A Survey of Florida Springs to Determine Accessibility to Florida 

Manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris): Developing a 

Sustainable Thermal Network 

FINAL REPORT 

Grant No. EE0010030 

Submitted to the U.S. Marine Mammal Commission 

October 23, 2006 

Cynthia R. Taylor 

Wildlife Trust 

1601 3rd St. South, Suite F 

St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 USA 

941-232-4587 

taylor@wildlifetrust.org 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................... 3

LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................................ 4

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 5

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 5

METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................... 6

RESULTS...................................................................................................................................................... 9

WAKULLA SPRING...................................................................................................................................... 9

ST. MARKS RIVER RISE ............................................................................................................................ 11

MANATEE SPRING .................................................................................................................................... 13

FANNING SPRINGS .................................................................................................................................... 15

ICHETUCKNEE SPRINGS GROUP ................................................................................................................ 17

RAINBOW SPRINGS GROUP....................................................................................................................... 19

SILVER SPRINGS GROUP ........................................................................................................................... 21

BLUE SPRING NO. 1 (MARION COUNTY) ­ ................................................................................................ 25

SILVER GLEN SPRINGS ............................................................................................................................. 27

VOLUSIA BLUE SPRING ............................................................................................................................ 29

SALT SPRINGS .......................................................................................................................................... 30

DELEON SPRING ....................................................................................................................................... 32

KINGS BAY SPRINGS GROUP .................................................................................................................... 33

HOMOSASSA SPRINGS GROUP .................................................................................................................. 36

CHASSAHOWITZKA SPRINGS GROUP ........................................................................................................ 39

WEEKI WACHEE SPRING .......................................................................................................................... 41

JENKINS SPRING ....................................................................................................................................... 44

MUD SPRING ............................................................................................................................................ 45

SULPHUR SPRING...................................................................................................................................... 47

WARM MINERAL SPRING.......................................................................................................................... 49

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................... 54

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......................................................................................................................... 60

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 60

APPENDIX 1 .............................................................................................................................................. 65

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

2 
LIST OF FIGURES 

FIGURE 1. SPRINGS SURVEYED FROM OCTOBER 2005 THROUGH MAY 2006, CATEGORIZED BY MAGNITUDE. 9

FIGURE 2. WAKULLA SPRING AND RUN, INCLUDING SAMPLING LOCATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DATA. ... 11

............................................................................................................................................................ 12

FIGURE 3. ST. MARKS RIVER RISE AND ST. MARKS RIVER, WITH ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLING SITES NOTED.

FIGURE 4. MANATEE SPRING WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES AND MANATEE SIGHTING NOTED.......... 14

FIGURE 5. FANNING SPRINGS WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED. ................................................ 16

FIGURE 6. ICHETUCKNEE SPRINGS COMPLEX WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED (SPRING 

LOCATIONS FROM ROSENAU ET AL. 1977). .......................................................................................... 18

FIGURE 7. RAINBOW SPRINGS AND THE UPPER REACHES OF RAINBOW RIVER WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING

SITES NOTED. ....................................................................................................................................... 20

FIGURE 8. SILVER SPRINGS AND SILVER RIVER WITH ALL KNOWN SPRING LOCATIONS AND SAMPLING SITES 

NOTED.................................................................................................................................................. 23

FIGURE 9. ALGAE-COVERED FLORA AND FAUNA IN THE MAIN SPRING AT SILVER SPRINGS. ........................ 24

FIGURE 10. BLUE SPRING NO. 1 AND THE RODMAN RESERVOIR WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLE SITES NOTED.26

FIGURE 11. SILVER GLEN SPRINGS WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES MARKED. ..................................... 28

FIGURE 12. VOLUSIA BLUE SPRING WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED. ...................................... 30

FIGURE 13. SALT SPRINGS AND SALT RIVER WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED.......................... 31

FIGURE 14. DELEON SPRING WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED. ................................................. 33

FIGURE 15. CRYSTAL RIVER/KINGS BAY COMPLEX WITH 30 KNOWN SPRINGS MARKED (ROSENAU ET AL.

1977). LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES ARE NOTED. ........................................................................... 34

FIGURE 16. LOCATIONS AND APPROXIMATE NUMBERS OF MANATEES DOCUMENTED DURING 30 MONITORING 

DAYS FROM NOVEMBER 2005 THROUGH MARCH 2006 (TAYLOR ET AL. 2006).................................... 37

FIGURE 17. HOMOSASSA SPRINGS GROUP WITH SAMPLING SITES, REGULATORY ZONES, AND MANATEE 

SIGHTING FROM 08 FEBRUARY 2006 MARKED. .................................................................................... 38

FIGURE 18. CHASSAHOWITZKA HEADWATERS WITH SPRINGS AND SAMPLING SITES MARKED. ..................... 40

FIGURE 19. WEEKI WACHEE SPRINGS WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES MARKED................................. 42

FIGURE 20. KNOWN MANATEE AGGREGATION AREAS THROUGHOUT THE WEEKI WACHEE SYSTEM. ........... 43

FIGURE 21. JENKINS CREEK SPRING WITH LOCATIONS OF SPRING RUNS AND SAMPLING SITES NOTED.......... 44

FIGURE 22. MUD SPRING AND RIVER WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED..................................... 46

FIGURE 23. SULPHUR SPRINGS WITH LOCATIONS OF SAMPLING SITES NOTED............................................... 48

FIGURE 24. WARM MINERAL SPRINGS WITH SAMPLE SITE AND KNOWN MANATEE AGGREGATION AREAS

(PROVIDED BY L. KEITH, PERS. COMM.). .............................................................................................. 50

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

3 
LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE 1. FLORIDA SPRINGS SURVEYED FROM OCTOBER 2005 THROUGH MAY 2006. SPRING GROUPS ARE 

NOTED IN BOLD. ..................................................................................................................................... 8

TABLE 2. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF WAKULLA SPRINGS. ..................... 10

TABLE 3. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF ST. MARKS RIVER RISE. ............... 13

TABLE 4. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF MANATEE SPRING......................... 15

TABLE 5. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF FANNING SPRINGS. ....................... 17

TABLE 6. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF ICHETUCKNEE SPRINGS................. 19

TABLE 7. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF RAINBOW SPRINGS. ...................... 21

TABLE 8. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF SILVER SPRINGS............................ 24

TABLE 9. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF BLUE SPRING NO. 1. ..................... 26

TABLE 10. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF SILVER GLEN SPRINGS................ 28

TABLE 11. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF VOLUSIA BLUE SPRING............... 30

TABLE 12. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF SALT SPRINGS............................. 32

TABLE 13. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF DELEON SPRINGS. ....................... 33

TABLE 14. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF CRYSTAL RIVER.......................... 36

TABLE 15. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS. ................ 39

TABLE 16. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF CHASSAHOWITZKA SPRINGS. ...... 41

TABLE 17. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF WEEKI WACHEE SPRINGS. .......... 43

TABLE 18. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF JENKINS SPRING.......................... 45

TABLE 19. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF MUD SPRING............................... 47

TABLE 20. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF SULPHUR SPRINGS. ..................... 49

TABLE 21. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES SAMPLED DURING SURVEYS OF WARM MINERAL SPRINGS. ......... 50

TABLE 22. MANATEE ACCESSIBILITY ISSUES DOCUMENTED AT SPRINGS SURVEYED FROM NOVEMBER 2005

THROUGH MAY 2006. .......................................................................................................................... 51

TABLE 23. THREAT RANKINGS FOR SPRING SYSTEMS UTILIZED BY MANATEES (1 – LOW, 2 – MEDIUM, 3 –

HIGH). SPRINGS ARE DIVIDED INTO SUBPOPULATIONS AND PRIMARY SPRINGS ARE NOTED IN BOLD.... 52

TABLE 24. SPRING SYSTEMS LISTED BY KEY THREATS (REFER TO THREAT NUMBERS IN TABLE 23.), MANATEE

USE AND GEOGRAPHIC IMPORTANCE. ................................................................................................. 53

TABLE 25. RECOMMENDED PRIORITY ACTIONS FOR IMPROVING AND INCREASING NATURAL SPRING HABITAT

FOR FLORIDA MANATEES. .................................................................................................................... 59

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

4 
ABSTRACT 

Distribution of the endangered Florida manatee is largely determined by water 

temperature, due to limited tolerance to cold temperatures as the result of low metabolic 

rates and high thermal conductance. At least 60% of the population utilizes industrial 

outfalls, such as power plants, to survive the winter months. As power plants age and are 

decommissioned, the availability of industrial warm-water sites will be reduced, 

emphasizing the importance of natural warm-water springs to the manatee population. 

Many springs in Florida have been modified by the introduction of dams, weirs, 

increased siltation, and other obstructions that have limited or blocked access. A survey 

was conducted to characterize and evaluate selected springs throughout Florida for 

impediments to manatee usage and possible enhancement of the habitat to increase access 

for manatees. First and Second magnitude springs that are currently or have historically 

been important to manatees were surveyed for level of accessibility. Environmental 

variables, manatee use, and other habitat parameters were also documented. Thirteen of 

the 22 springs surveyed were determined that have limited accessibility. 

Recommendations are provided for restoration to increase the amount of suitable natural 

warm-water habitat available to Florida manatees. 

INTRODUCTION 

The endangered Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) is protected under the 

Endangered Species Act, the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and Florida state law 

(USFWS 2001). Limitations on the range of the manatee are largely determined by water 

temperature, and manatees are essentially confined to the waters of peninsular Florida 

during the winter months. A low metabolic rate and low thermal capacity make manatees 

susceptible to cold stress at temperatures less than approximately 20°C (Bossart 2001 and 

2002). They have learned to utilize man-made warm-water sources, such as power plant 

outfalls, where the abundance of warm water sustains them throughout the winter. 

Perhaps 60 percent of all Florida manatees now use warm water outfalls from 10 Florida 

power plants to survive cold winter periods (Laist and Reynolds 2005a). These warmwater sources will become less reliable, or disappear altogether, as power plants age and 

new technologies are established. The loss of warm-water habitat available to manatees 

may represent the greatest long-term threat to survival of the species (Rathbun and 

Wallace 2000; Laist and Reynolds 2005b). 

Other warm-water sources available to manatees in Florida are natural springs that 

maintain water temperatures averaging 21°C in north Florida and 24°C in central Florida. 

In order to prevent a decline in manatee numbers in the future, the proportion of manatees 

relying on springs for warm-water during winter will need to increase over time as manmade sources of warm-water become less prevalent. A substantial increase in the usage 

of some springs by manatees has already been documented, with an annual increase at 

Blue Spring in Volusia County of 7.9%, and an annual increase at Crystal River in Citrus 

County of 9.7%. Springs throughout Florida are threatened by the ever-increasing human 

population. Increased water usage and extensive land use changes negatively impact 

springs by reducing flow discharge, increasing nutrient loads, and degrading water 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

5 
quality. Increased use of springs by the public can result in bank erosion, siltation, 

changes in natural vegetation, and other negative impacts. Many springs and spring runs 

have been altered by the introduction of dams, weirs, and other man-made obstructions 

and modifications. Protection of springs is necessary to maintain water quality and to 

protect species that rely on spring systems, including the Florida manatee (Florida 

Springs Task Force Report 2000). 

The need to develop sustainable regional thermal networks for manatees as man-made 

warm-water sources become less reliable is a high priority Florida Manatee Recovery 

Plan task (USFWS 2001). Protection and restoration of Florida springs is also an area of 

great concern due to the extreme pressures on these unique habitats. Laist and Reynolds 

(2005b) suggest a study to assess past and potential manatee use of springs throughout 

Florida and to identify opportunities to remove barriers restricting manatee access. The 

overall goal of this project is to provide an assessment of spring accessibility for Florida 

manatees in order to facilitate increased availability of warm water and to establish 

sustainable regional thermal networks for the species. Specific objectives of this study 

include: 

• developing a list of springs in Florida which are currently or have the potential to 

be important warm-water manatee habitat; 

• conducting a survey of these springs to evaluate the accessibility of each spring to 

manatees, and the possibility of modifications that would enhance accessibility; 

• documenting environmental factors and manatee use at each spring; 

• developing a list of spring ownership to facilitate discussions regarding potential 

modifications and/or enhancement; 

• developing a comprehensive action plan for enhancement of natural spring 

accessibility throughout Florida to assist managers in the development of a 

sustainable thermal network for the Florida manatee. 

METHODOLOGY 

Staff utilized local knowledge of manatee distribution and habitat use and 

recommendations from the Florida Manatee Recovery Team Warm-Water Task Force 

(WWTF) and others to develop a comprehensive list of first and second magnitude 

springs which are currently or have the potential to be valuable habitat for the Florida 

manatee (Table 1). The flow-based classification system adapted from Meinzer (1927) 

defines a first magnitude spring as a spring with an average flow of 100 cubic feet per 

second (cfs) or greater, and a second magnitude spring is defined as a spring with an 

average flow of 10 cfs or greater. Two springs that are third magnitude (exhibiting an 

average flow of <10 cfs but >1 cfs) were surveyed due to a specific interest in those 

spring systems to current, historic, and potential manatee use (Figure 1). Staff surveyed 

each spring on the list by traveling to the site, characterizing and evaluating the springs 

and associated spring runs for impediments to manatee usage, and possible enhancement 

of the habitat to increase access for manatees. At each site springs, spring runs, and 

impediments to manatee access were documented, photographed, and evaluated for 

overall level of importance, level of accessibility (or inaccessibility), and level of 

difficulty of removal and/or enhancement. Water flow (using a Global Water FP101 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

6 
Global Flow Probe), temperature, salinity, and vegetation were documented at each site, 

along with a GPS location (using a Garmin Vista Cx GPS unit). Status of shoreline 

habitat and level of human use was recorded at each site. Surveys were conducted during 

warm and cold seasons, and when possible interviews with local spring users and 

residents were conducted to further assess current usage by manatees. Information on 

ownership/management of each spring was collected. 

Information collected during the surveys was used to develop a ranking of manateerelated threats for each spring system and to the manatees that use the system. Threats 

identified and addressed for each spring system include: reduced spring flow, increasing 

upland development near the spring, deteriorating water quality, high human use, lack of 

manatee protection regulations, lack of manatee accessibility, and degraded habitat 

quality. This is not a comprehensive list of threats, rather a list of threats that could be 

addressed on some level based on the results of this survey. Other major threats, such as 

land use practices within spring recharge basins that affect water quality, must be 

addressed but are beyond the scope of this project. Threats were given a ranking of 1 – 

low priority, 2 – medium priority, or 3 – high priority, for each surveyed spring. Some 

issues, such as reduced spring flow, are a high priority issue for all springs throughout 

Florida. However, the development of a Minimum Flows and Levels regime that took or 

is currently taking manatee needs into consideration would result in a lower priority 

ranking for that spring than a spring where no MFL exists. Similarly, while development 

within springsheds is a high priority issue throughout the state, the development threat in 

this assessment deals with the immediate vicinity of the spring, therefore springs located 

within state or federal park systems would receive a lower priority ranking for that threat. 

An overall threat rank was then developed for each spring, and springs were divided into 

primary and secondary priority groups based on rankings of the WWTF and current 

manatee use levels. Based on their movements and seasonal ranges, Florida manatees 

have been divided into four relatively discrete subpopulations for management purposes: 

the Atlantic, the Upper St. John’s River, the Northwest, and the Southwest (USFWS 

2001). Each spring was grouped by subpopulation and ranked by geographic importance 

based on the distance from the spring to the next closest primary natural warm-water site. 

The results of this assessment will provide managers with a prioritized list of issues to 

address for management and improvement of natural springs. 

Springs are categorized by the river system in which they are located. Most river systems 

contain numerous springs, many of which are not addressed in this report. This report 

focuses on the main springs identified by the WWTF as priority habitat for manatees. 

Naming conventions for springs in this report are taken from the Florida Bulletin No. 66 

“Springs of Florida” (Scott et al. 2003). Information collected during this survey will be 

provided to the Florida Manatee Recovery Team and the WWTF. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

7 
Table 1. Florida springs surveyed from October 2005 through May 2006. Spring groups are noted 

in bold. 

River System 

St. Marks River 

Suwannee River 

Sante Fe 

Withlacoochee 

Ocklawaha 

St. Johns River 

Crystal River 

Homosassa River 

Chassahowitzka 

River 

Weeki Wachee 

Hillsborough River 

Myakka River 

Spring 

Wakulla Springs 

St. Marks River Rise 

Manatee Springs 

 Fanning Spring 

Ichnetucknee Springs Group 

 Ichetucknee Head Spring 

Rainbow Springs Group 

 Rainbow No. 1 

Silver Springs Group 

Main Spring 

Blue Spring No. 1 (flooded) 

Silver Glen Springs 

Volusia Blue Spring 

 Salt Springs 

 Deleon Spring 

Kings Bay Springs Group 

 Tarpon Hole Spring 

Gator Hole 

 Three Sisters Spring 

Homosassa Springs Group 

Chassahowitzka Springs 

Group 

 Chassahowitzka Main Spring 

Weeki Wachee Spring 

 Jenkins Spring 

Mud Spring 

Sulphur Spring 

Warm Mineral Springs 

Magnitude 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

County 

Wakulla 

Leon 

Levy 

Levy 

 Columbia 

Columbia 

Marion

Marion 

Marion

Marion 

Marion 

Marion 

Volusia 

Marion

Volusia 

Citrus

Citrus

Citrus

Citrus 

Citrus 

Citrus

Citrus 

Hernando 

Hernando 

Hernando 

Hillsborough 

Sarasota 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

8 
A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

 9

Figure 1. Springs surveyed from October 2005 through May 2006, categorized by magnitude. 

