SR/OIAF/2007-01 

Energy Market and Economic Impacts of a 

Proposal to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Intensity 

with a Cap and Trade System 

January 2007 

Energy Information Administration 

Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting 

U.S. Department of Energy 

Washington, DC 20585

This report was prepared by the Energy Information Administration, the independent statistical and 

analytical agency within the Department of Energy. The information contained herein should be attributed 

to the Energy Information Administration and should not be construed as advocating or reflecting any 

policy position of the Department of Energy or any other organization. Service Reports are prepared by 

the Energy Information Administration upon special request and are based on assumptions specified by 

the requester. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System ii

Preface and Contacts 

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) is the independent statistical and analytical 

agency within the Department of Energy. EIA provides timely, high-quality energy information 

and prepares objective, transparent analyses for use of Congress, the Administration and the 

public. EIA does not, however, take positions on policy issues. Because of EIA’s statutory 

independence with respect to the content of its energy information program, the analysis 

presented herein is strictly its own and should not be construed as representing the views of the 

U.S. Department of Energy or the Administration. 

The model projections in this report are not statements of what will happen but of what might 

happen, given the assumptions and methodologies used. The reference case projections are 

business-as-usual trend forecasts, given known technology, technological and demographic 

trends, and current laws and regulations. Thus, they provide a policy-neutral starting point that 

can be used to analyze policy initiatives. EIA does not propose, advocate, or speculate on future 

legislative and regulatory changes. All laws are assumed to remain as currently enacted; 

however, the impacts of scheduled regulatory changes, when defined, are reflected. 

The Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting prepared this report. General questions 

concerning the report can be directed to John J. Conti (john.conti@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-2222), 

Director of the Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, and J. Alan Beamon 

(joseph.beamon@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-2025), Director of its Coal and Electric Power Division. 

Specific questions about the report can be directed to the following analysts: 

Greenhouse Gas Modeling.......Dan Skelly (daniel.skelly@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-1722) 

Macroeconomic Analysis.........Ronald Earley (ronald.earley@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-1398) 

 Nasir Khilji (nasir.khilji@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-1294) 

Residential and Commercial ....John Cymbalsky (john.cymbalsky@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-4815) 

Industrial ..................................T. Crawford Honeycutt (crawford.honeycutt@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-1420) 

Transportation..........................John D. Maples (john.maples@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-1757) 

Electricity.........................Lori Aniti (lori.aniti@eia.doe.gov, 202/586-9413)

For ordering information and questions on other energy statistics available from EIA, please 

contact EIA’s National Energy Information Center at: 

National Energy Information Center, EI 30 

 Energy Information Administration 

 Forrestal Building 

 Washington, DC 20585 

 

 Telephone: 202/586-8800 

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 FTP Site: ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/ 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System iii

Contents 

Preface and Contacts....................................................................................................................... ii 

Contents .........................................................................................................................................iii 

Executive Summary........................................................................................................................ v 

Background................................................................................................................................. v 

Results........................................................................................................................................ vi 

Emissions and Allowance Prices ........................................................................................... vi 

Energy Markets..................................................................................................................... vii 

Economy ..............................................................................................................................viii 

1. Background and Scope of the Analysis ...................................................................................... 1 

Analysis Cases ............................................................................................................................ 3 

Methodology............................................................................................................................... 5 

2. Energy Market Impacts of Alternative Greenhouse Gas Intensity Reduction Goals ................. 9 

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Permit Prices............................................................................ 9 

Electricity Sector Emissions, Generation and Prices................................................................ 14 

CO2 Emissions ...................................................................................................................... 14 

Generation by Fuel................................................................................................................ 15 

Electricity Prices ................................................................................................................... 18 

End-Use Energy Consumption ................................................................................................. 19 

Residential and Commercial................................................................................................. 19 

Industrial ............................................................................................................................... 22 

Transportation....................................................................................................................... 23 

Fuel Supply ............................................................................................................................... 25 

Natural Gas ........................................................................................................................... 25 

Coal....................................................................................................................................... 25 

Petroleum .............................................................................................................................. 26 

Economic Impacts..................................................................................................................... 27 

Government Revenues.......................................................................................................... 27

Prices..................................................................................................................................... 28 

Real GDP and Consumption Impacts ................................................................................... 30 

Uncertainty................................................................................................................................ 34 

Appendix A. Analysis Request Letter ......................................................................................... 36

Appendix B. Draft Bill Language................................................................................................ 39 

Appendix C. Provided Bill Summary .......................................................................................... 71 

Market-Based GHG Emission Trading..................................................................................... 72 

Key Features ............................................................................................................................. 72 

Appendix D. Follow Up Request Letter ...................................................................................... 79 

