DEMOGRAPHIC

AND

HEALTH

SURVEYS

DHS WORKING PAPERS

2016 No. 124

Soladoye Sunday Asa

Ayotunde Titilayo

Joseph Ayodeji Kupoluyi

July 2016

This document was produced for review by the United States Agency for

International Development.

An Assessment of Contraceptive Use by Marriage Type 

among Sexually Active Men in Nigeria: 

Analysis of the 2013 Demographic and Health Survey

An Assessment of Contraceptive Use by Marriage Type 

among Sexually Active Men in Nigeria: 

Analysis of the 2013 Demographic and Health Survey

Soladoye Sunday Asa1

Ayotunde Titilayo1,2

Joseph Ayodeji Kupoluyi1

ICF International 

Rockville, Maryland, USA 

July 2016 

1 Department of Demography and Social Statistics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

2 Post-Doctoral Scholar at Population Training and Research Unit, North-West University, Mafikeng, South 

Africa

Corresponding author: Titilayo Ayotunde, Department of Demography and Social Statistics and Obafemi 

Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria; E-mail: liasuayotunde@gmail.com and titilayoa@oauife.edu.ng.
Acknowledgments 

The authors are grateful to ICF International for choosing us to become DHS Fellows in 2016 and 

to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) for funding the DHS Fellows 

Program. We appreciate the different training opportunities given to us, including the chance to 

apply the knowledge we have gained to this manuscript. Our training facilitators, Wenjuan Wang 

and Shireen Assaf, have been exceptional and painstaking in their responses to our queries both 

during the training workshops and our work online. We particularly appreciate the guidance and 

support given in the analysis of the data and in the shaping of the final manuscript. We also want 

to place on record the value of comments, contributions, and reviews of Kerry MacQuarrie as well 

as those of Bryant Robey and Nancy Johnson, who edited and reviewed, and Natalie La Roche, 

who formatted, the manuscript. Thanks also go to Arlene Iriho, the program coordinator, for 

handling all communications and other necessary logistics of the program. 

We further acknowledge Damian Jeremia Damian, Simona Simona, and Elizabeth Nansubuga, 

former DHS fellows and co-facilitators, for their assistance during training, and we thank the other 

fellows from Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, and Zambia for comments during our presentations. 

Finally, we appreciate the opportunity given to us by the Department of Demography and Social 

Statistics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, to participate in the 2016 DHS Fellows 

Program. 

Editor: Bryant Robey 

Document Production: Natalie La Roche 

The DHS Working Papers series is a prepublication series of papers reporting on research in 

progress that is based on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) data. This research is carried 

out with support provided by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 

through The DHS Program (#AIDOAA-C-13-00095). The views expressed are those of the 

authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. 

The DHS Program assists countries worldwide in the collection and use of data to monitor and 

evaluate population, health, and nutrition programs. For additional information about The DHS 

Program, contact DHS Program, ICF International, 530 Gaither Road, Suite 500, Rockville, MD 

20850, USA. Phone: +1 301-407-6500; Fax: +1 301-407-6501; Email: reports@dhsprogram.com; 

Internet: www.dhsprogram.com. 

Recommended citation: 

Asa, S.S., A. Titilayo, and J. A. Kupoluyi. 2016. An Assessment of Contraceptive Use by 

Marriage Type among Sexually Active Men in Nigeria: Analysis of the 2013 Demographic and 

Health Survey. DHS Working Papers No. 124. Rockville, Maryland, USA: ICF International.
iii 

Abstract 

Lowering fertility levels and improving maternal and child health in sub-Saharan Africa has been 

a policy objective for decades. Most efforts have focused on women, with little or no involvement 

of men. The type of marriage, however, has rarely been considered as a possible factor that could 

influence contraceptive use, and therefore could have an effect on fertility and reproductive health. 

This study thus assesses contraceptive use by sexually active men among three marriage types—

singles, polygamous, and monogamous. The study was based on data on sexually active men age 

15-49 sampled in the 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS). The study showed 

that, overall, 30% of the sampled population were currently using contraception, with condom use 

as the dominant method (66%). The level of contraceptive use was significantly higher among 

sexually active single men, at 68%, compared with 19% among monogamous married men and 

9% among polygamous men. Other factors influencing contraceptive use among sexually active 

men included wealth status, educational attainment, ethnicity, region, religion, and age. The study 

concluded that in view of the wide variation in contraceptive use by marriage type in Nigeria, 

efforts to increase contraceptive prevalence should give more consideration to policies and 

programs that promote consistent use of contraceptives particularly among married men. 

 

1 

1. Introduction 

Generally, studies of the relationships among contraceptive use, fertility desires, and marital union 

have shown that male participation is paramount for a successful outcome for reproductive health 

programs, especially family planning. Prevention of high-risk, mistimed, and unwanted 

pregnancies and childbirth in order to improve maternal and child health, to reduce maternal 

deaths, and to regulate population growth are the bedrocks of family planning (Canning and 

Schultz 2012). Although Nigeria, as evident from the country’s various population policies, has 

embraced family planning as a method of controlling the high rate of population growth, the impact 

on fertility has not been impressive or encouraging (Federal Office of Statistics 2000; Okezie, 

Ogbe, and Okezie 2010). 