RESULTS 

Wakulla River/St. Marks River System 

Wakulla Spring

Lat. 30.2352o N, Long. 84.3026o W. Wakulla Spring is a first magnitude spring with a 

roughly circular pool with a diameter of 325 ft and a depth of 125 ft. Average flow from 

the spring from 1907 – 1974 was 390 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). The spring run, the Wakulla 

River, flows 9 miles to the St. Marks River and through the St. Marks National Wildlife 

Refuge to the Gulf of Mexico. The spring is currently used by manatees in low numbers, 

mainly outside the winter months. The current known high manatee count at the spring is 

13, documented on 5/13/1996 (FWC – unpublished data). Little is known about 

historical use of Wakulla Spring and the Wakulla River. Rathbun et al. (1990) noted 

sightings by the public and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) of manatees in 

the Wakulla River during July of 1983 and August of 1985. The sightings included 

tagged manatees known to over-winter in the Crystal River area. Wakulla Spring is 

considered a secondary warm-water site by the WWTF (Appendix 1). 

Wakulla Springs is located within the Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park, which is 

owned and managed by the Department of Environmental (DEP) Protection Parks and 

S#

S#

S#

S#

S#

S#

S#

#S #S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S #S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

ATLANTIC 

OCEAN

Gulf of 

Mexico

FLORIDA

Wakulla Springs St. Marks River Rise

Ichetucknee 

Springs Group

Fanning Springs

Manatee Springs

Rainbow 

Springs Group

Kings Bay Springs Group

Homosassa Springs Group

Chassahowitzka Springs Group

Weeki Wachee Spring Jenkins Spring

Mud Spring

Silver Springs

Group

Salt Springs

Silver Glen Springs

Deleon Spring

Volusia Blue Spring

Blue Spring No. 1

Sulphur Spring

Warm Mineral Springs

S# Third Magnitude

S# Second Magnitude

#S First Magnitude

N

W E

S

Surveyed Springs
Recreation Division. Three miles of the Wakulla River, designated as an Outstanding 

Florida Waterway, are also located within the State Park boundaries, where no boating is 

allowed other than park-operated tour boat. Water quality at Wakulla Spring is becoming 

increasingly degraded, and there has also been a dramatic decrease in water clarity. As a result, 

from February 2005 through 1 December 2005, glass-bottom boat tours were provided on only 

three days due to a lack of visibility. Nitrate levels have increased, which are causing an increase 

in the amount of hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) and exotic algae in the spring. First documented 

at the spring in early 1997, Hydrilla is replacing native Vallisneria americana and eliminating the 

open areas of the spring, and algae are forming mats that smother natural aquatic vegetation 

(Florida Springs Task Force 2000). The state has purchased 3,000 acres of the spring recharge 

basin and used eminent domain to stop the planned development of a 25 acre tract near the spring 

(Florida Springs Task Force 2000). In addition, as part of the Florida Springs Initiative, septic 

tanks upstream of Wakulla Springs are being removed to further protect water quality in 

the spring. Visitor attendance has increased from 163,000 in 1992 to 184,000 in 2002, an 

11% increase over the last 11 years. The peak season at the Wakulla Springs State Park 

is from April to August when the weather is warm (Bonn and Bell 2003). While there are 

no manatee slow speed zones in Wakulla County, a large portion of the Wakulla River is 

a slow speed zone. 

Survey Results: Wakulla Spring was surveyed on 01 December 2005 and 18 April 2006. 

Manatees were not sighted during either visit. Water in the spring boil and upper reaches 

of the spring run was very dark on both visits. Abundant vegetation was documented at 

the spring boil including native and exotic aquatic vegetation. Hydrilla, Vallisneria, and 

algal mats were predominant. Depth within the portions of the spring run surveyed 

varied from 1 – 6 ft. The shoreline of the spring and first three miles of the spring run is 

undeveloped and forested. Human use of the spring during both visits was minimal and 

the boat tours were not operating due to dark water. Table 2 outlines the environmental 

data collected. Water temperature, flow and salinity measurements were taken at the 

spring boil and three miles downstream at the State Park Boundary (Figure 2). 

Table 2. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Wakulla Springs. 

Date Air temp Pool sampling site State Park Boundary Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

01 Dec 05 13.9 oC 21.1 oC 1.8 0.0 20.0 2.1 0.0 

18 April 06 25.6 oC 21.0 oC 1.6 0.0 21.0 2.1 0.0 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

10 
# 

# 

ll i

ll i

1 0 1 

# S 

N 

W E

Waku a Spr ng 

State Park Boundary 

Waku a R ver 

2 Miles 

Figure 2. Wakulla Spring and run, including sampling locations for environmental data. 

Accessibility Issues: Wakulla Springs does not appear to have any major accessibility 

issues at this time. The spring run is long and relatively shallow in some areas, which 

may deter, but not prevent, animals from using the spring. 

St. Marks River Rise 

Lat. 30.27605o N, Long. 84.14893oW. St. Marks River Rise is a first magnitude spring in 

Leon County, Florida with a pool that measures 315 ft east-west by 195 ft north-south 

and has a maximum depth of 62 ft. Flow measured on 18 December 2001 was 452 cfs 

(Scott et al. 2003). The St. Marks River flows from the spring approximately 15 miles to 

the Gulf of Mexico. The St. Marks River has been designated an Outstanding Florida 

Waterway. The Florida Department of Environmental Protections (DEP) Bureau of 

Protected Species Management (BPSM) conducted a two year aerial survey project in the 

area to better understand manatee abundance and distribution within the system. A high 

count of 16 manatees was noted on 27 June 1996. This spring, like Wakulla Spring, is 

frequented more in the spring and summer months. This spring and river are included 

with Wakulla Spring/River as a secondary warm-water site in the WWTF list of 

important manatee warm-water sites. Information on historical manatee use is lacking, 

however Hartman (1974) mentions a manatee in the lower reaches of the St. Marks River 

during the winter of 1969. Anecdotal winter sightings have occurred in the river near the 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

11 
town of St. Marks and in the warm-water discharge canal of the Purdom Power Plant 

(Bartodziej and Leslie 1998), which no longer discharges warm water. 

Survey Results: St. Marks River Rise was surveyed on 01 December 2005 and 19 April 

2006. The uplands surrounding the spring are privately owned and remain forested. 

However, the St. Marks watershed contains a large percentage of agricultural lands 

(Figure 3). Access to the spring is difficult, requiring a 6.5 mile boat trip up the St. 

Marks River. Abundant vegetation was noted in the spring pool and river, including 

exotics and native plants. Strapleaf Sagitarria (Sagittaria kurziana) and eelgrass 

(Vallisneria americana) were abundant, as well as pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata), 

Strap-leaf arrowhead (Sagitarria subulata), and wild rice (Zizania aquatica). 

# 

# l i

0 

N 

St. Marks River Rise 

Samp e S te #2 

0.8 0.8 1.6 Miles 

Figure 3. St. Marks River Rise and St. Marks River, with environmental sampling sites noted. 

Hydrilla and waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) were the most abundant exotic species 

noted in the pool and along the riverbank. Many other species of vegetation were present 

throughout the system, indicating that there are abundant food sources to sustain 

manatees in the river system. The Big Bend Seagrass Aquatic Preserve is found at the 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

12 
mouth of the St. Marks River in Apalachee Bay. Environmental data were collected at 

the spring pool and at a site on the river approximately 1 mile south of the pool (Table 3). 

Table 3. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of St. Marks River Rise. 

Date Air temp Pool sampling site Boat Ramp Sampling Site 

Water temp Flow Salinity Water temp Flow Salinity 

(oC) (ft/s) (ppt) (oC) (ft/s) (ppt) 

01 Dec 05 14.0 oC 20.5 oC 1.9 0.0 19.0 1.2 0.0 

19 April 06 25.0 oC 21.1 oC 1.7 0.0 20.5 0.9 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Depth along the St. Marks River is shallow in many areas (<3 ft), 

indicating a similar situation as seen at Wakulla Springs. Access to the spring requires 

traveling a long distance (15 miles from the Gulf of Mexico) over some shallow portions 

of the riverbed, which may deter manatees from traveling all the way to the spring pool. 

Suwannee River 

Manatee Spring 

Lat. 29.4957oN, Long. 82.9769oW. Manatee Spring is a first magnitude spring in Levy 

County with a pool that measures 60 ft by 75 ft and has a maximum depth of 25 ft. The 

short spring run flows south 1200 ft to the Suwannee River. Flow from the spring on 23 

October 2002 was recorded at 154 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). Increasing use of the spring by 

manatees has been documented in recent years. A high count of 32 manatees was 

documented by park staff in March 2001 (Langtimm et al. 2003). Bartram (1791) 

documented manatee use of the spring in the 1780’s. Powell and Rathbun (1984) suggest 

that Manatee Spring had been little used by manatees over the past century, but use began 

increasing in the 1970’s as small numbers of manatees utilized the spring as a temporary 

thermal refuge in the spring and fall. Park staff have been documenting manatee 

sightings since 1993, with an average of 43.3 sightings per month (many of which may 

be repeat sightings of the same animals). The peak number of sightings are documented 

from Dec - March each year. Photo-identification indicates that 21 individuals use the 

spring on a regular basis (Langtimm et al. 2003). Most of these individuals also use 

Crystal River and Homosassa Springs as warm-water refuges during the winter. There 

appears to be an increasing trend in manatee use of the spring which may be the result of 

expansion of the northwest Florida subpopulation (Langtimm et al. 2003). Manatee 

Spring is considered a secondary warm-water site by the WWTF, but the importance of 

the spring to manatees appears to be increasing. Manatees are most frequently sited just 

outside the spring run where it flows into the Suwannee River (Figure 4). 

Manatee Spring is part of the DEP Parks and Recreation system and is located within 

Manatee Spring State Park. The shoreline surrounding the spring pool and run is 

forested, with a recreation area for park visitors. Swimming is allowed in the spring pool, 

and the spring run is closed to all boating from 1 December through 31 March each 

winter. During the remainder of the year non-motorized boats are allowed in the spring 

run. Attendance at the spring for fiscal year 2004 was recorded at 129,661 (Farrell et al. 

2005). The Suwannee River is designated as an Outstanding Florida Waterway. The 

Suwannee River Water Management District (SRWMD) is in the process of developing 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

13 
minimum flows and levels for the Lower Suwannee River, including Manatee and 

Fanning Springs. Strong consideration was given to providing “acceptable refuge for 

manatees during cold months as well as for fish passage and wildlife habitat in general” 

(Farrell et al. 2005). They have recommended a minimum spring flow of 130 cfs during 

November – April to avoid adverse impact to the manatee refuge (Farrell et al. 2005). As 

part of the DEP Springs Initiative an effort to remove septic systems in the vicinity of 

Manatee Spring is underway. 

Survey Results: Manatee Spring was surveyed on 20 November 2005 and 15 March 

2006. No manatees were sighted during the November visit, but three manatees were 

documented on 15 March (Figure 4). The main type of vegetation noted within the 

spring run was filamentous algae, along with a small amount of Strapleaf Sagitarria 

(Sagitarria kurziana). Waterhyacinth was documented outside the run in the Suwannee 

River. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) conducted a 

vegetation study at Manatee Spring in 2002 to document the effects of manatee grazing 

(FWC – unpublished data). A record number of manatees foraging in the spring run 

during the winter of 2001-2002 removed most of the submerged aquatic vegetation 

(SAV), which allowed for the establishment of large blooms of algae. Algae blooms 

have been occurring in the run for the past five years. The water levels were extremely 

low during both visits. Depth at the mouth of the spring run ranged from 8-10 ft, but 

areas within the run were less than 3 ft in depth. Environmental data was collected at the 

spring pool and outside the spring run where manatees were documented (Table 4). 

# 

ing 

l li

# li i

# 

ighti

0 

N 

Manatee Spr

Poo Samp ng Site 

Suwannee River Samp ng S te 

# # 

Manatee S ngs 

15 March 2006 

0.2 0.2 0.4 Miles 

Figure 4. Manatee Spring with locations of sampling sites and manatee sighting noted. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

14 
Table 4. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Manatee Spring. 

Date Air temp Pool sampling site Suwannee River Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

20 Nov 05 21.0 oC 21.7 oC 1.4 0.0 20.0 0.8 0.0 

15 March 06 24.0 oC 21.4 oC 1.2 0.0 20.5 0.9 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Manatees have full access to the Suwannee River and the thermal 

plume generated by Manatee Spring. Manatees are less frequently sighted within the 

spring run and pool presumably due to a combination of shallow depths, lack of forage, 

and possibly current velocity (Langtimm et al. 2003). The importance of maintaining 

adequate spring flow to provide enough water for ingress/egress into the spring run is 

noted. Possible options for increasing manatee use of the spring run, where they would 

be fully protected from boat traffic, are removal of sediment in the spring run likely due 

to erosion at a boat ramp, and efforts to reduce the presence of algae and re-establish 

native grasses to provide more available forage. However, the apparent correlation 

between heavy manatee grazing and increased filamentous algae growth may make it 

difficult to sustain native grass beds within the run. 

Fanning Springs 

Lat. 29.5876oN, Long. 82.9353oW. Fanning Springs is a first magnitude spring in Levy 

County with a pool that measures 207 ft by 144 ft and has a maximum depth of 18 ft. 

While the spring is officially classified as a first magnitude spring, the average flow from 

1930-2001 was 97 cfs (Scott et al. 2003), which would place it in the second magnitude 

category. The spring run flows north and then west 450 ft to the Suwannee River (Figure 

5). The spring is currently used by small numbers of manatees, with a known high count 

of 8 manatees on 28 July 1999. Park staff have documented manatee sightings since 

1996, with an average of 11.4 sightings per month through 2004 (including repeat 

sightings of the same animals). According to park staff the peak period for manatee 

sightings is December – March. Very little information exists on historical use of this 

spring. Rathbun et al. (1990) documented the use of the spring by a tagged manatee on 

27 August 1985. Fanning Springs is listed as a secondary warm-water site by the 

WWTF. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

15 
Fanning Spring 

River Sample Site # # Pool Sample Site 

N 

W E

S 

0.1 0 0.1 0.2 Miles 

Figure 5. Fanning Springs with locations of sampling sites noted. 

Fanning Springs is located within Fanning Spring State Park and is managed by the DEP 

Division of Parks and Recreation. As part of the Florida Springs Initiative restoration 

efforts sediments have recently been removed from the spring. Attendance at 

the spring for fiscal year 2003/2004 was recorded at 249,565 (Farrell et al. 2005). 

Visitors can access the park via boat. Half-way up the idle speed spring run is a boat 

dock where visitors can secure their boats and visit the state park. Boat traffic is 

prohibited beyond the dock. The SRWMD is in the process of developing minimum 

flows and levels for the Lower Suwannee River, including Manatee and Fanning Springs. 

Strong consideration was given to providing “acceptable refuge for manatees during cold 

months as well as for fish passage and wildlife habitat in general” (Farrell et al. 2005). 

They have recommended a minimum Lower Suwannee River flow of 7,600 cfs during 

November – April, which will minimize “dark” (cold) water intrusion from the river and 

provide the minimum 5 ft depth to allow manatees access to the spring pool 85% of the 

time (Farrell et al. 2005). Fanning Springs has experienced a rise in nitrate values since 

1965 and now has one of the highest nitrate levels of all first magnitude springs in Florida 

(Farrell et al. 2005). 

Survey Results: Fanning Springs was surveyed on 20 November 2005 and 15 March 

2006. Manatees were not sighted during either visit. The most abundant vegetation 

documented in the spring pool and run was filamentous algae. Small patches of 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

16 
Vallisneria and Hydrilla were observed. SRWMD staff conducted planting of 

Vallisneria in 2002, with moderate numbers of plants surviving. Depth in the spring run 

ranges from 3-10 feet. The shoreline of the spring is partially forested, with one house 

and park facilities present. Environmental variables were collected at the spring pool and 

at the mouth of the spring run (Table 5). 

Table 5. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Fanning Springs. 

Date Air temp Pool sampling site Suwannee River Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

20 Nov 05 21.0 oC 22.6 oC 0.7 0.0 21.7 0.5 0.0 

15 March 06 24.0 oC 22.8 oC 0.5 0.0 22.1 0.6 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Fanning Springs does not currently have accessibility issues. 

Sediments have been removed, and the SRWMD MFL requires a future flow substantial 

enough to provide a water depth that allows access to manatees at least 85% of the time. 

Santa Fe River 

Very little data exists on manatee use of springs along the Santa Fe River. Surveys were 

conducted at one first magnitude spring in the region based on scattered anecdotal 

evidence of manatee sightings. As many as 60 named springs have been catalogued 

along the Santa Fe River after the river emerges from underground at the Santa Fe River 

Rise. 

Ichetucknee Springs Group – The Ichetucknee Springs group consists of nine named 

springs along the upper 2.5 mile stretch of the Ichetucknee River. The Ichetucknee Head 

Spring was surveyed for this report. 

