turbidity for 

a surface-water sample also was collected at site LSC04 on 

May 11, 2005. The difference between the two values demonstrates the limits of the onsite sensors to record high turbidity values. The maximum detection limit for a YSI 6136 is 

1,500 NTU, but the turbidity for this sample was much larger 

and would have been underestimated if not for the laboratory 

sample.

Onsite turbidity measurements in ground water were 

made using a HACH 2100 P turbidimeter (HACH Company, 

Loveland, Colorado). Turbidity also was measured in the 

laboratory by a HACH 2100 AN turbidimeter. Onsite turbidity concentrations in ground-water samples ranged from 

0.22 to greater than 1,000 NTRU. The largest onsite turbidity was measured in a sample from well MW09 collected on 

August 17, 2006 (table 5). However, the corresponding laboratory value is much less (170 NTRU). Larger turbidity values 

occurred in water from wells that had slow recovery rates during pumping and were difficult to sample with the submersible 

pump. Water sampled from wells MW04 and MW11 also had 

large turbidity values.

The concentration of dissolved oxygen in surface water 

is related to atmospheric reaeration, photosynthetic activity of 

aquatic plants, temperature, and salinity of the water (Radtke 

and others, 1998). Dissolved oxygen contributes to chemical 

reactions in water and in the survival of aquatic organisms. 

USEPA has established a freshwater aquatic-life support 

standard of not less than 5.0 mg/L and a mean of 6.5 mg/L for 

cold water (defined as water containing one or more species 

of the family Salmonidae or other cold-water species), and 

a minimum of 4.0 mg/L and a mean of 5.5 mg/L for warm 

water (level set to protect early-life stages of warm-water fish 

species as sensitive as channel catfish and other life stages 

of species such as the largemouth bass) (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1986). Surface water on the reservation is 

considered to be warm water.

Dissolved oxygen concentrations in ground water are one 

indicator of the oxidation-reduction (redox) environment of 

the aquifer in the vicinity of the monitoring well. Oxygen is 

supplied to ground water through recharge and by movement 

of air through the unsaturated zone above the water table. As 

the oxygen moves through the system it reacts with oxidizable 

material. Measurable amounts of dissolved oxygen in ground 

water may persist for long distances if little reactive material is 

available along the flow path (Hem, 1992).

Onsite dissolved oxygen measurements in surface water 

collected during the current study period ranged from 5.0 to 

18.4 mg/L (table 4), which are above the minimum waterquality criterion (4.0 mg/L for warm-water aquatic life). The 

median dissolved oxygen concentration for surface water 

was 9.4 mg/L. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in ground 

water ranged from 0.10 to 11.2, with a median concentration 

of 1.2 mg/L. The largest dissolved oxygen concentrations in 

ground water were detected in monitoring wells MW04 and 

MW09 (table 5). About one-half of the wells showed consistently anoxic (oxygen-depleted) conditions, which may affect 

certain activities such as the rate of biodegration of VOCs.

Hardness is a characteristic of water that causes an 

increase in soap consumption in water used for cleaning. 

The presence of calcium as well as magnesium (discussed in 

the section on “Major Ions”) contributes to the “hardness” 

22 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
of water. Hard water is typical in regions largely dominated 

by carbonate rocks (limestone and shale) at the land surface 

and causes increased expense in water treatment as well as 

sometimes requiring further treatment by consumers in the 

form of water softeners. The hardness of water is computed 

by multiplying the sum of milliequivalents per liter (meq/L) of 

calcium and magnesium by 50. The resulting hardness value is 

expressed as “hardness as calcium carbonate (CaCO3)” (Hem, 

1992). Milligrams-per-liter values may be converted to milliequivalents per liter by multiplying the milligrams per liter 

by the reciprocals of the combined weights of the appropriate ions (Hem, 1992). Water with total calculated hardness 

concentrations of 0 to 60 mg/L is considered “soft,” from 61 to 

120 mg/L it is considered “moderately hard,” from 121 to 

180 mg/L it is considered “hard,” and greater than 180 mg/L, 

“very hard” (Hem, 1992).

Total calculated hardness in surface-water samples 

ranged from 61 to 460 mg/L as CaCO3 (table 4), with a 

median concentration of 300 mg/L. Total calculated hardness 

in ground-water samples ranged from 230 to 1,100 mg/L as 

CaCO3 (table 5), with a median concentration of 330 mg/L. 

All ground-water sampled during the current study period 

(November 2003–August 2006) would be classified as “very 

hard,” and may require further treatment with water softeners 

before it is used as a domestic supply.

The oxidation-reduction (redox) potential (Eh) is a 

numerical index of the intensity of oxidizing or reducing 

conditions within a system (Hem, 1992). Eh was measured 

as a part of the ground-water-quality sampling to determine 

the redox conditions of the ground-water environment in 

the vicinity of the well. The redox potential of a system is 

important because the amount of oxygen in an environmental 

system is one of the factors affecting the chemical precipitation and dissolution of rocks and minerals. Some water-quality 

constituents such as arsenic, iron, and selenium are sensitive to 

the redox environment, and any change to the redox potential 

in an environment potentially could cause these constituents to 

dissolve into solution from surrounding aquifer material or to 

precipitate out of solution. Both situations eventually could affect the permeability of the aquifer in addition to releasing potentially harmful constituents such as arsenic. Positive 

potentials indicate that the system is relatively oxidizing, and 

negative potentials indicate that it is relatively reducing (Hem, 

1992).

Eh measurements in samples from the monitoring wells 

ranged from 30 to 510 millivolts (mV) relative to a standard 

hydrogen electrode, with a median value of 250 mV (table 5). 

The smallest redox potential was measured in a sample from 

monitoring well MW03 collected on July 12, 2005, and the 

largest potential was measured in a sample from monitoring 

well MW04 collected on July 14, 2005.

The acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) or alkalinity of 

a solution is defined as the capacity of solutes it contains to 

react with and neutralize acid (Hem, 1992). The properties of 

alkalinity evaluate the potential of the solution for some kinds 

of water-rock interaction or interaction with other material the 

water may contact (Hem, 1992). ANC is determined by titration of an unfiltered sample, whereas alkalinity is determined 

by titration of a filtered water sample.

The range of laboratory measurements of ANC in 

surface-water samples collected as a part of the current study 

period was 82 to 340 mg/L as CaCO3, with a median concentration of 220 mg/L as CaCO3

 (table 4). Laboratory ANC 

measurements for ground-water samples ranged from 140 to 

410 mg/L as CaCO3, with a median concentration of 250 mg/L 

as CaCO3 (table 5).

Dissolved Solids

Dissolved solids in natural water consist primarily of the 

cations calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium and the 

anions bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride. Dissolved solids 

in surface water are a result of natural dissolution of rocks 

and minerals or of discharges from municipal or industrial 

sources (Hem, 1992). Dissolved-solids concentrations are 

used extensively as an evaluation of water quality. Freshwater has dissolved-solids concentrations less than 1,000 mg/L, 

whereas slightly saline water ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 mg/L 

(Hem, 1992). According to USEPA, excess dissolved solids 

and major ions are objectionable in drinking water because 

of unpalatable mineral tastes and higher costs because of corrosion or the necessity for additional treatment (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986). Consequently, USEPA 

established a Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation (SDWR) 

for dissolved solids of 500 mg/L (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006).

Dissolved-solids concentrations in surface-water samples 

collected for this study ranged from 120 to 696 mg/L, with 

the largest concentration occurring in a sample from site 

LSC06 (table 6, fig. 6A). The median concentration for dissolved solids in surface water was 400 mg/L. Twelve of the 

55 surface-water samples (22 percent) collected during the 

current study period exceeded the USEPA SDWR of 500 mg/L 

for dissolved solids. Eight of 11 samples from site LSC06 

exceeded 500 mg/L. Site LSC06 is located downstream from 

a discharging sewage-treatment lagoon, and larger concentrations of dissolved solids generally are found downstream 

from treated sewage when compared to upstream concentrations (Pope and Putnam, 1997). The remaining four samples 

exceeding 500 mg/L were from site SC03 and may reflect 

more mineralized water during low-flow conditions.

The range of dissolved-solids concentrations in groundwater samples was 186 to 2,360 mg/L. The largest concentration occurred in a sample from well MW03 collected on 

August 15, 2006. This concentration was approximately 

5.7 times larger than the median concentration of 412 mg/L 

for all the ground-water samples (table 7, fig. 6B), and corresponds to large concentrations of major ions found in this sample. Currently (2007), the exact reason for the unusually large 

concentration of dissolved solids in water from well MW03 

is unknown. Twenty percent of all ground-water samples had 

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 23
Table 6. Results of analysis of dissolved solids and major ions in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 

2006.[mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as HCO3, milligrams per liter as bicarbonate; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; DWA, DrinkingWater Advisory; --, not determined or not applicable]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/

day/year)

Dissolved 

solids

(mg/L)

Calcium, 

dissolved

(mg/L)

Magnesium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Sodium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Potassium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Bicarbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

HCO3

)

Carbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Sulfate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Chloride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Fluoride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Silica, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 500 -- -- 20 -- -- -- 250 250 2.0 --

(SDWR) (DWA) (SDWR) (SDWR) (SDWR)

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O Road 

near Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 263 57 13 10 4.7 180 0 44 8.2 0.3 9.105/19/04 209 48 11 7.9 4.1 -- -- 18 3.0 .3 9.608/25/04 182 42 8.9 7.2 4.2 -- -- 18 3.2 .3 8.412/08/04 424 83 20 23 3.5 -- -- 58 28 .3 12

02/10/05 325 72 18 13 3.6 -- -- 38 7.6 .2 9.706/01/05 401 96 26 19 3.4 350 0 40 12 .4 7.508/16/05 442 100 24 20 3.1 420 0 41 20 .3 1311/09/05 470 120 26 18 4.7 440 0 48 11 .3 1602/22/06 399 130 31 22 2.2 490 0 64 13 .3 12

06/06/06 347 76 18 15 3.0 320 0 32 8.5 .3 11

08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 

Road near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 226 48 11 7.7 4.6 150 0 35 6.6 .3 8.4

05/19/04 192 39 7.8 6.8 4.4 -- -- 18 3.3 .2 1008/25/04 165 36 7.0 6.2 4.0 -- -- 16 3.1 .3 8.512/08/04 314 69 14 15 3.6 -- -- 34 12 .3 1302/10/05 318 70 17 14 3.7 -- -- 39 8.9 .2 9.705/11/05 120 18 4.0 6.2 3.7 -- -- 14 3.1 .4 6.208/16/05 278 66 16 14 3.1 260 0 25 8.1 .3 7.1

11/09/05 454 110 24 19 4.6 460 0 45 12 .3 1402/22/06 386 120 30 24 2.5 470 0 63 15 .3 11

24  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Table 6. Results of analysis of dissolved solids and major ions in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 

2006.—Continued[mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as HCO3, milligrams per liter as bicarbonate; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; DWA, DrinkingWater Advisory; --, not determined or not applicable]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/

day/year)

Dissolved 

solids

(mg/L)

Calcium, 

dissolved

(mg/L)

Magnesium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Sodium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Potassium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Bicarbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

HCO3)

Carbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3)

Sulfate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Chloride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Fluoride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Silica, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O Road 

near Mayetta 

06/06/06 360 81 18 15 3.1 350 0 30 7.8 0.3 1108/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road 

near Hoyt

11/19/03 696 89 19 140 8.5 270 0 83 200 .3 1502/25/04 668 89 18 100 9.4 250 0 94 170 .4 1205/19/04 195 33 6.0 15 4.8 -- -- 19 17 .2 1208/25/04 278 47 8.8 33 5.4 -- -- 39 41 .3 9.212/08/04 495 72 16 65 6.9 -- -- 71 98 .4 9.502/10/05 517 92 19 60 5.4 -- -- 74 94 .3 1106/01/05 509 92 22 57 6.0 280 0 91 66 .4 12

08/16/05 523 82 17 79 7.0 260 0 70 100 .4 1511/09/05 543 110 24 33 4.8 390 0 100 31 .3 2002/22/06 681 110 24 91 6.7 340 0 120 120 .4 1306/06/06 603 75 16 50 4.8 280 0 90 62 .4 14

08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

11/19/03 538 140 31 24 3.6 330 0 170 24 .3 1102/25/04 331 76 16 12 4.7 200 0 71 12 .3 9.805/19/04 302 68 15 13 4.4 -- -- 45 8.2 .3 1008/25/04 427 94 22 16 3.1 -- -- 120 14 .3 1012/08/04 563 120 27 20 2.4 -- -- 190 22 .3 9.9

02/10/05 401 93 21 19 2.7 -- -- 90 15 .3 7.706/01/05 450 100 23 21 3.6 280 0 110 17 .3 9.1

08/16/05 448 96 26 20 3.2 280 0 120 18 .3 1111/09/05 512 120 26 18 3.8 250 0 120 16 .3 8.2

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 25
Table 6. Results of analysis of dissolved solids and major ions in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 

2006.—Continued[mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as HCO3, milligrams per liter as bicarbonate; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; DWA, DrinkingWater Advisory; --, not determined or not applicable]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/

day/year)

Dissolved 

solids

(mg/L)

Calcium, 

dissolved

(mg/L)

Magnesium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Sodium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Potassium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Bicarbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

HCO3

)

Carbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Sulfate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Chloride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Fluoride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Silica, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

02/22/06 497 120 29 23 2.3 340 0 150 20 0.3 9.406/06/06 512 110 26 22 3.3 340 0 130 19 .3 1308/02/06 396 80 20 21 4.1 290 0 71 20 .4 14

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road near 

Delia

11/19/03 437 96 27 28 4.4 340 0 81 30 .3 1002/25/04 290 62 14 12 5.1 170 0 55 12 .3 9.205/19/04 223 54 11 9.4 4.3 -- -- 27 5.1 .3 9.608/25/04 260 57 14 13 3.9 -- -- 38 8.3 .3 9.212/08/04 474 100 25 22 2.5 -- -- 120 23 .3 8.102/10/05 396 89 21 17 3.1 -- -- 89 14 .3 7.806/01/05 399 90 25 25 3.6 310 0 78 22 .3 8.108/16/05 372 74 22 26 3.1 240 0 67 30 .3 7.311/09/05 439 100 26 22 3.3 390 0 67 20 .3 9.102/22/06 451 110 31 29 2.0 550 0 110 28 .3 3.106/06/06 424 86 24 24 2.9 330 0 80 24 .3 10

08/02/06 318 60 17 21 4.3 250 0 38 21 .4 13

1Water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).

