Workplace Learning Annotated Bibliography Page 1

Correctional Officer 

Suicide
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 1

Correctional Officer Suicide

Prepared by the NIC Information Center

Date created: April 14, 2016

Accession No. 033237

Contents

Introduction & Literature Review.................................................................................................................................... 2

Prevalence of Correctional Officer Suicide.................................................................................................................... 6

Corrections Officer Stress ..................................................................................................................................................10

Desert Waters Correctional Outreach......................................................................................................................12

Suicide: Other Law Enforcement ....................................................................................................................................14

Prevention & Intervention Strategies for Corrections and LE Officers...........................................................16

Trends (e.g., related to higher rates of hiring ex-military / PTSD)...................................................................20

In The News.............................................................................................................................................................................21

Massachusetts ....................................................................................................................................................................21

Other ......................................................................................................................................................................................21
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 2

Introduction & Literature Review 

Recognizing that corrections can be a tough profession, the National Institute of Corrections is at 

the forefront of Health and Wellness for Corrections Professionals. The NIC website has a wealth of 

resources on the topic including webinars, a virtual conference dedicated to the subject, as well as 

an Internet Broadcast called Corrections Stress: Peaks and Valleys (https://nicic.gov/correctionsstress-peaks-and-valleys). The literature on the subject reflects what those who work in the field 

already know anecdotally, that the job of a correctional officer is particularly stressful. Officers 

must contend with rotating work schedules, mandatory overtime, and possible assaults by and 

among offenders. The following articles and discussion below provide an overview of what 

information is available on suicide by correctional officers and—to some extent—police officers, 

and the impact workplace stress can have on officers. In response to the literature search, officer 

wellness is discussed, along with some of the interventions recommended to prevent suicides and 

reduce corrections fatigue. 

To begin with, it is important to acknowledge the important and comprehensive work of Jaime 

Brower, who authored the 2013 “Correctional Officer Wellness and Safety Literature Review.” This 

paper provided a tremendous foundation for this partial review of the literature and bibliography. 

The NIC Information Center staff have attempted to add to this knowledge base with more recent 

resources, and focus on wellness and safety with a specific concern around suicide among 

corrections officers. 

Prevalence of Correctional Officer Suicide. In discussing correctional officer suicide, Jaime 

Brower (2013) summarizes much of what we know today, which is repeated here: 

Stress can also lead to elevated rates of severe depression and suicide among COs (Morgan, 

2009). Stack and Tsoudis (1997) found that the rate of suicide among correctional officers 

is 39 percent higher than the rest of the working-age population. A more recent study found 

that COs have a suicide rate that is twice as high as the rate of police officers and the general 

population (New Jersey Police Suicide Task Force, 2009). Researchers have devoted 

significant attention to suicide among law enforcement officers and this research offers 

insights on suicide among COs (Brower, 2013). For example, research on law enforcement 

suicide suggests that familial issues, such as divorce and separation, play a significant role in 

increasing the risk for suicide, particularly when combined with an administrative 

investigation on an officers’ potential misconduct (Brower, 2013). According to the New 

Jersey Police Suicide Task Force Report (2009), access to firearms was a significant risk 

factor contributing to law enforcement suicide; the report found that 94 percent of police 

suicides involved the use of a service weapon. 

One of the few studies of CO suicide, the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) Census of 

Fatal Occupational Injuries, shows that 38 percent of the intentional fatalities suffered by 

COs were suicides by self-inflicted gunshot wounds (Konda, 2012). However, using BLS data 

to study suicide prevalence among COs is complicated because the BLS only reports suicides 

that occur in the workplace. Suicides that occur at home or elsewhere are classified as nonoccupational and are not part of the BLS data (Tiesman et al., 2010). Much more research is 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 3

needed to develop a better understanding of the prevalence and causes of suicide among 

COs (Konda, 2012; Morgan, 2009).

As early as 1999, Corrections Today published a short article on the issue (Childress, Talucci, 

& Wood). In this piece it was stated that correctional officers are “three times more likely to commit 

suicide than they are to be killed on the job.” The New Jersey Police Suicide Task Force reported in 

2009 that “corrections officers appear to have a higher suicide rate that other law enforcement 

officers” at least in that State. 

Violanti, Robinson, and Shen (2013) studied suicide in law enforcement and found that

“[d]etectives/criminal investigators/police had the higher suicide risk (an 82% increase) compared 

to corrections officers (a 41% increase).... included significantly increased risk for suicide among 

detectives/criminal investigators/police and corrections officers, which suggests that additional 

study could provide better data to inform us for preventive action.”

Correctional Officer Stress. Currently, the concern over officer stress is prominent in the 

literature, and particular emphasis rests on the need for officer wellness programs within 

corrections agencies. Desert Waters Correctional Outreach has been one of the more prolific 

advocates of officer wellness, working to address the issues caused by “Corrections Fatigue” and 

reduce the stress and strain of working within corrections environments (www.desertwaters.com). 

Stressors in the corrections include elements of physical environmental factors (Brummell, 2012), 

burnout (Cheek, 1984) inmate violence, inmate crowding, inmate density, dangerous gang activity, 

physical setting, and lack of recognition of officer authority (Morgan, 2009), and conflicts between 

work and family (SHSU, 2014), among others. Many of the articles in the section on officer stress 

discuss ways of combating, or easing, such conditions and coping mechanisms for officers. 

Desert Waters is a subsection here because of their sole focus in the past several years on 

the study of PTSD, depression, and other mental health-related issues faced by the corrections 

workforce. Because their studies concluded that these issues are more prevalent in corrections 

professionals than in the general population (Denhof, Spinaris, & Kellaway, 2012; Denhof & 

Spinaris, 2013), they created a model and framework for understanding and addressing 

occupational threats to the well-being corrections (Denhof, Spinaris & Morton, 2014). They have 

also created a variety of other tools to support implementation of programs combatting corrections 

fatigue. 

