DEMOGRAPHIC

AND

HEALTH

SURVEYS

DHS WORKING PAPERS

2020 No. 164

Wenjuan Wang

Shireen Assaf

Ben Mayala

Lwendo Moonzwe Davis

June 2020

This document was produced for review by the United States Agency for

International Development.

Household Air Pollution: National and Subnational

Estimates in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia,

Nepal, and the Philippines

DHS Working Paper No. 164 

Household Air Pollution: National and Subnational 

Estimates in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, 

Nepal, and the Philippines 

Wenjuan Wang1,2

Shireen Assaf1,2

Ben Mayala1,2

Lwendo Moonzwe Davis1

ICF 

Rockville, Maryland, USA 

June 2020 

1

ICF 

2

The DHS Program 

Corresponding author: Shireen Assaf, The DHS Program, ICF, 530 Gaither Road, Suite 500, Rockville, 

MD 20850, USA; phone: 301-572-0950; fax: 301-572-0999; email: Shireen.Assaf@icf.com 
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Thomas Pullum, Amit Chandra, Lucy Mize, Sweta Saxena, 

Kendra Chittenden, Micaela Arthur, and Jean-Jacques Frere for their comments on the report. 

Editor: Kerry Aradhya 

Document Production: Joan Wardell and Chris Gramer 

This study was carried out with support provided by the United States Agency for International 

Development (USAID) through The DHS Program (#720-OAA-18C-00083). The views expressed are 

those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. 

The DHS Program assists countries worldwide in the collection and use of data to monitor and evaluate 

population, health, and nutrition programs. Additional information about The DHS Program can be 

obtained from ICF, 530 Gaither Road, Suite 500, Rockville, MD 20850 USA; telephone: +1 301-407-6500, 

fax: +1 301-407-6501, email: info@DHSprogram.com, internet: www.DHSprogram.com. 

Recommended citation: 

Wenjuan, Wang, Shireen Assaf, Ben Mayala, and Lwendo Moonzwe Davis. 2020. Household Air 

Pollution: National and Subnational Estimates in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines.

DHS Working Paper No. 164. Rockville, Maryland, USA: ICF. 
iii 

CONTENTS 

TABLES ....................................................................................................................................................... iv 

FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................................... v 

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. vi 

1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1 

2 DATA AND METHODS ................................................................................................................... 3 

2.1 Data and Measurement ...................................................................................................... 3 

2.2 Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 4 

Descriptive analysis ............................................................................................................ 4 

District-level estimation ....................................................................................................... 4 

3 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................................ 6 

3.1 Levels, Trends, and Types of HAP ..................................................................................... 6 

3.2 Differentials and Changes Over Time in HAP by Household Background 

Characteristics .................................................................................................................... 8 

3.3 District-level Estimates of HAP ......................................................................................... 13 

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 18 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 22 

APPENDIX A Use of solid fuel for cooking and district-level HAP estimates ................................. 27 
iv 

TABLES 

Table 1 Number of households included in the analysis by country, survey, 

and residence ............................................................................................................ 3 

Appendix Table A.1 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, Bangladesh ................................................................. 27 

Appendix Table A.2 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, India ............................................................................ 28 

Appendix Table A.3 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, Indonesia .................................................................... 28 

Appendix Table A.4 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, Nepal ........................................................................... 29 

Appendix Table A.5 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, the Philippines............................................................. 29 

Appendix Table A.6 District-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, 

Bangladesh DHS 2014 ............................................................................................ 30 

Appendix Table A.7 District-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, 

India DHS 2015-2016 .............................................................................................. 31 

Appendix Table A.8 District-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, 

Nepal DHS 2016 ...................................................................................................... 41 

Appendix Table A.9 Province-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, the 

Philippines NDHS 2017 ........................................................................................... 42 
v 

FIGURES 

Figure 1 Percent distribution of households by type of fuel used for cooking ......................... 6 

Figure 2 Percent distribution of households by type of fuel used for cooking ......................... 7 

Figure 3 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, 

Bangladesh ................................................................................................................ 9 

Figure 4 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, India ............. 10 

Figure 5 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, Indonesia ..... 11 

Figure 6 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, Nepal ........... 12 

Figure 7 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, the 

Philippines ................................................................................................................ 13

Figure 8 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel 

for cooking, Bangladesh DHS 2014 ......................................................................... 14 

Figure 9 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel 

for cooking, India DHS 2015-2016 ........................................................................... 15 

Figure 10 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel 

for cooking, Nepal DHS 2016 .................................................................................. 16 

Figure 11 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel 

for cooking, the Philippines NDHS 2017 .................................................................. 17
vi 

ABSTRACT 

Household air pollution (HAP) is a major public health concern in many low- and middle-income countries. 

In the past few decades, population growth has led to increases in the number of individuals cooking with 

solid fuels and exposure to biomass and coal smoke. Globally, millions of deaths each year are linked to 

indoor air pollution, with women and children affected disproportionately. There is limited understanding 

of trends and geographic variation in HAP, which has made targeting of interventions challenging. This 

paper identifies HAP trends; examines associations between HAP and household characteristics in 

Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines; and estimates district-level exposure to HAP in 

all of these countries except for Indonesia, where global positioning system data were lacking. The results 

indicated a decreasing overall trend in use of solid fuel for cooking in these countries. However, disparities 

persisted in all countries. The greatest reductions in use of solid fuel were among wealthier households, 

while the poorest households continued to be the most affected by HAP. The district-level estimates of 

HAP are summarized in maps that clearly highlight hot spots that can be targeted for interventions. 

Key words: Household air pollution, indoor air pollution, district-level estimates 
1 

1 INTRODUCTION 

Biomass and solid fuels such as wood, charcoal, crop residues, and dung—in addition to coal—are used as 

a primary source of household fuel and energy for billions of individuals worldwide. Globally, cooking 

with solid fuels has increased due to population growth. Most regions experienced a downward trend in the 

percentage of households cooking with solid fuels between 1990 and 2010, with a global reduction from 

53% to 41% (Bonjour et al. 2013). Although all regions experienced declines, the rates before and after the 

declines in Africa (82% to 77%), Southeast Asia (83% to 61%), and the Western Pacific (66% to 46%) were 

higher than the global average, whereas those in the Eastern Mediterranean (48% to 35%), the Americas 

(27% to 14%), and Europe (23% to 7%) were lower than the global average (Bonjour et al. 2013). The 

problem of exposure to HAP as a result of cooking with polluting fuels continues to almost exclusively 

impact low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), with less than 1% of the population in high-income 

countries accessing polluting fuels. In 2016, 83% of the population in LMIC in the African region, 59% of 

the population percent in the Southeast Asia region, and 42% of the population in the Western Pacific region 

relied primary on polluting cooking fuel options such as coal, wood, charcoal, dun, crop residues, or 

kerosene (World Health Organization 2018a). The percentages of the population relying primarily on 

polluting fuels in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Americas, and Europe were 31%, 16%, and 6%, 

respectively, during the same year (World Health Organization 2018a). 

Biomass and coal smoke contains several pollutants that are hazardous to people’s health and have been 

implicated as agents for numerous diseases in developing countries (Ezzati and Kammen 2002). The 

pollutants include respirable particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, benzene, 

1,3-butadiene, polycyclide aromatic hydrocarbons, and other toxic organic compounds (Mishra and 

Retherford 2006). Indoor air pollution is a risk factor for several leading causes of death, including stroke, 

ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. It is linked to about 1.5 

million deaths annually due to acute lower respiratory infections, chronic obstructive lung disease, and lung 

cancer (World Health Organization 2006; World Health Organization 2018b). Women and children, 

especially in developing countries, are disproportionately exposed to polluted air because of the use of 

biomass for cooking and heating. HAP from biomass and solid fuels used for cooking and heating is a risk 

factor for several health outcomes associated with child survival, such as pneumonia, low birth weight, 

stillbirth, and noncommunicable diseases (Dherani et al. 2008; Pope et al. 2010; Smith, Mehta, and 

Maeusezahl-Feuz 2004; Tielsch et al. 2009). HAP doubles the risk of pneumonia and other acute lower 

respiratory infections, thus contributing to half of the deaths from pneumonia among children under age 5 

(World Health Organization 2018b). Reduction of air pollution, specifically HAP, is a critical component 

of attaining Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Amegah and Jaakkola (2016) recommend action for 

seven SDGs (SDGs 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, and 15). For instance, for SDG 3 (Ensure healthy lives and promote 

well-being for all at all ages), the recommended action is to reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from 

hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination by 2030. For SDG 7 (Ensure 

access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all), several recommendations aim to 

increase access to clean energy and increase the use of renewable energy by 2030.

Several studies have found associations between HAP and various forms of lung or respiratory-related 

complications. HAP exposure increased the risk of lung cancer among individuals in Nepal who had never 

smoked (Raspanti et al. 2016). In Bangladesh, HAP is a leading cause of respiratory illness and has 
2 

contributed to under-5 mortality (Naz, Page, and Agho 2015). A case-control study conducted in Bhaktapur, 

Nepal, found that the use of biomass as a household fuel source was a risk for acute lower respiratory 

infection in young children (Bates et al. 2013). Other studies have specifically examined the relationship 

between HAP and children’s health outcomes. Cooking indoors increased the risk of neonatal mortality, 

infant mortality, acute respiratory infection (ARI), low birth weight, and Cesarean delivery in Bangladesh 

(Khan et al. 2017). In India, the use of cooking fuel in households was associated with increased risk of 

mortality in children under age 5, and these associations were higher in rural areas and for households 

without a separate kitchen for cooking (Naz, Page, and Agho 2016). Smoke exposure can contribute to 

stunting by causing anemia and low birthweight. In Nepal, children with such exposure showed a 

considerably higher prevalence of stunting than children with no exposure (84.6% versus 15.4%) (Dadras 

and Chapman 2017). Further, in India, a study found that the prevalence of anemia was higher among 

children in households using biofuel than among those in households using cleaner fuels (Mishra and 

Retherford 2006). 

In several countries, interventions have succeeded in reducing the rates of HAP. These interventions have 

focused on changing behavior, improving stoves and household ventilation, and promoting the adoption of 

new technologies and the utilization of renewable energy sources (Amegah and Jaakkola 2016; Smith et al. 

2011). To effectively implement and target interventions to address the negative impacts of HAP, better 

understanding of the populations that are most affected, as well as of regional and geographic variation, is 

needed. Yet, few studies have systematically examined geographic or regional variations in rates of HAP. 

A meta-analysis of 25 case-control studies examined the association between household coal use and lung 

cancer. Regional stratification of mainland China and Taiwan found geographic variation in the risk of lung 

cancer associated with household coal use (Hosgood III et al. 2011). Other studies have found variation in 

the level of exposure between urban and rural populations and variation within locations such as coastal or 

mountainous areas (Huboyo et al. 2014; Mestl et al. 2007). 

Studies have also identified sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors that are associated with HAP. 

Women and children tend to have greater exposure to HAP (Duflo, Greenstone, and Hanna 2008; 

Siddharthan et al. 2018). One study in Bangladesh found not only that the poorest and least-educated 

households have higher levels of exposure to HAP but also that women and children have higher levels of 

exposure than men (Dasgupta et al. 2006). In Bangladesh, levels of indoor air pollution were found to be 

dangerously high for many poor families (Huq et al. 2004). Economic status also affects the level of 

exposure. Individuals with more wealth and education are more likely to have adequate ventilation, which 

reduces exposure to HAP, and wealthier individuals are more likely to have market access and the ability 

to own a modified stove. 

There is limited understanding of trends in HAP, the characteristics of populations and individuals who are 

most affected by HAP, and geographic variation in rates of HAP within a country. This paper attempts to 

fill these gaps by identifying HAP trends, examining associations between HAP and household 

characteristics, and estimating HAP at the district level. While the links between HAP and health are well 

documented, estimating HAP at the district level provides key information to inform the targeting of 

interventions. 
3 

2 DATA AND METHODS 

2.1 Data and Measurement 

The study used data from surveys conducted by The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program in 

2005 and later in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines. DHS surveys are conducted 

approximately every five years in each country, and standardized protocols are used to ensure comparability 

over time and between countries. Table 1 lists the surveys used in the study and the number of households 

included by urban and rural residence. DHS surveys use a two-stage cluster sampling design to draw a 

sample that is representative of the country, for urban and rural areas separately, and for each unit at the 

country’s first administrative level (usually geographic regions). In the first stage of each survey, clusters 

or enumeration areas were selected from the country’s most recent census sampling frame with probability 

proportional to the population size of clusters. In the second stage, a systematic sample of households in 

each cluster (usually 20-30 households per cluster) was selected. A household questionnaire was 

administered to an adult household member (usually the household head or spouse) to collect information 

on household characteristics, such as water and sanitation, and on household assets. 