26 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Figure 6. Concentrations of dissolved solids in (A) surface- and (B) ground-water-quality samples, November 

2003 through August 2006.

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 27

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Dissolved-solids concentration, in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (500 mg/L) 

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (500 mg/L) 

(B) Ground-water samples

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

(A) Surface-water samples

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07
Table 7. Results of analysis of dissolved solids and major ions in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and 

August 2006. [mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as HCO3, milligrams per liter as bicarbonate; mg/L as CaCO3, milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; DWA, DrinkingWater Advisory; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name

Date of sample collection (month/ 

day/year)

Dissolved 

solids

(mg/L)

Calcium, 

dissolved

(mg/L)

Magnesium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Sodium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Potassium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Bicarbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

HCO3

)

Carbonate, total, 

onsite 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Sulfate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Chloride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Fluoride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Silica, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 500 -- -- 20 -- -- -- 250 250 2.0 --

(SDWR) (DWA) (SDWR) (SDWR) (SDWR)

MW01 Monitoring well #1 7/28/2004 405 100 19 29 1.6 340 0 87 14 0.3 26

7/11/2005 437 95 19 28 1.6 310 0 82 12 .3 278/16/2006 435 86 17 27 1.3 330 0 82 10 .3 26

MW02 Monitoring well #2 7/27/2004 280 71 13 14 .58 270 0 29 3.2 .4 18

7/11/2005 285 72 14 13 .45 300 0 28 2.4 .4 198/15/2006 315 71 14 14 .54 300 0 28 3.2 .4 19

MW03 Monitoring well #3 7/26/2004 2,240 270 100 270 8.3 390 0 940 290 .3 32

7/12/2005 2,310 260 100 260 8.8 400 0 970 290 .3 328/15/2006 2,360 280 110 300 8.7 370 0 1,000 300 .3 31

MW04 Monitoring well #4 7/29/2004 380 68 20 51 .89 370 0 32 7.2 .4 22

7/14/2005 401 68 18 53 .81 340 0 24 6.2 .5 228/16/2006 412 63 18 52 .85 380 0 25 6.5 .4 22

MW06 Monitoring well #6 7/29/2004 307 110 32 17 .99 480 0 50 4.6 .4 17

7/13/2005 476 110 32 18 .94 450 0 50 4.7 .5 18

8/14/2006 478 100 31 18 .92 470 0 49 4.3 .5 18

MW07 Monitoring well #7 7/27/2004 284 85 24 10 .84 380 0 17 2.9 .4 12

7/13/2005 338 82 25 8.8 .87 350 0 17 2.7 .4 12

8/15/2006 332 79 24 8.4 .81 360 0 16 2.3 .4 12

MW08 Monitoring well #8 7/27/2004 434 130 29 24 .82 460 0 47 25 .4 16

7/12/2005 530 140 30 22 .81 470 0 53 23 .4 168/14/2006 517 130 30 23 .82 490 0 48 23 .4 16

MW09 Monitoring well #9 7/29/2004 186 88 19 2.6 .57 340 0 9.5 1.5 .4 10

7/14/2005 304 85 20 2.9 .60 320 0 9.6 <.2 .5 11

8/17/2006 305 83 19 2.8 .65 340 0 9.2 1.5 .4 11

MW10 Monitoring well #10 7/28/2004 380 110 24 17 1.0 370 0 68 3.0 .3 17

7/14/2005 430 100 24 17 .68 350 0 66 2.8 .3 178/16/2006 429 94 24 16 .73 370 0 62 2.9 .3 17

MW11 Monitoring well #11 7/26/2004 375 99 36 20 1.9 390 0 19 16 .9 31

7/14/2005 472 93 33 25 1.3 390 0 18 13 .8 32

8/18/2006 509 98 36 21 2.1 440 0 32 14 .9 32 1Water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).

28  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
dissolved-solids concentrations equal to or greater than the 

SDWR of 500 mg/L (table 7, fig. 6B). Dissolved solids were 

identified as exceeding the SDWR by Trombley (2001) and 

continue to exceed the SDWR in the current ground-water 

assessment in three of the monitoring wells (MW03, MW08, 

and MW11). Treatment to remove the dissolved solids may be 

needed before ground-water resources on the reservation are 

used as a source for public drinking-water supply.

Major Ions

Major ions in natural water typically are a result of 

the dissolution of rocks and minerals but also can occur in 

discharge from municipal or industrial sources (Hem, 1992). 

The major ions analyzed for the current study period included 

calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, chloride, fluoride, and silica. SDWRs have 

been established by USEPA for sulfate (250 mg/L), chloride 

(250 mg/L), and fluoride (2.0 mg/L) concentrations in finished drinking water, and a Drinking-Water Advisory (DWA) 

has been established by USEPA for sodium concentrations 

(20 mg/L) in finished drinking water (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2006). Results of analyses for major ions 

in surface- and ground-water samples are reported in tables 6 

and 7, respectively.

Calcium is a major constituent of carbonate rocks such 

as limestone and dolomite, and it dissolves readily in water; 

therefore, the calcium concentration in water from areas with 

carbonate rocks and associated deposits tends to be larger than 

in other areas (Hem, 1992). Carbonate rocks dominate the surface and near-surface geology in Kansas including the Prairie 

Band Potawatomi Reservation (fig. 3). Large concentrations of 

calcium are objectionable in domestic water supplies because 

they contribute to the hardness of the water and tend to cause 

encrustations on cooking utensils, pipes, and in water heaters.

Calcium concentrations in surface-water samples ranged 

from 18 to 140 mg/L, with a median concentration of 86 mg/L 

(table 6). In ground-water samples, calcium concentrations 

ranged from 63 to 280 mg/L, with a median concentration of 

95 mg/L (table 7).

Magnesium is a common alkaline-earth metal and is 

essential for plant and animal nutrition (Hem, 1992). The principal sources for magnesium on the reservation are carbonate 

rocks. Magnesium also contributes to the total hardness of 

water and may cause encrustation and increase soap or detergent consumption in water used for cleaning.

Magnesium concentrations in the surface-water samples 

collected for this study ranged from 4.0 to 31 mg/L, with a 

median concentration of 20 mg/L (table 6). Concentrations 

in ground-water samples ranged from 13 to 110 mg/L, with a 

median concentration of 25 mg/L (table 7).

Sodium is the most abundant member of the alkali-metal 

group of elements in the Earth and, once dissolved, tends to 

remain in solution. Natural sources of sodium include the 

weathering of plagioclase feldspar and the dissolution of 

sodium salts from sedimentary rocks (Hem, 1992). Humanrelated sources include road salt, seepage from septic systems, 

and a by-product of water treatment (it is discharged by water 

softeners and reverse-osmosis units) (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2003). Sodium in drinking water may 

impart a salty taste and could be harmful to persons suffering from heart, kidney, and circulatory diseases and women 

with toxemias of pregnancy (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2003). Therefore, USEPA has established a DWA 

of 20 mg/L in finished drinking water for people who are on 

restricted sodium diets (500 mg/d) and a taste threshold of 

30 to 60 mg/L in finished drinking water (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2006).

Sodium concentrations in surface-water samples 

ranged from 6.2 to 140 mg/L, with a median concentration 

of 20 mg/L (table 6). The largest sodium concentrations were 

detected in samples from site LSC06. Six of 11 samples from 

this site equaled or exceeded the maximum taste threshold of 

60 mg/L. The relatively large sodium concentrations in water 

at site LSC06 may be the result of discharge from an upstream 

sewage-treatment lagoon. Although sodium concentrations 

exceeded the USEPA DWA of 20 mg/L in almost 50 percent of 

surface-water samples, the concentrations at each of the other 

four sites generally were about 20 mg/L or less and never 

exceeded 30 mg/L (fig. 7A).

Sodium concentrations in ground-water samples ranged 

from 2.6 to 300 mg/L (table 7). The largest concentration was 

detected in a water sample from well MW03 (fig. 7B) and 

was 15 times larger than the median sodium concentration of 

20 mg/L from all samples collected from ground-water monitoring wells. Sodium concentrations exceeded the USEPA 

DWA in 15 ground-water samples from wells MW01, MW03, 

MW04, MW08, and MW11 (a total of 50 percent of groundwater samples).

Potassium is an essential element for both plants and 

animals. Maintenance of optimal soil fertility depends on a 

supply of available potassium. Potassium is present in plant 

material and is lost from agricultural soil by crop harvesting and by leaching and runoff acting on organic residues. 

Although potassium is an abundant element and its common 

salts are highly soluble, it seldom occurs in large concentrations in natural water (Hem, 1992).

Concentrations of potassium in surface-water samples 

collected during the current study period ranged from 2.0 to 

9.4 mg/L, with a median concentration of 3.8 mg/L (table 6). 

The largest concentration of 9.4 mg/L occurred in a water 

sample from site LSC06. Potassium concentrations from 

site LSC06 generally were larger than results from the other 

surface-water sites. This site had a median concentration 

of 6.0 mg/L, compared with a median of about 3.5 mg/L in 

samples from the other four sites.

Potassium concentrations in ground-water samples 

ranged from 0.45 to 8.8 mg/L, with a median concentration 

of 0.89 mg/L. The largest concentration in ground water was 

detected in water from monitoring well MW03 (table 7).

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 29
Figure 7. Concentrations of dissolved sodium in (A) surface- and (B) ground-water-quality samples, November 

2003 through August 2006.

30 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

(B) Ground-water samples

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Drinking-Water 

Advisory (20 mg/L)

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07

Dissolved sodium concentration, in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Drinking-Water

Advisory (20 mg/L)

(A) Surface-water samples
In surface water, bicarbonate concentrations generally 

are less than 200 mg/L, but larger concentrations in ground 

water are not uncommon (Hem, 1992). The primary source for 

bicarbonate on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation is the 

dissolution of carbonate rocks and deposits.

Bicarbonate concentrations in surface-water samples 

ranged from 150 to 550 mg/L, with a median concentration of 

315 mg/L (table 6). The largest concentration of bicarbonate 

occurred in water sampled from site SC07 on February 22, 

2006.

Bicarbonate concentrations in ground-water samples 

ranged from 270 to 490 mg/L, with a median concentration of 

370 mg/L (table 7). The largest bicarbonate concentrations in 

ground water were detected in samples from wells MW06 and 

MW08.

Natural sources of sulfate in water include the weathering 

of sulfur-bearing minerals, such as pyrite and gypsum, volcanic discharges to the atmosphere, and biologic and biochemical processes (Hem, 1992). Human-related sources include 

industrial discharges to both streams and the atmosphere and 

the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal and gasoline. 

USEPA established a SDWR of 250 mg/L in drinking water 

to avoid laxative effects that can result from excessive sulfate 

concentrations in drinking water (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006).

Sulfate concentrations in surface-water samples 

ranged from 14 to 190 mg/L, with a median concentration of 

67 mg/L. Sulfate concentrations were less than the SDWR of 

250 mg/L (table 6, fig. 8A).

Sulfate concentrations in ground-water samples ranged 

from 9.2 to 1,000 mg/L, with a median concentration of 

32 mg/L (table 7, fig. 8B). Sulfate concentrations exceeded 

the SDWR in 10 percent of ground-water samples. The largest 

sulfate concentration was detected in water from well MW03 

and was approximately 31 times the median concentration 

from all ground-water samples and four times the SDWR 

of 250 mg/L. The large sulfate concentration in water from 

well MW03 corresponds to large specific conductance values 

and large concentrations of other dissolved ions in the water 

from this well. Treatment to remove excess dissolved ion 

concentrations would be needed in the event this water should 

become a drinking-water source.

Chloride is present in all natural water but generally is 

found in small concentrations in surface water (Hem, 1992). 

The probable natural source of chloride on the reservation is 

dissolution of halite from sedimentary rocks. The discharge 

of human, agricultural, animal, or industrial wastes also may 

add substantial quantities of chloride to surface and ground 

water. Chloride can impart a salty taste to drinking water and 

may accelerate the corrosion of metals used in water-supply 

systems. On the basis of taste, USEPA established a SDWR 

of 250 mg/L in finished drinking water (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2006). KDHE established an aquatic-life 

criterion of 352 mg/L for chronic exposure to chloride (Kansas 

Department of Health and Environment, 2001).

Chloride concentrations in surface-water samples collected during the current study period ranged from 3.0 to 

200 mg/L and were less than the SDWR (table 6, fig. 9A). The 

median concentration of chloride in the surface-water samples 

was 17 mg/L. The concentrations of chloride from site LSC06 

were substantially larger than from the other four sites, but 

these concentrations were still less than the SDWR. Relatively 

large chloride concentrations at this site probably are attributable to its location downstream from a discharging sewagetreatment lagoon.