Along with the issue of officer stress comes the discussion of whether COs have a shorter 

life expectancy than people in the general population. In 1984, F.E. Cheek’s book, Stress 

Management for Correctional Officers and Their Families was published by the American 

Correctional Association, and put forth the notion that “... the average life span of correctional 

officers, at 59 years of age, is 16 years lower than the national average: (Brower, 2013, p. 12). 

Decades later, however, Emory, Jr. (2011), discusses this claim, and declares that it is false. The 

same year, according to Parker (2011), the average age of death for corrections and law 

enforcement officers in Florida is 62.4 years, compared to 74.2 for the general population. While 

this research indicates that the general population lives nearly 12 years longer than officers, this 

report does not distinguish between those employed as law enforcement or correctional officers. 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 4

Suicide: Other Law Enforcement. Because police officers and corrections officers have some 

similarities in their workplace stress, this section has been included. The Badge of Life (2012) 

studies show that there was a drop in 2012 in police suicide from previous years, although Mark 

Bond, (2014) presents the need to “no longer ignore the silent suffering of its officers.” Other 

references in this section provide statistics on police officer fatalities (Governing; NLEOMF, 2015; 

Tiesman, 2010). These reports do not focus on corrections officer specifically, or include federal law 

enforcement. 

Prevention and Intervention Strategies. Despite recent efforts in the arena of officer wellness, 

gaps in programming still exist: 

While some correctional agencies may provide counseling programs that will treat general 

mental health concerns, it is difficult for facilities to find confidential treatment providers 

who are adequately abreast of best practices specific to corrections. More times than not, 

general mental health providers are not aware of pre-employment psychological selection 

practices and laws, fitness-for-duty evaluations, treatment for stress and PTSD, the benefits 

of psychological debriefings and knowledge of the various job-specific individual and family 

issues that come from direct work in the field of corrections. As a result, well-intentioned 

mental health providers may struggle with the initial legitimacy testing, boundary probing, 

resistance and rapport building obstacles presented by the corrections client. (Brower, 

2013, p. 12). 

In addition, Brower offers recommendations for employee assistance, peer support, and training 

programs aimed at improving the effectiveness of correctional officer wellness programs. 

The International Association of Chiefs of Police offer recommendations specifically for 

police officers (Breaking the Silence, 2014), “designed to prevent the destructive effects of 

emotional trauma, mental illness, and officer deaths by suicide... It is time to integrate mental 

health and well-being into the mainstream officer safety and wellness continuum.” 

According to Marchese (2015), “Having decreased the number of inmate suicides, and given 

the frequency of correctional employee suicides, it seems a logical best practice to apply the same 

training mandates to monitoring staff for suicidal behaviors” (p. 24). This includes assessment and 

training in recognizing the signs and symptoms of potentially suicidal individuals. 

Garbarino (2013) studied mental health issues related to work stress in police officers, and 

reinforces the importance of reducing such stress and improving efforts aimed at officer wellness. 

Caitlin Finney et al review the relationship between organizational stressors and stress and 

burnout of correctional officers in adult correctional facilities: 

Based on the results of the current literature review, interventions should aim to increase 

and improve communication between management and staff thereby improving the 

organizational structure and climate of the correctional facility and reducing the risk of job 

stress and burnout [1,15,64]. Specifically, COs would benefit from clearly defined goals and 

guidelines, increased participation in decision making, increased sense of support from the 

organization and increased organizational justice. Increasing the communication between 

management and COs can be accomplished in several ways. First, management can provide 

COs with a clearer written description of the goals and policies of the correctional facilities 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 5

[65,66]. Second, organizations can increase the number of collaborative meetings between 

management and COs, thereby facilitating the ability of COs to participate in decision 

making within the organization [65,66]. Organizations can increase the transparency of the 

processes and factors involved in the decisions that they make thereby increasing the COs' 

perception of organizational justice and that all decisions that are made by management are 

fair [65,66]. Finally, organizations can increase the support of the COs by formally 

recognizing COs' contributions to the workplace [66]. Future research should examine the 

effectiveness of these interventions for reducing job stress and burnout among COs.

(Finney, 2013, p. 11)

NIC presented a complete virtual conference on staff wellness, and the presentations are available 

for streaming. Other resources are also listed, including a CD of suicide prevention resources from 

the IACP, and a podcast available on correctionsone.com. Gershon Weltman, et al (2014) presented 

a case study highlighting the Stress Resilience Training System. This intervention is aimed at police 

officer and military personnel, and the authors “conclude that the SRTS program for building 

resilience and improving psychological wellness can be as effective for law enforcement as it is for 

military personnel.” 

Trends. The bibliography concludes with two articles discussing the high rates of officers working 

in jails suffer from PTSD (28th First Responder, 2015; Lisitsina, 2015), and the hiring of veterans in 

state and local corrections agencies. 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 6

Prevalence of Correctional Officer Suicide

Review of the literature on correctional officer suicide shows that most of the studies group law 

enforcement officers with correctional officers. Studies also reveal that correctional personnel 

suffer PTSD from exposure to stress in the workplace. Konda et al reviewed fatalities over a ten 

year period and found that 17 died from self-inflicted gunshot wounds. This number only reflects 

those deaths that occurred at work. 

Brower, Jaime. Correctional Officer Wellness and Safety Literature Review. U.S. Department of Justice 

OJP Diagnostic Center, July 2013. 

