U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Bullying in Schools

by

Rana Sampson

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

No. 12

Bullying in Schools

Rana Sampson

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #99-CK-WXK004 by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S.

Department of Justice. The opinions contained herein are those of the

author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position of the

U.S. Department of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

Guide No. 12

About the Guide Series i

About the Guide Series

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge

about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific

crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention

and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to

investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. The

guides are written for police–of whatever rank or

assignment–who must address the specific problem the guides

cover. The guides will be most useful to officers who

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented

policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to

focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the

problem, and means to assess the results of a problemoriented policing project. They are designed to help police

decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have

already identified. (An assessment guide has been produced

as a companion to this series and the COPS Office has also

published an introductory guide to problem analysis. For

those who want to learn more about the principles and

methods of problem-oriented policing, the assessment and

analysis guides, along with other recommended readings, are

listed at the back of this guide.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to

spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and

responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before

responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is

most likely to work in your community. You should not

blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must

decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation.

What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what

works in one place may not work everywhere.
ii Bullying in Schools

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business.

The guides describe responses that other police

departments have used or that researchers have tested.

While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your

particular problem, they should help give a broader view of

the kinds of things you could do. You may think you

cannot implement some of these responses in your

jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when

police have discovered a more effective response, they have

succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving

the response to the problem.

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is

available to the police; for other problems, little is available.

Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing

research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more

research on that particular problem. Regardless, research

has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you

might have about the problem. The research may help get

you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot

tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the

particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of

keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant

research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed

to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed

and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of

each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a

complete bibliography of research on the subject.

• Are willing to work with other community agencies to find

effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot

implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.

They must frequently implement them in partnership with

other responsible private and public entities. An effective

problem-solver must know how to forge genuine
About the Guide Series iii

partnerships with others and be prepared to invest

considerable effort in making these partnerships work.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,

Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.

Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from

country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be

aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders

of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency's

experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency may

have effectively addressed a problem using responses not

considered in these guides and your experiences and

knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used

to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and

share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to

cops_pubs@usdoj.gov.

Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series is very much a

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary author,

other project team members, COPS Office staff and

anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by

proposing text, recommending research and offering

suggestions on matters of format and style.

The principal project team developing the guide series

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, University

of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, professor of

criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. Eck, associate

professor of criminal justice, University of Cincinnati;

Michael S. Scott, police consultant, Savannah, Ga.; Rana

Sampson, police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm

Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State

University.

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw the

project for the COPS Office. Megan Tate Murphy

coordinated the peer reviews for the COPS Office. Suzanne

Fregly edited the guides. Research for the guides was

conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers

University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze by Gisela

Bichler-Robertson, Rob Guerette and Laura Wyckoff.

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members of

the San Diego, National City and Savannah police

departments who provided feedback on the guides' format

and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the line

police officers, police executives and researchers who peer

reviewed each guide.

Contents

About the Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Definition of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Extent of the Bullying Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

A Threshold Problem: The Reluctance To Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Bullying Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Bullies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Incidents of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Victims of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Consequences of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chronic Victims of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Victims and Victimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Locations Where Bullying Occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

General Requirements for an Effective Strategy To Counter Bullying in Schools . 19

Specific Responses To Reduce Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Responses With Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Contents vii
viii Bullying in Schools

Appendix A: Summary of Responses to Bullying in Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Appendix B: Sample Letter Educating Parents About Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Other Guides in This Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 1

The Problem of Bullying in Schools

There is new concern about school violence, and police have

assumed greater responsibility for helping school officials

ensure students' safety. As pressure increases to place officers

in schools, police agencies must decide how best to contribute

to student safety. Will police presence on campuses most

enhance safety? If police cannot or should not be on every

campus, can they make other contributions to student safety?

What are good approaches and practices? 

Perhaps more than any other school safety problem, bullying

affects students' sense of security. The most effective ways to

prevent or lessen bullying require school administrators'

commitment and intensive effort; police interested in

increasing school safety can use their influence to encourage

schools to address the problem. This guide provides police

with information about bullying in schools, its extent and its

causes, and enables police to steer schools away from

common remedies that have proved ineffective elsewhere, and

to develop ones that will work.†

Bullying is widespread and perhaps the most underreported

safety problem on American school campuses.1 Contrary to

popular belief, bullying occurs more often at school than on

the way to and from there. Once thought of as simply a rite

of passage or relatively harmless behavior that helps build

young people's character, bullying is now known to have 

long-lasting harmful effects, for both the victim and the bully.

Bullying is often mistakenly viewed as a narrow range of

antisocial behavior confined to elementary school recess

yards. In the United States, awareness of the problem is

growing, especially with reports that in two-thirds of the

recent school shootings (for which the shooter was still alive

† Why should police care about a

safety problem when others, such as

school administrators, are better

equipped to address it? One can find

numerous examples of safety

problems regarding which the most

promising part of the police role is

to raise awareness and engage others

to effectively manage the problems.

For example, in the case of drug

dealing in privately owned apartment

complexes, the most effective police

strategy is to educate property

owners and managers in effective

strategies so they can reduce their

property's vulnerability to drug

markets.
2 Bullying in Schools

to report), the attackers had previously been bullied. "In those

cases, the experience of bullying appeared to play a major role

in motivating the attacker."2,†

International research suggests that bullying is common at

schools and occurs beyond elementary school; bullying occurs

at all grade levels, although most frequently during elementary

school. It occurs slightly less often in middle schools, and less

so, but still frequently, in high schools.†† High school freshmen

are particularly vulnerable.

Dan Olweus, a researcher in Norway, conducted

groundbreaking research in the 1970s exposing the

widespread nature and harm of school bullying.3 Bullying is

well documented in Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia, and

New Zealand, providing an extensive body of information on

the problem. Research from some countries has shown that,

without intervention, bullies are much more likely to develop

a criminal record than their peers,††† and bullying victims

suffer psychological harm long after the bullying stops.

Definition of Bullying

Bullying has two key components: repeated harmful acts and an

imbalance of power. It involves repeated physical, verbal or

psychological attacks or intimidation directed against a victim

who cannot properly defend him- or herself because of size

or strength, or because the victim is outnumbered or less

psychologically resilient.4

Bullying includes assault, tripping, intimidation, rumorspreading and isolation, demands for money, destruction of

property, theft of valued possessions, destruction of another's

† It is important to note that while

bullying may be a contributing factor

in many school shootings, it is not

the cause of the school shootings.

†† For an excellent review of

bullying research up through 1992,

see Farrington (1993).

††† As young adults, former school

bullies in Norway had a fourfold

increase in the level of relatively

serious, recidivist criminality (Olweus

1992). Dutch and Australian studies

also found increased levels of

criminal behavior by adults who had

been bullies (Farrington 1993; Rigby

and Slee 1999).
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 3

work, and name-calling. In the United States, several other

school behaviors (some of which are illegal) are recognized as

forms of bullying, such as:

• sexual harassment (e.g., repeated exhibitionism, voyeurism,

sexual propositioning, and sexual abuse involving unwanted

physical contact);

• ostracism based on perceived sexual orientation; and 

• hazing (e.g., upper-level high school athletes' imposing

painfully embarrassing initiation rituals on their new

freshmen teammates).5

Not all taunting, teasing and fighting among schoolchildren

constitutes bullying.6 "Two persons of approximately the same

strength (physical or psychological)...fighting or quarreling" is

not bullying. Rather, bullying entails repeated acts by

someone perceived as physically or psychologically more

powerful.

