U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5029

In cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, 

Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish 

Refuge, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Upper Mississippi River National 

Wildlife and Fish Refuge, Wisconsin, 

1846–2006

By Faith A. Fitzpatrick, James C. Knox, and Joseph P. Schubauer-Berigan

In cooperation with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Scientifi c Investigations Report 2007–5209

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark D. Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2008

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Suggested citation:

Fitzpatrick, F.A., Knox, J.C., and Schubauer-Berigan, J.P., 2007, Sedimentation history of Halfway Creek Marsh, 

Upper Mississippi Wildlife and Fish Refuge, Wisconsin, 1846–2006: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007–5209, 42 p.

Cover photos (clockwise from top left):

View of Lower Halfway Creek Marsh looking southwest, August 4, 2005 (photo taken by James C. Knox); 

Core PD-2, showing boundary between historical overbank sedimentation and presettlement soil at 5.6 ft depth, 

September 6, 2005 (photo taken by Faith A. Fitzpatrick); Halfway Creek through the upper part of Halfway Creek 

Marsh, February 28, 2006 (photo taken by Faith A. Fitzpatrick).
iii

Contents

Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 1

Purpose and Scope ..................................................................................................................... 4

Description of Study Area .......................................................................................................... 4

Methods.................................................................................................................................................. 8

Mapping Historical Channel Locations .................................................................................... 8

Transect Surveys and Sediment Coring ................................................................................... 8

Laboratory Analysis for Cesium-137 and Particle Size ........................................................ 11

Historical Sedimentation Loads and Rates ........................................................................... 11

Human Activities near Halfway Creek Marsh (1846–2006) .......................................................... 12

1846–1866 (Settlement and Holmen Dam Construction) ..................................................... 12

1867–1890 (Railroad Building and Channel Alterations) ...................................................... 12

1891–1929 (Floods, Dam Failure, Artificial Levees, and Establishment of the 

National Wildlife and Fish Refuge) ............................................................................ 15

1930–1957 (Dam Failure and Construction of Lock and Dam Number 7) .......................... 16

1958–1993 (Wetland Ditching and Dredging) ....................................................................... 17

1994–2006 (Sand Traps and Constructed Wetlands) ............................................................ 17

Sedimentation History (1846–2006) .................................................................................................. 18

Overbank Sedimentation Patterns and Estimated Rates .................................................... 18

Effects on Channel Morphology .............................................................................................. 35

Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 37

Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................. 38

References ........................................................................................................................................... 39
iv

Figures

 1A–3. Maps showing:

 1A. Location, land cover, and watershed boundaries for Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Wis ................................................................................................................... 2

 1B. Core site locations and U.S. Geological Survey streamgages near the 

Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge, Halfway 

Creek Marsh, Wis. ...................................................................................................... 3

 1C. Generalized geologic map of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis. and 

surrounding area ........................................................................................................ 6

 2. Longitudinal profile of Halfway Creek, Wis., from its headwaters 

to mouth. ....................................................................................................................... 7

 3. Historical changes in Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee 

channel locations, Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis. .................................................. 13

4–5. Photographs showing:

 4. Holmen Dam about 1890 , 1919, and 1937 ............................................................. 14

 5. Halfway Creek near Holmen, Wis., after the 1899 flood ..................................... 15

 6A–6E. Maps showing:

 6A. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas 

with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 

for period 1 (1846–1885) ........................................................................................... 19

 6B. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas 

with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 

for period 2 (1886–1918) ........................................................................................... 20

 6C. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas 

with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 

for period 3 (1919–1936) and period 4 (1937–1969) .............................................. 21

 6D. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas 

with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 

for period 5 (1970–1993) ........................................................................................... 22

 6E. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas 

with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 

for period 6 (1994–2006) ........................................................................................... 23

 7–8. Graphs showing:

 7. Particle-size data from core KDH-2, near Halfway Creek, Wis., 1996 ............. 24

 8. Geologic descriptions for cores FWS-21, -22, -23, and -24, 

upper Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006 ............................................................... 25

 9. Aerial photographs of Halfway Creek (1938) showing flood-plain splays 

following dam failure and levee breaks associated with a recent flood ................. 28
v

 10–15. Graphs showing:

 10. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores PD-1, PD-2, 

and PD-3 through a levee breach and flood-plain splay near 

Halfway Creek, Wis., 2006 ....................................................................................... 29

 11. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores PD-4 

and PD-5 through levee breach and flood-plain splay near 

Halfway Creek, Wis., 2006 ....................................................................................... 30

 12. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores FWS-2, -19, -3, 

-18, -15, -14, -13, and -5, lower Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006 .................... 32

 13. Particle size and 137Cs concentrations from cores FWS-15, FWS-18, 

and FWS-21, with overlays of geologic descriptions and estimated dates, 

upper and lower Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006 ............................................ 33

 14. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores SLC-1, -2, -3, -4, 

and -7, and FWS-9, -11, and -12, lower Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006 ..... 34

 15. Channel cross sections of Halfway Creek and 

Sand Lake Coulee, Wis., 2006 ................................................................................. 36

Tables

 1. Summary of locations, depths, types, and sample analyses of cores 

collected near Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis. .................................................................... 9

 2. Overbank sedimentation areas and volumes and sediment loads 

for Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee contributions to 

Halfway Creek Marsh, 1846–2006 ................................................................................... 26
vi

Conversion Factors, Abbreviations, and Vertical Datum

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

yard (yd) 0.9144 meter (m)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2

)

Volume

cubic yard (yd3

) 0.7646 cubic meter (m3) 

cubic yard per year (yd3

/yr) 0.7646 cubic meter per year (m3/yr) 

Mass

ton, short (2,000 lb) 0.9072 megagram (Mg)

ton per acre per year (ton/acre/yr) 2.242 megagram per hectare per year 

(Mg/ha/yr)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 

1929 (NGVD 29).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.
Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, 

Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and 

Fish Refuge, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

By Faith A. Fitzpatrick, James C. Knox1, and Joseph P. Schubauer-Berigan2

 Abstract

The history of overbank sedimentation in the vicinity of Halfway Creek Marsh near La Crosse, Wis., was 

examined during 2005–06 by the U.S. Geological Survey 

and University of Wisconsin–Madison as part of a broader 

study of sediment and nutrient loadings to the Upper Mississippi River bottomlands by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. 

Geological Survey. Historical sedimentation patterns and 

rates were interpreted from field-scale topographic surveys 

and sediment cores collected from the marsh and upstream 

flood plains. Historical maps and aerial photographs were 

used to establish the timing of disturbances and to document changes in channel patterns after Euro-American 

settlement (post 1846). Episodic overbank sedimentation 

patterns and rates were linked to watershed agricultural 

activity, large floods, artificial levee construction, channel 

alterations, and dam failures over the past 160 years. These 

forces affected sedimentation on and between levees, the 

development of alluvial fans and flood-plain splays, and 

the general pattern of flood-plain sedimentation through 

the upper and lower marsh. Historical overbank deposits, 

episodically deposited after about 1860, are as much as 

6 feet thick in the upper marsh and as much as 4 feet thick 

in the lower marsh, representing a total volume of approximately 1.8 million cubic yards.

These stratified deposits consist of multiple layers of 

silt and clay, very fine to fine sand, and some medium to 

very coarse sand. Coarse-grained deposits are associated 

with flood-plain splays caused by breaches in artificial 

1

 University of Wisconsin–Madison, Geography Department, 

Madison, Wis. 2

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and 

Development, Cincinnati, Ohio

levees during large floods. Estimated sedimentation rates 

were highest from 1919 to 1936 [26,890 cubic yards per 

year (yd3/yr)] and exceeded by about 30 times the 1846–85 

rate of 920 yd3/yr and exceeded by 7 times the 1994–2006 

rate of 3,740 yd3/yr. The 1994–2006 sedimentation rate 

was the lowest since Euro-American settlement, but 

natural levees along the 1994–2006 channel of Halfway 

Creek through the lower marsh continued to form and are 

currently (2006) about 1 foot higher than the surrounding 

marsh. Natural levee building in the lower marsh from 

1994–2006 was accentuated by the lack of overbank sediment storage in the upper marsh. The historical storage 

of sediment in the upper and lower marsh affects modern 

streamflow and sediment transport processes of Halfway 

Creek and Sand Lake Coulee through the marsh, and it 

also affects marsh vegetation and wildlife habitat. Results 

from this investigation will help improve the understanding 

of how past overbank sedimentation patterns continue to 

influence modern and future water quality, sediment transport, nutrient loads, and water-related resources in riparian 

habitats common to the Upper Mississippi River National 

Wildlife and Fish Refuge.

 Introduction

Halfway Creek Marsh is in the lower reach of Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee and in the bottomlands 

of the Mississippi River north of Onalaska, Wis. (fig. 1A). 

The marsh is part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

(USFWS) Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and 

Fish Refuge and has upper and lower sections separated 

by County Highway ZN near Midway (fig. 1B). The upper 

marsh historically was more extensively drained than 

the lower marsh primarily because of its use for agriculture. The lower marsh is wetter than the upper marsh and 
2 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

Barren

Forested wetland

Grassland

Water

Wetland

Agriculture

Deciduous

Coniferous

Mixed deciduous/conifer

Urban

Forest

Land use/land cover

Sub-basin boundary

Watershed boundary

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage

Stream

Halfway Creek Marsh boundary

EXPLANATION

Halfway

Creek

Marsh

Dam

(1862–1957)

ONALASKA

MIDWAY

HOLMEN

Sand Lake Coulee

Lake

Onalaska La Crosse

River

Halfway Creek

Mississippi

River

0 1 0.5 MILE

0 1 0.5 KILOMETER

43°59'24" 43°54'59"

91°14'55" 91°9'30"

WISCONSIN

Study

area

Driftless

Area

Figure 1A. Location, land cover, and watershed boundaries for Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis. (Reese and others, 2002).
Introduction 3

UPPER MARSH

LOWER MARSH

Pool A

Pool C

Pool B

Sediment trap

7B

8

6

7A

4

5

3

2

1A

1B

05382239

05382240

05382242

05382241

Paudler Road

GREAT RIVER STATE TRAIL/CHICAGO & NORTHWESTERN RAILROAD

BURLINGTON NORTHERN SANTA FE RAILROAD

MIDWAY

Sand Lake Coulee

Halfway Creek

Lake Onalaska

FWS-9

FWS-8

FWS-7

FWS-6

FWS-5

FWS-24

FWS-23

FWS-22

FWS-21

FWS-20

FWS-19

FWS-18 FWS-17 FWS-16

FWS-14

FWS-13

FWS-12

FWS-10

PD-5

PD-4

PD-3

PD-2

PD-1

SLC-6

SLC-5

SLC-4

SLC-2

FWS-4 FWS-3 FWS-2

FWS-1

BM2681921

FWS-15

FWS-11

SLC-3

SLC-1

KDH-2

KDH-3

KDH-1

SLC-7

Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

Emergency spillway

EXPLANATION

Core site and identifier

Experimental constructed wetlands

Refuge boundary

Transect

USGS streamgage and identifier

USGS permanent benchmark and

identifier 

Unsurveyed portion of transect

Diversion channel

River channel

Levee

0 500 1,000 FEET

0 250 125 METERS

Halfway Creek

basin

53

35

XX

Z

Z

ZN

ZM

ZM

OT

OT

43°56'16" 43°55'10"

91°16'13" 91°15'18"

Figure 1B. Core site locations and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) streamgages near the Upper Mississippi River National 

Wildlife and Fish Refuge, Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis.
4 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

historically had less agricultural disturbance. Halfway 

Creek and Sand Lake Coulee have channelized reaches 

and drainage modifications in the upper and lower marsh. 

Halfway Creek has levees through the upper marsh as part 

of a historical flood-control project.

Flooding, sedimentation, and nutrient enrichment 

problems have been extensive along Halfway Creek and 

Sand Lake Coulee and in the marsh since the beginning 

of Euro-American agriculture in the watershed. Further 

flooding and sedimentation problems were caused by 

dam construction and subsequent dam failure in Holmen, 

construction of artificial levees between County Highways 

XX and ZN, and the constructed extension of drainage 

from Sand Lake Coulee into the marsh (figs. 1A–B). Since 

the late 1800s, channels of Halfway Creek and Sand Lake 

Coulee have been modified and dredged in and near the 

marsh to alleviate flooding and sedimentation problems. 

