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Job Horizons 

for the 

College Woman 

Women's Bureau 

. Pamphlet One 

1956 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 

James P. Mitchell, Secretary 

WOMEN'S BUREAU 

Mrs. Alice K. Leopold, Director 
WASHINGTON : 1956 
Contents 

P«gc 

Note to students and counselors 1 

1. Some career suggestions 3 

Accounting 4 

Administrative work S 

Banking 7 

Civil service 8 

Engineering 10 

Health services 10 

Home economics.- 13 

Insurance IS 

Library science 16 

Mathematics and statistics 17 

Music 19 

Physical sciences 20 

Public office 21 

Real estate 22 

Research 23 

Secretarial work 24 

Securities merchandising 25 

Social work 26 

Teaching 27 

Writing and editing 29 

2. Job-finding techniques 32 

Preparing a personal folder 32 

Canvassing the possibilities 35 

Submitting an application 35 

Making the most of the interview 36 

Choosing your job 37 

Reaching an agreement with the employer 38 

3. Some practical considerations 39 

The job market 39 

Earnings 40 

Graduate study 41 

Marriage and career 44 

4. Women on the job 47 

Occupations of employed women 47 

Women in professional occupations 49 

College women in the national economy 50 

Additional references 52 
Foreword 

COLLEGE WOMEN today can enter practically any field— 

professional, scientific, administrative—either in private 

business or in public service. The way is open for the individual woman who proves her competence to reach a high 

level in her chosen field. 

It is not too soon for a student to begin thinking about 

after-college plans when she is deciding on a major field of 

study. By foresight in planning her courses and in combining 

liberal arts and technical or professional subjects, her job 

prospects can be greatly enhanced. 

The facts and suggestions in this publication are based on 

the cumulative experience of the Women's Bureau of the 

United States Department of Labor, which for 36 years has 

been the Federal agency responsible for advancing the interests of women workers. This pamphlet was written by 

Miriam Keeler of the Division of Program Planning, Analysis, 

and Reports, of which Anna Jo W. Behrens is Chief. It was 

prepared in response to requests, from deans of women 

and faculty advisers engaged in counseling, for materials 

that would meet the needs of women students who are 

searching the job horizon. We hope that both counselors 

and students will find it of use. 

ALICE K. LEOPOLD 

Director, Women's Bureau. 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. - Price 25 cents 
Job Horizons 

for the College Woman 

Note to Students 

and Counselors 

STUDENTS, and the counselors who are helping them with 

job prospects, ask extremely practical questions. They 

want to know, for example, which fields of work are expanding, and which industries are actively recruiting college 

women. Chapter 1, headed "Some Career Suggestions" 

offers information of this type. The liberal arts graduate 

will find there an indication of some of the ways in which she 

may use her training. The suggestions may focus her thinking and serve as a starting point for talks with her vocational 

counselor or placement director. 

The undergraduate who wishes to enter an occupation 

requiring special preparation will need to supplement these 

suggestions with a carefully considered plan of study to meet 

specific occupational requirements. If a State license or 

certificate is needed, it is essential that at least part of her 

preparation be obtained in a school meeting the standards 

of the State where she expects to be employed. In some of 

the professions for which the standards are set by a national 

accrediting association, it is important to select a school 

approved by the association. 

(i) 
2 

For the college woman who has decided on the kind of job 

she wants, but lacks experience in applying for a specific job, 

chapter 2, on Job-Finding Techniques,1 is included. It may 

be used by a student looking for a summer job as well as by 

a graduate ready to enter her chosen profession. 

Women students do not necessarily think of themselves as 

prospective wage earners in the same way that men do. As 

a matter of fact, however, the majority of women do take a 

job after leaving college, at least until they marry. Important considerations in making a decision whether to look for 

a job immediately or to continue studying are introduced in 

chapter 3, "Some Practical Considerations." 

Counselors—and students who are interested in the general 

job picture—want to know what percentage of women college 

graduates are in the labor force, what their occupations are, 

and how important they are in the national economy. 

Chapter 4, "Women on the Job," is included to provide a 

quick summary of this background information. 

Also available from the Women's Bureau as a separate leaflet. 
Some Career Suggestions 

T H E ENTIRE range of occupations open to college women 

is far too extensive to be covered in a pamphlet of limited 

size. Most of the possibilities discussed here are in the 

nature of promising fields of employment in which college 

women with the appropriate specializations might be interested. A few shortage occupations which have been the 

subject of study recently in the Department of Labor— 

engineering, nursing, accounting—are singled out for separate treatment. On the other hand, many occupations and 

professions offering excellent opportunities for women are 

omitted altogether, or given only incidental mention: to 

name a few— 

advertising and merchandising 

commercial art, design 

farming and ranching 

interior decorating 

law 

medicine and dentistry 

personnel work 

pharmacy 

public relations 

radio and television 

social science 

vocational guidance 

Years of progressively responsible experience in professional work are required to reach some of the top staff 

positions described. A college student making long-range 

plans for a career should expect to start in a junior or assistant job, but advance more rapidly and to a higher level 

than would otherwise be possible, especially if she eventually 

studies for an advanced degree. 

Women's Bureau reports, cited under Additional References, are available for each of the occupations marked with 

an asterisk. These reports give more detailed information 

on recommended training and qualifications, supply and 

demand, earnings, working conditions, and prospects for 

advancement. 

Basic information on some 400 occupations can be found 

in the Occupational Outlook Handbook issued by the Bureau 

(3) 
4 

of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of 

Labor. For each occupation covered, the Handbook gives 

a brief description of the nature of the work, how to enter, 

outlook, earnings and working conditions. 

Accounting* 

Well-qualified accountants have been in increasing demand 

since World War II, and the need for them is expected to 

exceed the supply at least through the 1950's. Many industrial concerns and public accounting firms send representatives to colleges to interview and recruit students, and seem 

increasingly willing to recruit women accounting graduates. 

The decennial census reported 55,660 women employed 

as accountants and auditors in 1950. This was 15 percent 

of all accountants and auditors in that year. Of the women 

accountants, 20 years of age and over, only 7,601 had 4 

years or more of college training; another 12,771 had 1 to 3 

years of college. 

The highest level of professional skill in accountancy is 

that of certified public accountant (CPA). Candidates for 

the CPA must meet various qualifications, including several 

years of employment in accountancy and the successful 

completion of the State certifying examination. Nearly all 

of 200 women CPA's who responded to a recent questionnaire had some college training; 25 percent had done 

graduate work. 

Accounting specialties include auditing, cost accounting, 

and tax accounting, as well as public accountancy. Many 

accountants also specialize in some type of business—for 

example, public utilities, banking, or a manufacturing 

industry. 

Students would be well advised, if interested in accounting 

as a career, to complete a 4-year course in a college or uni-

*See Additional References. 
5 

versity that offers a concentration of courses in their field 

of interest; some colleges offer an internship training program 

in accountancy. A broad cultural background is advantageous, with stress on economics and mathematics. 

Administrative Work 

Chances for women to reach executive positions are found 

in personnel and industrial-relations departments of many 

large concerns, and in branch operations of all kinds of 

industries and businesses. Advancement policies, however, 

vary from industry to industry and from employer to employer. Top positions in administration are often the result 

of experience obtained in other fields of work. In some of the 

newer fields for women—advertising, merchandising, and 

magazine publishing, for example—women are often teamed 

with men in top-level administrative jobs. In a few industries 

women hold top executive jobs as corporate officers or senior 

executives. 

These are among the findings of a survey made by the Harvard 

Business School for the Radcliffe Management Training Program 

for Women.2 The fields covered were accounting, advertising, 

banking, credit, food, government, heavy industry, hospitals, insurance, law, management consulting, manufacturing, publishing, 

retailing, textiles, utilities, and wholesaling. 

In hospitals 

A number of the graduates of the Radcliffe program obtained administrative positions in hospitals in New England 

and New York. This is a new field, as hospital trustees have 

only recently begun to recognize the desirability of using 

persons trained in business administration, and especially in 

personnel work, for top staff positions. 

5

 "Opportunities for Women at the Administrative Level," by Frances M. Fuller and 

Mary B. Batchelder. Harvard Business Review 31:111-128 (Jan.-Feb. 1953). 
6 

In colleges 

The National Education Association in 19S2 canvassed 

some 700 coeducational colleges and universities as to their 

administrative officers. Women held one-fifth of the total 

number of administrative positions reported. 

The top-level administrative positions held most frequently 

by women in coeducational institutions were: 

Percent 

held by 

Position women 

Dean of women 99 

Director of food services 80 

Director of residence 77 

Head librarian 68 

Registrar 47 

Student guidance 46 

Director of health 44 

In the following types of administrative positions in coeducational colleges, women were frequently found employed as 

assistants: admissions officer, dean of students, business 

manager, purchasing agent, comptroller, and treasurer. 