Chloride concentrations in ground-water samples ranged 

from less than 0.2 to 300 mg/L, with a median concentration of 6.4 mg/L (table 7, fig. 9B). Chloride concentrations 

exceeded the SDWR in 10 percent of ground-water samples. 

The largest chloride concentration was detected in water from 

well MW03, and all samples from this well exceeded the 

SDWR.

Nutrients

Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for the growth and 

reproduction of plants (Hem, 1992). Rooted aquatic plants and 

algae require dissolved forms of nitrogen and phosphorus as 

nutrients. Compounds of nitrogen, such as nitrite, nitrate, and 

ammonia, are the basic building blocks for protein synthesis, 

and phosphorus serves as an energy source in cellular chemical reactions. However, large inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds to bodies of water can cause excessive algal 

growth (Hem, 1992). This may result in taste-and-odor problems in drinking water, reduce the aesthetic and recreational 

value of water, and stress aquatic organisms due to decreased 

dissolved oxygen concentrations during decomposition. Therefore, it is desirable to prevent or mitigate the introduction of 

excessive nutrient concentrations into surface water used as 

public supply or where sensitive aquatic organisms may be 

present (Trombley, 1999, 2001).

Major sources of nutrients in and around the reservation include agricultural activities such as the application 

of fertilizers to enhance crop production and the pasturing 

and confined feeding of livestock. Common fertilizers used 

include, among others, anhydrous ammonia, ammonium 

nitrate, urea, and mono- and diammonium phosphates. The 

amount of fertilizer sold in Kansas has increased substantially 

during the last four decades. In 1950, about 180,000 tons of 

fertilizer were sold in Kansas, whereas by 2003 sales increased 

to more than 1,100,000 tons during a 6-month period (January through June 2003) (Kansas Department of Agriculture, 

2004). It is likely that this statewide upward trend in fertilizer 

use also occurred on and near the reservation. Additionally, 

farm livestock such as cattle and buffalo can produce considerable amounts of nitrogenous waste (urine and manure) 

that can concentrate in areas where large numbers of animals 

are pastured or confined. Decomposition of large amounts of 

fertilizers and manure can release nutrients to surface runoff 

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  31
Figure 8. Concentrations of dissolved sulfate in (A) surface- and (B) ground-water-quality samples, 

November 2003 through August 2006.

32 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (250 mg/L) 

Dissolved sulfate concentration, in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (250 mg/L) 

(B) Ground-water samples

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

(A) Surface-water samples

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07
Figure 9. Concentrations of dissolved chloride in (A) surface- and (B) ground-water-quality samples, 

November 2003 through August 2006.

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  33

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Dissolved chloride concentration, in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (250 mg/L) 

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (250 mg/L) 

(B) Ground-water samples

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

(A) Surface-water samples

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07
or to shallow ground water with the potential for discharge to 

nearby streams (Trombley, 1999, 2001).

Another potential source of nutrients on the reservation 

is bacterial decomposition of plant and animal protein and 

seepage from septic systems or sewage lagoons. Nutrients, 

particularly nitrate and ammonia, also may be components of 

precipitation (Christensen and Pope, 1997); however, because 

of dominant agricultural land use in the area, precipitation 

probably is a relatively minor contributor of nutrients to surface water and ground water on the reservation.

Nitrate is formed by complete oxidation of ammonium 

ions by microorganisms found in soil, water, sewage, and 

the digestive tract (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

1986). In most oxygenated surface water, nitrate is by far 

the dominant nitrogen ion due to rapid oxidation of nitrite. 

Nitrate nitrogen is the form of nitrogen most easily used by 

most rooted green plants and algae. Nitrate generally occurs 

in uncontaminated surface water, with a worldwide mean 

concentration of 0.30 mg/L (Reid and Wood, 1976). Larger 

nitrate nitrogen concentrations may stimulate growth of rooted 

plants or accelerate algal production to an extent that may 

result in taste-or-odor problems in finished drinking water. 

Because most aquatic organisms can tolerate nitrite plus 

nitrate concentrations far in excess of what normally might be 

found even in contaminated surface water, no water-quality 

criteria have been established for protection of aquatic life. 

However, USEPA has established recommended criteria on the 

basis of aggregate Level III nutrient ecoregions as well as subecoregions; the recommended criteria for aggregate ecoregion 

VI are 0.633 mg/L for nitrite plus nitrate and 1.22 mg/L for 

total nitrogen in surface water (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2000b). A MCL in drinking water of 10 mg/L nitrate 

as nitrogen was established by USEPA because of possible 

toxic effects to infants and is applicable to any supply that may 

be used for drinking water (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2006).

Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations ranged from an 

estimated 0.03 to 3.0 mg/L in the surface-water samples collected from the reservation (table 8, fig. 10A). The median 

surface-water concentration was 0.18 mg/L. Nitrite plus nitrate 

concentrations exceeded the USEPA recommended criterion 

for ecoregion VI (0.633 mg/L) in 25 percent of surface-water 

samples. There was some annual variability in nitrite plus 

nitrate concentrations, with the largest concentrations detected 

in winter and spring samples and the smallest concentrations in summer and fall. Total nitrogen also was compared 

to the recommended criterion for aggregate ecoregion VI and 

exceeded the recommendation (1.22 mg/L) in 25 percent of 

surface-water samples. Total nitrogen for each site is calculated as the sum of the corresponding ammonia plus organic 

nitrogen and nitrite plus nitrate concentrations.

Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations in ground-water samples ranged from less than 0.06 to 15 mg/L (table 9, fig. 10B), 

with a median concentration of 0.34 mg/L. The largest concentration was in water from well MW11; the well had similarly large concentrations in all three rounds of testing. The 

nitrite plus nitrate concentrations in water from well MW11 

exceeded the USEPA MCL. The well is located adjacent to an 

open hand-dug well that could provide a conduit for contaminants into the ground water in that localized area. Primary land 

use near the well is pastureland and cropland, and agricultural 

activities in the area could contribute to elevated nitrite plus 

nitrate concentrations in water from this well.

Ammonia toxicity is dependent on the pH and temperature of the water; as the pH and temperature increase, 

the chronic exposure criterion for ammonia decreases (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 1999). Acute toxicity of 

ammonia in fish causes increased respiration, oxygen uptake, 

and heart rate; reduction in hatching success and growth and 

morphologic development; and injuries to gills, liver, and 

kidneys. At larger concentrations, fish may experience convulsions, coma, and death. Small ammonia concentrations can 

cause reduction in hatching success, reduction in growth rate 

or morphological development, and pathologic changes in 

tissues of the gills, livers, and kidneys (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1986). The pH in surface water on the 

reservation ranged from 6.8 to 8.3 standard units, and the 

water temperature ranged from 0.1 to 27.2o C (table 4). For 

these pH and water temperature conditions, the range of the 

chronic ammonia criteria for streams that have fish early-life 

stages present is 0.7 to 6.7 mg/L (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999). The most likely sources of ammonia on 

the reservation probably are related to agricultural land use or 

wastewater.

Dissolved ammonia concentrations in surface-water 

samples ranged from less than 0.01 to 1.8 mg/L, with a median 

concentration of less than 0.04 mg/L (table 8). The largest 

concentration of 1.8 mg/L occurred on February 25, 2004, in 

a water sample from site LSC06, which is located downstream 

from a discharging sewage-treatment lagoon. This ammonia 

concentration was substantially larger than other samples 

from that site as well as all the other surface-water sites. The 

chronic exposure criterion for this sample (pH of 6.8 and temperature of 0.3o C) is 6.3 mg/L (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1999).

Ammonia concentrations in ground-water samples 

ranged from an estimated 0.01 to 1.8 mg/L, with a median 

concentration of less than 0.04 mg/L (table 9). None of these 

concentrations exceeded USEPA (1999) chronic exposure 

criteria for early-life stages of fish, which are not directly 

applicable to ground water; however, in cases where ground 

water provides the base flow to streams on the reservation, 

these criteria could be relevant.

Total phosphorus includes all forms of phosphorus (Hem, 

1992). Excessive concentrations of phosphorus in water may 

contribute to eutrophication of water bodies. Eutrophication 

(nutrient enrichment) is characterized by excessive nutrient 

concentrations, decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations, 

and dense growths of algae (Reid and Wood, 1976). Domestic, municipal, and industrial sewage effluents are substantial 

sources of phosphorus in surface water because phosphorus 

is essential in metabolism and is present in human and animal 

34  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Table 8. Results of analysis of nutrients in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.

[mg/L as N, milligrams per year as nitrogen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as P, milligrams per liter as phosphorus; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoringsite identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Nitrite plus 

nitrate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia, 

dissolved

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia 

plus organic 

nitrogen, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia plus 

organic nitrogen, total 

(mg/L as N)

Phosphorus, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Phosphorus, total

 (mg/L)

Orthophosphate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

Water-quality criteria -- 1 10 -- -- -- 2 0.10 --

(MCL) (aquatic-life 

goal)

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O Road 

near Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 0.04 1.9 <0.04 0.53 0.82 0.09 0.17 0.0705/19/04 .02 .62 E.04 .63 1.1 .05 .22 .0408/25/04 .01 .27 <.04 .45 1.0 .07 .22 .0612/08/04 <.008 .06 E.02 .26 .42 .05 .08 .0402/10/05 .01 .86 <.04 .49 .60 .05 .08 .0506/01/05 <.008 .14 E.02 .54 .40 E.02 .07 E.01

08/16/05 .02 .76 .05 .29 .40 E.02 .04 <.018

11/09/05 <.008 .13 <.04 .30 .30 .12 .14 .11

02/22/06 <.008 E.06 <.04 .21 .18 E.02 E.03 .02

06/06/06 .01 .28 .04 .36 .45 E.03 .06 .0408/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 Road 

near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 .03 1.9 .07 .56 .74 .11 .16 .0905/19/04 .02 .68 .05 .69 1.8 .08 .43 .0608/25/04 .01 .40 <.04 .44 1.1 .08 .29 .0612/08/04 <.008 E.03 <.04 .27 .33 E.03 .05 .0302/10/05 E.006 .80 E.02 .50 .66 .06 .09 .0505/11/05 .03 3.0 .34 1.2 12 .12 3.5 .1008/16/05 E.007 .17 <.04 .26 .34 E.03 .04 <.018

11/09/05 <.008 .07 <.04 .35 .36 .08 .11 .0702/22/06 <.008 .08 <.04 .24 .22 <.04 E.02 <.018

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  35
Table 8. Results of analysis of nutrients in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[mg/L as N, milligrams per year as nitrogen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as P, milligrams per liter as phosphorus; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoringsite identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Nitrite plus 

nitrate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia, 

dissolved

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia 

plus organic 

nitrogen, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia plus 

organic 

nitrogen, total 

(mg/L as N)

Phosphorus, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Phosphorus, 

total

 (mg/L)

Orthophosphate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 Road 

near Mayetta

06/06/06 0.02 0.38 0.07 0.40 0.60 E0.04 0.10 0.0408/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road near 

Hoyt

11/19/03 <.008 <.06 <.04 .64 .85 .50 .54 .4502/25/04 .01 .48 1.8 2.6 3.8 .72 .91 .6305/19/04 .01 .31 E.02 .77 2.0 .20 .68 .1808/25/04 <.008 .13 E.02 .48 .77 .20 .26 .1812/08/04 E.004 .42 E.02 .48 .55 .55 .58 .5402/10/05 .01 .93 .12 .61 .68 .29 .32 .2606/01/05 E.005 .09 <.04 .46 .49 .15 .17 .1408/16/05 E.004 .17 E.02 .42 .47 .18 .20 .1611/09/05 <.008 <.06 <.04 .31 .23 .20 .21 .1902/22/06 .03 1.5 .04 .61 .85 .30 .38 .2806/06/06 .01 .25 .02 .39 .40 .10 .13 .1008/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint Clere 11/19/03 <.008 <.06 <.04 .20 .27 E.03 .05 .03

02/25/04 .05 2.5 .24 .86 1.2 .17 .25 .1405/19/04 .02 .71 .07 .53 1.2 .08 .28 .7008/25/04 E.004 .16 <.04 .21 .58 .04 .13 .0312/08/04 <.008 E.05 E.03 .14 .28 E.02 E.03 E.02

02/10/05 <.008 .19 <.04 .24 .36 E.02 E.04 E.0206/01/05 <.008 <.06 <.04 .26 .67 E.02 .10 <.018

08/16/05 <.008 <.06 <.04 .32 .47 E.02 .07 <.018

36 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Table 8. Results of analysis of nutrients in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[mg/L as N, milligrams per year as nitrogen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as P, milligrams per liter as phosphorus; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoringsite identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Nitrite plus 

nitrate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia, 

dissolved

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia 

plus organic 

nitrogen, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Ammonia plus 

organic 

nitrogen, total 

(mg/L as N)

Phosphorus, 

dissolved 

(mg/L)

Phosphorus, total

 (mg/L)

Orthophosphate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint Clere 11/09/05 <0.008 E0.04 <0.04 0.25 0.36 E0.02 0.05 E0.01

02/22/06 <.008 E.04 <.04 .23 .21 <.04 E.02 <.018

06/06/06 <.002 <.06 E.01 .30 .81 <.04 .13 .01

08/02/06 .002 E.03 .02 .42 .90 .07 .19 .06

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road near 

Delia

11/19/03 <.008 <.06 <.04 .36 .42 .06 .08 .0502/25/04 .05 2.7 .27 .95 1.3 .19 .28 .1405/19/04 .02 .90 .05 .57 1.7 .11 .48 .0908/25/04 .01 .47 <.04 .54 .79 .10 .19 .0812/08/04 <.008 .06 E.02 .18 .31 .07 .09 .0602/10/05 E.005 .41 <.04 .34 .51 .05 .09 .0406/01/05 <.008 <.06 <.04 .32 .62 E.02 .12 E.0108/16/05 E.004 .15 <.04 .29 .42 .04 .08 .03

11/09/05 <.008 .15 <.04 .29 .36 .04 .08 .0302/22/06 E.005 .18 <.04 .23 .27 <.04 E.02 <.018

06/06/06 <.002 <.06 <.01 .32 .98 E.03 .17 .0208/02/06 .03 .29 .13 .64 .95 .10 .18 .10

1U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986).

