An Overview of 

Sex Offender Managment

July 2002

A Project of the Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice
Established in June 1997, CSOM’s goal is to enhance public safety by preventing further

victimization through improving the management of adult and juvenile sex offenders who are in

the community. A collaborative effort of the Office of Justice Programs, the National Institute

of Corrections, the State Justice Institute, and the American Probation and Parole Association,

CSOM is administered by the Center for Effective Public Policy.
Center for Sex Offender Management

A Project of the Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice

An Overview of Sex Offender Management

June 2002

Background

Most convicted sex offenders reside, or at some point following a criminal justice sentence will reside,

in the community. A comprehensive and collaborative approach to sex offender management can

help to control offenders’ sexually abusive behaviors. This document describes briefly characteristics

of sex offenders and their victims, as well as ideal components for managing sex offenders in the

community. Because of local policies or other restrictions, some of these components may not be

practical or feasible for all jurisdictions to include in their management programs. At a minimum,

sex offenders are best managed by multidisciplinary teams that include supervising probation or

parole agents and treatment providers who work together to individualize supervision and treatment

plans according to the unique challenges of a specific offender. Including additional components as

described in this document can further enhance a jurisdiction’s sex offender management program

and potentially reduce further sexual victimization.

The Victims of Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse is considered to be a widely underreported crime. Because of the intensely personal impact

that sexual crimes have on victims, many may be reluctant to report them. Based on analyses of self-report

victimization surveys of women in the United States, however, researchers have been able to draw several

important conclusions. Most sexual assaults are committed by someone known to the victim or the

victim’s family, regardless of whether the victim is a child or an adult (Greenfeld, 1997). Approximately 78

forcible rapes of women 18 years of age and older are committed each hour in the United States, and 1 of

6 U.S. women and 1 of 33 U.S. men have experienced an attempted or completed rape as a child and/or

adult (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). At least one in five girls and one in seven boys have been sexually

abused by age 18 (Finkelhor, 1994). Sexual crimes often are perpetrated against youth: 22 percent of

female rape victims were assaulted before they were 12; 32 percent were between 12 and 17 at the time

they were sexually assaulted (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). Approximately two-thirds of state prisoners

convicted of rape or sexual assault offended against children (Greenfeld, 1997).

Adult Sex Offenders

Although many practitioners describe sex offenders with such words as “manipulative,” “secretive,”

“devious,” and “deceptive,” a set of characteristics (e.g., physical, mental, psychological, personality,

emotional) that is common to all or most sex offenders has not been identified. Because of the

diversity in the demographic and social makeup of those who commit sexual offenses, a profile of a

“typical” sex offender does not exist, although the vast majority of sex offenders are male. While

information about male sex offenders traditionally has dominated the literature in this field, a

growing body of research about female sex offenders is beginning to emerge.

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The Etiology (Cause) of Sexually Abusive Behavior

Many etiological theories purport to explain why some men perpetrate sexual abuse. Unfortunately,

none of these theories applies to all (or even a majority) of them. Sexual abuse is an extraordinarily

complex, multi-faceted problem that cannot be easily or simply explained.

The great majority of sex offenders do not commit their crimes impulsively without any planning or

forethought. Most sex offenders have a cycle that is associated with their offending behavior that

begins hours, days, weeks, or even months before the actual sex crime is physically perpetrated.

Sex Offender Recidivism Rates

Accurately measuring the rate at which sex offenders recidivate is difficult. Most studies that attempt

to measure recidivism equate reoffending with rearrest or reconviction, which is problematic because

of the generally accepted understanding that sexual assault is a widely underreported crime.

Therefore, researchers are concerned that some reported recidivism rates are artificially low. Findings

also suggest that recidivism rates fluctuate widely, depending on the type of sexual offense the

offender has committed. Additionally, few longitudinal studies have been conducted on sex offender

recidivism to date. In those that have been conducted, however, researchers conclude that long-term

recidivism rates are lower for sex offenders than for the general criminal population. Researchers also

have argued that offenders who receive specialized and intensive sex offender treatment have a

significantly lower rearrest rate than offenders who did not participate in treatment. (For further

information about sex offender recidivism studies, see: CSOM (2001), Recidivism of Sex Offenders.)

Sexually Abusive Youth

The prevalence of sexual abuse perpetrated by youth has increased in recent years. It is estimated that

juveniles may account for up to one-fifth of all rapes and approximately one-half of all cases of child

molestation committed each year in the United States (Barbaree, Hudson, & Seto, 1993; Becker,

Harris, & Sales, 1993; Sickmund, Snyder, & Poe-Yamagata, 1997).