In women's colleges, opportunities for women exist at all 

levels of administration. 

In the Armed Forces* 

Women college graduates who are interested in a career in 

the Armed Forces may apply for a commission in the branch 

in which they are interested. In the women's branches, 

all the officers are women. The highest rank that can be 

held by a woman is that of captain in the Navy or colonel 

in the Army, Air Force, and Marines. 

An officer is expected to handle a great variety of tasks 

commensurate with her age, rank, and experience. A broad 

educational background, therefore, is essential. A college 

woman who receives a commission may be placed in any one 

of a number of departments, such as administration, commu-

*See Additional References. 
7 

nications, public relations, intelligence, logistics, finance, or 

engineering, and she may be moved from one department to 

another. 

College graduates with professional or technical training in 

a medical specialty are especially needed. Medical technologists are extensively employed in hospitals operated by 

the Armed Forces. Nurses, dietitians, and occupational and 

physical therapists receiving staff commissions in military 

hospitals of the Army, Navy, and Air Force and in the 

United States Public Health Service begin as second lieutenants or ensigns. 

In industrial management 

The need for college training for the business woman is 

increasingly recognized. There is little doubt that a college 

course emphasizing mathematics, statistics, accounting, 

money and banking, industrial psychology, and other business subjects is a definite advantage to the girl who hopes to 

become a successful business woman, especially if she eventually establishes her own business. 

A statewide survey made in 1951 by the Missouri Division of 

Industrial Inspection reported 672 women who head their own 

businesses in 21 cities, heading 64 types of establishments. Of these 

women, 94 were in the printing and publishing business, 80 were in 

food products including meat packing, and 66 had clothing or shoe 

establishments. More than a hundred women owned foundries or 

machinery, sheet-metal, steel-products, and stone-and-gravel plants. 

Others had their own auto supply and repair shops or plants manufacturing paper containers, drugs and chemicals, furniture, and tools. 

Banking 

There were some 9,000 women listed as bank officers in 

1956. About one-third of these replied to a questionnaire 

sent by the National Association of Bank Women with the 

cooperation of the Women's Bureau. Most of the women 

who replied were employed by the smaller banks. Some 
8 

women executives were found in each of the officer positions. 

By far the largest number (about 60 percent) were assistant 

cashiers; others were cashiers, secretaries, trust officers, 

treasurers, and vice presidents. Eight percent of those who 

replied held a college degree; 22 percent had some college 

training. 

Women bankers who are college graduates strongly endorse 

the view that today college training is an asset for the woman 

hoping to advance in the banking world. One of them says: 

Women officers in banks today are engaged in every type of banking 

activity. They make loans; they handle bank operations, public 

relations, and personnel; they administer trusts; they develop new 

business; they do research. In large banks most women officers are 

specialists. In small banks the women, like their male colleagues, 

do a little bit of everything. .. . It is my firm conviction that the 

financial world needs more qualified women in positions of responsibility and that women will find in such positions tremendously satisfying careers.8 

Civil Service 

Federal 

Every year hundreds of college seniors and recent college 

graduates qualify for positions in Government agencies. A 

general Federal Service Entrance Examination is now used to 

fill a wide variety of positions at the entrance or trainee level. 

Completion of a 4-year college course leading to a bachelor's 

degree (or its equivalent) is required, but the examination 

may be taken during the senior year.4 Application blanks 

may be obtained from any post office or from the United 

States Civil Service Commission, Washington 25, D. C. 

Success in this test qualifies a person for positions in Wash-

' "Women in the World of Finance," by Catherine B. Cleary, Journal of the American 

Association of University Women 48: 70-72 (January 19SS). The author (who is both a 

college graduate and a lawyer) has served as assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury of 

the United States, and as vice president of a Wisconsin bank. 

4

 The beginning salary is 23,670 a year (GS-5) for a person with a bachelor's degree; 

(54,525 (GS-7), with a master's degree. 
9 

ington and elsewhere. Options include general administration, communications, personnel, budget, library science, statistics, and information. The test is given several times a 

year and a person who fails to qualify may take it again. 

Persons of high caliber and with certain needed qualifications have the opportunity to apply for participation in the 

Management Intern Program. Those college graduates who 

are interested in special training looking toward positions of 

responsibility in the Federal Service can qualify for the intern 

program by passing the general FSEE test and also a special 

written test on either administrative problems or public affairs. 

In all civil-service positions, women receive the same pay as 

men at the same level. In 1954 almost 1,000 women held 

high civil-service positions, paying $8,360 to $14,800. 

State 

More than half of the States have adopted civil service 

or merit systems resembling the Federal Civil Service system. 

The systems vary by State. Information can be obtained 

from the State agency having jurisdiction over recruiting and 

examining applicants for State positions. 

Foreign service 

Each year the Department of State recruits a certain number of young men and women for the Foreign Service of the 

United States. They may be assigned to a station in practically any part of the world. Written examinations, offered 

periodically, cover general ability, general background, English, and modern languages. Candidates who pass the written examination and receive security clearance also take a 

separate oral and a physical examination. 

A State Department brochure, "New Opportunities in the 

U. S. Foreign Service," issued in 1955, states that the Department expects to appoint some 250 junior officers at class 6 

(minimum salary, $4,725) each year under its present program. The highest post one can reach is that of ambassador. 
10 

The State Department reported about 150 women among 

the more than 2,500 foreign service officers at the end of 1955. 

One woman career diplomat has been elevated to the rank of 

ambassador by presidential appointment. 

Engineering41 

Fully qualified engineers are in great demand. This field 

offers challenging opportunities for the woman student. 

The largest number of women are in civil engineering, followed by electrical, chemical, mechanical, industrial, metallurgical, and aeronautical engineering in that order. Training programs, including most of the cooperative engineering 

programs, are generally open to women in coeducational 

institutions. 

Many phases of engineering remain to be developed, offering almost unlimited possibilities of a constructive and creative nature. These include urban redevelopment and reconstruction ; new textiles and products to be created from wood 

and synthetic materials; redirection or adaptation of water 

resources with consequent implications for industrial power 

and agricultural production; new methods and resources for 

mineral extraction; and unexplored areas of nuclear energy 

and solar energy for power and heating purposes. 

Health Sendees 

If a girl thinks before starting college that she wants to 

enter nursing, medical technology, or physical or occupational 

therapy, she should inquire into the possibilities and choose a 

college or university offering programs approved by the 

national accrediting body for the profession. If she decides 

while in college to prepare for one of these fields, she should 

immediately inquire what courses her college offers that will 

be credited in the professional school, and arrange if necessary 

for a transfer to some other institution at the appropriate 

time for specialized training. 

*See Additional References. 
11 

A comparatively new development in education for the 

health services, and one that is rapidly becoming popular, is 

the combination course leading, in 4 or 5 years, both to a 

bachelor's degree and to a professional certificate in one of 

several fields. These courses are of two general types. One 

type calls for 2 or 3 years of study in a liberal arts college, 

followed by a year or two in a specialized school. The other 

is being developed chiefly in large universities which offer 

a planned 5-year course in a professional field with enough 

cultural courses to meet requirements for a bachelor's degree. 

Nursing* 

The college-trained nurse may develop a clinical specialty, 

such as pediatric or psychiatric nursing. On the other hand, 

she may move away from patient-centered care into positions 

of greater executive responsibility—in a supervisory or administrative capacity, or in program planning and consultant 

work. The economic rewards and professional prestige are 

generally greater for the executive and consultant nurses 

than for most of the clinical specializations. 

There were 180 collegiate schools of nursing with 19,025 

students enrolled in 1955. More than half of the training 

time (which varies from something less than 4 to 6% years 

beyond high school) is spent in general education at the 

college level. The remainder is a combination of classroom 

work and practice in clinical fields such as general medicine, 

surgery, obstetrics, pediatrics, and psychiatry. 

A list of accredited collegiate nursing schools can be 

obtained by writing to the Committee on Careers in Nursing, 

2 Park Avenue, New York 16, N. Y. 

Medical technologist* 

It is the medical technologist's responsibility to provide 

laboratory services for the physician. The work requires a 

•See Additional References. 
12 

background in anatomy, biochemistry, bacteriology, mathematics, and physics, plus a knowledge of laboratory techniques. A sense of responsibility and of the importance of 

accuracy in details and good vision are a few of the personal 

traits desirable. 

Eligibility for the Register of Medical Technologists, a 

form of certification for qualified medical technologists maintained by the American Society of Clinical Pathologists, 

requires 4 years of college training or its equivalent. This 

may consist of either— 

(1) 2 years of accredited college work followed by a course in an 

approved hospital school for medical technology of 12 (minimum) 

to 24 months; or 

(2) 4 years in a college which combines an approved hospital-school 

course with academic education, and which leads to a bachelor 

of science degree in medical technology. 