Related Problems

Bullying in schools shares some similarities to the related

problems listed below, each of which requires its own analysis

and response. This guide does not directly address these

problems:

• bullying of teachers by students,

• bullying among inmates in juvenile detention facilities, and

• bullying as a means of gaining and retaining youth gang

members and compelling them to commit crimes.
4 Bullying in Schools

Extent of the Bullying Problem

Extensive studies in other countries during the 1980s and

1990s generally found that between 8 and 38 percent of

students are bullied with some regularity,† and that between

five and nine percent of students bully others with some

regularity. Chronic victims of bullying, bullied once a week or

more, generally constitute between 8 and 20 percent of the

student population.7

In the United States, fewer studies have been done. A recent

study of a nationally representative sample of students found

higher levels of bullying in America than in some other

countries. Thirteen percent of sixth- through 10th-grade

students bully, 10 percent reported being victims, and an

additional six percent are victim-bullies.8 This study excluded

elementary-age students (who often experience high levels of

bullying) and did not limit bullying to school grounds. Several

smaller studies from different parts of the country confirm

high levels of bullying behaviors, with 10 to 29 percent of

students reported to be either bullies or victims. 9,†† 

† A South Carolina study found that

20 percent of students bully others

with some regularity (Limber et al.

1998). In an English study involving 25

schools and nearly 3,500 students, 9

percent of the students admitted to

having bullied others by sexual

touching [Glover and Cartwright, with

Gleeson (1998)].

†† In some of the studies, lack of a

common definition of bullying

potentially distorts the estimates of the

problem (Harachi, Catalano and

Hawkins 1999). In addition, in the

United States, the lack of a galvanized

focus on bullying has resulted in a lack

of large-scale school research efforts

(such as those in Scandinavia, England,

Japan, and Australia). Thus we have

only limited insights into the problem

of bullying here.
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 5

Clearly, the percentage of students who are bullies and

victims varies by research study, often depending on the

definition used, the time frame examined (e.g., ever,

frequently, once a week)† and other factors.†† Despite these

differences, bullying appears to be widespread in schools in

every country studying the problem.†††

A Threshold Problem: The Reluctance To Report

Most students do not report bullying to adults. Surveys from

a variety of countries confirm that many victims and

witnesses fail to tell teachers or even parents.10 As a result,

teachers may underestimate the extent of bullying in their

school and may be able to identify only a portion of the

actual bullies. Studies also suggest that children do not believe

that most teachers intervene when told about bullying.11

"If the victims are as miserable as the research suggests, why

don't they appeal for help? One reason may be that,

historically, adults' responses have been so disappointing."12

In a survey of American middle and high school students, "66

percent of victims of bullying believed school professionals

responded poorly to the bullying problems that they

observed."13 Some of the reasons victims gave for not telling

include:

• fearing retaliation,

• feeling shame at not being able to stand up for themselves,

• fearing they would not be believed,

• not wanting to worry their parents,

• having no confidence that anything would change as a

result,

• thinking their parents' or teacher's advice would make the

problem worse,

† For the first time, during the 1997-

98 school year, the United States

participated in an international study of

young people's health, behavior and

lifestyles, which included conducting

surveys on school bullying. (European

countries have participated in the study

since 1982.) Researchers gathered data

on 120,000 students from 28 countries.

Upwards of 20 percent of 15-year-old

U.S. students reported they had been

bullied at school during the current

term (see "Annual Report on School

Safety," at

http://www.ed.gov/PDFDocs/Interim

AR.pdf). However, a 2000 U.S.

Department of Education report on

school crime (based on 1999 data),

using a very narrow–and perhaps too

limited–definition of bullying than the

earlier report, showed that 5 percent of

students ages 12 through 18 had

reported being bullied at school in the

last six months (Kaufman et al. 2000).

†† The "Annual Report on School

Safety," developed in response to a

1997 school shooting in West Paducah,

Ky., did not until 1999 contain any

data on school bullying. The 1999

school bullying data are aggregate,

useful only in international

comparisons, since specific types of

bullying are not categorized. The

report tracks thefts, weapons, injuries,

threats, and physical fights, and some

measures of harassment and hate

crimes. However, the proportion of

incidents that have their roots in

bullying is not specified.

††† The words "bully" and "bullying"

are used in this guide as shorthand to

include all of the different forms of

bullying behavior.
6 Bullying in Schools

• fearing their teacher would tell the bully who told on him or

her, and

• thinking it was worse to be thought of as a snitch.†

The same is true of student-witnesses. Although most

students agree that bullying is wrong, witnesses rarely tell

teachers and only infrequently intervene on behalf of the

victim. Some students worry that intervening will raise a

bully's wrath and make him or her the next target. Also, there

may be "diffusion of responsibility"; in other words, students

may falsely believe that no one person has responsibility to

stop the bullying, absent a teacher or a parent.

Student-witnesses appear to have a central role in creating

opportunities for bullying. In a study of bullying in junior and

senior high schools in small Midwestern towns, 88 percent of

students reported having observed bullying.14 While some

researchers refer to witnesses as "bystanders," others use a

more refined description of the witness role. In each bullying

act, there is a victim, the ringleader bully, assistant bullies

(they join in), reinforcers (they provide an audience or laugh

with or encourage the bully), outsiders (they stay away or take

no sides), and defenders (they step in, stick up for or comfort

the victim).15 Studies suggest only between 10 and 20 percent

of noninvolved students provide any real help when another

student is victimized.16

Bullying Behavior

Despite country and cultural differences, certain similarities by

gender, age, location, and type of victimization appear in

bullying in the U.S. and elsewhere.

• Bullying more often takes place at school than on the way

to and from school.17

† Similarly, many sexual assault and

domestic violence victims keep their

abuse a secret from the police. Police

in many jurisdictions see increased

reporting of these crimes as an

important first step to reducing the

potential for future violence, while

victims often see it as jeopardizing

their safety. Some of the same

interests and concerns are found in

the area of school bullying.
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 7

• Boy bullies tend to rely on physical aggression more than girl

bullies, who often use teasing, rumor-spreading, exclusion,

and social isolation. These latter forms of bullying are

referred to as "indirect bullying." Physical bullying (a form of

"direct bullying") is the least common form of bullying, and

verbal bullying (which may be "direct" or "indirect") the

most common.18 Some researchers speculate that girls value

social relationships more than boys do, so girl bullies set out

to disrupt social relationships with gossip, isolation, silent

treatment, and exclusion. Girls tend to bully girls, while boys

bully both boys and girls.

• Consistently, studies indicate that boys are more likely to

bully than girls.

• Some studies show that boys are more often victimized, at

least during elementary school years; others show that bullies

victimize girls and boys in near equal proportions.19

• Bullies often do not operate alone. In the United Kingdom,

two different studies found that almost half the incidents of

bullying are one-on-one, while the other half involves

additional youngsters.20

• Bullying does not end in elementary school. Middle school

seems to provide ample opportunities for bullying, although

at lesser rates. The same is true of the beginning years of

high school.

• Bullying by boys declines substantially after age 15. Bullying

by girls begins declining significantly at age 14. 21,† So

interventions in middle and early high school years are also

important.