The emerging wisdom among experts who work with these youth is that they are profoundly

different from their adult counterparts and that it is inappropriate to respond to juveniles who

commit sex offenses by simply applying what is known about adult sex offenders.

Available research does not suggest that the majority of sexually abusive youth are destined to become

adult sex offenders. Although funding and ethical issues have made it difficult to conduct carefully

controlled treatment outcome studies, a number of encouraging clinical reports on the treatment of

sexually abusive youth have been published. Sexually abusive youth appear to respond well to

cognitive-behavioral and/or relapse prevention treatment, with rearrest rates of approximately 7

percent in follow-up periods of more than five years (Alexander, 1999). Program evaluation data

suggest that the sexual recidivism rate for juveniles treated in specialized programs ranges from

approximately 7 to 13 percent in follow-up periods of two to five years (Becker, 1990).

While these studies are not definitive, they provide support for the belief that the majority of these

youth can benefit significantly from treatment. However, additional data are needed to understand

more fully the extent and etiology of juvenile sexual abuse as victimization data indicates that a vast

number of sexual assaults go unreported and there may be even higher rates of under-reporting

among victims of incest/sibling offenses. (For further information about sexually abusive youth, see:

CSOM (1999), Understanding Juvenile Sexual Offending Behavior: Emerging Research, Treatment

Approaches and Management Practices.)

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Sex Offenders With Developmental Disabilities

Many communities around the country struggle with the issue of managing adult sex offenders with

developmental disabilities. Although they may be different in terms of their cognitive skills,

developmentally disabled sex offenders pose many of the same challenges to supervision agencies as other

adult sex offenders. While the tendency of some agencies may be to treat this population in a different

way than sex offenders without developmental disabilities, it is important to remember the following:

■ Sex offenders with developmental disabilities pose as clear a threat to public safety as sex

offenders without developmental disabilities. 

■ Developmental disabilities do not cause or excuse sexual offending. 

■ Sex offenders with developmental disabilities should be provided treatment that is appropriate

to their developmental capacity and their level of comprehension. 

To assess effectively whether a sex offender with developmental disabilities can be adequately

managed in the community given the unique kinds of services they are likely to need, supervision and

treatment agencies must:

■ Evaluate the offender’s level of cognitive impairment to gauge his or her suitability for

community supervision.

■ Work with treatment providers who are knowledgeable about sex offending behavior and have

treated developmentally disabled individuals.

■ Work intensively with personnel from mental health and social services departments, group

home staff, and others who may be involved closely in the offender’s daily life. 

Female Sex Offenders

The myth has long existed that females do not perpetuate sexual abuse. And although men commit

the majority of sexual offenses, research indicates that females commit approximately 20 percent of

sex offenses against children (ATSA, 1996). Unofficial data sources (those that include data about

cases other than the ones reported to police) also suggest that the percentage of sexual abuse cases

perpetrated by women may be as high as 20 percent of cases overall (Finkelhor & Russell, 1984).

Unlike their male offender counterparts, female sex offenders were sexually victimized at almost twice

the rate of men, most often by a family member (Kaplan & Green, 1995). Other preliminary

research findings suggest the following:

■ Sexual abuse that is perpetrated by women often occurs in care giving situations and may be

committed in isolation or because of coercion by or in conjunction with a male counterpart.

■ Women who sexually abuse are often socially isolated and lack a sense of attachment and belonging.

■ Female sex offenders often have a history of substance abuse and emotional disturbances such

as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, and they often have experienced a history of

sexual and physical abuse as children.

■ Practice regarding the treatment and supervision of female sex offenders is in its infancy.

However there appears to be consensus about the separation of males and females in treatment

settings and agreement that treatment strategies for females need to be gender-specific,

addressing the unique etiology of female sexual abuse.

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The Components of 

Effective Sex Offender Management

The Fundamental Principles and Concepts 

that Underlie Sex Offender Management

No two jurisdictions can or should manage sex offenders in exactly the same manner; local practices

must take into account the nature of the local population of sex offenders as well as the resources

available to respond to sex offending behavior. The following are some common elements in the

promising sex offender management work that is occurring in diverse jurisdictions around the nation:

■ A primary goal—shared by all stakeholders—of preventing future sexual victimization.

■ Multidisciplinary, multi-agency, and collaborative responses on both the case management and

policy levels.

■ Practitioners who are specially trained to work with sex offenders.

■ The willingness and the capacity to assess critically—and in an ongoing fashion—current

approaches and practices so that as the sex offender management field evolves, the work that is

occurring in these jurisdictions also advances.

Collaboration

Various agencies are involved with sanctioning and treating offenders and protecting and treating victims.