Lowering fertility levels and improving maternal and child health in sub-Saharan Africa has been 

an objective for a number of decades (NPC/UNICEF 2001; Alkema, Kantorova, Menozzi, and 

Biddlecom 2013). Despite the decline in fertility in developing countries, ongoing evidence in 

Nigeria suggests either a slow or stalled fertility instead, and consequential high rates of population 

growth (Shapiro and Gebreselassie 2007; Bongaarts 2008; Moultrie et al. 2008). Nigeria’s total 

fertility rate (TFR) ranged from 6.6 in 1965 to 7.0 in 1975 (Feyisetan and Bankole 2002) and was 

5.5 for the three years preceding the 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 

(NPopC and ICF International 2014). Figure 1 shows the trend in TFR in Nigeria from 1990 to 

2013. Fertility declined between 1990 and 1999 and then increased between 1999 and 2003, 

remaining stable until 2008. While fertility declined somewhat between 2008 and 2013, it remains 

at a very high level. 
2 

Figure 1: Trends in Total Fertility Rates in Nigeria (1990-2013) 

The majority of efforts and discussions on reproductive health, and particularly on fertility, 

contraceptive use, and family planning have centered on women for many years (Becker 1996; 

Oyediran, Ishola, and Feyisetan 2002). Unfortunately, these efforts have not been able to achieve 

the lower fertility levels that they sought. One of the reasons is resistance from male spouses 

(Shattuck et al. 2011). Men, until recently, have been seen as not relevant in matters of reproductive 

health (Collumbien and Hawkes 2000; Akindele and Adebimpe 2013) and are not seen as partners 

in family planning (Ijadunola et al. 2010). Because only women were considered relevant to the 

issue of contraceptive use, the responsibilities, designs, and strategies of family planning programs 

thereby focused on women (Dewi 2009), despite the importance and relevance of men in other 

family matters. 

Men’s support affects the general use and correct use of family planning (Nasir, Tahir, and Zaidi, 

2010; Ijadunola et al. 2010). The support and contribution of both spouses in making family 

decisions, particularly in reproductive health matters, are crucial to achieving a meaningful 

outcome. Little or no involvement of men in family planning programs has been shown to be one 

of the reasons for the persistently high population growth in Africa (Ityai, Dover, and 

Ulinigumugabo 2000). It is therefore of interest to examine those factors that could influence 

5.9

5.4

5.2

5.7 5.7

5.5

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

1990NDHS 1994Sentinel 1999NDHS 2003NDHS 2008NDHS 2013NDHS
3 

contraceptive use among sexually active males in the context of the complex and multifaceted 

array of marriage types in Nigeria. 

Family structure has a lot to do with cultural and societal values (Hayase and Liaw 1997; Olomola 

2013). In varying degree, polygamy seems to be the norm in most African societies, with some 

45% to 55% of women living in polygamous family settings (Kuper 1982; CPS/MS and DNSI 

2007; Bove, Vala-Haynes, and Valeggia 2014). Jacoby (1995) stressed that it is common for more 

than one-third of women in some African countries to be in polygamous family settings. 

The effect of family structure has been observed over time. Many reports conclude that the system 

of plural marriage has diverse negative effects on reproductive health and other family outcomes 

(Larsen 1995; Amey 2002; Gibson and Mace 2007; Gyimah 2009; Uthman, Lawoko, and Moradi 

2010; Olomola 2013). However, other researchers report that polygamous marital unions increase 

the chances of achieving the desired number of children (Boserup 1970; Adams and Mburugu 

1994; Batchelor, Watson, and Wilde 2000). Comparing polygamous and monogamous family 

structures, polygamy was found to be associated with reduced levels of contraceptive use, despite 

the fact that the proportion of women who wanted to stop childbearing was higher among 

polygamous marriages than among monogamous unions. 

There is little information on the direct and indirect influence of marriage type on the use of 

contraceptives among sexually active men. Hence this study. Marriage type is conceptualized in 

this study as marital status and categorized as singlehood, monogamous, or polygamous. For this 

study, single men include those who were never married or formerly married. 

Research questions 

1. What is the pattern of contraceptive use among sexually active men in Nigeria? 

2. To what extent does marriage type influence contraceptive use among sexually active men? 

3. What other factors influence contraceptive use among sexually active men in Nigeria? 

Objectives 

1. Evaluate the pattern of contraceptive use by marriage type among sexually active men in 

Nigeria. 

