U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

www.cops.usdoj.gov

B u l l y i n g i n S c h o o l s

by

Rana Sampson

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides Series

No. 12
www.PopCenter.org

Got a Problem? We’ve got answers!

Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing website at 

www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help you deal 

more effectively with crime and disorder in your community, 

including:

• Web-enhanced versions of all currently available Guides

• Interactive training exercises

• Online access to research and police practices

• Online problem analysis module.

Designed for police and those who work with them to address 

community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great resource in 

problem-oriented policing.

Supported by the Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services, U.S. Department of Justice.

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing
Bullying in Schools

Rana Sampson

This project was supported by cooperative agreement 

#99-CK-WX-K004 by the Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions contained herein 

are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the 

official position of the U.S. Department of Justice. References to 

specific companies, products, or services should not be considered an 

endorsement of the product by the author or the U.S. Department of 

Justice. Rather, the references are illustrations to supplement discussion 

of the issues.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

ISBN: 1-932582-11-8

May 2002

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides Series

Guide No. 12

About the Problem-Specific Guides Series 

About the Problem-Specific Guides Series

The Problem-Specific Guides summarize knowledge about how 

police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime and 

disorder problems. They are guides to prevention and to 

improving the overall response to incidents, not to investigating 

offenses or handling specific incidents. Neither do they cover 

all of the technical details about how to implement specific 

responses. The guides are written for police—of whatever rank 

or assignment—who must address the specific problem the 

guides cover. The guides will be most useful to officers who:

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles 

and methods. The guides are not primers in problemoriented policing. They deal only briefly with the initial 

decision to focus on a particular problem, methods to 

analyze the problem, and means to assess the results of a 

problem-oriented policing project. They are designed to help 

police decide how best to analyze and address a problem 

they have already identified. (A companion series of ProblemSolving Tools guides has been produced to aid in various 

aspects of problem analysis and assessment.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the 

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to spend 

perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and responding to 

it. Carefully studying a problem before responding helps you 

design the right strategy, one that is most likely to work in 

your community. You should not blindly adopt the responses 

others have used; you must decide whether they are 

appropriate to your local situation. What is true in one place 

may not be true elsewhere; what works in one place may not 

work everywhere.
ii Bullying in Schools

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police 

business. The guides describe responses that other police 

departments have used or that researchers have tested. 

While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your 

particular problem, they should help give a broader view of 

the kinds of things you could do. You may think you cannot 

implement some of these responses in your jurisdiction, 

but perhaps you can. In many places, when police have 

discovered a more effective response, they have succeeded 

in having laws and policies changed, improving the response 

to the problem. (A companion series of Response Guides has 

been produced to help you understand how commonly-used 

police responses work on a variety of problems.) 

• Understand the value and the limits of research 

knowledge. For some types of problems, a lot of useful 

research is available to the police; for other problems, 

little is available. Accordingly, some guides in this series 

summarize existing research whereas other guides illustrate 

the need for more research on that particular problem. 

Regardless, research has not provided definitive answers to 

all the questions you might have about the problem. The 

research may help get you started in designing your own 

responses, but it cannot tell you exactly what to do. This 

will depend greatly on the particular nature of your local 

problem. In the interest of keeping the guides readable, 

not every piece of relevant research has been cited, nor has 

every point been attributed to its sources. To have done so 

would have overwhelmed and distracted the reader. The 

references listed at the end of each guide are those drawn 

on most heavily; they are not a complete bibliography of 

research on the subject. 

• Are willing to work with others to find effective 

solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot 

implement many of the responses discussed in the guides. 
About the Problem-Specific Guides Series iii

They must frequently implement them in partnership with 

other responsible private and public bodies including other 

government agencies, non-governmental organizations, 

private businesses, public utilities, community groups, 

and individual citizens. An effective problem-solver must 

know how to forge genuine partnerships with others 

and be prepared to invest considerable effort in making 

these partnerships work. Each guide identifies particular 

individuals or groups in the community with whom 

police might work to improve the overall response to that 

problem. Thorough analysis of problems often reveals 

that individuals and groups other than the police are in 

a stronger position to address problems and that police 

ought to shift some greater responsibility to them to do 

so. Response Guide No. 3, Shifting and Sharing Responsibility 

for Public Safety Problems, provides further discussion of this 

topic.

The COPS Office defines community policing as “a policing 

philosophy that promotes and supports organizational 

strategies to address the causes and reduce the fear of crime 

and social disorder through problem-solving tactics and 

police-community partnerships.” These guides emphasize 

problem-solving and police-community partnerships in the 

context of addressing specific public safety problems. For 

the most part, the organizational strategies that can facilitate 

problem-solving and police-community partnerships vary considerably 

and discussion of them is beyond the scope of these guides.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police 

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, 

Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. 

Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from 

country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere 
iv Bullying in Schools

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming 

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be 

aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders 

of their own countries.

Each guide is informed by a thorough review of the research 

literature and reported police practice and is anonymously 

peer-reviewed by line police officers, police executives and 

researchers prior to publication. 

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide 

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency’s 

experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency 

may have effectively addressed a problem using responses 

not considered in these guides and your experiences and 

knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used 

to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and 

share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to cops_

pubs@usdoj.gov.

For more information about problem-oriented policing, visit 

the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing online at www.

popcenter.org. This website offers free online access to:

• the Problem-Specific Guides series

• the companion Response Guides and Problem-Solving Tools series

• instructional information about problem-oriented policing 

and related topics

• an interactive problem-oriented policing training exercise

• an interactive Problem Analysis Module

• a manual for crime analysts

• online access to important police research and practices

• information about problem-oriented policing conferences 

and award programs. 
Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police are produced by the 

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, whose officers are 

Michael S. Scott (Director), Ronald V. Clarke (Associate 

Director) and Graeme R. Newman (Associate Director). 

While each guide has a primary author, other project team 

members, COPS Office staff and anonymous peer reviewers 

contributed to each guide by proposing text, recommending 

research and offering suggestions on matters of format and 

style. 

The project team that developed the guide series comprised 

Herman Goldstein (University of Wisconsin Law School), 

Ronald V. Clarke (Rutgers University), John E. Eck (University 

of Cincinnati), Michael S. Scott (University of Wisconsin Law 

School), Rana Sampson (Police Consultant), and Deborah 

Lamm Weisel (North Carolina State University.) 

Members of the San Diego; National City, California; and 

Savannah, Georgia police departments provided feedback on 

the guides’ format and style in the early stages of the project.

Cynthia E. Pappas oversaw the project for the COPS Office. 

Research for the guide was conducted at the Criminal Justice 

Library at Rutgers University under the direction of Phyllis 

Schultze. Suzanne Fregly edited this guide.

contents

About the Problem-Specific Guides Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments....................................................... v

The Problem of Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Definition of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Extent of the Bullying Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

A Threshold Problem: The Reluctance To Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Bullying Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Bullies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Incidents of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Victims of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Consequences of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chronic Victims of Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Victims and Victimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Locations Where Bullying Occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

General Requirements for an Effective Strategy To Counter Bullying in Schools 19

Specific Responses To Reduce Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Responses With Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Contents vii
viii Bullying in Schools

Appendix A: Summary of Responses to Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Appendix B: Sample Letter Educating Parents About Bullying in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
The Problem of Bullying in Schools

The Problem of Bullying in Schools

There is new concern about school violence, and police have 

assumed greater responsibility for helping school officials 

ensure students' safety. As pressure increases to place officers 

in schools, police agencies must decide how best to contribute 

to student safety. Will police presence on campuses most 

enhance safety? If police cannot or should not be on every 

campus, can they make other contributions to student safety? 

What are good approaches and practices? 

Perhaps more than any other school safety problem, bullying 

affects students' sense of security. The most effective ways 

to prevent or lessen bullying require school administrators' 

commitment and intensive effort; police interested in 

increasing school safety can use their influence to encourage 

schools to address the problem. This guide provides police 

with information about bullying in schools, its extent and 

its causes, and enables police to steer schools away from 

common remedies that have proved ineffective elsewhere, and 

to develop ones that will work.§

Bullying is widespread and perhaps the most underreported 

safety problem on American school campuses.1 Contrary to 

popular belief, bullying occurs more often at school than on 

the way to and from there. Once thought of as simply a rite 

of passage or relatively harmless behavior that helps build 

young people's character, bullying is now known to have 

long-lasting harmful effects, for both the victim and the 

bully. Bullying is often mistakenly viewed as a narrow range 

of antisocial behavior confined to elementary school recess 

yards. In the United States, awareness of the problem is 

growing, especially with reports that in two-thirds of the 

recent school shootings (for which the shooter was still alive 

§ Why should police care about a 

safety problem when others, such 

as school administrators, are better 

equipped to address it? One can 

find numerous examples of safety 

problems regarding which the most 

promising part of the police role 

is to raise awareness and engage 

others to effectively manage the 

problems. For example, in the case 

of drug dealing in privately owned 

apartment complexes, the most 

effective police strategy is to educate 

property owners and managers in 

effective strategies so they can reduce 

their property's vulnerability to drug 

markets.
Bullying in Schools

to report), the attackers had previously been bullied. "In those 

cases, the experience of bullying appeared to play a major role 

in motivating the attacker."2,

§

International research suggests that bullying is common at 

schools and occurs beyond elementary school; bullying occurs 

at all grade levels, although most frequently during elementary 

school. It occurs slightly less often in middle schools, and 

less so, but still frequently, in high schools.§§ High school 

freshmen are particularly vulnerable. 