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  37
Figure 10. Concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate in (A) surface- and (B) ground-water-quality samples, 

November 2003 through August 2006.

38  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10

12

14

16

18

Dissolved nitrite plus nitrate, in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

(B) Ground-water samples

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

(A) Surface-water samples

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006)

Maximum Contaminant Level (10 mg/L) 
Table 9. Results of analysis of nutrients in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006.

[mg/L as N, milligrams per liter as nitrogen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as P, milligrams per liter as phosphorus; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) Site name Date of sample collection (month/day/year) Nitrite, dissolved (mg/L as N) Nitrite plus nitrate, dis- solved (mg/L as N) Ammonia, dissolved (mg/L as N) Ammonia plus organic nitrogen, dissolved (mg/L as N) Ammonia plus organic nitro- gen, total (mg/L as N) Phos- phorus, dissolved (mg/L) Phos- phorus, total (mg/L) Orthophosphate, dissolved (mg/L as P)

Water-quality criterion -- 110 -- -- -- -- -- --

(MCL)

MW01 Monitoring well #1 7/28/2004 <0.008 <0.06 0.08 E0.08 0.11 <0.04 0.05 0.03

7/11/2005 <.008 <.06 .07 .11 .20 E.03 .09 .058/16/2006 <.002 <.06 .07 .30 .48 .06 .05 .06

MW02 Monitoring well #2 7/27/2004 <.008 <.06 <.04 <.10 <.10 E.03 E.04 .03

7/11/2005 <.008 <.06 <.04 E.08 E.06 E.02 E.04 .038/15/2006 <.002 <.06 .03 .15 .35 .04 .04 .04

MW03 Monitoring well #3 7/26/2004 <.008 <.06 1.8 1.8 1.9 <.04 .11 .02

7/12/2005 <.008 <.06 1.8 2.0 1.9 .06 .08 .058/15/2006 <.002 <.06 1.8 1.9 2.0 .12 .07 .08

MW04 Monitoring well #4 7/29/2004 <.008 3.6 <.04 <.10 .80 E.03 .62 .02

7/14/2005 <.008 3.7 <.04 .11 .52 <.04 .30 <.0188/16/2006 <.002 3.8 .01 .15 .20 <.04 .05 .02

MW06 Monitoring well #6 7/29/2004 <.008 <.06 .17 .16 .27 .15 .16 .10

7/13/2005 E.006 <.06 .16 .13 .18 .12 .15 .088/14/2006 E.002 <.06 .27 .31 .31 .20 .21 .19

MW07 Monitoring well #7 7/27/2004 <.008 .12 <.04 <.10 <.10 E.02 E.03 E.02

7/13/2005 <.008 .16 <.04 <.10 <.10 E.02 E.03 E.028/15/2006 E.001 .11 E.01 E.09 .11 E.03 E.03 .02

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  39
Table 9. Results of analysis of nutrients in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006.—Continued

[mg/L as N, milligrams per liter as nitrogen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L as P, milligrams per liter as phosphorus; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) Site name Date of sample collection (month/day/year) Nitrite, dissolved (mg/L as N) Nitrite plus nitrate, dis- solved (mg/L as N) Ammonia, dissolved (mg/L as N) Ammonia plus organic nitrogen, dissolved (mg/L as N) Ammonia plus organic nitrogen, total (mg/L as N) Phos- phorus, dissolved (mg/L) Phos- phorus, total (mg/L) Orthophosphate, dissolved (mg/L as P)

MW08 Monitoring well #8 7/27/2004 <0.008 0.67 0.05 E0.10 E0.09 0.05 0.07 0.05

7/12/2005 <.008 .60 E.02 .12 .10 .05 .07 .05

8/14/2006 .003 .51 .04 E.08 .10 .04 .05 .06

MW09 Monitoring well #9 7/29/2004 <.008 1.7 <.04 <.10 .11 <.04 <.04 <.018

7/14/2005 <.008 1.5 <.04 <.10 E.06 <.04 <.04 <.0188/17/2006 <.002 1.8 E.01 .12 .23 <.04 .23 .01

MW10 Monitoring well #10 7/28/2004 <.008 2.2 <.04 <.10 <.10 <.04 <.04 E.01

7/14/2005 <.008 2.1 <.04 <.10 E.08 <.04 E.02 <.0188/16/2006 <.002 2.1 E.01 E .08 E.08 <.04 <.04 .01

MW11 Monitoring well #11 7/26/2004 <.008 15 <.04 E.05 .33 .06 .29 .06

7/14/2005 <.008 13 <.04 .32 .49 E.02 .14 E.028/18/2006 .007 14 E.01 .12 .39 .07 .28 .08

1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).

40 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
metabolic waste. Potential sources for large concentrations of 

phosphorus in streams on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation include human or animal waste and fertilizers applied 

to agricultural lands.

USEPA established a goal for total phosphorus concentration of 0.10 mg/L to limit cultural eutrophication of flowing 

water (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986). Larger 

concentrations also may interfere with coagulation in watertreatment plants. USEPA also has recommended water-quality 

criteria for total phosphorus on the basis of aggregate nutrient 

ecoregions. A total phosphorus criterion of 0.076 mg/L has 

been established by USEPA for ecoregion VI (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000b). However, previous reports 

compared stream concentrations of total phosphorus to the 

recommended goal of 0.10 mg/L (Trombley, 1999, 2001; 

Schmidt, 2004). Therefore, this criterion also will be used 

for total phosphorus evaluation in this report. Total phosphorus was identified as exceeding water-quality criteria on the 

reservation in three previous reports published as part of this 

cooperative study (Trombley, 1999, 2001; Schmidt, 2004).

Concentrations of total phosphorus in surface-water 

samples ranged from an estimated 0.02 to 3.5 mg/L, with 

a median concentration of 0.13 mg/L (table 8, fig. 11). All 

11 samples from site LSC06 exceeded the water-quality goal 

of 0.10 mg/L; however, the largest concentration of 3.5 mg/L 

occurred in a sample from site LSC04 on May 11, 2005, 

during runoff conditions (streamflow of 189 ft3/s, table 4). 

Concentrations of other nutrients also were large in the 

May 11, 2005, sample from site LSC04. Overall, 56 percent 

of the 55 surface-water samples that were analyzed for total 

phosphorus exceeded the goal of 0.10 mg/L to prevent cultural 

eutrophication (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986).

Total phosphorus concentrations in ground-water samples 

ranged from an estimated 0.02 to 0.62 mg/L, with a median 

concentration of 0.07 mg/L (table 9). Although the cultural 

eutrophication goal does not apply to ground water, it should 

be noted for comparison purposes that 33 percent of groundwater samples exceeded the 0.10-mg/L goal.

Trace Elements

Trace elements are found in small quantities (less 

than 1 percent) in or adsorbed to mineral surfaces (Bates 

and Jackson, 1980). Trace elements generally are found in 

the environment at relatively small concentrations (less than 

1.0 mg/L), but some are vital for human and plant health. Concentrations of trace elements in surface and ground water can 

be increased as a result of human activities such as mining and 

industrial activities. Water samples for this study were analyzed for the trace elements arsenic, boron, iron, and selenium; 

all of which have applicable water-quality criteria.

Arsenic is a trace element that occurs naturally in the 

environment, but the presence of arsenic in water also can be 

a result of mining activity or application of pesticides. Arsenic 

also can occur in water as a result of an arsenic-bearing formation dissolving naturally over time (Haack and Rachol, 2000). 

Large concentrations of arsenic have shown to be detrimental 

to human health (Hem, 1992). In 2001, USEPA revised the 

Figure 11. Concentrations of total phosphorus in surface-water-quality samples, November 2003 through 

August 2006.

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  41

Total phosphorus concentration, in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (1986) recommended 

aquatic-life goal (0.10 mg/L)

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07
drinking-water MCL for arsenic from 50 to 10 μg/L, which 

became effective in 2006 (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2006).

Arsenic concentrations in the surface-water samples collected during the current study period ranged from an estimated 0.9 to 7.8 μg/L (table 10) and were less than the drinking water MCL for arsenic. The median arsenic concentration 

in surface-water samples was less than 1.9 μg/L.

Ground-water arsenic concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 

30 μg/L (table 11, fig. 12), with a median concentration of 

less than 1.9 μg/L. The largest concentration came from well 

MW06 and was three times the MCL for arsenic. The other 

two concentrations from this well were about twice the MCL. 

The reason for the unusually large concentrations of arsenic in 

water from well MW06 currently (2007) is not known. Arsenic was detected in water from the nine other monitoring wells 

but at concentrations substantially less than the MCL.

Boron is a minor constituent in ground water and usually 

is found in evaporate deposits as sodium or calcium borate 

salt (Hem, 1992). It is an essential element for the growth of 

plants, but there is no evidence that it is required by animals 

(Pais and Jones, 1997). Total boron essentially is conserved 

during wastewater treatment and may be used to determine 

whether a water sample contains wastewater effluent (Quanrud and others, 2004). USEPA established a lifetime DWA of 

600 μg/L (concentration in drinking water that is not expected 

to cause any adverse effects for a lifetime of exposure) (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2006).

Boron concentrations in surface-water samples collected 

during the current study period ranged from 30 to 80 μg/L, 

with a median concentration of 50 μg/L (table 10). The largest 

detection of 80 μg/L occurred on November 19, 2003, in a 

water sample from site LSC06 and may be attributable to the 

upstream sewage-treatment lagoon.

Concentrations of boron in ground-water samples ranged 

from 20 to 880 μg/L, with a median concentration of 70 μg/L 

(table 11). The largest concentration was in a sample from 

well MW03 collected on July 26, 2004, and corresponds to 

the large concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and sodium 

and several anions contributing to the large dissolved-solids 

concentration in water from this well (table 7).

Iron is an abundant element in the Earth’s outer crust, 

but it typically occurs in small concentrations in water (Hem, 

1992). Iron’s chemical activity and its solubility in water 

depend largely on the oxygen in the system as well as the pH 

of the water (Hem, 1992). Large amounts of iron are undesirable in water supplies because it forms a red oxyhydroxide 

precipitate that stains laundry and plumbing fixtures (Hem, 

1992). USEPA (2006) has established a SDWR of 300 μg/L 

for iron in treated drinking water.

Iron concentrations in surface-water samples ranged 

from an estimated 3 to 70 μg/L, with a median concentration 

of 10 μg/L (table 10). All concentrations in surface-water 

samples were substantially less than the USEPA SDWR.

Iron concentrations in ground-water samples ranged 

from an estimated 2 to 5,700 μg/L, with a median concentration of 45 μg/L (table 11, fig. 13). The three largest iron 

Table 10. Results of analysis of trace elements in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, 

November 2003 through August 2006.

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; DWA, Drinking-Water Advisory; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; --, not 

determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Arsenic, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Boron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Iron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Selenium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 10 600 300 50

(MCL) (DWA) (SDWR) (MCL)

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O 

Road near Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- -- -- --

02/25/04 E1.4 30 10 E1.4

05/19/04 E1.1 40 20 <2.6

08/25/04 E1.6 50 20 <2.6

12/08/04 E1.2 50 E6 <2.6

02/10/05 E1.0 40 10 <2.6

06/01/05 <1.9 70 10 <2.6

08/16/05 <1.9 70 E4 E1.3

42 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  43

Table 10. Results of analysis of trace elements in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, 

November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; DWA, Drinking-Water Advisory; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; --, not 

determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Arsenic, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Boron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Iron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Selenium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O 

Road near Mayetta 

11/09/05 1.5 60 10 0.3

02/22/06 vc 50 10 .3

06/06/06 2.1 60 <6 .4

08/02/06 -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 

Road near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- -- -- --

02/25/04 E1.7 30 10 <2.6

05/19/04 E1.2 40 40 <2.6

08/25/04 <1.9 40 10 <2.6

12/08/04 <1.9 50 E4 <2.6

02/10/05 <1.9 40 10 <2.6

05/11/05 E1.5 30 30 <2.6

08/16/05 E1.4 60 <6 <2.6

11/09/05 1.5 60 20 .3

02/22/06 1.0 50 10 .4

06/06/06 2.2 60 <6 .5

08/02/06 -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road 

near Hoyt

11/19/03 2.2 80 10 <2.6

02/25/04 3.0 50 10 E2.4

05/19/04 E1.2 40 70 <2.6

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road 

near Hoyt

08/25/04 2.8 50 E5 <2.6

12/08/04 2.8 40 10 <2.6

02/10/05 E1.3 30 10 E1.5

06/01/05 E1.4 50 10 <2.6

08/16/05 2.4 70 10 <2.6

11/09/05 2.0 60 20 .4

02/22/06 2.1 60 20 .6

06/06/06 2.1 50 E4 .6

08/02/06 -- -- -- --
Table 10. Results of analysis of trace elements in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, 

November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; DWA, Drinking-Water Advisory; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; --, not 

determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoringsite 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Arsenic, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Boron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Iron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Selenium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

11/19/03 E1.2 70 10 <2.6

02/25/04 E1.2 30 10 <2.6

05/19/04 E1.8 40 10 <2.6

08/25/04 E1.4 60 <6 <2.6

12/08/04 E1.1 50 10 <2.6

02/10/05 <1.9 40 10 <2.6

06/01/05 E1.4 50 <6 <2.6

08/16/05 2.9 60 <6 <2.6

11/09/05 1.7 50 E5 .8

02/22/06 1.4 50 20 .9

06/06/06 3.2 60 <6 .7

08/02/06 7.0 60 E3 .7

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road near 

Delia

11/19/03 2.4 70 10 <2.6

02/25/04 E1.8 30 10 E1.4

05/19/04 2.2 40 10 <2.6

08/25/04 2.8 50 E5 4.1

12/08/04 E1.6 50 10 <2.6

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road near 

Delia

02/10/05 <1.9 40 E4 <2.6

06/01/05 2.0 60 <6 <2.6

08/16/05 2.7 60 <6 E1.6

11/09/05 1.9 60 10 1.0

02/22/06 1.4 50 30 1.1

06/06/06 3.3 60 <6 .7

08/02/06 7.8 70 E4 .7

1

Water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006). 