2. Examine the influence of marriage type on contraceptive use among sexually active men. 

3. Determine the factors influencing contraceptive use among sexually active men in Nigeria. 

5 

2. Data and Methods 

2.1. Data 

The study was carried out using the cross-sectional 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 

(NDHS) dataset. The survey involved the use of a three-stage sampling technique. The whole 

country was divided into primary sampling units (PSUs), referred to as clusters, which were based 

on the 2006 enumeration areas (EAs) census frame. In all, a total of 904 were identified (372 and 

532 in urban and rural areas respectively). The first stage involved the use of probabilityproportionate-to-size (PPS) sampling to select 893 localities independently. In the second stage a 

complete listing of households was carried out for each cluster. This household listing served as 

the sampling frame for the selection of households to be interviewed. The third stage involved the 

random selection of 45 households from each urban and rural cluster using equal probability 

systematic sampling. A sub-sample of half of the households selected was done, and all men age 

15-49 in the households (either permanent residents or visitors who were present on the night 

before the survey) were eligible to be interviewed (NPopC and ICF International 2014). 

With the aim of measuring the levels, patterns, and trends of demographic, health and 

socioeconomic indicators, the NDHS provides current information on the population, health, and 

socioeconomic situation of the country. The Men’s Recode Data File was employed for this study. 

Since the study is based on the perspective of men, the data file includes all men age 15-49 

irrespective of marital status from at least half of the households selected for NDHS. Data from 

the Woman’s Questionnaire can only contain information about women themselves and their 

sexual partners, while the use of couples’ data will leave out sexually active single men. The target 

population of this study was sexually active men age 15-49 who had sex within the last 12 months 

before the 2013 NDHS. The total weighted number of respondents sampled for the study was 

11,476 men from all 904 clusters of the study area. This sub-sampled population constituted 66% 

of the total number of men (17,359 weighted) originally interviewed during the 2013 NDHS. 

Figure 2 below presents a stage-by-stage derivation of the target population used for this study. 
6 

Figure 2: Analysis of sample derivation 

*n=5,837 is made of the total number of respondents who never had sex, never had sex in the last 12 months, and 

missing responses. 

2.2. Key Variables and Measurements 

The outcome variable is current contraceptive use at last sex, categorized into used and not used. 

A number of independent and intervening variables were employed in the study, including age, 

place of residence, region of residence, educational attainment, wealth index, religion, 

occupational status, number of living children, and children ever born. Other variables studied are 

media exposure, type of contraceptive method, and desire for more children. The main independent 

variable is marriage type (categorized as single, monogamous, and polygamous). 

The aforementioned variables were categorized in the study as follows: age (15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 

30-34, 35-39, 40-44, 45-49); place of residence (urban, rural); region of residence (North Central, 

North East, North West, South East, South South, South West);educational attainment (no 

education, primary, secondary, higher); wealth status (poorest, poorer, middle, richer, richest); 

religion (Christian, Islam, traditional/others); occupational status (working, not working); number 

of living children (0, 1-4, 5+); children ever born (0, 1-2, 3-4, 5+); media exposure (exposed, not 

Total men age 15-49 sampled 

n=17,359 

Men sexually active in 

the last 12 months 

(n=11,522)

Weighted sample size =11,476 

Men not sexually active 

in the last 12 months 

(n=5,837)* 
7 

exposed), and recoded from the original measure of exposure to television, newspaper, and radio. 

Type of contraceptive method(not using, condom, other modern methods, traditional, and 

folkloric), recoded from the list of methods; fertility desire (want no more, want more within 2 

years, want more after 2 years, undecided, want more, unsure timing, have no partner). 

2.3. Conceptual Framework 

The conceptual framework includes both direct influences on contraceptive use (marriage type) 

and indirect influences (socio-demographic characteristics through family structure, and through 

family structure mediated by intervening factors). In order to evaluate the pattern of contraceptive 

use categorized into used and not used, the conceptual framework examines the distribution of 

type of contraceptive use among current users among sexually active men age 15-49. The 

framework also presents an examination of contraceptive use as a direct function of marriage type. 

This will present a distribution of the pattern of contraceptive use among the different categories 

by marriage type. 

Beyond examining the bivariate relationship between marriage type and contraceptive use, the 

study also examined the odds of using contraceptives among the respondents in the different 

categories of marriage type. Furthermore, the indirect influence of marriage type on contraceptive 

use was examined. Finally, the framework presents a link to determine other factors influencing 

contraceptive use. 

Figure 3: Conceptual framework showing the direct and indirect influence of family structure on 

contraceptive use among sexually active men age 15-49 in Nigeria 

MARRIAGE TYPE 

• MONOGAMY 

• POLYGAMY 

• SINGLE 

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC 

FACTORS 

• AGE 

• MARITAL STATUS 

• EDUCATION 

• WEALTH INDEX 

• RELIGION 

• OCCUPATION 

• PLACE OF RESIDENCE 

• REGION 

• ETHNICITY 

CONTRACEPTIVE USE AT 

LAST SEX 

• USED 

• NOT USED 

INTERVENING FACTORS

• MEDIA EXPOSURE 

• DESIRED FERTILITY 

• CHILDREN EVER BORN 

• NUMBER OF LIVING CHILDREN 
8 

2.4. Statistical Analysis 

Three levels of statistical analysis were employed—univariate, bivariate, and multivariate. The 

descriptive statistical technique was employed at the univariate level to describe the background 

characteristics of sexually active men age 15-49 and whether they used contraception or did not 

use contraception at the last sex. This involved the use of frequencies and percentages and, where 

necessary, a description of the measures of central tendency and dispersion. Men’s sample weights 

and the STATA survey command (SVY) were applied to adjust for stratified sample design and 

the effect of oversampling or undersampling of some regions or areas. 