Dan Olweus, a researcher in Norway, conducted 

groundbreaking research in the 1970s exposing the 

widespread nature and harm of school bullying.3 Bullying is 

well documented in Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia, and 

New Zealand, providing an extensive body of information on 

the problem. Research from some countries has shown that, 

without intervention, bullies are much more likely to develop 

a criminal record than their peers,§§§ and bullying victims 

suffer psychological harm long after the bullying stops. 

Definition of Bullying

Bullying has two key components: repeated harmful acts and 

an imbalance of power. It involves repeated physical, verbal or 

psychological attacks or intimidation directed against a victim 

who cannot properly defend him- or herself because of size 

or strength, or because the victim is outnumbered or less 

psychologically resilient.4

Bullying includes assault, tripping, intimidation, rumorspreading and isolation, demands for money, destruction of 

property, theft of valued possessions, destruction of another's 

§ It is important to note that while 

bullying may be a contributing factor 

in many school shootings, it is not 

the cause of the school shootings.

§§ For an excellent review of 

bullying research up through 1992, 

see Farrington (1993).

§§§ As young adults, former school 

bullies in Norway had a fourfold 

increase in the level of relatively 

serious, recidivist criminality (Olweus 

1992). Dutch and Australian studies 

also found increased levels of 

criminal behavior by adults who had 

been bullies (Farrington 1993; Rigby 

and Slee 1999).
The Problem of Bullying in Schools

work, and name-calling. In the United States, several other 

school behaviors (some of which are illegal) are recognized as 

forms of bullying, such as:

• sexual harassment (e.g., repeated exhibitionism, voyeurism, 

sexual propositioning, and sexual abuse involving unwanted 

physical contact); 

• ostracism based on perceived sexual orientation; and 

• hazing (e.g., upper-level high school athletes' imposing 

painfully embarrassing initiation rituals on their new 

freshmen teammates).5

Not all taunting, teasing and fighting among schoolchildren 

constitutes bullying.6 "Two persons of approximately the 

same strength (physical or psychological)...fighting or 

quarreling" is not bullying. Rather, bullying entails repeated 

acts by someone perceived as physically or psychologically 

more powerful.

Related Problems

Bullying in schools shares some similarities to the related 

problems listed below, each of which requires its own analysis 

and response. This guide does not directly address these 

problems:

• bullying of teachers by students

• bullying among inmates in juvenile detention facilities

• bullying as a means of gaining and retaining youth gang 

members and compelling them to commit crimes.
Bullying in Schools

Extent of the Bullying Problem

Extensive studies in other countries during the 1980s and 

1990s generally found that between 8 and 38 percent of 

students are bullied with some regularity,§ and that between 

five and nine percent of students bully others with some 

regularity. Chronic victims of bullying, bullied once a week 

or more, generally constitute between 8 and 20 percent of the 

student population.7 

In the United States, fewer studies have been done. A recent 

study of a nationally representative sample of students found 

higher levels of bullying in America than in some other 

countries. Thirteen percent of sixth- through 10th-grade 

students bully, 10 percent reported being victims, and an 

additional six percent are victim-bullies.8 This study excluded 

elementary-age students (who often experience high levels of 

bullying) and did not limit bullying to school grounds. Several 

smaller studies from different parts of the country confirm 

high levels of bullying behaviors, with 10 to 29 percent of 

students reported to be either bullies or victims. 9,§§

§ A South Carolina study found that 

20 percent of students bully others 

with some regularity (Limber et al. 

1998). In an English study involving 

25 schools and nearly 3,500 students, 

9 percent of the students admitted 

to having bullied others by sexual 

touching [Glover and Cartwright, with 

Gleeson (1998)].

§§ In some of the studies, lack of 

a common definition of bullying 

potentially distorts the estimates of 

the problem (Harachi, Catalano and 

Hawkins 1999). In addition, in the 

United States, the lack of a galvanized 

focus on bullying has resulted in a lack 

of large-scale school research efforts 

(such as those in Scandinavia, England, 

Japan, and Australia). Thus we have 

only limited insights into the problem 

of bullying here.
The Problem of Bullying in Schools

Clearly, the percentage of students who are bullies and victims 

varies by research study, often depending on the definition 

used, the time frame examined (e.g., ever, frequently, once 

a week)§ and other factors.§§ Despite these differences, 

bullying appears to be widespread in schools in every country 

studying the problem.§§§

A Threshold Problem: The Reluctance To Report

Most students do not report bullying to adults. Surveys from a 

variety of countries confirm that many victims and witnesses 

fail to tell teachers or even parents.10 As a result, teachers 

may underestimate the extent of bullying in their school and 

may be able to identify only a portion of the actual bullies. 

Studies also suggest that children do not believe that most 

teachers intervene when told about bullying.11 

"If the victims are as miserable as the research suggests, 

why don't they appeal for help? One reason may be that, 

historically, adults' responses have been so disappointing."12

In a survey of American middle and high school students, "66 

percent of victims of bullying believed school professionals 

responded poorly to the bullying problems that they 

observed."13 Some of the reasons victims gave for not telling 

include:

• fearing retaliation

• feeling shame at not being able to stand up for themselves

• fearing they would not be believed

• not wanting to worry their parents

• having no confidence that anything would change as a result

• thinking their parents' or teacher's advice would make the 

problem worse 

§ For the first time, during the 1997-

98 school year, the United States 

participated in an international study 

of young people's health, behavior and 

lifestyles, which included conducting 

surveys on school bullying. (European 

countries have participated in the study 

since 1982.) Researchers gathered data 

on 120,000 students from 28 countries. 

Upwards of 20 percent of 15-year-old 

U.S. students reported they had been 

bullied at school during the current 

term (see "Annual Report on School 

Safety," at www.ed.gov/PDFDocs/

InterimAR.pdf). However, a 2000 U.S. 

Department of Education report on 

school crime (based on 1999 data), 

using a very narrow–and perhaps too 

limited–definition of bullying than the 

earlier report, showed that 5 percent 

of students ages 12 through 18 had 

reported being bullied at school in the 

last six months (Kaufman et al. 2000). 

§§ The "Annual Report on School 

Safety," developed in response to a 

1997 school shooting in West Paducah, 

Ky., did not until 1999 contain any data 

on school bullying. The 1999 school 

bullying data are aggregate, useful 

only in international comparisons, 

since specific types of bullying are 

not categorized. The report tracks 

thefts, weapons, injuries, threats, and 

physical fights, and some measures of 

harassment and hate crimes. However, 

the proportion of incidents that have 

their roots in bullying is not specified. 

§§§ The words "bully" and "bullying" 

are used in this guide as shorthand to 

include all of the different forms of 

bullying behavior. 
Bullying in Schools

• fearing their teacher would tell the bully who told on him or 

her

• thinking it was worse to be thought of as a snitch.§

The same is true of student-witnesses. Although most 

students agree that bullying is wrong, witnesses rarely tell 

teachers and only infrequently intervene on behalf of the 

victim. Some students worry that intervening will raise a 

bully's wrath and make him or her the next target. Also, there 

may be "diffusion of responsibility"; in other words, students 

may falsely believe that no one person has responsibility to 

stop the bullying, absent a teacher or a parent. 

Student-witnesses appear to have a central role in creating 

opportunities for bullying. In a study of bullying in junior and 

senior high schools in small Midwestern towns, 88 percent 

of students reported having observed bullying.14 While some 

researchers refer to witnesses as "bystanders," others use a 

more refined description of the witness role. In each bullying 

act, there is a victim, the ringleader bully, assistant bullies 

(they join in), reinforcers (they provide an audience or laugh 

with or encourage the bully), outsiders (they stay away or take 

no sides), and defenders (they step in, stick up for or comfort 

the victim).15 Studies suggest only between 10 and 20 percent 

of noninvolved students provide any real help when another 

student is victimized.16 

Bullying Behavior

Despite country and cultural differences, certain similarities 

by gender, age, location, and type of victimization appear in 

bullying in the U.S. and elsewhere.

• Bullying more often takes place at school than on the way 

to and from school.17 

§ Similarly, many sexual assault and 

domestic violence victims keep their 

abuse a secret from the police. Police 

in many jurisdictions see increased 

reporting of these crimes as an 

important first step to reducing the 

potential for future violence, while 

victims often see it as jeopardizing 

their safety. Some of the same 

interests and concerns are found in 

the area of school bullying.
The Problem of Bullying in Schools

• Boy bullies tend to rely on physical aggression more than girl 

bullies, who often use teasing, rumor-spreading, exclusion, 

and social isolation. These latter forms of bullying are 

referred to as "indirect bullying." Physical bullying (a form 

of "direct bullying") is the least common form of bullying, 

and verbal bullying (which may be "direct" or "indirect") the 

most common.18 Some researchers speculate that girls value 

social relationships more than boys do, so girl bullies set out 

to disrupt social relationships with gossip, isolation, silent 

treatment, and exclusion. Girls tend to bully girls, while boys 

bully both boys and girls. 

