JULY 2002

Product No. 2002-L0490-002

INFORMATION BRIEF

U . S . DEP ARTMENT OF JUSTICE

Overview

Iodine crystals, which are used legally for a

variety of commercial and medical purposes,

frequently are used illegally to produce high quality

d-methamphetamine. The following ephedrine/

pseudoephedrine reduction method utilizes iodine

in the production process.

• Iodine/red phosphorus. The principal

chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, iodine,

and red phosphorus. The required hydriodic acid in

this variation of the hydriodic acid/red phosphorus

method is produced by the reaction of iodine in

water with red phosphorus. This method yields high

quality d-methamphetamine. Another iodine/red

phosphorus method, limited to small production

batches, is called the cold cook method because the

chemicals, instead of being heated, are placed in a

hot environment such as in direct sunlight.

The federal government regulates the sale of

iodine crystals, which are readily available for

legitimate use. However, it is illegal to import,

export, purchase, or sell iodine crystals in the United

States if they are used or intended to be used in the

production of methamphetamine. Methamphetamine

producers typically acquire iodine crystals through

theft or diversion, from Mexican criminal groups

in Methamphetamine Production

that smuggle iodine into the United States across

the U.S.–Mexico border, or by purchasing and

crystallizing iodine tincture, the sale of which is

not regulated in most U.S. states.

Iodine Used in

Methamphetamine

Production

Methamphetamine producers use iodine

crystals to produce hydriodic acid, the preferred

reagent in the ephedrine/pseudoephedrine reduction

method of d-methamphetamine production. A

reagent is a chemical used in reactions to convert a

precursor into a finished product. The reagent does

not become part of the finished product. The regulation of hydriodic acid by the Drug Enforcement

Administration (DEA) in 1993 rendered the chemical virtually unavailable in the United States.

Hydriodic acid can be produced by combining

iodine crystals with water and some form of phosphorus, including red phosphorus, hypophosphorous

acid, or phosphorous acid. In the methamphetamine

production process, iodine crystals may be used to

prepare hydriodic acid in a separate step or may be

introduced directly into the synthesis of the

methamphetamine.

NDIC

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2

Iodine in Methamphetamine Production

Iodine Production and

Availability

Iodine—called yodo in Spanish and black in

slang terms—is a naturally occurring element that is

commercially available as crystals or as a tincture.

Iodine crystals usually are available as bluish-black or

violet crystals that have a metallic luster. In its gaseous

state iodine is violet in color. Typically, iodine emits a

sharp, distinct odor. Iodine tincture—a solution of

iodine in alcohol—is widely available.

Iodine Tincture

Small-scale methamphetamine producers who are

unable to obtain iodine crystals occasionally

produce them from iodine tincture by mixing iodine

tincture with hydrogen peroxide. This is a timeconsuming process that yields a very small

amount of iodine crystals in relation to the amount

of tincture and hydrogen peroxide used.

Iodine tincture for human antiseptic use on wounds

and scrapes usually is sold in small quantities,

typically in 1-ounce bottles containing 2 percent

iodine. These small bottles are sold for $1 to $2.

“Strong” iodine tincture (7% concentration) for

veterinary use is sold in various sizes from 16-

ounce bottles to 50-gallon drums. A 16-ounce

bottle of strong iodine is sold for $4 to $6. The

primary ingredients in iodine tincture are ethyl

alcohol and water.

Iodine tincture is not regulated by law and is sold in

retail stores, pharmacies, and farm supply stores. It

can be obtained easily via the Internet from horse

and farm supply sites and online pharmacies.

Iodine crystals are widely available and have the

following legitimate uses:

• As a derivative used to make chemicals and

polymers, sanitation and cleaning compounds,

pharmaceuticals, nylon fibers, dyes and ink,

and photographic film

• As a developer to help crime scene

investigators discover latent fingerprints on

paper surfaces

• As a nutritional supplement in table salt

• As a common ingredient in dietary supplements

for livestock

• As an element in the production of electric

light bulbs

• As a water purification and swimming pool

sanitization chemical

• As a topical antiseptic for humans, horses,

and cattle after the crystals are made into

iodine tincture

Iodine crystals may be purchased from a

variety of businesses. Crystals typically are available for sale at chemical supply stores, feed and

tack stores, and veterinary clinics and suppliers.