• Studies in Europe and Scandinavia show that some schools

seem to have higher bullying rates than others. Researchers

generally believe that bullying rates are unrelated to school or

class size, or to whether a school is in a city or suburb

(although one study found that reporting was higher in

inner-city schools). Schools in socially disadvantaged areas

seem to have higher bullying rates,22 and classes with students

† Results from several countries,

including Australia and England,

indicate that as students progress

through the middle to upper grades

in school, they become more

desensitized to bullying. High school

seniors are the exception: they show

greater alarm about the problem, just

at the point when they will be leaving

the environment (O'Moore 1999).
8 Bullying in Schools

with behavioral, emotional or learning problems have more

bullies and victims than classes without such students.23

• There is a strong belief that the degree of the school

principal's involvement (discussed later in this guide) helps

determine the level of bullying.

• There is some evidence that racial bullying occurs in the

United States. In a nationally representative study

combining data about bullying at and outside of school,

25 percent of students victimized by bullying reported they

were belittled about their race or religion (eight percent of

those victims were bullied frequently about it).24 The study

also found that black youth reported being bullied less than

their Hispanic and white peers. Racial bullying is also a

problem in Canada and England. "In Toronto, one in eight

children overall, and one in three of those in inner-city

schools, said that racial bullying often occurred in their

schools."25 In four schools–two primary, two secondary–in

Liverpool and London, researchers found that Bengali and

black students were disproportionately victimized.26

One of the things we do not yet know about bullying is

whether certain types of bullying, for instance racial bullying

or rumor spreading, are more harmful than other types.

Clearly, much depends on the victim's vulnerability, yet certain

types of bullying may have longer-term impact on the victim.

It is also unclear what happens when a bully stops bullying.

Does another student take that bully's place? Must the victim

also change his or her behavior to prevent another student

from stepping in? While specific studies on displacement have

not been done, it appears that the more comprehensive the

school approach to tackling bullying, the less opportunity

there is for another bully to rise up.
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 9

Bullies 

Many of the European and Scandinavian studies concur that

bullies tend to be aggressive, dominant and slightly below

average in intelligence and reading ability (by middle school),

and most evidence suggests that bullies are at least of average

popularity.27 The belief that bullies "are insecure, deep down"

is probably incorrect.28 Bullies do not appear to have much

empathy for their victims.29 Young bullies tend to remain

bullies, without appropriate intervention. "Adolescent bullies

tend to become adult bullies, and then tend to have children

who are bullies."30 In one study in which researchers followed

bullies as they grew up, they found that youth who were

bullies at 14 tended to have children who were bullies at 32,

suggesting an intergenerational link.31 They also found that

"[b]ullies have some similarities with other types of offenders.

Bullies tend to be drawn disproportionately from lower

socioeconomic-status families with poor child-rearing

techniques, tend to be impulsive, and tend to be unsuccessful

in school."32

In Australia, research shows that bullies have low empathy

levels, are generally uncooperative and, based on self-reports,

come from dysfunctional families low on love. Their parents

tend to frequently criticize them and strictly control them.33

Dutch (and other) researchers have found a correlation

between harsh physical punishments such as beatings, strict

disciplinarian parents and bullying.34 In U.S. studies,

researchers have found higher bullying rates among boys

whose parents use physical punishment or violence against

them.35

Some researchers suggest that bullies have poor social skills

and compensate by bullying. Others suggest that bullies have

keen insight into others' mental states and take advantage of
10 Bullying in Schools

that by picking on the emotionally less resilient.36 Along this

line, there is some suggestion, currently being explored in

research in the United States and elsewhere, that those who

bully in the early grades are initially popular and considered

leaders. However, by the third grade, the aggressive behavior

is less well-regarded by peers, and those who become popular

are those who do not bully. Some research also suggests that

"[bullies] direct aggressive behavior at a variety of targets. As

they learn the reactions of their peers, their pool of victims

becomes increasingly smaller, and their choice of victims

more consistent."37 Thus, bullies ultimately focus on peers

who become chronic victims due to how those peers respond

to aggression. This indicates that identifying chronic victims

early on can be important for effective intervention.

A number of researchers believe that bullying occurs due to a

combination of social interactions with parents, peers and

teachers.38 The history of the parent-child relationship may

contribute to cultivating a bully, and low levels of peer and

teacher intervention combine to create opportunities for

chronic bullies to thrive (as will be discussed later).

Incidents of Bullying

Bullying most often occurs where adult supervision is low or

absent: schoolyards, cafeterias, bathrooms, hallways, and

stairwells.39 "Olweus (1994) found that there is an inverse

relationship between the number of supervising adults

present and the number of bully/victim incidents."40 The

design of less-supervised locations can create opportunities

for bullying. For instance, if bullying occurs in a cafeteria

while students vie for places in line for food, line management

techniques, perhaps drawn from crime prevention through

environmental design, could limit the opportunity to bully. A
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 11

number of studies have found that bullying also occurs in

classrooms and on school buses, although less so than in

recess areas and hallways. Upon greater scrutiny, one may find

that in certain classrooms, bullying thrives, and in others, it is

rare. Classroom bullying may have more to do with the

classroom management techniques a teacher uses than with

the number of adult supervisors in the room.

Other areas also offer opportunities for bullying. The

Internet, still relatively new, creates opportunities for 

cyber-bullies, who can operate anonymously and harm a wide

audience. For example, middle school, high school and college

students from Los Angeles' San Fernando Valley area posted

website messages that were

...full of sexual innuendo aimed at individual students and

focusing on topics such as ‘the weirdest people at your

school.’ The online bulletin boards had been accessed more

than 67,000 times [in a two-week period], prompting a sense

of despair among scores of teenagers disparaged on the

site, and frustration among parents and school

administrators....One crying student, whose address and

phone number were published on the site, was barraged

with calls from people calling her a slut and a prostitute.41

A psychologist interviewed for the Los Angeles Times

remarked on the harm of such Internet bullying:

It's not just a few of the kids at school; it's the whole

world....Anybody could log on and see what they said

about you....What's written remains, haunting, torturing

these kids.42

The imbalance of power here was not in the bully's size or

strength, but in the instrument the bully chose to use,

bringing worldwide publication to vicious school gossip.
12 Bullying in Schools

Victims of Bullying

• Most bullies victimize students in the same class or year,

although 30 percent of victims report that the bully was

older, and approximately ten percent report that the bully

was younger.43

• It is unknown the extent to which physical, mental or

speech difficulties, eyeglasses, skin color, language, height,

weight, hygiene, posture, and dress play a role in victim

selection.44 One major study found "the only external

characteristics...to be associated with victimization were that

victims tended to be smaller and weaker than their peers."45

One study found that nonassertive youth who were socially

incompetent had an increased likelihood of victimization.46

Having friends, especially ones who will help protect against

bullying, appears to reduce the chances of victimization.47

A Dutch study found that "more than half of those who

say they have no friends are being bullied (51%), vs. only 11

percent of those who say they have more than five

friends."48

Consequences of Bullying

Victims of bullying suffer consequences beyond

embarrassment. Some victims experience psychological

and/or physical distress, are frequently absent and cannot

concentrate on schoolwork. Research generally shows that

victims have low self-esteem, and their victimization can lead

to depression49 that can last for years after the victimization.50

In Australia, researchers found that between five and ten

percent of students stayed at home to avoid being bullied.