• Consistently, studies indicate that boys are more likely to 

bully than girls. 

• Some studies show that boys are more often victimized, at 

least during elementary school years; others show that bullies 

victimize girls and boys in near equal proportions.19

• Bullies often do not operate alone. In the United Kingdom, 

two different studies found that almost half the incidents 

of bullying are one-on-one, while the other half involves 

additional youngsters.20

• Bullying does not end in elementary school. Middle school 

seems to provide ample opportunities for bullying, although 

at lesser rates. The same is true of the beginning years of 

high school.

• Bullying by boys declines substantially after age 15. Bullying 

by girls begins declining significantly at age 14. 21,§ So 

interventions in middle and early high school years are also 

important. 

• Studies in Europe and Scandinavia show that some schools 

seem to have higher bullying rates than others. Researchers 

generally believe that bullying rates are unrelated to school 

or class size, or to whether a school is in a city or suburb 

(although one study found that reporting was higher in 

inner-city schools). Schools in socially disadvantaged areas 

seem to have higher bullying rates,22 and classes with 

§ Results from several countries, 

including Australia and England, 

indicate that as students progress 

through the middle to upper grades 

in school, they become more 

desensitized to bullying. High school 

seniors are the exception: they show 

greater alarm about the problem, just 

at the point when they will be leaving 

the environment (O'Moore 1999).
 Bullying in Schools

students with behavioral, emotional or learning problems 

have more bullies and victims than classes without such 

students.23

• There is a strong belief that the degree of the school 

principal's involvement (discussed later in this guide) helps 

determine the level of bullying. 

• There is some evidence that racial bullying occurs in 

the United States. In a nationally representative study 

combining data about bullying at and outside of school, 

25 percent of students victimized by bullying reported they 

were belittled about their race or religion (eight percent 

of those victims were bullied frequently about it).24 The 

study also found that black youth reported being bullied 

less than their Hispanic and white peers. Racial bullying is 

also a problem in Canada and England. "In Toronto, one 

in eight children overall, and one in three of those in innercity schools, said that racial bullying often occurred in their 

schools."25 In four schools–two primary, two secondary–in 

Liverpool and London, researchers found that Bengali and 

black students were disproportionately victimized.26 

One of the things we do not yet know about bullying is 

whether certain types of bullying, for instance racial bullying 

or rumor spreading, are more harmful than other types. 

Clearly, much depends on the victim's vulnerability, yet certain 

types of bullying may have longer-term impact on the victim. 

It is also unclear what happens when a bully stops bullying. 

Does another student take that bully's place? Must the victim 

also change his or her behavior to prevent another student 

from stepping in? While specific studies on displacement 

have not been done, it appears that the more comprehensive 

the school approach to tackling bullying, the less opportunity 

there is for another bully to rise up.
The Problem of Bullying in Schools

Bullies 

Many of the European and Scandinavian studies concur 

that bullies tend to be aggressive, dominant and slightly 

below average in intelligence and reading ability (by middle 

school), and most evidence suggests that bullies are at least 

of average popularity.27 The belief that bullies "are insecure, 

deep down" is probably incorrect.28 Bullies do not appear to 

have much empathy for their victims.29 Young bullies tend to 

remain bullies, without appropriate intervention. "Adolescent 

bullies tend to become adult bullies, and then tend to have 

children who are bullies."30 In one study in which researchers 

followed bullies as they grew up, they found that youth who 

were bullies at 14 tended to have children who were bullies 

at 32, suggesting an intergenerational link.31 They also found 

that "[b]ullies have some similarities with other types of 

offenders. Bullies tend to be drawn disproportionately from 

lower socioeconomic-status families with poor child-rearing 

techniques, tend to be impulsive, and tend to be unsuccessful 

in school."32 

In Australia, research shows that bullies have low empathy 

levels, are generally uncooperative and, based on self-reports, 

come from dysfunctional families low on love. Their parents 

tend to frequently criticize them and strictly control them.33

Dutch (and other) researchers have found a correlation 

between harsh physical punishments such as beatings, 

strict disciplinarian parents and bullying.34 In U.S. studies, 

researchers have found higher bullying rates among boys 

whose parents use physical punishment or violence against 

them.35 

Some researchers suggest that bullies have poor social skills 

and compensate by bullying. Others suggest that bullies have 

keen insight into others' mental states and take advantage of
10 Bullying in Schools

that by picking on the emotionally less resilient.36 Along this 

line, there is some suggestion, currently being explored in 

research in the United States and elsewhere, that those who 

bully in the early grades are initially popular and considered 

leaders. However, by the third grade, the aggressive behavior 

is less well-regarded by peers, and those who become popular 

are those who do not bully. Some research also suggests that 

"[bullies] direct aggressive behavior at a variety of targets. As 

they learn the reactions of their peers, their pool of victims 

becomes increasingly smaller, and their choice of victims 

more consistent."37 Thus, bullies ultimately focus on peers 

who become chronic victims due to how those peers respond 

to aggression. This indicates that identifying chronic victims 

early on can be important for effective intervention. 

A number of researchers believe that bullying occurs due 

to a combination of social interactions with parents, peers 

and teachers.38 The history of the parent-child relationship 

may contribute to cultivating a bully, and low levels of peer 

and teacher intervention combine to create opportunities for 

chronic bullies to thrive (as will be discussed later).

Incidents of Bullying

Bullying most often occurs where adult supervision is low 

or absent: schoolyards, cafeterias, bathrooms, hallways, and 

stairwells.39 "Olweus (1994) found that there is an inverse 

relationship between the number of supervising adults 

present and the number of bully/victim incidents."40 The 

design of less-supervised locations can create opportunities 

for bullying. For instance, if bullying occurs in a cafeteria 

while students vie for places in line for food, line management 

techniques, perhaps drawn from crime prevention through 

environmental design, could limit the opportunity to bully. 
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 11

A number of studies have found that bullying also occurs 

in classrooms and on school buses, although less so than in 

recess areas and hallways. Upon greater scrutiny, one may 

find that in certain classrooms, bullying thrives, and in others, 

it is rare. Classroom bullying may have more to do with the 

classroom management techniques a teacher uses than with 

the number of adult supervisors in the room.

Other areas also offer opportunities for bullying. The 

Internet, still relatively new, creates opportunities for 

cyber-bullies, who can operate anonymously and harm a wide 

audience. For example, middle school, high school and college 

students from Los Angeles' San Fernando Valley area posted 

website messages that were

 ...full of sexual innuendo aimed at individual students 

and focusing on topics such as ‘the weirdest people at 

your school.’ The online bulletin boards had been accessed 

more than 67,000 times [in a two-week period], prompting 

a sense of despair among scores of teenagers disparaged 

on the site, and frustration among parents and school 

administrators....One crying student, whose address and 

phone number were published on the site, was barraged 

with calls from people calling her a slut and a prostitute.41

A psychologist interviewed for the Los Angeles Times

remarked on the harm of such Internet bullying: 

It's not just a few of the kids at school; it's the whole 

world....Anybody could log on and see what they said 

about you....What's written remains, haunting, torturing 

these kids.42 

The imbalance of power here was not in the bully's size 

or strength, but in the instrument the bully chose to use, 

bringing worldwide publication to vicious school gossip. 
12 Bullying in Schools

Victims of Bullying

• Most bullies victimize students in the same class or year, 

although 30 percent of victims report that the bully was 

older, and approximately ten percent report that the bully 

was younger.43 

• It is unknown the extent to which physical, mental or speech 

difficulties, eyeglasses, skin color, language, height, weight, 

hygiene, posture, and dress play a role in victim selection.44

One major study found "the only external characteristics...to 

be associated with victimization were that victims tended to 

be smaller and weaker than their peers."45 One study found 

that nonassertive youth who were socially incompetent had 

an increased likelihood of victimization.46 Having friends, 

especially ones who will help protect against bullying, 

appears to reduce the chances of victimization.47 A Dutch 

study found that "more than half of those who say they 

have no friends are being bullied (51%), vs. only 11 percent 

of those who say they have more than five friends."48

Consequences of Bullying

Victims of bullying suffer consequences beyond 

embarrassment. Some victims experience psychological 

and/or physical distress, are frequently absent and cannot 

concentrate on schoolwork. Research generally shows 

that victims have low self-esteem, and their victimization 

can lead to depression49 that can last for years after the 

victimization.50 In Australia, researchers found that between 

five and ten percent of students stayed at home to avoid being 

bullied. Boys and girls who were bullied at least once a week 

experienced poorer health, more frequently contemplated 

suicide, and suffered from depression, social dysfunction, 

anxiety, and insomnia.51 Another study found that adolescent 

victims, once they are adults, were more likely than non-bullied 

adults individuals to have children who are victims.52
The Problem of Bullying in Schools 13

Chronic Victims of Bullying

While many, if not most, students have been bullied at some 

point in their school career,53 chronic victims receive the 

brunt of the harm. It appears that a small subset of six to ten 

percent of school-age children are chronic victims,54 some 

bullied as often as several times a week.§ There are more 

chronic victims in elementary school than in middle school, 

and the pool of chronic victims further shrinks as students 

enter high school. If a student is a chronic victim at age 15 

(high school age), it would not be surprising to find that he or 

she has suffered through years of victimization. Because of 

the harm involved, anti-bullying interventions should include 

a component tailored to counter the abuse chronic victims 

suffer.