Using inferential statistics involved the use of bivariate and multivariate levels of statistical 

analysis. The Pearson‘s Chi-square test was employed at the bivariate level to examine the 

association between the response variable (contraceptive use) and explanatory variables (sociodemographic characteristics, marriage type structure, and intervening factors). A p<0.05 was set 

to establish significance of any association. All tabulations were weighted using the men’s sample 

weight created in the study. 

The multivariate level of analysis employed for this study involved the use of binary logistic 

regression. This is appropriate for a dichotomous outcome variable. For this study, two paths have 

been specified for examination, namely the unadjusted model (Model 1) and the adjusted models 

(Model 2 and Model 3). Model 1 examines the relationship between contraceptive use and 

marriage type. The model is employed to answer the second research question. Model 2 includes 

marriage type and the intervening variables, while Model 3 includes socio-demographic, marriage 

type, and intervening factors. Models 2 and 3 were used to explain if there is any statistically 

significant variation in the odds of contraceptive use among the different categories of marriage 

type, as a further analysis toward the realization of the second objective. The odds of using 

contraceptives were examined along with their statistical significance. Categories were taken to be 

significant if p<0.05. Confidence intervals at 95% were also presented. To answer the third 

research question, other predictor variables (socio-demographic and intervening) that are 

statistically associated with the outcome variable (contraceptive use) were examined using binary 

logistic regression. 

Tests for collinearity among the predictor variables were examined using the variance inflation 

factor (VIF). Significantly correlated predictor variables (VIF>0.5) were retained in the logistic 

model. Predictor variables such as number of living children, living status (whether with a partner 

or not), and number of sexual partners were excluded from the analysis. Data were analyzed using 

STATA 12. 
9 

3. Results 

3.1. Description of Respondents 

This section of the paper presents the background characteristics of the respondents—the sample 

of sexually active men age 15-49. As Table 1 shows, about a quarter (26%) of respondents were 

single men, while monogamists and polygamists constituted 62% and 13% respectively. The age 

distribution of respondents reflects the general age structure of the country—a youthful population. 

The mean age of respondents was 33.4 years, with a standard deviation of 8.6 years. Seven of 

every 10 respondents were under age 40. 

More than half (57%) of the respondents were from the Northern part of the country, while 43% 

were distributed among the three Southern parts of the country. Rural residents were a larger 

proportion than urban residents (58.5% versus 41.5%). By educational attainment, 42% of the 

respondents had no formal education or had only a primary education, while 41% had a secondary 

education and 17% a higher education. The percentage distribution by wealth status follows an 

ascending pattern—the higher the wealth status, the higher the percentage of respondents in the 

group. Respondents in the poorest category constituted 16% of the sampled population, while the 

richest group constituted 26% (Table 1). 

 
10 

Table 1: Percent distribution of sexually active men age 15-49 by background characteristics, 

Nigeria 2013 DHS (N=11,476) 

Background characteristics Percent Total 

Marriage type 

Singlehood 

Monogamous 

Polygamous 

25.6 

61.8 

12.7 

2935 

7087 

1454 

Age 

15-19 3.7 425 

20-24 12.1 1384 

25-29 18.4 2110 

30-34 18.7 2149 

35-39 18.0 2049 

40-44 14.8 1702 

45-49 14.3 1642 

Educational attainment 

No education 

Primary 

Secondary 

Higher 

23.3 

18.7 

40.8 

17.2 

2673 

2147 

4682 

1974 

Place of residence 

Urban 

Rural 

41.5 

58.5 

4768 

6708 

Region of residence 

North Central 

North East 

North West 

South East 

South South 

South West 

16.4 

14.2 

26.5 

 9.2 

16.1 

17.6 

1884 

1623 

3040 

1058 

1848 

2022 

Wealth status 

Poorest 

Poorer 

Middle 

Richer 

Richest 

16.3 

17.4 

18.2 

21.8 

26.3 

1874 

1999 

2083 

2500 

3021 

Religion 

Christianity 

Islam 

Traditional/others 

50.7 

48.0 

 1.3 

5794 

5481 

144 

Occupational status 

Working 

Not working 

93.4 

 6.6 

10648 

751 

Ethnicity 

Hausa/Fulani 28.8 3305 

Igbo/Ibo 13.2 1518 

Yoruba 14.6 1677 

Others 43.4 4976 

Children ever born 

0 

1-2 

30.0 

23.1 

3447 

2653 

3-4 19.3 2213 

5+ 27.6 3163 

(Continues...)
11 

Table 1−Continued

Background characteristics Percent Total 

Media exposure (TV, radio, newspapers) 