Boys and girls who were bullied at least once a week

experienced poorer health, more frequently contemplated

suicide, and suffered from depression, social dysfunction,

anxiety, and insomnia.51 Another study found that adolescent

victims, once they are adults, were more likely than nonbullied adults individuals to have children who are victims.52
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 13

Chronic Victims of Bullying

While many, if not most, students have been bullied at some

point in their school career,53 chronic victims receive the brunt

of the harm. It appears that a small subset of six to ten

percent of school-age children are chronic victims,54 some

bullied as often as several times a week.† There are more

chronic victims in elementary school than in middle school,

and the pool of chronic victims further shrinks as students

enter high school. If a student is a chronic victim at age 15

(high school age), it would not be surprising to find that he or

she has suffered through years of victimization. Because of

the harm involved, anti-bullying interventions should include

a component tailored to counter the abuse chronic victims

suffer.

Several researchers suggest, although there is not agreement,

that some chronic victims are "irritating" or "provocative"

because their coping strategies include aggressively reacting to

the bullying.55 The majority of chronic victims, however, are

extremely passive and do not defend themselves. Provocative

victims may be particularly difficult to help because their

behavior must change substantially to lessen their abuse.

Both provocative and passive chronic victims tend to be

anxious and insecure, "which may signal to others that they

are easy targets."56 They are also less able to control their

emotions, and more socially withdrawn. Tragically, chronic

victims may return to bullies to try to continue the perceived

relationship, which may initiate a new cycle of victimization.

Chronic victims often remain victims even after switching to

new classes with new students, suggesting that, without other

interventions, nothing will change.57 In describing chronic

victims, Olweus states: "It does not require much imagination

† These figures are based on studies

in Dublin, Toronto and Sheffield,

England (Farrington 1993). Olweus,

however, in his Norwegian studies,

found smaller percentages of chronic

victims.
14 Bullying in Schools

to understand what it is to go through the school years in a

state of more or less permanent anxiety and insecurity, and

with poor self-esteem. It is not surprising that the victims'

devaluation of themselves sometimes becomes so

overwhelming that they see suicide as the only possible

solution."58,†

In the United States, courts appear open to at least hearing

arguments from chronic victims of bullying who allege that

schools have a duty to stop persistent victimization.59 It has

yet to be decided to what extent schools have an obligation to

keep students free from mistreatment by their peers.

However, early and sincere attention to the problem of

bullying is a school's best defense.

† A handful of chronic victims make

the leap from suicidal to homicidal

thoughts. Clearly, access to guns is

also an issue.

School bullying takes many forms including assault, tripping, intimidation,

rumor-spreading and isolation, demands for money, destruction of property,

theft of valued possessions, destruction of another's work, and name-calling. 

In this photo, a bully assaults the victim as another student watches. Studies

suggest only between 10 and 20 percent of noninvolved students provide any

real help when another student is victimized.

Teri DeBruhl
Understanding Your Local Problem 15

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized

description of bullying in schools. You must combine this

general information with a more specific understanding of

your school's problem. Analyzing a school's problem carefully

will help you design a more effective response strategy. Police

who work with schools may even find that many of the thefts,

assaults and batteries, hate crimes, and threats on school

campuses (elementary, middle and high school level) are

symptoms of bullying and are perpetrated by a small

percentage of chronic tormentors.

Asking the Right Questions†

The following are some critical questions you should ask in

analyzing your particular problem of bullying in schools, even

if the answers are not always readily available. The answers to

these and other questions will help you guide the school in

choosing the most appropriate set of responses later on.

The School

• Does the school believe it has a problem with bullying?

• Is the school aware of the long-term harms associated with

bullying and chronic victimization?

• Is the school aware of the different types of behavior that

constitute bullying?

• Does the school know how often bullying occurs on the

campus each year?

• How does the school's level of bullying compare with that

of other schools that have examined bullying?

• Does the school have a policy to guide teachers and other

staff in handling incidents of bullying?

† The problem of bullying requires

extensive surveying of those affected.

It is recommended that police link

with local colleges, universities or

researchers to prepare and pretest

survey instruments. Internationally

valid questionnaires, adapted from

Olweus' questionnaires, are available

to survey students, classroom

teachers and other staff involved in

managing bullying problems. These

have been used as part of a

comparative project in Japan,

Norway, England, the Netherlands,

and the state of Washington, and

require written permission for use

from Dan Olweus (Research Center

for Health Promotion, Christies Gate

13, N-5015, Bergen, Norway). The

value of using these questionnaires is

the ability to make comparisons

among a wide range of other sites. If

you use anonymous written surveys

of students, it is important to

develop some other means for

gathering information from students

on the specific identities of chronic

victims and chronic bullies. Once

gathered, compare this information

with that in school records and with

teachers' observations to see if there

is some agreement. For additional

information on bullying surveys, also

see the European Commission's

TMR Network Project on bullying,

involving collaboration among five

European countries, at

http://www.gold.ac.uk/tmr.
16 Bullying in Schools

• How does the school identify bullies? Are records kept? Are

they adequate? Are school counselors in the loop? 

• What insights do teachers have about bullying? Can they

identify some of the chronic victims and bullies? 

• How are others (e.g., parents, police) brought into the loop,

and at what point? 

• Given that most bullying occurs in areas where there are no

teachers, is the current method for identifying bullies

adequate?

Offenders

• Where do bullies operate at the school?

• What are the consequences for bullying at the school? Are

they applied consistently?

• Does the bullying stop? How is this determined? 

Victims and Victimization

• Does the school know all the victims of bullying?

• How does the school identify victims? Given that most

victims and witnesses do not report, is the current system

for identifying victims adequate? Who are the chronic

victims? What has the school done to protect them?

• What are the most common forms of bullying

victimization? Does the school policy address them?

• Does the school have a policy regarding the reporting of

bullying and the role of bystanders?

Locations Where Bullying Occurs

• Where does bullying most often occur? Do data support

this?

• When does bullying occur at those locations?
Understanding Your Local Problem 17

• Are those who supervise the locations during those times

trained to identify and appropriately handle bullying

incidents?

• Has the school made changes to the locations to minimize

bullying opportunities?

Measuring Your Effectiveness

You should encourage the school to measure its bullying

problem before implementing responses, to determine how

serious the problem is, and after implementing them, to

determine whether they have been effective. Measurement

allows school staff to determine to what degree their efforts

have succeeded, and suggests how they might modify their

responses if they are not producing the intended results. For

more detailed guidance on measuring effectiveness, see the

companion guide to this series, Assessing Responses to

Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers.

The following potentially useful measures of the effectiveness

of responses to bullying should be taken using before-andafter surveys:

• percentage of victims, by type of bullying;

• number of repeat victims;

• number of chronic bullies;

• frequency of victimization (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly);

• percentage of bullying incidents reported to parents or

authorities;

• number of students who are knowledgeable about bullying

and how they should respond;

• percentage of students who witness bullying who report it

to teachers or parents;
18 Bullying in Schools

• willingness of students to step in and help someone being

bullied;

• attendance, tardiness, behavior, and disciplinary reports of

chronic victims and bullies; and

• bullying rates at specific bullying hot spots (e.g., bathrooms,

cafeteria, schoolyard).
Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools 19

Responses to the Problem of Bullying in

Schools

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better

understanding of, among other things, the extent of the

problem, including the level of bullying and the identification

of bullying hot spots, chronic victims and chronic offenders.

