January 1999

Virginia

Drug Threat Assessment

National Drug Intelligence Center

U.S. Department of Justice

March 2002
U.S. Department of Justice

National Drug Intelligence Center

National Drug Intelligence Center

319 Washington Street, 5th Floor

Johnstown, PA 15901-1622

(814) 532-4601

Virginia

Drug Threat Assessment

Product No. 2002-S0379VA-001

March 2002
Preface

This report is a strategic assessment that addresses the status and outlook of the drug threat to Virginia. 

Analytical judgment determined the threat posed by each drug type or category, taking into account the 

most current quantitative and qualitative information on availability, demand, production or cultivation, 

transportation, and distribution, as well as the effects of a particular drug on abusers and society as a 

whole. While NDIC sought to incorporate the latest available information, a time lag often exists between 

collection and publication of data, particularly demand-related data sets. NDIC anticipates that this drug 

threat assessment will be useful to policymakers, law enforcement personnel, and treatment providers at 

the federal, state, and local levels because it draws upon a broad range of information sources to describe 

and analyze the drug threat to Virginia.

Cover Photo © Stockbyte
National Drug Intelligence Center

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Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

Executive Summary

The production, distribution, and abuse of illicit drugs and the diversion and abuse of 

pharmaceuticals pose a serious threat to Virginia. Crack cocaine is the drug most often 

associated with violent crime in the state. Marijuana is the most widely available and frequently abused drug in Virginia. However, the nature of the drug threat varies throughout 

the state. For example, cocaine is readily available and is the principal drug threat to the 

heavily populated areas of Northern Virginia and urban centers elsewhere in the state. 

Heroin is increasingly available and is the primary drug threat to the Central Virginia 

and Tidewater areas and is an emerging threat to Winchester. Other dangerous drugs, 

particularly MDMA, are an increasing threat primarily to the Northern Virginia and 

Tidewater areas. The diversion and abuse of OxyContin are the principal threats to 

southwestern Virginia, and methamphetamine is an emerging threat, particularly to

the Shenandoah Valley.

Cocaine, particularly crack, is the primary drug threat to Virginia. Powdered cocaine 

and crack cocaine are readily available in most population centers in the state. Cocaine 

abuse is associated with more drug-related admissions to publicly funded treatment 

facilities than is abuse of any other drug. Nearly two-thirds of all drug-related federal 

sentences in Virginia in fiscal year (FY) 2000 were cocaine-related. Crack cocaine is the 

drug most often associated with violent crime in the state. Colombian and Dominican 

criminal groups based in New York City and Philadelphia and, to a lesser but increasing 

extent, Mexican criminal groups based in Atlanta and Charlotte (NC) transport wholesale 

quantities of powdered cocaine into Virginia and distribute the drug at the wholesale level. 

In addition, Virginia-based African American, Caucasian, and Jamaican criminal groups 

and local independent dealers travel primarily to New York City and also to Philadelphia, 

Washington, D.C., and Miami to purchase wholesale quantities of powdered cocaine and 

return to Virginia to distribute the drug at the retail level. Cocaine typically is transported 

into Virginia in private or rental vehicles. Retail distributors usually convert powdered 

cocaine into crack in Virginia on an as-needed basis. Wholesale crack distribution usually is 

limited to multiounce quantities. African American criminal groups based in Virginia and 

African American local independent dealers and street gangs distribute crack at the 

wholesale and retail levels. Retail distributors typically sell crack at open-air markets in 

Virginia and at public housing projects in the Central Virginia and Tidewater areas.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

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Marijuana, produced primarily in Mexico, is the most widely available and frequently 

abused drug in Virginia. However, law enforcement officers generally regard the drug as 

a lower threat than cocaine because marijuana abusers and distributors usually do not 

commit violent crimes. The number of admissions for marijuana abuse to publicly funded 

treatment facilities in Virginia was second only to cocaine each year from 1995 through 

1999. Fifty-eight percent of all drug-related arrests by state and local law enforcement in 

2000 were marijuana-related. Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in 

Mexico, but some is produced in southwestern states, Virginia, and neighboring states. 

Marijuana typically is transported into the state via commercial and private vehicles and 

via package delivery and express mail services. Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups 

based in southwestern states and Virginia and Caucasian criminal groups based in

Virginia are the primary transporters and wholesale distributors of marijuana produced 

in Mexico and southwestern states. Caucasian criminal groups and local independent 

dealers are the primary transporters and wholesale distributors of marijuana produced in 

Virginia and neighboring states. Local independent dealers, primarily African American 

and Caucasian, and street gangs are the principal retail distributors of marijuana produced in Mexico and southwestern states, while Caucasian local independent dealers are 

the principal retail distributors of marijuana produced in Virginia and neighboring states.

Heroin, produced primarily in South America, is an increasing threat to Virginia. 

Southeast Asian, Southwest Asian, and Mexican black tar and brown powdered heroin 

also are available. Most new heroin abusers in Virginia are young adults who snort the 

drug rather than inject it. The number of admissions for heroin abuse to publicly funded 

treatment facilities ranked third behind cocaine and marijuana from 1995 through 1999. 

Heroin was a factor in more drug-related deaths in Virginia in 2000 than any other drug. 

Heroin is readily available in the Central Virginia and Tidewater areas and is an emerging 

threat to Winchester. The number of heroin-related federal sentences in Virginia fluctuated 

between FY1996 and FY2000 but was lower than the number of sentences for every 

other major drug in FY2000. Dominican criminal groups based in New York City and 

Philadelphia transport wholesale quantities of South American heroin into Virginia and 

distribute the drug at the wholesale level. African American criminal groups based in 

Virginia frequently travel to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, 

D.C., to purchase wholesale quantities of heroin and return to Virginia where they distribute the drug at the wholesale level. Transporters commonly use private and rental 

vehicles, commercial buses, and passenger rail services to transport heroin from New 

York City and Philadelphia into Virginia. Local independent African American dealers 

are the principal retail distributors of heroin in Virginia.

Other dangerous drugs (ODDs) present a significant and increasing threat to Virginia. 

ODDs include stimulants such as MDMA; hallucinogens such as LSD, PCP, and ketamine; depressants such as GHB; and diverted pharmaceuticals including opioids (narcotic analgesics) such as OxyContin, Dilaudid, Hycodan, Lortab, Percocet, Percodan, 

Tylox, Vicodin, and methadone, and sedative hypnotics (benzodiazepines) such as Xanax 

and Valium. Various criminal groups transport ODDs to Virginia via parcel delivery and 

express mail services. Many ODDs are sold and abused by middle-class, suburban, young 

adults at raves and nightclubs, and on college campuses. MDMA is increasingly available 

and abused in Virginia, particularly in the Northern Virginia, Central Virginia, and Tidewater areas. The diversion and abuse of pharmaceuticals, especially OxyContin, represent 
National Drug Intelligence Center

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the most significant ODD threat to southwestern Virginia. Caucasian criminal groups 

and local independent dealers are the principal distributors of diverted pharmaceuticals.

Methamphetamine poses a low but increasing threat to Virginia. Levels of availability 

and abuse have increased in the Shenandoah Valley, and the drug is an emerging threat to 

southwestern Virginia. Most of the methamphetamine available in Virginia is produced by 

Mexican drug trafficking organizations and criminal groups using the hydriodic acid/red 

phosphorus method in high volume laboratories in Mexico and California. However, 

Virginia-based Caucasian criminal groups, outlaw motorcycle gangs, and local independent 

Caucasian dealers sometimes produce methamphetamine using the phenyl-2-propanone 

(P2P) and Birch reduction methods. Mexican criminal groups are the primary transporters 

of most of the methamphetamine available in Virginia. These groups usually transport the 

drug from Mexico and southwestern states into Virginia using private automobiles, couriers 

aboard commercial airlines, and package delivery and express mail services. Mexican 

criminal groups, some based in Virginia, are the primary wholesale distributors of methamphetamine in the state, particularly in the Shenandoah Valley. Mexican criminal groups 

and Caucasian local independent dealers are the principal retail distributors of methamphetamine produced in Mexico and southwestern states. Outlaw motorcycle gangs, Caucasian criminal groups, and local independent dealers distribute methamphetamine produced 

in Virginia and other states at the retail level.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

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Table of Contents

National Drug Intelligence Center

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Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Cocaine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Marijuana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Heroin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Other Dangerous Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Stimulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Hallucinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Depressants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Diverted Pharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Methamphetamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

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Note: This map displays features mentioned in the report.

Virginia.
National Drug Intelligence Center

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Virginia

Drug Threat Assessment

March 2002

Overview

The Commonwealth of Virginia ranks twelfth 

in population with 7.1 million residents. Approximately one-half of the state’s population is concentrated in three principal areas—Northern Virginia, 

Central Virginia, and Tidewater. (See Figure 4 on 

page 17, Figure 1 on page 5, and Figure 2 on page 

6.) These areas are ethnically diverse, making it 

possible for drug distributors to blend easily with 

the resident population. Southwestern Virginia is 

predominantly rural, making it ideal for cannabis 

cultivation.

The state has a well-developed transportation 

infrastructure, and its location makes Virginia ideal 

for the movement of licit and illicit goods into 

and through the state. Private and rental vehicles 

and commercial trucks are used frequently to 

transport drugs into and through Virginia. Couriers 

on airlines, commercial buses, and railcars are 

used to a lesser extent. Maritime drug smuggling 

directly into Virginia occurs infrequently. 

Drug transporters primarily use Interstates 64, 

66, 77, 81, 85, and 95 and U.S. Highway 13 to 

transport drugs into and through Virginia. Interstate 95, the principal north-south highway on the 

East Coast, connects Northern Virginia with 

Richmond. Interstate 81, which extends from 

upstate New York to eastern Tennessee, connects 

with Interstates 64 and 66 in Virginia, and passes 

through the Shenandoah Valley and southwestern 

Virginia. (See Figure 5 on page 22, and Figure 3 on 

page 12.) Interstate 77 extends from Columbia, 

South Carolina, through Charlotte, North Carolina, 

into southwestern Virginia, where it connects with 

Fast Facts

Virginia

Population (2000) 7.1 million

U.S. population 

ranking

12th

Median household 

income (2000)

$40,209

Unemployment

rate (2001)

3.6%

Land area 39,598 square miles 

Shoreline 3,315 miles

Capital Richmond

Other principal cities Alexandria, Chesapeake, 

Hampton, Lynchburg, Newport 

News, Norfolk, Portsmouth, 

Roanoke, Virginia Beach

Number of counties 95

Principal 

industries

Service, trade, government, 

manufacturing, tourism, 

agriculture
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

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I-81. Interstate 64 extends from the Tidewater 

area to St. Louis, Missouri, and I-66 connects 

Washington, D.C., with the Shenandoah Valley. 

Interstate 85 extends from Petersburg through 

Charlotte and Atlanta to Montgomery, Alabama. 

US 13 is the principal north-south route along 

Virginia’s Eastern Shore. Law enforcement officials in Virginia commonly seize drugs on interstate highways, often as part of Operation 

Pipeline initiatives.

There are two large airports in Northern 

Virginia (Washington Dulles International and 

Ronald Reagan Washington National) and others 

in Newport News/Williamsburg, Norfolk, and 

Richmond. All but Ronald Reagan Washington 

National offer international service. Millions of 

passengers use these airports annually. Law 

enforcement officials report that drugs are not 

usually transported by airplane directly from 

foreign source countries into the state. However, 

Operation Jetway data indicate that drugs are 

transported into Virginia on airplanes from states 

such as California, Florida, New Jersey, New 

York, and Texas.