Occupational therapy* 

Occupational therapy uses creative, craft, and recreational 

activities to help sick, injured, or disabled persons to physical 

and mental recovery and to acquisition of a job skill. The 

occupational therapist selects and carries out treatments 

designed to bring about therapeutic results desired by the 

patient's physician. In her relationships with the patient, 

she acts as nurse, social worker, and teacher as she tries to 

maintain the patient's interest in the treatment. The work 

calls for resourcefulness and imagination and a variety of 

skills in arts and crafts. 

A S-year college course leading to the bachelor of science 

degree and certification in occupational therapy is offered 

by at least 25 accredited schools and colleges. (In some cases 

the course may be condensed to 4 years.) To qualify as a 

registered occupational therapist, a graduate must also pass 

the national registration examination given periodically by 

the American Occupational Therapy Association. A person 

*See Additional References. 
13 

with a bachelor's degree in another field may qualify by 

taking 18 months of specialized training. 

Physical therapy* 

The physical therapist treats injuries, diseases, and disabilities by nonmedical and physical means such as massage, 

exercise, heat application, light, water, or electricity, as 

prescribed by the physician. She treats patients with every 

type of illness or condition, including cerebral palsy and 

poliomyelitis patients, paraplegics and amputees, the mentally ill, persons with fractures. 

A 1-year certificate course is available in some schools for 

women who have completed 3 years of approved college 

training, including satisfactory courses in biological and 

physical sciences (general physics, chemistry, biology, plus 

physical education). Graduation from a school approved by 

the American Physical Therapy Association is necessary 

for admission to the Association or to registration in the 

American Registry of Physical Therapists. 

Home Economics 

A variety of positions can be filled by a woman with a 

degree in home economics. Many become teachers, either 

at the college level or in domestic science courses offered in 

secondary and elementary schools. Home economists are 

also employed as managers of institutions, extension leaders, 

home demonstration agents and specialists, and as buyers 

and consultants for stores dealing in wearing apparel and 

home furnishings. Some women trained as home economists 

work for industrial firms, such as food manufacturers or 

distributors, preparing educational materials on the nutritional value of this or that food product or on methods of 

preparing foods. 

*See Additional References. 
14 

The Department of Agriculture employs a large number of 

women specialists in foods and nutrition in its extension 

program in rural areas throughout the country. 

A growing field is that of writing, consulting, and research 

on nutrition. Many daily newspapers and national magazines—and practically all women's magazines—feature a 

homemaking department. 

Dietitians and nutritionists * 

The total number of women employed professionally as 

dietitians and nutritionists was 21,059 in 1950, according 

to decennial census figures. 

The dietitian applies the principles of nutrition to the 

feeding of individuals and groups. She may plan menus and 

special diets with proper nutritional values in a hospital, 

institution, school, restaurant, or hotel. Hospitals and other 

institutions offer the largest field of employment for dietitians. 

A dietitian who specializes in the promotion of healthful 

food habits is called a nutritionist. For this specialty, training 

is needed not only in the art of feeding groups and individuals, 

but in the fields of nutrition, education, public health, and 

social welfare. Most nutritionists are employed by public 

health agencies, or by social welfare or educational agencies. 

In Federal and State agencies they provide technical consultation to health, education, and welfare workers coming into 

direct contact with the public. 

Commercial food service* 

A new and expanding field for the graduate in home economics who has some training in business administration is 

food supervision and management. There are increasing 

opportunities for women college graduates as food supervisors 

and managers in hotels and in commercial restaurants and 

cafeterias. One woman, vice president of a chain of restau-

*See Additional References. 
15 

rants, has 90 home economists on her staff, doing research 

and supervising the food production departments in each 

restaurant. 

Some large industrial firms are beginning to employ trained 

women as food managers in lunchrooms operated for employees. Advancement is often rapid, in part, it is said, because of the vacancies left by women who resign to be married. 

The pay range is wider than in hospitals and colleges. 

Internship programs are offered for home-economics graduates by the American Dietetics Association; apprentice 

programs by the National Restaurant Association. 

Insurance 

Some of the women who have entered the insurance field 

as agents have been spectacularly successful. More than 

1,700 women were members of the National Committee of 

Women Life Underwriters in 1956, and of these 276 had 

qualified for the quarter-of-a-million group, meaning that 

they had sold at least 3250,000 worth of life insurance within 

the year. Some women qualify for the "milion-dollar club." 

College training, although advantageous, is not necessarily 

required for entering insurance work. An insurance agent 

must be licensed in each State where she operates, and in some 

States it is necessary to pass a written examination in each 

type of insurance sold. For this reason, most beginners prefer 

to concentrate on one or two types of insurance. 

Automobile insurance is a good field in which to start; every 

time an automobile is sold, the purchaser becomes a prospect 

for insurance. The premiums are small, however, and extensive servicing may be required. Life insurance, on the other 

hand, is more difficult to sell. Many prospects are reluctant 

to deal with a young or inexperienced agent in financial 

matters of such importance. However, the increased entry 

of women into the business world has created a new group of 

prospects for life insurance. 
16 

Life-insurance companies, according to the Institute of 

Life Insurance, employed a total of 189,600 full-time agents 

in 1955, of whom 5,500 were women; the proportion of women 

agents had decreased in a period of 2 years from 3.4 to 3.0 

percent. Of the 38,500 agency managers and assistant managers, however, 500 were women—an increase from less than 

1 percent in 1953 to 1.3 percent in 1955. 

The qualities needed by insurance agents include a liking 

for people, numerous and varied contacts, ability to state a 

case clearly and persuasively, a strong belief in the value of 

what they are selling, and an inexhaustible supply of persistence and initiative—combined with mathematical facility. 

The agent who owns a car has the decided advantage of being 

able to go where her clients are instead of waiting for them 

to come to the insurance office. 

Library Science 

Library science is a profession that has been growing 

steadily. At present, because of a nationwide demand for 

trained librarians, there are especially good opportunities in 

cataloging, library work with children, school librarianship, 

and in the special library fields (particularly in science and 

technology). To qualify for professional library positions 

it is usually necessary to complete a 1- to 2-year curriculum 

at a library school. Professional library schools commonly 

require for entrance: (a) graduation from an approved 4-year 

college or university; (b) a superior undergraduate academic 

record; (c) evidence of a mastery of fundamental library 

techniques; and (d) a reading knowledge of at least one foreign 

language. A library-school graduate without previous experience can enter library work as junior librarian. This is 

the first grade of nonsupervisory professional positions. 

Native imagination and intelligence, a flexible, inquiring 

mind, and the ability and readiness to persevere in any pursuit, all are qualities needed by the librarian. The profes-
17 

sional knowledge and searching skill required of the reference 

librarian are developed by library school training and 

experience. 

Some additional training in collecting, abstracting, and 

indexing equips a student for the more challenging and remunerative post of research or special librarian. Here, 

combinations of college major and minors may widen the 

scope and intensify her research in the special subject field. 

For example, a girl with a chemistry major and a language 

minor might be extremely valuable in the library of a chemical 

industry. 

A librarian's responsibilities may include investigating 

the reading interests and demands of the people served by the 

library, adjusting the services to that need, publicizing the 

library service, and selecting and purchasing books and other 

material. Besides her share of the routine duties of classifying, cataloging, shelving, and circulating books, the librarian 

assists persons to find books and information suited to their 

individual interests. Thus the profession of library science 

offers opportunities for significant service to the public. 

Mathematics and Statistics* 

The general field of mathematics includes both pure mathematics, which deals with mathematical laws and principles, 

and applied mathematics, which utilizes the principles of 

mathematics in various fields such as engineering or science. 

The importance of applied mathematics in business, industry, 

and government has created a rapidly expanding demand for 

mathematicians, especially those with advanced degrees. 

Four-fifths of the employed women mathematicians included 

in the National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel 

(1954-55) held either the master's or the doctor's degree. 

Opportunities increase with the level of educational attainment. 

*See Additional References. 
18 

For the college graduate with a bachelor's degree based on 

a major in mathematics, the increasing use of electronic computing has opened up numerous interesting jobs for programmers. Other possibilities include employment as an actuarial 

or bank trainee. A strong secondary field of specialization 

often leads to a job where mathematics is used as a tool—for 

example, in drafting or engineering, in technical writing or 

editing, in market research or statistical analysis, or in 

biostatistics. 

With industry and business competing for the new college 

graduate, the shortage of high-school mathematics teachers 

has become critical. Educational requirements for teachers 

at the secondary-school level vary with the State. A 

bachelor's degree is usually required; and an advanced degree 

is important for advancement. For a teaching position at 

the college level, the usual requirement is that a person hold 

a doctor's degree or be working toward one. 