Ichetucknee Head Spring: Lat. 29.9842oN, Long. 82.7619oW. This spring forms the 

head of the Ichetucknee River, with a spring pool that measures 102 ft by 87 ft. The 

maximum depth of the pool is 17 ft (Scott et al. 2003). The spring run, the Ichetucknee 

River, flows south-southwest 5.5 miles to the Santa Fe River. Discharge for the entire 

spring complex was 186 cfs on 3 October 2001 (Scott et al. 2003). Manatee sightings are 

rare, however park staff and residents occasionally report 1-2 manatees in the 

Ichetucknee River and the Santa Fe River. The most recent known sighting was of one 

manatee seen by park staff in March 2005. There is no historical data available on 

manatee use of the spring or river, however manatee fossils have been recovered along 

the Santa Fe River (Laist and Reynolds 2005a). FWC documented two perinatal manatee 

mortalities in 1999 and 2001 in Gilchrist County in the Suwannee River (FWC mortality 

database). These are the first documented mortalities in the county since the beginning of 

the mortality database in 1974, indicating that more manatees may be using these areas, 

including cow/calf pairs. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

17 
The upper portion of the Ichetucknee River (from the US 27 bridge) is part of the 

Ichetucknee Springs State Park, managed by DEP Parks and Recreation (Figure 6). The 

park encompasses the majority of all named springs on the river. The park experiences 

high levels of use during the summer months due to tubers, canoers, and swimmers, and 

the number of tubers is limited to 750 per day from Memorial Day through Labor Day. 

As part of the DEP Springs Initiative sediment and debris were removed from the pool to 

restore the spring to more natural depths. The Ichetucknee River has been designated an 

Outstanding Florida Waterway. Ichetucknee Springs State Park generates an estimated 

$22 million for the local economy each year (Florida Springs Task Force 2006). 

Ichetucknee Head Spring # 

(sample site) # Cedar Head Spring 

# Blue Hole Spring 

#Roaring Spring 

#Singing Spring 

Ichetucknee Springs 

State Park # Boilng Spring 

N # Grassy Hole Spring 

# Mill Pond Spring 

Ichetucknee River 

Coffee Spring# 

# Bridge Sampling Site 

1 0 1 Miles 

Figure 6. Ichetucknee Springs complex with locations of sampling sites noted (spring locations from 

Rosenau et al. 1977). 

Survey Results: Ichetucknee Head Spring was surveyed on 18 December 2005 and 18 

May 2006. Manatees were not sighted during either visit. Algae was the only aquatic 

vegetation noted in the spring pool, but further down the run there are abundant patches 

of Vallisneria, wild rice, and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes). As part of the Ichetucknee 

Springs Basin Working Group park volunteers remove the increasing amounts of water 

lettuce on the river in an effort to protect native Vallisneria and the ecology of the river. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

18 
The shoreline of the spring and the upper half of the river are heavily forested. The lower 

portions of the river are developed into residential properties. Figure 6 demonstrates that 

beyond the forested buffer of the state park the land has been intensively developed for 

agriculture and other purposes. Environmental data were collected at the spring pool and 

at the US 27 bridge approximately 3 miles downstream (Table 6). 

Table 6. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Ichetucknee Springs. 

Date Air temp Pool sampling site Bridge Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

18 Dec 05 16.0 oC 21.8 oC 0.3 0.0 21.7 0.7 0.0 

18 May 06 28.0 oC 21.9 oC 0.6 0.0 22.1 0.8 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: There are no known accessibility issues at this time. Manatees must 

travel 60 miles up the Suwannee River and 7 miles up the Santa Fe River to reach the 

Ichetucknee River. 

Withlacoochee River 

Rainbow Springs Group – The Rainbow Springs group forms the head of the Rainbow 

River. Eighteen named springs and numerous smaller seeps discharge along the first mile 

of the 5.7 mile river run to the Withlacoochee River. Flow from the entire complex is 

measured at a point 5 miles downstream from the headsprings. Average flow rates from 

1965 – 1974 were 763 cfs, and a measurement taken on 23 October 2001 was 634 cfs, 

making this a first magnitude spring system (Scott et al. 2003). Rainbow No. 1, the main 

headspring, was surveyed for this report. 

Rainbow No. 1: Lat. 29.1025oN, Long. 82.4375oW. Rainbow No. 1 forms the head of 

the Rainbow River (Figure 7). The spring pool measures 330 ft by 360 ft. Depth over 

the main vent is approximately 10 ft. The spring is currently not used by manatees. 

Historical data on manatee use is scarce. There is one report of a manatee in the Rainbow 

River from December 1976 (Powell and Rathbun 1984, Beeler and O’Shea 1988). The 

manatee would have traveled through the Inglis Lock on the Withlacoochee River to 

access Lake Rousseau. There was one gate/lock manatee mortality at the Inglis Lock on 

8 July 1986 (FWC mortality database). Manatee fossils have been recovered from the 

Withlacoochee River and Rainbow Springs (Laist and Reynolds 2005a). In addition, 

there is a Marion County ordinance (No. 88-7) establishing an idle speed zone on the 

Rainbow River due to “recent manatee sightings” (SWFWMD 2004). Rainbow Springs 

is not included on the WWTF list of important manatee warm-water sites. 

Rainbow Springs is located within the Rainbow Springs State Park, managed by the DEP 

Parks and Recreation Division. The Rainbow River is an Outstanding Florida Waterway, 

and was established as an aquatic preserve in 1986 (Florida Statute 258.39(32)). 

Rainbow Springs was designated a National Natural Landmark by the National Park 

Service in 1972. Since the 1940’s land use surrounding the spring and run have 

transitioned from mining and agriculture to residential (SWFWMD 2004). Water quality 

within the spring is considered good (Hand 2000), however nitrate levels have been 

increasing over the past fifty years (SWFWMD 2004). About 220,000 people visit the 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

19 
river annually (SWFWMD 2004). No motorized boats are allowed within the park 

boundaries, and there is an idle speed boating restriction for the entire length of the run. 

Survey Results: Rainbow Springs was surveyed on 14 January 2006 and 20 April 2006. 

Manatees were not sighted during either visit. Vegetation noted in the area of the spring 

pool included Hydrilla, pondweed, ludwigia (Ludwigia repens), southern naiad (Najas 

guadalupensis), coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum), Sagitarria and Vallisneria. 

Portions of the headspring consisted of bare, sandy substrate, presumably from the high 

human use within the swimming area. Further down the spring run large areas of 

Sagitarria and Vallisneria were present. In the lower reaches of the river near the 

convergence with the Withlacoochee River, large amounts of Hydrilla and Lyngbya algae 

were noted. During the visit on 14 January 2006 five swimmers and two canoes were 

observed. During the visit on 20 April 2006 40 swimmers and eight canoes/kayaks were 

noted. Depth within the headspring ranged from 5 ft to 25 ft. Depth of the spring run 

varied from 5 ft to 40 ft. Environmental data was collected at the headspring and at the 

confluence of the Rainbow and Withlacoochee Rivers (Table 7). 

Rai

# i ) 

i ) 

0 

N 

nbow River 

Rainbow No. 1 (sample s te

State park Boundary 

(sample s te

0.1 0.1 0.2 Miles 

Figure 7. Rainbow Springs and the upper reaches of Rainbow River with locations of sampling sites 

noted. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

20 
Table 7. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Rainbow Springs. 

Date Air temp Pool sampling site River mouth Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

14 Jan 06 16.0 oC 21.8 oC 1.3 0.0 20.5 0.6 0.0 

20 April 06 30.0 oC 22.9oC 1.5 0.0 20.9 0.8 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: The Rainbow River flows into the Withlacoochee River on the east 

side of Lake Rousseau. Lake Rousseau is formed by the Inglis Dam and Lock system on 

the Withlachochee River 11 miles upstream from the mouth of the river (SWFWMD 

2001). The Withlacoochee River was dammed in the 1920’s to provide electric power. 

The Inglis Lock, Dam, and Bypass Facilities were part of the Cross Florida Barge Canal 

project that was partially constructed in the 1960’s and later abandoned in the 1970’s 

(DEP 2005). The lock is currently not functional and has not been used since 1999, 

eliminating manatee access to the Rainbow River (DEP 2005). The structures are 

managed by the DEP Office of Greenways and Trails, and they are in the process of 

determining the future of the system. The options being considered are to repair the 

existing damaged lock, replace the lock with a smaller lock oriented toward recreational 

vessels, or close and fill the existing lock. If the lock is re-opened the possibility of 

manatee morality caused by the lock needs to be addressed. If the lock remains closed it 

will continue to limit access to Rainbow Springs. While there is a lack of historical 

information about manatee use of the spring, likely due to the long-term presence of the 

dam structure, Rainbow Springs is a valuable ecosystem with good habitat quality. It is 

unlikely that removal of the dam would occur in the foreseeable future, however further 

discussions about options for improving access to this system should be undertaken. 

Oklawaha River 

The Oklawaha River is the largest tributary of the St. Johns River, and flows from south 

to north approximately 110 miles, where it drains into the St. Johns River just north of 

Lake George. Approximately 20 miles of the river are part of the Oklawaha River 

Aquatic Preserve, established in 1989. In 1968, as part of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal 

project, the Rodman Reservoir was created with the construction of the Rodman Dam, 

Buckman Lock, and Eureka Dam structures, which flooded 15 miles of the original 

Oklawaha riverbed in Marion and Putnam Counties. As many as 20 known springs were 

inundated when the Rodman Reservoir was created. Additionally, the dam and lock 

structures limit access to Silver Springs on the Silver River. The Main Spring at Silver 

Springs and Blue Spring No. 1, the largest of the flooded springs, are covered in this 

report. 

Silver Springs Group – The Silver Springs Group, located in Marion County, forms the 

headwaters of the Silver River, which flows 5 miles eastward to the Ocklawaha River. 

There are many small springs and vents that flow within 3500 ft of the main spring (Scott 

et al. 2003; Osborn et al. 2006) (Figure 8). Flow from the entire group is measured 

together, with the average flow from 1932 – 1974 recorded as 820 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). 

Silver Springs is the largest inland spring in Florida (Florida Springs Task Force 2006). 

The Main Spring was surveyed for this report. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

21 
Main Spring: Lat. 29.2162oN, Long. 82.0526oW. Main Spring is the largest spring in the 

Silver Springs complex, with a pool that measures 300 ft by 185 ft. Depth over the vent 

opening is 33 ft (Scott et al. 2003). Information on manatee use of the spring system is 

scarce. Campbell (1976) noted reports of manatees in the Silver River from staff at the 

Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission. Beeler and O’Shea (1988) reported on 

sightings of manatees by the general public at the confluence of the Silver and 

Ocklawaha Rivers. Warr et al. (1994) reported that a former director of the Silver 

Springs Attraction observed two manatees in the Main Spring in July 1987. Silver 

Springs is not currently included on the WWTF list of important manatee warm-water 

sites. 

The Silver River and its springs are located within the Silver River State Park. The lower 

3 miles of the Silver River are part of the Oklawaha River Aquatic Preserve. Idle speed 

and no fishing restrictions have been established on the Silver River. A portion of the 

land around the headsprings is leased by the state to the Silver Springs Natures Theme 

Park. Silver Springs was Florida’s first tourist attraction, bringing visitors as early as 

1860 (Florida Springs Task Force 2006). The St. Johns River Water Management 

District (SJRWMD) documented that in one year visitors from outside Marion County 

spent over $61.4 million connected with Silver Springs, which generated over 1,060 jobs 

and $12.6 million in wages (Florida Springs Task Force 2006). Scientific publications 

discussing the springs began in 1908, providing a long-term baseline of environmental 

data. While the river and springs are surrounded by the buffer of the Silver River State 

Park, a major concern for the spring is land-use practices within the Silver River Basin. 

Marion County has established a spring protection zone around the spring in an effort to 

reduce nutrients and other chemicals entering the spring (Florida Spring Task Force 

2006). Water lettuce removal projects have been completed by Friends of the Silver 

River and the Silver River Basin Working Group. The Silver River Basin Working 

Group has sponsored applications to purchase lands adjacent to the springs to provide 

further protection (Florida Springs Task Force 2006). 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

22 
Silver Springs Natures Theme Park Silver River State Park 

Main Spring (sample site)

# Christmas Tree Garden of Eden Turtle Meadows 

# # # Mastodon Bone Turtle Nook Raccoon Island Timber # # # # # # # (sample site) # e

#

Geyser is

# d

Oscar Indian Cave ise 

a

No Name Cove el 

## 

n H

t

all

Ho

s Pa ' r

a

# Alligator Hol # d

# B e Shipwreck Jacobs W ell# lue Grotto ar

#A h

# ti

P

is

o

n

Catfish Reception Hall# # e

tf

Bridal Chamber s

Ca

B Devil's Kitchen n

n'

# m

e

lor 

me

er

nv Co

ar

sh

er

s P

h

i d F

s

h fis

Fi

e

o

di

n

Cat

La

rst

Sec

Fi

N 

0.06 0 0.06 0.12 Miles 

Figure 8. Silver Springs and Silver River with all known spring locations and sampling sites noted. 

Survey Results: Silver Spring was surveyed on 24 November 2005 and 17 May 2006. 

Manatees were not sighted during either visit. Abundant vegetation, including exotics 

and native SAV, was noted in the main spring. Vegetation in the main spring was 

covered with a layer of algae (Figure 9). Large patches of Vallisneria were present down 

the length of the Silver River, in addition to various types of shoreline vegetation (water 

lettuce, spatterdock, wild rice, etc.). Depth through the spring run varied from four feet 

to greater than 10 feet. The entire shoreline of the Silver River is heavily forested and 

undeveloped. Environmental data was collected at the Main Spring and near Timber 

Spring (Table 8.) 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

23 
Figure 9. Algae-covered flora and fauna in the Main Spring at Silver Springs. 

Table 8. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Silver Springs. 

Date Air temp Main Spring sampling site Timber Spring Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

24 Nov 05 16.0 oC 21.8 oC 1.3 0.0 20.5 0.6 0.0 

17 May 06 30.0 oC 22.9oC 1.5 0.0 20.9 0.8 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: The Silver River flows from Silver Springs eastward to the 

Oklawaha River, which flows north to the St. Johns River. The Oklawaha has been 

modified by the Rodman Reservoir. Three artificial structures are associated with the 

reservoir – the Rodman Dam, the H.H. Buckman Lock, and the Eureka Dam. The Eureka 

Dam was never completed and does not form an obstruction for manatees. The Rodman 

Dam blocks access from the lower Oklawaha River to the upper reaches of the river. 

Manatees have used the Buckman Locks as the only access from the St. Johns River to 

the Rodman Reservoir and ultimately the upper Oklawaha and Silver Rivers. 

Both the dam and lock systems have been responsible for manatee mortality. Turbulence 

in the water at the base of the dam creates a hydraulic effect which has been responsible 

for seven verified manatee deaths from 1974 – 1997 (FWC Manatee Mortality Database; 

Smith 1997). In August 1995 two manatee deaths documented 11 days apart resulting 

from the operation of the dam spillway gates caused the Bureau of Protected Species 

Management (BPSM) to recommend operational changes to reduce the risk of manatee 

mortality (Smith 1997). BPSM conducted a manatee aerial survey in January 1996 of the 

Silver River, Oklawaha River, and Rodman Reservoir. No manatees were observed 

during the survey. Due to the lack of manatees at known warm-water sites and the fact 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

24 
that the Buckman Lock was non-functional, it was determined that the likelihood of 

manatee injury from Rodman Dam was minimal (Smith 1997). Following this 

determination, a manatee carcass was verified but unrecovered just below the Rodman 

Dam in September 1998. 

Operation of the Buckman Lock resulted in two verified manatee mortalities in October 

1977 and June 1980 (FWRI Manatee Mortality Database; Smith 1997). Bubble screens 

were placed on the lock system to deter manatees from entering the lock. Buckman Lock 

was officially closed to the public on 8 December 1995, when it was determined that 

manatees were not using the Rodman Reservoir system (Kent 1997). Since that time the 

lock has been in operation intermittently. In February 1999 a third manatee gate/lock 

mortality was verified (FWC Manatee Mortality Database). In April 2000 the U. S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and DEP closed the lock structure for over two years 

while manatee protection devices were installed and repaired. In September 2003 a 

fourth manatee mortality was verified at the lock structure (FWC Manatee Mortality 

Database). Six additional undetermined manatee mortalities have been documented in 

the vicinity of the Buckman Locks and Rodman dam. 

Little information is available on historic manatee use of the unaltered Oklawaha River, 

with the exception of manatee fossils recovered from the area (Laist and Reynolds 

2005a). However, the availability of abundant vegetation, numerous warm-water sites, 

proximity to known warm water sites on the St. Johns River, and the high number of 

manatee deaths in the Rodman dam and lock structures indicate that manatees may have 

frequently used this system prior to alteration (Smith 1997; Campbell 1976; Lefebvre 

1993; Warr et al 1994). 

Restoration of the Oklawaha River is a controversial issue throughout the state of Florida. 

The Florida DEP, through the Office of Greenways and Trails, has management authority 

over the Cross-Florida Barge Canal system and has developed a restoration plan for the 

system. The plan would include closure of the Buckman Lock portion of the Barge Canal 

and removal of Rodman Dam to return the Oklawaha to its normal river bed and 

elevation (Smith 1997). The restoration plan would benefit the manatee population by 

eliminating the only known source of water control structure mortality in the St. Johns 

River system. Manatees would have full access to the restored Oklawaha River, the 

Silver River, Silver Springs, and as many as 20 springs along the Oklawaha that have 

been inundated by the Rodman Reservoir. With the increasing St. Johns River 

population and the dramatically increasing numbers of manatees using Volusia Blue 

Springs in the winter months, supplementary warm-water refuges will be needed in the 

St. Johns River system in the future. Additionally, the return of the Oklawaha River to its 

natural state will likely reduce the amount of exotic vegetation present in the reservoir 

and allow for the re-establishment of native submerged aquatic vegetation. 