Drugs also are transported into and through 

Virginia on trains. Passenger rail service from 

New York to Florida via eastern Virginia is 

offered daily. Recent Operation Jetway seizure 

data indicate that passenger rail service is used to 

transport drugs. Also, two major freight railroads 

based in Richmond and Norfolk have extensive 

networks throughout the United States, although 

no seizures are known to have been made recently.

Virginia’s 3,315-mile shoreline, most of it along 

the Chesapeake Bay, includes a major seaport in 

Hampton Roads. The Port of Hampton Roads is 

located at the mouth of the James River near the 

entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. On the East 

Coast, it ranks second to the Port of New York/

New Jersey in total trade volume and foreign trade 

tonnage. Container traffic through the port increased 

over 4 percent from approximately 1.25 million 

TEUs (20-foot equivalent units) in 1998 to more 

than 1.3 million TEUs in 1999. The Port of Hampton Roads is unique among major East Coast ports 

in its preponderance of exports over imports. Since 

less than 20 percent of the trade volume handled at 

the Port of Hampton Roads consists of imported 

goods—arriving primarily from Europe and Asia—

the threat of drug smuggling through the port is relatively low. The U.S. Customs Service (USCS) did 

not report any significant seizures of drugs at the 

seaport in 2000. However, USCS inspectors at 

Norfolk International Terminal (within the Port of 

Hampton Roads) seized 24 kilograms of cocaine 

concealed in a containerized shipment of processed 

rice aboard the 777-foot German containership 

Heidelberg Express that arrived from Manzanillo, 

Panama, in August 1999.

Colombian and Dominican criminal groups 

based in New York City and Philadelphia and, to 

a lesser extent, Mexican criminal groups based in 

Atlanta and Charlotte transport wholesale quantities of cocaine into Virginia. Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups based in southwestern states 

and Virginia and Caucasian criminal groups 

based in Virginia transport marijuana produced in 

Mexico and southwestern states. Caucasian criminal groups and local independent dealers transport wholesale quantities of marijuana produced 

in Virginia and neighboring states. Dominican 

criminal groups based in New York City and Philadelphia and African American criminal groups 

based in Virginia transport wholesale quantities 

of South American heroin into the state. Various 

criminal groups transport ODDs to Virginia 

through parcel delivery and express mail services. 

Operation Pipeline

Operation Pipeline is a national highway interdiction program supported by the El Paso 

Intelligence Center (EPIC). It targets the highways and interstates most frequently used to 

transport illegal drugs and drug proceeds.

 Operation Jetway

Operation Jetway is an EPIC-supported 

domestic interdiction program. It operates 

nationwide at airports, train stations, bus 

stations, package shipment facilities, U.S. 

Post Offices, and airport hotels/motels. 
National Drug Intelligence Center

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Mexican criminal groups, some based in Virginia, 

transport wholesale quantities of methamphetamine produced in Mexico and southwestern 

states into Virginia. Outlaw motorcycle gangs 

(OMGs) and local independent Caucasian dealers 

transport lesser amounts of methamphetamine 

into the state from California, Maryland, New 

Jersey, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania.

Treatment admissions for drug abuse in

Virginia decreased in 1999 after increasing for a 

number of years. According to the Virginia 

Department of Mental Health, Mental Retardation 

and Substance Abuse Services, the number of 

treatment admissions to publicly funded facilities 

for abuse of cocaine remained stable from 1995 

through 1998. Treatment admissions for marijuana and heroin abuse increased yearly during 

this period. Treatment admissions for methamphetamine abuse fluctuated during this period.

The reported rate of drug abuse in Virginia is 

below the national rate. According to the 1999 

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 

approximately 4.5 percent of Virginia residents 

surveyed reported having abused an illicit drug in 

the past month compared with approximately 

6.3 percent nationwide.

In Virginia the percentage of federal sentences 

that were drug-related was higher than the 

national percentage, and the percentage of federal 

sentences that were crack-related was significantly 

higher than the national percentage. Drug-related 

sentences represented over 45 percent of all 

federal sentences in the state in fiscal year (FY) 

2000 compared with 40 percent nationally. Over 

51 percent of all drug-related federal sentences in 

the state were crack-related compared with 21 

percent nationally.

Drug-related crimes are common in Virginia. 

Law enforcement officials in Virginia recorded 

28,926 arrests for the sale or possession of illicit 

drugs in 1995 and 30,348 in 1998. However, drugrelated arrests decreased to 25,577 in 1999 and 

23,335 in 2000. Approximately one-quarter of all 

inmates entering incarceration under the Virginia 

Department of Corrections during 1998 had 

committed drug-related crimes. Fredericksburg, 

Hopewell, Petersburg, Richmond, and Emporia 

had the highest 3-year average drug-related 

Table 1. Primary Drug-Related Treatment Admissions to Publicly Funded Facilities

Virginia, 1995ñ1999

Year Cocaine Marijuana Heroin Methamphetamine

1995 11,893 5,912 2,737 105

1996 11,777 7,503 3,396 142

1997 11,743 7,947 4,045 102

1998 11,887 9,072 5,013 179

1999 11,363 9,334 4,609 192

Source: Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of Mental Health, Mental Retardation and Substance Abuse Services.

Chart 1. Drug-Related Arrests

Virginia, 1995–2000

Source: Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of Criminal Justice Services, Criminal Justice Research Center, Crime in the 

Commonwealth; Department of State Police, Virginia Uniform 

Crime Reporting Program, Crime in Virginia. 
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

4

arrest rates per 100,000 from 1996 through 1998, 

possibly because of their proximity to I-95. 

The financial impact on Virginia’s government 

from substance abuse-related costs is significant. 

In 1998 Virginia spent nearly $1.8 billion—

approximately $267 per resident—on substance 

abuse-related costs, almost 12 percent of the 

state’s total expenditures and the fourteenth highest 

percentage in the nation. 

Virginia has implemented comprehensive 

legislation aimed at reducing drug abuse. In July 

2000 Virginia’s General Assembly approved the 

Substance Abuse Reduction Effort, also known 

as SABRE, an antidrug initiative proposed by the 

Office of the Governor. The $25 million legislation 

strengthens drug enforcement, treatment, and 

prevention programs in the state. Also, under 

Virginia Exile, a 1999 anticrime initiative, individuals can be sentenced to an additional 5 years’ 

imprisonment for drug-related convictions 

involving possession of a firearm. 

Table 2. Areas With the Highest 3-Year 

Average Drug-Related Arrest Rates

Per 100,000, Virginia, 1996ñ1998

City/County Arrests

Fredericksburg 1,514

Hopewell 1,331

Petersburg 1,313

Richmond 1,098

Emporia 1,082

Source: Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of Criminal 

Justice Services, Criminal Justice Research Center, Crime in 

the Commonwealth.

Substance Abuse Reduction Effort

Enforcement

Virginia now has tougher criminal penalties for drug dealers and chronic drug abusers, including 

a mandatory minimum 3-year incarceration for drug dealers transporting into the commonwealth 1 ounce or more of any Schedule I or II drug or 5 or more pounds of marijuana. There is 

a mandatory minimum 10-year incarceration for a subsequent conviction under this statute.

The state offers cash rewards for information on major drug dealers and those selling drugs to 

children. For example, the state may grant rewards of up to $10,000 to individuals providing 

information that leads to the arrest and conviction of individuals who possess or distribute large 

quantities of drugs, distribute drugs to children, or operate methamphetamine laboratories.

The state also established a Special Operations Division within the Virginia Department of 

State Police to provide a permanent force to assist localities in the eradication of illegal drugs 

and related crime problems. 

Treatment

Virginia now requires mandatory treatment for first-time drug offenders. Every first-time abuser 

must be tested periodically for drug use and treated based on the results of the screening.

The state requires that inmates participate in societal integration and treatment programs prior 

to release from prison.

Prevention

Virginia established the Office for Substance Abuse Prevention to unify the commonwealth’s 

substance abuse prevention efforts. The principal role of this office is to review all existing 

substance abuse prevention program spending by state agencies and make recommendations 

to the governor regarding the direction and appropriateness of those expenditures.

Source: www.virginiasabre.com, 11 December 2000. 
National Drug Intelligence Center

5

Cocaine

Cocaine, particularly crack, is the primary 

drug threat to Virginia. Powdered cocaine and 

crack cocaine are readily available in most large 

population centers in the state. Cocaine abuse is 

associated with more drug-related treatment 

admissions to publicly funded facilities than is 

abuse of any other drug. Nearly two-thirds of all 

drug-related federal sentences in Virginia in 

FY2000 were cocaine-related. Crack cocaine is 

the drug most often associated with violent crime 

in the state. Colombian and Dominican criminal 

groups based in New York City and Philadelphia 

and, to a lesser but increasing extent, Mexican 

criminal groups based in Atlanta and Charlotte 

transport wholesale quantities of powdered 

cocaine into Virginia and distribute the drug at the 

wholesale level. Virginia-based African American, 

Caucasian, and Jamaican criminal groups and 

local independent dealers travel primarily to New 

York City, and also to Philadelphia, Washington, 

D.C., and Miami to purchase wholesale quantities of powdered cocaine and return to Virginia to 

distribute the drug at the retail level. Cocaine 

typically is transported into Virginia in private or 

rental vehicles. Retail distributors usually convert 

powdered cocaine into crack in Virginia on an 

as-needed basis. Wholesale crack distribution 

usually is limited to multiounce quantities. African American criminal groups based in Virginia 

and African American local independent dealers 

and street gangs distribute crack at the wholesale 

and retail levels. Retail distributors typically sell 

crack at open-air markets in Virginia and at

public housing projects in the Central Virginia 

and Tidewater areas. 

Abuse

The number of treatment admissions for 

cocaine abuse in Virginia remained stable from 

1995 through 1999. (See Table 1 on page 3.) 

According to state substance abuse data, the 

number of treatment admissions for cocaine 

abuse decreased overall from 11,893 in 1995 to 

11,363 in 1999. The state had more drug-related 

treatment admissions to publicly funded facilities 

for cocaine abuse than for any other drug from 

1995 through 1999.

Cocaine abuse is cited frequently in drugrelated deaths in Virginia. Cocaine was a factor in 

48 deaths in 1998, 74 in 1999, and 56 in 2000, 

according to the Virginia Medical Examiner (ME) 

Office. Cocaine ranked second after heroin (165) 

as the drug most commonly mentioned in drugrelated deaths in Virginia in 2000. In addition, 

cocaine was mentioned in 13 of the 46 drug-abuse 

deaths in the Norfolk area in 1999, according to 

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) ME data. 

(The Norfolk area also includes ME data from 

Newport News, Portsmouth, and Virginia Beach.) 

Law enforcement officials in Virginia also 

report that cocaine abuse is common. According 

to responses to the National Drug Intelligence 

Center (NDIC) National Drug Threat Survey 

2001, law enforcement officials in Alexandria, 

Fairfax, Newport News, Richmond, and Roanoke 

report that rates of powdered and crack cocaine 

abuse are high. Law enforcement officials in 

Emporia and Lynchburg report that rates of crack 

Figure 1. Central Virginia.

Amelia Charles City Chesterfield

Dinwiddie

Goochland Goochland oochland Hanover

Henrico New Kent Powhatan

Prince

George
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

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abuse are high and that rates of powdered cocaine 

abuse are moderate.

Powdered cocaine is commonly abused at 

nightclubs and bars, while crack is primarily abused 

in low-income, inner-city housing projects. Many 

white-collar professionals reportedly purchase 

powdered cocaine for personal use at nightclubs, 

bars, and offices. Crack is commonly purchased 

by low-income, inner-city abusers at open-air 

markets and public housing projects.