Sedimentation in the channels where they enter the marsh 

has caused floodwaters to exceed channel capacities and 

flood residential areas in and near Midway. Increased 

expansion of residential areas in the two watersheds started 

in the 1990s and may contribute to additional flooding and 

sedimentation problems in the marsh. 

Reduction of runoff-related nutrients into the marsh 

and Lake Onalaska is the focus of a cooperative research 

study among the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA), USFWS, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

Ducks Unlimited, and other partners (U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, 2000). Three experimental constructed 

wetlands (shown as Pools A–C on fig. 1B), including an 

inlet structure and a diversion channel, were constructed 

in 1999–2000 in the upper marsh to capture runoff, sediment, and nutrients before they enter the lower marsh 

and to restore, enhance, and preserve wetland and upland 

habitat, especially for migratory birds (fig. 1B). Suspended 

sediment concentrations currently (2006) are monitored 

at three USGS streamgages (fig. 1B). Scientists from the 

USGS office in La Crosse, Wis., are monitoring sedimentation rates and nutrient loadings into the three detentionsedimentation basins in the upper marsh. 

The USEPA and USFWS are interested in the extent 

of historical sedimentation in the marsh and the relative 

inputs of sediment from the Halfway Creek and Sand 

Lake Coulee. Specific questions asked by the USEPA and 

USFWS include:

1. What is the extent and character of historical 

sand deposition in the marsh and can the sand be 

removed and used for landscaping/fill?

2. Will the channel of Halfway Creek stabilize 

through the lower marsh?

3. Are more sediment traps needed along Halfway 

Creek in the upper marsh?

4. Given the rate of sediment deposition, is it worthwhile to improve wetland habitat in the lower 

marsh?

5. Will sediment deposition rates remain relatively 

constant in the marsh over the next 50 years?

The general objectives of the present study were to 

describe sedimentation patterns and character, to estimate 

rates of historical sediment deposition, and to document 

how sediment deposition on the flood plain and marsh in 

recent years (2004–06) compares to that in past times (historical compared to natural and recent compared to longterm historical). This study was initiated in 2005 and was 

done in cooperation with USEPA. The results will be used 

to place the last few years of suspended-sediment-load 

data collected as part of related studies into an historical 

context. The information will be used by resource managers for future management, protection, rehabilitation, and 

monitoring decisions for Halfway Creek Marsh. 

 Purpose and Scope

The principal purpose of this report is to describe the 

sedimentation history of Halfway Creek Marsh in and near 

the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish 

Refuge. The report contains a compilation of historical 

human activities and floods that affected channel morphology and sediment movement and character from about 

1846 (beginning of Euro-American agricultural settlement) 

through 2006 (time of USGS coring and surveying). Historical sedimentation patterns and rates were reconstructed 

from cores and topographic surveys of Halfway Creek 

and surrounding flood plains, wetlands, and levees. The 

potential causes for temporal and spatial variations in sedimentation are described in terms of documented human 

disturbances primarily during 1846–2006. 

 Description of Study Area

Halfway Creek Marsh is in a tributary bottomland 

of the Mississippi River west and south of Midway, Wis., 

and is fed mainly by Halfway Creek (watershed of 36 mi2) 

from the north and east and secondarily by Sand Lake 

Coulee from the east (watershed of 8 mi2) (fig. 1A). The 
Introduction 5

watersheds drain lands including the communities of Midway, Holmen, and parts of Onalaska. The marsh is located 

along the western edge of the Driftless Area, a region in 

southwest Wisconsin that was not glaciated. 

The watersheds of Halfway Creek and Sand Lake 

Coulee are characterized by moderate to steep, forested 

slopes separated by relatively flat, narrow, agricultural 

uplands (fig. 1A). Land cover in the combined watersheds 

is 49 percent forest, 32 percent agriculture (mostly row 

crops with some hay crops), 10 percent grassland/pasture, 

6 percent urban, 2 percent barren, and 1 percent wetland 

(Reese and others, 2002). Developed areas are mainly 

near Midway and Holmen, but residential areas extend 

along highways that connect Midway to Onalaska to the 

south of Sand Lake Coulee (fig. 1A). In 1995, Halfway 

Creek watershed was 5 percent urban land and Sand Lake 

Coulee watershed was 22 percent urban land (Vierbicher 

Associates, Inc., 1995). Vierbicher Associates, Inc., (1995) 

projected a growth of urban land to over 20 percent in 

Halfway Creek and over 40 percent in Sand Lake Coulee 

watersheds by 2015. Biotic integrity has been shown to 

decrease in Wisconsin streams with greater than 10–20 

percent watershed urban land (Wang and others, 1997), 

suggesting Sand Lake Coulee and eventually Halfway 

Creek may have aquatic communities affected by urbanization. For the Onalaska area, Vierbicher Associates, 

Inc., (1995) predicted an increase in channel cross-section 

area from 2 to 4 times to accommodate runoff from added 

impervious areas.

Annual sediment loads in 1995 were estimated by use 

of a sediment transport model, which projected an annual 

yield of 39,100 yd3

 (50,200 tons, assuming 1 yd3 equals 

approximately 1.33 tons) for Halfway Creek and 3,400 yd3 

(4,500 tons) for Sand Lake Coulee (Vierbicher Associates, 

Inc., 1995). These estimates indicate that sediment yields 

per acre from Halfway Creek were more than 2 times those 

from Sand Lake Coulee (2.20 and 0.87 ton/acre/yr, respectively). Cultivated subwatersheds in steep bluff tributaries 

in the western part of the Halfway Creek watershed and 

near the lower main stem of Halfway Creek (near Holmen 

and downstream) were estimated to contribute the most 

sediment per unit area (between 2 to 5 ton/acre/yr). 

The longitudinal profile of Halfway Creek from its 

headwaters to its mouth has a concave-up profile, typical 

of most natural river systems, and most of its lower course 

is developed on deep alluvial fill (fig. 1C and fig. 2). 

There is a slight steepening of the profile in Holmen as the 

stream leaves the headwater reach confined by the valley bluffs and enters a reach that is incised into a terrace 

underlain by late Pleistocene sand and sandy gravels. The 

profile flattens again as Halfway Creek exits the western 

edge of the terrace and passes across a Holocene (postglacial) alluvial fan developed on a lower surface that is 

adjusted to the Upper Mississippi River flood plain (fig. 2). 

Another slight steepening of slope near the stream crossing with County Highway ZN continues into the lower 

marsh. This steepening is likely a result of human activities involving channel straightening and relocation. Based 

on 7.5-minute topographic map contours, the average slope 

of Halfway Creek downstream from the Holmen Dam to 

County Highway ZN is 0.14 percent and is slightly steeper 

(0.34 percent) downstream from County Highway ZN to 

its mouth.

Surficial deposits in the watersheds of Halfway 

Creek and Sand Lake Coulee are a reflection of bedrock 

geology and Pleistocene loess (wind-blown silt) (Knox, 

1985) (fig. 1C). Bedrock is mainly Ordovician dolomite 

on upland drainage divides and Cambrian sandstone along 

hillslopes (Evans, 2003). The physical characteristics of 

Halfway Creek Marsh and the immediate surrounding area 

show the effects of transport of water and sediment by 

the Mississippi River and its major aggradation with sand 

and gravel during the last continental glacial advance into 

northern Wisconsin and Minnesota. Side-valley tributaries, such as Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee, also 

aggraded their lower reaches when the aggrading Mississippi River raised the base level at mouths of tributaries, 

which resulted in deposition of fine sediments, including 

major amounts of silt and clay (Knox, 1985). The finegrained sediments reflect sediment deposition in relatively 

low-energy slackwater ponds that formed at and near tributary valley mouth locations when the Mississippi River 

was aggrading, and they also include silt and clay derived 

from erosion of loess from the surrounding uplands. Loess, 

which locally consists of 65–75 percent silt, 15–25 percent 

clay, and minor amounts of sand, was initially transported 

by strong glacial-age winds blowing across exposed river 

bars and onto the uplands. A relatively treeless tundra 

environment prevailed in southwestern Wisconsin during the last glacial maximum, and this condition favored 

intensive downslope movement of sediments, including 

recently deposited loess (Mason and Knox, 1997). Much 

of this gravity-transported sediment accumulated on lower 

hillslopes, but significant amounts also were transported 

downvalley and were redeposited in low-energy slackwater 

environments. 

The level of Mississippi River aggradation by the end 

of the last glacial period reached an altitude of approximately 750 ft in the Halfway Creek Marsh area, whereas 

the modern low-water stage of the Mississippi River is 
6 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

Lake Onalaska

Base compiled from U.S. Geological Survey 7.5-minute topographic maps, 1990, Holmen and Onalaska quadrangles.

0 0.5 0.25 MILE

0 0.5 0.25 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

Pleistocene loess boundary

Savanna Terrace boundary

Holocene alluvium boundary

Bagley Terrace boundary

Bagley Terrace 

complex

Savanna 

Terrace

Halfway Creek

Holocene

alluvial fan 

Pleistocene loess over 

Ordovician dolomite or 

Cambrian sandstone

Brice Prairie

Amsterdam Prairie

HOLMEN

Halfway Creek

Holocene

alluvial fan 

Bagley Terrace 

complex

Bagley Terrace 

complex with winddeposited sand dunes

Pleistocene loess over 

Ordovician dolomite or 

Cambrian sandstone

Savanna 

Terrace

Brice Prairie

Amsterdam Prairie

HOLMEN

MIDWAY

Halfway

Creek

Marsh

Halfway Creek

basin

43°57'47" 43°55'10"

91°16'48" 91°14'27"

Figure 1C. Generalized geologic map of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis. and surrounding area (modified from Evans, 2003).
Introduction 7

about 640 ft in the same area. Following glacial ice retreat 

in northern Wisconsin and Minnesota about 16,000 years 

ago, Mississippi River flows with lower sediment loads—

sometimes associated with extreme floods resulting from 

outlet failures of lakes that had formed along the retreating 

ice margin—led to relatively abrupt incision of the sand 

and gravel valley fill (Knox, 1999). The deep incision 

produced a sequence of terraces (fig. 1C). The Savanna 

Terrace represents remnants of the former maximum level 

of aggradation, but erosion removed most of this surface 

except in protected side valleys such as Halfway Creek, 

east of Holmen. Two prominent cut-terraces, known as 

the Bagley Terrace complex, are at altitudes of about 720 

ft and 665 in the Holmen-Halfway Creek area. The upper 

terrace contains wind-deposited sand dunes that range 

between about 5 and 20 ft in thickness. The Bagley Terrace is underlain by thick deposits of sand and gravel into 

which Halfway Creek has incised its course between Holmen and County Highway XX. A well near the northwest 

edge of Holmen (NW1/4 sec. 7, T. 17 N., R. 7 W.) penetrated 150 ft of sand and gravel without reaching bedrock. 

This implies that the bedrock floor of the Mississippi River 

valley is below an altitude of 570 ft at this location. A well 

less than a mile west of the lower marsh (SW1/4, sec. 30, 

T. 17 N., R. 17 N.) penetrated the bedrock valley floor at 

510 ft. Drill cores collected for the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers during construction of Lock and Dam No. 7 

(located on the Mississippi River at Onalaska) indicate that 

incision of the alluvial fill at the late-glacial to postglacial 

transition probably extended to a depth of 170 ft below the 

Savanna Terrace top of maximum late-glacial alluviation 

(Brown, 1931). This depth equates to an altitude of about 

580 ft, which is about 70 ft above the bedrock surface of 

the valley floor. The sand and gravel sediments underlying the Bagley Terrace complex are a potential source of 

coarse-grained substrate and bedload for Halfway Creek 

through the marsh. In addition, easily eroded loess (mainly 

silt), a principal soil parent material of agricultural fields, 

is a potential major source of suspended load.