Stress can also lead to elevated rates of severe depression and suicide among COs (Morgan, 

2009). Stack and Tsoudis (1997) found that the rate of suicide among correctional officers 

is 39 percent higher than the rest of the working-age population. A more recent study found 

that COs have a suicide rate that is twice as high as the rate of police officers and the general 

population (New Jersey Police Suicide Task Force, 2009). Researchers have devoted 

significant attention to suicide among law enforcement officers and this research offers 

insights on suicide among COs (Brower, 2013). For example, research on law enforcement 

suicide suggests that familial issues, such as divorce and separation, play a significant role in 

increasing the risk for suicide, particularly when combined with an administrative 

investigation on an officers’ potential misconduct (Brower, 2013). According to the New 

Jersey Police Suicide Task Force Report (2009), access to firearms was a significant risk 

factor contributing to law enforcement suicide; the report found that 94 percent of police

suicides involved the use of a service weapon. 

One of the few studies of CO suicide, the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) Census of 

Fatal Occupational Injuries, shows that 38 percent of the intentional fatalities suffered by 

COs were suicides by self-inflicted gunshot wounds (Konda, 2012). However, using BLS data 

to study suicide prevalence among COs is complicated because the BLS only reports suicides 

that occur in the workplace. Suicides that occur at home or elsewhere are classified as nonoccupational and are not part of the BLS data (Tiesman et al., 2010). Much more research is 

needed to develop a better understanding of the prevalence and causes of suicide among 

COs (Konda, 2012; Morgan, 2009).

https://info.nicic.gov/virt/sites/info.nicic.gov.virt/files/09Correctional_Officer_Literature_Rev

iew.pdf

Childress, Rebecca, Vincent Talucci, and Jennifer Wood. (1999). “Fighting the Enemy within: 

Helping Officers Deal with Stress.” Corrections Today 61/7: 70-72.

There are many reasons for correctional officers to feel stress, including rotating shift work, 

low pay and the threat of inmate violence. The Connecticut Department of Corrections 

offers FOCUS ("Families, Officers and Corrections") to help correctional personnel with their 

stress.

Every year, correctional officers from across the country gather at a monument in 

Judiciary Square in Washington, ID.C., to honor our brothers and sisters who have fallen in 

the line of duty," says John Carr, clinical supervisor of the Rhode Island Department of 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 7

Corrections' (DOC) Stress Unit. "But a little-known fact is that correctional officers are three 

times more likely to commit suicide than they are to be killed on the job."

https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-58381593/fighting-the-enemy-within-helpingofficers-deal-with

Konda, Srinivas, Audrey A. Reichard, and Hope M. Tiesman. (2012). “Occupational Injuries among 

U.S. Correctional Officers, 1999-2008.” Journal of Safety Research 43/3: 181-186.

Results: From 1999–2008, there were 113 fatalities and an estimated 125,200 (CI = ± 

70,100) nonfatal injuries were treated in emergency departments. Assaults and violent acts 

(n = 45, 40%) and transportation related fatalities (n = 45, 40%) were the two primary fatal 

injury events. Assaults and violent acts (n = 47,500 (CI = ± 24,500), 38%) and bodily 

reaction and exertion (n = 25,400 (CI = ± 16,800), 20%) were the leading events resulting in 

nonfatal injuries.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4562411/

Konda, Srinivas, Hope Tiesman, Audrey Reichard, and Dan Hartley. (Nov/Dec 2013). “U.S. 

Correctional Officers Killed or Injured on the Job.” Corrections Today 75/5: 122-125. 

Among fatal assaults and violent acts (113 between 1999-2008), 62 percent were due to 

homicides and 38 percent (17) were due to suicides by self-inflicted gunshot wounds... In 

this study, the authors found that 17 correctional officers died from self-inflicted gunshot 

wounds in the workplace during the 10-year period. It is known that

correctional officers experience constant stress because of fear of inmate attacks, 

mandatory overtime, rotating shifts, sleep disturbances and supervisory demands. Job 

stress issues are linked to psychological disorders that may result in an elevated suicide 

risk. A 2011 survey of corrections personnel revealed that about half of the study 

participants experienced some signs of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and confirmed 

there is an elevated suicide risk due to PTSD. In another study, researchers found that about

one-third of corrections personnel were clinically depressed. Unfortunately, the data in this 

study does not offer information on the motives behind these suicides. Additional research 

should be conducted to examine the association between job stress and suicide risk among 

correctional officers, and then take steps to alleviate job stressors.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4699466/

Parker, Jack. Florida Mortality Study: Florida Law Enforcement and Corrections Officers compared to 

Florida General Population. Brevard County Sheriff’s Department, 2011. 

During the 2011 Legislative Session, changes made to the Florida Retirement

System (FRS) extended by five years both the age and the years of service necessary to

retire for members of the special risk class which includes law enforcement and

corrections officers. The stated justification for the change was the assumption that

special risk class members are living longer and now have life spans similar to that of the

general population. This assumption was derived without the benefit of conducting any

studies in the State of Florida. The assumption also conflicts directly with well established
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 8

medical theory and other scientifically conducted longitudinal studies regarding the 

lifespan of law enforcement officers. The actual death rates between the two groups were 

compared during the most recent decade beginning in year 2000 and ending in 2009. It was 

determined the average age at death for FRS special risk class members assigned to law 

enforcement and corrections duties was 62.4 years, while the average age of death for 

Florida's general population was almost 12 years longer at 74.2 years (approximately 19% 

longer life spans). 

http://www.floridastatefop.org/pdf_files/floridamortalitystudy.pdf

Portland State University. (2014). “2014 National Symposium on Corrections Worker Health: 

Conference Materials.” 

These conference materials include a presentation by John Violanti on Suicide and Stress in 

Correctional Workforce covering suicide statistics, stress, PTSD, the culture of not seeking 

help, and treatment. 

Pittaro, Michael. “Suicide among Corrections Officers: It’s Time for an Open Discussion.” American 

Military University’s In Public Safety, January 5, 2015. 