Availability

Cocaine, particularly crack, is readily available 

in urban population centers and many medium-sized 

cities in Virginia. According to responses to the 

NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, law 

enforcement officials in Alexandria, Fairfax, Newport News, and Richmond report that powdered 

cocaine and crack cocaine are readily available. 

Law enforcement officials in Charlottesville, 

Lynchburg, and Roanoke report that crack cocaine 

is readily available, and powdered cocaine is 

sometimes available.

Seizure data also reflect the ready availability 

of cocaine in Virginia. According to Federal-wide 

Drug Seizure System (FDSS) data, federal law 

enforcement officials in Virginia seized 62.2 kilograms of cocaine in FY1998, 78.7 kilograms in 

FY1999, and 55.8 kilograms in FY2000. Law 

enforcement officials seized 10.6 kilograms of 

cocaine in 1999 and 21.2 kilograms in 2000 

under Operation Pipeline and 24.7 kilograms of 

cocaine in 1999 and 11.5 kilograms in 2000 

under Operation Jetway.

The percentage of federal sentences in Virginia 

that were cocaine-related was higher than the 

national percentage. According to U.S. Sentencing 

Commission data, over 63 percent of drug-related 

federal sentences in Virginia in FY2000 were 

cocaine-related compared with approximately 44 

percent nationally. Over 51 percent of drugrelated federal sentences in Virginia that year 

were crack-related compared with approximately 

21 percent nationally.

The number of cocaine-related federal sentences was higher than for any other drug in 

FY2000. Virginia had 337 cocaine-related federal 

sentences in FY1996, 572 in FY1997, 545 in 

FY1998, 410 in FY1999, and 505 in FY2000. 

Crack cocaine-related federal sentences accounted 

for over 50 percent of drug-related federal sentences in Virginia each year during the same 

period. From October 1998 to May 2001, 81 of the 

107 Organized Crime Drug Enforcement Task 

Force (OCDETF) investigations initiated in

Cocaine, Weapons, and Vehicles 

Seized from Criminal Group in Virginia 

In August 2001 federal, state, and local officials 

arrested four members of a criminal group and 

seized a total of 37 kilograms of powdered 

cocaine from two rented storage units in the 

Tidewater area. Officials also seized three 

assault rifles, two semiautomatic weapons, a 

luxury vehicle, and a sport utility vehicle. Federal law enforcement officials reported that the 

criminal group distributed approximately 500 

kilograms of crack cocaine, with an estimated 

street value of over $10 million, between 1994 

and 2001.

Source: The Daily Press, 29 August 2001.

Figure 2. Tidewater.

Gloucester Gloucester County

Isle of Wight Isle of Wight

County

James City James City County

Suffolk Suffolk

Surry County Surry County

York County York County

Hampton Hampton

Newport Newport News

Virginia Virginia Beach

Chesapeake Chesapeake

Gloucester

County

Isle of Wight County

James City

County

Suffolk

Surry County

York County

Hampton

Norfolk Norfolk

Portsmouth Portsmouth ortsmouth

Newport

News

Virginia

Beach

Chesapeake
National Drug Intelligence Center

7

Virginia were powdered or crack cocaine-related, 

outnumbering all other drug investigations.

Price and purity data for powdered and crack 

cocaine indicate that both forms are readily available in urban population centers in Virginia. 

Wholesale and retail prices of powdered and crack 

cocaine in the state are close to national average 

prices. According to responses to the NDIC 

National Drug Threat Survey 2001, wholesale 

quantities of powdered cocaine ranged from 

$20,000 per kilogram in Roanoke to $30,000 in 

Richmond. Powdered cocaine ranged from $800 to 

$1,000 per ounce in Virginia, and crack sold for 

approximately $1,000 per ounce in the state. Retail 

quantities of powdered cocaine ranged from $80 to 

$100 per gram, and crack sold for $10 to $50 a 

rock, depending on the weight. Purity levels for 

wholesale quantities of powdered cocaine ranged 

from 55 to 87 percent in 2001, and those for retail 

quantities ranged from 40 to 50 percent. The purity 

level of crack distributed at all levels in Virginia 

ranged from 18 to 90 percent in 2000. 

Violence

Crack cocaine is the drug most often associated with violent crime in Virginia, particularly in 

inner-city neighborhoods and housing projects. 

Crack abusers often commit violent crimes to 

support their habits, and crack distributors commonly commit violent crimes to protect their turf. 

In August 2001 a Roanoke woman was sentenced 

to 10 years in prison for fatally stabbing her boyfriend with a steak knife. The woman alleged that 

her boyfriend had abused crack cocaine routinely, 

had assaulted her, and had stolen money from her 

to buy more crack. In January 2001 a circuit court 

judge in Richmond sentenced a South Richmond 

male to 31 years in prison for shooting and killing 

an individual who attempted to purchase crack 

from him in May 2000. 

Numerous street gangs distribute cocaine and 

commit violent crimes such as assaults, drive-by 

shootings, home invasions, and homicides. 

According to responses to the NDIC National 

Gang Survey 2000, the following gangs distribute 

cocaine and commit violent crimes in the state: 

Section 8 (Original Gangster), 3000 MOB, 5000 

MOB, Park Terrace, Mara Salvatrucha, and Mara 

Li in Alexandria; South Side Bloods in Bristol; 

Granville Boyz, Lamberts Point, and West Ocean 

View Folks in Norfolk; Lincoln Terrace Posse 

and Villa Heights 1 in Roanoke; Shotgun Crips

in Winchester, and 55 Dirtyside and Gangster 

Disciples in Prince William County, among others.

Law Enforcement Apprehends 

Members of Violent Crack Distribution 

Group in Richmond

On November 20, 2001, federal, state, and 

local law enforcement officials from Richmond 

and Henrico County arrested 12 members of 

a criminal group that distributed crack cocaine 

and committed violent crimes including

murders, robberies, and carjackings in the 

Richmond area.

Source: DEA. 

Gangster Disciples

Gangster Disciples is the largest of the 

Chicago-based street gangs; its members 

are primarily African American. This gang 

has been in existence since the early 1960s 

and is set up with an organizational hierarchy 

similar to a corporation. The gang distributes 

illegal drugs—primarily cocaine, heroin, and 

marijuana—throughout the Chicago area, 

usually in low-income areas on the south and 

west sides of the city and in over 40 states 

including Virginia.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

8

Production

Coca is not cultivated and cocaine is not produced in Virginia. However, retail distributors 

commonly convert powdered cocaine into crack 

in the state on an as-needed basis. Federal, state, 

and local law enforcement officials arrested five 

members of a Virginia-based African American 

criminal group in August 2001 for transporting 

powdered cocaine from New York City to Hampton and converting the powder into crack. Law 

enforcement officials report that between 1994 

and 2001 the group converted approximately 500 

kilograms of powdered cocaine into crack in a 

rented apartment before distributing the crack in 

the area.

Transportation

Colombian and Dominican criminal groups 

based in New York City and Philadelphia and, to 

a lesser extent, Mexican criminal groups based 

in Atlanta and Charlotte are the principal transporters of wholesale quantities of powdered 

cocaine into Virginia. Sometimes Virginia-based 

criminal groups and local independent dealers 

travel to Miami, New York City, Newark,

Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., to purchase 

wholesale quantities of powdered cocaine for 

distribution in Virginia. 

Cocaine typically is transported into Virginia 

in private or rental vehicles on Interstates 95 and 

85 and US 13, although commercial aircraft, 

buses, trains, and express mail services also are 

used. In August 2001 federal, state, and local law 

enforcement officials arrested five members of an 

African American criminal group that allegedly 

transported kilogram quantities of powdered 

cocaine from New York City to the Tidewater 

area concealed in compartments in private vehicles and in luggage aboard commercial aircraft. In 

May 2000 law enforcement officials under Operation Jetway seized 3 kilograms of cocaine and 

arrested an individual who had traveled from 

Newark to Richmond on a commercial flight. The 

cocaine was concealed in false handmade pockets 

secured with Velcro inside a carry-on garment 

bag. In February 2000 Henrico County police 

arrested five members of a Virginia-based African 

American criminal group that had transported 

approximately 1 kilogram of powdered cocaine 

per month for at least 2 years from New York 

City to the Richmond-Petersburg area, usually by 

commercial bus.

Distribution

Colombian and Dominican criminal groups 

based in New York City and Philadelphia and, to a 

lesser but increasing extent, Mexican criminal 

groups based in Atlanta and Charlotte are principal wholesale distributors of powdered cocaine in 

Virginia. All of these groups supply wholesale 

quantities of powdered cocaine to retail distributors, who are African American, Caucasian, and 

Jamaican criminal groups and local independent 

dealers. Street gangs also distribute retail quantities 

of powdered cocaine. In August 2000 the Richmond 

Drug Task Force arrested nine members of a loosely 

knit Caucasian criminal group for distributing retail 

quantities of powdered cocaine in Richmond and in 

nearby Henrico and Hanover Counties.

Wholesale crack distribution usually is limited 

to multiounce quantities. Virginia-based African 

American criminal groups, street gangs, and local 

independent dealers are the principal wholesale 
National Drug Intelligence Center

9

and retail distributors of crack cocaine in the state. 

Dominican and Jamaican criminal groups also 

distribute crack at the wholesale level in Virginia. Retail distributors typically distribute 

crack at open-air markets in Virginia and at 

public housing projects in the Central Virginia 

and Tidewater areas. 

Crack commonly is distributed in the state. In 

June 2001 a Newport News resident pleaded guilty 

to conspiring to distribute more than 50 kilograms 

of crack cocaine in Newport News and James City 

County between 1993 and 2001. In March 2000 

the Colonial Narcotics Enforcement Task Force 

arrested eight members of an African American 

criminal group from the James City County area. 

These members allegedly distributed retail quantities of crack cocaine in Newport News and 

Williamsburg and in James City and New Kent 

Counties. They accepted personal checks as payment for crack. According to responses to the 

NDIC National Gang Survey 2000, numerous 

street gangs distribute crack cocaine including the 

Section 8 (Original Gangster), 3000 MOB, 5000 

MOB, Park Terrace, Mara Salvatrucha, and Mara 

Li in Alexandria; South Side Bloods in Bristol; 

Granville Boyz, Lamberts Point, and West Ocean 

View Folks in Norfolk; Lincoln Terrace Posse and 

Villa Heights 1 in Roanoke; Shotgun Crips in Winchester; and 55 Dirtyside and Gangster Disciples 

in Prince William County. 

Marijuana

Marijuana, produced primarily in Mexico, is 

the most widely available and frequently abused 

drug in Virginia. However, law enforcement officers generally regard the drug as a lower threat than 

cocaine because marijuana abusers and distributors usually do not commit violent crimes. The 

number of admissions to publicly funded treatment facilities for marijuana abuse in Virginia was 

second only to cocaine each year from 1995 

through 1999. Fifty-eight percent of all drugrelated arrests by state and local law enforcement 

in 2000 were marijuana-related. Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in Mexico, 

but some is produced in southwestern states, Virginia, and neighboring states. Marijuana typically 

is transported into the state via commercial and 

private vehicles and via package delivery and 

express mail services. Jamaican and Mexican 

criminal groups based in southwestern states and 

Virginia and Caucasian criminal groups based in 

Virginia are the primary transporters and wholesale distributors of marijuana produced in Mexico 

and southwestern states. Caucasian criminal 

groups and local independent dealers are the primary transporters and wholesale distributors of 

marijuana produced in Virginia and neighboring 

states. Local independent dealers, primarily African American and Caucasian, and street gangs are 

the principal retail distributors of marijuana produced in Mexico and southwestern states, while 

Caucasian local independent dealers are the principal retail distributors of marijuana produced in 

Virginia and neighboring states.