Several researchers suggest, although there is not agreement, 

that some chronic victims are "irritating" or "provocative" 

because their coping strategies include aggressively reacting to 

the bullying.55 The majority of chronic victims, however, are 

extremely passive and do not defend themselves. Provocative 

victims may be particularly difficult to help because their 

behavior must change substantially to lessen their abuse.

Both provocative and passive chronic victims tend to be 

anxious and insecure, "which may signal to others that they 

are easy targets."56 They are also less able to control their 

emotions, and more socially withdrawn. Tragically, chronic 

victims may return to bullies to try to continue the perceived 

relationship, which may initiate a new cycle of victimization. 

Chronic victims often remain victims even after switching 

to new classes with new students, suggesting that, without 

other interventions, nothing will change.57 In describing 

chronic victims, Olweus states: "It does not require much 

§ These figures are based on studies 

in Dublin, Toronto and Sheffield, 

England (Farrington 1993). Olweus, 

however, in his Norwegian studies, 

found smaller percentages of chronic 

victims.
14 Bullying in Schools

imagination to understand what it is to go through the 

school years in a state of more or less permanent anxiety and 

insecurity, and with poor self-esteem. It is not surprising that 

the victims' devaluation of themselves sometimes becomes 

so overwhelming that they see suicide as the only possible 

solution."58,§ 

In the United States, courts appear open to at least hearing 

arguments from chronic victims of bullying who allege that 

schools have a duty to stop persistent victimization.59 It has 

yet to be decided to what extent schools have an obligation to 

keep students free from mistreatment by their peers. However, 

early and sincere attention to the problem of bullying is a 

school's best defense.

§ A handful of chronic victims make 

the leap from suicidal to homicidal 

thoughts. Clearly, access to guns is 

also an issue.

School bullying takes many forms including assault, tripping, intimidation, 

rumor-spreading and isolation, demands for money, destruction of property, 

theft of valued possessions, destruction of another's work, and name-calling. 

In this photo, a bully assaults the victim as another student watches. Studies 

suggest only between 10 and 20 percent of noninvolved students provide any 

real help when another student is victimized.

Teri DeBruhl
Understanding Your Local Problem 15

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized 

description of bullying in schools. You must combine this 

general information with a more specific understanding of 

your school's problem. Analyzing a school's problem carefully 

will help you design a more effective response strategy. 

Police who work with schools may even find that many of 

the thefts, assaults and batteries, hate crimes, and threats on 

school campuses (elementary, middle and high school level) 

are symptoms of bullying and are perpetrated by a small 

percentage of chronic tormentors. 

Asking the Right Questions§

The following are some critical questions you should ask in 

analyzing your particular problem of bullying in schools, even 

if the answers are not always readily available. The answers 

to these and other questions will help you guide the school in 

choosing the most appropriate set of responses later on.

The School

• Does the school believe it has a problem with bullying?

• Is the school aware of the long-term harms associated with 

bullying and chronic victimization?

• Is the school aware of the different types of behavior that 

constitute bullying?

• Does the school know how often bullying occurs on the 

campus each year?

• How does the school's level of bullying compare with that 

of other schools that have examined bullying?

• Does the school have a policy to guide teachers and other 

staff in handling incidents of bullying?

• How does the school identify bullies? Are records kept? Are 

they adequate? Are school counselors in the loop? 

§ The problem of bullying requires 

extensive surveying of those affected. 

It is recommended that police link 

with local colleges, universities or 

researchers to prepare and pretest 

survey instruments. Internationally 

valid questionnaires, adapted from 

Olweus' questionnaires, are available 

to survey students, classroom 

teachers and other staff involved 

in managing bullying problems. 

These have been used as part of 

a comparative project in Japan, 

Norway, England, the Netherlands, 

and the state of Washington, and 

require written permission for use 

from Dan Olweus (Research Center 

for Health Promotion, Christies Gate 

13, N-5015, Bergen, Norway). The 

value of using these questionnaires 

is the ability to make comparisons 

among a wide range of other sites. 

If you use anonymous written 

surveys of students, it is important 

to develop some other means for 

gathering information from students 

on the specific identities of chronic 

victims and chronic bullies. Once 

gathered, compare this information 

with that in school records and with 

teachers' observations to see if there 

is some agreement. For additional 

information on bullying surveys, 

also see the European Commission's 

TMR Network Project on bullying, 

involving collaboration among five 

European countries, at www.gold.

ac.uk/tmr.
16 Bullying in Schools

• What insights do teachers have about bullying? Can they 

identify some of the chronic victims and bullies? 

• How are others (e.g., parents, police) brought into the loop, 

and at what point? 

• Given that most bullying occurs in areas where there are 

no teachers, is the current method for identifying bullies 

adequate?

Offenders

• Where do bullies operate at the school?

• What are the consequences for bullying at the school? Are 

they applied consistently?

• Does the bullying stop? How is this determined? 

Victims and Victimization

• Does the school know all the victims of bullying?

• How does the school identify victims? Given that most 

victims and witnesses do not report, is the current system 

for identifying victims adequate? Who are the chronic 

victims? What has the school done to protect them?

• What are the most common forms of bullying 

victimization? Does the school policy address them?

• Does the school have a policy regarding the reporting of 

bullying and the role of bystanders?

Locations Where Bullying Occurs

• Where does bullying most often occur? Do data support 

this?

• When does bullying occur at those locations?

• Are those who supervise the locations during those times 

trained to identify and appropriately handle bullying 

incidents?

• Has the school made changes to the locations to minimize 

bullying opportunities?
Understanding Your Local Problem 17

Measuring Your Effectiveness

You should encourage the school to measure its bullying 

problem before implementing responses, to determine how 

serious the problem is, and after implementing them, to 

determine whether they have been effective. Measurement 

allows school staff to determine to what degree their efforts 

have succeeded, and suggests how they might modify their 

responses if they are not producing the intended results. 

For more detailed guidance on measuring effectiveness, see 

the companion guide to this series, Assessing Responses to 

Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. 

The following potentially useful measures of the effectiveness 

of responses to bullying should be taken using before-andafter surveys:

• percentage of victims, by type of bullying

• number of repeat victims

• number of chronic bullies

• frequency of victimization (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly)

• percentage of bullying incidents reported to parents or 

authorities

• number of students who are knowledgeable about bullying 

and how they should respond 

• percentage of students who witness bullying who report it 

to teachers or parents 

• willingness of students to step in and help someone being 

bullied

• attendance, tardiness, behavior, and disciplinary reports of 

chronic victims and bullies

• bullying rates at specific bullying hot spots (e.g., bathrooms, 

cafeteria, schoolyard).

Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools 19

Responses to the Problem of Bullying in 

Schools

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better 

understanding of, among other things, the extent of the 

problem, including the level of bullying and the identification 

of bullying hot spots, chronic victims and chronic offenders. 

Outlined below are approaches used to address bullying, along 

with information about their effectiveness.

General Requirements for an Effective Strategy To 

Counter Bullying in Schools

1. Enlisting the school principal's commitment and 

involvement. The school principal's commitment to and 

involvement in addressing school bullying are key. In fact, in 

comparing schools with high and low bullying rates, some 

research suggests that a principal's investment in preventing 

and controlling bullying contributes to low rates.60 A police 

officer's knowledge of and interest in the problem may serve 

to convince a principal to invest the time and energy to 

collaboratively and comprehensively tackle it.

2. Using a multifaceted, comprehensive approach. A 

multifaceted, comprehensive approach is more effective 

than one that focuses on only one or two aspects of school 

bullying. A multifaceted, comprehensive approach includes:

• establishing a schoolwide policy that addresses indirect 

bullying (e.g., rumor spreading, isolation, social exclusion), 

which is more hidden, as well as direct bullying (e.g., 

physical aggression) 

• providing guidelines for teachers, other staff and students 

(including witnesses) on specific actions to take if bullying 

occurs
20 Bullying in Schools

• educating and involving parents so they understand the 

problem, recognize its signs and intervene appropriately

• adopting specific strategies to deal with individual bullies 

and victims, including meeting with their parents

• encouraging students to report known bullying

• developing a comprehensive reporting system to track 

bullying and the interventions used with specific bullies and 

victims

• encouraging students to be helpful to classmates who may 

be bullied

• developing tailored strategies to counter bullying in specific 

school hot spots, using environmental redesign, increased 

supervision (e.g., by teachers, other staff members, parents, 

volunteers) or technological monitoring equipment 

• conducting post-intervention surveys to assess the 

strategies' impact on school bullying.