In order to address the potential for suicide among corrections officers, agencies need to: 

enhance and equip Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs); establish Critical Incident 

Response Teams (CRTs); and engage family members.

http://inpublicsafety.com/2015/01/suicide-among-corrections-officers-its-time-for-an-opendiscussion/

Stack, Steven J., and Olga Tsoudis. (1997). “Suicide Risk among Correctional Officers: A Logistic 

Regression Analysis.” Archives of Suicide Research, 3/3: 183-186. 

Research on suicide in correctional facilities has focused on inmates to the neglect of 

correctional officers. Research on factors such as stress, burnout, and work dissatisfaction 

has often found high levels of these problems among guards. The present study analyses 

data from 21 states to ascertain whether guards are at risk of suicide. The results of a 

multivariate logistic regression analysis indicate that the risk of suicide among guards in 

39% higher than the rest of the working age population.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240238125_Suicide_risk_among_correctional_offi

cers_A_logistic_regression_analysis

Violanti John M., Cynthia F. Robinson, and Rui Shen. (2013). “Law Enforcement Suicide: A National 

Analysis.” International Journal of Emergency Mental Health 15/4:289-97.

Previous research suggests that there is an elevated risk of suicide among workers within 

law enforcement occupations. The present study examined the proportionate mortality for 

suicide in law enforcement in comparison to the US working population during 1999, 2003-

2004, and 2007, based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Institute 

for Occupational Safety and Health National Occupational Mortality Surveillance data. We 

analyzed data for all law enforcement occupations and focused on two specific law 

enforcement occupational categories-detectives/criminal investigators/ police and 

corrections officers. Suicides were also explored by race, gender and ethnicity. The results 

of the study showed proportionate mortality ratios (PMRs) for suicide were significantly 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 9

high for all races and sexes combined (all law enforcement--PMR = 169, 95% CI = 150-191, 

p < 0.01, 264 deaths; detectives/criminal investigators/police--PMR = 182, 95% CI = 150-

218, p < 0.01, 115 deaths; and corrections officers-PMR = 141, 95% CI = 111-178, p < 0.01, 

73 deaths). Detectives/criminal investigators/police had the higher suicide risk (an 82% 

increase) compared to corrections officers (a 41% increase).... included significantly 

increased risk for suicide among detectives/criminal investigators/police and corrections 

officers, which suggests that additional study could provide better data to inform us for 

preventive action.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24707591
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 10

Corrections Officer Stress

Bourbonnais, Renee, et al. (2007). “Psychosocial Work Environment, Interpersonal Violence at 

Work, and Mental Health among Correctional Officers.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry

30: 355-368.

“The aims of this study were to establish the prevalence of psychotropic drug use, measure 

the association between job strain, extrinsic efforts-rewards ratio, interpersonal violence 

and psychotropic drug use among officers working in correctional facilities in the province 

of Quebec in Canada. This study also examined if interpersonal violence at work is an 

intermediate factor in the causal chain between psychosocial risk factors at work and 

psychotropic drug use.”

http://www.ripost.qc.ca/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/fichiers/Bourbonnais_et_al.__20

07__-_Psychosocial_work_environment__Int_l_J_of_Law_Psy__01.pdf

Brummel, Jeff. (2012). Environmental Stress in the Correctional Workplace. Western Washington 

University Masters Thesis Collection. 

Experiencing stress in the work environment is common for most occupations, and some 

occupations experience more work-related stress than others. Environmental factors 

including lighting, temperature, air quality and noise, can affect workers’ stress levels in 

subtle ways often overlooked during typical work related stress evaluations. The present 

study examines the relationship between these environmental factors and their effects on 

the stress levels of corrections officers. Survey respondents (N=45) evaluated two 

correctional facilities in the Pacific Northwest for environmental quality and the incidence 

of Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) symptoms such as headache, fatigue, nausea, lethargy and 

other health-related issues. Baseline environmental measurements and facility 

environmental standards were compared with survey results to evaluate officers’ 

experience of stress from the workplace environment. Results indicate that environmental 

factors may affect officers’ stress levels and their experience of SBS symptoms to a greater 

degree than is currently discussed in the literature. Future studies should attempt to further 

refine these relationships, as a better understanding of them will help correctional 

administrators decrease workplace stress, absenteeism and attrition. 

http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1186&context=wwuet

Cheek, F. E. (1984). Stress Management for Correctional Officers and Their Families. Alexandria, VA: 

American Correctional Association.

After an examination of the personal and organizational costs of stress and employee 

burnout, sources of correctional stress are delineated as they relate to the individual's 

physical and psychological needs. The contribution of irrational thinking patterns to stress 

is discussed, and the way in which an individual may become a carrier of stress both at 

home and at work is outlined. Commonly used positive and negative coping techniques are 

enumerated. Special emphasis is given to five major coping techniques: maintaining a 

healthy lifestyle, including adequate rest and proper nutrition; deep relaxation and 

desensitization; improving self-image; appropriate assertiveness; and behavior change. 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 11

Appendixes include a stress and burnout self-evaluation, instructions for relaxation, and 

muscle relaxation, self-relaxation, and desensitization exercises. 

https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=100002

Ekman, Eve. (Fall 2015). “Development, Delivery, and Evaluation of a Pilot Stress Reduction, 

Emotion, Regulation, and Mindfulness Training for Juvenile Justice Officers.” Journal of Juvenile 

Justice, 4/2: 71.

"This article explores stress among JJOs and training interventions through a review of 

the literature and presentation of original case study data. The case study includes 

qualitative analysis of (a) interpersonal stress through a new lens of empathy and 

meaning and (b) the development and delivery of a pilot training program targeted to help 

JJOs reduce stress and facilitate empathy and meaning. The conclusion addresses 

opportunities to support JJOs in managing interpersonal stress and finding meaning in their 

work."

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311276685_Development_Delivery_and_Evaluatio

n_of_a_Pilot_Stress_Reduction_Emotion_Regulation_and_Mindfulness_Training_for_Juvenile_Jus

tice_Officers

Emory Jr., Eugene, C. (November 16, 2011). “Rhode Island corrections union president David 

Mellon says correctional officers' life expectancy is 58 years—False.” PolitiFact Rhode Island.