Halfway Creek flows across a Holocene-age alluvial 

fan that is particularly prominent along the reach of channel from County Highway XX at the edge of the Bagley 

Terrace scarp to County Highway ZN at the entrance to the 

lower marsh (fig. 1C). The alluvial fan began to develop 

immediately after an extreme late-glacial-age Mississippi 

River flood caused by outlet failure of an ice-marginal lake 

incised the low linear depression between Brice Prairie and 

the Bagley Terrace (Knox, 1999) (fig. 1C). Subsequently, 

600

700

800

900

1,000

1,100

1,200

1,300

1,400

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

RIVER MILE FROM MOUTH

Holmen

Channelized/levees from 

here downstream, 

streamflow across

 Holocene alluvial fan

Start of main stem

and unconfined valley Upper end of 

historic millpond

Stream enters 

Upper Mississippi

River valley

Stream enters

southern part of

wildlife refuge and

crosses County

Highway ZN

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

Figure 2. Longitudinal profile of Halfway Creek, Wis., from its headwaters to mouth.
8 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

water and sediment confined by the deep, narrow valley 

containing Halfway Creek on its course across the Bagley 

Terrace downstream from Holmen were able to fan out on 

entry into the lowland beginning in the County Highway 

XX location, just as water and sediment did during the historical period of Euro-American agriculture until confined 

by artificial levees along the channel on the fan. A basal 

radiocarbon age of about 16,000 years ago in conjunction 

with sequential layers of overlying alluvial sediments indicate that that the fan accumulated progressively throughout 

the past 16,000 years (Knox, 1999). 

 Methods

 Mapping Historical Channel Locations

The location and proximity of historical stream channels through the upper and lower marsh were important 

to document to adequately describe overbank sedimentation patterns, rates, and processes. Six historical maps and 

one set of aerial photographs, all available digitally, were 

used to reconstruct historical channel changes of Halfway 

Creek and Sand Lake Coulee in the vicinity of the marsh. 

The digital maps were georeferenced with a geographic 

information system by use of a second-order polynomial transformation, with as many section intersections 

matched for control points as were present on the original 

maps. When possible, a minimum of 8–12 control points 

was used to minimize error in georeferencing (Hughes and 

others, 2006). Low root-mean-square errors and visual 

checks indicated that the maps were aligned reasonably 

(M.C. Peppler, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 

2006).

Three maps were used for interpretation of channel 

locations around the time of Euro-American settlement: 

field notes and maps from the 1846 public land survey 

records (Wisconsin Board of Commissioners of Public 

Lands, 1846), an 1866 map from the G.K. Warren surveys 

of the Mississippi River (Warren, 1867), and an 1878 plat 

map (Snyder, Van Vechten & Co., 1878). Accuracy of the 

georeferencing for the 1866 map was limited because only 

five control points were available on the map. In addition, 

the 1878 plat map was of low resolution, and georeferencing was not as accurate as the other maps; therefore, the 

channel location was more coarsely defined. 

Twentieth century channel locations were described 

by a 1906 plat map (Ogle, 1906), land economic inventory maps (Bordner Surveys) for La Crosse County from 

1937–38 (Wisconsin Department of Agriculture and 

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, 1938), 

1973 USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle maps, 

and 2005 aerial photographs (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005). The resolution of channel locations improved 

over time as mapping resolution improved. In addition, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture aerial photographs from 

1938–40, 1956, 1997, and 2002 were used to supplement 

the main maps and aerial photographs to compare historical and current channel and riparian conditions. 

 Transect Surveys and Sediment Coring

Data collected from transect surveys and sediment 

coring of the upper and lower marsh were used to estimate 

historical sedimentation patterns and rates, using techniques described by Happ and others (1940), Knox (1987), 

Fitzpatrick and others (1999), Fitzpatrick (2005), Vanoni 

(2006), and Knox (2006). Historical overbank deposits 

since the beginning of Euro-American settlement in the 

Driftless Area tend to be more sandy, lighter in color, and 

less compacted compared to presettlement deposits. Also, 

they have more prominent stratified bedding and are lacking soil development compared to presettlement deposits 

(Knox, 1987). Coring and surveying were done from 

September 2005 to March 2006, except that cores KDH-1 

through KDH-3 were previously collected by James Knox 

in 1996 (fig. 1B). Transects were surveyed across modern 

and historic channels, alluvial fans, flood plains, and levee 

splays. Land-surface and core altitudes were surveyed by 

use of an electronic theodolite and tied into a Department 

of Transportation benchmark BM2681921 at Sand Lake 

Coulee bridge crossing on County Highway O (fig. 1B). 

The thickness and texture of historical sediment were 

examined by collecting cores near transect lines with 

two devices, a 1-in.-diameter handheld soil probe and 

a geoprobe (fig. 1B; table 1). The hand-held soil probe 

was useful for quick exploratory coring and field-based 

descriptions. The geoprobe (2-in. diameter) is a hydraulic tapping-type coring device mounted on a four-wheel 

all-terrain vehicle and was used to collect cores for more 

detailed descriptions of alluvial deposits, for archiving, and 

for subsampling. Cores were to be collected in the lower 

marsh near County Highway Z during winter; however, 

the ground surface of the lower marsh did not adequately 

freeze during the unusually warm winter in 2005–06, 

precluding collection of cores there. A global positioning 

system was used to verify the location of each transect 

and core. 
Methods 9

Table 1. Summary of locations, depths, types, and sample analyses of cores collected near Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis.[--, not applicable; mm/dd/yyyy, month/day/year; altitude, in feet above NGVD 29; core depth is from land surface]

Core Date collected (mm/dd/yyyy)

Location

Type of core Description

Land surface 

altitude

(feet)

Core depth 

(feet)

Depth to dark, 

organic-rich soil 

(feet) Latitude Longitude

PD-1 09/06/2005 43°56'15" 91°16'33.9" Hand core Halfway Creek, field west of levee 660.4 11 5.8PD-2 09/06/2005 43°56'12.2" 91°16'34.6" Hand core Halfway Creek, field west of levee 659.9 11.3 5.6

PD-3 09/06/2005 43°56'11.6" 91°16'33.2" Hand core Halfway Creek, field west of levee 658.8 8 5.6PD-4 09/06/2005 43°56'4.5" 91°16'34.6" Hand core Halfway Creek, field west of levee 653.9 8.8 3.5PD-5 09/06/2005 43°56'6.8" 91°16'39.9" Hand core Halfway Creek, field west of levee 650.9 8 3.7SLC-1 09/14/2006 43°55'31.5" 91°15'19.3" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, alluvial fan 647.9 10.5 8.5SLC-2 09/14/2005 43°55'30.5" 91°15'21.5" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, alluvial fan 645.3 10.5 6.4SLC-3 09/14/2005 43°55'28.2" 91°15'24.5" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, alluvial fan 643.3 8 2.0SLC-4 09/14/2005 43°55'27.4" 91°15'27.1" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, edge of alluvial fan 642.2 8 1.0SLC-5 09/14/2005 43°55'29.9" 91°15'27.2" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, old channel 643.2 6 1.5

SLC-6 09/14/2005 43°55'31.7" 91°15'25.8" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, old channel 644.0 6 1.0SLC-7 09/14/2005 43°55'31.7" 91°15'25.8" Hand core Sand Lake Coulee, 20 feet south of SLC-6 644.2 3.5 3.0FWS-1 10/11/2005 43°55'35.2" 91°16'12.7" Hand core Halfway Creek, south of Cty Rd ZN 649.0 2.5 2.5FWS-2 10/11/2005 43°55'35.2" 91°16'12.4" Hand core Halfway Creek, south of Cty Rd ZN 648.5 13.3 6.7FWS-3 10/11/2005 43°55'32.5" 91°16'3.6" Hand core Halfway Creek, south of Cty Rd ZN 645.1 8 4.5FWS-4 10/11/2005 43°55'32" 91°15'56.9" Hand core Halfway Creek, south of Cty Rd ZN 645.4 6 2.6FWS-5 11/29/2005 43°55'18.2" 91°15'40.6" Hand core Halfway Creek, lower wetland 641.5 8 2.8FWS-6 11/29/2005 43°55'27.2" 91°15'49.4" Hand core Halfway Creek, refuge 642.7 6 2.0FWS-7 11/29/2005 43°55'27.9" 91°15'46.5" Hand core Halfway Creek, refuge 642.9 9 1.0

FWS-8 11/29/2005 43°55'19.4" 91°15'53.7" Hand core Halfway Creek, refuge 642.5 15.5 1.9FWS-9 02/27/2006 43°55'19.3" 91°15'53.6" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, wetland east of railroad 642.5 24 1.5FWS-10 02/27/2006 43°55'19.8" 91°15'52.7" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, wetland east of railroad 642.9 16 --FWS-11 02/27/2006 43°55'20.3" 91°15'51.1" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, wetland east of railroad 642.7 20 2.1FWS-12 02/27/2006 43°55'20.8" 91°15'49.9" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, wetland east of railroad 642.5 12 1.7FWS-13 02/27/2006 43°55'22.7" 91°15'51.7" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, old distributary channel 642.9 12 2.4FWS-14 02/27/2006 43°55'25.3" 91°15'52.8" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, old distributary channel 644.1 16 4.0FWS-15 02/28/2006 43°55'27.2" 91°15'54.7" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, old distributary channel 644.4 16 4.0
10 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006 Core Date collected (mm/dd/yyyy) Location Type of core Description Land surface altitude (feet) Core depth (feet) Depth to dark, organic-rich soil (feet) Latitude Longitude FWS-16 2/28/2006 43°55'28.5" 91°15'50.6" Geoprobe West side of creek and fence line 643.0 12 1.9 FWS-16a 2/28/2006 43°55'28.5" 91°15'50.6" Geoprobe Duplicate of FWS-16 643.0 12 1.7 FWS-17 2/28/2006 43°55'29.8" 91°15'55.3" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, lower marsh 644.2 12 1.1 FWS-18 2/28/2006 43°55'29.6" 91°15'59.2" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, lower marsh 645.8 12 4.4 FWS-19 2/28/2006 43°55'33.3" 91°16'7" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, south of Cty Rd ZN 646.0 12 5.4 FWS-20 2/28/2006 43°55'34.8" 91°15'52.4" Geoprobe West side of Halfway Creek, 50 feet south of Cty Rd ZN 646.1 16 2.8 FWS-21 2/28/2006 43°55'49.9" 91°16'33.2" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, upper marsh, inside levee 652.6 16 5.8 FWS-22 2/28/2006 43°55'51.8" 91°16'27.7" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, upper marsh, outside levee 648.3 16 2.9 FWS-23 2/28/2006 43°55'52.5" 91°16'27.1" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, upper marsh, outside levee 648.9 16 3.6 FWS-24 2/28/2006 43°55'53.5" 91°16'32.2" Geoprobe Halfway Creek, upper marsh, inside levee 653.3 16 4.0 KDH-1 8/27/1996 43°56'26.9" 91°16'53.9" Giddings Halfway Creek, field west of levee 650.5 22 .0 KDH-2 8/27/1996 43°56'26.4" 91°16'27.4" Giddings Halfway Creek, field west of levee 660.0 38 1.5 KDH-3 8/28/1996 43°56'31.6" 91°16'18.7" Giddings Halfway Creek, field west of levee 665.0 80 .0 Table 1. Summary of locations, depths, types, and sample analyses of cores collected near Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis.—Continued. [--, not applicable; mm/dd/yyyy, month/day/year]
Methods 11

All cores were described for texture, color, compaction, structure, and soil development in the field or laboratory using standard terminology of the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture (Munsell Color, 1975; Soil Survey Staff, 

1951). Field grading of texture was done by rubbing soil 

between the fingers (Milfred and others, 1967). Recovery 

ratios (length of extracted core compared to penetration 

depth) were recorded for all coring devices. Sediment 

samples from a subset of cores (FWS-15, FWS-18, and 

FWS-21) were analyzed for particle size and radiometric 

dating. 

Buried soils are commonly found in flood-plain 

deposits and can be good indicators of flood-plain surface 

stability. Buried soils in this context represent older floodplain surfaces (Happ and others, 1940; Birkland, 1984; 

Retallick, 1985). In general, modern flood-plain soils are 

usually poorly developed because of the possibility for 

a fast rate of burial, high water table, and anthropogenic 

disturbance. Many buried flood-plain surfaces show incipient A-horizon development or only a thin layer of organic 

matter and remnants of vegetation. The A horizon is a 

dark zone at the surface of the soil caused by accumulation 

of decomposing organic matter. The buried flood-plain 

surfaces can be recognized by one or more of the following characteristics: presence of an A horizon; organic 

matter accumulation from flood-plain or wetland vegetation; lateral extent of a buried surface that is parallel to the 

land surface and that may truncate geologic bedding; root 

traces; and soil structure (Birkland, 1984; Retallick, 1985). 

Sometimes, part of a buried soil may be removed by scour 

activity associated with flooding, channel migration, or 

channel avulsion.