Blue Spring No. 1 (Marion County) - Lat. 29.5142oN, Long. 81.8570oW. Blue Spring 

No. 1 is a third magnitude spring that has been inundated by the waters of the Rodman 

Reservoir (Figure 10). It is the largest of 20 springs flooded by the dam structure. The 

outline of the spring boil is still visible on the water’s surface, particularly during 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

25 
drawdowns of the reservoir. Discharge was measured at 10.6 cfs in October 1935 and 5.0 

cfs in May 1999 (Rosenau et al. 1977). The mean discharge is 7.8 cfs, resulting in a third 

magnitude designation. Prior to 1968 and the construction of the Rodman Dam, there 

was a spring run, Indian Creek, that flowed north to the Oklawaha River. 

N 

W E

S 

Canal to Buckman 

Lock 

Rodman Reservoir 

# 

Blue Spring No. 1

(sample site)

SW Corner of 

0 0.5 Miles Rodman Dam 

(sample site) 

Figure 10. Blue Spring No. 1 and the Rodman Reservoir with locations of sample sites noted. 

 Survey Results: Blue Spring No. 1 was surveyed on 7 January 2006 and 17 May 2006. 

Manatees were not sighted during either visit. A boil was barely visible on the surface of 

the water. Dead cypress trunks emerge from the water surrounding the former area of the 

spring pool and run. Abundant exotic vegetation, including Hydrilla and water lettuce, 

were present in the area. Depth throughout the area was greater than 10 feet. The 

shoreline surrounding the spring is undeveloped and much of the land is owned by the 

National Forest Service. Prior to flooding of the spring it was privately owned (Abbott 

1971). Environmental data were collected from the flooded spring boil and near the 

southwest corner of the Rodman Dam (Table 9). 

Table 9. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Blue Spring No. 1. 

Date Air temp Blue Spring sampling site Rodman Dam Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

07 Jan 06 16.0 oC 22.0 oC 0.31 0.0 18.6 0.1 0.0 

17 May 06 30.0 oC 22.9oC 1.5 0.0 20.9 0.8 0.0 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

26 
Accessibility Issues: See Silver Springs Accessibility Issues (p. 24) 

St. Johns River 

Silver Glen Springs – Lat. 29.2458oN, Long. 81.6447oW. Silver Glen Springs is a first 

magnitude spring in Marion County with a pool that measures 200 ft by 175 ft with a 

depth of 40 ft the spring vent (Scott et al. 2003). The spring run flows 0.8 miles east to 

Lake George on the St. Johns River. Average flow from 1931- 1972 measured 112 cfs 

(Scott et al. 2003). The spring is currently used by low numbers of manatees. The 

current high count is seven manatees documented in one day during a period of research 

from January through March 2003 (Pandion Systems 2003). Hartman included Silver 

Glen Springs as one of only six warm-water refugia mentioned in his 1974 report. He 

suggested that the spring was used by 2-3 animals during winter months. Beeler and 

O’Shea (1988) noted that Silver Glen was used as a thermal refuge by 1-5 manatees in 

early and late winter (USFWS 1981). They suggested that regular use of the spring may 

be restricted by shallow sandbars and high levels of boating activity. A boating carrying 

capacity study funded by the Florida Springs Initiative was conducted from January 

through March 2003 and researchers collected valuable manatee data. Twelve different 

manatees were observed utilizing the spring run from January through March 2003. They 

estimated that manatees were observed in the run 20-25% of the time from January – 

March 2004. Manatees were observed grazing on Vallisneria and resting in the deeper 

water areas and areas where boat traffic was less prevalent near the mouth of the spring 

run. The Forest Service concessionaire observed a manatee in the headspring in February 

2003. Silver Glen Springs is listed as a secondary warm-water site on the WWTF list. 

Silver Glen Springs is located within the U.S. Forest Service Silver Glen Spring 

Recreation Area. The south side of the run is privately owned by Juniper Hunt Club. 

The State of Florida owns the submerged aquatic lands of the spring and spring run. 

Silver Glen is noted by DEP as one of the few springs that has maintained good water 

quality and constant discharge over the years (SWFWMD 2004). Nearly all of the Silver 

Glen watershed is located within the Ocala National Forest and is protected from 

development and water extraction (Florida Springs Task Force 2000). However, DEP 

collected water samples from the mouth of the spring run in 2001 and found high total 

coliform levels on three occasions during busy weekends (Pandion Systems 2003). 

Human use of the spring run appears to be the biggest threat to this spring. A slow speed 

zone is in effect in the spring run and outside the run along a 1500 ft shoreline buffer 

within Lake George. 

Survey Results: Silver Glen Springs was surveyed on 17 December 2005 and 21 April 

2006. One manatee was sighted during the December visit (Figure 11). Very little 

human use was noted on 17 December 2006, but on 21 April 2006 25 swimmers were 

observed at the headspring and in excess of 30 boats and one floatplane were observed in 

the spring run. The dominant vegetation type observed in the spring run was Vallisneria. 

Other types of vegetation documented included water milfoils (Myriophyllum spp), 

Hydrilla, coontail (Ceratophyllum spp.), Sagittaria, and algae species. The spring pool 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

27 
consisted mainly of algae and bare sand, likely due to the amount of human disturbance. 

Hydrilla was mainly located near the mouth of the spring run. The depth of the spring 

run is relatively shallow, ranging from 1 – 6 ft. The shoreline of the spring and run are 

undeveloped and forested with the exception of the Recreation Area facilities. 

Environmental data was collected from the spring boil and at the mouth of the spring run 

in an area known to be utilized by manatees (Pandion Systems 2003). 

N 

# 

# 

Manatee sighting 

Spring Run 

(sample site) 

17 Dec 2005 

Lake George 

Silver Glen Springs 

#

(sample site) 

# 

0.06 0 0.06 0.12 Miles 

Figure 11. Silver Glen Springs with locations of sampling sites marked. 

Table 10. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Silver Glen Springs.

Date Air temp Pool sampling site Mouth of Spring Run Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

17 Dec 06 20.0 oC 23.0 oC 0.1 0.0 21.7 0.1 0.0 

21 April 06 27.0 oC 22.9oC 0.2 0.0 22.1 0.3 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Accessibility issues for Silver Glen Springs include a shallow spring 

run and large amounts of boat traffic utilizing a relatively small and shallow system. A 

carrying capacity study of the spring in 2003 provided recommendations for options to 

protect the spring ecosystem which included developing a boat mooring system, closing 

the spring run to all boat traffic, adding a boat mooring system with a seasonal closure of 

the run, and no action (Pandion Systems 2003). Currently no action has been taken. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

28 
Volusia Blue Spring – Lat. 28.9475oN, Long. 81.3396oW. Volusia Blue Spring is a first 

magnitude spring in Volusia County with a pool measuring 135 ft by 105 ft and a depth 

of 20 ft at the vent. There is a short spring run that flows 0.2 miles southwest to the St. 

Johns River (Figure 12). The long-term annual mean flow is 157 cfs (Rouhani et al. 

2005). The spring is currently used by large and increasing numbers of manatees each 

winter. This spring is probably the most highly studied spring in regards to manatee use 

other than the Crystal River complex on the west coast of Florida. Blue Springs State 

Park staff perform daily surveys each winter to document manatee use of the spring. The 

current high count is 190 manatees documented in February 2006 by park staff. 

Maximum daily manatee counts per season have increased at a relatively steady rate of 

about 7% since 1978. Smith et al. (2000) approximated the seasonal daily average 

number of manatees has tripled since the 1970s, indicating the importance of this habitat 

to the local manatee population. Bartram (1791) visited this spring in 1774 and failed to 

mention the occurrence of manatees. Moore (1951) mentions Blue Spring as a warmwater refuge for manatees, and Hartman (1974) included Blue Spring in his list of six 

natural warm-water refugia. Prior to the mid 1970s Blue Spring was a private recreation 

area with motorized boat traffic and a shoreline developed with homes and other 

structures. The area was established as a State Park in 1976 when efforts began to restore 

the natural conditions of the spring (Beeler and O’Shea 1988). Boats were prohibited 

from the spring run in 1979-1980 (Bengston 1981). Volusia Blue Springs is a primary 

warm-water site on the WWTF list. 

Volusia Blue Spring is located within the Blue Springs State Park, which is owned and 

managed by the DEP Parks and Recreation Division. No boat traffic is allowed in the 

spring run during the winter months. The St. Johns River outside the spring run is an idle 

speed zone. The SJRWMD is developing minimum flows and levels for Blue Spring that 

are designed to protect the use of the spring as a major warm-water refuge for manatees 

(Rouhani 2005). Adequate flow levels at Blue Springs are important for maintaining 

ample warm-water refuge due to the intrusion of colder St. Johns River water into the 

short spring run. Higher levels of spring discharge minimize the length of the cold-water 

intrusion into the spring run. SJRWMD has recommended a phased minimum flow 

regime for the spring that will provide a flow of 157 cfs by 2024 (Rouhani 2005). 

Survey Results: Volusia Blue Spring was surveyed on 19 December 2005 and 13 April 

2006. Over 50 manatees were observed on 19 December and no manatees were sighted 

on 13 April. The only vegetation noted in the spring pool and run was algae, however 

abundant vegetation for manatee foraging can be found nearby in the St. Johns River. 

Depth within the spring run varied from 2 ft to greater than 10 ft. The shoreline of the 

spring and run is undeveloped and forested with the exception of park facilities. 

Environmental data was collected in the spring pool and at the mouth of the spring run 

(Table 11). 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

29 
# 

# 

l l ings 

( i ) 

i

ite 

iver 

0 

N 

Vo usia B ue Spr

sample s te

Mouth of Spr ng Run 

sample s

St. Johns R

0.06 0.06 Miles 

Figure 12. Volusia Blue Spring with locations of sampling sites noted.

Table 11. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Volusia Blue Spring.

Date Air temp Spring sampling site Mouth of Run Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

19 Dec 06 17.0 oC 22.7 oC 0.8 0.0 19.2 0.4 0.0 

13 April 06 26.0 oC 22.9oC 0.6 0.0 22.1 0.6 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Volusia Blue Spring is fully accessible to manatees. 

Salt Springs – Lat. 29.3507oN, Long. 81.7328oW. Salt Springs is a second magnitude 

spring in Marion County with a pool that measures 129 ft by 189 ft and has a maximum 

depth of 20 ft over the spring vents (Figure 13). The north, west, and south sides of the 

spring pool are surrounded by a concrete wall. The annual mean discharge in 2001 was 

76.4 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). The spring run, Salt River, flows 4 miles southeast to Lake 

George. No systematic manatee surveys have been conducted at this spring, but based on 

sporadic sighting information manatee use of Salt Spring appears to have increased over 

the past decade, with as many as eleven animals documented in the spring run during the 

winter of 2005-2006 (sightings from the general public). Seven of the 11 manatees were 

photo-documented. One animal (“Clover”) catalogued in the Manatee Individual Photoidentification System (MIPS) is regularly seen at Salt Springs during the winter. Salt 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

30 
Springs is listed as a secondary warm-water site on the WWTF list of important manatee 

warm-water sites. 

Salt Springs is located within the Ocala National Forest’s Salt Springs Recreation Area 

which is managed by the U.S. Forest Service. Boats are not allowed in the spring pool 

but have full access to the spring run. Outside the mouth of the spring run Lake George 

has a 1500 ft slow speed buffer along the edge of the lake. 

# 

i

( i ) 

Sal i #

Salt Spr ngs 

sample s te

t R ver 

(sample site) 

Salt River 

Figure 13. Salt Springs and Salt River with locations of sampling sites noted. 

Survey Results: Surveys were conducted at Salt Springs on 17 December 2005 and 21 

April 2006. No manatees were sighted during either survey. Three boats were visible in 

the spring run on 17 December 2005, and on 21 April 2006 15 swimmers were noted at 

the headspring and 12 boats were visible in the spring run adjacent to the headspring. 

Abundant native and exotic vegetation was present in the spring pool and along the 

spring run, consisting mainly of Vallisneria and Hydrilla. Large amounts of algae were 

noted in the spring pool. Depth in the spring boil varied from 1 ft to 20 ft over the spring 

vents. Depths in the spring run varied greatly, with shallow areas less than 2 ft noted. 

Environmental parameters were collected at the spring pool and approximately 0.6 miles 

down the spring run. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

31 
Table 12. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Salt Springs. 

Date Air temp Spring sampling site Salt River Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

17 Dec 05 19.0 oC 23.0 oC 1.8 0.0 20.2 0.9 0.0 

21 April 06 26.0 oC 23.6oC 1.6 0.0 21.3 0.7 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: The only issue noted at Salt Springs that may provide a hindrance 

for manatee use is a shallow spring run. The depth may deter, but does not prevent, 

manatees from entering the system. 

Deleon Spring- Lat. 29.1343oN, Long. 81.3627oW. Deleon Spring is a second magnitude 

spring in Volusia County with a spring pool that measures 189 ft by 168 ft and has a 

maximum depth of 28 ft at the spring vent. The mean flow from 1929 – 2000 was 27.2 

cfs (Scott et al. 2003). The spring run flows 0.3 miles into Spring Garden Lake, which 

then flows 2.5 miles into Lake Woodruff. A concrete wall encircles the pool and the 

spring flows through a concrete weir and then down a 3 ft drop into the spring run 

(Figure 14). Until recently this spring system was documented as being used by small 

numbers of manatees during the cold season. Twenty-five manatees were documented in 

the spring run during the winter of 2006 by park staff, indicating increasing use of the 

system by manatees in the St. Johns River subpopulation. Historical information on 

manatee use of this spring system is scarce. Deleon Spring is listed as a secondary warmwater site on the WWTF list of important manatee warm-water areas. 

Deleon Spring is located within the Deleon Spring State Park, which is managed by the 

DEP Parks and Recreation Division. The lower portion of Spring Garden Creek is a slow 

speed zone, and Lake Woodruff has a variable width slow speed buffer along its 

shoreline. The remaining portion of Spring Garden Creek is unregulated and all types of 

boat traffic are allowed in the spring run. Swimmers are allowed in the spring pool. 

Deleon Spring is adjacent to the Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge and the lower 

reaches of Spring Garden Creek are included in the refuge. 

Survey Results: Deleon Spring was surveyed on 16 December 2005 and 21 April 2006. 

No manatees were sighted during either visit. Aquatic vegetation near the headspring in 

the spring run is found mainly along the shoreline, including waterhyacinth, water lettuce 

(Pistia stratiotes) and water pennywort (Hydrocotyle sp.). Small amounts of Vallisneria 

and Hydrilla were also noted. Large amounts of algae, presumably Lyngbya sp., covered 

the remaining areas investigated. Further down the spring run vegetation is abundant, 

including natant, emergent, and submerged vegetation. Waterhyacinth and Hydrilla were 

common, in addition to pickerel weed (Pontederia lanceolata) and pennywort. 

(Hydrocotyle sp.). Park staff commented that they have seen manatees using the spring 

run near the concrete weir every winter for many years. Depth within the spring run 

varied from 3 ft to greater than 10 ft. The shoreline surrounding the headspring has been 

developed into park facilities for visitors, including a restaurant. The majority of the 

spring run shoreline is undeveloped and forested, with the exception of the area at the 

junction of Spring Garden Creek and Spring Garden Lake. A boat ramp and numerous 

boat slips (20+) are present. Seven swimmers were observed in the spring pool and three 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

32 
boats were present in the spring run on 16 December, and on 21 April 2006 40 swimmers 

were observed in the spring pool and 5 canoes/kayaks were present in the spring run near 

the headspring. Environmental data were collected just outside the spring pool and 

approximately 300 ft downstream (Table 13). 

# 

l ings 

l i

# 

l i

0 

N 

De eon Spr

Samp e S te #1 

Samp e S te #2 

0.06 0.06 Miles 

Figure 14. Deleon Spring with locations of sampling sites noted.

Table 13. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Deleon Springs. 

Date Air temp Sampling site #1 Sampling Site #2 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

16 Dec 05 18.0 oC 22.4 oC 0.9 0.0 19.8 0.4 0.0 

21 April 06 26.0 oC 23.6oC 0.7 0.0 21.5 0.4 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: A concrete wall and weir prohibit manatee access to the spring pool, 

but the thermally-buffered spring run is fully accessible to manatees. The feasibility or 

potential of removing the concrete wall blocking the spring pool has not been 

investigated. 