Specific Responses To Reduce Bullying in Schools

3. Using the "whole-school" approach.

§

 Olweus developed 

and tested the whole-school approach in Scandinavia. It 

contains elements listed under requirement 1 and 2 above 

(school principal's involvement and the multi-faceted, 

comprehensive approach) and it has undergone repeated 

evaluations in other countries, including the United States, 

with a range of successful results, including a 50 percent 

reduction in bullying in 42 schools in one area of Norway. 

However, most other applications of this approach achieve 

improvements in the 20 to 30 percent range, which is 

significant.61 In some studies, the results are achieved 

primarily in the second year. This approach can reduce 

the level of bullying and other antisocial behavior, such 

as vandalism, fighting, theft, and truancy, and improve the 

"social climate," order and discipline in class. 

§ Some research refers to the wholeschool approach as the "schoolwide" 

approach or "organizational" 

approach. The three are identical, 

requiring interventions at the school, 

class and individual level. 
Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools 21

The whole-school approach is somewhat easier to implement 

in elementary schools, due to their size and structure. 

Students in these schools generally interact with only one or 

two teachers a year, guaranteeing higher levels of consistent 

messages from teachers to students.62 However, significant 

gains can also be achieved in middle and high schools.63 

Research tells us that the whole-school approach requires 

renewed effort each year (reinforcing anti-bullying strategies 

with returning students, their parents and school staff), which 

may be at odds with a school's, or even a police department's, 

concern about tackling the latest hot topic. However, onetime efforts will be less effective. Thus, schools must prepare 

themselves to maintain momentum for anti-bullying initiatives 

year after year. 

4. Increasing student reporting of bullying. To address 

the problem of students' resistance to reporting bullying, 

some schools have set up a bully hot line. One in England 

received thousands of calls shortly after it was established. 

Some schools use a "bully box"; students drop a note in the 

box to alert teachers and administrators about problem bullies. 

Other approaches to increase reporting are also used. In one 

Kentucky town, a police officer, keen to increase reporting, 

developed a short in-class segment titled "Hero vs. Snitch," 

in which he discussed why reporting is heroic behavior, not 

tattling. 

5. Developing activities in less-supervised areas. In these 

areas (e.g., schoolyards, lunchrooms), trained supervisors spot 

bullying and initiate activities that limit opportunities for it. 

Such activities must be of interest to bullies and curb their 

behavior.
22 Bullying in Schools

6. Reducing the amount of time students can spend 

less supervised. Since much bullying occurs during lesssupervised time (e.g., recess, lunch breaks, class changes), 

reducing the amount of time available to students can reduce 

the amount of bullying. 

7. Staggering recess, lunch and/or class-release times. 

This approach minimizes the number of bullies and victims 

present at one time, so supervisors have less trouble spotting 

bullying. However, supervisors must be mindful that most 

bullies are in the same grade as their victims. 

8. Monitoring areas where bullying can be expected (e.g., 

bathrooms). Adult monitoring can increase the risk that 

bullies get caught, but may require increased staffing or 

trained volunteers.

Sean Lynch

The photo on the left illustrates a school hallway during class release time. 

The photo on the right shows two of the strategies the school adopted to 

reduce bullying behavior in the hallways: staggered class release times 

(evidenced by fewer students in the hallway) and teacher monitoring of 

hallway behavior during class release time.
Responses to the Problem of Bullying in Schools 23

9. Assigning bullies to a particular location or to 

particular chores during release times. This approach 

separates bullies from their intended victims. Some teachers 

give bullies constructive tasks to occupy them during release 

times. Careful victim monitoring is required to ensure that 

bullies do not pick on victims at other times.

10. Posting classroom signs prohibiting bullying and 

listing the consequences for it. This puts would-be bullies 

on notice and outlines the risks they take. Teachers must 

consistently enforce the rules for them to have meaning. 

Schools should post signs in each classroom and apply ageappropriate penalties.

11. Providing teachers with effective classroom 

management training. To address bullying, schools should 

ensure that all their teachers have effective classroom 

management training. Since research suggests that classes 

containing students with behavioral, emotional or learning 

problems have more bullies and victims, teachers in those 

classes may require additional tailored training in spotting and 

handling bullying.

12. Having high-level school administrators inform lateenrolling students about the school's bullying policy. 

This removes any excuse new students have for bullying, and 

stresses the importance the school places on countering it.

Responses With Limited Effectiveness

13. Training students in conflict resolution and peer 

mediation. A number of schools adopt conflict resolution 

and peer mediation training to address bullying (and other) 

problems. "Because bullying involves harassment by powerful 
24 Bullying in Schools

children of children with less power (rather than a conflict 

between peers of relatively equal status), common conflictresolution strategies or mediation may not be effective."64

In fact, they may actually further victimize a child.65 The 

training often offers too little for those students who really 

need it, and too much for those who already have the skills. 

The whole-school approach, in contrast, does not assume that 

students alone can solve the bullying problem; interventions at 

all levels are required: school, class, individual, teacher, parent, 

and peer.§ 

14. Adopting a "zero tolerance" policy. Some schools, in 

their rush to "do something" about bullying, adopt a "zero 

tolerance" policy against it, without an in-depth analysis of 

their specific problem or the comprehensive involvement 

of administrators, teachers, other staff, student-witnesses, 

parents, bullies, and victims at the school, class, and individual 

level. This approach may result in a high level of suspensions 

without full comprehension of how behavior needs to and 

can be changed. It does not solve the problem of the bully, 

who typically spends more unsupervised time in the home or 

community if suspended or expelled. Zero tolerance may also 

ultimately have a chilling effect on reporting of bullying. 

15. Providing group therapy for bullies. Some schools 

provide self-esteem training for bullies. This may be 

misdirected: research suggests that most bullies do not lack in 

self-esteem.66

16. Encouraging victims to simply "stand up"to bullies. 

Without adequate support or adult involvement this strategy 

may be harmful and physically dangerous for a victim of 

bullying.67

§ In terms of peer mediation, one 

Flemish study found that elementaryand many middle school-age students 

lack confidence in successfully 

intervening (Stevens, Van Oost and 

De Bourdeaudhuij 2000). In another 

study, researchers found that only 

small numbers of students were 

willing to go to peer-support training, 

and that it was harder to get boys 

or male teachers involved (Naylor 

and Cowie 1999). In one study in 

Australia, however, Peterson and 

Rigby (1999) found a tremendous 

number of peer interventions, as 

part of a whole-school approach. 

The result was a modest decline in 

reported bullying of students in their 

first year of high school, but not 

in the other years. The authors still 

found this significant because the 

transition year into high school can 

be intense for bullying.
Append Append ix: Aix 25

Appendix A: Summary of Responses to 

Bullying in Schools

The table below summarizes the responses to bullying in 

schools, the mechanism by which they are intended to work, 

the conditions under which they ought to work best, and 

some factors you should consider before implementing a 

particular response. It is critical that you tailor responses to 

local circumstances, and that you can justify each response 

based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy 

will involve implementing several different responses. Law 

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing 

or solving the problem.

1.

2.

19

19

Enlisting the 

school principal's 

commitment and 

involvement

Using a 

multifaceted, 

comprehensive 

approach

Police officers 

convince the 

principal of the 

importance of 

tackling bullying

Once baseline 

surveys are 

completed, the 

school adopts a 

comprehensive 

series of 

strategies to 

address the 

specific survey 

findings

...officers are 

aware of best 

practices 

...the principal 

assigns a highlevel project (or 

team) manager 

to ensure the full 

implementation 

and progress of 

the strategies

Officers may need 

to engage others, 

such as parents, 

to help influence 

the principal; 

unfortunately, in 

some cases, only a 

crisis will galvanize 

the principal's 

attention

Sometimes it is 

difficult to isolate 

the effectiveness 

of individual 

interventions 

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It 

Works

Works 

Best If...

Considerations

General Requirements for an Effective Strategy To Counter Bullying in Schools
§ For examples of policies for the school, class, students, and parrents, see Glover and Cartwright, with Gleeson (1998).