Statistics is a specialization of applied mathematics. Employment opportunities are most numerous in industry and 

government. The use of statistics has been increasing in 

such fields as business administration, engineering, natural 

and social sciences, biological and medical science, education, 

psychological testing, and public health. The active demand 

for statisticians in industry and government has given rise 

to an increase in the number of opportunities to teach statistics. A statistician's college preparation should include a 

solid foundation in mathematics and statistics, with a major 

in one of these fields or in a natural or social science to which 

statistics may be applied. 

A girl with an aptitude and liking for mathematics, a logical 

but imaginative mind, and a passion for accuracy will find 

in mathematics and statistics a satisfying field for a job or for 

a lifetime career. 
19 

Music 

It is axiomatic that those who enter the field of music do 

so primarily because they enjoy it and have innate talent in 

it. However, training is essential for success. 

Preparation in a school of recognized standards provides 

the advantage of the reputation of the school. Many colleges 

and universities, as well as theological seminaries, have music 

departments and grant a bachelor of arts degree with a major 

in music or music education. The American Guild of Organists awards the title of Associate or Fellow of the Guild 

(AAGO or FAGO) to those passing examinations. 

The field of music offers a variety of types of work, with 

teaching providing the largest number of jobs. A music 

teacher may give lessons privately in her own home, or in the 

homes of her pupils, or she may use a studio. With a college 

degree in music or music education, she may teach in public 

schools, or in private ones where accreditation may be less 

restrictive. In a college or university, if she has an advanced 

degree, she may teach theoretical subjects such as harmony, 

counterpoint, ear training, sight singing, music history, and 

analysis. 

Music offers excellent opportunities for part-time work, 

which provide good subsidiary earnings. Churches employ 

organists, choir directors, and vocalists, usually on a parttime basis. A qualified organist can play for church services, 

weddings, funerals, or in department stores and skating rinks, 

and the pay is good for the actual performance time involved. 

Many married women give music lessons in their own homes; 

this is a convenient arrangement as they need not leave their 

families and can schedule lessons as time permits. 

Highly competitive fields for performers with superior 

talent and training include radio and television, the theater, 

concert and opera stage, orchestral work, and entertainment. 

The music critic is more interested in the academic aspects of 

the history and appreciation of music than in performing 
20 

herself. A newer field for musicians is that of musical therapy, used increasingly in hospitals for mental patients and 

in institutions for the maladjusted. 

Whatever her specialty, a woman musician is welcomed in 

recreational, community, and welfare activities as a volunteer 

worker, and may find earning opportunities—on playgrounds, 

in adult-education projects, or in YWCA and Red Cross. 

Music is a popular vocational field for women and has a relatively high standing among professional and technical occupations of women. With a total of 77,844 women employed 

or self-employed, it was third largest in 1950 according to the 

decennial census. Women constituted half of the workers in 

music, and their numbers had increased 31 percent, or 18,388 

since 1940. 

Physical Sciences 

Of the several physical sciences, only two are discussed 

here: Chemistry, which attracts the largest number of 

women; and physics, where the shortage of qualified workers 

is most acute. 

Chemistry 

The number of chemists and chemical engineers nearly 

doubled from 1940 to 1950, and the demand still exceeds the 

supply, particularly in some fast-growing industries. 

A survey made in 1951 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics 

covered more than half of all the chemists in the country. 

Some 7 percent (3,900) were women. About half of the 

women chemists were employed in manufacturing industries, 

chiefly in firms manufacturing organic and inorganic chemicals, drugs and medicines, and food and kindred products. 

Of the women chemists, 37 percent were doing research, 

31 percent were employed in analysis and testing, and 19 
21 

percent were teachers, and the others were in miscellaneous 

jobs. 

There are very few women chemical engineers, a field which 

is in need of trained people. 

Physics 

There were 208 women among the 6,597 members of the 

American Institute of Physics reported by a survey of manpower resources in physics in 1951 made by the Bureau of 

Labor Statistics and the Office of Education. 

Over half of the women physicists were employed in colleges and universities; about one-fifth by business firms; and 

nearly one-fifth by Government agencies or nonprofit research 

organizations. 

About two-fifths of the women reported general physics as 

their field of highest competence. Among women reporting 

a specialty, the largest number were in optics, nuclear 

physics, or atomic and molecular physics. A small percentage of women specialized in electronics and acoustics, where 

employment opportunities for women should be excellent. 

Public Office 

The welfare of our country requires the general participation of women in political affairs through voting and through 

volunteer service. It is equally important to increase the 

number of well-qualified women serving in elective and appointive offices where local, State, national, and international 

policies are formulated. Public office is often achieved after 

a person has become known in a certain field, such as law, 

newspaper writing, business management, political science, 

teaching. Sometimes such a specialized background leads to 

an appointive position on the local, State, or Federal level. 

Service in a local or State position is excellent preparation 
22 

for work on the national level, and experience gained in appointive posts can be a valuable asset to a person seeking 

elective office. 

A woman who runs for an elective office usually finds that 

the campaign involves a tremendous amount of hard work— 

traveling, speaking several times a day, meeting and remembering hundreds or thousands of individuals. There is probably no more satisfying field for a person strongly motivated 

to exert an influence on contemporary affairs. 

A college woman whose goal is in the political field will 

want to stress courses such as public administration, government, history, economics, and finance. English and public 

speaking, as well as training in law, provide an excellent background for a career in politics. 

During college, some experience can be obtained by campaigning for campus offices, conducting drives, and doing 

volunteer work for a political party. Participation in a group 

providing leadership to stimulate the interest of women in 

current political issues can provide some practical experience. 

An outstanding nonpartisan organization in this field is the 

League of Women Voters. 

Real Estate 

The largest field for employment in real estate is salesmanship—the buying and selling of land, houses, and commercial properties. In 1950, about 14 percent of all real 

estate agents and brokers were women. 

Real estate is a highly individual business, because no two 

buyers have exactly the same needs; and it is also a highly 

competitive business. 

The real estate salesman must have a detailed knowledge 

of the neighborhood and of the physical, legal, and financial 

factors affecting the property. The beginner is advised to 

obtain extensive experience through employment in the office 
23 

of an established real estate firm before branching out on 

his own. The local real estate board is the student's best 

source of information on possible openings. Remuneration 

is usually on a commission basis. 

A college degree is not usually required to enter real estate 

work, but specialized technical training is desirable, and a 

good general education stressing English and mathematics 

will help. With experience, a real estate salesman may 

develop a specialty—real estate appraisal, real estate law, 

property management, or farm land brokerage, for example. 

To protect the client, most States require the licensing of 

real estate brokers and salesmen, and some require candidates 

to pass a competency test. Information on States that 

require licensing and on real estate courses offered by universities and professional groups can be obtained from a 

pamphlet, "Preparing for the Real Estate Business," issued 

by the National Association of Real Estate Boards, 22 West 

Monroe Street, Chicago 3, 111. 

Research 

Research is the key to new knowledge. It is the solid 

foundation on which scientific, historical, and psychological 

discoveries are based, and the touchstone by which every new 

hypothesis or theory must be tested before acceptance. No 

field of work offers more satisfying results—and none is more 

exacting in its requirements of accuracy, patience, and 

objectivity. The novice in research must expect to work 

anonymously, usually as the member of a team. 

Research jobs in almost any field of specialization are open 

to college women who are properly trained in research techniques. Some executives consider women superior to men as 

research workers, and a woman can reach the top rank on a 

research staff. 

The survey of women in administrative positions reported in 

the Harvard Business Review (Jan.-Feb. 1953) found a growing 
24 

appreciation of women in research positions in large establishments of many kinds: Technical research positions in the 

laboratories of big food and chemical companies; statistical 

and economic research jobs in nearly all large business organizations. There are also research positions connected with 

magazines, advertising firms, national political party organizations, and the large foundations. The Government employs many research workers, as do colleges and universities. 

A girl who plans to become a research worker will need a 

sound background in methodology and statistics, combined 

with specialization in a subject-matter field such as one of the 

social sciences. Research techniques developed in one field 

of study can usually be utilized in other fields. 

Secretarial Work 

Many cities report a chronic shortage of first-class secretaries, and a college-trained woman who has mastered typing 

and shorthand can become a secretary par excellence, especially 

if she majored in English. 

Among college women, a secretarial job has been regarded 

traditionally as a springboard to many kinds of professional 

and executive jobs—for example, in the publishing or banking 

business, and in editorial and personnel work. However, it 

may take as much ability, determination, and initiative for a 

college woman to advance into professional work with 

secretarial experience as without it. 

A recent analysis of openings for college women as secretaries in New York City, made by a firm of management consultants, appeared in the Journal of College Placement for May 

1955. A college graduate without experience can qualify, 

according to this article, for a job as clerk, receptionist, or 

typist; with 1 year's experience, for a secretarial job; with 3 

to 5 years' experience, for a job as executive secretary—usually among the highest paying jobs in the clerical field. 
25 

A woman who has taken some stenographic courses in the 

legal or medical field may also be able to earn a higher salary 

than the average secretary. 