No exposure 

Exposed 

31.7 

68.3 

3655 

7867 

Fertility desire1

Want no more 

Want more within 2 years 

Want more after 2 years 

Want more unsure timing 

Undecided 

Have no partner(s) 

8.9 

26.5 

30.1 

5.4 

3.6 

25.6 

1022 

3040 

3448 

619 

412 

2935 

Number of living children 

0 

1-4 

5+ 

31.0 

46.3 

22.7 

3561 

5311 

2604 

Living status 

Living with partner 94.2 8021 

Not living with partner 5.8 495 

Number of sexual partners (excluding spouse) 

0 70.3 8049 

1 or 2 24.4 2791 

2+ 5.4 617 

Contraceptive use 

Not using 

Pill 

IUD 

Injections 

Diaphragm 

Condom 

Female sterilization 

Male sterilization 

Periodic abstinence 

Withdrawal 

Other 

Implants/Norplant 

Lactational amenorrhea (LAM) 

Female condom 

Foam or jelly 

Other modern method 

70.0 

1.8 

0.3 

1.5 

0.0 

20.0 

 0.1 

0.0 

2.5 

3.1 

0.5 

0.2 

0.2 

0.0 

0.0 

0.1 

8049 

210 

38 

174 

04 

2287 

06 

01 

282 

354 

61 

19 

17 

04 

02 

14 

1 missing value excluded 

Half of the respondents identified with the Christian faith, while 48% were of the Islamic faith, 

and 2% followed traditional or other religions. The great majority (93%) of the respondents were 

working, while the remaining 7% reported not working at the time of the survey. About 7 in every 

10 respondents had exposure to the media. 

Examining fertility desired, nearly two-thirds (62%) of the sexually active men in Nigeria reported 

wanting more children, though with variation in timing—27% wanted more children within 2 years 

of the period of the survey, and 30% wanted more children after 2 years, while 5% were unsure 

about the timing. As at the time of the survey about a third (30%) of the respondents had no living 
12 

children, while more than half (54%) had 1-4 living children. The mean number of living children 

was about four. The distribution of contraceptive use among the respondents revealed that 7of 

every 10 (70%) sexually active men did not use contraceptives at last sex, while 30% used at least 

one of the methods of contraception, as Table 1 shows. 

3.2. Contraceptive Use at Last Sex 

Figure 4 shows that among those who used contraceptives at last sex, the condom was the dominant 

method, at 66%. Respondents who used traditional methods (withdrawal and abstinence) 

constituted 18%, and folkloric methods 2%. Respondents who reported the use of other modern 

contraceptive methods accounted for 14% of total contraceptive use at last sex among the 

respondents using any contraceptive method. Other modern contraceptive methods include the pill, 

IUD, injectables, and other methods chosen by women. 

Figure 4: Pattern of contraceptive use at last sex 

Figure 5 shows the pattern of contraceptive use by marriage type among the sample population. 

There is a statistically significant relationship (p<0.05) between marriage type and contraceptive 

use. Over half (55%) of unmarried respondents (singles) used condoms. Condom use remains the 

dominant method of contraception among single persons and monogamists. Polygamists were 

more likely to use the withdrawal method compared with singles or monogamists. Withdrawal is 

noted to have the second-highest failure rate (27%), after spermicides (29%) (Understanding Your 

Risks 2016), and hence the possibility of higher fertility among polygamists. For every 10 

polygamists, 9 did not use any method of contraception, while about one-third of singles did not 

use contraceptives. About 5% of monogamist men reported the use of other modern contraceptive 

methods. 

65.9

18.3

1.8

14.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Condom Traditional Folkloric Other modern

methods

Percent of respondents (%)

Contraceptive Methods
13 

Figure 5: Marriage type and contraceptive use at last sex among sexually active men 15-49 in 

Nigeria, NDHS 2013 

3.3. Contraceptive Use at Last Sex by Men’s Characteristics 

An examination of the contraceptive use by age of respondents revealed a statistically significant 

association (p<0.05) between age and contraceptive use. As age increases, the number of 

respondents using contraceptives decreases. As Table 2 shows, about one-fifth (19%) of 

respondents age 45-49 were currently using contraceptives compared with about half (51%) of 

respondents age 15-19. The level of education had a statistically significant association with 

contraceptive use. As the level of education increases, the proportion of respondents who are 

currently using contraceptives increases. Among respondents with no education, only 7% were 

currently using contraceptives compared with 48% of respondents with tertiary education. 

An examination of contraceptive use and wealth status also revealed a statistically significant 

association. Among respondents in the richest category, 48% were currently using contraceptives 

compared with 3% in the poorest category. About 70% of respondents in the middle wealth 

category were not currently using a contraceptive method at the time of the survey. Religious 

affiliation also had a statistically significant association with contraceptive use. Among 

respondents who practice Christianity, 44% were currently using contraceptives, while among 

respondents who belong to the Islamic faith, 16% were currently using contraceptives. 