Iodine also is widely available on the Internet. One

online pharmacy, for example, sells iodine crystals

in ounce quantities for approximately $14. One

pound of iodine crystals retails for approximately

$160. A rancher with a large farm typically may use

up to 2 ounces to treat a herd in 1 year. A methamphetamine producer, on the other hand, may use 2 to

4 pounds to produce 1 pound of methamphetamine.

Companies in several countries throughout the

world produce and sell iodine crystals commercially. Chilean companies were the world’s largest

producers of iodine in 2000, followed by Japanese

and U.S. companies. Overall, worldwide iodine

production increased from 13,726 tons in 1994 to

18,993 tons in 2000. Iodine crystal producers sell

the chemical to companies that either use iodine in

manufacturing processes or sell it wholesale.

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3

National Drug Intelligence Center

Legislation and Control

The Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control

Act of 1996 identifies iodine as a List II chemical.

DEA mandates that detailed records be kept for sales

of iodine crystals that exceed the threshold of 0.4

kilogram established in 2000. Anyone who sells a total

of 0.4 kilogram (13.98 ounces) of iodine crystals to an

individual, corporation, business, or other legal entity

in a 30-day reporting period must obtain data identifying the purchaser, keep records of the transactions for

2 years, and report any suspicious transactions to

DEA. This rule does not apply to iodine tinctures or

other iodine mixtures.

The possession, distribution, and use of listed

chemicals, including iodine, are subject to the

following prohibitions: 21 U.S.C. § 841(c)(1)–(3)

prohibits any person from knowingly or intentionally possessing or distributing a listed chemical

with the intent, knowledge, or belief that the

chemical will be used to manufacture a controlled

substance. It also prohibits a person from knowingly or intentionally evading established

recordkeeping or reporting requirements.

Feed Store Owner Convicted

On May 15, 2002, a federal jury convicted a feed

store owner in Sallisaw, Oklahoma, on 12 criminal

charges for selling iodine crystals to methamphetamine producers. The charges included conspiracy

to distribute listed chemicals, possession and

distribution of listed chemicals, conspiracy to

commit money laundering, and money laundering.

From January 1998 through September 2000, the

store owner purchased nearly 5,000 pounds of

iodine crystals at a cost of $8 per ounce and sold

the crystals for $50 per ounce to individuals from

Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma.

During the trial witnesses testified that the store

owner knew the crystals were to be used to manufacture methamphetamine.

Source: U.S. Attorney Eastern District of Oklahoma; Associated Press.

Further, 21 U.S.C. § 843(a)(7) prohibits any

person from knowingly or intentionally manufacturing, distributing, exporting, or importing any equipment, chemical product, or material that may be

used to manufacture a controlled substance or listed

chemical. The maximum penalties for each violation of 21 U.S.C. § 841(c)(1)–(3) or 21 U.S.C. §

843(a)(7) are 10 years’ imprisonment, a $250,000

fine, or both. Penalties are doubled for second or

subsequent convictions.

In California iodine sales and purchases are

subject to even more stringent regulation. Section

11107.1 of the California Health and Safety Code

requires recordkeeping of all iodine crystal sales

regardless of the amount, and sales are limited to 8

ounces of iodine in a 30-day period to any individual.

The seller must retain the original bill of sale for 3

years and maintain a record of sale that includes the

purchaser’s name, address, driver’s license number or

other state-issued identification number, license plate

number, and a description of how the purchaser will

use the iodine. Both the purchaser and seller must sign

the record. The purchaser must also maintain a record

for 3 years that includes the place and date of purchase, a description of the purchase, the quantity

purchased, and the cost of the purchase. The records

maintained by both the seller and purchaser must be

made available to law enforcement upon request. The

sale of iodine tincture in the amount of $100 or less is

exempt from these requirements.

Theft, Diversion, and

Smuggling

Law enforcement reporting indicates that the

theft and diversion of iodine crystals occur most

frequently in the western half of the United States,

particularly in states where methamphetamine

production and abuse are prevalent. Law enforcement officials in Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada,

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Oregon have reported

numerous incidents of iodine theft and diversion.