Table 1 Number of households included in the analysis by country, survey, and residence 

 Urban Rural Total 

Bangladesh 2007 8,133 2,267 10,400 

Bangladesh 2011 12,836 4,305 17,141 

Bangladesh 2014 12,456 4,844 17,300 

India 2005-06 73,462 35,579 109,041 

India 2015-16 391,702 209,807 601,509 

Indonesia 2007 23,818 16,883 40,701 

Indonesia 2012 22,362 21,490 43,852 

Indonesia 2016 24,505 23,458 47,963 

Nepal 2006 7,234 1,473 8,707 

Nepal 2011 9,280 1,546 10,826 

Nepal 2016 4,259 6,781 11,040 

Philippines 2008 6,192 6,277 12,469 

Philippines 2013 7,700 7,104 14,804 

Philippines 2017 14,793 12,703 27,496 

The household respondent was also asked about the main type of fuel used for cooking. Based on the 

responses to this question, we defined HAP from cooking to be present if the fuel used for cooking included 

coal/lignite, charcoal, wood, straw, shrubs/grass, agricultural crop, or animal dung. Otherwise, clean fuels 

were defined as electricity, liquid propane gas (LPG), natural gas, and biogas. The cooking location, either 

indoors or outdoors, was also recorded. 

Other household-level variables that are commonly found to be associated with HAP in the literature were 

also examined. These included household wealth quintiles, household crowdedness (four or more 

household members on average sharing a sleeping room), region, and urban-rural residence (Ghimire et al. 

2019; Khan et al. 2017; Naz et al. 2018). 
4 

2.2 Analysis 

Descriptive analysis 

We described the current levels of HAP, trends in HAP, and specific types of fuel used for cooking for each 

country. The trend analysis assessed changes in HAP over time by household characteristics, including 

urban-rural residence, region, wealth, and crowdedness. For this part of the analysis, HAP was 

dichotomized into solid fuel use (either indoors or outdoors) and clean fuel use. Statistical testing was 

performed to test the significance of the changes over time for each of the background categories. 

Adjustments for the complex sample design were included in all analyses. 

A limitation of this study is the cross-sectional nature of the data, which does not allow for reliable modeling 

of the association between HAP and child health outcomes such as low birth weight and ARI symptoms. 

There is also the issue of the timing to the exposure of HAP that may not correspond to the outcomes, 

especially for ARI symptoms that are only measured for the last two weeks before the survey. We also do 

not know the duration of exposure to HAP. 

District-level estimation 

DHS surveys are not designed to collect data that are representative of the second subnational administrative 

level (ADMIN 2, usually districts). However, recent developments in model-based geostatistics allow 

health indicators to be estimated at the ADMIN 2 level (Graetz et al. 2018; Mosser et al. 2019; OsgoodZimmerman et al. 2018). The geostatistical modeling used to estimate the household use of solid fuel at the 

district level can be summarized in a few steps. First, individual household-level DHS data were aggregated 

to the DHS cluster level, for which latitude and longitude information was collected. Second, selected 

geospatial covariates gathered from multiple sources were processed with R software to extract the 

corresponding values for the DHS clusters. These geospatial covariates measure environmental and 

socioeconomic characteristics and have been shown to correlate well with DHS indicators in different 

settings (Alegana et al. 2015; Gething et al. 2015). The selected geospatial covariates were travel time to 

the nearest settlement with >50,000 inhabitants, aridity, diurnal temperature range, precipitation, potential 

evapotranspiration, daily maximum temperature, elevation, enhanced vegetation index, daytime land 

surface temperature, diurnal difference in land surface temperature, nighttime land surface temperature, 

population distribution, and livestock density (for cattle and goats). A description of these variables, as well 

as their sources, is discussed in detail in Mayala et al. (2018). Third, stacked generalized ensemble models 

were used to generate surfaces based on cluster-level DHS data and spatial covariates. The predicted 

surfaces were then adjusted for spatial dependence through a Bayesian geostatistical model that produces 

pixel-level (5x5 km) estimates of the outcome, with associated uncertainties. Finally, the pixel-level 

estimates were aggregated to the district level. More detail about geospatial covariate processing in R, 

stacked generalization models, and the Bayesian geostatistical model can be found in Mayala et al. (2019). 

We estimated household use of solid fuel at the district level for Bangladesh, Nepal, and the Philippines for 

the most recent survey using the model-based geostatistics approach. District-level use for India was 

estimated directly from the survey since it was designed to be representative of the 640 districts in India. 

Global positioning system data were not collected in DHS surveys in Indonesia; therefore, use of solid fuel 

at the district level was not estimated for Indonesia. For each of the three countries using the model-based 

geostatistics approach, we predicted surface maps at the levels of pixels and districts. Uncertainty (width 
5 

of the 95% conference interval) at the district level was also estimated. These estimates are summarized in 

the appendix and also represented by maps. 
6 

3 RESULTS 

3.1 Levels, Trends, and Types of HAP 

Figure 1 presents the trends in HAP in each country. The most recent survey in each country indicated 

various levels of use of solid fuel. Bangladesh had the highest level, with 82% of households in 2014 relying 

on solid fuel for cooking, although most households (74%) cooked with solid fuel outside the house. In 

India and Nepal, more than half of the households used solid fuel for cooking: 54% in India (2015-2016) 

and 66% in Nepal (2016). The lowest level of HAP was reported in Indonesia, at 23% in 2016. 

Figure 1 Percent distribution of households by type of fuel used for cooking 

Examining multiple surveys in each country allowed trends to be seen over a 10-year period between 

2005/06 and 2016/17, except for Bangladesh, which had a shorter observation period from 2007 to 2014. 

Over time, there was a decreasing trend in use of solid fuel, both inside and outside the house, in all five 

countries. The use of clean fuel increased in all five countries. The decreases in solid fuel use between the 

earliest survey and the most recent survey ranged from 9 percentage points in Bangladesh to 31 percentage 

points in Indonesia. Conversely, Bangladesh had the lowest increase in use of clean fuel, and Indonesia had 

the greatest increase. In 2016, more than three-fourths of Indonesian households used clean fuel for 

cooking. Approximately half of households in the recent surveys in the Philippines and India used clean 

fuel, approximately a third of households in Nepal, and less than a fifth in Bangladesh. 

Figure 2 shows different types of fuel reported in the most recent survey in each country. Among the solid 

fuel types, wood was commonly reported by all countries, ranging from 23% in Indonesia to 59% in Nepal. 

Agricultural crops were also commonly used in Bangladesh, by 24% of households. Animal dung was 

12

8

8

47

39

43

30

19

65

51

40

42

40

30

79

79

74

24

15

11

8

5

18

24

26

22

21

18

9

14

18

29

45

46

62

77

17

25

34

36

39

52

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Bangladesh 2007

Bangladesh 2011

Bangladesh 2014

India 2005-06

India 2015-16

Indonesia 2007

Indonesia 2012

Indonesia 2016

Nepal 2006

Nepal 2011

Nepal 2016

Philippines 2008

Philippines 2013

Philippines 2017

Solid fuel inside Solid fuel outside Clean fuel
7 

sometimes reported as fuel for cooking in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal, but by less than 10% of 

households. Other solid fuel types such as straw, shrubs, and grass were rarely reported. Among the clean 

fuel types, LPG/natural gas/biogas was the most reported, ranging from 17% of households in Bangladesh 

to 72% in Indonesia. More than 40% of households in India and the Philippines also used LPG, natural gas, 

or biogas for cooking. Electricity was rarely used for cooking in any country. 

Figure 2 Percent distribution of households by type of fuel used for cooking 

 

0.4

16.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

49.6

1.1

24.3

6.8

0.2

0.1 Bangladesh 2014

Electricity LPG/natural gas/biogas

Kerosene Coal/lignite

Charcoal Wood

Straw/shrubs/grass Agricultural crop

Animal dung Other

No food cooked in household

0.6

43.1

1.2

0.6 0.9

40.5

2.5 3.0

7.2

0.0 0.3

India 2015-16

0.4

71.9

3.1 0.0

0.1

23.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 1.4

Indonesia 2016

1.0

33.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

59.4

1.6 0.3

4.3

0.0

0.3

Nepal 2016

3.4

47.1

0.1 0.7

9.1

38.2

0.1

0.2 0.00.0

1.1

Philippines 2017
8 

3.2 Differentials and Changes Over Time in HAP by Household 

Background Characteristics 

The decrease in the use of solid fuel at the national level was also observed by several household 

background variables. Figures 3 to 7 and Appendix Tables A.1 to A.5 show trends and significance of 

differences between surveys in the use of solid fuel by place of residence, wealth quintile, crowding, and 

region. In the figures, a solid line between consecutive surveys indicates a significant difference, while a 

dotted line indicates no significant difference. An asterisk next to the category label in the figure legend 

indicates a significant difference between the first and third surveys. 

Bangladesh had the highest use of solid fuel and also the smallest decrease in use when compared with the 

other countries. By 2014, 82% of households in Bangladesh were still using solid fuel. The percentages 

differed by place of residence, wealth quintile, and region but not by crowding (see Appendix Table A.1). 

Over time, the largest decreases in Bangladesh were in households from the fourth and highest wealth 

quintiles, decreasing by approximately 20 percentage points between the earliest and most recent surveys 

for these two quintiles (Figure 3). By region, we saw large and significant declines in Dhaka and Sylhet 

between 2007 and 2011. However, between the two most recent surveys, only Barisal had a significant 

decline in household use of solid fuel, and the decline was slight and only marginally significant. 

In India, Indonesia, and the Philippines, the decrease in the use of solid fuel between the two most recent 

surveys was significant across all household characteristics (Figures 4, 5, and 7 and Appendix Tables A.2 

to A.4). The largest decreases in solid fuel use in these countries were found within wealth quintiles. In both 

India and the Philippines, households from the middle and fourth wealth quintiles decreased their solid fuel 

use by approximately 30 percentage points between the earliest and most recent surveys. In Indonesia, solid 

fuel use decreased by more than 50 percentage points in households from the second and middle quintiles. 

A large decrease of approximately 30 percentage points was also observed in the South region in India (see 

Appendix Table A.2). 

In Nepal, the use of solid fuel for cooking in urban households increased significantly between the two 

most recent surveys, from 29% in 2011 to 52% in 2016. However, significant decreases in use of solid fuel 

were observed in all wealth groups and most regions. The largest decrease, by 26 percentage points, was 

among households from the fourth quintile (Figure 6). 
9 

Figure 3 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, Bangladesh 

Crowding = Four or more people per sleeping room 

Solid line = Significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

Dotted line = No significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

* Significant difference between the first and third surveys
10 

Figure 4 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, India 

Crowding = Four or more people per sleeping room 

Solid line = Significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

Dotted line = No significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

* Significant difference between the first and third surveys 
11 

Figure 5 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, Indonesia 

Crowding = Four or more people per sleeping room 

Solid line = Significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

Dotted line = No significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

* Significant difference between the first and third surveys 
12 

Figure 6 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, Nepal 

Crowding = Four or more people per sleeping room 

Solid line = Significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

Dotted line = No significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

* Significant difference between the first and third surveys 
13 

Figure 7 Trends in use of solid fuel for cooking by household characteristics, the Philippines 

Crowding = Four or more people per sleeping room 

Solid line = Significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

Dotted line = No significant difference between the two consecutive surveys 

* Significant difference between the first and third surveys 

Disparities by all background variables persisted in the most recent survey for all five countries. The largest 

gaps were by wealth quintile (see Appendix Tables A.1 to A.5). In India, Nepal, and the Philippines, the 

difference in the use of solid fuel between the lowest and highest wealth quintiles for the most recent survey 

was more than 90 percentage points. The gap was approximately 60 percentage points in Bangladesh and 

about 70 percentage points in Indonesia. Because of the strong association between wealth and place of 

residence, large disparities were also seen in the most recent surveys by place of residence. In all five 

countries, the smallest gaps in use of solid fuel were by crowding. 

3.3 District-level Estimates of HAP 

We used model-based methodology to estimate HAP at the district level in each country except Indonesia. 