44  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  45

Table 11. Results of analysis of trace elements in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, 

July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006. 

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; DWA, Drinking-Water Advisory; SDWR, Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoring-site 

identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Arsenic, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Boron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Iron, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Selenium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 10 600 300 50

(MCL) (DWA) (SDWR) (MCL)

MW01 Monitoring well #1 7/28/2004 E1.4 70 1,000 <2.6

7/11/2005 E1.4 70 1,100 <2.6

8/16/2006 1.4 60 880 <.1

MW02 Monitoring well #2 7/27/2004 <1.9 110 30 <2.6

7/11/2005 <1.9 100 60 <2.6

8/15/2006 .2 90 30 E.1

MW03 Monitoring well #3 7/26/2004 <1.9 880 3,600 <2.6

7/12/2005 <1.9 870 3,400 <2.6

8/15/2006 1.6 860 3,600 E.1

MW04 Monitoring well #4 7/29/2004 <1.9 60 <6 <2.6

7/14/2005 E1.3 50 <6 <2.6

8/16/2006 .2 50 <6 .6

MW06 Monitoring well #6 7/29/2004 19 100 4,100 <2.6

7/13/2005 22 100 3,800 <2.6

8/14/2006 30 90 5,700 <.1

MW07 Monitoring well #7 7/27/2004 <1.9 90 40 <2.6

7/13/2005 <1.9 80 50 <2.6

8/15/2006 .5 70 50 .3

MW08 Monitoring well #8 7/27/2004 <1.9 100 120 <2.6

7/12/2005 <1.9 90 340 <2.6

8/14/2006 1.2 70 330 .2

MW09 Monitoring well #9 7/29/2004 <1.9 30 E6 <2.6

7/14/2005 <1.9 30 <6 <2.6

8/17/2006 .2 20 <6 .5

MW10 Monitoring well #10 7/28/2004 <1.9 40 E4 E1.3

7/14/2005 <1.9 40 E2 E1.7

8/16/2006 .3 30 <6 1.9

MW11 Monitoring well #11 7/26/2004 E1.3 60 E4 <2.6

7/14/2005 <1.9 50 <6 <2.6

8/18/2006 1.5 60 <6 1.0

1

Water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).
concentrations were detected in samples from well MW06, 

which corresponds to larger arsenic concentrations. Iron 

concentrations in water from wells MW01, MW03, MW06, 

and MW08 (two samples) exceeded the USEPA SDWR of 

300 μg/L. Iron concentrations in samples from the remainder 

of the wells were substantially less than the SDWR.

Selenium is a naturally occurring mineral element that 

is relatively rare, and geochemical factors tend to limit its 

aqueous mobility (Hem, 1992). Selenium was detected in 

extremely small concentrations, less than the reporting level 

in most surface- and ground-water samples (tables 10 and 

11). The largest concentration was 4.1 μg/L, detected in a 

surface-water sample from site SC07 on August 25, 2004. The 

MCL for selenium is 50 μg/L (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2006).

Pesticides

The use of pesticides on the reservation is characteristic 

of pesticide use in all agricultural regions throughout Kansas. 

Atrazine, one of the triazine herbicides, has been used since 

the 1950s in the production of corn and grain sorghum in 

the area. Another potential source of atrazine may be its use 

in controlling weeds along railroad rights-of-way and along 

roads and highways. It is the most frequently detected herbicide in Kansas (Stamer and Zelt, 1994).

Triazine herbicides were analyzed in both surface- and 

ground-water samples. Triazine herbicides and their degradates are listed on the USEPA Contaminant Candidate List 

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006). The herbicides are applied pre- and post-emergence and are subject to 

runoff if applied before large rainfalls. Fifty-five surface-water 

samples collected during November 2003 through August 

2006 were analyzed using the ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) triazine herbicide screen. The triazine herbicide screen ELISA is a reliable indicator of atrazine (fig. 14). 

Christensen and Ziegler (1998) found that at least 80 percent 

of the triazine herbicide concentration determined by ELISA 

is atrazine.

During June 1996 through August 2006, 282 surfacewater samples collected from the reservation were analyzed 

for triazine herbicides by ELISA; 78 of these had atrazine 

concentrations confirmed by GC/MS (gas chromatography/

mass spectrometry) analysis (see previous “Methods” section). 

Data from June 1996 through November 1998 are presented 

in Trombley (1999, table 5); data from February 1999 through 

February 2001 are presented in Trombley (2001, table 11); and 

data from May 2001 through August 2003 are presented in 

Schmidt (2004, table 12).

The relation between the triazine herbicide screen and 

atrazine is presented in figure 14; the correlation between 

results obtained from ELISA analysis and GC/MS analysis is 

apparent and has a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.91. 

Therefore, results from the triazine screen can be compared 

to the drinking-water MCL of 3.0 μg/L as an annual average 

established by USEPA for atrazine, with the understanding 

that, by regression analysis, 86 percent (slope of the regression) of the ELISA triazine screen concentration is atrazine.

Of 55 surface-water samples collected from November 

2003 through August 2006 and analyzed by ELISA, concentrations of triazine herbicides ranged from less than 0.1 to 

3.4 μg/L, with a median concentration of 0.2 μg/L (table 12, 

fig. 15). Triazine herbicides were detected in one surfacewater sample at a concentration greater than the MCL of 

Figure 12. Concentrations of 

dissolved arsenic in ground-waterquality samples, July 2004, July 2005, 

and August 2006.

46 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006 Dissolved arsenic concentration, in micrograms per liter (μg/L)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (2006) Maximum

Contaminant Level (10 μg/L)

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  47

Figure 13. Concentrations of dissolved iron in ground-water-quality samples, July 2004, July 2005, and August 

2006.

Figure 14. Relation between triazine herbicide concentrations determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent 

assay (ELISA) and atrazine concentrations determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for 

samples collected from surface-water monitoring sites during June 1996 through August 2006. Dissolved iron concentration, in micrograms per liter (μg/L)

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency(2006) Secondary DrinkingWater Regulation (300 μg/L)

Ground-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

MW01 MW02 MW03 MW04 MW06 MW07 MW08 MW09 MW10 MW11

Triazine screen (ELISA), in micrograms per liter (μg/L)

0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 12

Atrazine determined by gas chromatography/mass

spectromertry (GC/MS), in micrograms per liter (μg/L)

0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10

12

y = 0.86x + 0.04

R2 = 0.91
Table 12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.

[ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of sample collection 

(month/day/

year)

Triazine 

screen, 

ELISA, 

dissolved 

(μg/L) as 

atrazine

2-Chloro-4-

isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

2-Chloro-6-

ethylamino-4-aminos-triazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Acetochlor, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Alachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Ametryn, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Atrazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Cyanazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Cyanazine 

amide, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Dimethenamid, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 -- -- -- -- 2.0 -- 3.0 -- -- --

(MCL) (MCL)

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O 

Road near Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 <0.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/19/04 2.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/25/04 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 .3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

06/01/05 .4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 .1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 2.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 

134 Road near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/19/04 2.3 0.49 0.27 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 2.6 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

08/25/04 .1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

02/10/05 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

05/11/05 1.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 .1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

48  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  49

Table 12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued[ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of sample collection 

(month/day/

year)

Triazine 

screen, 

ELISA, 

dissolved 

(μg/L) as 

atrazine

2-Chloro-4-

isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

2-Chloro-6-

ethylamino-4-aminos-triazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Acetochlor, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Alachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Ametryn, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Atrazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Cyanazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Cyanazine 

amide, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Dimethenamid, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 

134 Road near Mayetta

11/09/05 <0.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 1.3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 

Road near Hoyt

11/19/03 .3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/19/04 .8 0.16 0.13 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.79 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

08/25/04 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/01/05 .1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

11/19/03 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

02/25/04 2.2 .14 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 2.2 <.05 <.05 <.05

05/19/04 2.4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/25/04 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Table 12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of sample collection 

(month/day/

year)

Triazine 

screen, 

ELISA, 

dissolved 

(μg/L) as 

atrazine

2-Chloro-4-

isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

2-Chloro-6-

ethylamino-4-aminos-triazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Acetochlor, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Alachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Ametryn, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Atrazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Cyanazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Cyanazine 

amide, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Dimethenamid, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

12/08/04 <0.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 .1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/01/05 2.4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 .3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 .1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 .9 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 .5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road 

near Delia

11/19/03 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 3.4 0.14 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 2.7 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

05/19/04 2.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/25/04 .3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

06/01/05 2.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 .2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 <.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 .9 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/02/06 .8 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

50 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  5

1

Table 12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued[ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of sample collection 

(month/day/

year)

Flufenacet, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metolachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metribuzin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Pendimethalin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometon, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Simazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Terbutryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O 

Road near Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/19/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/01/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 

134 Road near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/19/04 <0.05 0.71 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

08/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

12/08/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/11/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Table 12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of sample collection 

(month/day/

year)

Flufenacet, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metolachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metribuzin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Pendimethalin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometon, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Simazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Terbutryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Little Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 

134 Road near Mayetta

06/06/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 

Road near Hoyt

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --05/19/04 <0.05 0.33 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

08/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

12/08/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/01/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 <.05 .05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

05/19/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/01/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

52 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  53

Table 12. Results of analysis of pesticides in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued[ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; E, estimated; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoring-site 

identifier 

(fig. 1) 

Site name 

Date of sample collection 

(month/day/

year)

Flufenacet, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metolachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metribuzin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Pendimethalin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometon, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Simazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Terbutryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Soldier Creek Basin—Continued

SC03 Soldier Creek near Saint 

Clere

08/16/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road 

near Delia

11/19/03 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/25/04 <0.05 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

05/19/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/25/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --12/08/04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/10/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/01/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/16/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --11/09/05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --02/22/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --06/06/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --08/02/06 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

1Water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006). 
3.0 μg/L for atrazine. That sample was collected from a site on 

Soldier Creek (site SC07) on February 25, 2004. However, the 

actual atrazine concentration in this sample probably was less 

than the MCL when the slope of the regression (fig. 14) is considered. Also, the 3.4 μg/L concentration was not verified as 

atrazine as a result of GC/MS analysis of this sample, which 

determined an atrazine concentration of 2.7 μg/L (table 12).

Four surface-water samples collected between February 2004 and May 2004 were analyzed for specific triazine 

herbicides and other pesticides by GC/MS (table 12). Four 

of the triazine herbicides and other pesticides analyzed were 

detected in these surface-water samples. Atrazine was detected 

in the four surface-water samples analyzed by GC/MS at 

concentrations ranging from 0.79 to 2.7 μg/L, with a median 

concentration of 2.4 μg/L. All four surface-water samples also 

had detections of metolachlor, a general-use pesticide, with 

concentrations that ranged from 0.05 to 0.71 μg/L.

Atrazine, one atrazine metabolite (2-chloro-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine), and (or) cyanazine amide were 

detected in the ground-water samples collected August 16–18, 

2006, from monitoring wells MW04, MW10, and MW11 

(table 13). There were no other detections of pesticides in 

water from these wells in previous samples during the current 

study period. All detected concentrations were small relative 

to laboratory reporting levels and established water-quality 

criteria.

Chemical Oxygen Demand and Volatile Organic 

Compounds

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of a water sample 

is a measure of the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize the 

reactive chemicals in a water system (Hem, 1992). If the COD 

of a sample is high as that water moves through a system, it 

will consume dissolved oxygen from the surrounding water to 

complete chemical reactions. Decreases in dissolved oxygen 

in a system can destroy aerobic organisms and cause changes 

in the redox environment of a system, which could release 

redox sensitive chemicals such as arsenic and iron into the 

water. COD also is used as a quantitative measure of organic 

pollution in a water sample (Hem, 1992). The COD in the 

water sample from well MW04 was 10 mg/L (equivalent to 

the laboratory reporting level) for the sample collected on July 

14, 2005 (table 14). In a sample collected a year later from 

the same well, the COD was less than 10 mg/L. As this water 

moves through the ground-water system, it probably will not 

consume a substantial amount of dissolved oxygen in the aquifer downgradient from the well.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are compounds that 

have a high vapor pressure and low water solubility. Many 

VOCs are synthetic chemicals that are used and produced in 

the manufacture of paints, pharmaceuticals, and refrigerants. 