Abuse

Marijuana is the most commonly abused drug 

in Virginia. According to responses to the 1999 

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 

almost twice as many individuals abused marijuana than any other illicit drug in Virginia. Four 

percent of Virginia residents surveyed reported 

having abused marijuana, and 2.3 percent reported 

abusing any illicit drug other than marijuana in the 

past month. According to responses to the NDIC 

National Drug Threat Survey 2001, law enforcement officials in Alexandria, Emporia, Lynchburg, 

Newport News, Roanoke, and Chesterfield County 

report that rates of marijuana abuse are high.

The rate of marijuana abuse in Virginia is 

lower than the national rate; however, the drug is 
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

10

commonly abused. According to responses to the 

1999 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 

4.0 percent of Virginia residents surveyed reported 

having abused marijuana at least once in the past 

month compared with 4.7 percent nationally. 

The number of admissions to publicly funded 

treatment facilities in Virginia for marijuana abuse 

was second only to the number for cocaine abuse 

each year from 1995 through 1999, according to 

state substance abuse data. The number of treatment admissions for marijuana abuse increased 

each year from 5,912 in 1995 to 9,334 in 1999.

(See Table 1 on page 3.)

Availability

Marijuana, produced primarily in Mexico, is 

the most widely available drug in Virginia. Marijuana produced in southwestern states, Virginia, 

and neighboring states also is available. According to the NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 

2001, law enforcement officials in Alexandria, 

Emporia, Lynchburg, Newport News, Roanoke, 

and Chesterfield County rate the level of marijuana availability as high.

Fifty-eight percent of all drug-related arrests 

by state and local law enforcement in 2000 were 

marijuana-related. Marijuana-related arrests 

increased from 15,706 in 1995 to 17,104 in 1996 

and increased approximately 4 percent from 

15,753 in 1997 to 16,391 in 1998. (Marijuanarelated arrest data for 1999 and 2000 are not comparable with data from previous years because the 

reporting system was revised.) Fredericksburg, 

Chesapeake, Bland County (southwestern Virginia), 

Clifton Forge (west central Virginia), and Hopewell 

officials reported the highest rate of arrests per 

100,000 population for possession of marijuana 

from 1996 through 1998. Officials in Waynesboro 

(west central Virginia), Hampton, Rockbridge 

County, Giles County (southwestern Virginia), 

and Buena Vista (west central Virginia) reported 

the highest average rate of arrests per 100,000 for 

the sale of marijuana during that period.

Seizure and OCDETF data reflect the ready 

availability of marijuana in Virginia. According 

to FDSS data, federal law enforcement officials in 

Virginia seized 100.5 kilograms of marijuana in 

FY1998, 165.6 kilograms in FY1999, and 80.9 

kilograms in FY2000. Law enforcement officials 

seized 137 kilograms of marijuana in 1999 and 

326 kilograms of marijuana in 2000 under Operation Pipeline and 49.4 kilograms in 1999 and 

563 kilograms in 2000 under Operation Jetway. 

From October 1998 to May 2001, 12 of the 107 

OCDETF investigations initiated in Virginia were 

marijuana-related, outnumbering all other drugrelated investigations except cocaine.

The percentage of drug-related federal sentences in Virginia that were marijuana-related 

was less than one-half the national percentage in 

FY2000. According to U.S. Sentencing Commission data, 15.5 percent of drug-related federal 

sentences in Virginia in FY2000 were marijuanarelated compared with 31.2 percent nationally. 

Chart 2. Marijuana-Related Arrests 

Virginia, 1995–2000

*Marijuana-related arrest data for 1999 and 2000 are not 

comparable with data from previous years because the 

reporting system was revised.

Source: Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of Criminal 

Justice Services, Criminal Justice Research Center, Crime 

in the Commonwealth; Department of State Police, Virginia 

Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Crime in Virginia 1999 

and 2000.

*
National Drug Intelligence Center

11

The number of marijuana-related federal sentences 

in Virginia was second to the number for cocaine 

each year from FY1996 through FY2000. Virginia 

had 85 marijuana-related federal sentences in 

FY1996, 95 in FY1997, 119 in FY1998, 86 in FY 

1999, and 123 in FY2000.

Marijuana prices varied throughout Virginia 

in 2001 and indicate that the drug is readily available. According to responses to the NDIC 

National Drug Threat Survey 2001, marijuana 

sold for $1,000 per pound in Albemarle County; 

$1,100 in Roanoke; $1,200 in Lynchburg, Newport 

News, and Fairfax County; and $2,000 in Richmond. Retail quantities of marijuana sold for 

$100 to $180 per ounce depending on the area. 

Violence

The production and distribution of marijuana 

are sometimes associated with violent crime in 

Virginia. Law enforcement officials report that 

outdoor cannabis growers sometimes use 

countersurveillance equipment, trip wires, and 

explosives to secure their cultivation sites. 

According to responses to the NDIC National 

Gang Survey 2000, numerous street gangs that 

distribute marijuana have committed violent 

crimes such as assaults, carjackings, drive-by 

shootings, home invasions, and homicides. These 

gangs include the Mara Salvatrucha in Arlington 

County and Alexandria; Mara Salvatrucha, Seven 

Woods Crew, and Tiny Rascal Gangsters in Fairfax County; Blood and Folk in Newport News; 

Berkly Boyz, Da Mobb, Folks, Granville Boyz, 

Lamberts Point, NOON, and West Ocean View 

Folks in Norfolk; and Lincoln Terrace Posse and 

Villa Heights 1 in Roanoke.

Production

Most of the marijuana available in Virginia is 

produced in Mexico. However, marijuana produced 

in southwestern states, Virginia, and neighboring 

states such as Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, 

and West Virginia also is available. 

Outdoor cannabis cultivation reportedly 

yields more cannabis than indoor cultivation in 

Virginia. Caucasian criminal groups and local 

independent dealers cultivate significant quantities of cannabis outdoors in the state, primarily in 

the mountainous areas of southwestern Virginia. 

Various local independent dealers and criminal 

groups cultivate smaller quantities of cannabis 

indoors throughout the state. According to 

responses to the NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, cannabis is cultivated both indoors and 

outdoors in Bluefield, Charlottesville, Roanoke, 

and Virginia Beach. The Southwest Virginia 

Drug Task Force reported that marijuana producers from Kentucky may be cultivating cannabis in 

southwestern Virginia because of increased law 

enforcement pressure in their state. The federal 

Mara Salvatrucha

Mara Salvatrucha is a violent street gang with 

a strong presence in California, Maryland, 

New York, Texas, and Virginia. Original members were refugees from the civil war in El 

Salvador during the 1980s; many were former 

soldiers and guerrillas, well trained in weapons and warfare tactics. Current members 

include second-generation Salvadorans as 

well as other Hispanics. Mara Salvatrucha 

members have distributed drugs, primarily 

marijuana, and have committed aggravated 

assaults, assaults on law enforcement officials, homicides, home invasions, auto thefts, 

and black market weapons violations. Gang 

members sometimes trade marijuana for 

weapons, particularly handguns. Some of the 

weapons are retained for personal use and 

some are smuggled to El Salvador.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

12

government designated 65 counties in Kentucky, 

Tennessee, and West Virginia as the Appalachia 

High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) 

in 1998. This HIDTA receives approximately

$6 million a year in federal funds for marijuana 

eradication efforts.

By the early 1990s most outdoor grow operations in the state yielded 2,000 to 6,000 cannabis 

plants and were easily detected from the air. 

However, according to the director of the Virginia 

Marijuana Eradication Program, in the mid-1990s 

many outdoor growers reduced the size of their 

plots to an average of fewer than 100 plants to 

avoid detection. In 2001, however, law enforcement officials reported that the number of largescale cannabis cultivation sites had increased. In 

August 2000 law enforcement officials in Russell 

County seized 5,404 cannabis plants from one 

field, the largest seizure in the county since 1985. 

In July 2000 law enforcement officials in rural 

Wise County near the Kentucky-Virginia border 

seized approximately 4,500 cannabis plants from 

a single grow with an estimated street value of

$8 million. Law enforcement officials transported 

the seized plants by helicopter because of the 

remoteness of the location. 

Transportation

Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups based 

in southwestern states and Virginia and Caucasian 

criminal groups based in Virginia are the primary 

transporters of wholesale quantities of marijuana, 

primarily Mexico-produced, from southwestern 

states into Virginia. African American criminal 

groups and local independent dealers based in 

Virginia also transport significant quantities of 

marijuana from southwestern states into Virginia. 

Caucasian criminal groups and local independent 

dealers are the primary transporters of marijuana 

produced in Virginia and neighboring states. 

These criminal groups and dealers usually transport smaller quantities of the drug.

Marijuana typically is transported into Virginia 

in commercial and private vehicles and via package 

delivery and express mail services. The Virginia 

State Police report that much of the Mexicoproduced marijuana available in the state is smuggled in tractor-trailers from Mexico to southwestern 

states; from there it is shipped in 10- to 15-pound 

packages by express mail services into Virginia. 

In June 2000 federal law enforcement officials 

arrested an individual for transporting thousands of 

pounds of marijuana from Mexico into Virginia. 

This individual had used a Virginia-based trucking 

company to transport 3,000- to 5,000-pound shipments of marijuana on at least 20 separate occasions 

. 

Figure 3. Southwestern Virginia.

Wythe

Bland

Buchanan

Carroll

Floyd

Patrick

Franklin

Giles

Grayson

Dickenson

Lee

Pulaski

Russell

Scott

Smyth

Tazewell

Washington

Wise

Montgomery
National Drug Intelligence Center

13

in 1999. In February 2000 a Henrico County resident was convicted of transporting over 4,900 

pounds of marijuana between 1995 and 1999 

using express mail services and commercial 

freight trucks from San Diego to Virginia. The 

shipments typically weighed 10 to 20 pounds and 

were delivered to various addresses in the Richmond area. Transporters frequently use dryer 

sheets, yellow mustard, coffee grounds, jalapeño 

peppers, hot pepper flakes, cleaning products, and 

other materials to mask the odor of the marijuana. 

In February 2001 law enforcement officials in 

Virginia Beach under Operation Jetway seized 

6.6 kilograms of marijuana from an express parcel shipped from San Diego. The parcel, labeled 

as law books, had a distinctive perfume odor. The 

marijuana was covered with liquid foam and concealed inside a 5-gallon plastic bucket. 

Distribution

Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups based 

in southwestern states and Virginia and Caucasian 

criminal groups based in Virginia are the primary 

wholesale distributors of Mexico-produced marijuana. All of these criminal groups also distribute, 

to a lesser extent, wholesale quantities of marijuana produced in southwestern states. African 

American criminal groups and local independent 

dealers also distribute wholesale quantities of 

Mexico-produced marijuana. Caucasian criminal 

groups and local independent dealers are the primary wholesale distributors of marijuana produced in Virginia and neighboring states. 