90.6

1.9

5

0.7

1.8

81.4

6.9

6.8

0.5

4.5

31.8

55.2

9

0.2

3.8

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Not Using

Condom

Traditional (Withdrawal/Abstinence)

Fokloric

Other modern methods

Contraceptive Use

Single Monogamous Polygamous
14 

There is a statistically significant association between respondents’ occupational status and 

contraceptive use. Among working respondents 28% were currently using contraception compared 

with 67% of respondents who were not working at the time of the survey. Region of the country 

was also found to be statistically significant with contraceptive use among sexually active men age 

15-49. South West residents recorded the highest proportion of current contraceptive use, at 47%, 

while only 10% of respondents in the North East were currently using contraceptives. 

Contraceptive use showed a statistically significant association by ethnicity. Less than one-tenth 

(7%) of Hausa/Fulani respondents were currently using contraceptives. The Yorubas constitute the 

highest proportion of current users (51%), followed by the Igbos (44%). A statistically significant 

association exists between media exposure and contraceptive use. Nearly half (45%) of 

respondents who had media exposure were currently using contraceptives compared with about a 

quarter (24%) of respondents who were not exposed to media. 

There is a statistically significant association between fertility desire and contraceptive use. 

Respondents who wanted no more children were much more likely to be using contraception 

compared with those who wanted more children, either within 2 years or after 2 years. Table 2, 

however, also shows that only about one-third (37%) of respondents who said they wanted no 

more children were currently using contraceptives. Also, only 17% of men who said they wanted 

to delay having more children at least 2 years were currently using contraceptives. Thus, a majority 

of respondents who did not want to have children in the near future, or at all, were not using 

contraception. This level of unmet need for family planning constitutes a substantial risk factor for 

unwanted pregnancies, and thus for an increase in fertility beyond the desired level. 

 
15 

Table 2: Percent distribution of socio-demographic characteristics of sexually active men age 15-

49 by contraceptive use at last sex (N=11,476) 

Background characteristics Current contraceptive use Total p-value 

Marriage type 0.001 

Singlehood 68.2 2935 

Monogamous 18.6 7087 

Polygamous 9.4 1454 

Age 0.001 

15-19 51.3 425 

20-24 52.4 1384 

25-29 38.5 2110 

30-34 26.4 2149 

35-39 22.8 2064 

40-44 20.8 1702 

45-49 19.0 1642 

Educational level 0.001 

No education 6.5 2673 

Primary 20.0 2147 

Secondary 40.8 4682 

Tertiary 47.8 1974 

Wealth status 0.001 

Poorest 3.1 1874 

Poorer 15.5 1999 

Middle 30.1 2083 

Richer 40.2 2500 

Richest 48.4 3021 

Religion 0.001 

Christian 43.9 5794 

Islam 16.2 5481 

Others 12.7 144 

Occupational status 0.001 

Working 27.5 10648 

Not working 66.7 751 

Place of residence 0.001 

Urban 42.8 4768 

Rural 21.1 6708 

Region 0.001 

North Central 35.2 1884 

North East 9.7 1623 

North West 13.8 3040 

South East 39.3 1058 

South South 45.9 1848 

South West 47.3 2022 

Ethnicity 0.001 

Hausa/Fulani 7.4 3305 

Igbo/Ibo 44.4 1518 

Yoruba 51.0 1677 

Others 33.8 4976 

Media exposure 0.001 

No 23.6 7934 

Yes 44.7 3542 

(Continues...)
16 

Table 2−Continued 

Background characteristics Current contraceptive use Total p-value 

Number of living children 0.001 

0 53.8 1915 

1-4 21.7 1150 

5+ 15.1 393 

Living status 0.001 

Living with partner 16.6 1328 

Not living with partner 22.8 122 

Number of sexual partners (excluding spouse) 0.001 

0 15.8 1270 

1 63.4 1769 

2+ 67.1 413 

Children ever born 0.001 

0 55.2 1901 

1-2 21.5 570 

3-4 22.5 498 

5+ 15.5 490 

Fertility desire 0.001 

Want no more 36.9 1022 

Want more within 2 years 9.7 3040 

Want more after 2 years 17.0 3448 

Want more unsure timing 8.4 619 

Undecided 36.1 412 

No partner 68.2 2935 

3.4. Multivariate Analysis 

This section presents the results of three logistic models (Table 3). Model 1 shows the unadjusted 

result of the primary explanatory variable (marriage type) and contraceptive use. The odds ratio 

for contraceptive use for polygamists was statistically significantly lower (0.5, p<0.05) relative to 

monogamists. The singles, however, had statistically significant higher odds (9.4, p<0.05) of using 

contraceptives relative to monogamists (Figure 6). 
17 

Figure 6: Unadjusted model (Model 1) of contraceptive use on marriage type among sexually active 

men age 15-49 (N=11,476) 

Model 2 presents the adjusted odds ratios of the selected intervening variables on contraceptive 

use. In this model the result shows a repeated trend of statistically significant odds ratios between 

the main explanatory variable (marriage type) and contraceptive use among sexually active men 

age 15-49, despite the introduction of some selected intervening variables. The odds ratio for 

contraceptive use by polygamists was still statistically significantly lower (0.5, p<0.05) relative to 

the monogamists. However, the predictive power of contraceptive use for singles declined (from 

9.4 to 4.7) relative to monogamists. 