Estimates could not be produced for Indonesia because global positioning system data were not collected 

for that survey. Estimates are shown through maps with corresponding confidence intervals (CIs) in Figures 

8 to 11 and by district name in Appendix Tables A.6 to A.9. The CI maps present the width of the CIs for 

the district-level estimates. Darker colors on the maps on the right side denote wider CIs, which represent 

larger errors in the estimates. 
14 

Figure 8 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel for cooking, 

Bangladesh DHS 2014 

 

The map on the left in Figure 8 shows that the use of solid fuel in Bangladesh was more than 90% in most 

districts. The lowest use was in the central districts of Dhaka division, where less than a quarter of the 

households in three districts used solid fuel for cooking (see Appendix Table A.6). In Dhaka district, only 

15% (95% CI: 13%, 18%) used solid fuel. Every district from the Barisal and Khulna regions in the south 

of Bangladesh had rates of solid fuel use of 95% or higher. Most districts in these regions also had a 

relatively low level of uncertainty, as shown in the map on the right in Figure 8. 
15 

Figure 9 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel for cooking, India 

DHS 2015-2016 

 

The map on the left in Figure 9 shows a wide range of use of solid fuel for cooking across India’s 640 

districts. Solid fuel was very common in northeastern areas, with rates of use higher than 80% in most 

districts. The highest rate of use was in Jamtara district, at 96% (95% CI: 93%, 97%) (see Appendix Table 

A.7 for district ID 363). The use of solid fuel was relatively low in southern and northern districts. Indeed, 

several districts had less than 5% of households reporting the use of solid fuel: Srinagar, Chandigarh, North 

West, North, North East, East, New Delhi, Central, West, Southwest, South, Daman, Hyderabad, Bangalore, 

Mumbai, and Suburban (district IDs 10, 55, 90-98, 495, 518, 519, 536, and 572). The range of uncertainty 

for the estimates was below 20 percentage points in most districts (see map on the right in Figure 9). As in 

other countries, the use of solid fuel was higher in rural areas than in urban areas in every district, with a 

difference of up to 89 percentage points between the two (i.e., in Sonbhadra district). 
16 

Figure 10 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel for cooking, Nepal 

DHS 2016 

 

On average, two-thirds of households in Nepal used solid fuel for cooking in 2016. The map on the left in 

Figure 10 indicates that half of the 14 districts reported a level of 80% or higher, with three districts 

(Dhawalagiri, Karnali, and Sagarmatha) reporting a level higher than 90%. The only district in which less 

than half of households used solid fuel was Bagmati, at 33% (95% CI: 28.8, 37.6%) (see Appendix Table 

A.8). As shown in the map on the right in Figure 10, the range of uncertainty for the estimates for most 

districts fell between 10 and 20 percentage points. 
17 

Figure 11 District-level estimates (left) and 95% CIs (right) of household use of solid fuel for cooking, the 

Philippines NDHS 2017 

 

The map on the left in Figure 11 shows that in the Philippines, solid fuel use increases from north to south 

(with a few exceptions). The lowest rate of use was in Metro Manila, at 4% (95% CI: 3%, 5%) (see 

Appendix Table A.9). The surrounding provinces also had low levels of solid fuel use, ranging from 10% 

to 15%. These provinces are part of the Calabarzon and Central Lazon regions, but these regions had a few 

provinces with levels of solid fuel use above 50%. The highest solid fuel use was in the Autonomous Region 

in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), ranging from 83% (in Shariff Kabunsuan province) to 95% (in Basilan 

province). Other provinces in the central and south of the country had moderate to high use, with more than 

70% of households in most provinces using solid fuel for cooking. The level of uncertainty in these 

estimates ranged from moderate to high (i.e., between 10 and 20 percentage points), as shown in the map 

on the right in Figure 11. 
18 

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 

The adverse impacts of HAP on health, especially for women and children, have been well documented. 

Previous studies have examined this important issue in individual countries, but limited research has 

examined the levels of and trends in HAP in multiple countries (Bonjour et al. 2013). This study adds to 

that research and is also the first study to estimate the district-level use of solid fuel for cooking. Using data 

from nationally representative household surveys and geostatistical models, we assessed the levels of HAP 

from the use of solid fuel at the national, regional, and district levels and over time in five Southeast Asian 

countries. Overall, our analysis reveals a decreasing trend in use of solid fuel for cooking in these countries, 

which is in line with the model estimates based on data from the World Health Organization (Bonjour et al. 

2013). Disparities in exposure by urban-rural residence, socioeconomic status, and geographic region 

persisted in all countries. We found the greatest reductions in use of solid fuel among relatively wealthy 

households, while the poorest households continued to be the most affected by HAP. 

Bangladesh shows persistently high use of solid fuel for cooking. Reductions over time are less noticeable 

than in other countries. At the district level, more than 90% of households in most districts were using solid 

fuel for cooking in 2014. Clearly, HAP is a critical public health issue in Bangladesh; it contributes to 4% 

of the national burden of diseases (World Health Organization 2007). While the overall use of solid fuel is 

high in Bangladesh, most households reported cooking outside of the house or in a separate building. 

Research from Bangladesh has shown that cooking outside the house is associated with lower risks of ARI 

and low birth weight than is cooking inside the house, regardless of type of fuel (Khan et al. 2017). In 

another study, PM10 concentration was found to be lower in households that cooked in a separate kitchen 

or had doors and windows open after cooking (Dasgupta et al. 2006). A study conducted in India also found 

that in addition to fuel type, kitchen type was an important predictor of HAP (Balakrishnan et al. 2004). 

Given the universally high use of solid fuel in Bangladesh, a complete transition to clean energy will take 

time and be challenging. The government of Bangladesh aims to install improved cookstoves in 30 million 

households by 2030. Several improved cook stove programs are now being implemented with the support 

of international donors (Jain and Sadeque 2017). Other cost-effective options such as improving ventilation 

by changing space configurations and cooking locations should be encouraged, especially in poor areas. 

Indonesia has the lowest use of solid fuel among the five countries studied. The country has also seen the 

greatest reduction in use over time, with use decreasing by more than half in the past decade. More than 

three-quarters of the households used clean fuel for cooking in 2016. The government of Indonesia’s 

substantial investment in national energy subsidy programs has contributed to these improvements 

(Pertamina and World LP Gas Association 2015). Indonesia has been particularly successful in transitioning 

to clean household fuels including LPG, biogas, and electricity (Gardiner 2019). Between 2007 and 2012, 

the country successfully implemented a massive project to convert the primary fuel for cooking from 

kerosene to LPG in more than 50 million households (Budya and Arofat 2011; Pertamina and World LP 

Gas Association 2015). The success of this project may have contributed to the significant increases in use 

of clean fuel for cooking observed between 2007 and 2012 in this analysis. Despite all these improvements 

and the low use of solid fuel on average, individuals in the poorest households still suffer from high 

exposure to HAP today. The use of LPG was found to be strongly associated with household income 

(Thoday et al. 2018). Target subsidies for low-income families should be considered. 
19 

India has a wide range of use of solid fuel for cooking across its districts. Solid fuel is very common in 

districts in northeastern areas but relatively low in districts in the south and north. India had the largest 

number of deaths due to illness caused by use of solid fuel in 2017 (Ritchie and Roser 2019). Since early 

1980, the government of India has implemented several interventions to reduce HAP, including the 

widespread promotion and distribution of improved cooking stoves (Sinha 2002). However, due to various 

reasons including cultural factors, cost of maintenance, and poor design of the stoves, the uptake of 

improved cookstoves has remained low, especially in rural areas, and emissions from air pollutants have 

remained high (Khandelwal et al. 2017; Sinha 2002). The government recently implemented initiatives to 

introduce clean cooking to households by increasing access to LPG, improving stoves, and subsidizing fuel 

for poor households. Assessing the impact of these initiatives will be important for future policies and 

programs. Along with these initiatives, programs targeting other barriers such as a lack of awareness of the 

health risks of HAP are also warranted. 

Nepal’s overall level of HAP is high, with more than 80% of households in half of the country’s districts 

using solid fuel for cooking. In contrast to trends in other countries, the use of solid fuel in urban areas 

appeared to have substantially increased in the most recent survey when compared with the two previous 

surveys. However, this increase is spurious and likely due to the use of different urban-rural classifications 

in the most recent DHS survey. Because many areas designated as rural in previous surveys were designated 

as urban in the 2016 DHS survey, comparisons between surveys by urban and rural place of residence 

should be interpreted with caution. As in other countries, households in low socioeconomic groups (the 

poorest wealth quintiles) are disproportionately affected by HAP, and the reduction over time was 

negligible. Previous research in Nepal has also shown that fuel choices and cooking practices are associated 

with household socioeconomic status (Ghimire et al. 2019). Given the limited access to clean fuel and 

limited subsidies from the government in Nepal, economic affordability plays a critical role in a household’s 

access to clean fuel. Western districts have the highest levels of use. The government of Nepal has several 

policies and guidelines to reduce emissions from indoor open burning of biomass, including the National 

Indoor Air Quality Standard and Implementation Guidelines 2009, the Rural Renewable Energy Policy, and 

the National Rural Electrification Programme. The Alternative Energy Promotion Center has also headed a 

clean stove program aimed at promoting cleaner cooking fuels and clean cooking stoves. It has been noted 

that much more effort is needed. Specifically, prioritization of policies on biomass energy and 

incentivization for the use of improved cooking stoves are needed (Sigdel 2007). 

The Philippines has made substantial improvements in the use of clean fuel, with about 50% of households 

using clean fuel for cooking. Despite limited government policies that promote the use of clean cooking 

technologies, clean cooking is associated with access to LPG, which has grown rapidly in the Philippines 

since the 1990s. Factors contributing to the increased utilization of LPG include competitive economics, 

improvements to product availability, and safety (SEforALL 2019; World Bank 2020). As in other countries, 

the use of solid fuel for cooking in the Philippines differs by place of residence, region, and wealth quintile. 

Although use has decreased in both urban and rural areas, the use of solid fuel in rural areas remains high, 

with more than 60% of households using it as their source for cooking. Regionally, the use of solid fuel 

increases from north to south with the lowest levels of use in the national capital. Variation across wealth 

quintiles is similar to that in other countries, with nearly all households in the lowest quintile but only about 

5% of households in the highest quintile using solid fuel for cooking. These findings are in line with 

previous research showing higher use of solid fuel in lower income groups and a strong negative correlation 

between income and the use of dirty fuels (Arcenas et al. 2010). Studies conducted in the Philippines 
20 

examining the costs and benefits of switching to improved stoves, specifically improved wood stoves, have 

found that such a change would benefit health and save time (Arcenas et al. 2010). 

Other countries have also seen a fair reduction in use of solid fuel given various interventions including the 

promotion and distribution of improved cooking stoves. Improved cooking stove interventions gained 

momentum alongside rising concerns about the depletion of natural forest resources, and they have 

successfully reduced indoor air pollution in certain contexts in several countries (Barnes 2005). However, 

some issues prevent sustainable use of improved stoves, including cultural factors, cost of maintenance, 

and poor design, especially in low-income settings (Amegah and Jaakkola 2016). For example, in India, 

despite a massive program, the uptake of improved cooking stoves remains low, especially in rural areas, 

and emissions from air pollutants are still high (Khandelwal et al. 2017; Sinha 2002). Important 

considerations for increasing uptake of improved cooking stoves include designs that meet the needs of the 

local context; effective marketing strategies; facilitation of local production or job creation, and assurance 

that user perceptions, community participation, and local energy policies are taken into account. 

Similar to what previous research has shown, we found that households with low socioeconomic status are 

disproportionately affected by HAP and that the reduction in use of solid fuel has been much less among 

those households. In all five countries, while the reduction was the greatest among the relatively wealthy 

households (those in the third and fourth wealth quintiles), changes among the poorest households were 

minimal. Improved stoves and alternative types of fuel are not easily affordable for low-income households. 

Countries need low-cost interventions to reduce HAP. Some possibilities include tending fires (with smaller 

pieces of wood and reduced duration of burning), stove maintenance and use, ventilation use, and safer 

locations for children while fires are burning (Barnes 2005). 

Interventions that promote increased ventilation to reduce fine particulate matter, the use of chimney stoves 

to reduce smoke exposure, and the separation of kitchens from living areas have been shown to reduce HAP 

and improve health outcomes (Mehta 2002; Thompson et al. 2011; Weaver et al. 2017). In addition to 

improved infrastructure and locally adapted solutions, behavioral change interventions focused on 

acceptability and use of clean cooking alternatives can help reduce the pollution from cooking (Naz, Page, 

and Agho 2018; Rhodes et al. 2014). Studies have also found that government efforts alone do not go far 

enough in reducing HAP; to implement effective interventions, coordination and support for affordable 

solutions is needed from both the government and the commercial sector (Zhang and Smith 2007). 

An important contribution of this study is the estimation of use of solid fuel for cooking at the second 

subnational administrative level (district level). Except for the recent DHS survey in India, DHS data are 

only representative of the national and first administrative levels. District-level estimates, however, can be 

critical because interventions are often planned and implemented at the district level. To design more 

targeted programs to reduce HAP, it is imperative to understand geographic differences in level of exposure. 

The district-level estimates indicate wide geographic differentials in the use of solid fuel for cooking in the 

studied countries, especially in India and the Philippines. These estimates can assist policymakers in 

identifying districts that need interventions. 

A limitation of this study is the cross-sectional nature of the data, which do not allow for reliable modeling 

of the association between HAP and child health outcomes such as low birth weight and ARI symptoms. 

For the study of low birth weight, we also did not know the duration of HAP exposure while a mother was 
21 

pregnant. ARI symptoms are only reported for the two weeks before the survey and cannot capture the 

possible chronic association between ARI and HAP. Another limitation is the self-reporting of HAP. We 

cannot know whether solid fuel was the only source of cooking fuel or was used only at certain times or for 

specific food preparation. Households have been found to use more than one source of fuel for cooking in 

what is referred to as fuel stacking (Thoday et al. 2018). The concentration or level of pollution produced 

from solid fuels can vary over time within the same household. Future studies to examine the link between 

HAP and health outcomes, using different types of data, could be designed to avoid some of these 

methodological issues. 