Local independent dealers, primarily African 

American and Caucasian, and street gangs are the 

principal retail distributors in Virginia of Mexicoproduced marijuana and marijuana produced in 

southwestern states. According to responses to 

the NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, 

numerous gangs distribute marijuana including 

the Mara Salvatrucha in Alexandria; the South 

Side Bloods in Bristol; the Blood and the Folk in 

Newport News; the Berkly Boyz, Da Mobb, the 

Folks, the Granville Boyz, Lamberts Point, 

NOON, and the West Ocean View Folks in Norfolk; the Lincoln Terrace Posse and Villa Heights 

1 in Roanoke; the Shotgun Crips in Winchester; 

the Mara Salvatrucha in Arlington County; the 

Mara Salvatrucha, the Seven Woods Crew, and 

the Tiny Rascal Gangsters in Fairfax County; and 

55 Dirtyside in Prince William County. Caucasian 

local independent dealers are the principal retail 

distributors of marijuana produced in Virginia 

and neighboring states.

Heroin

Heroin, produced primarily in South America, is an increasing threat to Virginia. Southeast 

Asian, Southwest Asian, and Mexican black tar 

and brown powdered heroin also are available. 

Most new heroin abusers in Virginia are young 

adults who snort the drug rather than inject it. The 

number of admissions to publicly funded treatment facilities for heroin abuse ranked third 

behind cocaine and marijuana from 1995 through 

1999. Heroin was a factor in more drug-related 

deaths in Virginia in 2000 than any other drug. 

Heroin is readily available in the Central Virginia 

and Tidewater areas and is an emerging threat to 

Winchester. The number of heroin-related federal 

sentences in Virginia fluctuated between FY1996 

and FY2000 but was lower than sentences for 

every other major drug in FY2000. Dominican 

criminal groups based in New York City and Philadelphia transport wholesale quantities of South 

American heroin into Virginia and distribute the 

drug at the wholesale level. African American 

criminal groups based in Virginia frequently 

travel to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, 

and Washington, D.C., to purchase wholesale 

quantities of heroin and return to Virginia where 

they distribute the drug at the wholesale level. 

Transporters commonly use private and rental 

vehicles, commercial buses, and passenger rail 
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

14

services to transport heroin from New York City 

and Philadelphia into Virginia. Local independent 

African American dealers are the principal retail 

distributors of heroin in Virginia.

Abuse

The abuse of high purity South American 

heroin represents a growing threat to Virginia. 

The number of heroin abusers who snort the drug 

has increased and the number of heroin abusers 

who inject the drug, the traditional method, has 

decreased. New abusers include a younger population averse to using needles. Law enforcement 

officials in Richmond and Virginia Beach report 

that the increased purity of heroin at the retail level 

has contributed to an increased number of heroinrelated deaths in the state.

Treatment data indicate that heroin abuse rates 

in Virginia increased each year from 1995 through 

1998, then decreased in 1999. (See Table 1 on 

page 3.) According to state substance abuse data, 

the annual number of treatment admissions for 

heroin abuse in Virginia increased from 2,737 in 

1995 to 5,013 in 1998 and decreased to 4,609 in 

1999. The number of treatment admissions for 

heroin abuse ranked third behind cocaine and 

marijuana from 1995 through 1999.

Heroin was a factor in more drug-related 

deaths in Virginia in 2000 than any other drug. 

Heroin was reported in 110 deaths in 1998, 137 in 

1999, and 165 in 2000, according to Virginia ME 

data. The number of deaths in which heroin was a 

factor in Richmond increased 33 percent from 

33 in 1999 to 44 in 2000. In addition, heroin was 

mentioned in 23 of the 46 drug-related deaths in 

the Norfolk area in 1999, according to DAWN 

ME data.

Rates of heroin abuse vary throughout the 

state. According to responses to the NDIC 

National Drug Threat Survey 2001, law enforcement officials in Chesapeake, Newport News, 

Richmond, Virginia Beach, and Henrico and 

Warren Counties report that heroin is commonly 

abused in their jurisdictions. Law enforcement 

officials in Alexandria, Charlottesville, Roanoke, 

and Fairfax County report that heroin is sometimes 

abused in their jurisdictions. Law enforcement 

officials in Emporia and Salem report that heroin 

is rarely abused in their jurisdictions. The DEA 

Washington Division reported a significant increase 

in the demand for heroin and in the level of abuse 

in Winchester during the first quarter of 2001.

Availability

Heroin, produced primarily in South America, 

is readily available in the Central Virginia and 

Tidewater areas and is an emerging threat to

Winchester. Southeast Asian, Southwest Asian, 

and Mexican black tar and brown powdered heroin 

also are available. According to responses to the 

NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, law 

enforcement officials in Newport News, Richmond, and Virginia Beach report that South 

American heroin is widely available. 

The amount of heroin seized in Virginia has 

fluctuated over the past several years. Federal law 

enforcement officials seized 3.9 kilograms of 

heroin in Virginia in FY1998, 2.9 kilograms in 

FY1999, and 3.2 kilograms in FY2000, according 

to FDSS data. Law enforcement officials reportedly seized 0.9 kilograms of heroin in Virginia in 

1999 and none in 2000 under Operation Pipeline. 

However, law enforcement officials in the state 

seized 2.2 kilograms of heroin in 1999 and 8.9 

kilograms in 2000 under Operation Jetway.

The number of heroin-related federal sentences in Virginia fluctuated between FY1996 

and FY2000 but was lower than every other major 

drug in FY2000. According to U.S. Sentencing 

Commission data, the state had 29 heroin-related 
National Drug Intelligence Center

15

federal sentences in FY1996, 28 in FY1997, 71 in 

FY1998, 61 in FY1999, and 64 in FY2000. Additionally, 8.1 percent of all drug-related federal 

sentences in Virginia were heroin-related in 

FY2000 compared with 7.7 percent nationally.

Heroin prices in Virginia vary depending on the 

area. Although heroin is rarely sold in kilogram 

quantities in the state, responses to the NDIC 

National Drug Threat Survey 2001 indicate that 

heroin sold for $90,000 to $120,000 per kilogram in 

2001 and ranged from $3,000 to $7,500 per ounce. 

Retail quantities of heroin sold for $100 to $200 per 

gram. Wholesale quantities of heroin generally 

ranged from 77 to 95 percent pure, and retail 

quantities ranged from 30 to 84 percent in 2001. 

Violence

Heroin abusers sometimes commit crimes to 

support their habits, and heroin distributors frequently commit violent crimes including 

assaults and murders to protect their turf. In June 

2001 a member of the 17th Street Boys gang 

was convicted on federal charges of heroin trafficking and murder. During the 1990s this gang 

member distributed drugs and committed violent 

crimes in South Richmond, including the 

August 1998 murder of a police informant. In 

response to the NDIC National Gang Survey 

2000, the Norfolk Police Department reported 

that the Shotgun Gangster Crips, a local gang 

that distributes heroin, has committed assaults.

Production

Opium is not cultivated and heroin is not 

produced in Virginia. Heroin is produced primarily in four source regions: South America, 

Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, and Mexico. 

Most of the heroin available in Virginia is

produced in South America. 

Transportation

Dominican criminal groups based in New 

York City and Philadelphia and African American 

criminal groups based in Virginia are the principal 

transporters of South American heroin into Virginia. African American criminal groups based in 

Virginia frequently travel to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C., to purchase wholesale quantities of heroin and return to 

Virginia. Transporters commonly use private and 

rental vehicles and commercial buses on I-95 and 

US 13, as well as passenger rail service to transport heroin from New York City and Philadelphia 

into Virginia. Eight of the 12 heroin seizures 

recorded on highways in Virginia from FY1995 to 

FY1999 occurred on I-95 or US 13, and 6 of the 

12 shipments were destined for Virginia, according to Operation Pipeline data. Five of the six 

shipments that were destined for Virginia originated in New York City, and one originated in 

Washington, D.C. 

Other types of heroin are transported into Virginia but to a far less extent. Mexican and Jamaican 

criminal groups transport Mexican black tar and 

brown powdered heroin, while West African criminal groups transport Southwest Asian and Southeast Asian heroin into Virginia. Mexican and 

Jamaican criminal groups generally transport heroin from southwestern states using private or rental 

vehicles. West African criminal groups transport 

heroin into Virginia using couriers on commercial 

aircraft; a significant portion of that heroin is destined for other states. All of these groups also transport heroin through air parcel delivery services.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

16

Distribution

Dominican criminal groups based in New 

York City and Philadelphia and African American criminal groups based in Virginia are the 

principal wholesale distributors of South American 

heroin. Dominican criminal groups frequently 

rent an apartment or motel room and distribute 

wholesale (multiounce) quantities of the drug, 

often to African American criminal groups. However, federal investigations indicate that some 

members of Dominican criminal groups have also 

established full- or part-time residency in Virginia, 

particularly in Richmond, to distribute wholesale 

quantities of heroin. According to responses to 

the NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, law 

enforcement officials in Richmond reported that 

African American and Dominican criminal groups 

are the most dominant wholesale distributors of 

heroin in that area.

Local independent African American dealers 

are the principal retail distributors of heroin in 

Virginia, although various criminal groups and 

other local independent dealers also distribute 

retail quantities of the drug. In Richmond and 

Newport News heroin usually is packaged in small 

baggies stamped with a symbol or logo, while in 

the Norfolk and Portsmouth areas heroin is distributed in clear gelcaps. Heroin is commonly distributed at open-air markets and public housing 

projects, particularly in the Central Virginia and 

Tidewater areas.

Other Dangerous Drugs

Other dangerous drugs (ODDs) present a significant and increasing threat to Virginia. ODDs 

include stimulants such as MDMA; hallucinogens 

such as LSD, PCP, and ketamine; depressants 

such as GHB; and diverted pharmaceuticals 

including opioids (narcotic analgesics) such as 

OxyContin, Dilaudid, Hycodan, Lortab, Percocet, 

Percodan, Tylox, Vicodin, and methadone, and 

sedative hypnotics (benzo-diazepines) such as 

Xanax and Valium. Various criminal groups 

transport ODDs to Virginia via parcel delivery 

and express mail services. Many ODDs are sold 

and abused by middle-class, suburban, young 

adults at raves and nightclubs, and on college 

campuses. MDMA is increasingly available and 

abused in Virginia, particularly in the Northern 

Virginia, Central Virginia, and Tidewater areas. 

The diversion and abuse of pharmaceuticals, 

especially OxyContin, represent the most significant ODD threat to southwestern Virginia. Caucasian criminal groups and local independent 

dealers are the principal distributors of diverted 

pharmaceuticals.

Rave Clubs 

Throughout the 1990s, high energy, all-night 

dances known as raves, which feature hard 

pounding techno-music and flashing laser lights, 

increased in popularity among teenagers and 

young adults. Raves occur in most metropolitan 

areas of the country. They can be held at either 

permanent dance clubs or temporary “weekend 

event” sites set up in abandoned warehouses, 

open fields, empty buildings, or civic centers. 

Club drugs are a group of synthetic drugs often 

sold at raves and dance clubs. MDMA is one of 

the most popular club drugs. Rave managers 

often sell water, pacifiers, and glow sticks at 

rave parties. “Ravers” drink water to offset 

dehydration caused by MDMA; use pacifiers to 

prevent the grinding of teeth, which is a common 

side effect of abusing MDMA; and wave glow 

sticks in front of their eyes because MDMA 

stimulates light perception.
National Drug Intelligence Center

17

Stimulants

The increasing availability and abuse of 

MDMA, particularly among teenagers and young 

adults, poses a growing threat to Virginia. MDMA, 

also known as Adam, ecstasy, XTC, E, and X, is a 

stimulant and low-level hallucinogen. MDMA 

was patented in 1914 in Germany where it was 

sometimes given to psychiatric patients to assist 

in psychotherapy, a practice never approved by 

the American Psychological Association or the 

Food and Drug Administration. Sometimes called 

the hug drug, MDMA makes users feel good; 

they claim that the drug helps them be more “in 

touch” with others and that it “opens channels of 

communication.” However, abuse of the drug can 

cause psychological problems similar to those 

associated with methamphetamine and cocaine 

abuse including confusion, depression, sleeplessness, anxiety, and paranoia. The physical effects 

can include muscle tension, involuntary teeth 

clenching, blurred vision, and increased heart rate 

and blood pressure. MDMA abuse can also cause 

a marked increase in body temperature leading to 

muscle breakdown, kidney failure, cardiovascular 

system failure, stroke, or seizure as reported in 

some fatal cases. Researchers suggest that 

MDMA abuse may result in long-term and sometimes permanent damage to parts of the brain that 

are critical to thought and memory. 