Tables

Table ES1: Summary Energy Market Results for the Reference and $7 Phased Auction Cases . ix 

Table 1. Allowance Distribution.................................................................................................... 4 

Table 2: Summary Energy Market Results for the Reference, Phased Auction, and Full Auction 

Cases ..................................................................................................................................... 11 

Table 3: Economic Impacts of Phased and Full Auction Cases .................................................. 33 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System iv

Figures 

Figure 1: Covered Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Net of Offset Credits.......................................... 9 

Figure 2: Projected Allowance Prices.......................................................................................... 10 

Figure 3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions in the Phased Auction Case .......................... 12 

Figure 4: Covered Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Net of Offset Credits in Sensitivity Cases ....... 13 

Figure 5: Power Sector CO2 Emissions ....................................................................................... 15 

Figure 6: Generation by Fuel ....................................................................................................... 16 

Figure 7: Coal Generation in Sensitivity Cases ........................................................................... 17 

Figure 8: Electricity Prices........................................................................................................... 19 

Figure 9: Delivered Residential Energy Consumption ................................................................ 20 

Figure 10: Delivered Commercial Energy Consumption ............................................................ 20 

Figure 11: Industrial Energy Consumption.................................................................................. 22 

Figure 12: Transportation Sector Energy Consumption by Mode............................................... 23 

Figure 13: Railroad Freight Shipments........................................................................................ 24 

Figure 14: Natural Gas Consumption by Sector.......................................................................... 25 

Figure 15: Coal Production.......................................................................................................... 26 

Figure 16: Allocation of Allowance Revenue in the Phased Auction Case ................................ 28 

Figure 17: Projected Improvement in the Federal Surplus .......................................................... 29 

Figure 18: Impacts on the CPI for Energy and the All Urban CPI .............................................. 29 

Figure 19: Impacts on the CPI for Energy and the All Urban CPI with Alternative 

Safety Valves ........................................................................................................................ 30 

Figure 20: GDP Impacts .............................................................................................................. 31 

Figure 21: Consumption Impacts................................................................................................. 32 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System v

Executive Summary 

Background 

This report responds to a request from Senators Bingaman, Landrieu, Murkowski, Specter, 

Salazar, and Lugar for an analysis of a proposal that would regulate emissions of greenhouse 

gases (GHGs) through a national allowance cap-and-trade system. Under this proposal, suppliers 

of fossil fuel and other covered sources of GHGs would be required to submit government-issued 

allowances based on the emissions of their respective products. The gases covered in this 

analysis of the proposal include energy-related carbon dioxide, methane from coal mining, 

nitrous oxide from nitric acid and adipic acid production, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, 

and sulfur hexafluoride.1

The program would establish annual emissions caps based on targeted reductions in greenhouse 

gas intensity, defined as emissions per dollar of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The targeted 

reduction in GHG intensity would be 2.6 percent annually between 2012 and 2021, then increase 

to 3.0 percent per year beginning in 2022. To limit its potential cost, the program includes a 

“safety-valve” provision that allows regulated entities to pay a pre-established emissions fee in 

lieu of submitting an allowance. The safety-valve price is initially set at $7 (in nominal dollars) 

per metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent (MMTCO2e) in 2012 and increases each year by 5 

percent over the projected rate of inflation, as measured by the projected increase in the implicit 

GDP price deflator. In 2004 dollars, the safety valve rises from $5.89 in 2012 to $14.18 in 2030. 

The proposal calls for initially allocating 90 percent of the allowances for free to various affected 

groups, but the proportion of allowances to be auctioned grows from 10 percent in 2012 to 38 

percent in 2030. The revenue from the auctions and any safety-valve payments are accumulated 

into a “Climate Change Trust Fund,” capped at $50 billion, to provide incentives and pay for 

research, development, and deployment of technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

The U.S. Treasury would retain any revenue collected in excess of the $50-billion limit. 

As specified in the request for the analysis, EIA considered both a Phased Auction case, which 

allocates allowances as specified in the proposal, and a Full Auction case, in which all 

allowances are assumed to be auctioned beginning in 2012. Because they share the same 

emissions targets and safety valve prices, the energy sector impacts in the Phased and Full 

Auction cases are very similar. The only areas where the impacts in the two cases differ are for 

electricity prices and the economic impacts associated with collection and use of revenue from 

the sale of allowances. Several additional sensitivity cases examine the impacts of higher and 

lower safety valves and limiting the use of emission reduction credits, or offsets, from noncovered entities. The proposal and its variants were modeled using the National Energy 

Modeling System and compared to the reference case projections from the Annual Energy 

Outlook 2006 (AEO2006).