In conclusion, this report has shown that use of solid fuel in households has declined in every country 

included in the analysis. The declines may reflect a combination of successful interventions and 

improvements is socioeconomic status. Analysis by household characteristics has shown that disparities 

still exist, and interventions that target rural and poor households can potentially further decrease HAP. It 

is imperative that interventions be tailored for different socioeconomic levels. The district-level analysis 

can further pinpoint the locations where these interventions are most needed. 
22 

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27 

APPENDIX A USE OF SOLID FUEL FOR COOKING AND 

DISTRICT-LEVEL HAP ESTIMATES 

Appendix Table A.1 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, Bangladesh 

 2007 2011 Diff.2

2011-

2007 

2014 Diff.2

2014-

2011 

Diff.2

2014-

Variable % [C.I.] p 2007 1 % [C.I.] p1 % [C.I.] p1

Total 91.1 [89.4,92.5] 86.3 [84.7,87.7] -4.8*** 82.3 [79.5,84.8] -4.0** -8.8*** 

Place of residence *** *** *** 

Urban 61.5 [54.5,68.1] 50.4 [44.8,56.0] -11.1* 50.0 [44.1,56.0] -.4 -11.5* 

Rural 99.4 [98.8,99.7] 98.4 [97.5,98.9] -1.0** 94.9 [91.8,96.9] -3.5*** -4.5*** 

Wealth quintile *** *** *** 

Lowest 100.0 [..0,..0] 99.3 [98.4,99.7] -.7 99.8 [99.4,99.9] .5 -.2 

Second 99.9 [99.6,100.0] 99.6 [99.1,99.8] -.3 99.7 [99.5,99.9] .1 -.2 

Middle 99.7 [99.3,99.9] 98.9 [97.9,99.4] -.8* 97.8 [96.6,98.7] -1.0 -1.9*** 

Fourth 97.5 [96.0,98.5] 88.2 [85.6,90.5] -9.3*** 79.3 [73.8,83.9] -8.9*** -18.2*** 

Highest 55.9 [49.7,61.9] 42.9 [38.6,47.2] -13.0*** 34.4 [30.2,38.9] -8.5** -21.5*** 

 

Crowding 

No 91.1 [89.2,92.6] 86.3 [84.7,87.7] -4.8*** 82.7 [80.0,85.2] -3.5* -8.3*** 

Yes 91.3 [88.4,93.5] 86.5 [83.7,88.9] -4.8* 80.5 [75.9,84.4] -6.0* -10.8*** 

Region *** *** *** 

Barisal 98.2 [95.5,99.3] 98.4 [97.5,99.0] .2 95.5 [89.8,98.1] -3.0* -2.8 

Chittagong 89.8 [85.5,92.9] 86.7 [82.9,89.7] -3.1 82.0 [74.8,87.5] -4.7 -7.8* 

Dhaka 80.4 [75.5,84.4] 71.0 [66.7,74.9] -9.4** 65.0 [57.0,72.3] -6.0 -15.4*** 

Khulna 98.7 [97.7,99.2] 97.4 [95.6,98.4] -1.3 95.4 [93.7,96.7] -1.9 -3.2*** 

Rajshahi/Rangpur 98.2 [97.1,98.9] 96.8 [95.3,97.8] -1.4 96.2 [94.6,97.4] -.5 -2.0* 

Sylhet 96.2 [93.1,97.9] 88.0 [84.0,91.0] -8.3*** 91.5 [87.7,94.3] 3.6 -4.7* 

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 

1

 p-value significance of the covariate in each survey 2

 Difference between the two surveys with the p-value of the difference 
28 

Appendix Table A.2 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, India 

2005-06 2015-16 Diff.2

2015-16-

Variable % [C.I.] p 2005-06 1 % [C.I.] p1

Total 70.8 [69.8,71.8] 54.7 [54.3,55.1] -16.1*** 

 

Place of residence *** *** 

Urban 30.9 [28.7,33.1] 16.4 [15.9,17.0] -14.5*** 

Rural 90.2 [89.4,90.9] 75.2 [74.9,75.5] -15.0*** 

Wealth quintile *** *** 

Lowest 99.8 [99.7,99.8] 98.3 [98.2,98.4] -1.4*** 

Second 98.5 [98.2,98.7] 89.6 [89.2,90.0] -8.9*** 

Middle 90.4 [89.6,91.2] 58.2 [57.6,58.9] -32.2*** 

Fourth 54.2 [52.6,55.9] 22.2 [21.8,22.7] -32.0*** 

Highest 10.6 [9.9,11.4] 5.5 [5.3,5.7] -5.2*** 

 

Crowding *** *** 

No 66.4 [65.3,67.5] 50.7 [50.3,51.1] -15.7*** 

Yes 78.2 [77.1,79.3] 64.5 [63.9,65.1] -13.7*** 

Region *** *** 

North 63.0 [61.0,64.9] 47.8 [46.8,48.8] -15.2*** 

Central 81.8 [79.6,83.9] 68.6 [68.0,69.1] -13.2*** 

East 85.4 [83.7,87.0] 76.9 [76.1,77.6] -8.5*** 

Northeast 73.9 [70.5,77.1] 69.9 [69.0,70.8] -4.0* 

West 49.4 [46.2,52.6] 38.4 [37.4,39.5] -10.9*** 

South 64.6 [62.3,66.9] 34.1 [33.4,34.8] -30.5*** 

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 

1

 p-value significance of the covariate in each survey 2

 Difference between the two surveys with the p-value of the difference 

Appendix Table A.3 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, Indonesia 

 2007 2012 Diff.2

2012-

2007 

2017 Diff.2

2017-

2012 

Diff.2 

2017-

Variable % [C.I.] p 2007 1 % [C.I.] p1 % [C.I.] p1

Total 54.0 [52.2,55.9] 38.1 [36.5,39.6] -16.0*** 23.1 [22.1,24.3] -14.9*** -30.9*** 

 

Place of residence *** *** *** 

Urban 22.0 [19.1,25.1] 15.6 [13.6,17.8] -6.4*** 7.6 [6.7,8.5] -8.0*** -14.4*** 

Rural 76.8 [74.6,78.8] 59.6 [57.4,61.9] -17.1*** 38.0 [36.1,40.0] -21.6*** -38.7*** 

Wealth quintile *** *** *** 

Lowest 97.0 [96.4,97.5] 85.6 [84.2,86.8] -11.4*** 70.4 [68.7,72.0] -15.2*** -26.6*** 

Second 81.9 [80.1,83.6] 56.2 [53.9,58.5] -25.7*** 27.0 [25.3,28.8] -29.2*** -54.9*** 

Middle 60.0 [57.3,62.6] 29.1 [26.9,31.3] -30.9*** 8.0 [7.1,9.0] -21.1*** -52.0*** 

Fourth 23.8 [21.2,26.6] 9.0 [7.8,10.4] -14.7*** 1.6 [1.3,2.0] -7.4*** -22.2*** 

Highest .8 [0.5,1.3] .9 [0.6,1.3] .1 .2 [0.1,0.3] -.7*** -.7*** 

 

Crowding *** 

No NA 37.5 [36.0,39.1] 23.1 [22.0,24.2] -14.5*** 

Yes NA 42.7 [40.2,45.3] 23.8 [21.7,25.9] -19.0*** 

Region *** *** *** 

Sumatera 54.5 [51.7,57.2] 38.1 [35.9,40.3] -16.4*** 19.1 [17.3,21.0] -19.0*** -35.4*** 

Java 51.5 [48.7,54.3] 34.0 [31.7,36.4] -17.5*** 21.2 [19.6,22.9] -12.8*** -30.3*** 

Bali/Nusa Tenggara 64.5 [59.8,68.9] 59.1 [55.1,62.9] -5.4 42.1 [38.3,45.9] -17.0*** -22.4*** 

Kalimantan 53.5 [49.3,57.7] 37.9 [34.7,41.1] -15.7*** 19.1 [16.0,22.7] -18.8*** -34.4*** 

Sulawesi 64.5 [61.4,67.6] 48.7 [45.5,51.9] -15.8*** 29.7 [26.8,32.7] -19.0*** -34.9*** 

Maluku/Papua 65.3 [59.8,70.4] 63.0 [59.1,66.8] -2.3 54.4 [48.3,60.3] -8.7* -10.9** 

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 

1

 p-value significance of the covariate in each survey 2

 Difference between the two surveys with the p-value of the difference 

NA = Not available 
29 

Appendix Table A.4 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, Nepal 

 2006 2011 Diff.2

2011-

2006 

2016 Diff.2

2016-

2011 

Diff.2

2016-

Variable % [C.I.] p 2006 1 % [C.I.] p1 % [C.I.] p1

Total 83.3 [78.5,87.2] 75.1 [71.3,78.5] -8.2** 65.7 [62.4,68.9] -9.4*** -17.6*** 

Place of residence *** *** *** 

Urban 39.1 [32.0,46.7] 29.3 [25.8,33.1] -9.7* 51.8 [47.4,56.3] 22.5*** 12.8** 

Rural 92.3 [87.3,95.4] 82.7 [78.6,86.2] -9.6** 87.8 [83.6,91.0] 5.0 -4.5 

Wealth quintile *** *** *** 

Lowest 100.0 99.7 [99.1,99.9] -.3 99.5 [98.8,99.8] -.2 -.5 

Second 100.0 99.4 [98.9,99.7] -.6*** 96.0 [94.7,97.0] -3.4*** -4.0 

Middle 99.2 [98.1,99.7] 97.2 [95.9,98.1] -2.0* 85.5 [82.8,87.8] -11.7*** -13.7*** 

Fourth 93.8 [90.8,95.9] 71.2 [67.2,74.9] -22.6*** 44.9 [40.9,49.1] -26.3*** -48.9*** 

Highest 31.2 [25.0,38.3] 16.4 [13.6,19.6] -14.9*** 5.4 [4.3,6.8] -11.0*** -25.8*** 

 

Crowding *** *** *** 

No 81.3 [76.3,85.5] 73.0 [69.1,76.6] -8.3** 63.8 [60.4,67.1] -9.2*** -17.5*** 

Yes 89.0 [84.4,92.3] 84.8 [80.7,88.1] -4.2 78.2 [74.4,81.6] -6.6* -10.7*** 

Region *** ** *** 

Eastern 91.0 [84.9,94.8] 75.7 [67.7,82.3] -15.3** 75.4 [68.9,81.0] -.3 -15.6*** 

Central 72.5 [61.1,81.6] 67.4 [59.0,74.8] -5.1 53.8 [47.6,59.9] -13.6** -18.7** 

Western 80.8 [69.5,88.6] 74.0 [65.2,81.2] -6.9 59.8 [52.9,66.3] -14.2* -21.0** 

Mid-Western 94.2 [89.0,97.0] 85.8 [77.9,91.1] -8.5* 80.2 [73.6,85.4] -5.6 -14.0*** 

Far-Western 94.4 [91.9,96.2] 91.5 [87.8,94.1] -3.0 82.9 [74.5,88.9] -8.6* -11.5*** 

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 

1

 p-value significance of the covariate in each survey 2

 Difference between the two surveys with the p-value of the difference 

Appendix Table A.5 Levels and changes in the use of solid fuel for cooking by household 

background characteristics, the Philippines 

 2008 2013 Diff.2

2013-

2008 

2017 Diff.2

2017-

2013 

Diff.2

2017-

Variable % [C.I.] p 2008 1 % [C.I.] p1 % [C.I.] p1

Total 64.2 [62.2,66.1] 60.8 [59.3,62.2] -3.4** 47.7 [45.1,50.3] -13.1*** -16.5*** 

 

Place of residence *** *** *** 

Urban 43.1 [40.4,45.8] 38.7 [36.6,41.0] -4.3* 25.1 [22.3,28.0] -13.7*** -18.0*** 

Rural 85.6 [83.6,87.3] 81.1 [79.1,82.9] -4.5*** 67.1 [63.4,70.6] -14.0*** -18.5*** 

Wealth quintile *** *** *** 

Lowest 99.5 [99.2,99.7] 99.3 [98.9,99.6] -.2 97.5 [96.7,98.2] -1.8*** -2.0*** 

Second 94.4 [93.1,95.4] 93.5 [92.4,94.4] -.8 78.3 [68.7,85.6] -15.2*** -16.0*** 

Middle 77.3 [74.6,79.8] 73.5 [71.2,75.7] -3.8* 44.2 [41.5,47.0] -29.3*** -33.1*** 

Fourth 40.1 [37.4,42.9] 33.0 [30.9,35.2] -7.1*** 13.7 [12.2,15.4] -19.3*** -26.4*** 

Highest 8.3 [7.0,9.8] 7.1 [6.1,8.3] -1.2 2.7 [2.1,3.3] -4.4*** -5.7*** 

 