 Laboratory Analysis for Cesium-137 and 

Particle Size

Three cores from the upper and lower marsh were 

selected for further quantification of particle size and 

historical deposition rates through radiometric dating. Subsamples from cores FWS-18 and FWS-21 were submitted 

to the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, Madison, 

Wis. for cesium-137 (137Cs) analysis. Concentrations of 

137Cs were determined from direct gamma counting by use 

of an ultralow-background intrinsic germanium semiplanar detector coupled to a multichannel analyzer (Schelske 

and others, 1994). Detector efficiency was determined as 

a function of both sample geometry and sample weight. 

Cesium-137 was first detected in 1945, and in 1952 the 

first increase in atmospheric fallout happened in the Northern Hemisphere, corresponding to increased nuclear weapons testing (Krishnaswami and Lal, 1978; Anderson and 

others, 1987). In 1960, there was a minimum, followed by 

a maximum in 1963. With the signing of the Nuclear Test 

Ban treaty in 1963, atmospheric contributions dropped 

substantially. A date of 1963 was assigned to the sample 

with the highest 137Cs activity, and average sedimentation 

rates were determined for the years 1963 through 2006 

(time of core collection). Linear sedimentation rates were 

calculated for the time periods 1860–1963 and 1963–2006, 

assuming the year 1860 represented the pre-Euro-American settlement marsh or flood-plain surface.

 Subsamples of cores FWS-15 and FWS-21 were 

analyzed for particle size (sand and silt-clay composition) 

at the USGS Kentucky Water Science Center Sediment 

Laboratory in Louisville, Ky. There was not enough material left in core FWS-18 for particle-size analysis after 

subsampling for 137Cs, so a nearby core, FWS-15, with 

similar deposition history was subsampled as a surrogate 

for FWS-18.

 Historical Sedimentation Loads and Rates

Data on the degree of soil development and texture 

variations determined from sediment cores from the upper 

and lower marsh, in combination with radiometric results, 

reconstruction of historical channel locations, and known 

dates for human activities (such as artificial levee construction), were used to develop overbank sedimentation patterns and thickness for six historical time periods. Volume 

of overbank sediment (area × depth) was converted to 

tons by a conversion factor of 1 yd3 = 1.33 tons, which 

is equivalent to the conversion factor used by Vierbicher 

Associates, Inc., (1995) for ease of comparison. Overbank 

sediment thickness from individual cores was averaged for 

cores within similar geomorphic settings and history of 

human disturbance. Relative comparisons were made for 

order-of-magnitude differences in overbank sedimentation 

volumes, rates, and loads. 
12 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

 Human Activities near Halfway 

Creek Marsh (1846–2006)

Human activities have affected Halfway Creek Marsh 

beginning with Euro-American settlement of the area in 

the 1850s and continuing into the 21st century. Activities 

that affected watershed runoff and sediment inputs are 

described as well as local activities such as dam building, 

stream crossings, and levee building. The time periods for 

the activities help to describe the timing and causes for 

changes in channel locations and overbank sedimentation 

patterns and rates.

 1846–1866 (Settlement and Holmen Dam 

Construction)

Major settlement began in the Halfway Creek area in 

the early 1850s (Olson, 1962). By 1870, 96 percent of La 

Crosse County was settled (Wingate, 1975). The first land 

sales in La Crosse County were in 1848, but settlement 

was not permanent until 1851 in the Town of Onalaska 

(Renggly and others, 1881, p. 374, 715). 

The 1846, 1866, and 1878 maps show the Halfway 

Creek location before and during Euro-American settlement and railroad building (fig. 3). Halfway Creek’s most 

noticeable difference between the early maps and modern 

maps is the shift in location of the mouth of Halfway 

Creek. Before the installation of the Burlington and Northern Railroad (now known as the Burlington Northern Santa 

Fe Railroad) grade about 1886, the mouth of Halfway 

Creek was 0.35 mi west of its 2006 position (figs. 1B and 

3). Halfway Creek flowed along the southern tip of Brice 

Prairie to join the Black River, which then flowed southerly along the west side of Brice Prairie (and currently 

enters the Mississippi River on the north side of Brice 

Prairie, about 5 miles upstream of the mouth of Halfway 

Creek). In Holmen, a dam and millpond were constructed 

on Halfway Creek in 1862 (Olson, 1962) (fig. 1A). This 

dam was known originally as Casberg’s Dam but was later 

called Holmen Dam (fig. 4). Records of floods are scarce 

for this period, but a large flood on the Black River and its 

tributaries in the late 1840s (possibly 1849) caused damage 

to nearby areas that lasted for months afterward (Renggly 

and others, 1881, p. 372).

 1867–1890 (Railroad Building and Channel 

Alterations)

The Chicago & Northwestern Railroad was built 

across Halfway Creek Marsh in 1867 to connect Onalaska, 

Wis., with Winona, Minn. (Renggly and others, 1881, 

p. 586–590). The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 

Railroad Company constructed the rail line along the 

west side of Halfway Creek Marsh in 1886 (Railway and 

Locomotive Historical Society, Inc., 1937). The railroad 

was expanded to its present two-track configuration during 

1900–37. The planform of Halfway Creek and the location 

of its mouth were likely changed during the construction 

of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad in 1886 

(fig. 3). The highway road network was more extensive 

than present during this time period as well. For example, 

Paudler Road extended across Halfway Creek in 1878, but 

by 1937 the bridge crossing and the road west of Halfway 

Creek were gone. Elsewhere, the 1878 plat map shows a 

road west of and adjacent to the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad grade from Midway south along the eastern 

margin of the lower marsh. This road was the precursor 

to modern County Highway ZM, which is now along the 

eastern side of the railroad grade. The same 1878 plat map 

shows that the channel draining Sand Lake Coulee terminated 1.5 mi upstream and southeast of Midway in sandy 

sediments that underlie the terrace on which Holmen is 

built. The Sand Lake Coulee channel was subsequently 

dredged to extend from its former terminus on the terrace 

to drain directly into Halfway Creek Marsh at Midway.

As agriculture and settlement expanded in the area, 

changes were made to Holmen Dam. Between 1871 and 

1875 (the date is marked as 1871 on a photo and 1875 in 

the associated text), the first grain mill was constructed and 

a dam built at Holmen Pond (Olson, 1962). In 1876 the 

mill dam “went out” and was rebuilt (Olson, 1862). Notes 

from an 1876 dam inspection (Wisconsin Department of 

Natural Resources Dam Field File #32.02) indicate that the 

mill pond covered 22 acres. The 1878 plat map also shows 

a second mill on Halfway Creek on the northwest side 

of County Highway XX. No additional information was 

recovered about the duration and hydrologic significance 

of the second mill.

 By 1875, the population of Holland Township was 

863, and the population of Onalaska Township was 1,378. 

Wheat was the principal crop, and minor amounts of corn 

and oats also were produced (Butterfield, 1881, p. 253, 

261). Farming practices associated with grain production 

made the soils especially prone to degradation and erosion 

(Johnson, 1991).
Human Activities near Halfway Creek Marsh (1846–2006) 13

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage

Core site location

1846 (Wisconsin Board of Commissioners of Public Lands, 1846)

Historical channels

1866 (Warren, 1866)

1878 (Snyder, Van Vechten & Co., 1878)

1906 (Ogle, 1906)

1937–38 (Wisconsin Land Economic Inventory, 1938)

1973 (U.S. Geological Survey, 1978)

2005 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005)

EXPLANATION Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

43°56'16" 43°54'57"

91°16'13" 91°14'35"

Figure 3. Historical changes in Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee channel locations, Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis.
14 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

Figure 4. Holmen Dam around 1890 (Olson, 1962), 1919, and 1937 (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Dam Field File 

#32.02).

Around 1890

1919

1937
Human Activities near Halfway Creek Marsh (1846–2006) 15

 1891–1929 (Floods, Dam Failure, Artificial 

Levees, and Establishment of the National 

Wildlife and Fish Refuge)

Gullying and soil erosion, caused by a combination of 

agriculture and floods, were common problems in the late 

1800s and early 1900s (Knox, 2001). Heavy spring rains 

in 1892 and 1902, early in the growing season, may have 

contributed to expansion of gullies in tributaries to the 

Upper Mississippi River drainage in southwest Wisconsin 

(Knox, 2001). In June 1899, a large flood on Halfway 

Creek destroyed the Holmen Dam and a bridge and five 

barns near Holmen (Olson, 1962). The La Crosse weather 

station recorded 6.5 in. of rain during a 4-day period in 

June 1899, with more than 11.5 in. of rain for the month. 

Olson (1962) reported that the flood “washed away a large 

amount of ground and when the dam was built up again 

a large mill pond was in evidence.” A photo looking east 

from the downtown shows the extent of erosion through 

the impoundment upstream of the dam caused by the flood 

(fig. 5). Dam-inspection notes indicate the dam was rebuilt 

in 1898 with a combination of concrete, timber, and earth. 

It is likely that the dam was rebuilt after it was washed out 

in the 1899 flood; it is not known if the date for the rebuilt 

dam should be 1899 or whether the dam was rebuilt two 

years in a row.

Although not documented, another large flood likely 

happened on Halfway Creek on October 28, 1900, when 

the nearby La Crosse weather station recorded a total of 

7.23 in. of rain in a period of 22 hours, 18 minutes. This 

rainfall as of 2006 was the greatest amount of precipitation 

in a 24-hour period since weather records began in 1872 

in La Crosse (E.J. Hopkins, Assistant State Climatologist 

for Wisconsin, oral commun., 2006). All of west-central 

Wisconsin was anomalously wet in October 1900. The 

total precipitation for the month of October 1900 in 

La Crosse was 12.09 in., whereas the annual precipitation 

normally ranges from 30 to 33 in. Furthermore, separate 

Figure 5. Halfway Creek near Holmen, Wis., after the 1899 flood (Olson, 1962).
16 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

rainfalls of more than 5 in. in April 1896 and April 1909, 

plus more than 4 in. on May 7, 1902, and March 1913—all 

before land conservation methods were practiced in the 

watershed—undoubtedly contributed to the delivery of 

large amounts of sediment to Halfway Creek Marsh.

It seems most likely that the displacement of the 

lowermost reach of Halfway Creek from its more westerly 

position indicated on the GLO survey of 1846 and the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers G.K. Warren Survey of 

1866 was related to the construction of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad in 1886. By 1906, Halfway 

Creek was flowing in a relatively straight channel adjacent 

to the eastern side of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 

Railroad, and its exit from the marsh was near its modern 

position (fig. 3). 

As noted above, the 1906 mouth of Sand Lake Coulee 

was not connected to Halfway Creek Marsh but ended 

near the valley bluff line of the Mississippi River (fig. 3), 

and County Highway ZM ran along the east side of the 

Chicago & Northwestern railroad, similar to its location in 

2006. At some point in time between 1906 and 1937–38 

(based on the Bordner Survey, 1937–38), the Sand Lake 

Coulee channel was extended into Halfway Creek Marsh 

(fig. 3). A straight channel was dug through Midway and 

then southward along the west side of the Chicago & 

Northwestern Railroad. This added 3.1 mi to the length of 

Sand Lake Coulee from the bluff line to its 2006 mouth 

location.

Dam inspection notes from 1919 (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Dam Field File #32.02) 

indicate the Holmen Dam was 69 ft wide and 13 ft high, 

and made out of concrete and timber (fig. 4). The mill 

pond covered 40 acres and had a maximum depth of 10 ft 

and 0.5 mi of backwater effects. The stream bottom was 

described as “blue clay.” 

In the 1920s, large floods and controversial management of the Holmen Dam gates resulted in a lawsuit dispute that continued into the 1930s (Wisconsin Department 

of Natural Resources Dam Field File #32.02). A complaint 

filed in 1924 by the Onalaska Pickling Company (located 

about 2 mi downstream from the dam on County Highway XX) charged that damage to downstream farmlands 

resulted from mismanagement of the gates and dam by the 

mill operators. Notes from a 1929 dam inspection indicated that “the creek is very narrow and winding and flows 

by several high gravel banks.” The report further noted that 

“flood waters pick up sand and gravel and carry it down 

to the pickle farm and deposited this material on the flat 

lands.” The pickle company had previously constructed 

levees along both sides of Halfway Creek for about a mile 

along their properties in about 1919 (fig. 1B). The levees 

were overtopped and washed out during floods in 1925 

and 1927. These are possibly representative of only one 

flood because the dates of the floods may have been misreported in the literature. The pickle-farm representative 

claimed that the gates of the dam were opened during the 

peak of the 1927 flood, thus artificially raising the flood 

peak downstream and causing the levee to fail. The mill 

operators claimed they opened the gates before the flood 

peaked and that it was just a really large flood. Another 

flood in 1929 washed out the dam’s gates. A subsequent 

dam inspection reported that the mill pond was filled 

with sediment and as a result had an average water depth 

of only 2 ft over 20–30 acres at normal stage. The case’s 

legal deposition indicated that there were several floods 

(some with ice damage) between the large 1899 flood and 

a 1931 hearing. The legal deposition notes from the 1924 

complaint and 1931 hearing also report that farmers downstream from the dam were having problems with flooding 

and erosion prior to 1919. 