Outlined below are approaches used to address bullying, along

with information about their effectiveness.

General Requirements for an Effective Strategy To

Counter Bullying in Schools

1. Enlisting the school principal's commitment and

involvement. The school principal's commitment to and

involvement in addressing school bullying are key. In fact, in

comparing schools with high and low bullying rates, some

research suggests that a principal's investment in preventing

and controlling bullying contributes to low rates.60 A police

officer's knowledge of and interest in the problem may serve

to convince a principal to invest the time and energy to

collaboratively and comprehensively tackle it.

2. Using a multifaceted, comprehensive approach. A

multifaceted, comprehensive approach is more effective than

one that focuses on only one or two aspects of school

bullying. A multifaceted, comprehensive approach includes:

• establishing a schoolwide policy that addresses indirect

bullying (e.g., rumor spreading, isolation, social exclusion),

which is more hidden, as well as direct bullying (e.g.,

physical aggression);

• providing guidelines for teachers, other staff and students

(including witnesses) on specific actions to take if bullying

occurs;
20 Bullying in Schools

• educating and involving parents so they understand the

problem, recognize its signs and intervene appropriately;

• adopting specific strategies to deal with individual bullies

and victims, including meeting with their parents;

• encouraging students to report known bullying;

• developing a comprehensive reporting system to track

bullying and the interventions used with specific bullies and

victims;

• encouraging students to be helpful to classmates who may

be bullied;

• developing tailored strategies to counter bullying in specific

school hot spots, using environmental redesign, increased

supervision (e.g., by teachers, other staff members, parents,

volunteers) or technological monitoring equipment; and 

• conducting post-intervention surveys to assess the

strategies' impact on school bullying.

Specific Responses To Reduce Bullying in Schools

3. Using the "whole-school" approach.

† Olweus developed

and tested the whole-school approach in Scandinavia. It

contains elements listed under requirement 1 and 2 above

(school principal's involvement and the multi-faceted,

comprehensive approach) and it has undergone repeated

evaluations in other countries, including the United States,

with a range of successful results, including a 50 percent

reduction in bullying in 42 schools in one area of Norway.

However, most other applications of this approach achieve

improvements in the 20 to 30 percent range, which is

significant.61 In some studies, the results are achieved primarily

in the second year. This approach can reduce the level of

bullying and other antisocial behavior, such as vandalism,

fighting, theft, and truancy, and improve the "social climate,"

order and discipline in class.

† Some research refers to the wholeschool approach as the "schoolwide"

approach or "organizational"

approach. The three are identical,

requiring interventions at the school,

class and individual level.
Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools 21

The whole-school approach is somewhat easier to implement

in elementary schools, due to their size and structure.

Students in these schools generally interact with only one or

two teachers a year, guaranteeing higher levels of consistent

messages from teachers to students.62 However, significant

gains can also be achieved in middle and high schools.63

Research tells us that the whole-school approach requires

renewed effort each year (reinforcing anti-bullying strategies

with returning students, their parents and school staff), which

may be at odds with a school's, or even a police department's,

concern about tackling the latest hot topic. However, onetime efforts will be less effective. Thus, schools must prepare

themselves to maintain momentum for anti-bullying initiatives

year after year.

4. Increasing student reporting of bullying. To address

the problem of students' resistance to reporting bullying,

some schools have set up a bully hot line. One in England

received thousands of calls shortly after it was established.

Some schools use a "bully box"; students drop a note in the

box to alert teachers and administrators about problem

bullies. Other approaches to increase reporting are also used.

In one Kentucky town, a police officer, keen to increase

reporting, developed a short in-class segment titled "Hero vs.

Snitch," in which he discussed why reporting is heroic

behavior, not tattling.

5. Developing activities in less-supervised areas. In these

areas (e.g., schoolyards, lunchrooms), trained supervisors spot

bullying and initiate activities that limit opportunities for it.

Such activities must be of interest to bullies and curb their

behavior.
22 Bullying in Schools

6. Reducing the amount of time students can spend less

supervised. Since much bullying occurs during lesssupervised time (e.g., recess, lunch breaks, class changes),

reducing the amount of time available to students can reduce

the amount of bullying.

7. Staggering recess, lunch and/or class-release times.

This approach minimizes the number of bullies and victims

present at one time, so supervisors have less trouble spotting

bullying. However, supervisors must be mindful that most

bullies are in the same grade as their victims.

8. Monitoring areas where bullying can be expected

(e.g., bathrooms). Adult monitoring can increase the risk

that bullies get caught, but may require increased staffing or

trained volunteers.

Sean Lynch

The photo on the left illustrates a school hallway during class release time.

The photo on the right shows two of the strategies the school adopted to

reduce bullying behavior in the hallways: staggered class release times

(evidenced by fewer students in the hallway) and teacher monitoring of

hallway behavior during class release time.
Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools 23

9. Assigning bullies to a particular location or to

particular chores during release times. This approach

separates bullies from their intended victims. Some teachers

give bullies constructive tasks to occupy them during release

times. Careful victim monitoring is required to ensure that

bullies do not pick on victims at other times.

10. Posting classroom signs prohibiting bullying and

listing the consequences for it. This puts would-be bullies

on notice and outlines the risks they take. Teachers must

consistently enforce the rules for them to have meaning.

Schools should post signs in each classroom and apply ageappropriate penalties.

11. Providing teachers with effective classroom

management training. To address bullying, schools should

ensure that all their teachers have effective classroom

management training. Since research suggests that classes

containing students with behavioral, emotional or learning

problems have more bullies and victims, teachers in those

classes may require additional tailored training in spotting and

handling bullying.

12. Having high-level school administrators inform lateenrolling students about the school's bullying policy.

This removes any excuse new students have for bullying, and

stresses the importance the school places on countering it.

Responses With Limited Effectiveness

13. Training students in conflict resolution and peer

mediation. A number of schools adopt conflict resolution

and peer mediation training to address bullying (and other)

problems. "Because bullying involves harassment by powerful
24 Bullying in Schools

children of children with less power (rather than a conflict

between peers of relatively equal status), common conflictresolution strategies or mediation may not be effective."64 In

fact, they may actually further victimize a child.65 The training

often offers too little for those students who really need it,

and too much for those who already have the skills. The

whole-school approach, in contrast, does not assume that

students alone can solve the bullying problem; interventions

at all levels are required: school, class, individual, teacher,

parent, and peer.†

14. Adopting a "zero tolerance" policy. Some schools, in

their rush to "do something" about bullying, adopt a "zero

tolerance" policy against it, without an in-depth analysis of

their specific problem or the comprehensive involvement of

administrators, teachers, other staff, student-witnesses,

parents, bullies, and victims at the school, class, and individual

level. This approach may result in a high level of suspensions

without full comprehension of how behavior needs to and

can be changed. It does not solve the problem of the bully,

who typically spends more unsupervised time in the home or

community if suspended or expelled. Zero tolerance may also

ultimately have a chilling effect on reporting of bullying.