Most of these incidents occurred at businesses that

appear to be legitimate. Feed and tack stores, also

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Iodine in Methamphetamine Production

MSM As Cutting Agent

MSM is commonly used as a nutritional supplement

for horses and humans. Methamphetamine produced

in Mexico and southwestern states commonly is cut

with MSM—a white powder with a low melting point

(109°C). It is highly soluble and readily mixes with

most substances without leaving a residue, making it

a suitable cutting agent for methamphetamine.

Individuals attempting to divert iodine to

produce methamphetamine may exhibit one or more

of the following suspicious behaviors:

• Customer does not have a legitimate reason to

purchase iodine or cannot justify the quantity

requested.

• Customer purchases iodine crystals for animal

use but has little knowledge of horses, cattle,

or other livestock.

• Customer resists providing personal

information.

• Customer repeatedly purchases the maximum

amount permitted by law at the shortest interval

permitted.

• Customer simultaneously purchases iodine and

other products that are used to produce methamphetamine such as acetone, alcohol, camp stove

fuel, ether, drain cleaner, muriatic acid, rock

salt, road flares, unusual quantities of matches,

or the cutting agent MSM.

• Customer purchases over 4 fluid ounces of

iodine tincture and purchases hydrogen

peroxide at the same time.

Methamphetamine producers also obtain

iodine crystals from Mexican criminal groups that

smuggle the crystals from Mexico into the United

States. U.S. Customs Service (USCS) seizures of

iodine at ports of entry (POEs) along the U.S.–

Mexico border increased from approximately 780

kilograms in 2000 to approximately 2,140 kilograms

in 2001. Most seizures occurred in Southern California at the San Ysidro and Otay Mesa POEs. Seizures

also were made at POEs in Arizona and Texas.

Hazards Associated

With Iodine

Iodine is a potentially dangerous chemical that

can cause serious injury if handled improperly. This

poses particular concerns for law enforcement

officers or civilians who encounter iodine at

methamphetamine production sites. If iodine comes

in contact with the skin it can result in painful

irritation and chemical burns. Contact with the eyes

can cause redness, burns, and permanent damage.

Inhalation of iodine gas can lead to respiratory

problems or even death. Iodine has sufficient vapor

pressure to allow toxic levels of iodine gas to build up

in a closed container. Law enforcement officials should

open containers of iodine in a well-ventilated area

while wearing appropriate respiratory protection.

Irritation can occur before the odor is detected.

Law enforcement officers who come into contact

with iodine crystals should exercise extreme caution

when handling, storing, or transporting the chemical.

Boots, gloves, eye protection, and respiratory gear

should be worn when exposure to iodine is likely.

Although iodine alone is not flammable, it is a strong

oxidizer that can ignite or cause explosions when

mixed with other combustibles or reducing agents such

as alkali metals, ammonia, and phosphorus. Iodine

should be stored in a tightly sealed container in a cool,

dry area away from direct sunlight, drastic temperature

changes, and chemical substances that react violently

when mixed with iodine.

primary sources for the cutting agent MSM

(methylsulfonylmethane), are particular targets.

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National Drug Intelligence Center

Outlook

The use of iodine in methamphetamine production is likely to increase. Iodine is readily available, and

its chemical properties allow it to be converted easily

into hydriodic acid, the preferred reagent in the illicit

production of d-methamphetamine. Federal and state

chemical control laws, which include reporting rules,

maximum purchase thresholds, and sentencing guidelines, are effective tools that law enforcement officials

may use to counter this threat. As states continue to

develop more stringent regulations regarding the sale

and purchase of iodine crystals, methamphetamine

producers increasingly will attempt to obtain iodine

crystals through theft, diversion, or from Mexican

criminal groups that smuggle iodine across the

Southwest Border into the United States. Producers

may also acquire larger quantities of iodine tincture

and convert it to crystals.

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Iodine in Methamphetamine Production

Sources

Arizona Attorney General’s Office

Associated Press

California Health and Safety Code

Executive Office of the President

Office of National Drug Control Policy

High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas

National Methamphetamine Chemical Initiative

Journal of the Clandestine Laboratory Investigating Chemists Association

Mallinckrodt Baker Inc., www.jtbaker.com

Roskill Report on Metals and Minerals, www.roskill.co.uk

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

U.S. Customs Service

U.S. Department of Justice

Drug Enforcement Administration

Diversion Control Program

U.S. Attorney’s Office

Eastern District of Oklahoma

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National Drug Intelligence Center

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Iodine in Methamphetamine Production

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