Although some of these agencies may not have traditionally worked together—in fact, they may have

divergent missions and goals—collaborating to prevent additional occurrences of sexual abuse by offenders

under supervision is vitally important. Collaborating partners should be in contact with one another about

developing policies on sex offender management, assessing the impact of those policies on victims, and

seeking the input of one another on the most effective ways to hold sex offenders accountable while

providing support to and safety for victims. Increased information sharing, limited confidentiality, and an

overall willingness to work more closely with other organizations should characterize all collaborative efforts.

The personnel who should be involved in these collaborations include:

■ Criminal justice system personnel such as judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and law enforcement

officers who are responsible for processing offenders through the criminal justice system.

■ Correctional officials who are responsible for preparing sex offenders for release to the

community as well as those supervision and law enforcement officers who monitor offenders

while they are in the community.

■ Victim advocates and victim treatment providers who provide services, support, and

information to victims throughout the criminal justice process and can serve as their voice in

criminal justice system decisions that can impact victims.

■ Sex offender treatment providers who can rely in part on information gleaned from supervision

officers and others who may have contact with or knowledge of offenders and their behavior to

more effectively hold them accountable and to help them develop strategies to stop their

sexually abusive behavior.

■ Others who have a stake in or role to play in preventing further victimization, from polygraph

examiners to social service providers, child protective agencies, and school administrators. 

Despite the difficulties that coordinating activities and policies among these different stakeholders is

likely to pose, the effective management of sex offenders requires these individuals to work together

toward the unified goal of protecting victims and the community.

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A Victim-Centered Approach

In addition to offering services to survivors of sexual abuse and responding to issues that may arise

when offenders are released into the community, victim advocates can serve an extremely important

function overall: to ensure that the interests of current and potential future victims remain at the

forefront for those working to manage sex offenders in the community.

Victim advocacy is a central component of several promising sex offender management initiatives

around the country. Victim advocates have a unique perspective on the trauma that victims face.

They have the capacity to establish relationships with victims, act as a resource for victims as they

participate in the criminal justice process, and continue to support victims after offenders are released

into the community under supervision. This specialized and personal understanding of the needs of

victims can permit advocates to work with supervision agencies to:

■ Enhance sex offender management policy development to ensure that the safety needs of

victims are paramount.

■ Develop and deliver professional training initiatives to educate criminal justice system and

other actors about the effects of victimization.

■ Inform day-to-day supervision practices, especially around policies that may be harmful to victims.

■ Assist and support supervision agencies with community notification and education efforts,

which should include a component aimed at providing information about sexual assault to

community members.

Specialized Sex Offender Assessment

Because of the complex and varying nature of sexual abuse and the individuals who perpetrate it,

practitioners must assess sex offenders and their behavior effectively and in an ongoing, collaborative

fashion. This enables them to respond appropriately to and manage the different levels of risk that

offenders pose over time to victims and the community. Sex offender assessment can be seen as a

process that has two related domains (risk and clinical) and inter-dependent purposes, which

practitioners must understand and communicate about clearly and consistently. The risk assessment

domain has two purposes: risk prediction and risk management. 

■ Risk prediction is the science of predicting the likelihood of recidivism over a period of years.

The most accurate and useful predictions of risk come from empirically based, scientifically

validated tools. These tools are developed using historical or static (unchangeable) risk factors

(such as number of convictions) that are statistically correlated with sexual recidivism risk.

They enhance the ability of practitioners to identify sub-groups of offenders who pose a higher

risk to re-offend than others. 

■ Risk management is the process (undertaken by probation/parole officers, treatment providers,

police officers, victim advocates, and many others) of recognizing and responding to on-going,

short-term (hourly, daily, or weekly) changes in sex offender risk. This process is premised on

the understanding that every sex offender has a unique set of dynamic factors (or

“criminogenic needs”) such as anger problems that are related to the immediate risk they pose. 

The clinical assessment domain also has two purposes: clinical diagnosis and clinical treatment. 

■ Clinical diagnosis is the process of assessing whether severe psychological or psychiatric

problems are present in sex offenders. The results impact the criminal justice process (i.e.,

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competency, mental status, and criminal responsibility) and the determination of appropriate

treatment responses. 

■ Clinical treatment includes the assessment of sex offenders’ specific treatment needs; the

development of comprehensive treatment plans that respond to these needs; and the ongoing

assessment of these needs and the effectiveness of the treatment interventions employed (or

treatment progress). 