The southern two-thirds of the lower marsh became 

part of the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and 

Fish Refuge which was established by an act of Congress 

in 1924. The refuge was established mainly from the 

efforts of the Izaak Walton League to preserve habitat 

for fish, migratory birds, plants, and other wildlife along 

a 261-mile corridor of the Upper Mississippi River from 

Rock Island, Illinois to Wabasha, Minnesota. 

 1930–1957 (Dam Failure and Construction of 

Lock and Dam Number 7)

Further changes to the Holmen Dam were made 

between 1931 and 1937. A 10-ft-wide taintor gate was 

added to the center of the Holmen Dam in 1935 (fig. 4). 

The water levels in the millpond increased by about 2 ft 

between 1931 and 1937. In 1937, the mill pond at Holmen 

was about 0.75 mi long and 150 ft wide, covering about 

13.5 acres (Wisconsin Department of Agriculture and Wisconsin Geological and Natural Survey, 1938). The Holmen 

Dam washed out in 1957 (based on dam inspection notes) 

and was not replaced because by 1957 the mill was electric 

powered. In 2005, the authors found some remnant pieces 

of concrete and steel along Halfway Creek at the original 

site of the Holmen Dam.

During this period, wetland extended upstream of the 

Holmen millpond for at least 1 mi along the riparian corridor of Halfway Creek (Wisconsin Department of Agriculture and Wisconsin Geological and Natural Survey, 1938). 

From Holmen downstream to County Highway XX, the 
Human Activities near Halfway Creek Marsh (1846–2006) 17

flood plain consisted of “swamp hardwoods.” Southwest 

of County Highway XX (as Halfway Creek flows out of 

its valley and onto its Holocene alluvial fan on the incised 

terrace of the Mississippi River), there was a narrow riparian zone of marsh that continued along Halfway Creek 

until its intersection with the Burlington Northern Santa Fe 

Railroad. The marsh widened downstream until near the 

present location of the constructed wetlands.

The Mississippi River Lock and Dam No. 7, located 

downstream from Halfway Creek near Onalaska, Wis. and 

La Crescent, Minn., was authorized in 1930 and completed 

in 1937. The normal low-water stage of the Mississippi 

River was raised about 6–7 ft following completion of 

Lock and Dam 7, and this led to an equal subsequent raising of the base level at the mouth of Halfway Creek Marsh 

(fig. 3). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers purchased 

land along both sides of County Highway Z as part of the 

authorization in 1930. A rise of base level of this magnitude significantly reduced the stream energy gradient 

of the lowermost segment of Halfway Creek and favored 

increased sedimentation. 

Sand Lake Coulee was connected to the lower marsh 

by 1938 as indicated by available mapping and photos 

(fig. 3). This connection was probably associated with 

flood-control activities and levee construction on Halfway 

Creek in 1919 and following years. A channel was dredged 

along the east side of the marsh to convey water from Sand 

Lake Coulee to its new outlet in Lake Onalaska. Based on 

the 1938 photos, the dredged channel subsequently filled 

with sediment and caused a new outlet to form along the 

northeast corner of the lower marsh. 

 1958–1993 (Wetland Ditching and Dredging) 

After the flood of record in 1965 on the Mississippi 

River, the Halfway Creek bridge crossings along County 

Highway ZN were replaced with an earthen berm (James 

Nissen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 

2005). In the lower marsh south of County Highway ZN, 

sporadic ditching in the channels of Halfway Creek and 

Sand Lake Coulee was done in the 1970s–80s by a local 

landowner (fig. 3). No records were found to document the 

extent of the ditching or the amount of material removed 

from the channels. Ditches north of County Highway 

ZN were dug in 1975 to improve drainage in agricultural 

fields, and the last maintenance was done on these ditches 

in the 1980s (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000). Parts 

of the drained marsh north of County Highway ZN were 

farmed as late as the 1990s (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000). The USFWS purchased additional land for the 

refuge south of County Highway ZN in 1991.

In the early 1990s, Halfway Creek flowed along the 

north side of County Highway ZN (James Nissen, U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 2005). In May 

1993, the channel along the north side of County Highway 

ZN filled with sand, and the channel was moved to the 

south side of County Highway ZN. Flooding during June 

and July of 1993 caused high-water problems in the wetland area around the mouth of Halfway Creek, including 

Midway (Vierbicher Associates, Inc., 1995). During the 

1993 flood, near the head of the marsh and along County 

Highway ZN, Halfway Creek had sand sedimentation 

problems (James Nissen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

oral commun., 2005). 

 1994–2006 (Sand Traps and Constructed 

Wetlands)

After the 1993 flooding, drainage from Halfway 

Creek was enhanced; also, a sediment trap was constructed 

in Halfway Creek along the south side of County Highway 

ZN in January 1994 (fig. 3) (James Nissen, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, written commun., 2007). In 1994, sand 

was removed from the sediment trap three times (flooding 

on April 24–26 caused the need for more sand removal). 

From 1995–2004, sand was removed from the sediment 

trap approximately annually in the late fall/winter. Material was used as fill at various local construction sites. 

Other modifications in the mid-1990s included raising the 

roadbed elevation of County Highway ZN in response to 

numerous flooding and ice problems and construction of 

a pond between the Burlington Northern Railroad and the 

west boundary of the lower marsh. The USFWS purchased land north of County Highway ZN for the refuge in 

1994–96.

A sand trap was constructed near the mouth of Sand 

Lake Coulee between County Highway OT and the Great 

River State Trail in 1992 (fig. 1B). This trap also was 

dredged approximately annually from 1994 to 2006 except 

in 1994, when it was dredged four times, and 1998 when 

it was dredged two times (James Nissen, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, written commun., 2007).

In 1999–2000, the USFWS constructed a 36-in.-

diameter inlet structure, a diversion channel, and three 

experimental wetlands in the upper marsh to help keep the 

main burden of sediment and nutrients from reaching the 

lower marsh, and to enhance wildlife habitat, especially for 

migrating waterfowl and shorebirds (fig. 1B). Since 2004 
18 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

through the time of the present investigation (2006), the 

USEPA and USGS have monitored sedimentation rates in 

the traps and suspended-sediment loads in Halfway Creek 

upstream and downstream from the diversion. Dikes were 

constructed around the traps, and additional water-control 

structures were installed at the southern ends of traps (U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000). 

 Sedimentation History (1846–2006)

Sedimentation history for Halfway Creek Marsh is 

described in terms of overbank sedimentation patterns 

and rates. In turn, discussion of subsequent adaptations of 

channel morphology management to sedimentation issues 

follows. Sedimentation patterns and rates are characterized 

for six periods: 1846–85, 1886–1918, 1919–36, 1937–69, 

1970–93, and 1994–2006. Period breaks correspond to 

major changes in the rate and spatial extent of overbank 

sedimentation constrained by dates for available maps 

or aerial photographs that document channel location 

changes. The construction of the Chicago & Northwestern 

railroad across Halfway Creek Marsh in 1867 did not alter 

the location of Halfway Creek channel, but it did constrict 

the discharge of high-magnitude floods. However, construction of the Burlington and Northern Railroad in 1886 

not only further constricted flood-plain connectivity along 

the upper marsh, but also involved shifting the location of 

lower Halfway Creek. In addition, introduction of artificial 

levees along Halfway Creek in the early 20th century, plus 

the construction of a channel in approximately 1919 that 

directly connected Sand Lake Coulee channel to the lower 

marsh, added further major hydrologic alterations. Lock 

and Dam No. 7 on the Mississippi River began operation 

in April 1937, resulting in flooding of the mouth of Halfway Creek by the impoundment. In turn, there was accelerated sedimentation in the lower reaches of Halfway Creek 

in response to an average base-level rise of about 5–6 ft at 

the mouth of the watershed caused by the impoundment 

of Pool 7. Halfway Creek’s distributary channel system in 

the northwest corner of the lower marsh moved progressively eastward and southward as the existing channels 

and overbank areas accumulated sediment. There was 

additional channel relocation in 1993–94 when Halfway 

Creek’s channel was moved to the lower marsh along the 

south side of County Highway ZN and a sediment trap was 

constructed to facilitate drainage and sand removal. A program of periodic sand removal also was instituted at about 

the same time for the Sand Lake Coulee channel where it 

enters the lower marsh. 

 Overbank Sedimentation Patterns and 

Estimated Rates

 Descriptive information pertaining to sediment coring locations and types of coring are presented in figure 1B 

and table 1. These cores were the principal source of information for mapping the spatial extent, thickness, volume, 

and loads of historical overbank sedimentation for the six 

periods (listed in table 2) representing subareas along a 

reach of Halfway Creek from County Highway XX to its 

mouth and along Sand Lake Coulee in the lower marsh. 

Areas with overbank sedimentation for the six historical 

periods are shown in figures 6A–6E. The first two digits 

of the subarea identifier codes shown on figures 6A–6E 

and in table 2 identify the watershed (H for Halfway, S 

for Sand Lake Coulee) and the time period (1–6). For 

example, for period 1 (1846–1885), sedimentation rates 

were estimated for one large area (H1) that stretched along 

the length of Halfway Creek (fig. 6A). Sand Lake Coulee 

was not yet connected to the marsh. Geologic descriptions and transect-survey data representing the coring sites 

were used in conjunction with 137Cs age controls for cores 

FWS-18 and FWS-21 to estimate sediment thickness and 

volumes for each period and subarea. 

From 1846 to 1885, overbank sedimentation along 

Halfway Creek was not substantially constricted by railroads and artificial levees, and the mouth of the creek was 

at the far western side of the lower marsh, possibly about 

0.3 mi west of its current location (fig. 6A). It was not 

until 1867 that the first railroad line was built across Halfway Creek. This railroad probably had its greatest effect 

during large floods, when modest backwater effects may 

have happened upstream from its crossing. Such backwaters may have modestly accelerated overbank flood-plain 

sedimentation immediately upstream from the constriction, 

but such effects were not detected in the sediment cores. 

Overbank sedimentation between 1846 and 1886 appears 

to have been minimal and is estimated to be only about 

0.1 ft (table 2). Land-cover disturbance substantial enough 

to alter runoff and sediment yields from the watershed 

mainly happened after 1860 when agricultural development first became established. About 79 percent of La 

Crosse County was settled by 1860 (Wingate, 1975). 

Overbank sedimentation volume and rates are estimated to 

be about 36,000 yd3

 or 900 yd3/yr for 1846–86. Sand Lake 

Coulee was not connected to the lower marsh at this time. 