26 Bullying in Schools

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

20

21

21

22

22

22

Using the 

"whole- school" 

approach 

Increasing 

student 

reporting of 

bullying

Developing 

activities in lesssupervised areas

Reducing the 

amount of 

time students 

can spend less 

supervised 

Staggering 

recess, lunch 

and/or classrelease times

Monitoring 

areas where 

bullying can be 

expected (e.g., 

bathrooms)

Baseline data 

reveal the details 

of the problem; 

interventions are 

implemented at the 

school, class and 

individual level 

Increases bullies' risk 

of getting caught

Increases the effort 

bullies must make 

by decreasing their 

opportunity to bully

Increases the risk 

that bullying will be 

exposed and reduces 

the amount of time 

for it to occur

Ensures fewer 

bullies and victims 

are together 

at the same 

time, increasing 

supervisors' ability 

to spot bullying

Increases bullies' risk 

of getting caught

...school 

administrators are 

fully committed 

to addressing the 

problem, and are 

knowledgeable of 

the components 

of the approach§

...students 

are convinced 

that reporting 

is appropriate 

behavior

...the activities 

interest bullies 

and are designed 

to limit their 

ability to victimize 

others

...supervisors are 

trained to spot 

and respond to 

bullying 

...bullies and 

victims are not in 

the same classes 

or, if they are, 

supervisors are 

well trained to 

spot and respond 

to bullying

...it is done 

frequently enough 

to make the risk 

real

Availability and use of local 

resources, such as university 

researchers, to assist in survey 

development and testing, or 

alternatively, use of Olweus' 

survey; parental permission may 

be needed to survey students; 

community's and school's 

commitment to uncovering the 

full details of the problem

Some schools establish a hot 

line, while others install a bully 

box where students can leave 

notes alerting school personnel 

to bullying; non-anonymous 

reporting should be encouraged 

to lessen student fear of reprisal

Requires staff or volunteers 

(students, parents, seniors) and 

age-appropriate programming

Requires scheduling changes

If some bullies are in the same 

classes with their victims, other 

remedies are also needed

May require increased staffing or 

trained volunteers

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It 

Works

Works 

Best If...

Considerations

Specific Responses To Reduce Bullying in Schools
Appendix A 27

9.

10.

11.

12.

23

23

23

23

Assigning bullies 

to a particular 

location or to 

particular chores 

during release 

times

Posting classroom 

signs prohibiting 

bullying and 

listing the 

consequences 

for it

Providing 

teachers with 

effective 

classroom 

management 

training 

Having highlevel school 

administrators 

inform lateenrolling students 

about the school's 

bullying policy

Increases the 

effort bullies 

must make to 

bully because this 

separates bullies 

from victims

Removes the 

excuse of 

ignorance and 

underscores the 

risks

Increases 

bullies' risk of 

getting caught in 

classrooms, and 

decreases victims' 

risk of harm

Decreases lateenrolling students' 

risk of bullying or 

being bullied

...careful 

consideration is 

given to which 

of the two 

approaches is 

more appropriate 

for each particular 

bully

...signs are posted 

in all classrooms

...teachers are 

committed 

to stopping 

classroom 

bullying, and 

those teaching 

higher-risk 

classes are 

given additional 

specialized 

training

...done at 

the time of 

enrollment and 

by someone 

perceived as 

having a high 

level of authority

Isolating bullies may 

further anger them 

and cause additional 

problems for their 

victims

Signs and 

consequences 

should be ageappropriate

Identifying those 

teachers who need 

extra assistance 

must be handled 

delicately, although 

it should be noted 

that most U.S. 

teachers receive 

no instruction 

on classroom 

management 

techniques, so it is 

not surprising that 

some have fewer 

skills in these

Schools may 

consider having 

late-enrolling 

students sign "bullyfree agreements" 

acknowledging 

the rules and the 

consequences for 

violations

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It 

Works

Works 

Best If...

Considerations
28 Bullying in Schools

13.

14.

15.

16.

23

24

24

24

Training students 

in conflict 

resolution and 

peer mediation 

Adopting a "zero 

tolerance" policy

Providing group 

therapy for bullies

Encouraging 

victims to simply 

"stand up" to 

bullies

Allows students 

to play the key 

role in resolving 

bullying problems 

Guarantees that 

bullies who get 

caught will be 

penalized on the 

first offense

Intended to build 

self-esteem of 

bullies

Directly pits 

victim against 

bully

...conflicts are 

between students 

of relatively equal 

status, and not 

between bullies 

and weaker 

victims

...used as a last 

resort, after other 

responses have 

failed 

...bullies suggest 

that they have low 

self-esteem and 

it is the cause of 

their bullying

...accompanied 

by adequate 

support or adult 

involvement

May be more 

appropriate for 

problems other 

than bullying (e.g., 

conflicts between 

peers of equal 

power or status)

Bullying is too 

widespread, 

longstanding and 

complex for it to 

stop simply due to 

such a policy

Most bullies do not 

have low-esteem

May be harmful or 

physically dangerous

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It 

Works

Works 

Best If...

Considerations

Responses With Limited Effectiveness
Appendix B 29

Appendix B: Sample Brochure Educating 

Parents About School Bullying§

The _________________ School District is collaborating 

with the _________________ Police Department to 

implement the Bullying Prevention Program to address 

bullying among children in grades ____ to ____.

What is bullying?

Bullying occurs when one child or group of children 

repeatedly hurts another child through actions or words. 

Bullying may involve physical aggression, such as fighting, 

shoving or kicking; verbal aggression, such as name-calling; or 

more subtle aggression, such as socially isolating a child.

Why focus on bullying?

All of us are concerned about the levels of violence among 

young people in our communities and schools. Studies have 

shown that 60 percent of children identified as bullies in 

middle school go on to have arrest records. We need to 

address these children's behavioral problems at an early age, 

before they become even more serious. In addition, victims 

of bullies may have problems with depression, poor school 

attendance and low self-esteem. It is important to help create 

a school environment where all children feel safe and can 

learn to the best of their abilities.

§ This brochure is copied (with 

minor changes) with the permission 

of its author, Susan Limber, Clemson 

University, Institute on Family and 

Neighborhood Life. This particular 

brochure is most appropriate for 

parents of elementary or middle 

school students.
30 Bullying in Schools

What does this program involve?

The Bullying Prevention Program involves the total effort 

of all school staff (teachers, principals, guidance counselors, 

cafeteria workers, custodians, bus drivers, etc.), as well as 

students, parents and other community members, to reduce 

bullying.

The school's efforts will include:

• identifying bullies and their victims, to address individual 

problems and needs

• establishing schoolwide rules and applying consistent 

sanctions against bullies

• holding regular classroom meetings to discuss bullying with 

children

• increasing supervision of children at school

• rewarding children for good social behaviors

• holding schoolwide assemblies on bullying

• using videos, books and other resources on bullying.

Will this program help?

Studies have shown that the Bullying Prevention Program can 

be very effective in reducing bullying and related antisocial 

behavior among schoolchildren. In places where this program 

has been used, bullying has been reduced by 25 to 50 percent. 

Fighting, vandalizing, drinking, and other antisocial behaviors 

also have decreased, and children and school personnel 

involved in the program have reported that they felt more 

positive about school.
Appendix B 31

How can parents get involved?

• Through mailings, PTA meetings and other school events, 

we hope to inform you about the Bullying Prevention 

Program and the many problems associated with bullying.

• We will discuss ways to determine whether your children 

may be bullies or victims of bullying, and we will suggest 

strategies and resources for you.

• We will encourage you to become involved in a variety 

of creative projects developed by your school to raise 

awareness of the problems of violence and of efforts to 

reduce bullying at school and in the community.

How can I tell if my child is being bullied?

Your child may be the victim of bullying if he or she:

• comes home from school with torn or dirty clothing, or 

damaged books

• has cuts, bruises or scratches

• has few, if any, friends to play with

• seems afraid to go to school, or complains of headaches or 

stomach pains

• doesn't sleep well or has bad dreams

• loses interest in schoolwork

• seems sad, depressed or moody

• is anxious or has poor self-esteem

• is quiet, sensitive or passive.

If your child shows several of these warning signs, it's 

possible he or she is being bullied. You may want to talk 

with your child to find out what is troubling him or her, and 

schedule a conference to discuss your concerns with school 

staff.
32 Bullying in Schools

How can I tell if my child is bullying others?

Your child may be bullying others if he or she:

• teases, threatens or kicks other children

• is hot-tempered or impulsive, or has a hard time following 

rules

• is aggressive toward adults

• is tough or shows no sympathy for children who are bullied

• has been involved in other antisocial behavior, such as 

vandalism or theft.

If your child shows several of these warning signs, it's 

possible that he or she is bullying others. You may want to 

spend some extra time talking with your child about his or her 

behavior, and schedule a conference to talk about the issue 

with school staff.

For more information about the Bullying Prevention 

Program, please contact _________________ at _________

________.
Endnotes 33

Endnotes

1 Batsche and Knoff (1994).

2 U.S. Secret Service (2000). 

3 Olweus (1978); an earlier edition was published in Swedish in 1973.

4 Smith et al. (eds.) (1999); Farrington (1993); Smith and Brain (2000). 

5 U.S. Department of Education (1998).

6 Olweus (1992).

7 Olweus (1992); Rigby and Slee (1999); Ortega and Lera (2000); Salmivalli (1999); 

 Farrington (1993).

8 Nansel et al. (2001). 

9 Perry, Kusel and Perry (1988); Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999), citing 

Bosworth, Espelage, DuBay, Dahlberg, and Daytner (1996); Hoover, Oliver and 

Hazler (1992); Olweus and Limber (1999), citing Melton, Limber, Cunningham, 

Osgood, Cambers, Flerx, Henggeler, and Nation (1998).