Kings Bay Springs Group – This springs complex consists of over 30 known springs 

whose combined flow feeds Crystal River, which flows 7 miles northwest to the Gulf of 

Mexico (Figure 15). The system is tidally influenced and Kings Bay is brackish (Scott et 

al. 2003). The average discharge of the spring group from 1965 – 1977 is 975 cfs (Scott 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

33 
et al. 2003), making this a first magnitude spring system. This is likely the most studied 

spring system in regards to manatee use in the state of Florida. Moore (1951) located 

only a single report of manatees in the Crystal River area in the earliest review of species 

distribution throughout Florida. There is some evidence of prehistoric occurrence of 

manatees at Indian kill sites in the area (Powell and Rathbun 1984; Beeler and O’Shea 

1988). Hartman (1974) counted 38 manatees during his first surveys of the region in 

1967-68. The only specific springs mentioned in Beeler and O’Shea (1988) are Tarpon 

Hole Spring (aka Main Spring) and Magnolia Spring. Kochman (1983) suggested that 

manatees may be using Magnolia Spring as they flee disturbance from divers and 

snorkelers at the Main Spring. It has been suggested that increased exotic vegetation, 

along with the protection provided by abundant warm water, have contributed to 

increased use of Crystal River (Hartman 1974; Powell and Rathbun 1984; Beeler and 

O’Shea 1988; Rathbun et al 1990). Recent high counts for the entire complex are 310 

manatees on 13 February 2006 (Joyce Kleen, USFWS, pers. comm.). The number of 

manatees utilizing the system continues to grow. A long-term photo-identification 

project has been underway by USGS Sirenia Project to better understand manatee habitat 

use, movements, and population dynamics. Crystal River is listed as a primary warmwater site on the WWTF list. 

# 

# 

## #

# # # 

#

#

# 

# 

# 

# # 

### 

# 

# 

# # 

# 

# 

# 

# #

# # 

# 

i ing 

l i ) 

le 

l i ) 

le 

( le si ) 

0.3 0 

N Three S ster's Spr

(samp e s te

Gator Ho

(samp e s te

Tarpon Ho

samp te

0.3 Miles 

Figure 15. Crystal River/Kings Bay complex with 30 known springs marked (Rosenau et al. 1977). 

Locations of sampling sites are noted. 

The west side of Kings Bay and some of the islands within the bay are part of the Crystal 

River National Wildlife Refuge, established in 1983. Numerous no-entry zones are 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

34 
designated during winter months to protect manatees from harassment. Zones are located 

near Tarpon Hole Spring, Gator Hole, and Three Sisters Spring. Additionally, the entire 

area is regulated with slow or idle speed zones throughout the year, many of which are 

seasonal to provide additional protection for the increased winter manatee population. 

The Crystal River/Kings Bay system was designated as an Outstanding Florida Waterway 

in 1983 and in 1988 the Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD) 

designated Crystal River/Kings Bay as a priority water body for the Surface Water 

Improvement and Management Plan (SWFWMD 2001). SWFWMD is scheduled to 

perform a minimum flows and levels review in 2010. 

Development of the areas surrounding Kings Bay in the early 1960s resulted in the 

introduction of exotic aquatic vegetation into the system (SWFWMD 2001). Hydrilla 

was the first species to take hold in the system and alter the bay’s aquatic plant 

communities. Efforts to control the expansion of the plant throughout the region were 

unsuccessful until the significant influx of higher salinities during the 1993 “Storm of the 

Century” (SWFWMD 2001). At that time Lyngbya sp. and Eurasion water milfoil 

became the predominant species throughout the bay. Efforts to re-establish Vallisneria 

beds failed due to manatee grazing (Hauxwell et al 2003). 

Tarpon Hole Spring (aka Main or King Spring): Lat. 28.8818oN, 82.5948oW. Tarpon 

Hole Spring is located on the south side of Banana Island and is considered the main 

spring in Crystal River. The pool measures 450 ft by 550 ft and the depth over the spring 

vent is 58 ft. Large numbers of manatees use the no-entry zones adjacent to this spring 

and large numbers of snorkelers and divers favor this spring. Banana Island to the north 

is part of the Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge. Land to the south and east is 

privately owned and developed as residential houses and a resort/marina complex. 

Gator Hole (aka Magnolia Spring): Lat. 28.8888oN/Long. 82.5903oW. Gator Hole is 

located in a residential canal system on the east side of King’s Bay. The spring is located 

inside a no-entry zone from Nov. 15 through March 31, providing manatees complete 

protection from harassment. The boil is relatively small and depths are greater than 10 ft. 

Three Sisters Spring: Lat. 28.8887oN, 82.5892oW. Three Sisters Spring, also known as 

Middle Springs, is located up a small spring run in a residential canal system east of 

Gator Hole. There are three spring vents at the headspring, #1 located furthest east and # 

3 furthest to the west. Vent #2 is the largest vent located in the middle of the other two. 

Depths are greater than 20 ft in some areas. The numbers of manatees using Three 

Sisters has increased over the years, and there is now a no-entry zone at the mouth of the 

spring run where manatees can rest in the thermal refuge without harassment. However, 

manatees that swim up the run into the headsprings are not protected from harassment, as 

there are no regulations in place in the run or headsprings. Over 50 manatees per day 

were observed at the site during the winter of 2005-2006. Manatees are most frequently 

seen in the no-entry zone, with many animals moving in and out of the area throughout 

the day. Manatees were documented utilizing the spring run and headsprings only when 

the water levels were elevated. Shallow water depths in the spring run due to the 

presence of submerged rocks and boulders limit access on low tides, and the velocity of 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

35 
water coming out of the run may be a deterrent. The land surrounding the spring is 

currently forested and privately owned with one dock present in the headsprings. Despite 

federal efforts to buy the land surrounding the spring it was recently sold to a private 

developer who is planning to build a residential community on the land. 

Survey Results: Crystal River was surveyed on 29 November 2005 and 15 March 2006. 

Over 50 manatees were seen throughout the spring system during both visits. The 

overwhelming majority of vegetation observed at all three springs was the filamentous 

blue-green algae Lyngbya sp. Between the springs Eurasion water milfoil was the most 

documented vegetation. Depth varied widely throughout the bay. The only area where 

depth was considered a deterrent to manatees was in the spring run at Three Sisters 

Spring, where access at the mouth of the run was less than 2 ft at low tide. Human use of 

the areas adjacent to the two springs accessible to the public was noted during each visit. 

On 29 November 2005 four dive boats were observed at Tarpon Hole Spring, with over 

20 snorkelers/divers in the water. Three dive boats and 12 snorkelers were observed at 

Three Sister’s Spring. On 15 March 2006 six dive boats and two small fishing vessels 

were observed at Tarpon Hole Spring with over thirty people in the water, and three dive 

boats, three small recreational vessels, and 25 snorkelers were observed in the very small 

area outside the Three Sisters manatee sanctuary. Environmental data were collected at 

numerous sites through the system (Figure 15; Table 14). 

Table 14. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Crystal River. 

Site 29 November 2005 15 March 2006 

Water temp Flow Salinity Water temp Flow Salinity 

(oC) (ft/s) (ppt) (oC) (ft/s) (ppt) 

Tarpon Hole Pool 21.4 0.7 0.0 21.9 0.4 0.0 

Gator Hole Pool 21.6 0.2 0.0 21.4 0.4 0.0 

Three Sisters Vent #3 21.1 2.1 0.0 21.2 1.8 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: The Crystal River Springs complex is fully accessible to manatees. 

The only area of concern is the spring run at Three Sisters Spring, were large submerged 

rocks deposited in the spring run result in difficult passage during low tides. In 

conjunction with flow velocity this deters manatees from entering the system unless 

water levels are very high. 

Homosassa Springs Group – Lat. 28.7991oN, Long. 82.5885oW. The Homosassa Springs 

Group consists of three vents (Homosassa Springs Nos. 1,2, and 3) at the headwaters of 

the Homosassa River. For the purposes of this report the group was surveyed as a whole. 

The Homosassa Springs Group is a first magnitude spring in Citrus County with a pool 

that measures 189 ft by 285 ft with an average depth above the vents of 65 ft. The 

average spring flow from 1931- 1974 was 106 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). The Homosassa 

River flows west from the spring pool 6 miles to the Gulf of Mexico. Manatee use of the 

Homosassa Springs system has increased dramatically since surveys began in the late 

1960s (Beeler and O’Shea 1988). Powell and Rathbun (1984) noted one record of a 

manatee in the Homosassa River from 1879. Hartman (1974) surveyed manatees in the 

spring system from 1967 – 1974 and documented a range of 8-17 manatees. He included 

Homosassa Springs in his list of six natural warm-water refugia being used by manatees 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

36 
in the late 1960s. Powell and Rathbun (1984) documented that 65% of aerial survey 

sightings in the Homosassa River during the winter months were near the headwaters in 

an area referred to as Blue Waters. Within the Blue Waters system they noted that 

manatees preferred deeper water areas and boat channels. The most recent high count for 

the area was 127 manatees on 18 December 2003 (J. Kleen, USFWS, pers. comm.). A 

study underway by USGS and Wildlife Trust is monitoring manatee use of the spring run 

prior to and following a dredge operation to deepen the spring run. Manatee distribution 

within the spring run has been documented during the pre-dredging phase of the project 

(Figure 16; Taylor et al. 2006). A long-term USGS photo-identification project has been 

underway at the spring and provides information on manatee use and warm-water site 

fidelity. Homosassa Springs is listed as a primary warm-water site by the WWTF. 

0.1 0 0.1 0.2 Miles 

## 

# 

Bridge 

# # # # 

# # # # 

# # # # # 

# 

#

# # ##

# # 

## ### ##

## # ## # # 

# 

# # ## # ### # # ## ## # # ## # # #

# # #

## # ## ## # ##

### # #

# ## 

# # # # # 

# # # # # # # # # # ## # # # # ## # #

# #### #

# 

# # # 

# ### # #

### ## # # # # ## ### 

###

#

# # # 

## # ## 

Southern Sanctuary ## # # 

N 

W E 

S 

# 

Northern Sanctuary 

Manatee Locations Nov 2005 - March 2006 

# 1 - 2 

# 3 - 4 

# 5 - 9 

# 10 - 18 

# 19 - 25 

Figure 16. Locations and approximate numbers of manatees documented during 30 monitoring days 

from November 2005 through March 2006 (Taylor et al. 2006). 

Homosassa Springs is located within the Homosassa Springs State Wildlife Park 

(HSSWP), managed by the DEP Division of Parks and Recreation. The area is developed 

into a nature park and interpretive center, with a floating observation deck in the spring 

pool. HSSWP had over 266,000 visitors in 2002, with a peak in attendance from 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

37 
February through April (Bonn and Bell 2003). Approximately 1000 ft downstream of the 

pool a fence crosses the entire spring run, which keeps captive manatees within the spring 

pool and wild manatees out of the area (Figure 17). No swimming is allowed within the 

spring pool. From November 15 – April 1 each year two no-entry zones are established 

in the Blue Waters area to provide manatees warm-water refuge without harassment by 

boaters and swimmers. The entire length of the Homosassa River has slow and idle 

speed regulations in place, many of which were established to provide protection for 

manatees. The Blue Waters area of the river is idle speed year-round. 

Homosassa Springs 

State Wildlife Park 

Fence Manatee Sightings 8 Feb 2006 

# 0 - 1 Year-round 

no-entry zone # 2 - 3 

# 4 - 6 No-entry # # 7 - 13 Blue Waters Nov 15 - Mar 31 Homosassa Springs No. 1,2,&3 

(sample site) # 14 - 25 sample site # # # # ### # # # # N 

# # # 

E No-entry # # W 

Nov 15 - Mar 31 # # 

S 

0.03 0 0.03 0.06 Miles 

Figure 17. Homosassa Springs Group with sampling sites, regulatory zones, and manatee sighting 

from 08 February 2006 marked. 

Survey Results: Homosassa Springs was surveyed on 22 November 2005 and 08 

February 2006. No manatees were observed on 22 November, but 89 manatees were 

documented in the immediate Blue Waters area on 08 February. Vegetation in the area 

consists almost exclusively of Lyngbya algae. Manatees must travel further down the 

Homosassa River, where vegetation is abundant, to locate forage. Depth within the main 

no-entry zone was extremely shallow, with areas 1 ft deep during low tide. Depth 

throughout region varied from 1 ft to greater than 10 ft. Levels of human use of the Blue 

Waters area can be high. On 22 November, prior to the arrival of large numbers of 

manatees, 1 small fishing boat was observed. On 08 February, during the height of the 

cold season, 15 boats and 31 swimmers were documented in the relatively small Blue 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

38 
Waters area outside the no-entry sanctuaries. Portions of the uplands along the 

Homosassa River consist of forests and natural marshes, but there are many privately 

owned residential properties further west on the spring run. Environmental variables 

were collected at the spring pool and at the edge of the manatee sanctuary (Table 15). 

Table 15. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Homosassa Springs. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Blue Waters Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

2 Nov 05 25.0 oC 23.1 1.3 0.0 23.0 0.9 0.0 

08 Feb 06 10.0 oC 22.5 1.1 0.0 22.1 0.7 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Homosassa Springs currently has two manatee accessibility issues. 

The area within the main no-entry zone is so shallow that manatees are rarely seen within 

the zone, defeating the purpose of the manatee protection rule. Dredging of the spring 

run to deepen these areas began in August 2006 by the Army Corps of Engineers and will 

be completed prior to the winter of 2006-2007. USGS and Wildlife Trust will be 

documenting how the dredging action affects manatee use of and distribution throughout 

Blue Waters. The second limit to manatee accessibility is the fence that currently blocks 

approximately 1000 ft of the spring pool and run from use by wild manatees. The 

volume of warm water unavailable to wild manatees due to the fence blockage is a 

concern. It is recommended that the fence be removed to provide wild manatees full 

access to this primary WWTF warm-water site. 

Chassahowitzka Springs Group – The Chassahowitzka Springs Group forms the 

headwaters of the Chassahowitzka River, which flows west 9.7 km to the Gulf of 

Mexico. As many as five springs flow into the upper portion of the river and many more 

springs are known to flow into the lower portion (Rosenau et al. 1977). Average flow 

from 1930 – 1972 was 138.5 cfs (Scott et al. 2003), making the springs group a first 

magnitude spring. The entire river system is tidally influenced and relatively shallow 

with a mean depth of 0.9 m (Notestein et al. 2003). Three miles downstream from the 

headwaters the river becomes part of the Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge. The 

Chassahowitzka River is an Outstanding Florida Waterway. The SWFWMD has 

acquired land to form the Chassahowitzka Riverine Swamp Sanctuary, which includes 

the headwaters of the river. Local, state and federally protected lands now cover over 

60,000 acres in the Chassahowitzka region (SWFWMD 2006). The Chassahowitzka 

Main Spring was surveyed for this report. 

Chassahowitzka Main Spring: Lat. 28.7156oN, Long. 82.5762oW. The Chassahowitzka 

Main Spring is 360 ft northeast of a boat ramp operated by Citrus County that provides 

access to the Chassahowitzka River (Figure 18). The spring pool measures 147 ft by 135 

ft with a depth over the vent of 13 ft (Scott et al. 2003). Like other natural warm-water 

sources along the central Gulf coast, manatee use of this system has increased over the 

past couple of decades. Beeler and O’Shea (1988) indicated that the headwaters of the 

river were not easily accessible to manatees and that they were generally absent during 

the winter (Hartman 1974). Powell and Rathbun (1984) documented single sightings in 

the headwaters during the winters of 1978 and 1979. Small numbers of manatees have 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

39 
been documented at the Main Spring during synoptic aerial surveys (J. Kleen, USFWS, 

pers. comm.). However, the Chassahowitzka area has traditionally been considered 

summer habitat for manatees and has not been systematically surveyed during the winter 

months. The current high count for the headwaters and river are 48 manatees 

documented during an aerial survey on 7 May 1996 (J. Kleen, USFWS, pers. comm.). 

The Chassahowitzka River is not included on the WWTF list of important manatee 

warm-water sites. 

0.04 0 0.04 Miles 

# Crab Creek Springs 

Mouth of Crab Creek 

sample site Chassahowitzka No. 1 

# # 

# Chassahowitzka Main Spring 

(sample site) 

N 

Figure 18. Chassahowitzka headwaters with springs and sampling sites marked. 

The Main Spring is located within the SWFWMD Riverine Sanctuary and is adjacent to 

the Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge, the Withlacoochee State Forest and the 

Chassahowitzka Wildlife Management Area. The spring is in the center of the river run, 

therefore swimming is not allowed due to boat traffic. The lower two-thirds of the 

Chassahowitzka River is a slow speed zone from 1 April through 31 August, with a 25 

mph speed zone the rest of the year. 

Survey Results: Chassahowitzka Spring was surveyed on 08 February 2006 and 16 May 

2006. No manatees were sighted during either visit. Abundant vegetation is present 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

40 
throughout the spring run including native and exotic species. Vegetation observed 

included Vallisneria, Hydrilla, pondweed, southern naiad, Eurasian water milfoil, and 

filamentous green and blue-green algae. Uplands to the north, west, and southwest of the 

spring pool are undeveloped and consist of marsh and forest. There is a residential 

housing development to the east and south of the spring. Depth within the spring run 

varied from 1 ft to 6 ft. Human use of the river was low on both survey days, with two 

kayaks and two small fishing boats on 08 February and three kayaks on 16 May. 

Environmental data were colleted from the spring pool and the mouth of Crab Creek 

(Table 16). 

Table 16. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Chassahowitzka Springs. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Blue Waters Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

8 Feb 06 10.0 oC 22.9 0.3 0.0 23.0 0.9 0.0 

16 May 06 29.0 oC 23.1 0.2 0.0 22.1 0.7 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Low water during the winter months results in extremely shallow 

water in the spring run. This likely prevents most manatees from accessing the river 

during the cold season. 