The year 1886 represents a benchmark for the beginning of the second sedimentation period. It was during 

this year that the Burlington and Northern Railroad reorganized the location of lowermost Halfway Creek during 
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 19

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

USGS streamgage

Subarea identifier

Core site location

1846 channel (Wisconsin Board of Commissioners of Public Lands, 1846)

1866 channel (Warren, 1866)

1878 channel (Snyder, Van Vechten & Co., 1878)

Period 1 (1846–1885) potential subarea with overbank sedimentation

H1

EXPLANATION

H1

43°56'16" 43°54'57"

91°16'13" 91°14'35"

Figure 6A. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Wis., for period 1 (1846–1885). Overbank sedimentation volumes for labeled potential subareas are listed in table 2.
20 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage

Subarea identifier

Core site location

1906 channel (Ogle, 1906)

H2a

H2b

H2c

Period 2 (1886–1918) potential subarea with overbank sedimentation

Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

EXPLANATION

H2a

43°56'16" 43°54'57"

91°16'13" 91°14'35"

Figure 6B. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Wis., for period 2 (1886–1918). Overbank sedimentation volumes for labeled potential subareas are listed in table 2.
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 21

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage

Subarea identifier

Core site location

1937–38 channel (Wisconsin Land Economic Inventory, 1938)

Period 3 (1919–1936) potential subarea with overbank sedimentation

Period 4 (1937–1969) potential subarea with overbank sedimentation

EXPLANATION

Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

H3c

H4c

S4b S3b

S4a

H3b-2

H4b-2

H3b-1

H4b-1

H4a-1

H3a-1

H3c

H4c

S4b S3b

S4a

H3b-2

H4b-2

H3b-1

H4b-1

H4a-1

H3a-1

H3a-1

43°56'16" 43°54'57"

91°16'13" 91°14'35"

Figure 6C. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Wis., for period 3 (1919–1936) and period 4 (1937–1969). Overbank sedimentation volumes for labeled potential subareas 

are listed in table 2.
22 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage

Subarea identifier

Core site location

1973 channel (U.S. Geological Survey, 1978)

Period 5 (1970–1993) potential subarea with overbank sedimentation

EXPLANATION

Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

S5b

H5c

H5b-2

H5b-1

H5a

H5a

43°56'16" 43°54'57"

91°16'13" 91°14'35"

Figure 6D. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Wis., for period 5 (1970–1993). Overbank sedimentation volumes for labeled potential subareas are listed in table 2.
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 23

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage

Subarea identifier

Core site location

2005 channel (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005)

Period 6 (1994–2006) potential subarea with overbank sedimentation

EXPLANATION

Base from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005.

S6b

H6c

H6b-2

H6b-1

H6b-3

H6b-4

H6a

S6b

H6c

H6b-2

H6b-1

H6b-3

H6b-4

H6a

H6a

43°56'16" 43°54'57"

91°16'13" 91°14'35"

Figure 6E. Historical changes in channel locations and potential subareas with overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek 

Marsh, Wis., for period 6 (1994–2006). Overbank sedimentation volumes for labeled potential subareas are listed in table 2.
24 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

their building of the railroad bed across Halfway Creek 

Marsh. Furthermore, the building of the Burlington and 

Northern line restricted lower Halfway Creek flow during 

large floods. This second sedimentation episode therefore 

extended from 1886 until 1918, before levees were built 

along Halfway Creek and before Sand Lake Coulee was 

connected to the lower marsh. For convenience of discussion, sedimentation along Halfway Creek during the 

second episode is proportioned into three subareas (table 

2; fig. 6B). 

Overbank sedimentation on the lower Halfway 

Creek flood plain during the second episode (1886–1918) 

increased an order of magnitude above that of the first 

episode (1846–85) (table 2). The large increase likely 

reflected the rapid expansion of wheat farming in the 

watershed, combined with several large floods and related 

dam failures. Estimated average depths of flood-plain 

sedimentation for the riparian zone along Halfway Creek 

upstream of the Great River Trail (former Chicago & 

Northwestern Railroad line) and for the upper marsh are 

1.25 ft and 0.5 ft, respectively (table 2). Estimates of 

sediment thickness for this period were calibrated from 

stratigraphic thicknesses observed at core sites KDH-2 and 

FWS-22, both representing areas that were cut off from 

Halfway Creek overbank sedimentation after the construction of artificial levees in 1919 (figs. 7–8). A 1938 aerial 

photograph does not show any evidence of levee breaches 

along the west side of Halfway Creek near KDH-2 (fig. 9). 

The presettlement soil is buried by 1.75 ft of silty fine- to 

medium-grained sand in KDH-2. The sand units beneath 

the presettlement soil in KDH-2 down to a depth of about 

20 ft are associated with postglacial alluvial fan building 

by Halfway Creek, whereas deeper deposits represent sedimentation of late-glacial flood-plain outwash associated 

with the Mississippi River. In core FWS-22, the presettlement soil (peat) is buried by about 0.7 ft of laminated silt 

thought to be deposited from 1886–1918 (fig. 8). The presettlement soil or peat deposits are underlain by stratified 

medium- to coarse-grained sand associated with late-glacial Mississippi River outwash. Total overbank sedimentation volume and rate for Halfway Creek for 1886–1918 

are estimated to be about 348,400 yd3

 and 10,900 yd3/yr, 

respectively (table 2).

The third sedimentation period began in 1919 when 

construction of artificial levees reduced the potential 

flood-plain area for overbank sedimentation along Halfway Creek from 324 acres in 1886–1919 to 270 acres in 

1919–36 (figs. 6B–6C). This episode ended in 1936, when 

the first high-quality aerial photography became available 

for defining channel location. The 1937–38 photography 

shows the formation of large episodic flood-plain splays 

(localized alluvial fans) near breaches or low spots in the 

artificial levees (fig. 9). Sedimentary units in cores PD-1 

through PD-5 (figs. 10 and 11) indicate light-colored, 

stratified fine- to very coarse-grained sand associated with 

the multiple flood-plain splays overlying very fine- to finegrained sand. The latter fine-textured sand most likely was 

deposited during 1886–1918. The stratified fine- to very 

coarse-grained sand contrasted sharply with the underlying pre-1860 organic-rich, black silty soil associated with 

a riparian corridor of sedge marsh. Remnants of the sedge 

marsh were recorded on the 1937–38 Wisconsin Land 

Economic Inventory maps. The splay north of the Great 

River Trail (Chicago & Northwestern Railroad) bisected 

by transect 1 (fig. 10) is thicker than the splay south of the 

trail bisected by transect 2 (fig. 11). In general, the splays 

are thick near the breach in the levees and thin to the west. 

Total overbank sedimentation volume and rate for Halfway Creek Marsh for 1937–69 are estimated to be about 

457,200 yd3

 and 26,900 yd3/yr, respectively (table 2). 

16,130 cal yr BP

>2 mm

Sand

Silt Clay

1860 SURFACE

660

658

656

654

652

650

648

646

644

ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

DEPTH, IN FEET

642

640

638

636

634

632

630

628

626

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

0 20 40 60

CUMULATIVE PERCENT

80 100

Figure 7. Particle-size data from core KDH-2, near Halfway 

Creek, Wis., 1996. Location of core site shown on figure 1B. 

[cal yr BP, calendar years before present]
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 25

FWS-21

FWS-24

FWS-23 FWS-22

Buried soilFlood units or fine bedding structures

EXPLANATION

SiltFine sandMedium/coarse sandGravelDark, organic-rich loam, clay or muckPeat

Fresh vegetation (leaves/roots)

No recovery

63864647646645644643642641640639

8

65657656655654653652651650649

8

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

1860 surface

1919 surface?

1993?

Figure 8. Geologic descriptions for cores FWS-21, -22, -23, and -24, upper Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006. Locations of core sites shown on figure 1B.
26 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006 Table 2. Overbank sedimentation areas and volumes and sediment loads for Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee contributions to Halfway Creek Marsh, 1846–2006. Refer to figure 3 for subarea locations. [ft, foot; yd3, cubic yard; yd3/yr, cubic yard per year; ton/yr, ton per year; <, less than; assumption that 1 cubic yard = 1.33 tons, equivalent to Vierbicher and Associates (1995) conversion] Subarea Overbank sediment thickness (ft) Overbank sedimentation area (acres) Overbank sediment volume (yd3

)

Overbank 

sediment rate 

(yd3/yr)

Overbank 

sediment load 

(ton/yr)

Period 1, 1846–1885

Halfway Creek total (along channel, H1) 0.1 200 36,000 900 1,200Sand Lake Coulee total 0 00 0Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee total 200 36,000 900 1,200

Period 2, 1886–1918

Halfway Creek upstream of Great River Trail (H2a) 1.3 74 148,400 4,600 6,200Halfway Creek between Great River Trail and Burlington RR (H2b) .5 247 199,500 6,200 8,300Halfway Creek downstream of Burlington RR (H2c) .1 3 400 <100 <100Halfway Creek total 324 348,400 10,900 14,500Sand Lake Coulee total 0 00 0Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee total 324 348,400 10,900 14,500

Period 3, 1919–1936

Halfway Creek upstream of Great River Trail (H3a) 1.6 48 125,000 7,400 9,800Halfway Creek between Great River Trail and Cty ZN (H3b-1) 1.1 116 196,400 11,600 15,400Halfway Creek between Cty ZN and Burlington RR (H3b-2) .3 103 49,900 2,900 3,900Halfway Creek downstream of Burlington RR (H3c) .1 3 500 <100 <100Halfway Creek total 270 371,800 21,900 29,100Sand Lake Coulee total (through east side of lower marsh, S3b) 1.6 33 85,400 5,000 6,700Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee total 303 457,200 26,900 35,800

Period 4, 1937–1969

Halfway Creek upstream of Great River Trail (H4a) 1.6 50 130,600 4,100 5,400Halfway Creek between Great River Trail and Cty ZN (H4b-1) 1.0 91 147,000 4,600 6,100Halfway Creek between Cty ZN and Burlington RR (H4b-2) 1.5 112 269,900 8,400 11,200Halfway Creek downstream of Burlington RR (H4c) .2 4 1,200 <100 <100Halfway Creek total 256 549,000 17,000 22,700
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 27

Subarea

Overbank 

sediment thickness 

(ft)

Overbank 

sedimentation area 

(acres)

Overbank 

sediment volume 

(yd3)

Overbank 

sediment rate 

(yd3/yr)

Overbank 

sediment load 

(ton/yr)

Period 4, 1937–1969 (continued)

Sand Lake Coulee upper marsh fan near Midway (S4a) .5 15 12,300 400 500Sand Lake Coulee lower marsh fan (S4b) 1.0 16 25,800 800 1,000Sand Lake Coulee total 31 38,100 1,200 1,500Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee total 287 586,800 18,300 24,400

Period 5, 1970–1993

Halfway Creek upstream of Great River Trail (H5a) 0.3 54 22,000 1,000 1,300Halfway Creek between Great River Trail and Cty ZN (H5b-1) .5 74 53,500 2,300 3,100Halfway Creek between Cty ZN and Burlington RR (H5b-2) 1.1 116 205,100 8,900 11,900Halfway Creek downstream of RR (H5c) .1 4 700 <100 <100Halfway Creek total 248 281,300 12,200 16,300Sand Lake Coulee total (lower marsh fan, S5b) 1.0 14 23,000 1,000 1,300Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee total 262 304,200 13,200 17,600

Period 6, 1994–2006

Halfway Creek upstream of Great River Trail (H6a) .2 20 4,700 400 500Halfway Creek between Great River Trail and Cty ZN (H6b-1) .1 35 5,700 500 600Upper marsh lane area between artificial levees (H6b-4) .1 11 1,700 100 200Halfway Creek lower marsh between Cty ZN and Burlington RR 

(H6b-2)

.4 33 21,400 1,800 2,400

Halfway Creek downstream of RR (H6c) .2 4 1,400 100 200Halfway Creek total 146 34,900 2,900 3,900Sand Lake Coulee total (lower marsh fan, S6b) 1.5 6 13,500 1,100 1,500Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee total 48,600 3,700 5,000TOTAL VOLUME FOR ALL PERIODS (cubic yards) 1,781,200TOTAL TONS FOR ALL PERIODS 2,369,000

Table 2. Overbank sedimentation areas and volumes and sediment loads for Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee contributions to Halfway Creek Marsh, 1846–2006—Continued. Refer to figure 3 for subarea locations.[ft, foot; yd3, cubic yard; yd3/yr, cubic yard per year; ton/yr, ton per year; <, less than; assumption that 1 cubic yard = 1.33 tons, equivalent to Vierbicher and Associates (1995) conversion]
28 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

0 0.25 0.5 MILES

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETERS

Flood plain

splays

Holmen Dam

Halfway Creek

Sand Lake Coulee

fan at mouth

A

B

Halfway Creek

basin

A

B

Figure 9. Aerial photographs of Halfway Creek (1938) showing flood-plain splays following dam failure and levee breaks 

associated with a recent flood. Photographs obtained from the Arthur H. Robinson Map Library at the University of Wisconsin–

Madison (source unknown).
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 29

Halfway

Creek

1860 surface

1919 surface?