The Institute for Certifying Secretaries admits a college 

graduate to examination on the basis of 3 years' experience; 

a graduate of a business college or junior college, with 4 years' 

experience; or a high-school graduate, with 6 years' experience. 

The National Secretaries Association offers secretaries the 

advantages of a professional association. Its aim is to raise 

the standards of secretarial work through social and educational activities. 

Securities Merchandising 

Several hundred women are classified by the Association of 

Stock Exchange Firms as "registered representatives" of 

member firms. These women brokers have passed an examination in analysis of balance sheets, earnings statements, and 

procedures in purchase and sale of securities; and they have 

agreed to maintain a high standard of ethics in dealings with 

those who buy and sell securities. Some women are general 

partners of member firms, and others are "limited partners" 

(supplying capital only). In 1956 a woman became the 

president and board chairman of a brokerage house in the 

New York Stock Exchange. 

This type of work requires an analytical mind and an aptitude for mathematics. Good contacts with institutions which 

specialize in investment research and fund investment are an 

asset. To a large extent, success in this field is dependent on 

the customer's confidence in the broker. As stocks and bonds 

are often bought and sold over the telephone, integrity, good 

judgment, and quick comprehension are important qualities. 

In order to be able to give investment advice to those who 

need it, a broker should have a broad enough background in 

economics and history to be able to understand and interpret 

business trends. 
26 

Financial remuneration is determined by the amount of 

business the broker produces. A tremendous field for development, and one where women brokers should be especially 

successful, is that of advising women on investments. 

The New York Stock Exchange is the leading organization 

for marketing the securities listed with the Securities and 

Exchange Commission. Its member firms have offices in 

some 425 cities in the United States, and a few in other 

countries. There are, in addition, 14 other registered stock 

exchanges in the United States. 

Social Work* 

Social work, like nursing and teaching, attracts women 

who value the opportunity to be of service to others. For 

this field, a master's degree is desirable, based on 2 years of 

study in an accredited school of social work. However, 

many social-work agencies make a practice of taking liberalarts graduates as case aides and helping them to complete 

their graduate training through a work-study or scholarship plan. The added maturity and experience gained 

through such a plan are an asset in social work. 

For this field a broad liberal-arts foundation is indicated, 

with stress on social sciences such as economics, sociology, 

psychology, anthropology, and history; and on biological 

sciences. English and statistics are valuable tools, and at 

least one foreign language is desirable, as well as orientation 

courses in social work. 

Specialties in the social-work field offer a wide range of 

choice. The original social-work field—casework—is still the 

largest, with opportunities throughout the country in communities of all sizes. The social caseworker is the backbone 

of the social agency, whether public or private; she may 

specialize in work with families or with children. 

*See Additional References. 
27 

Both medical and psychiatric social work are rapidly 

expanding fields. For example, in hospitals, clinics, and 

health centers, medical social workers work with doctors 

and nurses to help patients or their families deal with personal problems resulting from illness or disability. Opportunities for advancement are good. Over two-thirds of all 

social workers are women. The Council on Social Work 

Education reported thousands of vacancies in 1956. 

Other specializations in social work include group work; 

community organization; and administration, teaching, research. Some of the newest and most rapidly expanding 

branches are group work in youth-serving agencies, schools, 

and hospitals, and work with the aged; and community organization work with community chests, welfare councils, socialservice exchanges, and volunteer bureaus. Most positions 

in these specialties are in the larger cities. 

Teaching 

More women are engaged in the various fields of teaching 

than in any other professional occupation. In 1950, the 

Bureau of the Census reported: 

Number 

Occupation of women 

Teachers (not elsewhere classified) 834,996 

College presidents, professors, instructors (not elsewhere 

classified) 28,907 

Music teachers and musicians 77,844 

Art teachers and artists 29,566 

Dancing teachers and dancers 11,438 

Sports instructors and officials 11,133 

A demand for more well-qualified teachers is assured for 

some years to come. Beginning with 1952, each year has 

brought large increases in school enrollments. By 1960, 

when the first group of postwar children reach the ninth 

grade, the 4 million babies born in 1954 will be ready for 

kindergarten. Thus, the need for additional teachers, first 
28 

felt in the elementary schools, will soon be equally acute in 

the secondary schools, and the colleges and universities. 

The National Education Association estimates that some 

175,000 new, fully qualified teachers would have been required in the fall of 1956 to take care of increased enrollments 

and teacher losses, to reduce teacher loads to acceptable 

standards, and to make a reasonable reduction in the number of emergency teaching certificates.5

 To meet this need, 

it was estimated that 106,411 men and women graduated 

from colleges and universities in 1956 would be prepared to 

meet the certificate requirements of their States. This was 

an increase of not quite 10 percent over 1955. The number 

prepared to teach in elementary schools rose only slightly 

{3.1 percent), but the number equipped to teach in secondary 

schools showed a substantial rise of 15.4 percent. This increase applied to all fields of teaching and was especially 

marked in the fields of science and mathematics, where the 

teaching shortage has been most acutely felt. 

A 4-year college course as the minimum standard preparation for teaching at any level has gained rapid acceptance 

during recent years. A bachelor's degree is now the minimum 

educational requirement in more than half of the States for 

new teachers wishing to obtain a regular certificate at the 

elementary-school level. For a high-school certificate, a college 

degree is required in 45 States, with a specified number of 

semester hours in professional education and also in the teaching fields selected. The State requirements in professional 

education range from 9 hours to 27 hours, in addition to 

practice teaching under supervision.6 

' T o become a college instructor the undergraduate should 

specialize in a selected field and then work toward a master's 

degree. The student who plans to become a college professor 

will need a doctoral degree and a number of years of teaching 

'. • "A Brief Summary of the 1956 Teacher Supply and Demand Report," The Journal of 

Teacher Education, March 1956. 

*A Manual on Certification Requirements for School Personnel in the United States. 

National Education Association of the United States, 1201 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington 6, D. C. 1955 edition. 176 pp. $2. 
29 

experience at the college level. Many colleges and universities offer a limited number of teaching fellowships and 

part-time assistantships for graduate students. (See page 

42.) 

College women, even if they do not intend to teach, would 

be well advised to include in their major field of specialization 

the basic subject-matter courses required for teaching. 

This is a superior sort of occupational insurance, as the demand for well-qualified teachers continues to grow. 

Writing and Editing 

The writing field covers dozens of occupations, of which 

literary authorship is only one. The 6,059 women classified 

as authors in 1950 are far outnumbered by the 28,595 women 

editors and reporters. Most young college graduates 

whose interests lie in the writing field are wise to plan on 

acquiring some years of experience on a salaried basis before 

attempting to market their own products as free-lance 

writers. 

Newspapers and magazines, advertising firms, and radio 

and television stations can usually take their choice of the 

graduating class as trainees, so superior preparation is a 

great asset. Usually newspapers prefer journalism graduates 

or persons who obtained practical training on the staff of a 

college periodical. 

There are many other writing jobs that offer a good future. 

A college girl who wants to be a writer will greatly improve 

her job prospects by building up a second strong specialty. 

Whatever field she chooses—art, history, home economics, 

languages, psychology, the sciences—will open up a whole 

new field of possibilities. Journalism courses are one approach, but not necessarily the only one. A fashion designer 

or nutrition expert may get a writing job as readily as the 

graduate of a journalism course. 
30 

Writers and editors are employed on the trade journals and 

company publications published by manufacturing, trade, 

business, and public utility firms; on religious, farm, and 

children's magazines; and in government agencies to prepare 

reports, bulletins, and articles.7 

Publicity 

Publicity and public relations work have provided a 

rapidly expanding field for writers within the past generation. 

Most organizations and firms have a public relations staff, 

and every Government agency has its information specialists. Requirements for this field vary with the job, but 

usually include facility in writing and speaking, a liking for 

people, and a flair for new and graphic turns of expression. 

Editing 

There is a large and steady market for experienced editorial 

workers, as practically all publications—books, magazines, 

newspapers—pass through the hands of an editorial staff. 

An inexperienced person may start as editorial clerk or assistant. A liberal arts background is desirable, with emphasis on 

English usage and writing techniques. Knowledge of printers' 

terms and printing processes, layout and design, and proofreading may be acquired through courses in journalism or on 

the job. Editors often do a good deal of writing, but except 

at the top level they are likely to work anonymously or as 

members of a team. 

Technical writing and editing 

Some interesting opportunities exist for the woman who 

combines proficiency in almost any scientific, technical, or 

' Middlebrook, L. Ruth. Careers for English Majors. New York University Press, 

Washington Square, N. Y. 1954. 
31 

engineering field with a thorough training in writing and 

editing techniques. 

Technical editors are needed by firms publishing technical 

books, professional journals in every branch of science, and 

trade journals. The technical editor has become essential to 

almost all organizations engaged in research and development. For this field, skill in the use of language as a means 

of communication must be acquired together with training in 

mathematics, photography, drawing, and the construction of 

tables and charts. 