VOCs typically are industrial solvents, fuel oxygenates, or byproducts produced by chlorination in water treatment. VOCs 

often are components of petroleum fuels, hydraulic fluids, 

Figure 15. Concentrations of triazine herbicide screen determined using enyme-linked immunosorbent assay 

(ELISA) in surface-water-quality samples, November 2003 through August 2006.

54  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006 Concentrations of triazine herbicide screen (ELISA), in micrograms per liter (μg/L) 

0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006) Maximum 

Contaminant Level for atrazine (3.0 μg/L as an annual average) 

Surface-water-quality monitoring site (fig. 1)

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  55

Table 13. Results of analysis of pesticides in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006.[μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

2-Chloro-4-

isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

2-Chloro-6-

ethylamino-

4-aminos-triazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Acetochlor, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Alachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Ametryn, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Atrazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Cyanazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Cyanazine 

amide, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Dimethenamid, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 -- -- -- 2.0 -- 3.0 -- -- --

(MCL) (MCL)

MW01 Monitoring well #1 7/28/2004 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

7/11/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.058/16/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW02 Monitoring well #2 7/27/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/11/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/15/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW03 Monitoring well #3 7/26/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/12/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/15/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW04 Monitoring well #4 7/29/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/16/2006 .09 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 .06 <.05 .11 <.05

MW06 Monitoring well #6 7/29/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/13/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/14/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW07 Monitoring well #7 7/27/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/13/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/15/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05
Table 13. Results of analysis of pesticides in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 

2006—Continued[μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

2-Chloro-4-

isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

2-Chloro-6-

ethylamino-

4-aminos-triazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Acetochlor, dissolved 

(μg/L)

Alachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Ametryn, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Atrazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Cyanazine, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Cyanazine 

amide, 

dissolved 

(μg/L)

Dimethenamid, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

MW08 Monitoring well #8 7/27/2004 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

7/12/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/14/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW09 Monitoring well #9 7/29/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/17/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW10 Monitoring well #10 7/28/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/16/2006 .07 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW11 Monitoring well #11 7/26/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/18/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 .05 <.05 <.05 <.05

56 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  57

Table 13. Results of analysis of pesticides in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006—Continued[μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Flufenacet, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metolachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metribuzin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Pendimethalin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometon, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propachlor, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propazine, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Simazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Terbutryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Water-quality criteria1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

MW01 Monitoring well #1 7/28/2004 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

7/11/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/16/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW02 Monitoring well #2 7/27/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/11/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/15/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW03 Monitoring well #3 7/26/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/12/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/15/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW04 Monitoring well #4 7/29/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/16/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW06 Monitoring well #6 7/29/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/13/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/14/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW07 Monitoring well #7 7/27/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/13/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/15/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW08 Monitoring well #8 7/27/2004 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

7/12/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/14/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05
Table 13. Results of analysis of pesticides in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006—Continued

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, not determined or not applicable; <, less than; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level]

Monitoringsite identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Flufenacet, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metolachlor, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Metribuzin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Pendimethalin, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometon, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Prometryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propachlor, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Propazine, dissolved

 (μg/L)

Simazine, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

Terbutryn, 

dissolved

 (μg/L)

MW09 Monitoring well #9 7/29/2004 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/17/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW10 Monitoring well #10 7/28/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/16/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

MW11 Monitoring well #11 7/26/2004 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

7/14/2005 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

8/18/2006 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

1Water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006).

58  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006
Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation  59

Table 14. Results of analysis of chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds in ground-water-quality samples from monitoring wells 

MW04 and MW07 on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006. 

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; E, estimated; --, not determined]

Constituent and unit of measurement

Concentration for indicate sample date

Monitoring well MW04 Monitoring well 

MW07

7/29/04 7/14/05 8/16/06 7/27/04

Chemical oxygen demand, total, mg/L -- 10 <10 --

1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane, total, μg/L <0.03 <.03 <0.03 <0.03

1,1,1-Trichloroethane, total, μg/L <.032 <.032 <.032 <.032

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane, total, μg/L <.16 <.08 <.08 <.16

1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane, total, μg/L <.04 <.04 <.04 <.04

1,1,2-Trichloroethane, total, μg/L <.06 <.04 <.04 <.06

1,1-Dichloroethane, total, μg/L <.035 <.035 <.035 <.035

1,1-Dichloroethene, total, μg/L <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02

1,1-Dichloropropene, total, μg/L <.03 <.03 <.03 <.03

1,2,3,4-Tetramethylbenzene, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

1,2,3,5-Tetramethylbenzene, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.2 <.1

1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene, total, μg/L <.3 <.2 <.2 <.3

1,2,3-Trichloropropane, total, μg/L <.18 <.18 <.18 <.18

1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene, total, μg/L <.056 <.056 <.056 <.056

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane, total, μg/L <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5

1,2-Dibromoethane, total, μg/L <.036 <.036 <.036 <.036

1,2-Dichlorobenzene, total, μg/L <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

1,2-Dichloroethane, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

1,2-Dichloropropane, total, μg/L <.029 <.029 <.029 <.029

1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene, total, μg/L <.044 <.044 <.044 <.044

1,3-Dichlorobenzene, total, μg/L <.03 <.03 <.03 <.03

1,3-Dichloropropane, total, μg/L <.12 <.12 <.12 <.12

1,4-Dichlorobenzene, total, μg/L <.03 <.03 <.03 <.03

2,2-Dichloropropane, total, μg/L <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

2-Chlorotoluene, total, μg/L <.04 <.04 <.04 <.04

2-Ethyltoluene, total, μg/L <.06 <.06 <.06 <.06

3-Chloropropene, total, μg/L <.50 <.50 <.50 <.50

4-Chlorotoluene, total, μg/L <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05
60 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

Table 14. Results of analysis of chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds in ground-water-quality samples from monitoring wells 

MW04 and MW07 on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006.—Continued

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; E, estimated; --, not determined]

Constituent and unit of measurement

Concentration for indicate sample date

Monitoring well MW04 Monitoring well 

MW07

7/29/04 7/14/05 8/16/06 7/27/04

4-Isopropyltoluene, total, μg/L <0.08 <0.08 <0.08 <0.08

Acetone, total, μg/L <6 <6 <6 <6

Acrylonitrile, total, μg/L <1 <.8 <.8 <1

Benzene, total, μg/L <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02

Bromobenzene, total, μg/L <.03 <.03 <.03 <.03

Bromochloromethane, total, μg/L <.12 <.12 <.12 <.12

Bromodichloromethane, total, μg/L <.03 <.03 <.03 <.03

Bromoethene, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

Bromomethane, total, μg/L <.26 <.26 <.26 <.26

Carbon disulfide, total, μg/L <.04 <.04 <.04 <.04

Chlorobenzene, total, μg/L <.028 <.028 <.028 <.028

Chloroethane, total, μg/L <.12 <.12 <.12 <.12

Chloromethane, total, μg/L <.17 <.17 <.17 <.17

cis-1,2-Dichloroethene, total, μg/L <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02

cis-1,3-Dichloropropene, total, μg/L <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

Dibromochloromethane, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

Dibromomethane, total, μg/L <.05 <.05 <.05 <.05

Dichlorodifluoromethane, total, μg/L <.18 <.18 <.18 <.18

Dichloromethane, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

Diethyl ether, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 E.1

Diisopropyl ether, total, μg/L <.10 <.10 <.10 <.10

Ethyl methacrylate, total, μg/L <.18 <.18 <.18 <.18

Ethyl methyl ketone, total, μg/L <4.0 <2.0 <2.0 <4.0

Ethylbenzene, total, μg/L <.03 <.03 <.03 <.03

Hexachlorobutadiene, total, μg/L <.14 <.14 <.14 <.14

Hexachloroethane, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

Iodomethane, total, μg/L <.35 <.50 <.50 <.35

Isobutyl methyl ketone, total, μg/L <.37 <.37 <.37 <.37

Isopropylbenzene, total, μg/L <.04 <.04 <.04 <.04

Methacrylonitrile, total, μg/L <.8 <.4 <.4 <.8
Table 14. Results of analysis of chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds in ground-water-quality samples from monitoring wells 

MW04 and MW07 on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006.—Continued

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; E, estimated; --, not determined]

Constituent and unit of measurement

Concentration for indicate sample date

Monitoring well MW04 Monitoring well 

MW07

7/29/04 7/14/05 8/16/06 7/27/04

Methyl acrylate, total, μg/L <2.0 <1.0 <1.0 <2.0

Methyl methacrylate, total, μg/L <.3 <.2 <.2 <.3

Methyl tert-pentyl ether, total, μg/L <.08 <.04 <.04 <.08

m-Xylene plus p-xylene, total, μg/L <.06 <.06 <.06 <.06

Naphthalene, total, μg/L <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5

n-Butyl methyl ketone, total, μg/L <.7 <.4 <.4 <.7

n-Butylbenzene, total, μg/L <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1

n-Propylbenzene, total, μg/L <.042 <.042 <.042 <.042

o-Xylene, total, μg/L <.04 <.04 <.04 <.04

sec-Butylbenzene, total, μg/L <.06 <.06 <.06 <.06

Styrene, total, μg/L <.042 <.042 <.042 <.042

tert-Butyl ethyl ether, total, μg/L <.05 <.03 <.03 <.05

Methyl tert-butyl ether, total, μg/L <.2 <.1 <.1 <.2

tert-Butylbenzene, total, μg/L <.06 <.06 <.08 <.06

Tetrachloroethene, total, μg/L <.06 <.03 <.03 <.06

Tetrachloromethane, total, μg/L <.06 <.06 <.06 <.06

Tetrahydrofuran, total, μg/L <2 <1 <1 <2

Toluene, total, μg/L <.05 <.02 <.02 <.05

trans-1,2-Dichloroethene, total, μg/L <.032 <.032 <.032 <.032

trans-1,3-Dichloropropene, total, μg/L <.09 <.09 <.09 <.09

trans-1,4-Dichloro-2-butene, total, μg/L <.7 <.7 <.7 <.7

Tribromomethane, total, μg/L <.10 <.10 <.10 <.10

Trichloroethene, total, μg/L <.038 <.038 <.038 <.038

Trichlorofluoromethane, total, μg/L <.16 <.08 <.08 <.16

Trichloromethane, total, μg/L <.024 <.024 <.024 <.024

Vinyl chloride, total, μg/L <.11 <.11 <.11 <.11

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 61
62 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

paint thinners, and dry cleaning agents (Daly and Lindsey, 

1996).

During the current study period, all three samples from 

well MW04 and the July 27, 2004, water sample from well 

MW07 were analyzed for the presence of VOCs. The samples 

from well MW04 were analyzed because of its proximity to a 

construction and demolition landfill (fig. 1); the sample from 

well MW07 was analyzed as a reference site for comparison 

to results from well MW04. During the previous study period 

(Schmidt, 2004, table 14), carbon disulfide, ethyl methyl 

ketone, and tetrahydrofuran were detected in a water sample 

from well MW04. Of the 85 VOCs analyzed in water samples 

from the two wells for the current study period, only one 

compound was detected—diethyl ether, found in the sample 

from well MW07 at an estimated concentration of 0.1 μg/L 

(table 14). Diethyl ether is used as a solvent, general anesthetic, and as a starting fluid for diesel and gasoline engines. 

No drinking-water criteria have been established for exposure 

to diethyl ether.

Bacteria

Fecal coliform, Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal streptococcus, and enterococci bacteria are indigenous to the intestinal tract of warmblooded animals (Holt and others, 1993). The 

fecal coliform bacteria group can include any combination of 

E. coli and species of the Klebsiella, Enterobacter, and Citrobacter genera (Gleeson and Gray, 1997). The presence of large 

concentrations of these organisms in surface water indicates 

fecal contamination and also may indicate the presence of 

disease-causing organisms. Potential sources of these bacteria 

on the reservation include sewage lagoons, runoff, and seepage 

from livestock areas, such as pastures and confined feedlots, 

and from wildlife populations.

USEPA has established water-quality criteria on the basis 

of full-body contact and single-sample allowable density for 

water bodies defined as moderately used, lightly used, and 

infrequently used (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2002b). Primary contact use is defined as activities where the 

body is immersed in water to the extent that some inadvertent 

ingestion of the water is probable. These activities include 

boating, mussel harvesting, swimming, skin diving, water 

skiing, and wind surfing (Kansas Department of Health and 

Environment, 2001). These criteria are presented in table 15. 

USEPA currently (2007) has no recommended criteria for 

secondary contact (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2002b); however, the Kansas Department of Health and 

Environment has set maximums for both primary and secondary contact recreation in public-access streams for the State 

of Kansas (Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 

2004). Secondary contact activities include wading, fishing, 

trapping, and hunting where the ingestion of water is not probable (Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 2001). 

Tribal members primarily use the streams on the reservation 

for hunting and fishing; therefore, ingestion of water is not 

probable during these activities.

Fecal coliform bacteria densities ranged from less than 

3 to 32,000 col/100 mL in surface-water samples from the 

reservation (table 16). The largest density of fecal coliform 

colonies was in a sample collected on May 11, 2005, from 

site LSC04. The median density of fecal coliform bacteria in 

all samples from the surface-water sites was 230 col/100 mL. 

Fecal coliform bacteria were detected six times in groundwater samples from monitoring wells (table 17). The two 

largest densities were 34 col/100 mL from monitoring well 

MW02 on July 11, 2005, and an estimated 10 col/100 mL 

from monitoring well MW11 on August 18, 2006.