15. Providing group therapy for bullies. Some schools

provide self-esteem training for bullies. This may be

misdirected: research suggests that most bullies do not lack in

self-esteem.66

16. Encouraging victims to simply "stand up"to bullies.

Without adequate support or adult involvement this strategy

may be harmful and physically dangerous for a victim of

bullying.67

† In terms of peer mediation, one

Flemish study found that elementaryand many middle school-age students

lack confidence in successfully

intervening (Stevens, Van Oost and

De Bourdeaudhuij 2000). In another

study, researchers found that only

small numbers of students were

willing to go to peer-support training,

and that it was harder to get boys or

male teachers involved (Naylor and

Cowie 1999). In one study in

Australia, however, Peterson and

Rigby (1999) found a tremendous

number of peer interventions, as part

of a whole-school approach. The

result was a modest decline in

reported bullying of students in their

first year of high school, but not in

the other years. The authors still

found this significant because the

transition year into high school can

be intense for bullying.
Appendix: A 25

Appendix A: Summary of Responses to

Bullying in Schools

The table below summarizes the responses to bullying in

schools, the mechanism by which they are intended to work,

the conditions under which they ought to work best, and

some factors you should consider before implementing a

particular response. It is critical that you tailor responses to

local circumstances, and that you can justify each response

based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy

will involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem.

1.

2.

19

19

Enlisting the

school principal's

commitment and

involvement

Using a

multifaceted,

comprehensive

approach

Police officers

convince the

principal of the

importance of

tackling bullying

Once baseline

surveys are

completed, the

school adopts a

comprehensive

series of

strategies to

address the

specific survey

findings

...officers are

aware of best

practices 

...the principal

assigns a highlevel project (or

team) manager to

ensure the full

implementation

and progress of

the strategies

Officers may need

to engage others,

such as parents, to

help influence the

principal;

unfortunately, in

some cases, only a

crisis will galvanize

the principal's

attention

Sometimes it is

difficult to isolate

the effectiveness of

individual

interventions 

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

General Requirements for an Effective Strategy To Counter Bullying in Schools
† For examples of policies for the school, class, students, and parrents, see Glover and Cartwright, with Gleeson (1998).

26 Bullying in Schools

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

20

21

21

22

22

22

Using the

"whole- school"

approach 

Increasing

student

reporting of

bullying

Developing

activities in lesssupervised areas

Reducing the

amount of time

students can

spend less

supervised 

Staggering

recess, lunch

and/or classrelease times

Monitoring

areas where

bullying can be

expected (e.g.,

bathrooms)

Baseline data reveal

the details of the

problem;

interventions are

implemented at the

school, class and

individual level 

Increases bullies' risk

of getting caught

Increases the effort

bullies must make by

decreasing their

opportunity to bully

Increases the risk

that bullying will be

exposed and reduces

the amount of time

for it to occur

Ensures fewer

bullies and victims

are together at the

same time,

increasing

supervisors' ability

to spot bullying

Increases bullies' risk

of getting caught

...school

administrators are

fully committed

to addressing the

problem, and are

knowledgeable of

the components

of the approach†

...students are

convinced that

reporting is

appropriate

behavior

...the activities

interest bullies

and are designed

to limit their

ability to victimize

others

...supervisors are

trained to spot

and respond to

bullying 

...bullies and

victims are not in

the same classes

or, if they are,

supervisors are

well trained to

spot and respond

to bullying

...it is done

frequently enough

to make the risk

real

Availability and use of local

resources, such as university

researchers, to assist in survey

development and testing, or

alternatively, use of Olweus'

survey; parental permission may

be needed to survey students;

community's and school's

commitment to uncovering the

full details of the problem

Some schools establish a hot line,

while others install a bully box

where students can leave notes

alerting school personnel to

bullying; non-anonymous

reporting should be encouraged

to lessen student fear of reprisal

Requires staff or volunteers

(students, parents, seniors) and

age-appropriate programming

Requires scheduling changes

If some bullies are in the same

classes with their victims, other

remedies are also needed

May require increased staffing or

trained volunteers

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Specific Responses To Reduce Bullying in Schools
Appendix A 27

9.

10.

11.

12.

23

23

23

23

Assigning bullies

to a particular

location or to

particular chores

during release

times

Posting classroom

signs prohibiting

bullying and

listing the

consequences for

it

Providing

teachers with

effective

classroom

management

training 

Having high-level

school

administrators

inform lateenrolling students

about the school's

bullying policy

Increases the

effort bullies

must make to

bully because this

separates bullies

from victims

Removes the

excuse of

ignorance and

underscores the

risks

Increases bullies'

risk of getting

caught in

classrooms, and

decreases victims'

risk of harm

Decreases lateenrolling students'

risk of bullying or

being bullied

...careful

consideration is

given to which of

the two

approaches is

more appropriate

for each particular

bully

...signs are

posted in all

classrooms

...teachers are

committed to

stopping

classroom

bullying, and

those teaching

higher-risk classes

are given

additional

specialized

training

...done at the

time of

enrollment and by

someone

perceived as

having a high

level of authority

Isolating bullies may

further anger them

and cause additional

problems for their

victims

Signs and

consequences

should be ageappropriate

Identifying those

teachers who need

extra assistance

must be handled

delicately, although

it should be noted

that most U.S.

teachers receive no

instruction on

classroom

management

techniques, so it is

not surprising that

some have fewer

skills in these

Schools may

consider having

late-enrolling

students sign "bullyfree agreements"

acknowledging the

rules and the

consequences for

violations

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations
28 Bullying in Schools

13.

14.

15.

16.

23

24

24

24

Training students

in conflict

resolution and

peer mediation 

Adopting a "zero

tolerance" policy

Providing group

therapy for bullies

Encouraging

victims to simply

"stand up" to

bullies

Allows students to

play the key role

in resolving

bullying problems 

Guarantees that

bullies who get

caught will be

penalized on the

first offense

Intended to build

self-esteem of

bullies

Directly pits

victim against

bully

...conflicts are

between students

of relatively equal

status, and not

between bullies

and weaker

victims

...used as a last

resort, after other

responses have

failed 

...bullies suggest

that they have low

self-esteem and it

is the cause of

their bullying

...accompanied

by adequate

support or adult

involvement

May be more

appropriate for

problems other

than bullying (e.g.,

conflicts between

peers of equal

power or status)

Bullying is too

widespread,

longstanding and

complex for it to

stop simply due to

such a policy

Most bullies do not

have low-esteem

May be harmful or

physically

dangerous

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Responses With Limited Effectiveness
Appendix B 29

Appendix B: Sample Brochure Educating

Parents About School Bullying†

The _________________ School District is collaborating

with the _________________ Police Department to

implement the Bullying Prevention Program to address

bullying among children in grades ____ to ____.

What is bullying?

Bullying occurs when one child or group of children

repeatedly hurts another child through actions or words.

Bullying may involve physical aggression, such as fighting,

shoving or kicking; verbal aggression, such as name-calling; or

more subtle aggression, such as socially isolating a child.

Why focus on bullying?

All of us are concerned about the levels of violence among

young people in our communities and schools. Studies have

shown that 60 percent of children identified as bullies in

middle school go on to have arrest records. We need to

address these children's behavioral problems at an early age,

before they become even more serious. In addition, victims of

bullies may have problems with depression, poor school

attendance and low self-esteem. It is important to help create

a school environment where all children feel safe and can

learn to the best of their abilities.

† This brochure is copied (with

minor changes) with the permission

of its author, Susan Limber, Clemson

University, Institute on Family and

Neighborhood Life. This particular

brochure is most appropriate for

parents of elementary or middle

school students.
30 Bullying in Schools

What does this program involve?