There is a wide field, also, for writers with a technical background who can present new scientific developments in nontechnical language for the general reader. 

To equip students for highly technical editing, at least one 

engineering school offers a course leading to the degree 

"master of science with a major in technical writing." 

Candidates must hold the bachelor's degree in science or 

engineering and must continue this training at the graduate 

level. In addition, the students receive a thorough grounding in writing and editing.8 

* See Journal of Engineering Education, "A Curriculum for Technical Editors," by Christian K. Arnold, Nov. 1954; "Graduate Curriculum in Technical Writing," by S. P. Olmsted, 

Mar. 1955. 
2 

Job-Finding Techniques 

T H E STEPS involved in getting a job include some or all of 

the following: 

1. Preparing a personal folder 

2. Canvassing the possibilities 

3. Submitting an application 

4. Making the most of the interview 

5. Choosing your job 

6. Reaching an agreement with the employer 

Preparing a Personal Folder 

Gather together pertinent information on yourself and your 

qualifications to be taken on interviews, sent with letters of 

application, or supplied upon request. Obtain several copies 

of all your papers, since you will probably have to leave a set 

with each application. Clean copies of all typed material 

should be available. Smudged, wrinkled carbons or a date 

long past give a very poor impression. If you ask to have 

your papers returned, you should supply a self-addressed envelope of the proper size and with sufficient postage. 

Your personal folder should contain— 

**a resume of your training, experience, and other details. A sample 

form and suggestions for preparing this resume are given on page 34. 

**a detailed list of your courses, with emphasis on those that qualify you 

for the type of position you want. 

**your official academic record, or transcript of credits, if the registrar's 

office of your college will supply it to you. Some colleges will send a 

transcript only to the prospective employer. There may be a small 

charge to you for this. 

(32) 
33 

**copies of any published news reports of awards you have received or 

important professional or academic achievements; published stories, 

articles, or technical papers you have written; or examples of art 

work. Clippings should show source and date. 

**references. The employer will usually ask for these. B«fore you 

use anyone's name as a reference it is businesslike and courteous to 

request his permission to do so. Make sure that all names are 

spelled correctly and that addresses and official titles are up to date 

and given in full. 

**any other pertinent data. It is probably not necessary to give such 

personal or irrelevant information as your religious affiliation; if an 

employer wishes to know, he will ask you. In fact, the Federal and 

certain State governments are not permitted to require such information. If you supply a photograph, it should be small (about 2 " x 

3") and show only your head, with no hat. If the neckline of your 

dress shows, it should be of the tailored, business-dress type rather 

than the low-necked, formal variety. 

NOTE S O N PREPARIN G TH E RESUM E 

Allow plenty of time to prepare your resume. It will be 

highly important to an employer's decision. 

Under student activities, list any offices you have held in your class, 

student-government organization, YWCA, and special-interest clubs. 

These often reveal potentialities for leadership, financial management, or 

organizing. 

Under work experience, list briefly tutoring and part-time work in 

college offices, libraries, laboratories, or residence halls; also vacation jobs 

(as camp counselor, for example); military service; and unpaid work such 

as teaching in church school, working with Girl Scouts, etc. Attach an 

extra page if you need to do so. 

Special skills and interests are important. Such skills as typing, driving 

a car, using a foreign language, or playing a musical instrument may 

provide the extra factor that tips the scales in your favor. 
34 
35 

Canvassing the Possibilities 

Next, make a preliminary canvass of prospective positions. 

For this, you may wish to— 

**register with one or more employment agencies, such as your college 

placement bureau, the local office of the State employment service, 

a commercial employment agency, or the placement office of any 

professional organization to which you may belong. The most 

important source of job leads for women newly graduated from 

college is their college or university placement bureau, according to 

a recent study made by the Women's Bureau. 

**make contact with former employers, if you have worked before, and 

you think they might have an opening for you. 

**file for civil-service examinations (Federal, State, municipal) at the 

appropriate civil-service agency. 

**scan the "help wanted" advertisements in newspapers and professional 

journals. These will give you a realistic idea of current openings 

and salary rates in some fields. 

**ask for suggestions from friends and relatives who may be in a position 

to know of openings. 

**attend interviews on campus. Some time in your senior year you 

may be interviewed by representatives of large firms or of the 

Federal Government who visit colleges in search of promising June 

graduates. To be in readiness for such meetings, it is advisable to 

prepare your personal folder early in the year. 

Find out as much as you can about each job in which you 

are interested. You will want to check the requirements of 

these jobs against your qualifications carefully and objectively. If you decide to apply, and the employer considers 

your application seriously, he will proceed to evaluate your 

abilities in the light of the duties he wants performed. If 

you lack some of the requirements, he may think that they 

can be developed on the job or that the lack may be offset 

by other qualifications you possess. 

Submitting an Application 

When you have some leads—or at least one—you are 

ready to approach an employer. You will probably do this 
36 

by letter or by telephone, stating briefly your interest in a 

job and your qualifications, and requesting an interview. 

The letter of application 

The employer may receive dozens of applications in any 

given week; what do you want him to remember about 

yours? It is more likely to receive consideration if the 

letter— 

**is addressed to an individual by name, rather than merely to the firm. 

If you do not know whom to address, your first inquiry (by letter or 

telephone) may properly be merely a request for this information. 

**shows a genuine interest in the work of the organization and in the 

position for which you are applying. 

**points out how your qualifications meet the specifications for this 

particular job. 

**is brief (all on one page). Your resume can be enclosed with the 

letter to supply the details on your background. 

**is neatly typewritten and conforms to good letter-writing style. 

The approach by telephone 

This is useful especially— 

**to arrange for an appointment. 

**to ask for routine information. 

**when quick action is necessary, as in the case of a job that has been 

open for some time and will soon be closed to further applications. 

**when requested by the employer in an advertisement or through a 

placement agency. If you are asked to give your qualifications over 

the phone, send a confirming letter enclosing your resume. You 

want to be sure that the record of your application is complete and 

accurate. 

Making the Most of the Interview 

When you are granted an interview, you have the opportunity of showing the employer, or the person representing 

him, that you are the person for the job. He will be in control 

of the interview, and will probably ask most of the questions. 
37 

Listen attentively to everything he tells you about the firm 

and its work, in order to make up your mind whether you 

would like the job. 

A good first impression is essential. This means not only 

good grooming and neatness, but a courteous and alert 

manner. 

It is desirable to— 

**be on time for the interview. This is a "must " for you, but sometimes 

a busy executive will have to keep you waiting. Be prepared to 

wait if necessary. 

**know enough about the firm so that you can show an informed interest 

in it. Make sure you have the name of your interviewer. If 

necessary, ask his secretary for it. 

**ask relevant questions about the work, indicating your interest in 

what you can contribute as well as in what the employer can offer 

you in salary, working hours, vacations, etc. 

**show frankly that you want the position, and why. 

**be concise and direct in your answers to questions. 

**be responsive to any signal that the interview is over. 

After the interview, if the employer does not get in touch 

with you within the time he specified, it is generally appropriate to follow up on your application, perhaps by offering 

to provide additional information about your qualifications. 

Remember, however, that there is a fine distinction between 

showing the proper interest and making a nuisance of 

yourself. 

If an application does not prove successful, you can still 

profit by analyzing and improving your approach. You may 

even decide to alter your objective or take additional training 

before applying for another job. Or the interviewer may call 

you later if a job develops for which he feels you are better 

qualified. 

Choosing Your Job 

If you are fortunate enough to have more than one job 

offer, careful thought should go into your decision. There 

are many factors—large and small—which can rffect your 
38 

satisfaction with a job. Salary is not the only one, especially 

if the difference between the starting pay of two jobs is small. 

Other factors to be considered are— 

**the opportunity to learn, develop useful skills, and advance professionally. 

**the people you meet on the job. 

**distance from where you will be living, and expenditure of time and 

money involved in transportation and lunches. 

**"fringe" benefits in the form of vacation and sick leave; provisions 

for hospitalization and other forms of insurance; and retirement 

benefits. 

**long-term satisfaction in your contribution to society and to the 

advancement of your ideals. 

**permanence and security over as long a period of time as you may 

need it. 

You may find it helpful to draw up a chart for yourself, 

comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each job 

under consideration. The objective advice of qualified counselors, friends, and relatives may help you. 

It is good business practice to keep a carbon copy of every 

letter you send out. If your job should prove unsatisfactory, 

you may want to follow up later on other leads. As you 

move from one job to another, even if you stay with the 

same firm, you should make a record of the date the job 

started and ended, your salary, what you did on that job, 

and the name and title of your supervisor. 

Reaching an Agreement With the Employer 

It is not safe to assume that the job is yours until you have 

a definite job offer from the employer. Be sure you have 

a clear understanding of what will be expected of you; when 

and where to start work; and what your initial salary will be. 