“A lower life expectancy seems plausible, but age 58 seemed extraordinarily low when a 35-

year-old male is predicted to live to age 77. We decided to track down the truth. It turned 

out to be as easy as handcuffing a ghost."

http://www.politifact.com/rhode-island/statements/2011/nov/16/david-mellon/rhodeisland-corrections-union-president-david-mel/

Finn, Peter. Addressing Correctional Officer Stress: Programs and Strategies. (Dec 2000). 

Washington, DC: NIJ’s Office of Justice Programs/Issues and Practices. 

Addressing Correctional Officer Stress: Programs and Strategies is intended to help 

correctional administrators develop an effective program for preventing and treating

correctional officer stress. The publication describes a variety of approaches for relieving 

officer stress that correctional administrators can implement. 

https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/183474.pdf

Immarigeon, Russ. (January/February 2014). “Stress in the Correctional Workplace.” Criminal 

Justice Research Review. 

"Recently, a number of very good studies have appeared addressing the sources and impact 

of stress on correctional officers. In this issue, we’ll review the results of three noteworthy 

studies, on “role”-related stress, and on gender- and infectious disease-inspired fears among 

staff."

http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/94721158/stress-correctional-workplace
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 12

Morgan, William J. Correctional Officer Stress: A Review of the Literature 1977-2007. (2009)

American Jails 23/2: 33-34, 36-43. 

According to Camp, Gaes, Langan, and Saylor (2003); Finn (1998); and Inwald (1982), 

increased inmate violence, inmate crowding, inmate density, dangerous gang activity, 

physical setting, and lack of recognition of officer authority all intensify stress. [...] due to the 

traumatic experiences correctional officers face, substance abuse is often equated with 

posttraumatic stress disorder (Janik, 1995; Stock & Skultety, 1994).

Sam Houston State University. (Feb 20, 2014). “Correctional Officer Stress Studies: Conflicts 

between Work, Family Life Common.” Science Daily. Accessed 4/13/2016.

Conflicts between work and family life were the most significant issues that affect work 

stress and job satisfaction among correctional officers, a new study by the Correctional 

Management Institute of Texas at Sam Houston State University found. In a study of 441 

correctional officers from adult prisons in the South, the most significant work-home issues 

experienced by correctional officers were demands and tensions from work that impact 

their home life; an incompatibility between the officer's role at work and at home; and 

family circumstances that place strain on work experiences.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/02/140220112511.htm

Desert Waters Correctional Outreach 

Denhof, Michael D., and Caterina G. Spinaris. (2013). Depression, PTSD, and Comorbidity in United 

States Corrections Professionals: Prevalence and Impact on Health and Functioning. Florence, CO: 

Desert Waters Correctional Outreach. 

The purpose of this study was to estimate prevalence rates for depression, post-traumatic 

stress disorder (PTSD), and comorbid PTSD/depression in corrections professionals, and to 

explore the relationship between particular disorder conditions and a variety of variables 

including job type and numerous indices of health, well-being, and life functioning (e.g., 

number of doctor visits, number of absences from work, extent of substance use, 

satisfaction with life, job functioning, and other variables). A large number of continuous 

and dichotomous variables were also assessed for their ability to replicate diagnoses and 

classifications of PTSD, depression, and comorbid PTSD/depression coming from 

established clinical assessment and screening tools. Using a secure online application, a 

nationwide sample of corrections professionals (N=3599) completed the PTSD ChecklistCivilian Version (PCL-C), the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), the Impact on

Functioning Scale (IOFS), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Participants 

responded to additional questions indicating the degree to which they witnessed or 

experienced a variety of types of workplace violence, injury and death (VID) events and 

related emotions, and whether and/or the degree to which they experienced various healthrelated conditions, behaviors, and functional impairments. 

Results indicated rates of depression, PTSD, and comorbid PTSD/depression that far 

exceed general population rates. Males and individuals in security/custody roles 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 13

demonstrated the highest disorder rates. The condition of Comorbid PTSD/depression 

demonstrated a particularly strong relationship to worse outcomes and statuses on a large

number of variables reflecting health and functioning. Parsimonious sets of public domain 

assessment items were identified that offer promise as screening items for determining the 

prevalence of common disorder conditions in corrections professional populations. 

Implications are discussed in relation to the need for, and best focus of, systemic 

assessment and interventions in correctional environments and in regard to the need for

improvement of corrections employee health and functioning. 

http://desertwaters.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Comorbidity_Study_09-03-131.pdf

Denhof, Michael D., Caterina G. Spinaris, and Gregory R. Morton. (2014). Occupational Stressors in 

Corrections Organizations: Types, Effects, and Solutions. Florence, CO: Desert Waters Correctional 

Outreach. 

This paper presents an evidence-supported model and framework for the comprehensive 

understanding of occupational threats to corrections workplace health and functioning as 

well as a data-driven and evidence-based strategy for addressing them.

http://info.nicic.gov/nicrp/?q=system/files/028299.pdf

Spinaris, Caterina G., Michael D. Denhof, and Julie A. Kellaway. (2012). Post-traumatic Stress 

Disorder in United States Corrections Professionals: Prevalence and Impact on Health and 

Functioning. Florence, CO: Desert Waters Correctional Outreach. 