The information garnered from risk prediction tools; and the risk management, risk prediction,

clinical diagnosis, and clinical treatment processes all inform the critically important point-in-time

decisions that practitioners make throughout the criminal justice process (beginning at arrest and

ending at the termination of a sentence) to protect victims and the community.

Specialized Sex Offender Supervision

The experiences of probation and parole agencies across the nation indicate that sole reliance on

commonly used, traditional supervision practices (e.g., scheduled office visits, periodic phone contact)

does not adequately address the unique challenges and risks that sex offenders pose to the

community. In response, specialized approaches to sex offender supervision have been developed in

jurisdictions around the country that often include:

■ A primary focus on the prevention of future victimization and the protection of victims and

the community.

■ Close collaboration and frequent information sharing among supervision agents and other

practitioners who share responsibility for sex offender management (e.g., treatment providers,

victim advocates, law enforcement officers, and polygraph examiners).

■ Specialized, ongoing training for agents who work with sex offenders.

■ Special conditions of supervision designed to address the specific and unique risks and needs of

each sex offender.

■ Supervision agents who are willing and able to be involved in each offender’s daily life and habits.

■ Small caseloads so that agents working with sex offenders can engage in intensive casework

in the field.

Specialized Sex Offender Treatment

Specialized treatment is a critical component of any jurisdiction’s approach to sex offender

management and is markedly different from traditional mental health counseling or psychotherapy in

a number of significant ways:

■ The primary focus is the protection of victims and the community. 

■ Information discussed in treatment sessions is shared with supervision agents, polygraph

examiners, and others as necessary.

■ Considerable attention is directed toward making offenders understand the harm they have

caused their victim(s).

■ Thinking errors that contribute to offending patterns are revealed, examined, and challenged.

■ Offenders participate in professionally facilitated group sessions in which they challenge one

another about their denial, distortions, and manipulation.

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Sex offender treatment programs that include a relapse prevention component and cognitivebehavioral techniques and that tailor their treatment responses to meet the varying, diverse, and

complex needs of sex offenders have the greatest chance to reduce both sexual and general recidivism.

Treatment programs should also include other adjunctive components such as marital and family

therapy, substance abuse treatment, educational and vocational supports, medication when needed,

and individual therapy to address sex offenders’ other problems and issues.

Re-Entry

Careful consideration of how to transition sex offenders back into the community safely is of critical

importance. Since sex offenders often commit their crimes in secrecy and isolation, ensuring that

they are employed in appropriate settings, housed appropriately, receiving specialized treatment, and

are working toward developing pro-social, supportive relationships may be key to interrupting their

cycle of sexually abusive behavior. Criminal justice, treatment, and victim advocacy agencies must

make a concerted effort to develop release plans and community supports that balance issues

associated with the offender’s successful reintegration with the public’s safety.

Post-Conviction Polygraph Exams

Post-conviction polygraph examinations are increasingly used as a mechanism to assist in managing sex

offenders more safely and effectively in their communities. The polygraph has become an important asset

in treatment and supervision because it provides independent information about compliance with

supervision conditions and progress in specialized treatment. When an offender is engaging in noncompliant behavior, a polygraph test may reveal information that can impel the supervision officer to

revise the case plan and/or take other action to prevent relapse and encourage success. In many

jurisdictions, the polygraph examiner is a key member of the case management team. Polygraph

examiners who administer tests to sex offenders should be specially trained to work with this population.

Three types of post-conviction polygraph examinations are commonly administered to sex offenders

under probation or parole supervision: full disclosure or sexual history examinations, which are used

to obtain a complete history of an offenders’ sexual behavior; specific issue examinations, which are

useful when offenders are either in complete denial or maintain that they did not commit the crimes

for which they were convicted; and maintenance or monitoring examinations, which are administered

on a periodic basis and help to verify offenders’ compliance with treatment and supervision conditions.

Debate over its validity and reliability is ongoing. However, the value of the tool seems undisputed among

those who use it—jurisdictions that have integrated it into their approaches to sex offender management

report that it is effective when used as an adjunct to treatment and supervision. Those who use the

polygraph, however, also assert that decisions about levels of supervision and methods of treatment are

based upon a variety of important and ever changing issues, not just the results of polygraph testing. 

Sex Offender Registration

All states have enacted sex offender registration laws as a means of deterring offenders from

committing future crimes, providing law enforcement with an additional investigative tool, and

increasing public protection. To achieve these goals, states have developed numerous promising

approaches to sex offender registration. These include developing written policies and procedures

detailing the registration process, collecting thorough information on registered sex offenders,

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providing ready access to this information for all law enforcement officers, and developing systems

to transfer registration information within and across state lines effectively and efficiently so that

offenders cannot escape registration obligations. The most comprehensive approaches to sex

offender registration involve the collaboration and coordination of efforts among all of the agencies

involved in the process for the primary purpose of preventing further sexual victimization. 