The Bullying Prevention Program involves the total effort of

all school staff (teachers, principals, guidance counselors,

cafeteria workers, custodians, bus drivers, etc.), as well as

students, parents and other community members, to reduce

bullying.

The school's efforts will include:

• identifying bullies and their victims, to address individual

problems and needs;

• establishing schoolwide rules and applying consistent

sanctions against bullies;

• holding regular classroom meetings to discuss bullying with

children;

• increasing supervision of children at school;

• rewarding children for good social behaviors;

• holding schoolwide assemblies on bullying; and

• using videos, books and other resources on bullying.

Will this program help?

Studies have shown that the Bullying Prevention Program can

be very effective in reducing bullying and related antisocial

behavior among schoolchildren. In places where this program

has been used, bullying has been reduced by 25 to 50 percent.

Fighting, vandalizing, drinking, and other antisocial behaviors

also have decreased, and children and school personnel

involved in the program have reported that they felt more

positive about school.
Appendix B 31

How can parents get involved?

• Through mailings, PTA meetings and other school events,

we hope to inform you about the Bullying Prevention

Program and the many problems associated with bullying.

• We will discuss ways to determine whether your children

may be bullies or victims of bullying, and we will suggest

strategies and resources for you.

• We will encourage you to become involved in a variety of

creative projects developed by your school to raise

awareness of the problems of violence and of efforts to

reduce bullying at school and in the community.

How can I tell if my child is being bullied?

Your child may be the victim of bullying if he or she:

• comes home from school with torn or dirty clothing, or

damaged books;

• has cuts, bruises or scratches;

• has few, if any, friends to play with;

• seems afraid to go to school, or complains of headaches or

stomach pains;

• doesn't sleep well or has bad dreams;

• loses interest in schoolwork;

• seems sad, depressed or moody;

• is anxious or has poor self-esteem; and/or

• is quiet, sensitive or passive.

If your child shows several of these warning signs, it's

possible he or she is being bullied. You may want to talk with

your child to find out what is troubling him or her, and

schedule a conference to discuss your concerns with school

staff.
32 Bullying in Schools

How can I tell if my child is bullying others?

Your child may be bullying others if he or she:

• teases, threatens or kicks other children;

• is hot-tempered or impulsive, or has a hard time following

rules;

• is aggressive toward adults;

• is tough or shows no sympathy for children who are bullied;

and/or

• has been involved in other antisocial behavior, such as

vandalism or theft.

If your child shows several of these warning signs, it's

possible that he or she is bullying others. You may want to

spend some extra time talking with your child about his or her

behavior, and schedule a conference to talk about the issue

with school staff.

For more information about the Bullying Prevention

Program, please contact _________________ at

_________________.
Endnotes 33

Endnotes

1 Batsche and Knoff (1994).

2 U.S. Secret Service (2000).

3 Olweus (1978); an earlier edition was published in Swedish in 1973.

4 Smith et al. (eds.) (1999); Farrington (1993); Smith and Brain (2000).

5 U.S. Department of Education (1998).

6 Olweus (1992).

7 Olweus (1992); Rigby and Slee (1999); Ortega and Lera (2000); Salmivalli (1999);

Farrington (1993).

8 Nansel et al. (2001).

9 Perry, Kusel and Perry (1988); Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999), citing Bosworth,

Espelage, DuBay, Dahlberg, and Daytner (1996); Hoover, Oliver and Hazler (1992);

Olweus and Limber (1999), citing Melton, Limber, Cunningham, Osgood, Cambers, Flerx,

Henggeler, and Nation (1998).

10 Rigby and Slee (1999); Smith, Morita, Junger-Tas, Olweus, Catalano and Slee (1999).

11 Farrington (1993), citing Whitney and Smith (1991).

12 Clarke and Kiselica (1997).

13 Hoover, Oliver and Hazler (1992); Australian students reported similarly [Rigby (1996)].

14 Limber (1998), citing Hazler, Hoover and Oliver (1991).

15 Salmivalli (1999); also see Olweus and Limber (1999).

16 Salmivalli (1999); Stevens, Van Oost and De Bourdeaudhuij (2000), citing Pepler (1994).

17 Clarke and Kiselica (1997).

18 Rigby and Slee (1999).

19 Limber et al. (1998).

20 Smith and Sharp (1994).

21 Rigby and Slee (1999); Ortega and Lera (2000).

22 Farrington (1993), citing Stephenson and Smith (1991), and Whitney and Smith (1991).

23 Farrington (1993), citing Zeigler and Rosenstein-Manner ( 1991), and Stephenson and 

Smith (1991).

24 Nansel et al. (2001).

25 Farrington (1993), citing Ziegler and Rosenstein-Manner (1991).

26 Home Office (1996).

27 Farrington (1993).

28 Olweus (1978); Smith and Brain (2000); but see Bernstein and Watson (1997).

29 Bernstein and Watson (1997).

30 Farrington (1993).
34 Bullying in Schools

31 Farrington (1993) reporting on his earlier research.

32 Farrington (1993).

33 Rigby and Slee (1999).

34 Junger-Tas and Van Kesteren (1999).

35 Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999).

36 See generally Smith and Brain (2000) for a discussion of the research on this topic.

37 See Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999) for a discussion of these different avenues of

recent bullying research.

38 Stevens, De Bourdeaudhuij and Van Oost (2000).

39 Farrington (1993); Zeigler and Rosenstein-Manner (1991).

40 Clarke and Kiselica (1997).

41 Banks, Kaplan and Groves (2001).

42 Banks, Kaplan and Groves (2001), quoting therapist Veronica Thomas.

43 Farrington (1993), citing Whitney and Smith (1991).

44 Farrington (1993); also see Bernstein and Watson (1997), citing Olweus (1978); Perry,

Kusel and Perry (1988).

45 Bernstein and Watson (1997), citing Olweus (1978).

46 Schwartz, Dodge and Cole (1993).

47 Hodges and Perry (1997).

48 Junger-Tas and Van Kesteren (1999).

49 Smith and Brain (2000).

50 Farrington (1993).

51 Rigby and Slee (1999).

52 Farrington (1993).

53 Junger-Tas and Van Kesteren (1999).

54 See Bernstein and Watson (1997) for a discussion of the research on chronic victims;

also see Perry, Kusel and Perry (1988).

55 Farrington (1993); Olweus (1993).

56 See generally Bernstein and Watson (1997).

57 Bernstein and Watson (1997); also see Salmivalli (1999).

58 Olweus (1992).

59 Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999).

60 Farrington (1993), citing Stephenson and Smith (1991); for similar conclusions, also see

Roland (2000).

61 Olweus and Limber (1999); Pitts and Smith (1996); also see the evaluation by The Center 

for the Study and Prevention of Violence, at 

http://www.Colorado.EDU/cspv/blueprints/model/ten_bully.htm
Appendix 35

62 Stevens, De Bourdeaudhuij and Van Oost (2000); Stevens found 

zero outcomes in secondary schools.

63 Pitts and Smith (1996); but see Stevens, De Bourdeauhuij and Van

Oost (2000).

64 Limber et al. (1998).

65 Personal correspondence from Sue Limber to the author,

November 9, 2001.

66 Personal correspondence from Sue Limber to the author,

November 9, 2001.

67 Personal correspondence from Sue Limber to the author,

November 9, 2001.

References 37

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Understanding a Pervasive Problem in the Schools." School

Psychology Review 23(2):165–174.