The purpose of this study was to estimate current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 

prevalence rates among United States’ corrections professionals, and explore indices of 

psychological, physical, and occupational status and functioning in relation to PTSD. Using a 

secure online application, a nationwide sample of corrections professionals (N=3599) 

completed the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C), the Depression, Anxiety, Stress 

Scale-21 (DASS-21), the Impact on Functioning Scale (IOFS), and the Satisfaction with Life 

Scale (SWLS). Participants responded to questions indicating the degree to which they 

witnessed or experienced incidents of workplace violence, injury and death (VID) and 

related emotions. Participants also responded to questions about health-related behaviors 

and conditions, and functioning. Results indicated an overall PTSD prevalence rate of 27% 

for symptoms experienced over the past 30 days. Analysis of subgroups indicated that 

males and security/custody personnel had significantly higher PTSD rates than females and 

non-security staff, respectively. In reference to the entire sample, PTSD-positive 

participants reported significantly 1) more exposure to workplace VID and negative VIDrelated emotions, 2) higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, 3) more absenteeism, 

health services utilization, health conditions, and substance use, and 4) lower levels of prohealth behaviors, life functioning, and life satisfaction. Implications and future areas of 

research are discussed. 

http://desertwaters.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/PTSD_Prev_in_Corrections_09-03-

131.pdf
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 14

Suicide: Other Law Enforcement

Badge of Life. A Study of Police Suicides in 2008-2015. 

Our 2012 study of police suicides was published in August, 2013, and one thing was 

evident: police suicides took a slight drop in 2012. We continue to be the first group to track 

police suicides on a scientific basis and this is the first reduction we have seen since we 

began monitoring them in 2008. This is encouraging news that we tentatively attribute to 

the increased number of departments adopting peer support programs and the increased 

willingness of officers, many of them younger, to seek professional assistance—not only 

when they have a problem, but before problems develop (through things like "mental health 

checks" done annually).

Bond, Mark. (March 17, 2014). “Silent Suffering: Warning Signs and Steps to Prevent Police Suicide.”

American Military University’s In Public Safety.

The police profession can no longer ignore the silent suffering of its officers. Post-traumatic 

stress disorder (PTSD) is real, and it is a lot more common among first responders than 

initial indications.

http://inpublicsafety.com/2014/03/silent-suffering-warning-signs-and-steps-to-preventpolice-suicide/

New Jersey Police Suicide Task Force Report. (2009). Trenton: New Jersey Police Suicide Task

Force.

Using the definition of a law enforcement officer adopted by this Task Force, there were 55 

suicides among this population between 2003 and 2007. Of these, 18 or nearly one-third 

involved law enforcement officers who were retired or on disability, and 16, or nearly thirty 

percent, were current or retired corrections officers. Three of the fifty-five suicides were 

part of “murder-suicide” incidents. All but two suicides were committed by males. There 

was no time trend, so it does not appear that law enforcement suicides increased or 

decreased during this five-year period. 

Summary: 1) The suicide rate among law enforcement officers is somewhat higher than that 

for similarly aged males in New Jersey. 2) There is no evidence that the suicide rate among 

law enforcement officers is increasing, and 3) Corrections officers appear to have a higher 

suicide rate than other law enforcement officers.

http://www.state.nj.us/lps/library/NJPoliceSuicideTaskForceReport-January-30-2009-

Final%28r2.3.09%29.pdf

“Police Officer Fatality Rates by State.” Governing – The States and Localities. (Accessed April 13, 

2016). 

Governing compiled fatality data from the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial 

Fund, along with the number of police and corrections employees working for state and 

local governments, as estimated in the Census Bureau's Annual Survey of Public 

Employment and Payroll. An analysis of fatality data showed states in the southeastern U.S. 

recorded the nation's highest per capita death rates. Not including states with less than a 

few thousand officers, Alabama, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Georgia, Arkansas and Louisiana 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 15

were found to have the most police deaths given their number of officers. About half of 

fatalities result from traffic accidents. Shootings also account for a high number of deaths, 

followed by falls and work-related illnesses. An interactive map provides fatality statistics 

by State, and does not include federal employees or designation of violent deaths as selfinflicted. 

http://www.governing.com/gov-data/law-enforcement-fatality-rates-by-state.html

Preliminary 2015 Law Enforcement Officer Fatality Report, National Law Enforcement Officers 

Memorial Fund. (Accessed April 13, 2016). 

This report does not mention suicide nor differentiate between law enforcement by police 

and correctional officers. 

https://www.leonearmiss.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Preliminary-2016-EOY-OfficerFatalities-Report.pdf

Tiesman, Hope M., et al. (2010). “Eleven Years of Occupational Mortality in Law Enforcement: The 

Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1992-2002.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine 53: 940-

949.

Results: During the 11-year period, 2,280 workers died from an occupational injury, for a 

fatality rate of 11.8 per 100,000 across all LEO occupations. Forty-seven percent were 

homicides (n = 1,072, rate 5.6 per 100,000), 36% transportation-related (n = 815, rate 4.2 

per 100,000), 11% were due to other causes (n = 249, rate 1.3 per 100,000), and 5% were 

workplace suicides (n = 122, rate 0.6 per 100,000). The proportion of fatalities by cause of 

death differed significantly between occupations (P < 0.0001). Sheriffs and bailiffs 

experience a high risk for occupational injury death compared to other law enforcement 

occupations. Of the transportation-related fatalities, LEOs were operating a motor-vehicle in 

58% of the incidents and 22% of the fatalities were struck by incidents. 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44689076_Eleven_Years_of_Occupational_Mortali

ty_in_Law_Enforcement_The_Census_of_Fatal_Occupational_Injuries_1992-2002
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 16

Prevention & Intervention Strategies for Corrections and LE Officers

Brower, Jaime. (July 2013). Correctional Officer Wellness and Safety Literature Review. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Justice OJP Diagnostic Center. 