64647

8

65657656655654653652651650649

8

663662661660659

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

PD-1

PD-2

PD-3

Transect 1A Transect 1B

DISTANCE ALONG TRANSECT, IN FEET

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

Constructed

levee Constructed/

natural levee

Plow zone

Plow zone

Plow zone

NORTH SOUTH WEST EAST

EXPLANATION

SiltFine sandMedium/coarse sandGravelDark, organic-rich loam, clay or muckPeatNo recoveryBuried soilFlood units or fine bedding structuresTransect 1A land surfaceTransect 1B land surfaceLow-flow water surface

Figure 10. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores PD-1, PD-2, and PD-3 through a levee breach and flood-plain splay near Halfway Creek, Wis., 2006. Transect and core site locations shown on figure 1B.
30 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006 Buried soil Flood units or fine bedding structures Transect 2 land surface Low-flow water surface EXPLANATION Silt Fine sand Medium/coarse sand Dark, organic-rich loam, clay or muck Loam No recovery

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

64647646645644643642641640

8

656655654653652651650649

DISTANCE FROM CORE PD-5, IN FEET

PD-5

PD-4

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

Halfway

Creek

Plow zone

?

1860 surface

Plow zone Transect 2

WEST EAST

Figure 11. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores PD-4 and PD-5 through levee breach and flood-plain splay near Halfway Creek, Wis., 2006. Transect and core site 

locations shown on figure 1B.
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 31

These estimates include sediment delivered to the marsh 

from Sand Lake Coulee (85,400 yd3

), which was first 

connected to the marsh during this time period. Halfway 

Creek’s contributions to the marsh during this time period 

were double those from 1886–1918.

The fourth sedimentation period, 1937–69, was a 

period of continued drainage modifications and of landcover change in the upper Halfway Creek watershed that 

reduced peak flows. Sedimentation patterns from 1919 to 

1936 and 1937 to 1969 overall were similar (fig. 6C), but 

sedimentation rates for the two periods slightly differed 

(table 2). Rates of overbank sedimentation along Halfway 

Creek were higher during 1919–36 than during 1937–69 

mainly because of large floods, dam failure, and remobilization of impounded sediment downstream into the upper 

and lower marsh during the earlier episode. Estimated 

rates were 21,900 yd3/yr for 1919–36 compared to 17,100 

yd3/yr for 1937–69. Given the changes in upland land 

cover between 1937 and 1969 and expected parallel reductions in surface runoff and soil erosion, lower sedimentation rates in the lower marsh might have been anticipated 

than what was estimated during this investigation. The 

continued anomalous high sedimentation rate in the lower 

marsh (subarea H4b-2) was likely from the construction 

of artificial levees upstream from County Highway ZN. 

The levees disconnected Halfway Creek from former 

flood-plain surfaces that had been available previously for 

water and sediment storage. The artificial levees on both 

sides of Halfway Creek between County Highway XX 

and County Highway ZN essentially created a flume-like 

channel that very effectively conveyed large floods and 

their high sediment loads downstream into the lower marsh 

area, a result of the very limited area for sediment storage 

within the leveed reach of Halfway Creek. Deposition of 

sandy alluvial fans around the historical Halfway Creek 

channel through the lower marsh illustrate this process 

(fig. 12). The 137Cs profiles from a core in the upper marsh 

(FWS-21) and the lower marsh (FWS-18) confirm that 

upper marsh sedimentation rates decreased and lower 

marsh sedimentation rates increased during 1937–69, most 

likely in response to the levee effects explained previously (fig. 13). The reach between the Great River Trail 

(Chicago & Northwestern Railroad) and County Highway 

ZN (subarea H3b-1) had an estimated overbank sedimentation rate of 11,600 yd3

/yr from 1919 to 1936 compared 

to an estimated 4,600 yd3/yr from 1937 to 1969 (table 

2). In contrast, the reach in the lower marsh (H3b-2) had 

an estimated overbank sedimentation rate of 2,900 yd3/

yr in 1919–36 compared to an estimated 8,400 yd3/yr in 

1937–69. 

After 1919, the connection of Sand Lake Coulee 

drainage from the bluffs through Midway and into the 

lower marsh resulted in additional sediment coming into 

the lower marsh from the east (fig. 6C). The plugging of 

the southeastward course of the Sand Lake Coulee channel 

soon after its construction (exact year unknown) resulted 

in the building of an alluvial fan into the lower marsh 

immediately south of Midway, with the mouth forming 

distributary channels into the lower marsh. These channels 

migrated north closer to Midway as the fan built outward 

and upward (fig. 14). The 1938 aerial photograph shows 

newly flood-deposited, light-colored sediment in the 

vicinity of the main alluvial fan, as well as a secondary fan 

formed north of Midway (fig. 9). This secondary fan deposition probably was fed by floodwaters that exited the Sand 

Lake Coulee channel at the tight bend near the base of the 

late-glacial (Bagley) terrace in Midway and flooded the 

field north of the Great River Trail (Chicago & Northwestern Railroad line). Cores SLC-1, -2, -3, and -4 descend 

the axis of the Sand Lake Coulee alluvial fan (transect 7A, 

fig. 14). The alluvial fan most likely formed from about 

1919 through the 1970s. Core SLC-7 is along transect 7B, 

which follows the approximate path of the 2005 channel 

into the marsh. Estimated Sand Lake Coulee contributions 

of sediment to the lower marsh were higher in 1919–36 

(5,000 yd3

/yr) than in 1937–69 (1,200 yd3/yr). This difference is consistent with changes in land cover over time 

between these two periods, as discussed previously. The 

differences also may result from downcutting and channel 

bank erosion that probably were active during 1919–36 in 

response to adjustments in the Sand Lake Coulee channel 

after its constructed extension from the terrace surface into 

the lower marsh.

A fifth period of sedimentation history for Halfway 

Creek Marsh is recognized for 1970–93. During this 

interval, the channel of Halfway Creek was mainly west 

of its 1937–38 location through the lower marsh, with 

the possibility of a secondary channel to the east (figs. 

6C–6D). The magnitude and distribution of ditching during this period in the upper and lower marsh is not well 

documented, and it is not known how much sediment 

might have been removed during these activities. The Sand 

Lake Coulee fan continued to build outward into the lower 

marsh from the east, just south of Midway. The estimated 

sedimentation rate for Halfway Creek (12,200 yd3

/yr) was 

lower during this period compared to 1919–69 and similar 

to 1886–1918, most likely because of widespread implementation of agricultural best-management practices in the 

watershed. In addition, the Holmen Dam was not in place 

during this period, eliminating sudden bursts of flood-
32 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006 Transect 5 Transect 4 1860 surface Halfway Creek channel, 1886–2006 Halfway Creek channel, 1993–2006 1919? 1970? 1919? 63637 636

635634633632631630

8

64647646645644643642641640639

8

650649

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,200

FWS-2

FWS-19

FWS-3

FWS-18

FWS-15

FWS-5

DISTANCE ALONG TRANSECT, IN FEET

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29 FWS-13

FWS-14

Buried soilFlood units or fine bedding structuresTransect 5 land surfaceLow-flow water surface

EXPLANATION

Silt/clayFine sandMedium/coarse sandGravelDark, organic-rich loam, clay or muck

Peat

Loam

Fresh vegetation (leaves/roots)

No recovery

Transect 4 land surface NORTHWEST

SOUTHEAST

Figure 12. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores FWS-2, -19, -3, -18, -15, -14, -13, and -5, lower Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006. Transect and core site locations 

shown on figure 1B.
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 33

1860

?

1860

0 50 100

PERCENT

Particle-size

distribution

137Cs 

concentration

137Cs 

concentration

Particle-size

distribution

0 50 100

PERCENT

0 0.6

137Cs, 

IN PICOCURIES 

PER LITER

0 1.0

137Cs, IN PICOCURIES 

PER LITER

SILT AND

CLAY

SAND

SILT AND

CLAY

SAND

1963

1963

1860

63636634

8

64646644642640

8

654652650

FWS-18

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

FWS-21

FWS-15

EXPLANATION

Silt/clayFine sandMedium/coarse sandGravelDark, organic-rich loam, clay or muckPeatLoamFresh vegetation (leaves/roots)No recoveryBuried soilFlood units or fine bedding structures

Figure 13. Graphs of particle size and cesium-137 (137Cs) concentrations from cores FWS-15, FWS-18, and FWS-21, with overlays of geologic descriptions and estimated dates, 

upper and lower Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006. Locations of core sites shown on figure 1B.
34 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006 63637 636

635634633632631630

8

64647646645644643642641640639

8

650649

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,200

DISTANCE ALONG TRANSECT, IN FEET

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29 Transect 7A

Transect 8

Transect 7B SLC-1

SLC-2

SLC-3

SLC-4 FWS-9 FWS-11 FWS-12

?

?

?

SLC-7

?

1860 surface

Sand Lake

Coulee fan

Sand

Lake

Coulee

channel

1919?

1919?

1938?

Halfway Creek

channel,

1973–1993

Halfway Creek

channel,

1994–2006

Buried soil

Flood units or fine bedding structuresTransect 7B land surfaceTransect 8 land surface

EXPLANATION

Silt/clayFine sandMedium/coarse sandGravelDark, organic-rich loam, clay or muck

Peat

Loam

Fresh vegetation (leaves/roots)No recovery

Transect 7A land surfaceUnsurveyed, estimatedland surface

EAST WEST

Figure 14. Cross section and geologic descriptions for cores SLC-1, -2, -3, -4, and -7, and FWS-9, -11, and -12, lower Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., 2006. Transect and core site locations shown on figure 1B.
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 35

flow and stored sediment during dam failures. However, 

sedimentation rates for the Halfway Creek fan in the lower 

marsh may have peaked during this period because of the 

lack of available flood-plain storage for sediment in the 

upper marsh, a result of artificial levees. The lower marsh 

accumulated an estimated volume of about 205,100 yd3

of sediment over its northwestern half, and this volume 

represented about 70 percent of the total volume of sediment deposited along lower Halfway Creek between 1970 

and 1993 (fig. 6D, table 2). The estimated sedimentation 

volume during the period 1970–93 for the Sand Lake 

Coulee fan was 23,000 yd3, which is about 60 percent of 

the volume deposited between 1937 and 1969, whereas the 

estimated sedimentation rate of 1,000 yd3

/yr for the period 

1970–93 is about 80 percent of the rate from 1937 to 1969. 

During the sixth period of sedimentation in the Halfway Creek Marsh (1994–2006), the Halfway Creek channel was at its most eastern and central location through 

the northern part of the lower marsh. During 1994–2006, 

natural levees either continued to form or formed along 

Halfway Creek in the lower marsh (fig. 14). These levees 

are about 1 ft higher than the surrounding marsh. Thus, in 

the middle of the lower marsh, there is an approximately 

1,200-ft wide swath that generally is minimally affected by 

historical sedimentation except for near-channel areas 

(fig. 14).

The Halfway Creek estimated sedimentation rate 

for the sixth period, 1994–2006, is 2,900 yd3

/yr (table 2), 

which is about 3 times the estimated overbank sedimentation rate during the first period, 1846–86, but only about 

22 percent of the 12,200-yd3/yr rate for the preceding 

period, 1970–93. Improvements in agricultural practices 

(and possibly an increase in the amount of forest cover in 

the watershed) may have reduced the sedimentation rate, 

combined with removal of 15,900 yd3

 from the Halfway 

Creek channel along the south side of County Highway 

ZN from 1994 to 2003. Additional sediment was removed 

from the diversion channel and from the experimental 

constructed wetlands in the upper marsh. It is not known 

how much urban development occurred during this time or 

what its effect on sedimentation in the marsh would have 

been. 

The 1994–2006 estimated sedimentation rate for the 

lower marsh area represented by the Sand Lake Coulee 

alluvial fan is about 1,100 yd3

/yr, which is nearly identical 

to the 1,000 yd3 per year estimated for the same area in 

the preceding period from 1970–93. However, 3,100 yd3

was removed from a sand trap at County Highway OT/ZM 

from 1994 to 2006, over the same time period that 13,500 

yd3 of overbank sediment was deposited on the alluvial fan 

(table 2). 

Overbank sedimentation rates for 1994–2006 for 

the lower marsh can roughly be compared to annual 

suspended-sediment loads measured during 2004–06 from 

USGS streamgages on Halfway Creek at County Highway ZN, the diversion channel, and Sand Lake Coulee. 

Annual suspended-sediment loads entering the lower 

marsh during 2004–06 have varied: 11,610 tons in 2004, 

2,670 tons in 2005, and 840 tons in 2006 (Peter Hughes, 

U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2007). There 

were fewer floods in 2005 and 2006 compared to 2004. 