E. coli is the dominant bacteria of the fecal coliform 

group (Rasmussen and Ziegler, 2003). Rasmussen and Ziegler 

(2003) found that the ratio of E. coli to fecal coliform in 

the Soldier Creek Basin is 0.73, meaning that out of every 

100 colonies of fecal coliform in a surface-water sample, 73 of 

the colonies are E. coli bacteria. This relation is important 

when comparing historic fecal coliform bacteria densities 

to the current (2007) USEPA bacteria water-quality criteria, 

which are based on E. coli densities.

The densities of E. coli colonies in surface-water 

samples ranged from less than 3 to 31,000 col/100 mL, with 

a median density of 170 col/100 mL (table 16). The largest 

density of E. coli colonies was detected in the sample collected from site LSC04 on May 11, 2005. Of 55 surface-water 

samples analyzed for E. coli bacteria, 22 samples (40 percent) 

exceeded the criterion established by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (2002b) for primary contact (illness rate 

of 8 per 1,000 swimmers, table 15) in moderately used water 

bodies (298 col/100 mL), 18 samples (33 percent) exceeded 

the criterion for lightly used water bodies (406 col/100 mL), 

and 16 samples (29 percent) exceeded the criterion for infrequently used water bodies (576 col/100 mL). In addition, 

11 of 27 samples (41 percent) exceeded the KDHE (Kansas 

Department of Health and Environment, 2004) single-sample 

maximum for primary contact in public access bodies of water 

(1,198 col/100 mL for samples collected between April 1 

and October 31), and 4 of 55 samples (7 percent) exceeded 

the KDHE single-sample maximum for secondary contact in 

public access bodies of water (9,760 col/100 mL; applicable 

year round).

E. coli was detected in eight samples (27 percent) of 

ground water (table 17). Most were at small estimated densities. The largest density of 23 col/100 mL was detected in a 

sample from well MW02 on July 11, 2005. This corresponds 

to the largest detected density of fecal coliform bacteria.

Fecal streptococci bacteria densities in surface-water 

samples ranged from 130 to 140,000 col/100 mL, with a 

median density of 1,100 col/100 mL (table 16). The largest density occurred in the May 19, 2004, sample from site 

LSC06. All 13 samples analyzed during the current study 

period had detectable densities of fecal streptococci bacteria. 

Ground-water samples were not analyzed for fecal streptococci bacteria.
Enterococci bacteria are a subgroup of the fecal streptococci bacteria and are a valuable bacterial indicator for 

determining the extent of fecal contamination of recreational 

surface water. Studies at marine and freshwater bathing 

beaches indicated that swimming-associated gastroenteritis 

is related directly to the quality of the bathing water, and 

enterococci are the most efficient bacterial indicator of water 

quality (American Public Health Association and others, 

1992). USEPA has established water-quality criteria (table 15) 

that are based on enterococci bacteria densities in recreational 

water (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002b).

Enterococci bacteria densities in surface-water 

samples from the reservation ranged from an estimated 

8 to 290,000 col/100 mL, with a median density of 

1,500 col/100 mL (table 16). The largest density was detected 

in a sample from site LSC04 on May 11, 2005, and corresponds with the largest densities of fecal coliform and E. coli

bacteria. USEPA criteria that are based on an illness rate of 

8 per 1,000 swimmers and the single-sample maximum allowable density were used for comparison purposes (table 15). Of 

55 surface-water samples analyzed for enterococci bacteria, 

50 samples (91 percent) exceeded the criteria for primary 

contact in both moderately used water bodies and lightly 

used water bodies (78 and 107 col/100 mL, respectively), and 

48 samples (87 percent) exceeded the primary contact criterion 

for infrequently used water bodies (151 col/100 mL).

Enterococci bacteria were the most frequently detected 

bacteria in ground-water samples (table 17). Enterococci 

were detected in 16 of 30 ground-water samples (53 percent), 

and densities in all 30 samples ranged from less than 1 to an 

estimated 230 col/100 mL. The largest density of enterococci 

bacteria was estimated in a water sample from monitoring well 

MW02 on August 15, 2006.

Figure 16 shows median densities of fecal-indicator 

bacteria in surface-water samples during spring, summer, 

fall, and winter as well as median streamflow measured at the 

time of sample collection. Only quarterly samples were used 

in comparison, with the May and June samples defined as 

“spring,” August samples defined as “summer,” November and 

December samples defined as “fall,” and February samples 

defined as “winter.” Median densities of all indicator bacteria 

were largest during the summer months, except for fecal streptococci, which was not measured in any summer samples for 

the current study period because analyses of samples for fecal 

Table 15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002b) recommended water-quality criteria for fecal-indicator bacteria. 

[All values are in colonies per 100 milliliters of water]

Indicator bacteria type Illness rate 

(per 1,000 swimmers)

Primary contact recreation1

Single-sample maximum allowable density

Moderately used 

full-body contact

Lightly used full-body 

contact

Infrequently used 

full-body contact 

Escherichia coli (E. coli) 8 298 406 576

9 381 524 736

10 487 669 941

11 622 855 1,202

12 795 1,092 1,536

13 1,016 1,396 1,962

14 1,298 1,783 2,507

Enterococci 8 78 107 151

9 100 137 193

10 128 175 246

11 163 224 315

12 208 286 402

13 266 365 514

14 340 467 656

1

Recreation during which the body is immersed in surface water to the extent that some inadvertent ingestion of water is probable. 

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 63
64  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

Table 16. Results of analysis of fecal-indicator bacteria in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern 

Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.

[Other water-quality criteria listed in table 15. col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliter of water; --, not determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoring-site 

identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Fecal-indicator bacteria

Fecal coliform

(col/100 mL)

Escherichia coli

(col/100 mL)

Fecal 

streptococci

(col/100 mL)

Enterococci

(col/100 mL)

Water-quality criterion -- 19,760 -- --

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O Road 

near Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- -- -- --

02/25/04 230 170 640 E9,800

05/19/04 6,100 5,500 25,000 20,000

08/25/04 8,700 5,700 -- 21,000

12/08/04 430 240 -- E4,200

02/10/05 E200 100 -- E2,200

06/01/05 930 930 -- 5,500

08/16/05 2,000 190 -- 600

11/09/05 160 120 -- 360

02/22/06 E3 E3 -- E30

06/06/06 80 E50 -- 280

08/02/06 -- -- -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 

Road near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- -- -- --

02/25/04 670 600 550 2,200

05/19/04 15,000 16,000 82,000 140,000

08/25/04 12,000 7,700 -- 26,000

12/08/04 230 220 -- 1,900

02/10/05 160 70 -- E3,500

05/11/05 32,000 31,000 -- 290,000

08/16/05 460 350 -- 1,200

11/09/05 310 170 -- 460

02/22/06 E42 E41 -- E28

06/06/06 360 410 -- 580

08/02/06 -- -- -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road 

near Hoyt

11/19/03 180 100 1,600 2,500

02/25/04 190 100 890 1,900

05/19/04 19,000 22,000 140,000 130,000

08/25/04 2,200 3,400 -- 19,000

12/08/04 930 640 -- 2,400

02/10/05 E52 E20 -- 800

06/01/05 430 350 -- E2,000

08/16/05 2,000 730 -- 1,500
Table 16. Results of analysis of fecal-indicator bacteria in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern 

Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[Other water-quality criteria listed in table 15. col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliter of water; --, not determined or not applicable; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoring-site 

identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of 

sample 

collection 

(month/day/

year)

Fecal-indicator bacteria

Fecal coliform

(col/100 mL)

Escherichia coli

(col/100 mL)

Fecal 

streptococci

(col/100 mL)

Enterococci

(col/100 mL)

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road 

near Hoyt

11/09/05 280 220 -- 1,000

02/22/06 E30 E15 -- 240

06/06/06 410 340 -- 1,000

08/02/06 -- -- -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near St. Clere 11/19/03 50 37 280 460

02/25/04 E33 E24 1,000 E3,800

05/19/04 19,000 10,000 20,000 49,000

08/25/04 1,000 620 -- 7,400

12/08/04 E30 E53 -- 770

02/10/05 E38 E9 -- 730

06/01/05 240 330 -- 1,200

08/16/05 170 110 -- 210

11/09/05 110 E53 -- 150

02/22/06 <3 <3 -- E8

06/06/06 470 140 -- 350

08/02/06 1,700 1,700 -- E2,300

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road near 

Delia

11/19/03 E16 E16 130 190

02/25/04 E33 E26 1,100 E4,000

05/19/04 7,300 8,000 28,000 22,000

08/25/04 1,000 1,400 -- 3,200

12/08/04 120 E47 -- E5,300

02/10/05 80 E57 -- E3,500

06/01/05 64 E71 -- E220

08/16/05 E54 E65 -- 170

11/09/05 E23 E47 -- 150

02/22/06 E3 E3 -- E8

06/06/06 100 110 -- 54

08/02/06 550 470 -- 900

1

Single-sample maximum set by the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (2004) for secondary contact recreation in public-access bodies of 

water. 

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation 65
66 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

Table 17. Results of analysis of fecal-indicator bacteria in ground-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern 

Kansas, July 2004, July 2005, and August 2006. 

[Water-quality criteria listed in table 15. col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliter of water; E, estimated; <, less than]

Monitoring-site 

identifier (fig. 1) Site name 

Date of sample 

collection (month/

day/year)

Fecal-indicator bacteria

Fecal coliform

(col/100 mL)

Escherichia coli

(col/100 mL)

Enterococci

(col/100 mL)

MW01 Monitoring well #1 7/28/2004 <1 <1 <1

7/11/2005 <1 <1 <1

8/16/2006 E1 E1 E10

MW02 Monitoring well #2 7/27/2004 <1 <1 E16

7/11/2005 34 23 E150

8/15/2006 E3 E7 E230

MW03 Monitoring well #3 7/26/2004 <1 <1 <1

7/12/2005 <1 <1 <1

8/15/2006 <1 <1 <1

MW04 Monitoring well #4 7/29/2004 <1 <1 43

7/14/2005 <3 E3 <3

8/16/2006 <1 <1 <1

MW06 Monitoring well #6 7/29/2004 <1 <1 E4

7/13/2005 <1 <1 E1

8/14/2006 <1 <1 E1

MW07 Monitoring well #7 7/27/2004 E1 <1 <1

7/13/2005 <1 E1 <1

8/15/2006 <1 <1 <1

MW08 Monitoring well #8 7/27/2004 <1 <1 E3

7/12/2005 <1 <1 E1

8/14/2006 <1 <1 <1

MW09 Monitoring well #9 7/29/2004 <1 <1 <1

7/14/2005 <1 <1 E1

8/17/2006 <3 <3 <3

MW10 Monitoring well #10 7/28/2004 <1 <1 E2

7/14/2005 <1 E1 E1

8/16/2006 <1 <1 <1

MW11 Monitoring well #11 7/26/2004 <3 <3 E42

7/14/2005 E8 E1 140

8/18/2006 E10 E2 E27
streptococci bacteria were discontinued after the spring 2004 

sampling period. The bacteria densities were not necessarily 

larger during times of larger median streamflow.

Sediment

Fluvial sediment is defined as fragmentary material that 

originates mostly from weathering rocks and is transported by, 

suspended in, or deposited from water; it includes chemical 

and biological precipitates and decomposed organic material, 

such as humus (Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation Project, 

1963).

Fluvial sediment in surface-water samples collected for 

this study was measured by two different analytical methods—

suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) and total suspended 

solids (TSS). SSC data were collected by measuring the dry 

weight of all the sediment from a known volume of a watersediment mixture (Gray and others, 2000). TSS data were 

determined by measuring the dry weight of sediment from a 

known volume of a subsample of the original sample (Gray 

and others, 2000).

SSCs in surface-water samples ranged from 3 to 

6,500 mg/L, with a median concentration of 47 mg/L 

(table 18). The largest SSC was detected in a sample from 

site LSC04 collected on May 11, 2005, and corresponds to the 

largest TSS concentration. Suspended sediment was measured 

in all of the surface-water samples.

Concentrations of TSS were analyzed in all surface-water 

samples collected during this study and ranged from less than 

10 to an estimated 5,200 mg/L, with a median concentration 

of 16 mg/L (table 18). The largest concentration occurred in a 

water sample collected on May 11, 2005, from site LSC04 and 

corresponds to the largest densities of fecal coliform bacteria, 

E. coli, and enterococci bacteria detected during the current 

study period. TSS concentrations were greater than 10 mg/L in 

62 percent of surface-water samples.

The median concentration of TSS in the 24 samples 

from the two Soldier Creek sites (SC03 and SC07, fig. 1) was 

larger than the median concentration in the 20 samples from 

two of the three Little Soldier Creek sites (LSC03 and LSC04, 

fig. 1), 28 and 18 mg/L, respectively. Median concentrations 

of suspended sediment were larger in samples collected from 

the two Little Soldier Creek sites than the two Soldier Creek 

sites (73 and 56 mg/L, respectively). Median concentrations 

were small relative to the potential range in concentrations 

(table 18, fig. 17) and probably are a reflection of the low 

streamflow conditions under which most surface-waterquality samples were collected during the current study period. 

Concentrations of SSC and TSS were much smaller in samples 

from the monitoring site on Big Elm Creek (LSC06, fig. 1), 

8 and 10 mg/L respectively, which probably is due to the small 

amount of sediment discharge from the upstream wastewatertreatment plant (Schmidt, 2004).

Comparison of Water-Quality Results to Previous Study Periods 67

Figure 16. Seasonal distribution of median streamflow and median densities of fecal-indicator bacteria in surfacewater samples, November 2003 through August 2006.