"[F]ew studies have reviewed intervention programs designed to treat COs, or sought to 

assess the effectiveness of those programs ... As a result, this section ["Correctional Officer 

Wellness Programs and Their Effectiveness" pages 12-17] starts with a general discussion 

of the gaps in correctional wellness programming, as well as reviews of Employee 

Assistance and Peer Support programs commonly used in law enforcement, with a focus on 

lessons learned from research on these types of police programs. The review then examines 

the results from a handful of studies evaluating the impact of correctional wellness 

programs."

https://info.nicic.gov/virt/sites/info.nicic.gov.virt/files/09Correctional_Officer_Literature_Rev

iew.pdf

Breaking the Silence on Law Enforcement Suicides. (2014). IACP National Symposium on Law 

Enforcement Officer Suicide and Mental Health, 2014. 

According to statistics from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Law Enforcement

Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) data and survey results from the 2012 National Study on

Police Suicides, law enforcement officer deaths by suicide were twice as high as compared 

to traffic accidents and felonious assaults during 2012. This sobering data indicates that 

some law enforcement officers suffer from mental health issues and suicidal ideation and 

behavior, and too many officers are dying from it. Moreover, it suggests that mental health 

and well-being is integral to the continuum of officer safety and wellness, and critical to 

preventing officer suicide... While executives provide resources to ensure officer safety and 

physical fitness standards are met, such as through firearms training and physical fitness 

programs, what should executives be doing to ensure officers’ mental health wellness?

"The strategies outlined in this report are designed as a roadmap for police 

departments seeking to include officer mental wellness as a core element of officer safety 

and wellbeing and to mitigate the threat of officer death by suicide. These strategies are 

designed to prevent the destructive effects of emotional trauma, mental illness, and officer 

deaths by suicide on a police community; to successfully intervene when officers confront 

mental health crises, mental illness, or suicidal behavior; and, to provide effective event 

response protocols when an officer dies by suicide in an agency. It is time for a coordinated, 

national initiative on this all too-critical issue. It is time to integrate mental health and wellbeing into the mainstream officer safety and wellness continuum."

https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-p281-pub.pdf

Finney, Caitlin, et al. (2013). “Organizational Stressors Associated with Job Stress and Burnout in 

Correctional Officers: A Systematic Review.” BMC Public Health 13/1: 82-94.

In adult correctional facilities, correctional officers (COs) are responsible for the safety and 

security of the facility in addition to aiding in offender rehabilitation and preventing 

recidivism. COs experience higher rates of job stress and burnout that stem from 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 17

organizational stressors, leading to negative outcomes for not only the CO but the 

organization as well. Effective interventions could aim at targeting organizational stressors 

in order to reduce these negative outcomes as well as COs’ job stress and burnout. This 

paper fills a gap in the organizational stress literature among COs by systematically 

reviewing the relationship between organizational stressors and CO stress and burnout in 

adult correctional facilities. In doing so, the present review identifies areas that 

organizational interventions can target in order to reduce CO job stress and burnout.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564928/

Garbarino, Sergio, et al. (2013). “Association of Work-related Stress with Mental Health Problems in 

a Special Police Force Unit.” BMJ Open 3/7. 

The findings of this study suggest that work-related stress may play a role in the 

development of mental health problems in special unit police officers who experience threat 

of riot and other violence on an almost constant basis. 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717472/

Marchese, Joseph J. (2015) “Preventing Suicide in Correctional Officers: A View from the Line.” 

Corrections Today. 

“The fact is most people are not aware of the risk factors and warning signs for suicide. To 

be able to help, one first needs to know how to recognize when to help. For decades, 

correctional agencies have trained officers in suicide prevention for inmates. Staff are 

taught to screen inmates at admission, recognize risk and warning signs, report suicidal 

behaviors and intensively supervise potentially suicidal inmates. Having decreased the 

number of inmate suicides, and given the frequency of correctional employee suicides, it 

seems a logical best practice to apply the same training mandates to monitoring staff for 

suicidal behaviors.” [From Body of Article]

National Institute of Corrections. New Directions in Corrections: Staff Wellness: NIC's Second Virtual 

Conference, 2015. 

On June 10, 2015, the National Institute of Corrections (NIC) launched a national virtual 

conference on staff wellness titled “New Directions in Corrections: Staff Wellness.” Session 

topics will include using neuroscience to reduce stress, “healing corrections,” the 

organizational implications of boundary violations, creating a purpose-driven corrections 

career, corrections personnel suicide, and staff wellness. The cumulative effect of these cooccurring stressors upon corrections professionals and upon entire correctional workplace 

cultures is captured by the umbrella term and construct of “corrections fatigue.” Effects of 

corrections fatigue may be low staff morale, impaired job performance, individual health 

and functioning issues, problematic professional and personal relationships, and high staff 

turnover. Corrections fatigue includes a variety of facets, many interacting to affect staff 

negatively and envelop workplace culture in a self-reinforcing cycle that undermines health, 

functioning, and fulfillment. This microsite provides access to the eight presentations and 

links to additional resources.

https://nicic.gov/new-directions-corrections-staff-wellness-nics-second-virtual-conference
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 18

Preventing Law Enforcement Officer Suicide: A Compilation of Resources and Best Practices, 

Alexandria, VA: International Association of the Chiefs of Police. 

"This CD is a compilation of suicide prevention resources from leading agencies across the 

country. The purpose of this CD is to provide the law enforcement community with samples 

and resource materials to initiate a suicide prevention program." The following parts are 

contained on this CD: developing a suicide prevention program; sample suicide prevention 

materials; sample training materials; sample presentations; and sample funeral protocols. 

https://www.theiacp.org/resources/document/law-enforcement-suicide-prevention-andawareness

Tier Talk Podcast: Preventing Correctional Officer Suicide. correctionsone.com, 2015

In this week's episode, host Anthony Gangi and guest Michael Pittaro discuss correctional 

officer suicide and how to prevent it.

http://www.correctionsone.com/anthony-gangi/articles/17327187-Tier-Talk-PodcastPreventing-correctional-officer-suicide/

Weltman, Gershon, et al. (2014). “Police Department Personnel Stress Resilience Training: An 

Institutional Case Study.” Global Advances in Health and Medicine 3/2: 72-70. 