MDMA is increasingly available and abused 

in Virginia, particularly in the Northern Virginia, 

Central Virginia, and Tidewater areas. According to responses to the NDIC National Drug 

Threat Survey 2001, law enforcement officials 

in Alexandria, Fairfax, Newport News, Richmond, 

Virginia Beach, Henrico County, and Prince 

William County report increased rates of availability and abuse of MDMA. The Fairfax 

County Police Department seized approximately 

200 dosage units of MDMA in 1998 and 30,000 

dosage units in 1999. Specialized field tests 

indicated that at least two of the MDMA tablets 

seized contained heroin. From October 1998 to 

May 2001, 3 of the 107 OCDETF investigations 

initiated in Virginia were MDMA-related.

Violence associated with the distribution and 

abuse of MDMA has become a threat to Virginia. 

In March 2001 a 21-year-old male was shot to 

death in the driveway of his town house in Prince 

William County. In the largest MDMA seizure 

ever in the county, police seized thousands of 

MDMA tablets and over $300,000 worth of highgrade marijuana. Law enforcement officials 

believe a group that distributed MDMA in Northern Virginia, Washington, D.C., and Maryland 

may be responsible for the murder.

Most MDMA available in Virginia is produced 

outside the United States, typically in laboratories in 

the Netherlands and Belgium and transported 

through express mail services and by couriers on 

commercial airlines through distribution centers 

such as Miami, New York City, Philadelphia, and 

Washington, D.C. MDMA is transported from these 

and other areas to Virginia primarily in packages 

sent through express mail services or by couriers 

traveling in private vehicles. In March 2000 German 

customs officials seized a package sent through an 

express mail service that contained 15,000 MDMA 

tablets. The tablets were produced in the Netherlands and were destined for a residence in Roanoke. 

In December 2000 Prince William County Police in 

Northern Virginia arrested an individual and seized 

a nonoperational powdered MDMA laboratory. 

During the first quarter of 2001, law enforcement 

officials under Operation Jetway seized over 1,000 

Figure 4. Northern Virginia.

Loudoun

Fairfax

Fauquier

Stafford

Arlington Arlington rlington

Prince

William
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

18

MDMA tablets in Virginia Beach from an express 

mail service shipment that was mailed from Florida. 

The MDMA tablets were vacuum-sealed in an envelope. Local independent dealers sometimes travel to 

Baltimore, New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., to purchase MDMA and transport it 

back to Virginia.

Local independent Caucasian dealers are the 

principal wholesale distributors of MDMA in the 

state. They usually purchase their supplies from 

Israeli or Russian criminal groups based in Miami, 

New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington, 

D.C. Retail-level MDMA distributors are usually 

high school or college age students, primarily 

Caucasian, from the middle and upper-middle 

classes. They typically distribute the drug at 

raves, nightclubs, and near shopping malls. Law 

enforcement officials report that these distributors 

have little understanding of the threat posed by 

the distribution and abuse of the drug. These individuals usually do not distribute MDMA as part 

of an organized group bound by loyalty or longstanding affiliations, as is often the case with 

gangs that distribute cocaine, heroin, marijuana, 

and other drugs. In April 2001 law enforcement 

officials in Loudoun County arrested several local 

independent dealers, including two teenagers, 

who had allegedly sold as many as 200,000 

MDMA tablets from October 1999 to April 2001. 

In response to the NDIC National Drug Threat 

Survey 2001, the Fairfax County Police Department 

reported that Asian and Middle Eastern independent 

dealers also distribute retail quantities of MDMA 

in Virginia. MDMA, typically stamped with a 

logo such as a clover, usually sells for $25 to $40 

per tablet in Virginia.

The DEA Washington Division reports that 

some military personnel assigned to bases in 

Virginia distribute MDMA at the retail level. In 

February 2001 Newport News Police arrested 

several members of the military for distributing 

MDMA at a local nightclub. In December 2000 

an airman was sentenced to 9 months in prison for 

distributing MDMA at Langley Air Force Base.

Hallucinogens

The distribution and abuse of LSD pose a low 

threat to Virginia. LSD, also known as acid, boomer, 

and yellow sunshines, is a hallucinogen that 

induces abnormalities in sensory perceptions. The 

effects of LSD are unpredictable depending upon 

the amount taken, the environment in which it is 

abused, and the abuser’s personality, mood, and 

expectations. Abusers may feel the effects for up 

to 12 hours. The physical effects include dilated 

pupils, higher body temperature, increased heart 

rate and blood pressure, sweating, loss of appetite, 

nausea, numbness, weakness, insomnia, dry 

mouth, and tremors. Two long-term disorders 

associated with LSD are persistent psychosis and 

hallucinogen persisting perception disorder 

(flashbacks). LSD typically is taken orally.

LSD is available in powder and liquid forms, 

in tablets or capsules, on pieces of blotter paper 

that absorb the drug, and on small candies. It is 

available primarily at raves, bars, and nightclubs 

in large cities and college towns in Virginia. Most 

abusers are high school and college age individuals. 

Some abusers hide liquid LSD in breath mint vials 

or eyedrop bottles. Approximately 10 percent of 

high school seniors surveyed in the Norfolk area 

reported having abused LSD at least once in their 

lifetime, according to a 1999 survey by The

Virginian-Pilot.

Most LSD available in the state is produced in 

California and transported to Virginia primarily 

through express mail services. College and high 

school students, primarily Caucasian, are the principal retail distributors of the drug. In September 

2000 law enforcement officials in Roanoke 

arrested students from two high schools for distributing LSD. It sells for $150 to $400 per sheet 

(100 dosage units) in Virginia, and a single dosage 

unit or “hit” typically sells for between $3 and $7. 
National Drug Intelligence Center

19

The distribution and abuse of PCP in Virginia 

pose a low but increasing threat. PCP was originally 

developed as an intravenous anesthetic. Use of 

PCP in humans was discontinued in 1965 because 

patients who used the drug became agitated, 

delusional, and irrational. PCP, also known as 

angel dust, ozone, wack, and rocket fuel, is illegally produced in laboratories in the United 

States. PCP is a white crystalline powder that is 

soluble in water and has a bitter taste. The drug 

can be mixed with dyes and is available as a tablet, capsule, liquid, or colored powder. PCP may 

be snorted, smoked, injected, or swallowed. For 

smoking purposes, PCP may be applied to mint, 

parsley, oregano, or marijuana. When combined 

with marijuana, the mixture is called a killer joint 

or crystal supergrass.

PCP is addictive; its abuse often leads to psychological dependence, craving, and compulsive 

PCP-seeking behavior. PCP abuse by adolescents 

may interfere with hormones related to normal 

growth and development and the learning process. Abusers cite feelings of strength, power, 

invulnerability, and a numbing effect on the mind. 

At low to moderate doses, physiological effects 

include a slight increase in respiration and a pronounced rise in blood pressure and pulse rate. Respiration becomes shallow, flushing and profuse 

sweating occur, and generalized numbness of the 

extremities and lack of muscle coordination may 

occur. Psychological effects include distinct 

changes in body awareness, similar to the effects 

of alcohol intoxication. At high doses, blood 

pressure, pulse rate, and respiration drop. High 

doses can also cause seizures, coma, and sometimes death. Abusers who consume significant 

quantities of PCP over a long period of time may 

suffer memory loss, difficulties with speech and 

thinking, depression, and weight loss. PCP has 

sedative effects and, when mixed with alcohol or 

other central nervous system depressants, may 

result in an overdose or coma.

The number of PCP abusers in Virginia is 

low but increasing. The number of admissions to 

publicly funded treatment facilities for PCP abuse 

increased from 6 in 1998 to 20 in 1999 according 

to TEDS data.

African American criminal groups and local 

independent dealers based in Washington, D.C., 

usually purchase wholesale quantities of PCP 

from distributors based in Southern California. 

Criminal groups based in Cleveland, Newark, 

New York City, and Philadelphia also supply 

Washington, D.C.-based criminal groups with 

wholesale quantities of PCP, but to a lesser extent. 

Local independent Caucasian dealers, the principal 

retail distributors of PCP in Virginia, usually 

purchase the drug from D.C.-based criminal 

groups and then distribute it in the state. 

Ketamine presents a low but increasing threat 

to Virginia. Ketamine, also known as K, special 

K, vitamin K, and cat valium, is an injectable 

anesthetic that is approved for both human and 

animal use. Ketamine is sold commercially and is 

produced in liquid, powder, and tablet forms. The 

liquid form is injected intramuscularly. Liquid 

ketamine can be boiled into powdered ketamine 

that can be put into capsules. In its powder form, 

ketamine can be mistaken for cocaine or methamphetamine and is often snorted or smoked with 

marijuana or tobacco products.

PCP Sold as MDMA

PCP tablets have been marketed as MDMA 

tablets in Northern Virginia. The Fairfax 

County Police Department first seized the 

PCP tablets during an undercover drug investigation in December 2000 and has since 

seized approximately 500 such tablets from 

three Washington, D.C.-based distributors. 

The tablets, slightly smaller in diameter than a 

common aspirin tablet, are stamped with a 

Pokémon cartoon character known as Pikachu and sold for $15 each. They are orange in 

color with orange specks, are flat with beveled 

edges, and are not protected with a glaze or 

coating. DEA reports that PCP is rarely distributed in tablet form in the United States. 

Source: Fairfax County Police Department.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

20

Low-dose intoxication from ketamine may 

result in impaired attention, learning ability, and 

memory; dissociation, which includes out-of-body 

and near-death experiences; and hallucinations. 

High doses of ketamine can cause delirium, 

amnesia, impaired motor function, high blood 

pressure, depression, and potentially fatal respiratory problems.Ketamine gained popularity among 

abusers in the 1980s when it was discovered that 

large doses caused reactions similar to those 

experienced with PCP abuse (see PCP section). 

Ketamine abusers in the United States and the 

United Kingdom have reported incidents similar 

to bad LSD trips. Some abusers try to jump from 

moving vehicles or fly.

Wholesale distributors based in Florida, New 

Jersey, and New York City supply most of the ketamine available for distribution in Virginia. However, break-ins at veterinary clinics in the state 

also are sources for the drug. Ketamine was stolen in at least five veterinary office break-ins from 

January through June 2000 in Henrico County. 

Young adults, primarily Caucasian, typically 

abuse ketamine at social venues such as bars, 

nightclubs, and raves. Local independent dealers, 

primarily Caucasian, are the principal retail 

distributors of the drug in Virginia. Ketamine is 

sold illegally in Virginia for $20 per 50 milligrams. 

Depressants

The threat to Virginia from GHB is low. 

