United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest

Service

Northern

Research Station

General Technical

Report

NRS-8

Bibliography of Forest

Water Yields, Flooding

Issues, and the

Hydrologic Modeling of

Extreme Flood Events

Mark H. Eisenbies, Mary Beth Adams, W. Michael Aust, 

and James A. Burger
Abstract

Floods continue to cause significant damage in the United States and elsewhere, and questions about the causes of flooding continue to be debated. A

significant amount of research has been conducted on the relationship between

forest management activities and water yield, peak flows, and flooding; somewhat less research has been conducted on the modeling of these activities as

related to flooding. This bibliography and online bibliographic database provide a

searchable listing of more than 600 publications related to the interrelationships

of forest and forest management on watershed and flood hydrology. Also

included are publications related to the capability and limitations of currently

available hydrologic models and modeling approaches, with particular emphasis

on their utility for evaluating forest management effects.

Cover Photo

Joseph O’Brien, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private

Forestry, St. Paul, MN; www.forestryimages.org

Published by:

USDA FOREST SERVICE

NORTHERN RESEARCH STATION

11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200

NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294

May 2007

Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/

Manuscript received for publication December 2006
INTRODUCTION

The connection between forests and water resources is

well established, but the relationships among the components are only partially understood. There is some

evidence that the frequency of severe flooding may be

on the rise due to climate change and permanent largescale changes in land use (Macklin and Lewin 2003).

Floods caused an estimated $90 billion in damage in the

United States during the 1990s (Pielke et al. 2002), and

recent severe flooding in the U.S. has renewed interest

in the relationships among land use, forest management

operations, and proportionate surface runoff. Recurrent

flooding in the Appalachians has been especially troublesome and has resulted in extensive property damage

and the loss of human lives. 

Extreme rainstorms have the potential to cause considerable economic damage to persons and property, usually due to either flooding or landslides. The severity of

these events can be influenced by numerous climatic

and site factors such as rainfall amounts and intensity,

existing soil moisture content, soil depth, slope, geographic aspect, and geology (glaciated versus unglaciated). Land use and management practices have also been

identified as influential factors and are the only variables

over which humans have any reasonable degree of control. 

Because forested watersheds have been relied upon for

centuries to protect water resources, land uses such as

forestry, agriculture, urbanization, and mining have

come under increasing scrutiny for their potential and

perceived effects on water quality and quantity. Public

and political pressure to prevent future floods usually

follows large, damaging events, and forest protection is

often a centerpiece of prevention plans. Such plans

should be based upon the best available information,

which of necessity comes from long-term research. 

The U.S. has traditionally been very active in the area of

forested watershed research. Between 1900 and 1950

about 150 watershed studies were conducted, primarily

to assess the effects of land management on water yield

(Stednick 1996). Several long-term research facilities in

the Appalachian region are dedicated to basic research

in forest hydrology (Adams et al. 2003). These facilities

include the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory in North

Carolina (est. 1934), the Fernow Experimental Forest in

West Virginia (est. 1934), the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem

Study in New Hampshire (est. 1962), and the Walker

Branch Research Project in Tennessee (est. 1967). These

facilities have each accumulated between 35 and 70

years of nearly continuous stream discharge and other

data, which represent the best long-term datasets available in the Appalachian region. Research at these sites

addresses a variety of large-scale and small-scale ecological questions; however, none of the sites were established expressly to research extreme flooding. 

Nonetheless, a significant amount of knowledge about

the links between forests and watershed hydrology has

been gained in the Appalachian region. Cutting trees

reduces water demand and can affect water yield from

forested watersheds primarily during the growing season. Forest road systems may affect hillslope hydrology

and flow routing to rivers and streams. Rapid subsequent runoff and increased water yield may in turn

affect the frequency and magnitude of local and regional

floods, but this remains to be demonstrated in the field.

The influence of forestry practices and the specific

mechanisms by which they affect flooding remain the

focus of much research and debate throughout the

world. 

The Authors

MARK H. EISENBIES, Research Associate,

College of Natural Resources, Virginia Tech.

University, Blacksburg, VA.

M.B. ADAMS, Project Leader, Research Soil

Scientist, USDA Forest Service, Northern

Research Station, Parsons, WV.

W. MICHAEL AUST, Professor of Forestry,

College of Natural Resources, Virginia Tech.

University, Blacksburg, VA. 

JAMES A. BURGER, Professor of Forestry,

College of Natural Resources, Virginia Tech.

University, Blacksburg, VA.

1
Despite centuries of scientific observations and research

inspired by major flooding events, many aspects about

the relationship between land use and flooding remain

unresolved (Andreassian 2004). Extreme events are rare,

and because of the complexity of the system and the

cost of installing large-scale hydrologic studies, data are

usually limited for answering specific research questions. Models are therefore frequently used to simulate

reality in comparing and evaluating land use scenarios

or to reconstruct floods after they occur.

The Bibliography

We created this bibliography to provide an extensive

listing of available literature on the interrelationships of

forests and forest management on watershed and flood

hydrology. Also provided is a listing of literature on the

capability and limitations of currently available hydrologic models and modeling approaches for evaluating

the effects of land use on flooding. At the time of publication, this bibliography includes a total of 617 citations

that are cross-listed within 12 general categories as they

relate to land use, hydrology, flooding, and modeling;

individual citations may appear in multiple categories.