Weeki Wachee Spring – Lat. 28.5172oN, Long. 82.5732oW. Weeki Wachee Spring is a 

first magnitude spring in Hernando County with a spring pool that measures 165 ft by 

210 ft and has a maximum depth of 45 ft over the spring vent. Average flow from 1917 – 

1974 was 176 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). The spring run, the Weeki Wachee River, flows 5 

miles west to the Gulf of Mexico. The spring pool and adjacent areas have been 

extensively developed into a tourist attraction that conducts underwater mermaid shows 

(Figure 19). Manatee use of the spring has not been systematically surveyed, but appears 

to be increasing. Hartman (1974) commented that manatees were never seen in the 

shallow Weeki Wachee River. Due to the high level of development along the shoreline 

of the river, manatee sightings from the general public are now frequent. A high count of 

22 manatees were documented in the river system on 1 March 1999 (FWC – unpublished 

data). Staff at the Weeki Wachee Theme Park observe small numbers of manatees in the 

spring pool during the winter months. An informal photo-identification project has 

resulted in at least one manatee sighting in the Weeki Wachee River system during each 

visit throughout the winter and spring months. While the first magnitude Weeki Wachee 

spring is likely the largest attractant for manatees in this region, there are a number of 

smaller springs and seeps that are known to draw manatees. Known aggregation areas 

are depicted in Figure 20. Jenkins Creek Spring and Mud Spring were also surveyed for 

this report. The Weeki Wachee/Mud Spring/Jenkins Creek Spring complex is included 

as a primary warm-water site on the WWTF list of “Important Manatee Warm-Water 

Sites”. 

Weeki Wachee Spring is owned by the SWFWMD and is leased to the City of Weeki 

Wachee, who manages the Weeki Wachee Attraction, through 2033. The relationship 

between SWFWMD and the attraction managers is tenuous and the lease agreement is 

currently under review. Buccaneer Bay, a water park developed along the banks of the 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

41 
spring boil, is open to the public from March through September each year. Downstream 

of the spring pool the Weeki Wachee River is highly developed into residential 

properties, including canal systems with concrete seawalls. Portions of the south 

shoreline of the run still remain forested and are located within the SWFWMD 

Weekiwachee Preserve. A portion of the river is on the southern boundary of the 

Chassahowitzka Wildlife Management Area. The river is idle speed/no wake east of 

Roger’s Park five miles downstream from the spring pool. The SWFWMD is currently 

investigating removal of sediment in the upper reaches of the river and planting native 

aquatic grasses to re-establish healthy beds. Removal of sediment and planting of native 

grasses is expected to begin in Summer 2007. 

. 

# i

i i

# 

Ri

0 

N 

W E

S 

Weeki Wachee Spr ngs 

(sample site) 

Week Wachee R ver 

ver sample site 

0.05 0.05 0.1 Miles 

Figure 19. Weeki Wachee Springs with locations of sampling sites marked. 

Survey Results: Weeki Wachee Spring was surveyed on 14 January 2006 and 16 May 

2006. One manatee was sighted on 14 January and no manatees were sighted on 16 May. 

Vegetation in the spring pool and upper reaches of the spring run consisted mainly of 

algae, with small amounts of native grasses present. Uplands and land adjacent to the 

spring pool are developed into a theme park attraction. The upper reaches of the spring 

run are forested, but heavy residential development is present along the northern shore of 

the river. Depth within the spring run varied from 1 ft to great than 10 ft. A sand shoal 

has developed near the entrance to the spring pool, likely due to the erosion of a manmade beach along the banks of the pool. Human use of the spring pool and run were low 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

42 
on 14 January with two canoes observed in the upper reaches of the run. Human use of 

the spring run on 16 May was high with over 20 small motorboats and 12 canoes/kayaks 

observed. Human use of the spring pool on 16 May was also high, with over 30 people 

using the facilities at Buccaneer Bay water park. Environmental data were collected at 

the spring pool and at a site approximately .15 miles downstream (Table 17). 

# i

# 

# 

i

# 

i

i i

# 

N 

W E

S 

Weeki Wachee Spr ngs 

Mud Spring 

Mary's Fish Camp 

Mud R ver 

Jenkins Creek Spring 

Jenk ns Creek 

Week Wachee R ver 

Hospital Hole 

Weeki Wachee River 

Mud River 

Jenkins Creek 

Figure 20. Known manatee aggregation areas throughout the Weeki Wachee system. 

Table 17. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Weeki Wachee Springs. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Weeki Wachee River Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

14 Jan 06 10.0 oC 22.9 0.3 0.0 23.0 0.9 0.0 

16 May 06 29.0 oC 23.1 0.2 0.0 22.1 0.7 0.0 

Accessibility Issues: Human use and modification of the spring pool shoreline has 

resulted in the erosion of beach sand into the spring system. This has formed a very 

shallow shoal near the mouth of the spring pool that likely prevents animals from 

entering the area when water levels are low. The SWFWMD is investigating removal of 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

43 
the sediment and restoration of the system, which may begin as early Summer 2007. 

Other portions of the Weeki Wachee River are shallow and may also warrant dredging to 

increase access. 

Jenkins Spring – Lat. 28.5220oN, 82.6341oW. Jenkins Spring is located in Hernando 

County and forms the headwaters of Jenkins Creek (Figure 21). The spring pool 

measures 200 ft by 60 ft (Champion and Starks 2001) and water depth at the vent is 

greater than 100 ft. Discharge information for the spring is lacking, however Rosenau et 

al. (1977) reported discharge information for Unnamed Spring No. 4 and Unnamed 

Spring No. 5 in the vicinity of the Jenkins Creek. It is unclear if either of these springs 

coincide with Jenkins Spring. The discharge for Unnamed Spring No. 4 was measured at 

10 cfs on 22 May 1962 and discharge for Unnamed Spring No. 5 was 12 cfs on the same 

date (Rosenau et al. 1977). The spring has two runs, one flowing south and the other 

northwest to form Jenkins Creek. Jenkins Creek flows northwest approximately 0.5 

miles where it joins with the Mud River and flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The spring is 

currently used by small numbers of manatees but use appears to be increasing. No 

systematic surveys have been conducted, but an informal photo-identification study 

documented seven manatees in the spring headwaters on 25 January 2004. Hartman 

(1974) documented one manatee sighting in Jenkins Creek in 1971, and Powell and 

Rathbun (1984) reported that several manatees used Jenkins Creek as a temporary 

thermal refuge in 1980. The headwaters of the spring and upper reaches of the run are 

located within Jenkins Creek County Park and Linda Pedersen County Park. 

0.05 0 0.05 0.1 Miles 

N 

Jenkins Creek Park

(sample site) Northern spring run # 

Jenkins Creek 

# Jenkins Creek Spring 

(sample site) 

Southern spring run 

Figure 21. Jenkins Creek Spring with locations of spring runs and sampling sites noted. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

44 
Survey Results: Jenkins Creek was surveyed on 14 January 2006 and 16 May 2006. Two 

manatees were sighted during the 14 January visit. The only vegetation noted in the area 

was algae. Depth within the southern spring run was less than 1 ft in some areas. The 

northwest spring run and Jenkins Creek were deeper, ranging from 3 ft to greater than 10 

ft. The shoreline of the spring and runs is natural marsh, with two large county parks 

along the shore of Jenkins Creek. Environmental samples were collected from the spring 

boil and near the boat ramp at Jenkins Creek Park (Table 18). 

Table 18. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Jenkins Spring. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Jenkins Creek Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

14 Jan 06 10.0 oC 22.9 0.1 12.1 23.0 0.3 12.5 

16 May 06 29.0 oC 23.6 0.4 14.2 24.5 0.3 14.4 

Accessibility Issues: The portion of the southern run north of the county park swimming 

area is extremely shallow and likely not accessible to manatees due to downed trees and 

sediment. The larger northwest spring run allows full access to the springhead. 

Mud Spring: Lat. 28.5333oN, Long. 82.6167oW. Mud Spring is a secondary spring with 

a pool 400ft in diameter and a depth of 185 ft (Scott et al. 2003). Mud spring is tidally 

influenced and discharge has been measured at 128 cfs on 18 January 1961; and at 101 

cfs and 83.1 cfs on a changing tide on 11 December 1975 (Rosenau et al. 1977). 

Champion and Starks (2001) note that the average discharge of the Mud River averaged 

45 cfs from 1988-1989. The spring forms the Mud River which flows approximately 0.7 

miles southwest where it joins with Jenkins Creek and flows to the Gulf of Mexico 

(Figure 22). Information on manatee use of Mud Spring is scarce and mainly anecdotal. 

No mention of Mud Spring has been found in historical accounts of manatee distribution. 

FWC staff documented over twelve manatees in Mud Spring and in the vicinity of 

Mary’s Fish Camp in January 2003. Mary’s Fish Camp, just downstream of the spring, 

reports frequent sightings of manatees in the area, including as many as 20 at one time. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

45 
# 

ing 

( i ) 

# 

i

( i ) 

i

0 

N 

Mud Spr

sample s te

Mary's F sh Camp 

sample s te

Mud R ver 

0.05 0.05 Miles 

Figure 22. Mud Spring and River with locations of sampling sites noted. 

Survey Results: Mud Spring was surveyed on 14 January 2006 and 16 May 2006. 

Manatees were not sighted during either visit. The only vegetation noted in the spring 

pool was algae, and large patches of Halodule were observed at Mary’s Fish Camp. 

Depth within the spring pool averaged about 4 ft and the spring run ranged from 3 ft to 

greater than 10 ft. The shoreline of the spring and spring run are mainly undeveloped 

marshland with the exception of Mary’s Fish Camp and an adjacent residential 

community. Human use of the spring pool was low during both visits, but boat traffic on 

the Mud River consisted of over 20 boats during each visit, mainly small fishing boats. 

Environmental data were collected from the spring pool and adjacent to Mary’s Fish 

Camp (Table 19). 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

46 
Table 19. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Mud Spring. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Mary’s Fish Camp Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

14 Jan 06 10.0 oC 21.0 0.6 12.1 22.4 0.4 12.4 

16 May 06 29.0 oC 23.1 0.4 11.2 24.0 0.5 11.5 

Accessibility Issues: Mud Spring does not appear to have accessibility issues at this time. 

Sulphur Spring: 28.0211oN, Long. 82.4516oW. Sulphur Spring is a second magnitude 

spring in Hillsborough County that has been highly altered from its natural state. The 

pool is enclosed by concrete walls 90 ft in diameter with a depth of 15 ft. The spring 

flows southeast through a 7 ft high weir, where the run flows 600 ft to the Hillsborough 

River (Figure 23). The annual mean discharge in 1999 was measured at 38.9 cfs (Scott et 

al. 2003). The spring is currently used by low numbers of manatees, and historical 

information on manatee use of the spring is unknown. FWC staff visited the spring on 

two dates in January and December of 2002, and on six dates between January and March 

of 2003. Manatees were observed at Sulphur Springs on half of these eight dates, with 

two animals observed on two dates and four animals on one date. Staff reported that the 

manatees generally congregate in the lower pool, but have been observed in the upper 

pool. The run is visited at high tide because manatees have trouble accessing the spring 

when tides are low due to shallow water depths. During a tagging study from 1991 to 

1997 in Tampa Bay, 47 manatees were tagged and only one utilized the Hillsborough 

River during winter months. A high count of nine manatees was documented at the 

spring on 1 August 1992. Sulphur Spring is listed as a secondary warm-water site on the 

WWTF list of “Important Manatee Warm-Water Sites”. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

47 
# 

# 

Sul

l i ) 

i

le si ) 

Hill i

0.04 0 

N 

phur Springs 

(samp e s te

Mouth of Spr ng Run 

(samp te

sborough R ver 

0.04 0.08 Miles 

Figure 23. Sulphur Springs with locations of sampling sites noted. 

Sulphur Spring is in an urban area and is surrounded by residential and commercial 

properties. The spring is owned and managed by the City of Tampa. The spring was 

once popular with tourists and residents of the area but has been closed to swimming and 

recreational activities since the mid 1980's due to high levels of bacteria in the spring 

discharge (Champion and Starks 2001). The shoreline of the upper spring run has a 

seawall, while the lower run has steep and rocky sides. A short distance up the spring run 

there is a concrete weir with a 10.5 ft wide opening that the water flows through. 

Manatees can travel through this opening but have rarely been sighted in the upper spring 

run. The SWFWMD is establishing minimum flows and levels for Sulphur Springs. One 

of three management goals of the plan is to “maintain a thermal refuge for manatees in 

the Lower Hillsborough River during cold winter periods” (SWFWMD 2004). The 

report recommends a proposed minimum flow for Sulphur Springs of 18 cfs, which may 

be reduced to 10 cfs during low tide stages if it does not result in salinity incursions from 

the lower Hillsborough River (SWFWMD 2004). Additionally, a minimum flow of 18 

cfs will be maintained if the temperature of either surface or bottom waters in the Lower 

Hillsborough River near the mouth of the spring are below 15oC. 

Survey Results: Sulphur Springs was surveyed on 10 December 2005 and 09 May 2006. 

No manatees were sighted during either visit. Very little vegetation is available in the 

lower spring run, but native and exotic vegetation is abundant in the Hillsborough River. 

Depth within the spring run is very shallow, with areas less than 1 ft during low tide. The 

shoreline of the spring and spring run are heavily developed. Environmental data was 

collected in the spring pool and at the mouth of the spring run where it flows into the 

Hillsborough River (Table 20). 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

48 
Table 20. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Sulphur Springs. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Run Mouth Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

10 Dec 05 13.0 oC 24.9 0.6 12.1 21.9 0.4 12.4 

09 May 06 28.0 oC 25.2 0.4 11.2 24.6 0.5 11.5 

Accessibility Issues: Manatees have no access to the spring pool due to a concrete wall 

and weir. They have limited access to the upper spring run due to a second weir with a 

narrow opening that concentrates and increases velocity of the spring flow. Additionally, 

manatees have limited access to the lower run due to shallow depths and mainly access 

the spring run during high tide. Based on Sulphur Springs minimum flows and levels 

report (SWFWMD 2004), flow levels will be maintained to keep water temperatures near 

the mouth of the run high enough to provide a temporary warm-water refuge for 

manatees during the winter months. Despite the current low level of manatee use and the 

highly altered state of this urban spring, it should be a priority for restoration and 

enhancement due to its geographic proximity to Tampa Bay industrial outfalls. 

Warm Mineral Spring: 27.0599oN, Long. 82.2600oW. Warm Mineral Spring is a second 

magnitude spring located in Sarasota County with a spring pool that measures 252 ft by 

315 ft and is reported to have a maximum depth of 230 ft (Scott et al. 2003). A very 

narrow and shallow spring run, Salt Creek, flows southwest 2.3 miles to the Myakka 

River. The average flow from 1942 – 1974 was 9.7 cfs (Scott et al. 2003). Manatee use 

of the spring has increased significantly in the past ten years. FWC staff documented a 

high count of 78 manatees on 25 January 2003. Warm Mineral Springs is listed as a 

primary warm-water site on the WWTF list. 

Warm Mineral Springs is owned by Warm Mineral Spring Resort and is operated as a spa 

and recreation area. The spring run is developed, with residential properties along the 

shoreline (Figure 24). FWC designated a seasonal no-entry zone in Salt Creek from the 

US 41 bridge to the northern reaches of the run accessible to manatees. No swimmers or 

boaters are allowed in the run from 15 Nov – 15 Mar. The area is a slow speed zone 

during the remainder of the year, and the run south of the US 41 bridge into the Myakka 

River is a year-round slow speed zone. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

49 
# # l

Salt Creek 

# 

# # 

# 

0 

N 

Warm Mineral Springs 

Samp e Site 

US 41 

No-Entry Zone 

Nov 15 - Mar 15 

Manatee Aggregation Areas 

0.1 0.1 0.2 Miles 

Figure 24. Warm Mineral Springs with sample site and known manatee aggregation areas (provided 

by L. Keith, pers. comm.). 

Survey Results: Warm Mineral Springs was surveyed on 10 January 2006 and 26 April 

2006. No manatees were sighted during either visit. Very little vegetation is present 

along the spring run, requiring manatees to travel out of the system to forage. Depth 

within the spring run is extremely shallow, with areas less than 1 ft. During the survey 

on 26 April over 100 people were using the spring pool for walking/swimming. The 

shoreline of the run is developed into residential communities and the spring pool is 

privately owned and operated as a resort and spa. Environmental data was collected just 

southwest of the spring pool on 26 April 2006 and at the US 41 bridge on 10 January 

2006 (Table 21). 

Table 21. Environmental variables sampled during surveys of Warm Mineral Springs. 

Date Air temp Spring Pool sampling site Bridge Sampling Site 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

Water temp 

(oC) 

Flow 

(ft/s) 

Salinity 

(ppt) 

10 Jan 06 13.0 oC 28.0 0.2 13.2 

26 Apr 06 29.0 oC 29.2 0.1 14.0 

Accessibility Issues: The spring run flowing from Warm Mineral Springs is extremely 

narrow, shallow, and has a number of small weirs that hinder manatee access. As the 

main natural spring available to manatees in the Southwest subpopulation, and due to the 

noteworthy increase in manatee use over the past ten years, enhancement and restoration 

of this spring and spring run should be a high priority. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

50 
Overall Accessibility Issues 

Of the 22 springs surveyed it was determined that thirteen had minor or major 

accessibility issues (Table 22), including shallow spring runs, weirs, dam and lock 

structures, fences, and increased water velocity. Three of the thirteen springs with 

obstructions are considered primary warm-water manatee habitat by the WWTF. 