 

Polygamy, 0.5 Monogamy, 1.0

Single, 9.4

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

123

Odds Ratio

Marriage Type
18 

Table 3: Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of contraceptive use among sexually active men age 

15-49 by selected characteristics in Nigeria (N=11,476) 

Characteristics 

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 

OR 95% CI OR 95% CI OR 95% CI 

Marriage Type 

Monogamous (RC) 

Singlehood 9.4** 8.2 –10.8 4.7** 3.6 – 6.2 5.3** 3.9 – 7.2 

Polygamous 0.5** 0.3 - 0.6 0.5** 0.4 – 0.7 0.7*** 0.6 – 1.0 

Media exposure (TV, radio, 

newspapers) 

No exposure (RC) 

Exposed 

 

- 

2.3** 

- 

2.0 – 2.6 

- 

1.2*** 

- 

1.0 – 1.3 

Number of sexual partners 

0 (RC) 

1 

2+ 

- 

3.2** 

3.3** 

- 

2.6 – 4.0 

2.4 – 4.6 

- 

2.2** 

2.0** 

- 

1.7 – 2.7 

1.4 – 2.8 

Children ever born 

0 (RC) 

1-2 

3-4 

5+ 

 

- 

1.3* 

1.8** 

1.5** 

- 

1.0 – 1.6 

1.5 – 2.3 

1.2 – 1.9 

- 

1.2*** 

1.8** 

2.0** 

- 

1.0 – 1.6 

1.4 – 2.3 

1.5 – 2.7 

Age 

15-19 (RC) - 

20-24 1.6*** 1.2 – 2.3 

25-29 1.6* 1.1 – 2.3 

30-34 1.3 0.9 – 1.8 

35-39 1.4* 1.0 – 2.1 

40-44 1.4 0.9 – 2.1 

45-49 1.3 0.8 – 2.0 

Education 

No(RC) - - 

Primary 1.0 0.7 – 1.5 

Secondary 1.4* 1.0 – 2.0 

Tertiary 1.9*** 1.3 – 2.7 

Wealth status 

Poorest (RC) - - 

Poorer 3.4** 2.2 – 5.5 

Middle 4.1** 2.5 – 6.8 

Richer 4.9** 3.0 – 7.9 

Richest 5.2** 3.2 – 8.7 

Religion 

Christian (RC) - - 

Islam 0.9 0.7 – 1.1 

Others 0.3*** 0.2 – 0.7 

Occupation 

Working (RC) - - 

Not working 1.2 0.9 – 1.5 

Place of residence 

Urban (RC) - - 

Rural 0.7*** 0.6 - 0.9 

(Continues...)
19 

Table 3−Continued 

Characteristics 

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 

OR 95% CI OR 95% CI OR 95% CI 

Region 

North Central (RC) - - 

North East 0.4** 0.3 – 0.6 

North West 1.2 0.9 – 1.8 

South East 0.5** 0.4 – 0.7 

South South 0.8 0.7 – 1.1 

South West 0.8 0.6 – 1.1 

Ethnicity 

Hausa/Fulani (RC) - - 

Igbo/Ibo 3.2** 2.0 – 5.1 

Yoruba 3.7** 2.3 – 5.8 

Others 2.3** 1.5 – 3.5 

Constant 0.23 0.21 – 0.25* 0.1 0.09 – 0.13 0.01** 0.01 – 0.03 

RC = reference category; OR = odds ratio; *p<0.01; **p<0.05; ***p<0.10 

In Model 3, after controlling for the effects of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics as 

well as the intervening variables, the result still shows marriage type (the primary independent 

variable) as a statistically significant predictor of contraceptive use among sexually active men age 

15-49 in Nigeria. 

21 

4. Discussion and Conclusion 

4.1. Discussion 

The study showed that 70% of the respondents (sexually active men age 15-49) did not use any 

contraception at last sex. Among the 30% of the sample population who used contraception, the 

condom was the dominant method (66%). This is in line with the findings of Hussain and 

colleagues (2013) in their study of perception and practice of contraception among male soldiers 

in Sobi barracks, Ilorin, Nigeria, who found that the condom is the dominant method. Also, Ezeh 

(1992) reported the dominance of condom use in his study among Ghanaian men. 