10 Rigby and Slee (1999); Smith, Morita, Junger-Tas, Olweus, Catalano and Slee 

(1999). 

11 Farrington (1993), citing Whitney and Smith (1991).

12 Clarke and Kiselica (1997).

13 Hoover, Oliver and Hazler (1992); Australian students reported similarly [Rigby 

(1996)].

14 Limber (1998), citing Hazler, Hoover and Oliver (1991).

15 Salmivalli (1999); also see Olweus and Limber (1999).

16 Salmivalli (1999); Stevens, Van Oost and De Bourdeaudhuij (2000), citing Pepler 

(1994).

17 Clarke and Kiselica (1997).

18 Rigby and Slee (1999). 

19 Limber et al. (1998). 

20 Smith and Sharp (1994). 

21 Rigby and Slee (1999); Ortega and Lera (2000).

22 Farrington (1993), citing Stephenson and Smith (1991), and Whitney and Smith 

(1991).

23 Farrington (1993), citing Zeigler and Rosenstein-Manner ( 1991), and Stephenson 

and Smith (1991).

24 Nansel et al. (2001).

25 Farrington (1993), citing Ziegler and Rosenstein-Manner (1991).
34 Bullying in Schools

26 Home Office (1996).

27 Farrington (1993).

28 Olweus (1978); Smith and Brain (2000); but see Bernstein and Watson (1997).

29 Bernstein and Watson (1997).

30 Farrington (1993).

31 Farrington (1993) reporting on his earlier research.

32 Farrington (1993). 

33 Rigby and Slee (1999).

34 Junger-Tas and Van Kesteren (1999). 

35 Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999).

36 See generally Smith and Brain (2000) for a discussion of the research on this 

topic.

37 See Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999) for a discussion of these different 

avenues of recent bullying research. 

38 Stevens, De Bourdeaudhuij and Van Oost (2000). 

39 Farrington (1993); Zeigler and Rosenstein-Manner (1991).

40 Clarke and Kiselica (1997).

41 Banks, Kaplan and Groves (2001).

42 Banks, Kaplan and Groves (2001), quoting therapist Veronica Thomas.

43 Farrington (1993), citing Whitney and Smith (1991).

44 Farrington (1993); also see Bernstein and Watson (1997), citing Olweus (1978); 

Perry, Kusel and Perry (1988).

45 Bernstein and Watson (1997), citing Olweus (1978).

46 Schwartz, Dodge and Cole (1993).

47 Hodges and Perry (1997).

48 Junger-Tas and Van Kesteren (1999). 

49 Smith and Brain (2000).

50 Farrington (1993). 

51 Rigby and Slee (1999). 

52 Farrington (1993).

53 Junger-Tas and Van Kesteren (1999). 

54 See Bernstein and Watson (1997) for a discussion of the research on chronic 

victims; also see Perry, Kusel and Perry (1988).

55 Farrington (1993); Olweus (1993). 

56 See generally Bernstein and Watson (1997).

57 Bernstein and Watson (1997); also see Salmivalli (1999).

58 Olweus (1992).
Appendix 35

59 Harachi, Catalano and Hawkins (1999).

60 Farrington (1993), citing Stephenson and Smith (1991); for 

similar conclusions, also see Roland (2000).

61 Olweus and Limber (1999); Pitts and Smith (1996); also see 

the evaluation by The Center for the Study and Prevention 

of Violence, at www.Colorado.EDU/cspv/blueprints/

model/ten_bully.htm.

62 Stevens, De Bourdeaudhuij and Van Oost (2000); Stevens 

found zero outcomes in secondary schools.

63 Pitts and Smith (1996); but see Stevens, De Bourdeauhuij 

and Van Oost (2000).

64 Limber et al. (1998).

65 Personal correspondence from Sue Limber to the author, 

November 9, 2001.

66 Personal correspondence from Sue Limber to the author, 

November 9, 2001.

67 Personal correspondence from Sue Limber to the author, 

November 9, 2001.

References 37

References

Banks, S., K. Kaplan and M. Groves (2001). "Web Site Where 

Students Slung Vicious Gossip Is Shut Down." Los Angeles 

Times, March 3, p. A1.

Batsche, G., and H. Knoff (1994). "Bullies and Their Victims: 

Understanding a Pervasive Problem in the Schools." School 

Psychology Review 23(2):165–174.

Bernstein, J., and M. Watson (1997). "Children Who 

Are Targets of Bullying: A Victim Pattern." Journal of 

Interpersonal Violence 12(4):483–498.

Clarke, E., and M. Kiselica (1997). "A Systemic Counseling 

Approach to the Problem of Bullying." Elementary School 

Guidance and Counseling 31(4):310–335.

Eron, L., L. Huesmann, E. Dubow, R. Romanoff, and P. 

Yarmel (1987). "Aggression and Its Correlates Over 22 

Years." In D. Crowell, I. Evans and C. O'Donnell (eds.), 

Childhood Aggression and Violence: Sources of Influence, 

Prevention and Control. New York: Plenum Press.

European Commission (updated 2001). "TMR Network 

Project: Nature and Prevention of Bullying." www.gold.

ac.uk/tmr.

Farrington, D. (1993). "Understanding and Preventing 

Bullying." In M. Tonry (ed.), Crime and Justice: A Review 

of Research, Vol. 17. Chicago and London: University of 

Chicago Press.

Glover, D., and N. Cartwright, with D. Gleeson (1998). 

Towards Bully-Free Schools: Interventions in Action. 

Buckingham (England): Open University Press.
38 Bullying in Schools

Harachi, T., R. Catalano and J. Hawkins (1999). "United 

States." In P. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. 

Catalano, and P. Slee (eds.), The Nature of School Bullying: 

A Cross-National Perspective. London and New York: 

Routledge.

Hodges, E., M. Malone and D. Perry (1997). "Individual 

Risk and Social Risk as Interacting Determinants of 

Victimization in the Peer Group." Developmental Psychology

33(6):1032–1039.

Home Office (1996). Preventing School Bullying: Things You 

Can Do. London: Home Office, Police Research Group.

Hoover, J., R. Oliver and R. Hazler (1992). "Bullying: 

Perceptions of Adolescent Victims in the Midwestern 

USA." School Psychology International 13(1):5–16.

Junger-Tas, J., and J. Van Kesteren (1999). Bullying and 

Delinquency in a Dutch School Population. The Hague 

(Netherlands): Kugler Publications.

Kaufman, P., X. Chen, S. Choy, S. Ruddy, A. Miller, J. Fleury, 

K. Chandler, M. Rand, P. Klaus, and M. Planty (2000). 

Indicators of School Crime and Safety, 2000. Washington, 

D.C.: U.S. Departments of Education and Justice. www.

nces.ed.gov/pubs2001.

Limber, S., V. Flerx, M. Nation, and G. Melton (1998). 

"Bullying Among School Children in the United States." 

In M. Watts (ed.), Contemporary Studies in Sociology, Vol. 18. 

Stamford (Conneticut): Jai Press Inc.
References 39

Nansel, T., M. Overpeck, R. Pilla, W. Ruan, B. SimonsMorton, and P. Scheidt (2001). "Bullying Behaviors Among 

US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychosocial 

Adjustment." Journal of the American Medical Association

285(16):2094–2100.

Naylor, P., and H. Cowie (1999). "The Effectiveness of Peer 

Support Systems in Challenging School Bullying: The 

Perspectives and Experiences of Teachers and Pupils." 

Journal of Adolescence 22:467–479.

Olweus, D. (1992). "Bullying Among Schoolchildren: 

Intervention and Prevention." In R. Peters, R. McMahon 

and V. Quinsey (eds.), Aggression and Violence Throughout the 

Life Span. Newbury Park (California): Sage Publications.

(1978). Aggression in the Schools: Bullies and 

Whipping Boys. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Press.

Olweus, D., and S. Limber (1999). "Bullying Prevention 

Program." In D. Elliott (ed.), Blueprints for Violence 

Prevention. Boulder (Colorado): Institute of Behavioral 

Science, Regents of the University of Colorado.

O'Moore, M. (1999). "Critical Issues for Teacher Training To 

Counter Bullying and Victimisation in Ireland." Aggressive 

Behavior 26:99–111.

Ortega, R., and M. Lera (2000). "The Seville Anti-Bullying in 

School Project." Aggressive Behavior 26:113–123.

Perry, D., S. Kusel and L. Perry (1988). "Victims of Peer 

Aggression." Developmental Psychology 24(6):807–814.
40 Bullying in Schools

Peterson, L., and K. Rigby (1999). "Countering Bullying at an 

Australian Secondary School, With Students as Helpers." 

Journal of Adolescence 22:481–492.

Pitts, J., and P. Smith (1996). Preventing School Bullying. Police 

Research Series, Paper 63. London: Home Office. 

Rigby, K. (1996). "Preventing Peer Victimisation in Schools." 

In C. Sumner, M. Israel, M. O'Connell, and R. Sarre (eds.), 

International Victimology: Selected Papers From the Eighth 

International Symposium. Griffith (Australia): Australian 

Institute of Criminology.