2

 

1 Specific provisions in the bill define the covered entities and the respective gases subject to regulation more precisely; however, the emissions 

accounting in NEMS precludes a more detailed treatment.

2 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2006, DOE/EIA-0383(2006)(Washington, DC, February 2006), web site 

www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System vi

The analysis presented in this report builds on previous EIA analyses addressing GHG limitation, 

including earlier EIA reports requested by Senator Bingaman3

, Senator Salazar4, and Senators 

Inhofe, McCain, and Lieberman.5 All of the analysis cases incorporate the economic and 

technology assumptions used in the AEO2006 reference case. While increased expenditures for 

research and development (R&D) resulting from the creation of the Climate Change Trust Fund 

are expected to lead to some technology improvements, a statistically reliable relationship 

between the level of R&D spending for specific technologies and the impacts of those 

expenditures has not been developed. Furthermore, the impact of Federal R&D is also difficult 

to assess, because the levels of private sector R&D expenditures usually are unknown and often 

far exceed R&D spending by the Federal Government. 

However, the recent reports for Senators Bingaman and Salazar include additional sensitivity 

analyses on the assumptions made regarding the availability of GHG emissions reductions 

outside the energy sector and the pace of advances in technology used to produce and consume 

energy. The report for Senators Inhofe, McCain, and Lieberman also examines the economic 

implications of possible alternative approaches to recycling revenues collected by government 

under a cap-and-trade program in which significant amounts of government revenue is collected 

from allowance auctions. Alternative assumptions in these areas can have a major impact on the 

results obtained, and the insights from those prior sensitivity cases would also be applicable to 

the proposal analyzed this report. Readers interested in how the results reported below might be 

affected by different assumptions in these areas are encouraged to review the earlier reports. 

The modeled impacts of the proposal are summarized below. Reported results apply for the $7 

Phased Auction case, unless otherwise stated. Energy and allowance prices are reported in 2004 

dollars for compatibility with AEO2006. Macroeconomic time series such as GDP and 

consumption expenditures are reported in 2000 chain-weighted dollars to maintain consistency 

with standard reports of U.S. economic statistics. Projections of the aggregate value of 

allowances and auction revenues and fiscal impacts on the budget surplus are reported in 

nominal dollars, as are deposits relating to the Climate Change Trust Fund. 

Results 

Emissions and Allowance Prices 

• The proposal leads to lower GHG emissions than in the reference case, but the intensity 

reduction targets are not fully achieved after 2025. Some regulated entities would opt to 

make safety-valve payments beginning in 2026, the year in which the market value of 

allowances is projected to reach the safety-valve level (Table ES1). With the higher safetyvalve prices in the $9 Phased Auction sensitivity case, the intensity targets are attained 

through 2029. 

 

3 Energy Information Administration, Impacts of Modeled Recommendations of the National Commission on Energy Policy, SR/OIAF/2005-02 

(Washington, DC, April, 2005) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/bingaman/index.html 4

 Energy Information Administration, Energy Market Impacts of Alternative Greenhouse Intensity Reduction Goals, SR/OIAF/2006-01 

(Washington, DC, March, 2006) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/agg/pdf/sroiaf(2006)01.pdf 5

 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of S.139, the Climate Stewardship Act of 2003, SR/OIAF/2003-02 

(Washington, DC, June 2003) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/ml/pdf/sroiaf(2003)02.pdf
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System vii

• Relative to the reference case, covered GHG emissions less offsets6 are 562 MMTCO2e (7.4 

percent) lower in 2020 and 1,259 MMTCO2e (14.4 percent) lower in 2030 in the Phased 

Auction case. Covered GHG emissions grow by 24 percent between 2004 and 2030, about 

half the increase in the reference case. 

• In the early years of the program, when allowance prices are relatively low, reductions in 

GHG emissions outside the energy sector are the predominant source of emissions 

reductions. In 2020, reductions of GHGs other than energy-related CO2, estimated based on 

information provided by the Environmental Protection Agency, account for nearly 66 percent 

of the total reductions. By 2030, however, the higher allowance prices lead to a significant 

shift in energy decisions, particularly in the electricity sector, and the reduction in energyrelated CO2 emissions account for almost 58 percent of total GHG emissions reductions. 

• An allowance allocation incentive for carbon sequestration, available only in the Phased 

Auction case, is projected to result in an additional emissions impact of 296 MMTCO2e in 

2020 and 311 MMTCO2e in 2030, or about 4 percent of covered emissions. 

• In 2004 dollars, the allowance prices rise from just over $3.70 per metric tons CO2 equivalent 

in 2012 to the safety valve price of $14.18 metric tons CO2 equivalent in 2030. 

Energy Markets 

• The cost of GHG allowances is passed through to consumers, raising the price of fossil fuels 

charged and providing an incentive to lower energy use and shift away from fossil fuels, 

particularly in the electric power sector. 