Community Notification

As a result of federal legislation, all 50 states have enacted sex offender community notification laws. The

primary objective of these laws is to ensure that the public can access information that will assist them in

protecting themselves and their families from dangerous sex offenders who reside in their communities.

Tremendous variation exists among the states, and even within states, in how these statutes have been

implemented. However, most states use one or more of the following practices for disseminating

information: media release, door-to-door flyers, mailed flyers, community meetings, or Internet distribution.

Despite the intention of enhancing public safety, community notification laws can have negative

effects on the criminal justice system, the community, victims, and offenders. Many programs

throughout the country have made efforts to reduce these effects. These efforts—conducted in a

multi-disciplinary, collaborative fashion—involve educating communities about methods that citizens

can employ to protect themselves and their families from sexual victimization and advising

community members that most sexual abusers live undetected in the community.

Civil Commitment

Sixteen states have enacted what are termed “sexually violent predator” or “civil commitment”

statutes. These statutes allow state authorities to hold a sex offender after his or her criminal sentence

has expired if he or she is deemed too dangerous to be released. Civil commitment statutes mandate

that these individuals be confined to a treatment facility until such time that they are assessed to have

benefited enough from treatment that they no longer pose an imminent risk to the community.

These statutes have been challenged in many states because of civil liberty concerns; however, to date,

no state’s civil commitment legislation has been successfully overturned on those grounds.

Public Health and Primary Prevention

Current interventions directed to ending sexual abuse focus primarily on intervening with offenders

who have already perpetrated sex offenses. However, criminal justice system actors who envision a

response to sexual violence beyond the bounds of their own system must begin to forge collaborative

partnerships with those in the public health and primary prevention arenas in an effort to stop sexual

violence before it occurs.

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References

Alexander, M.A. (1999). Sexual offender treatment efficacy revisited. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of

Research and Treatment 11, pp. 101-116.

Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (1996). Reducing Sexual Abuse through Treatment

and Intervention with Abusers. Policy and Position Statement. Beaverton, OR.

Barbaree, H.E., Hudson, S.M., & Seto, M.C. (1993). Sexual assault in society: The role of the juvenile

offender. In H.E. Barbaree, W.L. Marshall & S.W. Hudson (Eds.), The Juvenile Sex Offender, pp. 10-11.

Becker, J.V. (1990). Treating adolescent sexual offenders. Professional Psychology: Research and

Practice 21, pp. 362-365.

Becker, J.V., Harris, C.D., & Sales, B.D. (1993). Juveniles who commit sexual offenses: A critical

review of research. In G.C.N. Hall, R. Hirschman, J. Graham & M. Zaragoza (Eds.), Sexual Aggression:

Issues in Etiology and Assessment, Treatment, and Policy. Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.

Center for Sex Offender Management (1999, December). Understanding Juvenile Sexual Offending

Behavior: Emerging Research, Treatment Approaches and Management Practices. Silver Spring, MD.

Center for Sex Offender Management (2001, May). Recidivism of Sex Offenders. Silver Spring, MD.

Finkelhor, D. (1994). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. Child

Abuse and Neglect, 4, pp. 31-53.

Finkelhor, D. & Russell, D. (1984). Women as perpetrators: Review of the evidence. In D.

Finkelhor (Ed.), Child Sexual Abuse: New Theory and Research (pp. 171-187). New York: Free Press.

Greenfeld, L. (1997). Sex Offenses and Offenders: An Analysis of Data on Rape and Sexual Assault.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Kaplan, M.S. & Green, A. (1995). Incarcerated female sexual offenders: A comparison of sexual histories

with eleven female nonsexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 7, pp. 287-300.

Schram, D. & Milloy, C. (1995). Community Notification: A Study of Offender Characteristics and

Recidivism. Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

Sickmund, M., Snyder, H.N., & Poe-Yamagata, E. (1997). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1997

Update on Violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and

Delinquency Prevention.

Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (1998). Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against

Women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

Acknowledgements

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This document was authored by Tom Talbot, Leilah Gilligan, Madeline Carter, and Scott Matson of

the Center for Sex Offender Management.

Contact

Center for Sex Offender Management

8403 Colesville Rd., Suite 720

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Phone: (301) 589-9383

Fax: (301) 589-3505

E-mail: askcsom@csom.org

Internet: www.csom.org

This project was supported by Cooperative Agreement No. 97-WT-VX-K007, awarded by the Office of

Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Points of view in this document are those of the authors

and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.