Once you have accepted a job, give it a fair trial. Give 

it a little time to develop. It may prove to be one of the 

most worthwhile experiences of your life, as well as a major 

step toward a rewarding and successful career. 
3 

Some Practical Considerations 

The Job Market 

How is the young woman student to find a place for herself 

among the 70 million men and women making up the Nation's 

work force? Where should she look for a job that will offer 

full scope to her training and abilities and be productive of 

real values? 

Personal leanings are important; so are some other considerations. The choice between two or more equally attractive professions may depend on— 

**status of the occupation. An occupation which is expanding, i. e., electronics, may be easier to enter than one which is already stabilized; 

but the stabilized occupation may offer greater security. 

**status of women in the occupation. In professions where women predominate, such as nursing and teaching, well-qualified women are 

always needed, and usually can advance to higher level jobs in the 

course of time. In professions where women are a small minority, 

as in engineering, it may take more initiative and ingenuity (as well 

as top qualifications) to get a foothold; but the woman who makes 

the effort may find it highly rewarding. 

**versatility. In these days of rapid technological and cultural change, 

it is an advantage to acquire skills that can be used in more than one 

occupation, or in an occupation that requires a variety of skills. 

Facility with a typewriter may open the door to newspaper work, for 

example. 

**general employment picture. When the economy as a whole is prosperous, jobs are plentiful in luxury and personal service fields. In 

a recession, occupations meeting basic needs are usually the least 

affected. 

(39) 
40 

Earnings 

Although it is only one of several factors to be considered 

in choosing an occupation, the subject of earnings is sure to 

be of interest. It is desirable to consult advisers, experienced 

persons in the profession, and available literature not only as 

to starting pay but as to salary at various levels and prospects 

for advancement. 

In general, of course, a well-qualified woman with a sound 

educational background will command a higher entrance 

salary and will advance more rapidly than one with less 

adequate preparation. 

In this pamphlet, detailed information on remuneration 

has been omitted for several reasons:9 

(a) The only nationwide figures available on earnings are those 

issued by the Bureau of the Census. The latest census estimates on earnings by major occupational group are for 1955. 

Average earnings of women employed full time throughout the 

year were $3,500 in professional and technical occupations and 

$3,065 in clerical and related occupations. The latest data on 

earnings in individual occupations by educational level are for 

the decennial census of 1950. 

(b) Average earnings are likely to be misleading, as they conceal the 

extremely wide range of individual salaries. Examples of spectacular instances of high earnings are even more misleading, 

especially to a person looking for her first job. 

(c) Differences between rural and urban rates, and between one 

geographical area and another, introduce endless complications. 

Other considerations which may influence the choice of a 

job are retirement programs, job security provisions, and any 

special benefits (health and insurance plans, profit-sharing 

plans, and so forth) which the company or organization offers. 

Although these may not seem significant in selecting a first 

job, they become more important later. 

• However, starting rates under Federal civil service, which are established by law and 

apply throughout the country, are given on pages 8-9. 
41 

College students may wish to consider several alternative 

types of employment within their field of specialization. For 

example, they may wish to become teachers, or to work in 

private industry, or to work for the Government or for a 

nonprofit organization. Chapter 1 offers some suggestions to 

aid their thinking. What data are available indicate that 

there are significant differences in probable earnings among 

these fields of employment. 

A social scientist, for example, may enter the educational field, 

private industry, or Government employment. A 1952 study by the 

Bureau of Labor Statistics (Bulletin 1169) supplies data on the earnings of 15,000 social scientists and 7,800 humanists in 14 fields. In 

most of these specializations, salaries were higher in colleges and universities than in other educational institutions, in Federal Government than in State and local government, in private industry than 

in nonprofit organizations. 

Graduate study is the most direct road to professional advancement in the social sciences. It is more essential now than it was a 

generation ago. The Ph. D. group, on the average, earned considerably more than the groups with only the master's or bachelor's degree. In four fields—economics, sociology, statistics, and geography—median salaries were from 31,500 to 31,800 higher for the 

Ph. D.'s than for those having master's degrees. The percentage of 

workers who were women ranged from 24 percent in anthropology 

to 6 percent in economics. The highest paid women were economists 

with the Ph. D. degree. 

Graduate Study 

As the number of college graduates in the population 

increases, graduate degrees become more and more essential 

for professional advancement. Many new graduates who 

hope eventually to continue their studies, however, prefer to 

gain some work experience first, and in many fields, such as 

social work and teaching, this is encouraged. The important 

thing is to recognize the various alternatives and to have in 

mind a plan which is firm enough to prevent drifting and 

flexible enough to allow room for growth and change. 
42 

Ways to finance advanced study can usually be found by 

persons of ability and determination. There are various possibilities : Research or study fellowships, teaching fellowships, 

special loan funds, and part-time jobs. Twenty-five percent 

of all graduate students in the United States received financial assistance in April 1954 in the form of fellowships, teaching and research assistantships.10

 Many social-welfare and 

health agencies have resources to help staff members undertake part-time study or to provide for educational leave. 

Some business firms encourage career employees to take special training, and may help finance such training. 

Government fellowships 

Government funds are available for graduate study and 

research fellowships in certain fields. Through the National 

Institutes of Health, Division of Research Grants and Fellowships, Bethesda, Md., the Federal Government awards fellowships for graduate work at predoctoral and postdoctoral levels. 

These fellowships are for research in public health, medical, 

dental, nursing, and related health fields including mental 

health, cancer, and heart disease. 

For research in the natural and physical sciences, the 

National Science Foundation awarded 715 predoctoral fellowships for 1955-56. 

Grants for study abroad were awarded to 979 American 

students in 1955 under the State Department's Educational 

Exchange Program. The majority of these grants were under 

the Fulbright Act of 1946. The fields represented include 

the various branches of physical and natural science, social 

science, the humanities, and education^ 

Nongovernment fellowships 

Most colleges and universities that grant advanced degrees 

have some teaching fellowships for qualified graduates. In 

w

 "Highlights of a Survey of Graduate Student Enrollments, Fellowships, and Assistantships, 1954." Scientific Manpower Bulletin, National Science Foundation, July 29, 1955. 
43 

this way a graduate student can be self-supporting while working for her master's or doctor's degree and acquiring teaching 

experience. Many institutions also award a certain number 

of full-time study fellowships. For example, the Harvard 

School of Public Health has initiated a scholarship program 

to encourage graduates in medicine, dentistry, veterinary 

medicine, public health nursing, health education, and other 

health services to specialize in public health and preventive 

medicine.11 

Grants for graduate study may also be obtained from other 

sources, such as private foundations, women's organizations, 

national sororities, and religious and civic groups. The 

General Federation of Women's Clubs and the American 

Association of University Women, for example, have extensive 

fellowship programs. 

Sources of information 

Fellowships for graduate study, as well as undergraduate 

scholarships, are available for study at one or more institutions of higher education in almost every State. These are 

listed in a catalog issued by the Office of Education,12 showing 

the money value of the fellowships, and other necessary information. 

Information on sources of research and training fellowships 

in the social sciences can be obtained from the Social Science 

Research Council (726 Jackson Place, NW., Washington, 

D. C) ; and on research fellowships in economic, political, 

and social sciences from Brookings Institute (722 Jackson 

Place NW., Washington, D. C.) 

Information on what fellowships are offered in your field of 

study, and how to apply for them, may be obtained through 

your own college or from the appropriate professional association. 

11

 "Opportunities for Women in Medicine," Journal of the American Medical Women's 

Association 10: 177-179 (May 1955). 

" Scholarships and Fellowships Available at Institutions of Higher Education. 1951. 
44 

Degrees earned by women 

In all fields, a total of 103,799 women received the bachelor's degree (or first professional degree, including M. D. 

and D. D. S.) in 1954-55.13 The master's degree was earned 

by 19,464 women, and the doctor's degree was earned by 826 

women. This means that one woman earns a doctor's 

degree for every 25 women who earn a master's degree. 

Twenty-nine percent of the graduate students enrolled in 

1955 were women. 

Three-fourths of all school teachers are women, and the 

number of women receiving the bachelor's degree in education in 1954—55 was five times as large as the number of men 

(36,000 compared with 7,500). Nevertheless, only one-fifth 

as many women as men (228 compared with 1,128) received 

the doctor's degree in education. 

Marriage and Career 

According to a recent survey, 80 percent of the women 

graduates from college were employed a few months after 

graduation, most of them on a full-time basis. Nearly half 

of the remainder were full-time students (and presumably 

intended to practice their professions later). Most of the 

others were full-time homemakers. These figures are based 

on a survey of women graduates of June 1955, made by the 

Women's Bureau and the National Vocational Guidance 

Association. 