The study also found that only 4% used another modern method, while 6% percent used either a 

traditional or folkloric method. There were no significant differences between monogamists and 

polygamists in the use of contraception. However, the results revealed higher odds for 

contraceptive use for single sexually active men than for sexually active men practicing either 

monogamy or polygamy. These findings are consistent with earlier findings and observations by 

the Alan Guttmacher Institute (1998), Adetunji (2000), and Kabagenyi and colleagues (2014). This 

finding could be because married men are less likely to feel the need to protect themselves against 

pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections compared with sexually active single men. 

The study also found that age had a statistically significant effect on men’s contraceptive use, with 

higher levels of use at younger and older ages. This finding is in line with a study by Okigbo 

(2015), who reported that contraceptive use among young men is similar to that of older men. This 

could be the result of the likelihood of younger men being single, and older men being less likely 

to want more children than other married men. Respondents’ level of education showed a 

statistically significant positive relationship with contraceptive use. This is similar to findings from 

other studies (Bawah 2002; Burgard 2004; Guilkey and Jayne 1997; Kradval 2002; Oye-Adeniran 

et al. 2006; Asekun-Olarinmoye et al. 2013; Kabagenyi et al. 2014). 

As observed elsewhere, this study found a strong, statistically significant association between 

wealth status and use of contraception among sexually active men. The association of wealth status 

and contraceptive use was direct. This finding is in line with a comparative study by Okigbo (2015) 

in Nigeria, Kenya, and Senegal and a study by Kabagenyi and colleagues (2014) among sexually 

active men in Uganda showing that wealth status was a key determinant of men’s modern 

contraceptive use. 

Desire for more children was found to be a statistically significant factor influencing contraceptive 

use among sexually active men. As might be expected, men who wanted no more children had 

higher odds of contraceptive use than those who desired more children. This finding is supported 
22 

by many other studies showing an inverse relationship between desire for more children and use 

of contraceptives (Caldwell and Caldwell 2000; Mahmood and Ringheim 1999; Stephenson et al. 

2007; Uchindi 2001; Yihunie et al. 2013; Bongaarts and Bruce 1995). Similarly, in our study the 

odds of contraceptive use were higher among sexually active men with more than four children. 

This finding also is expected, because men with a larger number of children are more likely to 

want to control their fertility. The studies by Kabagenyiand colleagues (2014) and Okigbo (2015) 

also found that men who had few children (1–4) had increased odds of using contraception 

compared with men with no children. 

Place of residence was found to be associated with the likelihood of contraceptive use among 

sexually active men. Rural men had lower odds of contraceptive use compared with urban men. 

This is also consistent with the studies by Kabagenyi and colleagues (2014) and Okigbo (2015). 

Access to information, urbanization, and family planning clinics and methods are likely to 

influence the relationship between place of residence and use of contraceptive. 

Furthermore, exposure to mass media was found to be a significant factor in the use of 

contraception. Men exposed to family planning messages on radio or television, or in newspapers, 

had higher odds of using contraceptives compared with men with no exposure, a finding supported 

by Okigbo (2015). Finally, our study found that men from the Yoruba ethnic group had higher 

odds of contraceptive use than other ethnic groups in Nigeria. This finding is in line with Adeyemi 

and colleagues (2005), who found that men from the South-Western parts of Nigeria were more 

likely to use contraception than men from other geo-political zones. The authors observed that the 

Northern and Eastern parts of Nigeria had a pro-natalist culture that discouraged men from using 

contraception. Also, differences in the level of education, exposure to mass media, urbanization, 

and globalization might affect the relationship between ethnicity and contraceptive use among 

sexually active men in Nigeria. 

The study has several limitations. The 2013 DHS dataset employed for the study was obtained 

from a cross-sectional survey and therefore is limited in establishing causality among the variables. 

Thus we could not determine causal factors influencing contraceptive use among sexually active 

men. Efforts were made to examine the statistical significance of association between explanatory 

variables and contraceptive use, but any interpretation or report in this regard might not represent 

the correct or actual situation of the country. Also, for certain variables there could be recall bias, 

which might affect the outcome of the study. The survey also had some limitations as to data 

quality and accuracy of the level of education of respondents, particularly those with little or no 

formal education. Also, further checks were performed to reclassify some variables, particularly 

marriage type. These data lack sufficient information on whether all men who reported being single 

in the survey had never been married or had been married, before the survey. Finally, because of 

poor spousal communication, which is prevalent in the African family setting, some respondents 
23 

might not have known if their wives were using contraception, and as a result there could be 

underreporting of contraceptive use. 

4.2. Conclusion 

Although the level of contraceptive use overall is low in Nigeria, this study found wide variation 

by marriage type in the use of contraceptives among sexually active men. Compared with single 

sexually active men, married men have much lower odds of contraceptive use, whether or not they 

practice monogamy or polygamy. Married men are less likely to protect against pregnancy 

compared with single men, which in turn could lead to higher fertility levels in Nigeria. To further 

increase use of contraceptives, marriage type should be taken into consideration. Efforts should be 

made to focus on policies and programs that promote consistent use of contraceptives in Nigeria, 

particularly among married men. 

 

25 

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