GHB, also known as liquid MDMA, scoop, 

grievous bodily harm, and Georgia homeboy, is a 

depressant that occurs naturally in the body and is 

necessary for full functioning of the brain and 

central nervous system. Using GHB and methamphetamine simultaneously increases the risk of 

seizures. GHB overdoses can occur quickly; 

some signs include drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, 

loss of consciousness, impaired breathing, and, 

ultimately, death. Abusers also can experience 

insomnia, anxiety, tremors, and sweating. GHB is 

eliminated from the body quickly which makes it 

difficult for treatment providers to detect. The 

drug increasingly is involved in poisonings, overdoses, sexual assaults, and fatalities nationwide.

GHB is available in Virginia primarily at social 

venues such as bars, nightclubs, and raves. Young 

adults, usually Caucasian, are the principal distributors and abusers of the drug. Recipes and 

do-it-yourself kits for GHB production are available on several Internet sites. GHB was federally 

scheduled on February 18, 2000, and a state law 

enacted in July 2000 made producing, selling, 

distributing, or possessing GHB a felony. 

In Virginia liquid GHB, which is packaged in 

small vials, sells for between $20 and $50 per vial 

depending on the size. 

Diverted Pharmaceuticals

Diverted pharmaceuticals pose a significant 

and increasing threat to Virginia. The most commonly diverted pharmaceuticals in Virginia are 

opioids (narcotic analgesics) such as OxyContin, 

Dilaudid, Hycodan, Lortab, Percocet, Percodan, 

Tylox, Vicodin, and methadone, and sedative 

hypnotics (benzodiazepines) such as Xanax and 

Valium. Narcotic analgesics are prescribed to 

relieve moderate to severe pain. Most sedative 

hypnotics are prescribed to relieve anxiety; however, some are used as anticonvulsants to treat muscle spasms. Pharmaceuticals are diverted in a 

variety of ways in Virginia.

The diversion and abuse of OxyContin, also 

known as Oxys or OCs, and its associated violence 

represent the most significant ODD threat to 

southwestern Virginia. According to the MidAtlantic Region OCDETF, Western District of 
National Drug Intelligence Center

21

Virginia, OxyContin is the most commonly abused 

drug in the Western District of the state. In addition, 

diverted OxyContin is becoming increasingly available in parts of central, northern, and eastern Virginia. Law enforcement officials report that 

OxyContin, once predominantly abused by lowerincome individuals, increasingly is being abused 

by middle-class individuals. Since 1997 at least 

38 individuals in western Virginia have died from 

overdoses of OxyContin, according to the Assistant Chief Medical Examiner in Roanoke.

OxyContin abuse has led to an increased 

number of pharmacy robberies, burglaries, shoplifting incidents, and healthcare fraud incidents, 

especially in southwestern Virginia. In May 2001 

a doctor from Grundy, Buchanan County, in southwestern Virginia was convicted of over 400 counts 

of illegally prescribing prescription drugs, including controlled substances such as the oxycodone 

products OxyContin and Tylox. In February 2001 a 

Bland County physician was charged with over 300 

counts of illegally prescribing prescription drugs 

including OxyContin. In October 2000 the 

Pulaski County Police Department reported that 

approximately 90 percent of all thefts, burglaries, 

and shoplifting incidents in the area were OxyContin-related. Some pharmacies in Tazewell 

County discontinued selling OxyContin because 

of the high rate of robberies. Individuals stole 

OxyContin from at least 12 pharmacies in Buchanan, Russell, and Tazewell Counties between 

October 1999 and October 2000. In September 

2000 prosecutors in Tazewell County reported 

that over 150 individuals had been charged with 

OxyContin-related felonies during the prior 12 

months. Typically, in Virginia a 40-milligram tablet 

of OxyContin sells illegally for approximately $40. 

Proactive measures have been taken in the state 

to prevent an increase in the level of OxyContin 

abuse. In March 2001 law enforcement officials 

from the federal government and five states met 

with Connecticut-based Purdue Pharma L.P., the 

manufacturer of OxyContin, to address the 

increasing rate of abuse of the drug. As a result, the 

Attorney General of Virginia and Purdue Pharma 

agreed on a seven-point plan to reduce the risks 

associated with the diversion and abuse of the drug. 

In May 2001 Purdue Pharma, concerned about the 

possible illicit use of the high-strength tablets, 

suspended distribution of the 160-milligram 

OxyContin tablets. The 160-milligram dosage, the 

highest available, was usually prescribed for less 

than 1 percent of OxyContin users.

Methadone commonly is used as a treatment 

for opiate addiction, particularly heroin. Methadone was mentioned in 5 of the 46 drug-abuse 

deaths in the Norfolk area in 1999, according to 

DAWN ME data. State medical officials reported 

that some of the 33 methadone-related overdose 

deaths from 1997 to 2000 in southwestern Virginia 

may be attributed to individuals using methadone 

to end their OxyContin addictions. Methadone is 

sold illegally in Virginia, usually for $40 per 40 

milligrams.

Pharmaceutical Diversion Methods

Methods of diverting pharmaceuticals include 

pharmacy diversion, “doctor shopping,” and 

improper prescribing practices by physicians. 

Pharmacy diversion occurs when pharmacy 

employees steal products directly from the 

shelves or through prescription forgeries. 

Along with prescription forgery, one of the most 

widely used diversion techniques is doctor 

shopping—individuals who may or may not 

have a legitimate ailment visit numerous 

physicians to obtain drugs in excess of what 

should be legitimately prescribed. This problem 

is common in southwestern Virginia.

OxyContin-Related Murder

In July 2001 a Virginia resident pleaded guilty 

to murder and drug distribution in an OxyContin-related investigation. The perpetrator used 

a syringe to inject a lethal dose of OxyContin 

into the victim’s arm. 

Source: Associated Press, 24 July 2001.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

22

Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine poses a low but increasing 

threat to Virginia. Levels of availability and abuse 

have increased in the Shenandoah Valley, and the 

drug is an emerging threat to southwestern Virginia. 

Most of the methamphetamine available in Virginia 

is produced by Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and criminal groups using the 

hydriodic acid/red phosphorus method in high 

volume laboratories in Mexico and California. 

However, Virginia-based Caucasian criminal 

groups, OMGs, and local independent Caucasian 

dealers sometimes produce methamphetamine 

using the phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) and Birch 

reduction methods. Mexican criminal groups are 

the primary transporters of most of the methamphetamine available in Virginia. These groups 

usually transport the drug from Mexico and 

southwestern states into Virginia using private 

automobiles, couriers aboard commercial airlines, 

and package delivery and express mail services. 

Mexican criminal groups, some based in Virginia, 

are the primary wholesale distributors of methamphetamine in the state, particularly in the 

Shenandoah Valley. Mexican criminal groups 

and Caucasian local independent dealers are the 

principal retail distributors of methamphetamine 

produced in Mexico and southwestern states. 

OMGs, Caucasian criminal groups, and local 

independent dealers distribute methamphetamine 

produced in Virginia and other states at the 

retail level.

Seven-Point Plan

Purdue Pharma now educates healthcare providers about prescription drug abuse and when it is 

most appropriate to prescribe OxyContin.

Purdue Pharma plans to educate teachers, students, and parents about prescription drug abuse.

Purdue Pharma now produces and distributes tamper-resistant prescription pads to areas in 

southwestern Virginia where abuse is high.

Purdue Pharma will contribute $100,000 toward a study of prescription monitoring programs

in Virginia.

The Attorney General’s office in Virginia agreed to establish a task force composed of law 

enforcement officials and members of the medical community to study prescription drug abuse.

The Attorney General’s office will instruct the computer crimes strike force in Virginia to investigate 

the illegal sale and distribution of drugs over the Internet. 

The Attorney General’s Office will participate in the National Association of Attorneys General 

group on nationwide drug abuse.

Source: Associated Press, 1 March 2001.

Figure 5. Shenandoah Valley.

Craig

Rockingham

Warren

Roanoke

Botetourt

Alleghany

Bath

Rockbridge

Highland

Augusta

Page

Shenandoah

Frederick Clarke
National Drug Intelligence Center

23

Abuse

The level of methamphetamine abuse is low in 

Virginia. The number of treatment admissions to 

publicly funded facilities for methamphetamine 

abuse in Virginia fluctuated from 1995 to 2000. 

According to state substance abuse data, treatment admissions for methamphetamine abuse 

increased overall from 105 in 1995 to 192 in 

1999. (See Table 1 on page 3.)

Methamphetamine is abused at different rates 

throughout the state. According to responses to 

the NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, 

law enforcement officials in Culpeper, near the 

Shenandoah Valley, report that methamphetamine is commonly abused in their jurisdiction. 

Law enforcement officials in Arlington, Bluefield, Lynchburg, Salem, Virginia Beach, 

Wytheville, and Warren and Chesterfield Counties 

report that methamphetamine is sometimes 

abused in those areas.

A more diverse population in Virginia now 

abuses methamphetamine. Historically, OMGs 

and blue-collar workers such as truck drivers 

were the predominant methamphetamine abusers. 

A new abuser population emerged in 2000 that 

includes white-collar professionals, business 

owners, and some members of the lower class. 

Teenagers and young adults, primarily in Northern Virginia, also are abusing methamphetamine, 

particularly crystal methamphetamine—a colorless, odorless form of smokable d-methamphetamine resembling glass fragments or ice 

shavings—in combination with other drugs at 

raves or nightclubs. 

Availability

Methamphetamine is increasingly available in 

Virginia, particularly in the Shenandoah Valley. 

Most of the methamphetamine available in Virginia 

is produced by Mexican DTOs and criminal 

groups using the hydriodic acid/red phosphorus 

method in high volume laboratories in Mexico 

and California. The DEA Washington Division 

reports multipound quantities of Mexican methamphetamine are available in southwestern Virginia. 

According to FDSS data, federal law enforcement 

officials seized 3.9 kilograms of methamphetamine in Virginia in FY1998, 12.3 kilograms in 

FY1999, and 7.4 kilograms in FY2000. From 

October 1998 to May 2001, 6 of the 107 OCDETF 

investigations initiated in Virginia were methamphetamine-related.

Most methamphetamine seizures occur in the 

Shenandoah Valley. Ninety-six percent of all 

methamphetamine seized by state and local law 

enforcement officials in Virginia in 1999 was 

confiscated in the Shenandoah Valley. In June 

2001 federal, state, and local law enforcement 

officials in Woodstock arrested an individual and 

seized over 2 kilograms of methamphetamine, and, 

in a related incident, arrested an individual in 

Toms Brook and seized 1 kilogram of the drug. In 

September 2000 federal agents arrested two individuals in New Market (northwestern Virginia) in 

the Shenandoah Valley and seized over 4 kilograms 

of methamphetamine, the largest such seizure in 

the state’s history. The Rockingham/Shenandoah/

Harrisonburg regional drug task force seized 

approximately 10 kilograms of methamphetamine 

in 1999.

The percentage of methamphetamine-related 

federal sentences in Virginia is lower than the 

national percentage. According to U.S. Sentencing 

Commission data, less than 10 percent of drugrelated federal sentences in Virginia in FY2000 

were methamphetamine-related compared with 

14.5 percent nationwide. The number of 

methamphetamine-related federal sentences 
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

24

in Virginia was 5 in FY1996, 24 in FY1997, 57 in 

FY1998, 47 in FY1999, and 78 in FY2000.

Wholesale prices of methamphetamine vary 

throughout Virginia, while prices at the retail 

level are fairly uniform. According to responses 

to the NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 2001, 

methamphetamine sold for $8,000 per pound in 

Culpeper and Lynchburg, $11,000 per pound in 

Roanoke, $15,000 per pound in Virginia Beach, 

$16,000 per pound in Wytheville, and $19,000 

per pound in Salem. Retail quantities of methamphetamine sold for approximately $100 per gram 

in 2001. The purity of methamphetamine at both 

the wholesale and retail levels ranged from 60 to 

90 percent.