Rigby, K., and P. Slee (1999). "Australia." In P. Smith, Y. 

Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, and P. Slee 

(eds.), The Nature of School Bullying: A Cross-National 

Perspective. London and New York: Routledge.

Roland, E. (2000). "Bullying in School: Three National 

Innovations in Norwegian Schools in 15 Years." Aggressive 

Behavior 26:135–143.

Salmivalli, C. (1999). "Participant Role Approach to School 

Bullying: Implications for Interventions." Journal of 

Adolescence 22:453–459.

Schwartz, D., K. Dodge and J. Cole (1993). "The Emergence 

of Chronic Peer Victimization in Boys' Play Groups." Child 

Development 64:1755–1772.

Smith, P., and P. Brain (2000). "Bullying in Schools: Lessons 

From Two Decades of Research." Aggressive Behavior 

26:1–9.

Smith, P., and S. Sharp (1994). School Bullying: Insights and 

Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge.
References 41

Smith, P., Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, and 

P. Slee (eds.) (1999). The Nature of School Bullying: A CrossNational Perspective. London and New York: Routledge.

Stevens, V., I. De Bourdeaudhuij and P. Van Oost (2000). 

"Bullying in Flemish Schools: An Evaluation of AntiBullying Intervention in Primary and Secondary Schools." 

British Journal of Educational Psychology 70:195–210. 

Stevens, V., P. Van Oost and I. De Bourdeaudhuij (2000). 

"The Effects of an Anti-Bullying Intervention Programme 

on Peers' Attitudes and Behaviour." Journal of Adolescence

23:21–34.

U.S. Department of Education (1998). Preventing Bullying: A 

Manual for Schools and Communities. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Education. Available by order at www.

ed.gov/pubs.

U.S. Secret Service (2000). An Interim Report on the Prevention 

of Targeted Violence in Schools. www.treas.gov/usss.

Zeigler, S. and M. Rosenstein-Manner (1991). Bullying in 

School. Toronto: Board of Education.

About the Author 43

About the Author

Rana Sampson

Rana Sampson is a national problem-oriented policing 

consultant and the former director of public safety for the 

University of San Diego. She was previously a White House 

Fellow; National Institute of Justice Fellow; senior researcher 

and trainer at the Police Executive Research Forum; attorney; 

and patrol officer, undercover narcotics officer and patrol 

sergeant with the New York City Police Department, where 

she was awarded several commendations of merit and won 

the National Improvement of Justice Award. She is the 

coauthor (with Michael Scott) of Tackling Crime and Other 

Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving, which 

documents high-quality crime control efforts from around 

the United States, Canada and Europe. She is a judge for 

the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in ProblemOriented Policing, a former judge for the police Fulbright 

awards, and a commissioner with California's Commission on 

Peace Officer Standards and Training. Sampson holds a law 

degree from Harvard and a bachelor's degree from Barnard 

College, Columbia University.

Recommended Readings 45

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their 

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This 

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners 

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying 

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It 

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An 

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers,

by John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide 

is a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. 

It provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing 

problem-oriented policing efforts.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel 

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with 

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic 

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The 

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke 

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of 

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing 

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of 

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
46 Bullying in Schools

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing: The 

1999 Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This 

document produced by the National Institute of Justice 

in collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum 

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the 

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A 

similar publication is available for the award winners from 

subsequent years. The documents are also available at www.

ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime 

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office 

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and 

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective 

or ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in 

England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory 

for Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V. 

Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98, 

1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity 

theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory 

have practical implications for the police in their efforts to 

prevent crime.

• Problem Analysis in Policing, by Rachel Boba (Police 

Foundation, 2003). Introduces and defines problem analysis 

and provides guidance on how problem analysis can be 

integrated and institutionalized into modern policing 

practices.
Recommended Readings 47

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein 

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990). 

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented 

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses 

how a police agency can implement the concept.

• Problem-Oriented Policing and Crime Prevention, 

by Anthony A. Braga (Criminal Justice Press, 2003). 

Provides a through review of significant policing research 

about problem places, high-activity offenders, and repeat 

victims, with a focus on the applicability of those findings 

to problem-oriented policing. Explains how police 

departments can facilitate problem-oriented policing by 

improving crime analysis, measuring performance, and 

securing productive partnerships.

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the 

First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of 

Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 

2000). Describes how the most critical elements of 

Herman Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have 

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes 

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report 

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in 

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman 

(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the 

rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the 

problem-solving process, and provides examples of 

effective problem-solving in one agency.
48 Bullying in Schools

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing 

Crime and Disorder Through Problem-Solving 

Partnerships by Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott 

Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and Meg Townsend. (U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, 1998) (also available at www.cops.usdoj.

gov). Provides a brief introduction to problem-solving, 

basic information on the SARA model and detailed 

suggestions about the problem-solving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case 

Studies, Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke 

(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and 

methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over 

20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: 

Case Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson 

and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available 

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective 

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder 

problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook 

for Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, 2001). Provides an introduction for 

police to analyzing problems within the context of 

problem-oriented policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement 

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G. 

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains 

many of the basics of research as it applies to police 

management and problem-solving.
Other Guides in This Series 49

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police

Problem-Specific Guides series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

ISBN: 1-932582-00-2

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-01-0

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-02-9

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes. 

Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-03-7

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-04-5

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-05-3

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-06-1

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-07-X

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-08-8

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V. 

Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-09-6

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-10-X

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-11-8

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-12-6

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-13-4

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-14-2

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-15-0

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-16-9

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 

2002. ISBN: 1-932582-17-7

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-18-5

20. Financial Crimes Against the Elderly.

Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-22-3
50 Bullying in Schools

21. Check and Card Fraud. Graeme R. Newman. 2003. 

ISBN: 1-932582-27-4

22. Stalking. the National Center for Victims of Crime. 2004.

ISBN: 1-932582-30-4

23. Gun Violence Among Serious Young Offenders. Anthony A. 

Braga. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-31-2

24. Prescription Fraud. Julie Wartell and Nancy G. La Vigne. 2004.

ISBN: 1-932582-33-9

25. Identity Theft. Graeme R. Newman. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-35-3

26. Crimes Against Tourists. Ronald W. Glensor and Kenneth J. 

Peak. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-36-3

27. Underage Drinking. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-39-8

28. Street Racing. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-42-8

29. Cruising. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-43-6

30. Disorder at Budget Motels. Karin Schmerler. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

31. Drug Dealing in Open-Air Markets. Alex Harocopos and Mike 

Hough. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-45-2

32. Bomb Threats in Schools. Graeme R. Newman. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-46-0

33. Illicit Sexual Activity in Public Places. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-47-9

34. Robbery of Taxi Drivers. Martha J. Smith. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-50-9

35. School Vandalism and Break-Ins. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-9325802-51-7

36. Drunk Driving. Michael S. Scott, Nina J. Emerson, Louis B. 

Antonacci, and Joel B. Plant. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6

37. Juvenile Runaways. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1932582-56-8

38. The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. Graeme R. Newman. 

2006. ISBN: 1-932582-59-2

39. Student Party Riots. Tamara D. Madensen and John E. Eck. 2006. 

ISBN: 1-932582-60-6
Other Guides in This Series 51

40. People with Mental Illness. Gary Cordner. 2006. 

ISBN: 1-932582-63-0

41. Child Pornography on the Internet. Richard Wortley 

and Stephen Smallbone. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-65-7

42. Witness Intimidation. Kelly Dedel. 2006. 

ISBN: 1-932582-67-3

Response Guides series:

• The Benefits and Consequences of Police 

Crackdowns. Michael S. Scott. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-24-X

• Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime: Should 

You Go Down This Road? Ronald V. Clarke. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

• Crime Prevention Publicity Campaigns.

Emmanuel Barthe. 2006 ISBN: 1-932582-66-5

• Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety 

Problems. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-55-X

• Video Surveillance of Public Places. Jerry Ratcliffe. 

2006 ISBN: 1-932582-58-4

Problem-Solving Tools series: 

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory 

Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-19-3

• Researching a Problem. Ronald V. Clarke and Phyllis A. 

Schultz. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-48-7

• Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police Problem 

Solving. Scott H. Decker. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-49-5

• Analyzing Repeat Victimization. Deborah Lamm 

Weisel. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-54-1
52 Bullying in Schools

Upcoming Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides

Domestic Violence

Bank Robbery

Drive-by Shootings

Disorder at Day Laborer Sites

Crowd Control at Stadiums and Other Entertainment Venues

Traffic Congestion Around Schools

Theft from Construction Sites of Single Family Houses

Robbery of Convenience Stores

Theft from Cars on Streets

Problem-Solving Tools

Risky Facilities

Implementing Responses to Problems

Designing a Problem Analysis System

Response Guides

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for 

Police series and other COPS Office publications, please call 

the COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770 or visit 

COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov. 

www.cops.usdoj.gov

For More Information:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.

Washington, DC 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit COPS Online at the address listed below.

e07063414 Updated: July 2006

ISBN: 1-932582-11-8