Some emphasis has been placed on articles concerning

extreme flooding and the Appalachian region. Citations

after 1980 are emphasized and are primarily drawn

from journal articles, books, and book chapters (fig. 1).

Proceedings papers, reports, and other items are included based on their relative availability.

Category Descriptions

(1) Forest hydrology, policy, history, case studies, and

watershed function: a broad overview of forest

hydrology as well as case studies of specific floods. 

(2) Watersheds, forest, and hillslope hydrology: general

hydrologic concepts concerning the water cycle. 

(3) Geomorphology: stream and flood topography, geomorphology, and fluvial processes. 

(4) Forest operations and management effects: silvicultural and harvesting effects on hydrology and soils. 

(5) Nonforest land use effects: impacts of other land uses

(agriculture, mining, and urban) on hydrology and

soils. 

(6) Soil disturbance, roads, and best management

practices: soil disturbance effects on hydrology and

management implications and prescriptions for

reducing erosion and protecting water quality. 

(7) Modeling approaches, concepts, and reviews: general

techniques and a variety of models for simulating

hydrology on watersheds. 

(8) Hydrologic model descriptions and applications: specific application of models. 

(9) Land use hydrologic modeling: models specifically

designed to evaluate land use change. 

(10) Hillslope hydrologic modeling: models designed for

hillslope hydrology. 

(11) Modeling issues: a wide variety of modeling issues

including uncertainty, scale, heterogeneity, thresholds, and inference. 

(12) Flood frequency analysis: techniques for determining

the return periods of floods and rain events. 0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

pre 1970 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000+

Decade

Number of Publications

Figure 1.—Number of publications cited in this

document corresponding to decade.

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

pre 1970 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000+

Decade

Number of Publications

Decade

Number of Publications

2
Using This Bibliography

This bibliography is available at

http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/flooding as a printed document,

searchable online database, or as a downloadable

EndNoteTM database1. The information will be updated

periodically, and we encourage readers to send additional citations and reprints for inclusion in the updates (see

the Web site above for more information). Most of these

references may be obtained from public or university

libraries directly or via interlibrary loan. Reports are

usually available from the publishing agency.

Literature Cited 

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Experimental forests and ranges of the USDA

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Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northeastern Research Station. 178 p. 

Andreassian, V. 2004. Waters and forests: from historical controversy to scientific debate. Journal of

Hydrology. 291(1-2): 1-27.

Macklin, M.G.; Lewin, J. 2003. River sediments, great

floods and centennial-scale Holocene climate

change. Journal of Quaternary Science. 18: 101-105.

Pielke, R.A., Jr.; Downton, M.W.; Miller, J.Z.B. 2002.

Flood damage in the United States, 1926-2000: a

reanalysis of National Weather Service estimates.

Boulder, CO: National Center for Atmospheric

Research. 96 p.

Stednick, J.D. 1996. Monitoring the effects of timber

harvest on annual water yield. Journal of

Hydrology. 176: 79-95.

Forest Hydrology, Policy, History, Case

Studies, and Watershed Function

Adams, M.B.; Loughry, L.H.; Plaugher, L.L. 2003.

Experimental forests and ranges of the USDA

Forest Service. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-321. Newtown

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northeastern Research Station. 178 p.

Adams, M.B.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Wood, F.; Angradi,

T.R.; Edwards, P. 1994. Forty years of hydrometeorological data from the Fernow Experimental

Forest, West Virginia. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-184.

Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

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24 p.

Adams, P.W. 1993. Closing the gaps in knowledge,

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Andreassian, V. 2004. Waters and forests: from historical controversy to scientific debate. Journal of

Hydrology. 291: 1-27.

Bates, C.G.; Henry, A.J. 1928. Forest and streamflow

experiment at Wagon Wheel Gap, Colorado.

Monthly Weather Review, Suppl. 30. Washington,

DC: U.S. Weather Bureau. 79 p. 

Benson, M.A. 1960. Characteristics of frequency

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51-74.

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2003. Historical evolution of flooding damage on

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1998. Ecological engineering strategies to reduce

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China. Ecological Engineering. 11: 231-259.

1 Mention of product or trade names does not constitute

endorsement by the USDA Forest Service.

3
Brzozowski, C. 2004. A flood of concern in Roanoke.

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Calder, I.R. 2006. Forest and floods: moving to an

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Chang, M. 2006. Forest hydrology. 2d ed. New York:

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Macklin, M.G.; Lewin, J. 2003. River sediments, great

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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 2007—645–325/60005 40
Eisenbies, Mark H.; Adams, Mary Beth; Aust, W. Michael; Burger, James A. 

2007. Bibliography of forest water yields, flooding issues, and the

hydrologic modeling of extreme flood events. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS8. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northern Research Station. 40 p.

Floods continue to cause significant damage in the United States and

elsewhere, and questions about the causes of flooding continue to be

debated. A significant amount of research has been conducted on the

relationship between forest management activities and water yield,

peak flows, and flooding; somewhat less research has been conducted

on the modeling of these activities as related to flooding. This bibliography and online bibliographic database provide a searchable listing of

more than 600 publications related to the interrelationships of forest and

forest management on watershed and flood hydrology. Also included

are publications related to the capability and limitations of currently available hydrologic models and modeling approaches, with particular

emphasis on their utility for evaluating forest management effects.

KEY WORDS: forest hydrology, peak flows, flow modeling, watershed

research, forest management.

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