0

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

Median streamflow, in cubic feet per second 

Median bacteria density, in colonies per 100 

milliliters of water 

Streamflow Escherichia coli Enterococci

(E. coli)

Fecal coliform Fecal

streptococci

Spring

Summer

Fall

Winter
68  Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

Table 18. Results of analysis of suspended sediment and total suspended solids in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; --, not determined; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoring-site identifier 

(fig. 1) Site name Date of sample collection (month/day/year)

Suspended-sediment 

concentration

(mg/L)

Total suspended 

solids 

(mg/L)

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC03 Little Soldier Creek, O Road near 

Mayetta 

11/19/03 -- --

02/25/04 57 44

05/19/04 190 160

08/25/04 120 120

12/08/04 41 23

02/10/05 14 15

06/01/05 26 13

08/16/05 47 <10

11/09/05 220 <10

02/22/06 120 <10

06/06/06 57 26

08/02/06 -- --

LSC04 Little Soldier Creek, 134 Road 

near Mayetta

11/19/03 -- --

02/25/04 23 13

05/19/04 540 210

08/25/04 230 180

12/08/04 8 <10

02/10/05 24 22

05/11/05 6,500 E5,200

08/16/05 18 <10

11/09/05 210 <10

02/22/06 120 <10

06/06/06 58 35

08/02/06 -- --

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road near 

Hoyt

11/19/03 3 <10

02/25/04 11 16

05/19/04 730 300

08/25/04 35 25

12/08/04 4 <10
Table 18. Results of analysis of suspended sediment and total suspended solids in surface-water-quality samples from Prairie Band Potawatomi 

Reservation, northeastern Kansas, November 2003 through August 2006.—Continued

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; --, not determined; <, less than; E, estimated]

Monitoring-site identifier 

(fig. 1) Site name Date of sample collection (month/day/year)

Suspended-sediment 

concentration

(mg/L)

Total suspended 

solids 

(mg/L)

Little Soldier Creek Basin

LSC06 Big Elm Creek, 134 Road near 

Hoyt

02/10/05 8 <10

06/01/05 6 <10

08/16/05 3 <10

11/09/05 210 <10

02/22/06 90 <10

06/06/06 4 <10

08/02/06 -- --

Soldier Creek Basin

SC03 Soldier Creek near St. Clere 11/19/03 7 <10

02/25/04 41 26

05/19/04 240 170

08/25/04 67 69

12/08/04 20 <10

02/10/05 41 12

06/01/05 63 61

08/16/05 35 25

11/09/05 170 <10

02/22/06 24 <10

06/06/06 43 41

08/02/06 43 18

SC07 Soldier Creek, I Road near Delia 11/19/03 19 <10

02/25/04 68 29

05/19/04 500 230

08/25/04 89 85

12/08/04 17 13

02/10/05 41 34

06/01/05 71 66

08/16/05 33 36

11/09/05 150 11

02/22/06 120 <10

06/06/06 140 74

08/02/06 47 38

Comparison of Water-Quality Results to Previous Study Periods 69
70 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

Comparison of Water-Quality Results to 

Previous Study Periods

This report describes surface- and ground-water quality 

on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation from November 2003 through August 2006, and a comparison of results 

from this study period to results in previous water-quality 

reports published as a part of this ongoing study is presented 

in this section. During previous study periods, surface-water 

samples were collected for analysis of physical properties, 

nutrients, pesticides, and fecal-indicator bacteria (Trombley, 

1999, 2001). Results from these study periods found total 

phosphorus, triazine herbicides, and fecal-indicator bacteria 

exceeding their respective water-quality criteria. Previous 

study-period assessments collected ground-water samples 

from domestic supply wells and a pumping well installed for a 

pump test conducted as a part of exploration for development 

of the tribe’s water supply. These ground-water samples were 

analyzed for physical properties, major ions, dissolved solids, 

nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, and bacteria, and results 

identified dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, boron, iron, and 

manganese as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria 

(Trombley, 1999, 2001).

During the May 2001 through August 2003 study period, 

additional analyses for dissolved solids, major ions, trace elements, and suspended-sediment concentration were conducted 

(Schmidt, 2004). Results from this study period found that 

total phosphorus and triazine herbicide concentrations and 

fecal-indicator bacteria densities continued to occasionally 

exceed their respective water-quality criteria at some surfacewater monitoring sites on the reservation. Ranges of total 

phosphorus concentrations generally remained similar to the 

previous study periods with occasional samples exceeding the 

water-quality criteria. However, total phosphorus concentrations did increase at site LSC06 from the June 1996 through 

November 1998 study period (fig. 10 in Trombley, 1999) to 

the February 1999 through February 2001 study period (fig. 9 

in Trombley, 2001). This increase in total phosphorus could 

be attributed to installation of a sewage-treatment lagoon 

upstream from the monitoring site in 1998. The range of 

total phosphorus concentrations for the current study period 

reported herein was similar to the May 2001 through August 

2003 study period (Schmidt, 2004).

The median triazine herbicide concentration (triazine 

screen by ELISA) for the current study period was equal to 

or slightly less than past study periods—0.20 μg/L reported 

in Trombley (1999), 0.50 μg/L reported in Trombley (2001), 

0.40 μg/L reported in Schmidt (2004), and 0.20 μg/L during 

the current study period. In addition, surface-water samples 

during the current study period did not exceed the USEPA 

MCL of 3.0 μg/L for atrazine (by GC/MS or regression-predicted ELISA results) as an annual average. Four surfacewater samples collected during the first study period (June 

Figure 17. Median concentrations of suspended sediment and total suspended solids in surface-water-quality 

samples, November 2003 through August 2006.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

LSC03 LSC04 LSC06 SC03 SC07

Surface-water-quality monitoring site and basin (fig. 1)

Suspended-sediment concentration and total

suspended solids, in milligrams per liter 

Little Soldier Creek Basin Soldier Creek Basin

Median total suspended

solids concentration 

Median suspendedsediment concentration
1996–November 1998), nine surface-water samples collected 

during the second study period (February 1999–February 

2001), and two surface-water samples collected during the 

third study period (May 2001–August 2003) exceeded the 

USEPA MCL for atrazine.

The median density of fecal coliform bacteria in surfacewater samples during the current study period was similar 

to the third study period (Schmidt, 2004) but less than the 

first two periods (Trombley, 1999, 2001). The median concentration for the June 1996 through November 1998 study 

period was 290 col/100 mL; the median concentration for the 

February 1999 through February 2001 study period was 

570 col/100 mL; and the median concentration for the 

May 2001 through August 2003 study period was 190 col/100 

mL. For the current study period, the median concentration for 

fecal coliform bacteria was 230 col/100 mL.

Trombley (2001) found dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, boron, iron, and manganese concentrations in selected 

ground-water samples exceeding their respective water-quality 

criteria. It is not possible to infer trends in ground-water quality across all study periods because the first two study periods 

consisted of ground-water samples collected from domestic 

wells and one pumping well. Ground-water sample results 

presented herein and in the third study (Schmidt, 2004) were 

collected from dedicated monitoring wells installed across 

the reservation. The May 2001 through August 2003 study 

period (Schmidt, 2004) found that dissolved solids, sodium, 

and sulfate were present in ground-water samples at concentrations greater than their respective water-quality criteria. 

The current study period found that dissolved solids, sodium, 

sulfate, and chloride were again present in concentrations that 

exceeded their respective water-quality criteria and were larger 

than the previous study period. Results from these two most 

recent study periods show that arsenic concentrations continue 

to exceed the USEPA MCL in samples from monitoring well 

MW06 but do not show a substantial increase in concentration 

from the 2003 (Schmidt, 2004) to the current study period.

Summary and Conclusions

This report describes surface- and ground-water quality data collected on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation in northeastern Kansas from November 2003 through 

August 2006 (hereinafter referred to as the “current study 

period”). Data from this study period are compared to results 

from June 1996 through August 2003, which are published 

in previous reports as part of a multiyear cooperative study 

with the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation. Surface and ground 

water are important to the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation 

to serve the hunting and fishing needs of tribal members 

and as a possible ground-water supply to support expanding 

commercial enterprise and development. Under the Federal 

Clean Water Act of 1977, an Indian tribe is sovereign for the 

purposes of delegating the authority to regulate water within 

the reservation boundaries. To establish water-quality baseline 

concentrations with a goal of developing water-quality criteria 

to help manage the water resources on the reservation, the 

tribe, in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, began a 

water-quality monitoring program in 1996.

A subset of 5 of the original 20 surface-water sites 

was sampled approximately quarterly from November 2003 

through August 2006. All surface-water samples were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, 

nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, fecal-indicator bacteria, 

suspended-sediment concentration, and total suspended solids. 

Ground water was sampled three times during this current 

study period from 10 dedicated ground-water monitoring wells 

completed on the reservation in August 2002 and July 2003. 

All ground-water samples were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, 

pesticides, and fecal-indicator bacteria. Chemical oxygen 

demand and volatile organic compounds were analyzed in all 

three samples from one ground-water monitoring well located 

near a construction and demolition landfill on the reservation 

(monitoring well MW04) and in one sample from another well 

in the Soldier Creek drainage basin (well MW07).

Previous reports published as a part of this ongoing study 

identified total phosphorus, triazine herbicides, and fecal 

coliform bacteria as exceeding their respective water-quality 

criteria in surface water on the reservation. Previous groundwater assessments identified occasional sample concentrations 

of dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, boron, iron, and manganese as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria.

During the current study period, dissolved-solids concentrations exceeded the Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation 

of 500 mg/L established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in surface-water samples from site 

LSC06 located on Big Elm Creek downstream from a sewagetreatment lagoon and in samples from site SC03 on Soldier 

Creek. In general, larger concentrations of dissolved solids 

may occur downstream from wastewater-treatment facilities 

when compared to upstream concentrations. Twenty percent 

of dissolved-solids concentrations in ground-water samples 

were equal to or greater than the Secondary Drinking-Water 

Regulation.

Sodium concentrations exceeded the Drinking-Water 

Advisory of 20 mg/L established by USEPA in some surface-water samples from every site (almost 50 percent of all 

surface-water samples) and in ground-water samples from 

wells MW01, MW03, MW04, MW08, and MW11 (total of 

50 percent of ground-water samples). Sulfate and chloride 

concentrations exceeded the Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation of 250 mg/L established by USEPA in 10 percent of 

ground-water samples, including all three samples from well 

MW03.

Detections of nitrite plus nitrate in ground-water samples 

from well MW11 exceeded the USEPA Maximum Contaminant Level of 10 mg/L. Fifty-six percent of the 55 surfacewater samples analyzed for total phosphorus exceeded the 

aquatic-life goal of 0.10 mg/L established by USEPA.

Summary and Conclusions  71
72 Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

Three detections of arsenic in ground-water samples from 

well MW06 exceeded the USEPA Maximum Contaminant 

Level of 10 μg/L. Boron also exceeded the USEPA DrinkingWater Advisory of 600 μg/L in three samples from one well 

(MW03), and iron concentrations were larger than the Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation (300 μg/L) in four wells.

A triazine herbicide screen was used on 55 surface-water 

samples, and triazine herbicides, specifically, were detected 

frequently, although concentrations did not exceed the USEPA 

Maximum Contaminant Level of 3.0 μg/L as an annual average. Triazine herbicide compounds were not detected frequently in samples collected from ground-water monitoring 

wells. Triazine herbicides and their degradates are listed on the 

USEPA Contaminant Candidate List.

One volatile organic compound, diethyl ether, was 

detected in a water sample collected from well MW07. There 

are no USEPA drinking-water regulations for this compound.

Fecal-indicator bacteria (fecal coliform, E. coli, fecal 

streptococci, and enterococci) were detected in the majority 

of surface-water samples. Water-quality criterion have been 

established by USEPA and the Kansas Department of Health 

and Environment (KDHE) for densities of E. coli. Densities 

of E. coli in surface-water samples exceeded USEPA primarycontact water-quality criterion for moderately used water 

bodies (illness rate of 8 per 1,000 swimmers; 298 col/100 mL) 

in 40 percent of samples and exceeded KDHE single-sample 

maximum criterion for primary contact in public-access bodies of water (1,198 col/100mL for samples collected between 

April 1 and October 31) in 41 percent of samples. Median concentrations of both suspended sediment and total suspended 

solids in water samples from Soldier and Little Soldier Creek 

sites were small and reflect the low streamflow conditions 

under which most samples were collected.

Water quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation generally meets water-quality criteria established by 

USEPA. Surface-water quality on the reservation is affected by 

agricultural runoff (triazine herbicides and fecal-indicator bacteria), seepage from septic systems or sewage lagoons serving 

a rural population, and wastewater discharge from documented 

point sources (dissolved solids and sodium). Sources of total 

phosphorus in streams can be attributed to both agricultural 

activities and human and animal waste. Ground-water quality 

on the reservation probably is affected by agricultural practices 

with the detections of nitrite plus nitrate, and elevated dissolved-solids and arsenic concentrations in ground water likely 

are from dissolution of sedimentary rocks. Concentrations of 

dissolved solids and sulfate in some ground-water samples 

exceeded their respective Secondary Drinking-Water Regulations, and concentrations exceeded the taste threshold of the 

USEPA’s Drinking-Water Advisory Level for sodium. Consequently, in the event that ground water on the reservation 

is to be used as a drinking-water source, additional treatment 

may be necessary to remove excess dissolved solids, sulfate, 

sodium, chloride, nitrite plus nitrate, and arsenic.

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