Violence

The potential for violence associated with 

methamphetamine distribution and abuse is significant. Individuals addicted to methamphetamine are unpredictable, experience feelings of 

fright and confusion, and will commit violent 

crimes to obtain the drug. Methamphetamine 

abusers are often paranoid and delusional and 

frequently arm themselves against perceived 

threats. Methamphetamine distributors sometimes commit violent crimes to protect their 

turf. In response to the NDIC National Gang 

Survey 2000, the Bristol Police Department 

reported that the South Side Bloods, a local 

street gang, distributes methamphetamine and 

has committed violent crimes such as assaults 

and home invasions in their area.

Production

Most of the methamphetamine available in 

Virginia is produced by Mexican DTOs and 

criminal groups using the hydriodic acid/red 

phosphorus reduction method in high volume 

laboratories in Mexico and California. However, 

Virginia-based Caucasian criminal groups, 

OMGs, and local independent Caucasian dealers 

sometimes produce methamphetamine using the 

phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) and Birch reduction 

methods. According to responses to the NDIC 

National Drug Threat Survey 2001, law enforcement officials in Chesapeake, Richmond, 

Roanoke, and Salem reported that Caucasian 

criminal groups and local independent dealers 

produce 1 to 2 ounces of methamphetamine per 

cook locally using the P2P and Birch reduction 

methods. During the first quarter of 2000, Roanoke 

and Floyd County (southwestern Virginia) law 

enforcement officers seized a small amount of 

methamphetamine and an operational methamphetamine laboratory and arrested the laboratory 

operator. In January 1999 the Richmond Police 

arrested an individual and seized what was 

described as a portable methamphetamine laboratory in his car.

Methamphetamine production poses serious 

safety and environmental concerns. The production 

process creates toxic and hazardous waste that 

endangers law enforcement personnel, emergency 

response teams, children (particularly those in the 

homes of methamphetamine producers), and the 

environment. Methamphetamine laboratories may 

contain a variety of highly flammable chemicals 

and produce 5 to 6 pounds of toxic waste for 

every pound of methamphetamine. Most of the 

toxic residue from methamphetamine production 

is dumped in the local area, contaminating 

groundwater and killing vegetation.
National Drug Intelligence Center

25

Transportation

Mexican criminal groups are the primary 

transporters of most of the methamphetamine 

available in Virginia. These groups transport the 

drug from Mexico and California into Virginia 

using private automobiles, couriers aboard commercial airlines, and package delivery and 

express mail services. During the first quarter of 

2001, law enforcement officials in Virginia Beach 

under Operation Jetway arrested two individuals 

and seized 1 kilogram of methamphetamine in a 

parcel shipped from Redlands, California, to Virginia Beach. The methamphetamine was wrapped 

in plastic and concealed inside a plastic container. 

OMGs and local independent Caucasian dealers 

transport smaller amounts of methamphetamine 

into the state from California, Maryland, New 

Jersey, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania.

Precursor chemicals sometimes are transported 

to the state as well. During the second quarter of 

2000, USCS officials at Washington Dulles International Airport in Northern Virginia seized small 

shipments of methamphetamine precursor chemicals, including ephedrine and pseudoephedrine 

tablets that were sent through air mail parcels. 

Some shipments originated in Canada and 

England and were addressed to Virginia residents.

Distribution

Mexican criminal groups, some based in 

Virginia, are the primary wholesale distributors 

of methamphetamine (pound quantities) in the 

state, particularly in the Shenandoah Valley. This 

region has a large Mexican population employed 

as transient agricultural workers enabling Mexican 

distributors to blend easily among the region’s 

numerous poultry, cattle farm, and orchard workers. 

Mexican criminal groups and Caucasian local 

independent dealers are the principal retail

distributors of methamphetamine produced in 

Mexico and California. OMGs, Caucasian criminal groups, and local independent dealers distribute methamphetamine produced in Virginia at 

the retail level. For example, 28 members of the 

Renegades Motorcycle Club were convicted of 

distributing methamphetamine in the Tidewater 

area in November 1999. The members allegedly 

distributed over 100 kilograms of methamphetamine over several years and sent approximately 

$4 million in proceeds to California.

Methamphetamine Production Methods

Ephedrine/Pseudoephedrine Reduction:

Hydriodic acid/red phosphorus. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, hydriodic acid, and red phosphorus. This method can yield multipound quantities of high quality d-methamphetamine and often is associated with Mexican drug trafficking organizations. 

Birch reduction. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, anhydrous ammonia, 

and sodium or lithium metal. Also known as the “Nazi” method, this method typically yields ounce

quantities of high quality d-methamphetamine and often is used by independent dealers and producers.

Phenyl-2-propanone:

P2P. The principal chemicals are phenyl-2-propanone, aluminum, methylamine, and mercuric 

acid. This method yields lower quality dl-methamphetamine and has been associated with outlaw 

motorcycle gangs.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

26

OMGs are less organized and distribute methamphetamine less frequently than they used to in 

Virginia, primarily because law enforcement 

officials have dismantled most of the established 

Pagans OMG chapters in northern, central, and 

southeastern Virginia. The DEA Washington 

Division reports that former Pagans OMG affiliates 

in the Shenandoah Valley maintain ties with Pagans 

OMG members in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and 

New Jersey from whom they purchase retail quantities of methamphetamine to distribute in Virginia.

Outlook

Powdered and crack cocaine will continue to 

represent the most significant drug threat to 

Virginia. Cocaine likely will remain the predominant drug problem in many of the state’s population 

centers and will represent a greater threat than 

any other illegal drug to those areas. Crack cocaine 

will continue to be the greatest threat to inner-city 

neighborhoods, and violent crime associated with 

the distribution and abuse of crack will continue 

to be a serious problem in Virginia. Colombian 

and Dominican criminals groups, firmly 

entrenched as wholesale distributors of powdered 

cocaine in Virginia, are likely to remain the primary distributors of cocaine. However, Mexican 

criminal groups, which have increased wholesale 

distribution of cocaine in Virginia and elsewhere 

in the eastern United States, could increase their 

distribution activities in the state.

Marijuana is likely to continue as the primary drug of abuse in Virginia. Marijuana will 

continue to be readily available throughout the 

state. Availability could be spurred by more instate cultivation, particularly if growers continue 

to migrate to rural southwestern Virginia from 

nearby states. Mexican and Jamaican criminal 

groups with access to well-developed supply and 

distribution networks likely will remain the principal wholesale distributors of Mexican marijuana in Virginia. Local independent dealers and 

Caucasian criminal groups, who control most instate cannabis cultivation, are likely to remain 

the principal distributors of marijuana produced 

in the state.

Heroin likely will continue to be a significant 

threat to the Central Virginia and Tidewater areas. 

Retail quantities of high purity South American 

heroin will continue to be available and likely 

will continue to contribute to heroin-related 

deaths in the state. Heroin is attracting a new 

abuser population, especially among young adults 

who snort the high purity drug rather than inject 

it. Law enforcement reporting indicates that new 

heroin abusers are likely to abuse the drug in social 

venues where its presence had been previously 

uncommon, such as raves. 

ODDs, particularly MDMA, will continue to 

gain in popularity in Virginia. Law enforcement 

officials indicate that MDMA is an increasing 

threat to the Northern Virginia and Tidewater 

areas. MDMA seizures have increased substantially in those areas and there are no indications 

that this trend will change. The availability and 

abuse of MDMA at raves and in other social contexts is likely to increase. Diverted pharmaceuticals, especially OxyContin, will continue to pose 

a significant threat to rural southwestern Virginia. 

Crimes related to the diversion and abuse of 

Pagans Outlaw Motorcycle Gang 

Pagans is a regional outlaw motorcycle gang that was founded in Prince George’s County, Maryland, 

in 1959. Pagans expanded throughout the 1960s by generating new chapters and absorbing smaller 

OMGs and is now the predominant OMG in the Mid-Atlantic region. Pagans is governed by a “mother 

club,” the central leadership and policymaking authority for the gang. Since its inception, Pagans has 

produced and distributed methamphetamine; it now distributes cocaine as well. Pagans members 

have also committed murders, vehicle thefts, black market firearms violations, and extortion.
National Drug Intelligence Center

27

OxyContin may remain a serious problem in this 

region, depending somewhat on the effectiveness 

of the plan by the Attorney General of Virginia 

and the manufacturer of the pharmaceutical. In 

addition, diverted OxyContin is becoming 

increasingly available in parts of central,

northern, and eastern Virginia. Law enforcement 

officials report that middle-class individuals 

increasingly are abusing OxyContin, once predominantly abused by lower-income individuals.

Methamphetamine likely will present a low 

but increasing threat to most of Virginia and 

remain a more substantial threat to the Shenandoah Valley, where distribution and abuse are 

likely to increase. Mexican criminal groups likely 

will continue to establish distribution networks in 

western Virginia. However, the methamphetamine threat to Virginia is likely to remain lower 

than that posed by other drugs.
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

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29

Sources 

State and Regional 

Albemarle County Police Department

Alexandria Police Department

Appalachia High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area

Arlington County Police Department

Bluefield Police Department

Bristol Herald Courier

Chesapeake Police Department

Chesterfield County Police Department

Commonwealth of Virginia

Attorney General's Office

Health and Human Resources Department

Health Department

Medical Examiner's Office

Mental Health, Retardation, and Substance Abuse Services Department

Substance Abuse Services Division

Office of the Governor

Public Safety Office

Corrections Department

Criminal Justice Services Department

Research Center

Department of State Police

Bureau of Criminal Investigations

Drug Enforcement Division 

Appomattox Field Office

Chesapeake Field Office

Culpeper Field Office 

Fairfax Field Office

Salem Field Office

Wytheville Field Office 

Uniform Crime Reporting Section

Virginia Criminal Intelligence Center
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

30

The Daily Press

Emporia Police Department

Fairfax County Police Department

George Mason University Police Department

Henrico County Police Department

Lynchburg Police Department

Newport News Police Department

Norfolk Police Department

Prince William County Police Department

Richmond Police Department

Richmond Times-Dispatch

Roanoke City Police Department

Roanoke Times & World News

Salem Police Department

Southampton County Sheriff's Office

Surry County Sheriff's Office

Virginia Beach Police Department

Special Investigations

The Virginia Gazette

The Virginian-Pilot

Warren County Sheriff's Office

The Washington Post

Washington/Baltimore High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area

West Point Police Department 

Wythe County Sheriff's Office 
National Drug Intelligence Center

31

National

Office of National Drug Control Policy

Organized Crime Drug Enforcement Task Force

Mid-Atlantic Region

U.S. Department of Commerce

U.S. Census Bureau

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Centers for Disease Control

National Institutes of Health

National Institute on Drug Abuse

U.S. Department of Justice

Drug Enforcement Administration

El Paso Intelligence Center

Washington Division

Norfolk Resident Office

Richmond District Office

Roanoke Resident Office

Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Norfolk Field Division

Richmond Field Division

U.S. Attorney's Office

Eastern District of Virginia

Western District of Virginia

U.S. Sentencing Commission

U.S. Department of Treasury

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms

U.S. Customs Service

Office of Investigations

Other

Associated Press

Bell, Vaughn, Ketamine (‘K’, Special K, Vitamin K), 1995.

Columbia University

National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse 
Virginia Drug Threat Assessment

32

McDermott, Peter, Ketamine: Trick or Treat, June 1992.

“North American Port Container Traffic in TEUs,” www.aapa-ports.org/portfacts_body.html

www.virginiasabre.com
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