... Suicides in both the police and military now exceed deaths in the line of duty. Dr. Daniel 

Goldfarb, a respected psychologist specializing in police stress, states that a failure to get 

help is a major contributor to police suicide and other stress effects. The objective of this 

case study was to test the impact in law enforcement personnel of an innovative selfregulation and resilience building program delivered via an iPad app and personal 

mentoring. The Stress Resilience Training System (SRTS) app includes training on stress 

and its effects, HRV coherence biofeedback, a series of HeartMath self-regulation 

techniques, and HRV-controlled games. The stressful nature of law enforcement work is 

well established, and the need for meaningful and effective stress resilience training 

programs is becoming better understood, as it has been in the military. Law enforcement 

and military service share many stress-related features including psychological stressors 

connected with the mission, extended duty cycles, and exposure to horrific scenes of death 

and injury. San Diego Police Department personnel who participated in the study were 12 

sworn officers and 2 dispatchers, 10 men and 4 women. The SRTS intervention comprised 

an introductory 2-hour training session, 6 weeks of individualized learning and practice 

with the SRTS app, and four 1-hour telephone mentoring sessions by experienced 

HeartMath mentors spread over a four week period. Outcome measures were the Personal 

and Organizational Quality Assessment survey, the mentors' reports of their observations, 

and records of participants' comments from the mentoring sessions. The POQA results were 

overwhelmingly positive: All four main scales showed improvement; Emotional Vitality 

improved by 25% (P=.05) and Physical Stress improved by 24% (P=.01). Eight of the nine 

subscales showed improvement, with the Stress subscale, perhaps the key measure of the 

study, improving by approximately 40% (P=.06). Participant responses were also uniformly 

positive and enthusiastic. Individual participants praised the program and related 

improvements in both on-the-job performance and personal and familial situations. The 
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 19

results support the efficacy of the program to achieve its goal of building stress resilience 

and improving officer wellness by providing practical self-regulation skills for better 

management of emotional energy. We conclude that the SRTS program for building 

resilience and improving psychological wellness can be as effective for law enforcement as 

it is for military personnel. 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4010956/
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 20

Trends (e.g., related to higher rates of hiring ex-military / PTSD)

28th First Responder Suicide Highlights Stress Faced by Corrections Officers (July 16, 2015). 

Peterborough, Ontario: www.vanmeerfreepress.com

According to research into the prevalence of PTSD, jail guards have a higher prevalence rate 

than any other first responder. Savoia says 26% of CO’s will be diagnosed with PTSD at 

some point in their career. Fire services come in at roughly 16.5 percent, paramedics at 

about 22% and Police Officers between 10 and 12%. Savoia says CO’s are often overlooked.

Lisitsina, Dasha (2015). Prison Guards Can Never be Weak: The Hidden PTSD Crisis in American Jails. 

www.theguardian.com

Corrections officers suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder at more than double the rate 

of military veterans in the US, according to Caterina Spinaris, the leading professional in 

corrections-specific clinical research and founder of Desert Waters Correctional Outreach, a 

nonprofit based in Colorado.

https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/may/20/corrections-officers-ptsd-americanprisons

Hiring and Retention of State and Local Law Enforcement Officers, 2008 - Statistical Tables

In 2008, 19% of agencies employed about 7,500 full-time sworn personnel who were called 

to active military duty. These call-ups represented a decrease from 2003 when 23% of 

agencies had 11,400 officers called up. More than a third (36%) of agencies targeted 

applicants who possessed prior law enforcement experience for sworn positions, including 

about half of agencies employing 100 or more officers. Smaller percentages of agencies 

targeted applicants who were military veterans (17%), multilingual (16%), or 4-year 

college graduates (14%).

http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4514
Correctional Officer Suicide Page 21

In The News...

Massachusetts

High Suicide Rates Plague Massachusetts Correctional Officers. (Jan 3, 2016). By Shira 

Schoenberg, 

http://www.masslive.com/politics/index.ssf/2016/01/high_suicide_rates_plague_mass.html

Lawmakers Considering Bill to Study Corrections Officer Suicides (Dec 8, 2015) 

http://www.wcvb.com/news/lawmakers-considering-bill-to-study-correction-officersuicides/36863464. “Fourteen officers have taken their own lives in the last 5.5 years.”

Concerns Rise over Corrections Officers' Stress, Depression. DOC Working to Enhance 

Suicide Prevention Program. (Nov 19, 2015). Boston, MA. More than a dozen corrections officers 

have taken their lives over recent years. http://www.wcvb.com/news/concerns-rise-overcorrections-officers-stress-depression/36557958

Other

PTSD taking its toll on Canada's prison guards. (July 24, 2015) www.cbc.ca

One Canadian study estimated a quarter of all guards suffer from PTSD. As well, eight correctional 

officers have committed suicide in Canada since April of 2014.

http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ptsd-taking-its-toll-on-canada-s-prison-guards-1.3166791

Prison Officers Need Help, but they Won’t Ask for It. May 27, 2014. Newsweek. 

http://www.newsweek.com/2014/06/06/prison-officers-need-help-they-wont-ask-it-252439.html

Rate of Suicide among Corrections Officers Higher than Police. (Aug. 9, 2009). NJ.com. By Chris 

Megerian/Statehouse Bureau. 

https://www.nj.com/news/2009/08/rate_of_suicide_among_correcti.html

Suicide Epidemic Hits Corrections Officers. (Oct. 30, 2012). Pressconnects.com. By Kevin Johnson, 

http://desertwaters.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Suicide-Epidemic.pdf

Stress, the Correctional Officer’s Silent Killer. (Dec 2012) Corrections.com. By Carl ToersBijns. 

Based on NIJ’s report on Addressing Officer Stress (Finn, 2000). 

https://mindfulcorrections.org/stress-the-correctional-officers-silent-killer/