Crowding *** *** *** 

No 60.1 [58.1,62.2] 57.0 [55.4,58.6] -3.1* 44.5 [41.8,47.3] -12.5*** -15.6*** 

Yes 75.6 [73.0,78.0] 71.7 [69.3,73.9] -3.9* 59.7 [56.7,62.7] -12.0*** -15.9*** 

Region *** *** *** 

Luzon 68.4 [65.6,71.2] 54.9 [52.3,57.5] -13.6*** 39.1 [35.9,42.3] -15.8*** -29.4*** 

National Capital 16.9 [13.5,20.8] 12.7 [9.9,16.2] -4.1 3.0 [1.9,4.8] -9.7*** -13.8*** 

Visayas 84.2 [81.7,86.3] 82.1 [78.8,84.9] -2.1 71.0 [66.8,74.8] -11.1*** -13.2*** 

Mindanao 85.3 [82.7,87.6] 85.9 [83.8,87.8] .6 74.2 [64.0,82.4] -11.7** -11.1** 

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 

1

 p-value significance of the covariate in each survey 2

 Difference between the two surveys with the p-value of the difference 
30 

Appendix Table A.6 District-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, Bangladesh 

DHS 2014 

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper 

1 Barguna 99.6% 97.6% 100.0% 

2 Barisal 95.8% 92.9% 97.5% 

3 Bhola 95.1% 89.3% 97.7% 

4 Jhalokati 97.3% 94.5% 98.7% 

5 Patuakhali 97.7% 93.4% 99.4% 

6 Pirojpur 99.1% 97.1% 99.8% 

7 Bandarban 99.6% 97.7% 100.0% 

8 Brahamanbaria 88.5% 81.7% 93.1% 

9 Chandpur 87.4% 81.1% 92.2% 

10 Chittagong 77.2% 72.2% 80.9% 

11 Comilla 88.3% 82.4% 92.7% 

12 Cox's Bazar 98.7% 93.2% 99.9% 

13 Feni 92.0% 86.4% 95.4% 

14 Khagrachhari 99.4% 97.2% 100.0% 

15 Lakshmipur 94.2% 86.6% 97.6% 

16 Noakhali 74.3% 58.6% 83.2% 

17 Rangamati 99.2% 97.2% 99.8% 

18 Dhaka 15.4% 12.9% 17.9% 

19 Faridpur 79.8% 62.4% 92.8% 

20 Gazipur 62.3% 54.7% 68.0% 

21 Gopalganj 99.1% 96.2% 99.9% 

22 Jamalpur 98.2% 94.2% 99.6% 

23 Kishoreganj 95.7% 88.7% 98.4% 

24 Madaripur 97.2% 91.7% 99.5% 

25 Manikganj 80.5% 71.6% 87.4% 

26 Munshiganj 88.6% 84.9% 91.4% 

27 Mymensingh 93.7% 85.8% 97.1% 

28 Narayanganj 22.8% 18.2% 27.8% 

29 Narsingdi 49.7% 41.1% 56.8% 

30 Netrakona 98.7% 91.4% 100.0% 

31 Rajbari 98.9% 96.7% 99.7% 

32 Shariatpur 96.7% 91.7% 99.0% 

33 Sherpur 95.5% 89.1% 98.2% 

34 Tangail 96.9% 91.3% 99.2% 

35 Bagerhat 98.5% 96.2% 99.5% 

36 Chuadanga 96.2% 91.9% 98.4% 

37 Jessore 97.2% 93.3% 99.0% 

38 Jhenaidah 97.0% 93.7% 98.7% 

39 Khulna 91.8% 87.7% 94.6% 

40 Kushtia 94.6% 90.2% 97.1% 

41 Magura 94.6% 90.3% 97.4% 

42 Meherpur 95.4% 90.4% 98.1% 

43 Narail 99.3% 98.2% 99.8% 

44 Satkhira 96.9% 88.7% 99.4% 

45 Bogra 92.7% 88.2% 95.7% 

46 Dinajpur 97.0% 93.1% 98.9% 

47 Gaibandha 96.9% 93.7% 98.7% 

48 Joypurhat 98.4% 96.3% 99.5% 

49 Kurigram 98.0% 94.4% 99.4% 

50 Lalmonirhat 98.8% 95.4% 99.8% 

51 Naogaon 97.4% 92.9% 99.2% 

52 Natore 97.1% 93.7% 98.9% 

53 Nawabganj 98.5% 93.1% 99.9% 

54 Nilphamari 96.9% 94.2% 98.5% 

55 Pabna 93.6% 89.6% 96.2% 

56 Panchagarh 97.8% 94.2% 99.3% 

57 Rajshahi 92.8% 89.3% 95.3% 

58 Rangpur 94.8% 91.1% 97.2% 

59 Sirajganj 92.2% 87.2% 95.6% 

60 Thakurgaon 98.8% 96.1% 99.8% 

61 Habiganj 90.0% 84.0% 94.8% 

62 Maulvibazar 94.1% 88.9% 97.0% 

63 Sunamganj 98.1% 95.4% 99.1% 

64 Sylhet 90.5% 85.1% 93.7% 
31 

Appendix Table A.7 District-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, India DHS 

2015-2016 

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper 

1 Kupwara 50.9% 42.6% 59.2% 

2 Badgam 37.8% 28.5% 48.1% 

3 Leh 10.9% 7.0% 16.5% 

4 Kargil 55.1% 44.7% 65.1% 

5 Punch 77.5% 70.8% 83.0% 

6 Rajouri 67.1% 57.1% 75.8% 

7 Kathua 59.2% 50.5% 67.3% 

8 Baramula 27.6% 21.6% 34.7% 

9 Bandipore 43.6% 34.2% 53.6% 

10 Srinagar 2.1% 0.7% 6.4% 

11 Ganderbal 31.4% 22.4% 42.0% 

12 Pulwama 21.1% 14.6% 29.5% 

13 Shupiyan 56.2% 47.9% 64.3% 

14 Anantnag 29.5% 20.8% 40.0% 

15 Kulgam 49.2% 42.7% 55.7% 

16 Doda 83.8% 76.5% 89.1% 

17 Ramban 79.7% 73.4% 84.8% 

18 Kishtwar 72.9% 63.1% 80.9% 

19 Udhampur 72.5% 63.7% 79.9% 

20 Reasi 82.6% 74.8% 88.3% 

21 Jammu 25.0% 18.9% 32.4% 

22 Samba 49.8% 40.7% 58.8% 

23 Chamba 73.9% 65.9% 80.5% 

24 Kangra 64.9% 58.2% 71.0% 

25 Lahul And Spiti 38.6% 30.6% 47.3% 

26 Kullu 61.1% 52.1% 69.4% 

27 Mandi 75.7% 68.4% 81.8% 

28 Hamirpur 75.4% 70.9% 79.5% 

29 Una 67.4% 61.5% 72.8% 

30 Bilaspur 80.4% 75.5% 84.6% 

31 Solan 47.6% 39.8% 55.5% 

32 Sirmaur 60.8% 52.6% 68.5% 

33 Shimla 32.0% 25.5% 39.4% 

34 Kinnaur 31.1% 25.3% 37.6% 

35 Gurdaspur 29.6% 24.6% 35.3% 

36 Kapurthala 22.3% 16.5% 29.5% 

37 Jalandhar 20.9% 15.9% 27.0% 

38 Hoshiarpur 37.1% 31.2% 43.5% 

39 Sangrur 44.4% 38.6% 50.4% 

40 Fatehgarh Sahib 29.3% 24.3% 34.8% 

41 Ludhiana 21.4% 17.4% 26.0% 

42 Moga 44.4% 40.0% 48.9% 

43 Firozpur 50.1% 42.9% 57.2% 

44 Muktsar 40.2% 34.9% 45.7% 

45 Faridkot 34.7% 29.0% 40.9% 

46 Bathinda 37.1% 30.7% 43.9% 

47 Mansa 59.1% 52.8% 65.1% 

48 Patiala 31.0% 25.1% 37.6% 

49 Amritsar 26.6% 21.6% 32.3% 

50 Tarn Taran 44.6% 39.4% 50.0% 

51 Rupnagar 32.3% 27.1% 37.9% 

52 Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar 18.5% 14.2% 23.8% 

53 Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar 47.8% 42.0% 53.7% 

54 Barnala 45.5% 40.8% 50.4% 

55 Chandigarh 4.1% 1.8% 9.0% 

56 Uttarkashi 71.7% 64.8% 77.7% 

57 Chamoli 63.3% 56.2% 69.8% 

58 Rudraprayag 67.0% 59.7% 73.5% 

59 Tehri Garhwal 64.6% 54.1% 73.8% 

60 Dehradun 13.9% 10.1% 18.8% 

61 Garhwal 64.3% 57.1% 70.9% 

62 Pithoragarh 62.5% 55.5% 69.0% 

Continued... 

 
32 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

63 Bageshwar 76.4% 66.7% 83.9% 

64 Almora 69.7% 61.2% 77.0% 

65 Champawat 69.5% 61.6% 76.3% 

66 Nainital 36.6% 30.4% 43.3% 

67 Udham Singh Nagar 46.8% 41.3% 52.4% 

68 Hardwar 53.1% 47.8% 58.4% 

69 Panchkula 22.0% 15.7% 29.9% 

70 Ambala 32.0% 25.8% 38.9% 

71 Yamunanagar 38.0% 32.5% 43.9% 

72 Kurukshetra 40.4% 34.2% 46.9% 

73 Kaithal 58.5% 50.4% 66.2% 

74 Karnal 45.3% 36.6% 54.3% 

75 Panipat 36.2% 30.1% 42.8% 

76 Sonipat 51.6% 45.0% 58.2% 

77 Jind 63.2% 57.0% 69.0% 

78 Fatehabad 60.8% 53.6% 67.6% 

79 Sirsa 58.1% 53.1% 63.0% 

80 Hisar 60.8% 56.2% 65.2% 

81 Bhiwani 66.3% 58.9% 73.0% 

82 Rohtak 54.2% 48.1% 60.2% 

83 Jhajjar 55.8% 48.9% 62.4% 

84 Mahendragarh 66.4% 59.5% 72.6% 

85 Rewari 60.8% 55.0% 66.3% 

86 Gurgaon 17.0% 13.2% 21.6% 

87 Mewat 82.6% 70.3% 90.5% 

88 Faridabad 15.9% 10.6% 23.2% 

89 Palwal 69.1% 62.6% 75.0% 

90 North West 2.8% 1.2% 6.4% 

91 North 0.7% 0.1% 5.2% 

92 North East 0.8% 0.4% 1.8% 

93 East 0.6% 0.2% 1.6% 

94 New Delhi 4.5% 1.6% 12.3% 

95 Central 0.5% 0.1% 3.3% 

96 West 0.5% 0.1% 1.5% 

97 South West 1.5% 0.4% 5.5% 

98 South 2.7% 0.9% 7.5% 

99 Ganganagar 60.1% 54.4% 65.6% 

100 Hanumangarh 74.9% 70.6% 78.7% 

101 Bikaner 60.3% 57.1% 63.4% 

102 Churu 69.5% 65.7% 73.0% 

103 Jhunjhunun 48.9% 42.6% 55.1% 

104 Alwar 76.0% 71.5% 79.9% 

105 Bharatpur 83.6% 76.8% 88.7% 

106 Dhaulpur 78.6% 71.3% 84.4% 

107 Karauli 85.3% 81.2% 88.7% 

108 Sawai Madhopur 81.9% 76.9% 85.9% 

109 Dausa 83.2% 77.9% 87.5% 

110 Jaipur 44.7% 40.5% 49.0% 

111 Sikar 56.9% 52.2% 61.5% 

112 Nagaur 75.6% 69.7% 80.7% 

113 Jodhpur 54.8% 51.0% 58.5% 

114 Jaisalmer 82.6% 77.6% 86.6% 

115 Barmer 85.2% 79.6% 89.4% 

116 Jalor 73.0% 66.9% 78.3% 

117 Sirohi 59.2% 50.9% 67.1% 

118 Pali 58.4% 52.5% 64.0% 

119 Ajmer 49.0% 45.3% 52.7% 

120 Tonk 78.2% 74.2% 81.8% 

121 Bundi 76.9% 71.9% 81.4% 

122 Bhilwara 72.3% 67.2% 76.8% 

123 Rajsamand 74.3% 69.2% 78.8% 

124 Dungarpur 82.8% 77.1% 87.4% 

125 Banswara 87.3% 82.7% 90.8% 

126 Chittaurgarh 73.9% 68.5% 78.7% 

Continued...