Table 22. Manatee accessibility issues documented at springs surveyed from November 2005 

through May 2006. 

Spring Name 

WWTF 

Category 

Accessibility 

Issues? Type of Obstruction 

Wakulla Springs Secondary N 

St. Marks River Rise Secondary N 

Manatee Springs Secondary Y shallow run 

Fanning Spring Secondary N 

Ichnetucknee Springs Group - Head Spring N/A N 

Rainbow Springs Group - Rainbow No. 1 N/A Y dam/lock 

Silver Springs Group - Main Spring N/A Y dam/lock 

Blue Spring No. 1 (flooded) N/A Y dam/lock, flooded 

Silver Glen Springs Secondary Y shallow run 

Volusia Blue Spring Primary N 

Salt Springs Secondary Y shallow run 

Deleon Spring Secondary Y concrete weir 

Kings Bay Springs Group Primary N 

 Tarpon Hole Spring N 

Gator Hole N 

 Three Sisters Spring Y shallow run 

Homosassa Springs Group Primary Y shallow run, fence 

Chassahowitzka Springs Group - Main 

Spring N/A Y shallow run 

Weeki Wachee/Jenkins/Mud Spring Primary Y shallow run 

concrete wall, weirs, 

increased water velocity, 

Sulphur Spring Secondary Y shallow run 

Warm Mineral Springs Primary Y shallow run, weirs 

Based on existing data and information collected during this study, a threat assessment 

was developed for each spring (Table 23). Threats were ranked from 1 (low threat) to 3 

(high threat), and it should be noted that these rankings are relative within threat 

categories but not necessarily across threat categories, as the weigh of each threat varies. 

Springs were then separated into primary and secondary groups based on WWTF listings 

and current manatee use and divided into subpopulations. High threat categories were 

noted, as well as geographic importance based on the distance to the next closest primary 

warm-water site (Table 24), which indicates how far they would have to travel to reach a 

primary refuge. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

51 
Table 23. Threat rankings for spring systems utilized by manatees (1 – low, 2 – medium, 3 – high). Springs are divided into sub

primary springs are noted in bold. 

Threats to Spring Systems and 

Manatees that Use Them 

Reduced 

Spring 

Flow (1) 

 Upland 

Development 

Near Spring 

(2) 

Deteriorating 

Water 

Quality (3) 

High 

Human 

Use 

(4) 

Lack of 

Manatee 

Protection 

Regulations 

(5) 

Lack 

Mana

Access

to W

Wate

Northwest Florida 

Tarpon Spring 3 3 2 3 1 1 

Kings Bay Springs 

Group 

Gator Hole 

Three Sisters 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Spring 

Homosassa Springs Group 3 2 2 2 2 3 

3 2 3 1 1 1 

Weeki Wachee/Jenkins/Mud Springs 

Wakulla Springs 

2 3 2 2 2 2 

St. Marks River Rise 3 1 1 1 1 1 

Manatee Springs 2 2 3 1 2 2 

3 2 2 2 2 1 

Fanning Spring 

Ichetucknee Springs Group - Head Spring 

2 2 3 1 2 1 

i i

Spring 3 2 1 1 2 2 

Rainbow Springs Group - Rainbow No. 1 

Chassahow tzka Spr ngs Group - Main 

3 2 2 2 1 3 

Southwest Florida 

Warm Mineral Springs 3 2 1 1 1 3 

Sulphur Spring 2 3 3 1 2 2 

St. Johns River 

Silver Springs Group - Ma n Spring i 3 2 3 2 1 3 

3 1 1 3 3 2 

Blue Spring No. 1 

Silver Glen Springs 

3 1 1 1 3 3 

Salt Springs 3 1 1 2 2 2 

Volusia Blue Spring 2 2 3 2 1 1 

Deleon Spring 3 2 3 2 2 3 
Table 24. Spring systems listed by key threats (refer to threat numbers in Table 23.), manatee use and geographic importance. 

that occurred outside the winter months (Dec-Feb) have the month indicated next to the count. U = data unavailable for that si

primary natural warm-water sites are located in that region. 

High

WWTF Man

Ranking Subpopulation Region Spring Group Key Threats Co

PRIMARY Northwest Subpopulation Homosassa Springs Group 1,6 12

Kings Bay Springs Group 2,7 31

Weeki Wachee/Jenkins/Mud Springs 2,4 2

Southwest Subpopulation Warm Mineral Springs 1,6 7St. Johns River Subpopulation Volusia Blue Spring 1,3 19

SECONDARY Northwest Subpopulation Manatee Springs 

Wakulla Springs 

Ichetucknee Springs Group - Head Spring 

Rainbow Springs Group - Rainbow No. 1 

Fanning Spring 

Chassahowitzka Springs Group - Main Spring 

St. Marks River Rise 

3,7 

3,7 

1,4 

1,6 

3,7 

1,6 

1 

32-M

13-M

2 

1 

8-J

48 - 

16-J

Southwest Subpopulation Sulphur Spring 3,7 9-ASt. Johns Subpopulation Silver Springs Group - Main Spring 

Deleon Spring 

Silver Glen Springs 

Blue Spring No. 1 

Salt Springs 

1,3,6 

1,3 

1,4,5 

1,6 

1 

2-J

6 

7 

U 

1 
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Spring ecosystems throughout Florida are threatened by numerous factors, including 

continuing and increasing groundwater withdrawals which reduce spring flow, 

development and changes in land use within springsheds which results in pollution and 

poor water quality, and extensive human use in the form of swimming and boating which 

can result in erosion and changes in native vegetation. All of these factors diminish the 

amount of adequate natural warm- water habitat available for manatees. The WarmWater Task Force has identified the maintenance of a network of reliable warm-water 

habitats within the range of each manatee subpopulation as a fundamental management 

need. 

Warm water springs in central and northern Florida appear to provide the best habitat for 

overwintering manatees and likely the only natural winter habitats capable of consistently 

supporting increasing numbers of manatees (Laist and Reynolds 2005a), however 

approximately 85% of the current manatee population is found in Southwest Florida and 

on the Atlantic coast where natural springs are lacking. Based on previous case studies of 

power plant shut-downs, Laist and Reynolds (2005b) surmise that manatees may remain 

near the former outfall and sustain high levels of cold-stress related death rather than 

emigrate to reliable natural warm-water sites. Conversely, while manatees generally 

exhibit high fidelity to wintering sites (Reid et al. 1991, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, 

Deutsch et al. 2003) the impending loss of man-made warm-water resources further south 

on the west coast of Florida may result in emigration to areas with natural warm-water 

resources, further increasing the need for sufficient warm water in these regions. Natural 

springs are not present on the Atlantic coast and industrial outfall closures may drive 

manatees further south where they may face increased cold-stress mortality (Laist and 

Reynolds 2005a). 

A steady increase in counts of manatees throughout northwest Florida has been 

documented through aerial surveys (Hartman, 1979; Powell and Rathbun, 1984; Rathbun 

et al 1990; J. Kleen, USFWS, unpublished data). Escalating counts at known aggregation 

sites may be the result of an increasing population size, high survival rates (Langtimm et 

al. 1998), increased protection at those sites, or immigration from other areas (Powell and 

Rathbun 1984). While higher counts are likely a combination of these factors, Runge et 

al. (2004) developed a model that demonstrates a 3.7% annual growth rate in the 

Northwest population over the past ten years. The same model established a 6.7% annual 

growth rate for the St. Johns River population. Increasing populations in these regions 

emphasize the need for adequate natural warm-water sources to sustain the increased 

number of manatees within the region. Although many factors must be taken into 

account, the only two subpopulations clearly increasing in size at present are those 

dependent on warm water springs. 

While some springs may currently be used by very small numbers of manatees and 

springs with high levels of use need to be the priority, it is important to have the foresight 

to protect and increase the availability of suitable natural warm-water resources due to 

the inevitable future decrease of man-made warm-water. Secondary refuges today are 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

54 
used as temporary stopover points (Deutsch et al. 2000, 2003), but the importance of 

these sites may increase in the future. In less than 40 years the number of manatees 

overwintering in Kings Bay increased tenfold. Similarly, the number of manatees 

overwintering at Volusia Blue Spring increased from an average of 20 during the 1970’s 

to 190 in 2006. Manatee use of other springs around the state has been on the rise, 

however more consistent and systematic surveys are needed to document the type and 

frequency of use. In addition, more information on how manatees utilize a spring system 

is needed, such as preferred depths, temperatures, forage, etc. in order to document 

suitable manatee habitat. Defining the size of the thermal refuge at each spring must be a 

high priority. While this study and others have collected temperatures at points 

throughout the spring systems, more detailed full-system data is needed to accurately 

map the thermal refuge. Thermal imagery, satellite temperature data, and other 

techniques may be extremely valuable in documenting the thermal boundary. 

Protecting and improving springs that are currently or may potentially be used by 

manatees in the future must to be a top priority for resource managers. Eleven of the 22 

springs surveyed are located within state parks or national forests, and four additional 

springs are managed by city/county, state or federal agencies. However, much of the 

damage done to Florida springs occurs remotely, within the springshed, in the form of 

groundwater withdrawals, stormwater runoff, septic systems, and increased nitrates. The 

Florida Wildlife Legacy Initiative rates the current status of springs and spring runs 

throughout Florida as poor and declining (FWC 2005). Protection of springs habitat 

needs to encompass spring runs, which are often used more frequently by manatees than 

spring boils. However, land acquisition and protection programs are often focused on 

just the spring boil. Manatee use within the spring system needs to be documented to 

ensure that we are protecting the appropriate habitat. Manatee use of Volusia Blue 

Spring has been thoroughly mapped for many years, providing data on preferred habitat 

variables (W. Hartley, pers. comm.; Rouhani 2005) and a study is underway at 

Homosassa Springs to provide similar data. This type of information is needed for all 

spring systems currently used by manatees. 

Accessibility Issues 

Thirteen of the 22 springs surveyed exhibited manatee accessibility issues, which are 

discussed by region below. 

Northwest Region 

Manatee, Three Sisters, Homosassa, Chassahowitzka and Weeki Wachee Springs have 

shallow runs that do not prohibit manatee access but do impede access during low tides. 

Homosassa Springs is currently being dredged to improve manatee access into the 

seasonal no-entry zone. The run and headsprings at Three Sisters Springs are only 

accessed during extreme high tides due to submerged rocks blocking the spring run. No 

manatee protection measures are in place in the run and spring pools, therefore removal 

of the rocks to improve manatee access would have to go hand-in-hand with additional 

protection measures. The run at Chassahowitzka Springs is extremely shallow during 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

55 
winter months. Due to the natural state of this system and the large number of springs 

flowing into the river, it is suggested that dredging the river to improve access to 

manatees would substantially increase the amount of suitable warm-water habitat. 

Additionally, Chassahowitzka Springs is currently not listed on the Warm Water Task 

Force list of important manatee sites. We recommend that this site be added to the list as 

a secondary refuge. The SWFWMD is currently investigating the removal of sediment in 

the Weeki Wachee system, which would improve access for manatees. Manatees at 

Manatee Springs tend to aggregate at the mouth of the spring run or partially up the 

spring run, so the benefit of deepening the run may be harder to define, particularly if 

dredging would disturb native vegetation. If steps are taken to improve access and 

enhance habitat, managers must ensure that adequate protection measures are in place to 

avoid harassment and address the effects that human activities can have on manatee use 

of a system. 

In addition to the shallow spring run at Homosassa Springs, the presence of a fence in the 

spring run prohibits wild manatees from accessing the spring boil and approximately 

1000 ft of the spring run. The fence is used to keep captive manatees in the spring boil as 

part of the Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park. The volume of natural warm-water 

habitat currently available to wild manatees appears to be adequate, however we must 

plan for the future needs of the population. With the increasing Northwest population 

and the impending loss of man-made warm-water sources, high quality warm-water 

habitat should be made accessible to all manatees. It is recommended that removal of the 

fence be a top priority to provide wild manatees full access to this primary WWTF site. 

Rainbow Springs has a large accessibility issue that will be difficult to resolve. Rainbow 

Springs, along with Silver Springs and Blue Spring No. 1 in the St. Johns River region, 

are the only springs covered in this study that are completely unavailable to manatees. 

The entire thermal plume for each spring is inaccessible and should be given high priority 

when planning for future manatee populations. While Rainbow Springs has been 

intermittently accessible through a lock and dam structure, these structures are a source of 

manatee mortality that must be addressed. Rainbow Springs is located behind the Inglis 

lock and dam structure on the Withlacoochee River. The dam has been in place since the 

1920’s and the lock system was installed as part of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal 

project. The lock is currently not in use, eliminating manatee access to the system. The 

likelihood of the dam being removed to return the river to its natural state is minimal, 

therefore if access is provided to the system it would be through the lock structure. If this 

occurs all efforts must be made to install appropriate manatee protection devices at the 

lock and develop manatee protection zones within the Lake Rousseau/Withlacoochee 

River system. There is a lack of data on manatee use of the Rainbow Springs system, 

however due to the presence of the dam structure for the past 90 years it is likely that we 

have not seen the potential of the system as a manatee refuge. 

Priority actions in this region include: removing the fence blocking the upper spring run 

at Homosassa Springs; removing rocks from the mouth of Three Sisters Spring to 

improve access, along with regulating human use of the springs; supporting efforts to 

deepen the spring run at Weeki Wachee and Jenkins Springs, along with providing 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

56 
additional protection from human use in the area; and investigating the possibility of 

deepening the spring run at Chassahowitzka Spring (Table 25). In addition to the specific 

items listed in Table 25, continued focus must be placed on the bigger issues of reduced 

spring flow and deteriorating water and habitat quality throughout the region. 

Southwest Region 

Warm Mineral Springs is the only natural spring used by large numbers of manatees in 

the Southwest region. It consists of a very shallow, narrow spring run with a number of 

small weirs. This system contains very little natural vegetation, and deepening the spring 

run may drastically increase the amount of warm water available to manatees. Due to the 

geographic importance of Warm Mineral Springs to the Southwest subpopulation, it 

should be considered a high priority for improvement, enhancement, and land acquisition 

projects along the shoreline of the spring run. 

Sulphur Spring is the only spring surveyed during this study that could be characterized 

as an “urban” spring. While we recognize that this spring has been radically modified 

from its original state and has issues such as poor water quality, the geographic location 

of this spring makes it a high priority for enhancement and restoration. In the event that 

Tampa Bay power plants eliminate warm-water discharges, this spring could potentially 

provide refuge for dozens of manatees in the Southwest population. Drastic 

modifications to the system would be required for enhancement and re-establishment of 

suitable manatee habitat. The Sulphur Spring minimum flows and levels report 

(SWFWMD 2004) considered manatee needs, and flows will be maintained to keep water 

temperatures near the mouth of the run high enough to provide a temporary warm-water 

refuge for manatees during the winter months. Any enhancement should be coupled with 

improved manatee protection zones on the Hillsborough River. Because manatees in 

Tampa Bay have been overwintering at power plants for over 50 years, it is difficult to 

speculate on the number of manatees that would potentially use this site if power plant 

outfalls were no longer available. 

Priority actions in this region include pursuing efforts to deepen the spring run and purchase 

available land along the shoreline of the run at Warm Mineral Springs, and pursuing efforts to 

restore Sulphur Springs to a more natural state and provide corresponding restrictions on human 

use (Table 25). 

St. Johns River Region 

Silver Glen and Salt Springs have shallow runs that do not prohibit manatee access but do 

impede access during low tides. Animals at these springs, similar to Manatee Springs, 

tend to aggregate at the mouth of the spring run or partially up the spring run, so the 

benefit of deepening the run would need to be investigated. As mentioned above, any 

steps taken to improve access and enhance habitat must go hand-in hand with adequate 

protection measures to avoid harassment. 

The boil at Deleon Spring has been encircled by concrete and is no longer accessible to 

manatees. However, the spring run and the area just outside the concrete wall/weir could 

provide suitable warm-water manatee habitat. Extensive vegetation and a thermal plume 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

57 
are present beyond the weir. The run has no accessibility issues, however if increased 

manatee use is the goal then managers must ensure that adequate protection is in place in 

the form of boat speed zones or no-entry zones. This spring may provide an important 

alternative to Volusia Blue Spring as the St. Johns River subpopulation continues to 

grow. 

The remaining springs have large accessibility issues that will be difficult to resolve. 

Similar to Rainbow Springs in the Northwest region, Silver Springs and Blue Spring No. 

1 have large accessibility issues that will be difficult to resolve. The thermal plumes for 

these springs are completely inaccessible to manatees and represent potential important 

warm water manatee habitat. These springs have been intermittently accessible through 

lock and dam structures, however these structures have been a high source of manatee 

mortality that must be addressed. Silver Springs and Blue Spring No. 1 are located along 

the Oklawaha River, behind the Rodman Dam/Buckman Locks system created by the 

Cross-Florida Barge Canal project. Blue Spring No. 1, in addition to as many as 20 

smaller springs, was flooded by the Rodman Reservoir. Manatee use of these springs has 

not been well documented, however Silver Springs is a very large springs group with the 

potential to provide suitable warm-water habitat for manatees. The entire spring run, the 

Silver River, is an idle speed zone and no fishing zone with large amounts of native 

vegetation. Restoration of the Oklawaha River is a controversial issue throughout the 

state of Florida. The Florida DEP has developed a restoration plan for the system which 

would include closure of the Buckman Lock portion of the Barge Canal and removal of 

Rodman Dam to return the Oklawaha to its normal river bed and elevation (Smith 1997). 