Bernstein, J., and M. Watson (1997). "Children Who Are

Targets of Bullying: A Victim Pattern." Journal of

Interpersonal Violence 12(4):483–498.

Clarke, E., and M. Kiselica (1997). "A Systemic Counseling

Approach to the Problem of Bullying." Elementary School

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Eron, L., L. Huesmann, E. Dubow, R. Romanoff, and P.

Yarmel (1987). "Aggression and Its Correlates Over 22

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Chicago Press.

Glover, D., and N. Cartwright, with D. Gleeson (1998).

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States." In P. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R.

Catalano, and P. Slee (eds.), The Nature of School Bullying: A

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and Social Risk as Interacting Determinants of

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33(6):1032–1039.

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Hoover, J., R. Oliver and R. Hazler (1992). "Bullying:

Perceptions of Adolescent Victims in the Midwestern

USA." School Psychology International 13(1):5–16.

Junger-Tas, J., and J. Van Kesteren (1999). Bullying and

Delinquency in a Dutch School Population. The Hague,

Netherlands: Kugler Publications.

Kaufman, P., X. Chen, S. Choy, S. Ruddy, A. Miller, J. Fleury,

K. Chandler, M. Rand, P. Klaus, and M. Planty (2000).

Indicators of School Crime and Safety, 2000. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Departments of Education and Justice.

http://www.nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/

Limber, S., V. Flerx, M. Nation, and G. Melton (1998).

"Bullying Among School Children in the United States." In

M. Watts (ed.), Contemporary Studies in Sociology, Vol. 18.

Stamford, Conn.: Jai Press Inc.
References 39

Nansel, T., M. Overpeck, R. Pilla, W. Ruan, B. SimonsMorton, and P. Scheidt (2001). "Bullying Behaviors Among

US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychosocial

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Intervention and Prevention." In R. Peters, R. McMahon

and V. Quinsey (eds.), Aggression and Violence Throughout the

Life Span. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.

(1978). Aggression in the Schools: Bullies and

Whipping Boys. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Press.

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Program." In D. Elliott (ed.), Blueprints for Violence

Prevention. Boulder, Colo.: Institute of Behavioral Science,

Regents of the University of Colorado.

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Counter Bullying and Victimisation in Ireland." Aggressive

Behavior 26:99–111.

Ortega, R., and M. Lera (2000). "The Seville Anti-Bullying in

School Project." Aggressive Behavior 26:113–123.

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Aggression." Developmental Psychology 24(6):807–814.
40 Bullying in Schools

Peterson, L., and K. Rigby (1999). "Countering Bullying at an

Australian Secondary School, With Students as Helpers."

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Pitts, J., and P. Smith (1996). Preventing School Bullying. Police

Research Series, Paper 63. London: Home Office.

Rigby, K. (1996). "Preventing Peer Victimisation in Schools."

In C. Sumner, M. Israel, M. O'Connell, and R. Sarre (eds.),

International Victimology: Selected Papers From the Eighth

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Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, and P. Slee

(eds.), The Nature of School Bullying: A Cross-National

Perspective. London and New York: Routledge.

Roland, E. (2000). "Bullying in School: Three National

Innovations in Norwegian Schools in 15 Years." Aggressive

Behavior 26:135–143.

Salmivalli, C. (1999). "Participant Role Approach to School

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of Chronic Peer Victimization in Boys' Play Groups." Child

Development 64:1755–1772.

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From Two Decades of Research." Aggressive Behavior

26:1–9.

Smith, P., and S. Sharp (1994). School Bullying: Insights and

Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge.
References 41

Smith, P., Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, and

P. Slee (eds.) (1999). The Nature of School Bullying: A CrossNational Perspective. London and New York: Routledge.

Stevens, V., I. De Bourdeaudhuij and P. Van Oost (2000).

"Bullying in Flemish Schools: An Evaluation of AntiBullying Intervention in Primary and Secondary Schools."

British Journal of Educational Psychology 70:195–210.

Stevens, V., P. Van Oost and I. De Bourdeaudhuij (2000).

"The Effects of an Anti-Bullying Intervention Programme

on Peers' Attitudes and Behaviour." Journal of Adolescence

23:21–34.

U.S. Department of Education (1998). Preventing Bullying: A

Manual for Schools and Communities. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Education. Available by order at

http://www.ed.gov/pubs

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of Targeted Violence in Schools. http://www.treas.gov/usss/

Zeigler, S. and M. Rosenstein-Manner (1991). Bullying in

School. Toronto: Board of Education.

About the Author 43

About the Author

Rana Sampson

Rana Sampson is a national problem-oriented policing

consultant and the former director of public safety for the

University of San Diego. She was previously a White House

Fellow; National Institute of Justice Fellow; senior researcher

and trainer at the Police Executive Research Forum; attorney;

and patrol officer, undercover narcotics officer and patrol

sergeant with the New York City Police Department, where

she was awarded several commendations of merit and won

the National Improvement of Justice Award. She is the

coauthor (with Michael Scott) of Tackling Crime and Other

Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving, which

documents high-quality crime control efforts from around the

United States, Canada and Europe. She is a judge for the

Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in ProblemOriented Policing, a former judge for the police Fulbright

awards, and a commissioner with California's Commission on

Peace Officer Standards and Training. Sampson holds a law

degree from Harvard and a bachelor's degree from Barnard

College, Columbia University.

Recommended Readings 45

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers, by

John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services,2001). This guide is

a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It

provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing

problem-oriented policing efforts.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
46 Bullying in Schools

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing:The 1999

Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This document

produced by the National Institute of Justice in

collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A

similar publication is available for the award winners from

subsequent years. The documents are also available at

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or

ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in

England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for

Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V.

Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98,

1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity

theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have

practical implications for the police in their efforts to

prevent crime.

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990).

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses

how a police agency can implement the concept.
Recommended Readings 47

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the

First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of

Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,

2000). Describes how the most critical elements of Herman

Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman

(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the

rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the

problem-solving process, and provides examples of

effective problem-solving in one agency.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime

and Disorder Through Problem-Solving

Partnerships by Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott

Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and Meg Townsend. (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 1998) (also available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides a brief introduction to

problem-solving, basic information on the SARA model

and detailed suggestions about the problem-solving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case

Studies, Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and

methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over

20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.
48 Bullying in Schools

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems:

Case Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson

and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder

problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook

for Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 2001). Provides an introduction for police

to analyzing problems within the context of problemoriented policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G.

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains

many of the basics of research as it applies to police

management and problem-solving.
Other Guides in This Series 49

Other Guides in This Series

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes.

Rana Sampson. 2001.

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001.

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V.

Clarke. 2002.

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002.

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel.

2002.

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

Companion guide to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for

Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002.
50 Bullying in Schools

Other Related COPS Office Publications

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for Law

Enforcement. Timothy S. Bynum. 2001.

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years.

Michael S. Scott. 2001.

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case

Studies in Problem-Solving. Rana Sampson and Michael S.

Scott. 2000.

• Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative

Justice: Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced

Approach to Public Safety. Caroline G. Nicholl. 1999.

• Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing

Community Policing. Caroline G. Nicholl. 2000.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships. Karin

Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and Meg

Townsend. 1998.

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series

and other COPS Office publications, please call the Department of

Justice Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or check our website at

www.cops.usdoj.gov.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770

Visit the COPS internet web site at the address listed below.

e12011405 Created Date: March 22, 2002