 
33 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

127 Kota 38.7% 34.1% 43.5% 

128 Baran 74.7% 68.7% 80.0% 

129 Jhalawar 74.2% 69.3% 78.6% 

130 Udaipur 74.8% 70.6% 78.5% 

131 Pratapgarh 85.9% 80.3% 90.0% 

132 Saharanpur 61.5% 57.4% 65.5% 

133 Muzaffarnagar 60.1% 54.0% 65.9% 

134 Bijnor 65.9% 60.6% 70.9% 

135 Moradabad 55.0% 50.6% 59.4% 

136 Rampur 67.7% 62.0% 72.9% 

137 Jyotiba Phule Nagar 68.3% 61.3% 74.5% 

138 Meerut 34.8% 29.1% 40.9% 

139 Baghpat 57.1% 47.3% 66.5% 

140 Ghaziabad 20.7% 17.0% 24.9% 

141 Gautam Buddha Nagar 23.2% 18.4% 28.8% 

142 Bulandshahr 67.4% 61.5% 72.7% 

143 Aligarh 59.7% 55.5% 63.8% 

144 Mahamaya Nagar 69.3% 64.2% 73.9% 

145 Mathura 66.6% 58.7% 73.7% 

146 Agra 52.8% 46.9% 58.5% 

147 Firozabad 63.1% 60.2% 65.8% 

148 Mainpuri 75.1% 70.4% 79.3% 

149 Budaun 77.1% 73.4% 80.4% 

150 Bareilly 55.6% 51.7% 59.4% 

151 Pilibhit 71.3% 66.1% 76.0% 

152 Shahjahanpur 73.9% 68.4% 78.7% 

153 Kheri 83.4% 78.2% 87.5% 

154 Sitapur 80.8% 75.4% 85.2% 

155 Hardoi 76.7% 66.6% 84.4% 

156 Unnao 76.4% 71.9% 80.4% 

157 Lucknow 23.1% 19.9% 26.7% 

158 Rae Bareli 76.8% 71.8% 81.0% 

159 Farrukhabad 74.8% 68.4% 80.3% 

160 Kannauj 80.2% 74.1% 85.1% 

161 Etawah 72.2% 66.8% 76.9% 

162 Auraiya 72.4% 66.1% 77.8% 

163 Kanpur Dehat 82.3% 78.2% 85.7% 

164 Kanpur Nagar 28.2% 24.6% 32.1% 

165 Jalaun 66.4% 61.2% 71.3% 

166 Jhansi 58.6% 54.5% 62.6% 

167 Lalitpur 81.7% 75.1% 86.9% 

168 Hamirpur 80.3% 75.5% 84.3% 

169 Mahoba 83.3% 77.8% 87.6% 

170 Banda 84.7% 78.9% 89.1% 

171 Chitrakoot 88.3% 83.8% 91.7% 

172 Fatehpur 82.2% 78.2% 85.5% 

173 Pratapgarh 75.9% 70.1% 80.8% 

174 Kaushambi 81.3% 76.6% 85.2% 

175 Allahabad 62.3% 54.6% 69.5% 

176 Bara Banki 71.8% 67.3% 75.8% 

177 Faizabad 75.0% 70.8% 78.7% 

178 Ambedkar Nagar 85.1% 80.3% 88.9% 

179 Sultanpur 83.2% 78.1% 87.3% 

180 Bahraich 84.7% 79.4% 88.8% 

181 Shrawasti 90.6% 88.2% 92.6% 

182 Balrampur 90.0% 85.9% 93.0% 

183 Gonda 79.8% 74.7% 84.0% 

184 Siddharth Nagar 79.3% 73.8% 83.9% 

185 Basti 80.1% 75.4% 84.1% 

186 Sant Kabir Nagar 81.5% 75.9% 86.1% 

187 Mahrajganj 81.3% 76.1% 85.5% 

188 Gorakhpur 59.5% 53.8% 64.9% 

189 Kushinagar 75.8% 70.5% 80.4% 

190 Deoria 66.9% 58.5% 74.3% 

Continued... 

 
34 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

191 Azamgarh 75.3% 68.0% 81.3% 

192 Mau 77.1% 71.4% 82.0% 

193 Ballia 75.3% 70.3% 79.7% 

194 Jaunpur 78.1% 73.7% 81.9% 

195 Ghazipur 82.8% 77.9% 86.8% 

196 Chandauli 77.6% 73.2% 81.4% 

197 Varanasi 49.7% 45.1% 54.3% 

198 Sant Ravidas Nagar (Bhadohi) 73.6% 66.9% 79.4% 

199 Mirzapur 81.9% 76.6% 86.2% 

200 Sonbhadra 79.4% 74.8% 83.4% 

201 Etah 75.4% 69.6% 80.4% 

202 Kanshiram Nagar 80.9% 77.0% 84.2% 

203 Pashchim Champaran 81.7% 74.2% 87.4% 

204 Purba Champaran 85.3% 81.2% 88.6% 

205 Sheohar 88.6% 85.8% 90.9% 

206 Sitamarhi 87.2% 82.4% 90.9% 

207 Madhubani 87.5% 83.0% 90.9% 

208 Supaul 93.9% 90.4% 96.1% 

209 Araria 94.8% 90.5% 97.2% 

210 Kishanganj 94.0% 89.7% 96.6% 

211 Purnia 91.4% 84.6% 95.3% 

212 Katihar 89.9% 85.5% 93.0% 

213 Madhepura 90.9% 88.6% 92.8% 

214 Saharsa 86.6% 80.1% 91.2% 

215 Darbhanga 81.5% 76.4% 85.7% 

216 Muzaffarpur 77.7% 72.2% 82.4% 

217 Gopalganj 79.1% 73.6% 83.7% 

218 Siwan 77.5% 72.7% 81.6% 

219 Saran 81.9% 77.8% 85.3% 

220 Vaishali 79.0% 74.0% 83.3% 

221 Samastipur 85.6% 82.1% 88.5% 

222 Begusarai 83.4% 77.3% 88.1% 

223 Khagaria 86.5% 81.1% 90.5% 

224 Bhagalpur 76.4% 71.1% 81.1% 

225 Banka 90.7% 86.1% 93.9% 

226 Munger 73.4% 67.8% 78.3% 

227 Lakhisarai 85.0% 79.9% 88.9% 

228 Sheikhpura 83.1% 79.9% 85.9% 

229 Nalanda 75.8% 70.9% 80.0% 

230 Patna 47.8% 42.3% 53.4% 

231 Bhojpur 78.9% 73.4% 83.5% 

232 Buxar 76.4% 70.1% 81.7% 

233 Kaimur (Bhabua) 85.9% 82.0% 89.1% 

234 Rohtas 81.9% 77.5% 85.6% 

235 Aurangabad 83.3% 78.0% 87.5% 

236 Gaya 84.3% 77.3% 89.4% 

237 Nawada 78.5% 72.8% 83.3% 

238 Jamui 90.5% 87.4% 92.9% 

239 Jehanabad 79.8% 74.7% 84.1% 

240 Arwal 89.8% 85.7% 92.8% 

241 North District 49.5% 43.3% 55.7% 

242 West District 58.4% 51.0% 65.4% 

243 South District 46.8% 39.9% 53.8% 

244 East District 26.5% 23.2% 30.0% 

245 Tawang 53.8% 43.3% 63.9% 

246 West Kameng 39.6% 34.0% 45.5% 

247 East Kameng 63.0% 57.6% 68.1% 

248 Papumpare 14.3% 11.0% 18.4% 

249 Upper Subansiri 61.5% 52.0% 70.1% 

250 West Siang 50.2% 41.6% 58.7% 

251 East Siang 54.9% 45.9% 63.6% 

252 Upper Siang 77.6% 72.7% 81.9% 

253 Changlang 73.2% 64.4% 80.5% 

Continued... 

 
35 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

254 Tirap 78.8% 72.2% 84.2% 

255 Lower Subansiri 35.4% 29.5% 41.7% 

256 Kurung Kumey 60.5% 51.9% 68.5% 

257 Dibang Valley 66.2% 56.8% 74.4% 

258 Lower Dibang Valley 57.9% 50.8% 64.6% 

259 Lohit 75.2% 68.2% 81.1% 

260 Anjaw 74.8% 60.7% 85.1% 

261 Mon 94.0% 89.3% 96.8% 

262 Mokokchung 61.7% 56.8% 66.4% 

263 Zunheboto 87.2% 82.7% 90.7% 

264 Wokha 63.9% 57.9% 69.6% 

265 Dimapur 31.6% 27.6% 35.9% 

266 Phek 90.1% 86.8% 92.7% 

267 Tuensang 90.6% 87.1% 93.2% 

268 Longleng 95.2% 92.3% 97.0% 

269 Kiphire 88.9% 84.7% 92.0% 

270 Kohima 43.7% 38.8% 48.7% 

271 Peren 83.1% 78.6% 86.8% 

272 

Senapati 

(Excluding 3 Sub-Divisions) 80.9% 74.3% 86.1% 

273 Tamenglong 87.3% 79.7% 92.3% 

274 Churachandpur 57.6% 47.8% 66.9% 

275 Bishnupur 61.1% 56.3% 65.7% 

276 Thoubal 62.8% 58.0% 67.4% 

277 Imphal West 36.1% 31.0% 41.7% 

278 Imphal East 49.3% 44.4% 54.3% 

279 Ukhrul 89.1% 85.8% 91.6% 

280 Chandel 82.5% 75.7% 87.7% 

281 Mamit 58.5% 50.1% 66.5% 

282 Kolasib 27.9% 23.3% 33.0% 

283 Aizawl 11.7% 8.4% 16.0% 

284 Champhai 44.7% 40.1% 49.3% 

285 Serchhip 33.0% 29.1% 37.3% 

286 Lunglei 45.0% 39.6% 50.5% 

287 Lawngtlai 53.8% 45.8% 61.5% 

288 Saiha 37.2% 33.1% 41.5% 

289 West Tripura 50.9% 45.5% 56.3% 

290 South Tripura 70.4% 64.7% 75.5% 

291 Dhalai 76.9% 71.3% 81.6% 

292 North Tripura 74.7% 69.7% 79.2% 

293 West Garo Hills 82.3% 75.3% 87.6% 

294 East Garo Hills 92.9% 86.2% 96.5% 

295 South Garo Hills 89.9% 84.3% 93.7% 

296 West Khasi Hills 92.7% 88.6% 95.4% 

297 Ribhoi 88.3% 81.0% 93.1% 

298 East Khasi Hills 47.9% 43.2% 52.7% 

299 Jaintia Hills 76.9% 70.9% 82.0% 

300 Kokrajhar 81.5% 75.0% 86.7% 

301 Dhubri 83.2% 79.4% 86.4% 

302 Goalpara 78.7% 73.6% 83.1% 

303 Barpeta 76.9% 70.0% 82.7% 

304 Morigaon 81.7% 75.1% 86.9% 

305 Nagaon 80.6% 74.0% 85.9% 

306 Sonitpur 76.7% 70.6% 82.0% 

307 Lakhimpur 80.8% 73.6% 86.4% 

308 Dhemaji 88.8% 82.4% 93.1% 

309 Tinsukia 71.1% 64.3% 77.0% 

310 Dibrugarh 71.2% 65.4% 76.4% 

311 Sivasagar 72.3% 65.6% 78.2% 

312 Jorhat 65.0% 56.5% 72.6% 

313 Golaghat 84.1% 80.2% 87.3% 

314 Karbi Anglong 84.5% 77.8% 89.4% 

315 Dima Hasao 72.9% 66.6% 78.3% 

Continued...

 
36 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper 

316 Cachar 69.7% 63.2% 75.5% 

317 Karimganj 76.9% 70.9% 82.0% 

318 Hailakandi 86.1% 83.1% 88.6% 

319 Bongaigaon 72.3% 64.9% 78.7% 

320 Chirang 81.6% 74.1% 87.3% 

321 Kamrup 61.2% 52.3% 69.4% 

322 Kamrup Metropolitan 17.4% 12.1% 24.4% 

323 Nalbari 64.4% 57.6% 70.7% 

324 Baksa 83.4% 76.9% 88.3% 

325 Darrang 81.8% 75.5% 86.7% 

326 Udalguri 85.9% 81.8% 89.2% 

327 Darjiling 43.1% 33.3% 53.4% 

328 Jalpaiguri 70.7% 63.8% 76.7% 

329 Koch Bihar 85.2% 81.0% 88.6% 

330 Uttar Dinajpur 87.6% 81.3% 92.0% 

331 Dakshin Dinajpur 87.1% 83.7% 89.9% 

332 Maldah 83.5% 76.6% 88.7% 

333 Murshidabad 80.0% 71.5% 86.5% 

334 Birbhum 82.4% 74.5% 88.3% 

335 Barddhaman 69.5% 62.4% 75.7% 

336 Nadia 70.8% 63.8% 77.0% 

337 North Twenty Four Parganas 46.2% 39.4% 53.0% 

338 Hugli 66.7% 59.4% 73.3% 

339 Bankura 83.1% 78.7% 86.7% 

340 Puruliya 92.1% 88.7% 94.6% 

341 Haora 51.0% 40.4% 61.5% 

342 Kolkata 5.8% 2.5% 13.0% 

343 South Twenty Four Parganas 77.2% 65.6% 85.8% 

344 Paschim Medinipur 85.7% 79.4% 90.3% 

345 Purba Medinipur 89.1% 84.4% 92.5% 

346 Garhwa 94.1% 90.8% 96.3% 

347 Chatra 89.2% 82.8% 93.4% 

348 Kodarma 68.9% 60.8% 76.1% 

349 Giridih 84.8% 79.2% 89.2% 

350 Deoghar 79.1% 71.7% 84.9% 

351 Godda 93.5% 91.1% 95.3% 

352 Sahibganj 87.9% 81.6% 92.3% 

353 Pakur 93.4% 88.6% 96.3% 

354 Dhanbad 79.2% 73.6% 83.8% 

355 Bokaro 73.1% 67.6% 77.9% 

356 Lohardaga 84.8% 81.3% 87.8% 

357 Purbi Singhbhum 58.3% 53.3% 63.1% 

358 Palamu 83.7% 80.0% 86.8% 

359 Latehar 94.8% 90.9% 97.1% 

360 Hazaribagh 81.7% 75.1% 86.8% 

361 Ramgarh 81.2% 76.9% 84.9% 

362 Dumka 90.6% 87.2% 93.1% 

363 Jamtara 95.8% 93.3% 97.4% 

364 Ranchi 60.0% 55.8% 64.0% 

365 Khunti 92.3% 87.7% 95.3% 

366 Gumla 89.3% 85.3% 92.3% 

367 Simdega 94.1% 91.1% 96.1% 

368 Pashchimi Singhbhum 89.7% 86.7% 92.1% 

369 Saraikela Kharsawan 74.2% 64.1% 82.3% 

370 Bargarh 86.4% 82.9% 89.3% 

371 Jharsuguda 70.9% 66.3% 75.1% 

372 Sambalpur 74.1% 68.7% 78.9% 

373 Debagarh 92.4% 89.6% 94.4% 

374 Sundargarh 72.6% 68.4% 76.5% 

375 Kendujhar 82.8% 74.1% 89.1% 

376 Mayurbhanj 89.3% 86.6% 91.5% 

377 Baleshwar 83.9% 79.5% 87.5% 

378 Bhadrak 88.2% 82.7% 92.1% 

Continued...