Annual suspended-sediment loads coming out of the marsh 

from Halfway Creek at County Highway Z were 910 tons 

in 2005 and 340 tons in 2006; therefore, 60–66 percent 

of the suspended-sediment load, or 1,760 to 7,650 ton/yr, 

is stored in the lower marsh. In comparison, based on the 

core descriptions, the overbank sedimentation load for the 

marsh for 1994–2006 was 5,000 tons/yr. The loads estimated from overbank sediment thickness are representative 

of long-term loads that span wet and dry years. 

In summary, approximately 1,800,000 yd3

 (or about 

2,400,000 tons) of sandy overbank deposits are stored 

along the margins of Halfway Creek through the upper and 

lower marsh and in alluvial fan deposits where Sand Lake 

Coulee previously entered or currently enters the lower 

marsh. This study connects historical sedimentation rates 

and patterns in riparian marshes along the Upper Mississippi River system back to tributary watershed conditions 

and disturbances. However, the history of human activities, 

magnitude of overbank sediment loading, and continued 

fluvial adjustments to the loading in Halfway Creek Marsh 

are likely typical for numerous other small tributaries 

that flow into critical backwater marsh habitats along the 

Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge and the entire Upper Mississippi River System.

 Effects on Channel Morphology

The variable channel morphologies of Halfway Creek 

and Sand Lake Coulee through the upper and lower marsh 

are reflections of historical overbank sedimentation patterns and human activities (fig. 15). The channel and flood 

plain at transect 3 are confined by artificial levees on both 

sides of the stream, causing accelerated overbank sedimentation within the narrow, confined zone between the levees 

since about 1919. Based on nearby core data from FWS-21 

and FWS-24, there has been approximately 5 ft of historical sedimentation in the field on the east side of the stream, 
36 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

63864647646645644643642641640639

8

65657656655654653652651650649

8

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL TRANSECT, IN FEET, LOOKING DOWNSTREAM HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL TRANSECT, 

IN FEET, LOOKING DOWNSTREAM

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

Halfway Creek channels Sand Lake Coulee channel

1860 surface

1860 surface

Artificial

County Hwy. ZN

pavement edge 

levee top

Natural

levees

Natural

levees

Natural

levees

Transect 4Dredged channel south side of County Highway ZN (1994–2006)

Transect 3Channel confined by artificial levees (1919–2006)

Transect 6

Unconfined ditched channel in lower marsh (1994–2006) 

Transect 7AUnconfined channel in lower marsh (1994–2006)

100 150 200 250

Low-flow water surface

Transect 8Sand Lake Coulee ditched channel in lower marsh(1940s–2006)

EAST

NORTH

NORTH

SOUTH SOUTH

WEST

WEST EAST

EAST WEST

Figure 15. Channel cross sections of Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee, Wis., 2006. Transects are not horizontally related. Locations of transects are shown on figure 1B.
Sedimentation History (1846–2006) 37

and the top of the natural levee immediately adjacent to 

the channel is only 1.2 ft lower than the top of the artificial 

levee to the east. Although morphologic appearance gives 

an impression that the channel is actively entrenching, this 

is not the case. The deep channel is due almost entirely to 

the massive historical flood-plain sedimentation that has 

extended the heights of the banks above the bed. In turn, 

confined deep flows generate sufficient shear stresses on 

the channel bed to move sand and gravel bedload and prevent extensive channel-bed aggradation. The channel bed 

may have aggraded by 1 ft or more since settlement. Most 

of the aggradation was likely after 1937 when the lock and 

dam system was constructed on the Mississippi River and 

base level was raised by about 6 ft at the mouth of Halfway 

Creek. The entrenched look of Halfway Creek along the 

south side of County ZN (transect 4) is the result of channel construction and periodic dredging from 1994 forward. 

The cross-section capacity of the Halfway Creek channel 

in the lower marsh (transects 6 and 7A) is less than half 

that of the channel through the upper marsh, reflecting the 

absence of artificial levees, lower overbank sedimentation 

volumes, and young age (1994). Natural levees, about 0.3 

to 1 ft high, were present along the lower marsh channel. 

The Sand Lake Coulee channel at transect 8 was 

either constructed or naturally created after 1938 after the 

former dredged, southeastward-flowing channel filled with 

sediment (fig. 15). The bed of the channel, where it enters 

the lower marsh, is at a similar altitude as the dredged 

channel bed of Halfway Creek along County Highway 

ZN (transect 4). The altitudes of natural levees and spoil 

material along the banks of the Sand Lake Coulee channel 

are higher than the adjacent alluvial-fan surface associated 

with the 1973 location of the channel (fig. 6D), indicating 

that Sand Lake Coulee is a major sediment source to the 

lower marsh. 

 Summary and Conclusions

The sedimentation history from 1846 to 2006 of 

Halfway Creek Marsh, Wis., was studied by the USGS, 

the University of Wisconsin–Madison, the USEPA, and 

the USFWS. The study was conducted to characterize 

historical patterns and rates of sediment deposition and to 

compare sediment deposition on the flood plain and marsh 

in recent years to the past within the context of human 

activities, changes in channel locations, and flood history. 

The sedimentation history was divided into six time periods based on human activities and datable benchmarks in 

the sediment record. Sediment cores were collected from 

2005 to 2006 in the upper and lower marsh. Transects 

were surveyed across channels, flood plains, alluvial fans, 

and flood-plain splays associated with historical overbank 

sedimentation. Sediment texture, color, compaction, stratification, and soil development were used to interpret the 

historical record of sedimentation in the Halfway Creek 

Marsh. This study relates estimated historical sedimentation rates and patterns in riparian marshes along the Upper 

Mississippi River system with tributary watershed conditions and disturbances. The history of human activities, 

magnitude of overbank sediment loading, and continued 

fluvial adjustments to the loading in Halfway Creek Marsh 

broadly approximate those of numerous other small tributaries that flow into critical backwater marsh habitats along 

the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish 

Refuge and the Upper Mississippi River System.

This study provides scientific information necessary 

for resource managers in the USFWS and the USEPA to 

address the five management-related questions posed at the 

beginning of this study:

1. What is the extent and character of historical 

sand deposition in the marsh and can the sand be 

removed and used for landscaping/fill?

2. Will the channel of Halfway Creek stabilize 

through the lower marsh?

3. Are more sediment traps needed along Halfway 

Creek in the upper marsh?

4. Given the rate of sediment deposition, is it worthwhile to improve wetland habitat in the lower 

marsh?

5. Will sediment deposition rates remain relatively 

constant in the marsh over the next 50 years?

The extent and character of historical sand deposition 

in the marsh are mainly dependent on proximity of the 

deposits to historical channels, alluvial fans, and artificial 

levees. The historical (post-1860) overbank deposits follow 

along the modern and historical Halfway Creek channels 

downstream of County Highway XX, through the upper 

and lower marsh, and in the mouth of Sand Lake Coulee in 

the lower marsh. The historical overbank deposits are up 

to 6 ft thick along the banks of Halfway Creek through the 

upper marsh where the flood plain is confined by artificial 

levees and in flood-plain splays formed by breaches in the 

artificial levees during large floods. In the lower marsh, 

overbank sedimentation patterns follow historical channels and alluvial fans. The northwest and northeast corners 

of the lower marsh, where Halfway Creek and Sand 
38 Sedimentation History of Halfway Creek Marsh, Wisconsin, 1846–2006

Lake Coulee enter, respectively, have 5 to 6 ft of fine- to 

medium-textured sand layered with dark organic-rich loam 

or silt-clay units associated with fan deposits. The texture 

tends to become more fine-grained and organic-rich in the 

downstream direction through the lower marsh. The historical deposits tend to be lighter in color, less compacted, 

more stratified and bedded, and have less soil development 

and organic content than presettlement deposits.

The most recent aggregate estimated overbank 

sedimentation rate of 3,700 yd3

/yr for 1994 to 2006 for 

the entire marsh is about 4 times the early settlement 

(1846–85) rate (900 yd3/yr). However, the aggregate historical overbank sedimentation rate for the period between 

1919 and 1936 was estimated to be 26,900 yd3

 per year, a 

magnitude that was nearly 30 times the 1846–86 rate and 

more than 7 times that for 1993–2006. The very high rate 

of overbank sedimentation between 1919 and 1936 was 

caused by watershed agricultural practices that promoted 

surface runoff and soil erosion, several large floods, 

failures of the Holmen Dam accompanied by sediment 

flushing of mill-pond sediment and downstream-channel 

bank erosion, and channelization that directly connected the drainage of the Sand Lake Coulee to the lower 

marsh. Overbank sedimentation rates for the lower marsh 

remained anomalously high between 1937 and 1993, especially because levees constructed earlier along the channel of Halfway Creek allowed the remaining small flood 

plain and channel system to function as an efficient flume 

for transporting water and sediment into the lower marsh. 

Although upland land conservation may have reduced 

sediment inputs from the upstream watershed in recent 

years, the flume-like behavior of Halfway Creek through 

the upper marsh makes it a very effective transporter of 

water and sediment, allowing minimal storage along the 

way before flow reaches the lower marsh. 

Channel changes and sedimentation rates in the lower 

marsh currently are less severe than a few decades ago; 

nevertheless, the channel in the lower marsh is adjusting to 

excess sediment from upstream and the continued building 

of alluvial fans by Halfway Creek and Sand Lake Coulee. 

The Halfway Creek channel has shifted eastward toward 

the center of the lower marsh through natural alluvial fan 

building and ditching/channelization. Additional upstream 

flood-plain storage for water and sediment during floods 

would reduce overbank sedimentation rates in the lower 

marsh. 

In conclusion, approximately 1,800,000 yd3

 (or about 

2,400,000 tons) of sandy overbank deposits are stored 

along the margins of Halfway Creek through the upper and 

lower marsh and in alluvial fan deposits where Sand Lake 

Coulee previously entered or currently enters the lower 

marsh. The historical overbank deposits affect the modern 

fluvial processes of Halfway Creek and marsh/wetland 

fluvial dynamics. The fluvial system through the marsh 

accepts the additional sediment and adjusts within the 

physical laws that constrain it. System-wide adjustments to 

historical sediment loading of this magnitude will probably continue for decades and centuries, manifested during 

extreme floods and moderate flows, continually flushing 

legacy sediment from channel margins downstream into 

the lower marsh and eventually to Lake Onalaska and to 

the Mississippi River. The history of human activities, 

magnitude of overbank sediment loading, and continued 

fluvial adjustments to the loading in Halfway Creek Marsh 

are typical for the numerous small tributaries that flow into 

critical backwater marsh habitats along the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge and along 

the Upper Mississippi River System. Due to the high probability of remobilization of stored historical sediment and 

associated nutrients, and their long-term effects on lowland 

vegetation and fish and wildlife habitat, it is important 

to improve understanding of how human activities have 

influenced patterns and rates of sedimentation in riparian 

environments. In addition, the legacy of past erosion and 

sedimentation will continue to influence current and future 

water quality, sediment loads, nutrient loads, and waterrelated resources. 

 Acknowledgments

This study was made possible by the assistance of 

many people who allowed land access, did field work, 

provided historical information, and reviewed and prepared the manuscript. We are very grateful for permission 

to collect sediment cores on the property of John McHugh, 

Dale Emery (Stonehearth Kennels), Calvin Paudler, and 

Richard Knutson. Calvin Paudler and Ernest Knudson 

provided very useful historical insights on dam history, 

channel location, and levee building. Field assistance was 

provided by Lindsay Theis Spigel (University of Wisconsin–Madison) for hand coring and surveying and James 

Rauman (USGS) and Jason Smith (USGS) for geoprobe 

coring. James Nissen (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) 

assisted with access to the Refuge, field work, technical assistance, and historical information. Peter Hughes 

(USGS) provided technical assistance with the scope of the 

study as well as field assistance. Eleanor Lawry (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources) helped access the 

dam-inspection notes for the Holmen Dam. Marie Peppler 
References Cited 39

(USGS) assisted with map overlays, cross-section layouts, 

and report illustrations. The manuscript content benefited 

from the technical and editorial reviews and suggestions of 

Joseph Dorava (Vierbicher Associates, Inc.), Peter Hughes 

(USGS), Barbara Lensch (Natural Resources Conservation 

Service), and William Fitzpatrick (Wisconsin Department 

of Natural Resources). 

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WILandInvAbout.html

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