Experience shows that many of the employed graduates 

will later become full-time homemakers; and that quite a few 

homemakers will return to employment, either full time or 

part time. 

According to decennial census figures, 28 percent of all 

women 25 years of age and over were working in 1950; among 

u

 Earned Degrees Conferred by Higher Educational Institutions, 1954-55. Office of 

Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1955. 
45 

college graduates, 47 percent were working. In fact, in each 

of the age groups 25 years and older, the proportion of college 

women who were in the labor force was significantly higher 

than the proportion of all women in the labor force (chart 1). 

Women students may wisely plan their courses with a 

view to qualifying themselves for a job which will satisfy 

them. Training of this type is advantageous either for 

employment for a few years after college, or for a career that 

may develop into professional achievement of a high order, 

or for a continuing interest that may at any time be reconverted into profitable employment. 
46 

There are various ways for a woman with a profession or 

specialized skill to keep in touch with her field during the 

years when homemaking and motherhood take most of her 

time. 

She can retain her membership in professional associations, subscribe to technical journals, correspond with former coworkers, 

perhaps attend annual conferences. 

She can find some way to practice her skills. For example, a 

pianist might play accompaniments for a dancing class, a teacher 

might do tutoring or serve as a substitute teacher. 

Whatever her specialty, the professional woman might do independent research, writing, or consultation work on a part-time basis. 

If, then, she becomes a full-time worker again at any time, 

her knowledge and skills will be up to date and ready for use. 
4 

Women on the Job 

OUR complex modern society has created a vast number 

of specialized jobs and occupations, and women work in 

most of them. 

To provide some perspective on the situation, a summary 

is given here of the occupations of women—and especially 

college women—in the economy of the United States. 

Only once in 10 years are nationwide figures available on 

the detailed occupations of women. Our information, therefore, is based on reports of the decennial census of 1950, 

issued by the U. S. Bureau of the Census. 

Occupations of Employed Women 

Educational background appears to be an important factor in determining whether or not a woman is employed in 

a professional capacity. 

The circle charts (see chart 2) show the occupational distribution in 1950 of employed women 25 years of age and 

over at three educational levels. 

Professional and technical jobs 

The majority of women college graduates who were in 

the work force were in the professional and technical group— 

72 percent. Among those with 1 to 3 years of college training, 36 percent were in this group, and among those with no 

college training, only 4 percent. 

Clerical and related work 

Women with 1 to 3 years of college training were equally 

divided between clerical work and professional work, with 

(47) 
48 

more than one-third in each. Clerical work also drew 16 

percent of the college graduates. Among the employed 

women without college training, or with less than 1 year, 23 

percent were clerical workers; but this group is much larger 

numericallythan the college groups. 
49 

Operatives 

College women seldom are employed in operative jobs, but 

one-fourth of the employed women without college training 

work as operatives, mostly in factories. 

Managers, proprietors, and officials 

This is the only major occupational group for women that 

shows no relationship to level of education. Only a small 

percent of the employed women at any educational level were 

in the managerial group: 4.4 percent of the college graduates; 

6.8 percent of those with 1 to 3 years of college; and 5.2 

percent of the noncollege women. The explanation may lie 

in the wide range of occupations in this group, which includes 

the woman who manages a lodging house as well as the head 

of a bank. 

Women in Professional Occupations 

Nearly 2 million women were employed in 1950 in the 56 

occupations listed under "professional, technical, and kindred 

workers." This was about 1 in 8 of all women then employed. 

Four-fifths of the professional women were employed in 

seven occupations, as— 

school teachers 

professional nurses 

musicians and music teachers 

social workers (all types) 

accountants and auditors 

librarians 

medical and dental technicians 

In each of these seven occupations, the number of women 

employed was at least 10,000 more in 1950 than in 1940. 

Two other occupations also gained over 10,000 women during 

the decade— 

artists and art teachers 

editors and reporters 
so 

Half a dozen other occupations, which had never before 

been sufficiently important to be listed separately, were each 

employing from 5,000 to 50,000 women by 1950— 

dietitians and nutritionists 

testing technicians 

personnel and labor-relations workers 

social scientists 

recreation and group workers 

natural scientists (not elsewhere classified) 

Rapidly expanding employment opportunities for women 

were indicated in some other professional and technical 

occupations, where the number of women more than doubled 

from 1940 to 1950. These include some fields which formerly 

were chiefly entered by men— 

chemists pharmacists 

clergymen radio operators 

draftsmen surveyors 

engineers veterinarians 

Additional information on the numbers of women employed 

in professional occupations can be found in Women's Bureau 

Bulletin 253, "Changes in Women's Occupations, 1940-1950." 

This report also gives information on women employed as 

managers, proprietors, and officials; in clerical work, crafts, 

and farming; as sales workers; and in service occupations. 

The 1956 Handbook on Women Workers (Women's Bureau 

Bulletin 261) gives trends in women's employment and 

occupations as of April 1956. 

College Women in the National Economy 

College graduates account for nearly half of all women in 

professional, technical, and kindred occupations; women with 

1 to 3 years of college training account for another fourth. 

The remaining fourth includes many nurses who obtained 

their training in a hospital school. 
51 

Professional women are recruited chiefly from the colleges, 

universities, and professional schools. On the graduates of 

these schools, past, present, and future, rests a major responsibility for the record of professional women in the United 

States—their performance, their advance, and their overall 

contribution. 
Additional References 

U. S. Civil Service Commission, Washington 25, D. C. 

After College . . . What? Oct. 1955. 

Federal Careers, a directory for college students. 1956. 60 cents. 

Futures in the Federal Government. Pamphlet 30. Oct. 1955. 

U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington 25, 

D. C. 

United States Census of Population, 1950. Special Report PE, No. 

5B, Education. 1953. 60 cents. 

Vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, Part I, United 

States Summary. 1953. 33.75. 

U. S. Department of Defense (in cooperation with Department of Labor). 

Careers for Women in the Armed Forces. [1955.] 

U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Earned Degrees Conferred by Higher Educational Institutions, 

1954-1955. Dec. 1955. 31. 

Education for the Professions. 1955. 31.75. 

Girls' and Women's Occupations. Selected References, July 1948-

Sept. 1954. 1955. 35 cents. 

Scholarships and Fellowships Available at Institutions of Higher 

Education. Bull. 1951, No. 16. 55 cents. 

U. S. Department of Labor, Washington 25, D. C. 

Bureau of Employment Security. Counseling and Employment 

Service for Youth. Dec. 1954. 30 cents. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics (in cooperation with Department of 

Defense). Personnel Resources in the Social Sciences and 

Humanities. Bull. 1169. 1954. 70 cents. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics (in cooperation with Veterans' Administration). Occupational Outlook Handbook: Employment Information on Major Occupations for Use in Guidance. Bull. No. 998. 

1951 ed., $3. (1957 ed. in preparation.) 

(52) 
S3 

Women's Bureau. 

Changes in Women's Occupations, 1940-1950. Bull. 253. 1954. 

35 cents. 

Employment Opportunities Series : 

Dietetics. Bull. 234-1. 1950. 25 cents. 

Food-Service Managers and Supervisors. Bull. 234—2. 1952. 

20 cents. 

Medical Technologists. Bull. 203-4. 1954. 25 cents. 

Occupational Therapists. Bull. 203-2. 1952. 20 cents. 

Physical Therapists. Bull. 203-1. 1952. 20 cents. 

Professional Accounting. Bull. 258. 1955. 20 cents. 

Professional Engineering. Bull. 254. 1954. 20 cents. 

Professional Nursing Occupations. Bull. 203-3. 1953. 30 cents. 

Social Work—General Summary. Bull. 235-8. 1952. 30 cents. 

Also, Bull. 235, No. 1 (medical social work, 25 cents), No. 2 

(psychiatric social work, 25 cents), No. 3 (case work with 

children, 25 cents), No. 4 (case work with families, 30 cents), 

No. 5 (community organization, 20 cents), No. 6 (administration, teaching, and research, 25 cents), and No. 7 (social group 

work, 20 cents). 

Women Mathematicians and Statisticians. Bull. 262. 1956. 

Employment After College: Report on Women Graduates, Class of 

1955. 1956. Processed. 

Women of the 84th Congress. 1955. Processed. 

Women in the Federal Service. 1956. (In press.) 

1956 Handbook on Women Workers. Bull. 261. 1956. 

U. S. Department of State, Washington 25, D. C. 

New Opportunities in the United States Foreign Service. Foreign 

Service Series 39. Reprint 1955. 15 cents. 

(U. S.) National Science Foundation, Washington 25, D. C. 

Education and Employment Specialization in 1952 of June 1951 

College Graduates. Sept. 1955. 35 cents. 

Government publications can be purchased from the Superintendent of 

Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C., at 

prices listed, with a discount of 25 percent on orders of 100 copies or more. 

Publications for which no price is listed may be obtained from the designated 

agency.