 
37 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

379 Kendrapara 85.5% 80.1% 89.6% 

380 Jagatsinghapur 85.9% 81.5% 89.4% 

381 Cuttack 64.9% 59.7% 69.8% 

382 Jajapur 83.1% 78.9% 86.6% 

383 Dhenkanal 78.6% 74.0% 82.5% 

384 Anugul 78.1% 70.1% 84.4% 

385 Nayagarh 77.4% 72.7% 81.5% 

386 Khordha 51.6% 46.3% 56.9% 

387 Puri 78.7% 73.0% 83.4% 

388 Ganjam 65.0% 59.3% 70.3% 

389 Gajapati 80.4% 74.7% 85.1% 

390 Kandhamal 93.3% 88.0% 96.4% 

391 Baudh 88.3% 82.5% 92.4% 

392 Subarnapur 86.4% 82.0% 89.9% 

393 Balangir 90.2% 87.4% 92.5% 

394 Nuapada 91.2% 86.4% 94.4% 

395 Kalahandi 92.7% 90.1% 94.6% 

396 Rayagada 82.5% 76.8% 87.0% 

397 Nabarangapur 90.3% 86.8% 93.0% 

398 Koraput 80.3% 75.3% 84.5% 

399 Malkangiri 94.1% 91.8% 95.8% 

400 Korea (Koriya) 80.8% 77.2% 83.9% 

401 Surguja 87.2% 83.2% 90.4% 

402 Jashpur 91.8% 88.2% 94.4% 

403 Raigarh 80.1% 75.9% 83.8% 

404 Korba 72.4% 68.4% 76.1% 

405 Janjgir - Champa 81.0% 74.2% 86.3% 

406 Bilaspur 71.4% 64.1% 77.7% 

407 Kabirdham 89.1% 84.6% 92.4% 

408 Rajnandgaon 80.3% 72.9% 86.0% 

409 Durg 63.0% 59.3% 66.5% 

410 Raipur 64.7% 61.3% 67.9% 

411 Mahasamund 86.7% 83.0% 89.8% 

412 Dhamtari 78.6% 72.0% 84.0% 

413 Uttar Bastar Kanker 84.7% 79.6% 88.6% 

414 Bastar 88.4% 84.2% 91.6% 

415 Narayanpur 87.9% 85.2% 90.2% 

416 Dakshin Bastar Dantewada 83.0% 77.4% 87.5% 

417 Bijapur 90.0% 86.4% 92.7% 

418 Sheopur 86.1% 82.3% 89.1% 

419 Morena 76.2% 68.1% 82.7% 

420 Bhind 81.4% 76.4% 85.5% 

421 Gwalior 41.4% 37.6% 45.3% 

422 Datia 78.2% 74.4% 81.6% 

423 Shivpuri 79.9% 77.5% 82.1% 

424 Tikamgarh 85.3% 81.2% 88.6% 

425 Chhatarpur 86.2% 80.4% 90.5% 

426 Panna 88.6% 84.7% 91.6% 

427 Sagar 82.0% 75.3% 87.2% 

428 Damoh 86.1% 81.8% 89.5% 

429 Satna 77.4% 72.4% 81.8% 

430 Rewa 86.3% 80.6% 90.5% 

431 Umaria 87.2% 78.2% 92.8% 

432 Neemuch 64.8% 58.7% 70.5% 

433 Mandsaur 70.4% 63.3% 76.6% 

434 Ratlam 65.7% 57.7% 72.9% 

435 Ujjain 52.4% 48.9% 55.9% 

436 Shajapur 74.1% 69.5% 78.1% 

437 Dewas 61.6% 55.4% 67.4% 

438 Dhar 64.4% 56.1% 72.0% 

439 Indore 14.4% 11.0% 18.6% 

440 Khargone (West Nimar) 67.0% 60.3% 73.1% 

441 Barwani 77.5% 70.0% 83.5% 

Continued... 

 
38 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

442 Rajgarh 81.2% 75.6% 85.8% 

443 Vidisha 81.6% 74.6% 86.9% 

444 Bhopal 22.1% 16.9% 28.3% 

445 Sehore 74.7% 68.7% 79.8% 

446 Raisen 72.9% 64.3% 80.0% 

447 Betul 71.9% 64.8% 78.0% 

448 Harda 68.7% 63.6% 73.4% 

449 Hoshangabad 65.0% 60.9% 68.9% 

450 Katni 80.9% 76.5% 84.7% 

451 Jabalpur 49.8% 45.4% 54.2% 

452 Narsimhapur 78.5% 69.6% 85.3% 

453 Dindori 95.3% 93.3% 96.7% 

454 Mandla 84.3% 80.3% 87.6% 

455 Chhindwara 73.9% 67.1% 79.7% 

456 Seoni 81.5% 75.1% 86.5% 

457 Balaghat 82.9% 77.5% 87.2% 

458 Guna 76.1% 71.8% 80.0% 

459 Ashoknagar 84.1% 78.3% 88.6% 

460 Shahdol 86.1% 81.7% 89.6% 

461 Anuppur 81.3% 75.1% 86.2% 

462 Sidhi 93.0% 86.8% 96.4% 

463 Singrauli 82.6% 74.6% 88.4% 

464 Jhabua 90.6% 84.8% 94.3% 

465 Alirajpur 87.3% 81.7% 91.3% 

466 Khandwa (East Nimar) 70.5% 64.6% 75.8% 

467 Burhanpur 53.8% 49.3% 58.2% 

468 Kachchh 56.7% 46.7% 66.3% 

469 Banaskantha 69.6% 61.5% 76.7% 

470 Patan 64.9% 57.9% 71.3% 

471 Mahesana 41.0% 34.5% 47.8% 

472 Sabarkantha 67.4% 57.8% 75.7% 

473 Gandhinagar 44.3% 34.8% 54.2% 

474 Ahmadabad 11.6% 8.5% 15.6% 

475 Surendranagar 61.4% 52.9% 69.2% 

476 Rajkot 31.5% 25.0% 38.8% 

477 Jamnagar 38.3% 30.8% 46.4% 

478 Porbandar 49.5% 42.9% 56.0% 

479 Junagadh 50.2% 41.0% 59.2% 

480 Amreli 46.2% 38.6% 54.0% 

481 Bhavnagar 50.9% 44.0% 57.8% 

482 Anand 54.0% 45.4% 62.4% 

483 Kheda 68.7% 58.5% 77.4% 

484 Panchmahal 73.4% 66.2% 79.6% 

485 Dohad 84.2% 76.8% 89.6% 

486 Vadodara 43.4% 36.6% 50.5% 

487 Narmada 83.4% 72.7% 90.4% 

488 Bharuch 46.1% 39.5% 52.9% 

489 The Dangs 90.7% 86.9% 93.4% 

490 Navsari 45.1% 38.3% 52.1% 

491 Valsad 40.1% 30.9% 50.1% 

492 Surat 14.2% 10.1% 19.7% 

493 Tapi 76.7% 71.7% 81.0% 

494 Diu 27.4% 21.8% 33.8% 

495 Daman 3.2% 1.5% 6.7% 

496 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 37.4% 32.4% 42.7% 

497 Nandurbar 77.7% 69.0% 84.4% 

498 Dhule 58.0% 51.8% 63.9% 

499 Jalgaon 44.7% 38.6% 50.8% 

500 Buldana 66.5% 61.2% 71.3% 

501 Akola 55.3% 50.2% 60.2% 

502 Washim 65.7% 59.4% 71.4% 

503 Amravati 49.4% 41.1% 57.7% 

504 Wardha 41.1% 35.6% 46.9% 

Continued... 

 
39 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

505 Nagpur 22.6% 17.1% 29.2% 

506 Bhandara 52.1% 43.0% 61.1% 

507 Gondiya 75.8% 70.1% 80.7% 

508 Gadchiroli 77.5% 71.8% 82.4% 

509 Chandrapur 52.2% 42.4% 61.7% 

510 Yavatmal 62.4% 55.1% 69.3% 

511 Nanded 66.9% 61.0% 72.3% 

512 Hingoli 74.1% 67.9% 79.5% 

513 Parbhani 72.8% 66.1% 78.7% 

514 Jalna 77.4% 71.2% 82.5% 

515 Aurangabad 42.4% 34.0% 51.4% 

516 Nashik 29.0% 20.7% 38.9% 

517 Thane 15.2% 12.1% 18.9% 

518 Mumbai Suburban 2.2% 1.0% 4.4% 

519 Mumbai 1.5% 0.2% 9.8% 

520 Raigarh 21.2% 13.0% 32.5% 

521 Pune 14.0% 9.7% 19.7% 

522 Ahmadnagar 38.1% 31.6% 45.0% 

523 Bid 70.7% 63.9% 76.6% 

524 Latur 64.7% 58.6% 70.4% 

525 Osmanabad 62.1% 55.5% 68.4% 

526 Solapur 46.9% 42.2% 51.7% 

527 Satara 41.3% 35.3% 47.5% 

528 Ratnagiri 64.8% 56.1% 72.6% 

529 Sindhudurg 60.4% 53.0% 67.3% 

530 Kolhapur 35.1% 27.2% 43.8% 

531 Sangli 34.8% 28.9% 41.2% 

532 Adilabad 59.3% 52.4% 65.7% 

533 Nizamabad 42.1% 35.5% 48.9% 

534 Karimnagar 28.0% 23.8% 32.6% 

535 Medak 49.9% 42.2% 57.7% 

536 Hyderabad 3.4% 1.4% 8.4% 

537 Rangareddy 13.0% 8.9% 18.6% 

538 Mahbubnagar 51.5% 43.8% 59.3% 

539 Nalgonda 38.6% 31.3% 46.4% 

540 Warangal 37.4% 31.8% 43.4% 

541 Khammam 29.4% 23.9% 35.6% 

542 Srikakulam 61.7% 54.3% 68.6% 

543 Vizianagaram 51.7% 44.8% 58.5% 

544 Visakhapatnam 43.6% 38.2% 49.2% 

545 East Godavari 48.9% 42.2% 55.7% 

546 West Godavari 36.7% 30.7% 43.2% 

547 Krishna 26.0% 21.3% 31.4% 

548 Guntur 19.2% 14.4% 25.2% 

549 Prakasam 33.5% 27.2% 40.4% 

550 Sri Potti Sriramulu Nellore 41.7% 34.8% 48.8% 

551 Y.S.R. 26.0% 21.1% 31.7% 

552 Kurnool 35.1% 27.5% 43.5% 

553 Anantapur 33.2% 28.7% 38.1% 

554 Chittoor 38.5% 32.7% 44.6% 

555 Belgaum 52.5% 46.9% 58.0% 

556 Bagalkot 66.2% 59.2% 72.6% 

557 Bijapur 70.6% 64.0% 76.4% 

558 Bidar 68.3% 61.3% 74.5% 

559 Raichur 71.2% 65.2% 76.6% 

560 Koppal 65.7% 58.3% 72.4% 

561 Gadag 74.5% 69.5% 79.0% 

562 Dharwad 41.9% 33.0% 51.4% 

563 Uttara Kannada 50.6% 43.1% 58.0% 

564 Haveri 63.9% 56.6% 70.5% 

565 Bellary 50.2% 40.7% 59.7% 

566 Chitradurga 58.8% 52.0% 65.4% 

567 Davanagere 43.8% 35.4% 52.6% 

Continued... 