This would eliminate the only known source of water control structure mortality in the St. 

Johns River system. Providing manatees full access to the restored Oklawaha River, the 

Silver River, Silver Springs and the springs flooded by the reservoir would provide 

increased quality habitat to the increasing St. Johns River manatee population. 

Additionally, the return of the Oklawaha River to its natural state will likely reduce the 

amount of exotic vegetation present in the reservoir and allow for the re-establishment of 

native submerged aquatic vegetation. Restoration and enhancement of this system should 

be a top priority for managers in the effort to increase high quality, natural warm-water 

habitat for manatees. 

Priority actions in this region include: assessing the possibility of deepening the Silver 

Glen Spring run, and providing additional protection from human use in the run; restoring 

the natural course of the Oklawaha River, fully opening Silver Springs and Blue Spring 

No. 1 to manatees, and establishing appropriate regulations in the area to protect 

returning manatees from human use; assessing the need to regulate human use of the run 

at Deleon Springs, and potentially investigate removal of the concrete weir encircling the 

spring; and investigating the benefits of deepening the run at Salt Springs (Table 25). 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

58 
Table 25. Recommended priority actions for improving and increasing natural spring habitat for 

Florida manatees. 

Spring System Priority Action 

Northwest Region 

Existing Primary Springs 

Kings Bay Group • remove rocks from Three Sisters Spring 

• assess regulatory needs for manatee protection 

Homosassa Springs Group • remove fence from spring run 

Weeki Wachee/Mud/Jenkins • pursue deepening of spring runs 

• assess regulatory needs for manatee protection 

Potential Secondary Springs 

Chassahowitzka Springs • investigate deepening of the spring run 

Southwest Region 

Existing Primary Springs 

Warm Mineral Spring • investigate deepening of the spring run 

• pursue land acquisition along spring run 

Secondary Springs 

Sulphur Spring • investigate feasibility of restoring spring to 

natural state 

• assess regulatory needs for manatee protection 

St. Johns River Region 

Potential Primary Springs 

Silver Glen Spring • assess feasibility of deepening spring run 

• assess regulatory needs for manatee protection 

Silver Springs • restore Oklawaha River, increasing access 

• assess regulatory needs for manatee protection 

Secondary Springs 

Salt Spring • investigate deepening of the spring run 

Deleon Spring • assess opportunities to remove concrete weir 

• assess regulatory needs for manatee protection 

The need to develop sustainable regional thermal networks for manatees as man-made 

warm-water sources become less reliable should be a priority task for state and federal 

managers. Protection and restoration of Florida springs must be an integral part of this 

process due to the extreme pressures on these unique and valuable habitats. Due to the 

wide variety of issues that influence Florida springs, manatee management agencies must 

work together with other local, state, and federal agencies to address the protection of 

spring ecosystems throughout the state. Focus must also be placed on the lack of natural 

warm-water resources in the Atlantic and Southwest regions, where 85% of the current 

manatee population resides. There is an urgent need to develop long-term solutions to 

the impending decrease in warm-water resources to secure adequate and suitable habitat 

for the current and increasing Florida manatee population. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

59 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This work was funded by a grant from the U.S. Marine Mammal Commission. I’d like to 

thank Ron Mezich, Jim Valade, Nicole Adimey, and James Powell for their support and 

suggestions. Special thanks go to David Laist for his valuable and constructive 

comments on the draft paper. 

REFERENCES 

Abbott, E. F. 1971. Twenty Springs of the Oklawaha. Prepared for Florida Defenders of 

the Environment, Inc. 13 p. 

Bartodziej, W. and A. J. Leslie. 1998. The Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality of the St. 

Marks River, Wakulla County, Florida, with Emphasis on the Role of Water-hyacinth: 

1989-1995 Studies. FL Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Invasive 

Plant Management, Tallahassee, FL. TSS-98-100. 

Bartram, W. 1791. Travels of William Bartram. James and Johnson, Philadelphia. 

Dover reprint edition 1955. 414 p. 

Beeler, I. E. and T. J. O’Shea. 1988. Distribution and mortality of the West Indian 

manatee (Trichechus manatus) in the Southeastern United States: A compilation and 

review of recent information. National Ecology Research Center Report No. 88-09. 2 

Vol. 613 p. 

Bengston, J. L. 1981. Ecology of manatees (Trichechus manatus) in the St. Johns River, 

Florida. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Minnesota, St. Paul, MN. 126 p. 

Bonn, M. A. and F. W. Bell. 2003. Economic Impact of Selected Florida Springs on 

Surrounding Local Areas. Report to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection 

Division of State Lands Florida Spring Task Force, April 10, 2003. 95 p. + appendices. 

Campbell, H. W. 1976. An evaluation of manatee (Trichechus manatus) populations in 

the vicinity of the proposed Cross Florida Barge Canal with assessment of potential 

impacts. Appendix F in Cross Florida Barge Canal Restudy Report, Wildlife. U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville, FL. 42 p. 

Champion, K. M. and R. Starks. 2001. The Hydrology and Water Quality of Select 

Springs in the Southwest Florida Water Management District. Southwest Florida Water 

Management District, Palatka, FL. 149 p. 

Deutsch, C. J., J. P. Reid, R. K. Bonde, D. E. Easton, H. I. Kochman and T. J. O’Shea. 

2003. Seasonal movements, migratory behavior, and site fidelity of West Indian 

manatees along the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Wildlife Monographs 151:1-77. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

60 
Farrell, M. D., J. Good, D. Hornsby, A. Janicki, R. Mattson, and S. Upchurch. 2005. 

MFL Establishment for the Lower Suwannee River & Estuary, Little Fanning, Fanning & 

Manatee Springs. Technical Report to the Suwannee River Water Management District. 

50 p. 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection Office of Greenways and Trails. 2005. 

Inglis Lock Review. Report No. IA-03-21-2005-128. Tallahassee, FL. 11 p. + 

appendices. 

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Florida Wildlife Research Institute 

Manatee Mortality Database 1974-2005. St. Petersburg, FL. 

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2005. Florida’s Wildlife Legacy 

Initiative. Florida’s Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. Tallahassee, 

Florida, USA. 

Florida Springs Task Force. 2002. Florida’s Springs: Strategies for Protection and 

Restoration. Report to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, November 

2000. 57 p + appendices. 

Hand, J. 2000. Florida Water Quality Assessment: 305(b) Report. Florida Department 

of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee, FL. 

Hartman, D. S. 1974. Distribution, status, and conservation of the manatee in the United 

States. Report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Fish and Wildlife Lab, 

Contract Rep. No. 14-16-0008-748, National Tech. Inv. Serv. Publ. No. PB81-140725. 

247 p. 

Hauxwell, J. A., C. W. Osenberg, and T. K. Frazer. 2003. Effects of herbivores and 

competing primary producers on Vallisneria americana in Kings Bay: implications of 

restoration and management. Final report submitted to the Southwest Florida Water 

Management District (SWFWMD Contract No. 01CON000007). University of Florida 

IFAS. Gainesville, FL. 

Kochman, H. I., G. B. Rathbun, and J. A. Powell. 1983. Use of Kings Bay, Crystal 

River, Florida, by the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus). Pages 69-124 in 

Packard, J.M., ed. Proposed Research/Management Plan for Crystal River Manatees. 

Vol. III. Tech. Rept. No. 7. FL Coop. Res. Unit, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 

346 p. 

Laist, D. W. and J. E. Reynolds. 2005a. Influence of power plants and other warm-water 

refuges on Florida manatees. Marine Mammal Science 21(4):739-764. 

Laist, D. W. and J. E. Reynolds. 2005b. Florida Manatees, Warm-Water Refuges, and 

an Uncertain Future. Coastal Management 33:279 - 295. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

61 
Langtimm, C. A., T. J. O’Shea, R. Pradel, and C. A. Beck. 1998. Estimates of annual 

survival probabilities for adult Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris). 

Ecology 78: 981-997. 

Langtimm, C. A., G. L. Mahon, H. I. Kochman, and S. Butler. 2003. Manatee Habitat 

Suitability at Manatee Spring, Levy County, Florida. Report by U. S. Geological Survey, 

Center for Aquatic Resource Studies, Gainesville, FL. 41 pp. 

Lefebvre, L. W. 1993. Possible Significance of Restoration of the Ocklawaha River to 

the Florida Manatee. In Carr, M. H., D. B. Godfrey, J. H. Kaufmann, and J. M. Zokovich 

eds. The Case for Restoring the Free-Flowing Ocklawaha River: Section 3. Prepared by 

the Florida Defenders of the Environment, Gainesville, FL. 

Meizner, O. E. 1927. Large springs in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 557. 94 p. 

Moore, J. C. 1951. The range of the Florida manatee. Quarterly Journal of the Florida 

Academy of Science. 14(1): 1-10. 

Notestein, S. K., T. K. Frazer, M. V. Hoyer, and D. E. Canfield, Jr. 2003. Nutrient 

Limitation of Periphyton in a Spring-Fed, Coastal Stream in Florida, USA. J. Aquat. 

Plant Manage. 41: 57-60. 

Osburn, W., D. Toth and D. Boniol. 2006. Springs of the St. Johns River Water 

Management District. Pub No SJ2006-3. Palatka, FL. 

O’Shea, T. J. and W. C. Hartley. 1995. Reproduction and early-age survival of manatees 

at Blue Spring, Upper St. Johns River, Florida. Pages 157-170 in T.J. O’Shea, B.B. 

Ackerman and H.F. Percival, eds. Population biology of the Florida manatee. U.S. 

Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Information and Technology 

Report 1. 

Pandion Systems, Inc. 2003. Carrying Capacity Study of Silver Glen Spring and Run. 

Prepared for the Florida Department of Environmental Protection Contract Number SL 

982. 86 p. + appendices. 

Powell, J. A. and G. B. Rathbun. 1984. Distribution and abundance of manatees along 

the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Northeast Gulf Sci. 7(1):1-28. 

Rathbun, G. and R. L. Wallace. 2000. Florida manatee. Pages 107-111 in R. P. Reading 

and B. Miller, editors. Endangered animals: a reference guide to conflicting issues. 

Greenwood Press. Westport CT. 383 pp. 

Rathbun, G. B., J. P. Reid, and G. Carowan. 1990. Distribution and movement patterns of 

manatees (Trichechus manatus) in northwestern peninsular Florida. Florida Marine 

Research Publication 48:1-33. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

62 
. 

Reid, J. P., G. B. Rathbun, and J. R. Wilcox. 1991. Distribution patterns of individually 

identifiable West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) in Florida. Marine Mammal 

Science 7:180-190. 

Rosenau, J. C., G. L. Faulkner, C. W. Hendry, Jr., and R. W. Hull. 1977. Springs of 

Florida: Florida Geological Survey Bulletin 31 Revised. Prepared by the Bureau of 

Geology and Bureau of Water Resources Management, Florida Department of Natural 

Resources. 461 p. 

Rouhani, S., P. Sucsy, G. Hall, W. Osburn, and M. Wild. 2005. Analysis of Blue Spring 

Discharge Data to Determine a Minimum Flow Regime. Prepared for the St. Johns River 

Water Management District, Palatka, FL. 48 p. + appendices. 

Runge, M. C., C. A. Langtimm, and W. L. Kendall. 2004. A stage-based model of 

manatee population dynamics. Marine Mammal Science 20 (3): 361-385. 

Smith, K. 1997. The effects of proposed restoration of the Ocklawaha River in the 

vicinity of the Rodman Basin on manatees and manatee habitat. Report for The Office of 

Greenways and Trails. Tallahassee, FL. 12 p. 

Smith, K., J. B. Miller, and R. Harris. 2000. Manatee Use of Blue Spring Run, Blue 

Spring State Park, Volusia County, Florida. Prepared for the Blue Spring Minimum Flow 

Interagency Working Group. November 29, 2000. 

St. Johns River Water Management District. 1994. Environmental Studies Concerning 

Four Alternatives for Rodman Reservoir and the Lower Ocklawaha River. Volume 20. 

Analysis of Habitats in Rodman Reservoir and the Lower Ocklawaha River under Four 

River Restoration and Reservoir Retention Alternatives. December 15, 1994. Palatka, 

FL. 

Southwest Florida Water Management District. 2000. Crystal River/Kings Bay Surface 

Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Plan. Prepared by the Resource 

Management Department, Tampa, FL. 20 p. + appendices. 

Southwest Florida Water Management District. 2001. Withlacoochee River 

Comprehensive Watershed Management Plan. 107 p. 

Southwest Florida Water Management District. 2004. Rainbow River Surface Water 

Improvement and Management (SWIM) Plan. Tampa, FL. 36 p. + appendices. 

Southwest Florida Water Management District. 2004. The Determination of Minimum 

Flows for Sulphur Springs, Tampa, Florida - Draft. Prepared by the Resource 

Conservation and Development Department. Brooksville, FL. 197 p. + appendices. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

63 
Southwest Florida Water Management District. 2006. Recreation Guide to Southwest 

Florida Water Management District Lands. 129 p. 

Taylor, C. T., C. A. Beck, C. A. Langtimm, and J. A. Powell. 2006. Assessing the 

Effectiveness of Efforts to Improve manatee Access to Homosassa Springs: Interim 

Report prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Contract No. 401815G84. 12 p. 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1981. Summary of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Manatee Research at Blue Spring Run, 1970 – 1981. Vols. I-III. 448 p. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (Trichechus 

manatus latirostris) Third Revision. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 

Warr, K. R., R. A. Miller, and J. C. Bryan. 1994. Environmental Studies Concerning 

Four Alternatives for Rodman Reservoir and the Lower Ocklawaha River. Volume 18: 

An Analysis of Threatened and Endangered Species, Candidate Species, and Species of 

Special Concern in the Lower Ocklawaha River Basin. St. Johns River Water 

Management District. Palatka, FL. 129 p. 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

64 
Appendix 1. Manatee Recovery Team Warm-Water Task Force Draft List of Important 

Manatee Warm-Water Sites, September 2004. 

East Coast: 

Upper St. Johns River Region 

(1) Blue Spring (Volusia County, FL)-1 

(2) Silver Glen Springs (Marion County, FL)-2 

(3) DeLeon Springs (Volusia County, FL)-2 

(4) Salt Springs (Marion County, FL)-2 

Atlantic Region 

(5) Reliant Energy Power Plant (Brevard County, FL)-1 

(6) FPL Canaveral Power Plant (Brevard County, FL-1 

(7) FPL Riviera Beach Power Plant (Palm Beach County, FL)-1 

(8) FPL Port Everglades Power Plant (Broward County, FL)-1 

(9) FPL Fort Lauderdale Power Plant (Broward County, FL)-1 

(10) Coral Gables Waterway (Dade County, FL)-1 

(11) Sebastian River (C-54 canal) (Brevard County, FL)-2 

(12) Vero Beach Power Plant (Indian River County, FL)-2 

(13) Henry D. King Electric Station (St. Lucie County, FL)-2 

(14) Big Mud Creek ( St. Lucie County, FL)-2 

(15) Berkeley Canal (Brevard County, FL)-2 

(16) Black Point Park/Black Creek (Dade County)-2 

(17) Palmer Lake (Dade County, FL)-2 

(18) Little River (Dade County, FL)-2 

(19) Turkey Point (Dade County, FL)-2 

(20) C-111 canal and canal just west of Card Sound Bridge (Dade 

County, FL)-2 

(21) Biscayne Canal (Dade County, FL)-2 

(22) Banana River Marine Service Marina (Brevard County, FL)-2 

(23) Canals/Coves, Upper Keys (Bayside of Key Largo) (Monroe 

County, FL)-2 

(24) Harbor Branch canal (St. Lucie County, FL)-2 

West Coast: 

 Northwest Region 

(25) Crystal River Springs Complex (Citrus County, FL)-1 

(26) Homosassa River Springs Complex (Citrus County, FL)-1 

(27) Weeki Wachee/Mud/Jenkins Creek Springs (Hernando County, 

FL)-1 

(28) FPC Crystal River Power Plant (Citrus County, FL)-2 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

65 
(29) Manatee/Fanning Springs (Dixie County, FL)-2 

(30) Wakulla/St. Mark’s Complex (Wakulla County, FL)-2 

Southwest Region 

(31) TECO Big Bend Power Plant (Hillsborough County, FL)-1 

(32) Warm Mineral Springs (Sarasota County, FL)-1 

(33) Matlacha Isles (Lee County, FL)-1 

(34) FPL Ft. Myers Power Plant (Lee County, FL)-1 

(35) Port of the Islands (Collier County, FL)-1 

(36) FPC Anclote Plant (Pasco County, FL)-2 

(37) TECO Gannon Plant (Hillsborough County, FL)-2 

(38) FPC Bartow Power Plant (Pinellas County, FL)-21 

(39) Ten Mile Canal Borrow Pit (Lee County, FL)-2 

(40) Franklin Locks (Lee County, FL)-2 

(41) Spring Bayou/Tarpon Springs (Pasco County, FL)-2 

(42) Forked Creek (Sarasota County)-2 

(43) Tamiami Canal at Wootens (Collier County, FL)-2 

(44) Big Cypress National Preserve Headquarters Canal (Collier 

County, FL)-2 

(45) Sulphur Springs (Hillsborough County, FL)-2 

A Survey of Florida Springs 

Wildlife Trust 

66