 
40 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

568 Shimoga 37.4% 29.1% 46.5% 

569 Udupi 53.8% 48.5% 59.1% 

570 Chikmagalur 48.8% 41.5% 56.2% 

571 Tumkur 55.6% 48.4% 62.6% 

572 Bangalore 3.9% 2.3% 6.5% 

573 Mandya 44.2% 37.5% 51.1% 

574 Hassan 45.4% 38.9% 52.0% 

575 Dakshina Kannada 45.1% 39.8% 50.5% 

576 Kodagu 52.1% 45.2% 58.9% 

577 Mysore 32.2% 25.3% 39.9% 

578 Chamarajanagar 61.4% 54.4% 68.0% 

579 Gulbarga 63.5% 56.8% 69.6% 

580 Yadgir 81.1% 74.7% 86.2% 

581 Kolar 39.1% 32.4% 46.2% 

582 Chikkaballapura 50.1% 43.2% 57.0% 

583 Bangalore Rural 31.6% 26.4% 37.3% 

584 Ramanagara 43.7% 37.0% 50.7% 

585 North Goa 15.2% 11.0% 20.8% 

586 South Goa 11.6% 8.2% 16.1% 

587 Lakshadweep 53.8% 43.9% 63.5% 

588 Kasaragod 47.0% 42.8% 51.2% 

589 Kannur 43.4% 37.2% 49.9% 

590 Wayanad 66.6% 60.3% 72.3% 

591 Kozhikode 48.0% 40.5% 55.7% 

592 Malappuram 54.1% 46.2% 61.8% 

593 Palakkad 49.3% 38.5% 60.2% 

594 Thrissur 32.3% 28.0% 37.0% 

595 Ernakulam 20.1% 15.4% 25.8% 

596 Idukki 52.8% 45.5% 60.0% 

597 Kottayam 37.4% 30.5% 44.8% 

598 Alappuzha 35.7% 29.5% 42.4% 

599 Pathanamthitta 42.0% 37.6% 46.6% 

600 Kollam 39.6% 35.2% 44.1% 

601 Thiruvananthapuram 47.3% 39.2% 55.6% 

602 Thiruvallur 10.9% 7.8% 14.9% 

603 Chennai 1.4% 0.6% 3.4% 

604 Kancheepuram 11.9% 8.5% 16.3% 

605 Vellore 20.9% 15.2% 28.1% 

606 Tiruvannamalai 32.8% 25.0% 41.7% 

607 Viluppuram 41.2% 34.9% 47.9% 

608 Salem 21.0% 14.8% 28.9% 

609 Namakkal 12.9% 9.6% 17.2% 

610 Erode 9.9% 7.3% 13.3% 

611 The Nilgiris 23.7% 18.3% 30.2% 

612 Dindigul 31.8% 24.6% 40.1% 

613 Karur 19.1% 13.0% 27.2% 

614 Tiruchirappalli 25.1% 19.9% 31.2% 

615 Perambalur 35.0% 27.8% 43.0% 

616 Ariyalur 50.2% 42.8% 57.5% 

617 Cuddalore 45.4% 37.6% 53.4% 

618 Nagapattinam 38.1% 31.3% 45.5% 

619 Thiruvarur 54.9% 47.0% 62.5% 

620 Thanjavur 51.3% 44.2% 58.4% 

621 Pudukkottai 57.9% 49.9% 65.6% 

622 Sivaganga 41.7% 34.1% 49.6% 

623 Madurai 20.1% 14.7% 26.8% 

624 Theni 21.9% 15.6% 29.7% 

625 Virudhunagar 22.3% 16.6% 29.3% 

626 Ramanathapuram 40.5% 35.6% 45.6% 

627 Thoothukkudi 29.4% 22.3% 37.5% 

628 Tirunelveli 22.5% 17.2% 28.9% 

629 Kanniyakumari 38.3% 31.6% 45.5% 

630 Dharmapuri 23.7% 17.6% 31.3% 

Continued... 

 
41 

Appendix Table A.7—Continued

District ID District name Estimate Lower Upper

631 Krishnagiri 35.2% 28.7% 42.4% 

632 Coimbatore 12.0% 8.7% 16.3% 

633 Tiruppur 7.4% 5.1% 10.5% 

634 Yanam 6.9% 4.0% 11.7% 

635 Puducherry 12.2% 9.0% 16.3% 

636 Mahe 12.3% 9.1% 16.5% 

637 Karaikal 24.3% 19.4% 29.9% 

638 Nicobars 43.5% 35.1% 52.3% 

639 North & Middle Andaman 51.2% 43.7% 58.7% 

640 South Andaman 9.1% 6.2% 13.0% 

Appendix Table A.8 District-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, Nepal DHS 

2016 

Province District name Estimate Lower Upper 

Central Bagmati 33.3% 28.8% 37.6% 

Central Janakpur 88.3% 82.0% 92.3% 

Central Narayani 66.1% 57.4% 73.7% 

Eastern Koshi 61.0% 53.6% 67.2% 

Eastern Mechi 66.7% 56.4% 75.6% 

Eastern Sagarmatha 91.8% 85.0% 96.0% 

Far Western Mahakali 80.9% 73.4% 86.6% 

Far Western Seti 85.4% 78.6% 89.9% 

Mid Western Karnali 92.6% 85.8% 95.9% 

Mid Western Rapti 81.0% 71.6% 87.9% 

Mid Western Bheri 80.0% 71.1% 86.5% 

Western Dhawalagiri 92.9% 87.5% 95.8% 

Western Gandaki 54.3% 47.2% 60.9% 

Western Lumbini 65.2% 56.8% 72.2% 
42 

Appendix Table A.9 Province-level estimates of household use of solid fuel for cooking, the 

Philippines NDHS 2017 

Region Province ID Province name Estimate Lower Upper 

Autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 1 Lanao Del Sur 88.3% 77.8% 94.6% 

Autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 2 Sulu 94.6% 86.8% 98.5% 

Autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 3 Tawi-tawi 89.6% 76.0% 96.8% 

Cordillera Administrative region (CAR) 4 Abra 73.3% 63.1% 81.5% 

Cordillera Administrative region (CAR) 5 Apayao 82.9% 73.6% 89.5% 

Cordillera Administrative region (CAR) 6 Benguet 11.0% 6.9% 16.0% 

Cordillera Administrative region (CAR) 7 Ifugao 61.1% 53.0% 68.8% 

Cordillera Administrative region (CAR) 8 Kalinga 69.2% 61.5% 75.9% 

Cordillera Administrative region (CAR) 9 Mountain Province 44.1% 36.2% 52.1% 

National Capital region (NCR) 10 Metropolitan Manila 4.0% 2.9% 5.2% 

Region I (Ilocos region) 11 Ilocos Norte 47.4% 33.8% 60.5% 

Region I (Ilocos region) 12 Ilocos Sur 47.1% 36.5% 57.5% 

Region I (Ilocos region) 13 La Union 51.9% 38.8% 66.1% 

Region I (Ilocos region) 14 Pangasinan 56.7% 45.2% 67.3% 

Region II (Cagayan Valley) 15 Cagayan 66.5% 50.3% 78.9% 

Region II (Cagayan Valley) 16 Isabela 59.0% 46.1% 70.4% 

Region II (Cagayan Valley) 17 Nueva Vizcaya 61.8% 52.7% 69.9% 

Region II (Cagayan Valley) 18 Quirino 68.2% 59.0% 76.3% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 19 Bataan 19.2% 11.3% 29.1% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 20 Bulacan 15.6% 10.7% 21.5% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 21 Nueva Ecija 41.0% 29.1% 53.8% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 22 Pampanga 10.5% 7.3% 14.6% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 23 Tarlac 48.5% 40.5% 56.4% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 24 Zambales 43.6% 31.0% 56.1% 

Region III (Central Luzon) 25 Aurora 66.5% 49.3% 80.0% 

Region IV-A (Calabarzon) 26 Batangas 46.6% 21.6% 71.3% 

Region IV-A (Calabarzon) 27 Cavite 9.8% 6.5% 14.0% 

Region IV-A (Calabarzon) 28 Laguna 15.0% 9.9% 21.2% 

Region IV (Southern Tagalog) 29 Marinduque 74.2% 64.6% 82.3% 

Region IV (Southern Tagalog) 30 Mindoro Occidental 86.4% 73.6% 94.3% 

Region IV (Southern Tagalog) 31 Mindoro Oriental 66.8% 52.6% 78.3% 

Region IV (Southern Tagalog) 32 Palawan 84.9% 65.2% 95.0% 

Region IV-A (Calabarzon) 33 Quezon 61.9% 42.8% 76.6% 

Region IV-A (Calabarzon) 34 Rizal 12.3% 8.5% 16.9% 

Region IV (Southern Tagalog) 35 Romblon 80.0% 66.9% 89.5% 

Autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 36 Basilan 94.9% 90.1% 97.7% 

Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) 37 Zamboanga Del Norte 90.2% 80.9% 95.3% 

Region V (Bicol region) 38 Albay 70.4% 60.2% 79.1% 

Region V (Bicol region) 39 Camarines Norte 72.5% 61.9% 80.7% 

Region V (Bicol region) 40 Camarines Sur 61.1% 47.1% 72.8% 

Region V (Bicol region) 41 Catanduanes 72.3% 60.6% 82.0% 

Region V (Bicol region) 42 Masbate 89.9% 77.9% 96.6% 

Region V (Bicol region) 43 Sorsogon 77.0% 66.6% 85.2% 

Region VI (Western Visayas) 44 Aklan 82.7% 73.8% 89.4% 

Region VI (Western Visayas) 45 Antique 91.5% 83.8% 96.3% 

Region VI (Western Visayas) 46 Capiz 86.9% 79.8% 92.2% 

Region VI (Western Visayas) 47 Guimaras 90.6% 84.5% 94.6% 

Region VI (Western Visayas) 48 Iloilo 84.8% 77.0% 90.3% 

Region VI (Western Visayas) 49 Negros Occidental 78.1% 64.4% 86.4% 

Region VII (Central Visayas) 50 Bohol 86.7% 69.2% 95.8% 

Region VII (Central Visayas) 51 Cebu 55.6% 45.2% 64.0% 

Region VII (Central Visayas) 52 Negros Oriental 77.7% 62.3% 88.0% 

Region VII (Central Visayas) 53 Siquijor 85.6% 80.1% 90.3% 

Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 54 Biliran 65.2% 51.3% 76.8% 

Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 55 Eastern Samar 83.1% 68.5% 92.3% 

Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 56 Leyte 71.7% 58.0% 81.7% 

Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 57 Northern Samar 79.2% 67.5% 87.7% 

Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 58 Southern Leyte 84.2% 72.6% 92.3% 

Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 59 Samar 81.8% 67.9% 91.0% 

Region X (Northern Mindanao) 60 Bukidnon 77.8% 65.9% 86.6% 

Region X (Northern Mindanao) 61 Camiguin 83.0% 76.7% 88.0% 

Region X (Northern Mindanao) 62 Misamis Occidental 89.5% 81.1% 94.9% 

Region X (Northern Mindanao) 63 Misamis Oriental 71.8% 61.3% 80.4% 

Continued... 
43 

Appendix Table A.9—Continued

Region Province ID Province name Estimate Lower Upper 

Region XI (Davao Region) 64 Compostela 82.5% 73.3% 88.9% 

Region XI (Davao Region) 65 Davao del Norte 68.8% 60.7% 76.1% 

Region XI (Davao Region) 66 Davao Del Sur 69.1% 61.0% 76.2% 

Region XI (Davao Region) 67 Davao Oriental 89.1% 76.9% 95.8% 

Region XII (Soccsksargen) 68 Saranggani 88.2% 79.9% 93.8% 

Region XII (Soccsksargen) 69 South Cotabato 80.8% 73.1% 86.7% 

Region X (Northern Mindanao) 70 Lanao Del Norte 78.8% 69.8% 86.4% 

Region XII (Soccsksargen) 71 North Cotabato 91.8% 85.2% 96.0% 

Region XII (Soccsksargen) 72 Sultan Kudarat 89.6% 82.5% 94.3% 

Region XIII (Caraga) 73 Agusan Del Norte 66.9% 58.1% 74.5% 

Region XIII (Caraga) 74 Agusan Del Sur 87.5% 79.3% 93.2% 

Region XIII (Caraga) 75 Surigao Del Sur 80.1% 68.0% 89.1% 

Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) 76 Zamboanga Sibugay 92.7% 85.8% 96.8% 

Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) 77 Zamboanga Del Sur 77.6% 63.6% 87.8% 

Region XIII (Caraga) 78 Dinagat 78.3% 70.0% 85.2% 

Region XIII (Caraga) 79 Surigao Del Norte 84.4% 70.6% 93.1% 

Autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 80 Maguindanao 93.2% 88.0% 96.6% 

Autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 81 Shariff Kabunsuan 83.4% 75.1% 89.3%