• When allowance costs are included, the average delivered price of coal to power plants in 

2020 increases from $1.39 per million Btu in the reference case to $2.06, an increase of 48 

percent. By 2030 the change grows from $1.51 per million Btu in the reference case to $2.73 

per million Btu, an increase of 81 percent. 

• Electricity prices are somewhat lower in the Phased Auction case than in the Full Auction 

case because the Phased Auction provides a portion of the allowances to the electric power 

sector for free, a benefit that is passed on to ratepayers where the recipients are subject to 

cost-of-service regulation. Electricity prices in 2020 are 3.6 and 5.6 percent higher than in 

the reference case in the Phased and Full Auction cases, respectively. In 2030, electricity 

prices are 11 and 13 percent above the reference case level. Electricity price impacts are 

likely to vary across states and regions due to differences in State regulatory regimes and in 

the fuel mix used for generation in each area. 

• Relative to the reference case, annual per household energy expenditures in 2020 are 2.6 

percent ($41) higher in the Phased Auction case and 3.6 percent ($58) higher in the Full 

Auction case. By 2030, projected annual per household energy expenditures range from 7.0 

 

6

 Offset credits are certified reductions in greenhouse gases from uncovered (or exempted) sources. Under the emission offset provision, covered 

entities can submit “offset credits” in place of allowances. Therefore, the relevant compliance target measure is covered emissions less offsets. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System viii

percent to 8.1 percent ($118 to $136) higher in the two cases. The difference primarily 

reflects the lower electricity prices in the Phased Auction case. 

• Coal use is projected to continue to grow, but at a much slower rate than in the reference 

case. Total energy from coal increases by 23 percent between 2004 and 2030, less than half 

the 53-percent increase projected in the reference case over the same time period. 

• The proposal significantly boosts nuclear capacity additions and generation. The projected 

47-gigawatt increase in nuclear capacity between 2004 and 2030 allows nuclear to continue 

to provide about 20 percent of the Nation’s electricity in 2030. In the reference case, nuclear 

capacity increases by only 9 gigawatts between 2005 and 2030. 

• The proposal also adds significantly to renewable generation. In the reference case, 

renewable generation is projected to increase from 358 billion kilowatthours in 2004 to 559 

billion kilowatthours in 2030. In the Phased Auction case, renewable generation increases to 

572 billion kilowatthours by 2020 and 823 billion kilowatthours by 2030. Most of the 

increase in renewable generation is expected to be from non-hydroelectric renewable 

generators, mainly biomass and wind. 

• Retail gasoline prices in 2030 are $0.11 per gallon higher in 2030 compared to the AEO2006

reference case, leading to modest changes in vehicle purchase and travel decisions. The 

transportation sector provides only a small amount of emissions reduction. 

Economy 

• While the Phased Auction and Full Auction cases have similar energy market impacts, the 

macroeconomic impacts of the two cases differ because of differences in the revenue flows 

associated with emission allowances. 

• In the Phased Auction case, the $50-billion cap (nominal dollars) on the maximum 

cumulative deposits to the Climate Change Trust Fund is reached in 2017, and all subsequent 

revenues from allowance sales or safety valve payments go to the U.S. Treasury. This leads 

to a $59-billion reduction in the Federal deficit by 2030. However, in the Full Auction case, 

the revenues flowing to the government are much larger, resulting in a $200-billion reduction 

in the Federal deficit in 2030. 

• In the Phased Auction case, wholesale energy prices rise steadily and, by 2030, are 

approximately 12 percent above the reference case levels (after inflation). This translates 

into 8-percent higher energy prices at the consumer level by 2030 and a 1-percent increase in 

the All-Urban Consumer Price Index (CPI) above the reference case level. 

• In the Phased Auction case, discounted total GDP (in 2000 dollars) over the 2009-2030 time 

period is $232 billion (0.10 percent) lower than in the reference case, while discounted real 

consumer spending is $236 billion (0.14 percent) lower. In 2030, in the Phased Auction 

case, real GDP is projected to be $59 billion (0.26 percent) lower than in the reference case, 

while aggregate consumption expenditures, which relate more directly to impacts on 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System ix

consumers, are $55 billion (0.36 percent) lower. The reductions in GDP and consumption 

reflect the rise in energy prices and the resulting decline in personal disposable income. 

• While higher energy costs and lower consumption expenditures tend to discourage 

investment, many provisions of the bill help to support investment activity. The value of 

allowances allocated to States is substantial, and some portion of the allowance revenue 

would likely result in increased investment. In addition, the portion of the allowances 

allocated to the private sector generates funds which would help spur private investment in 

energy saving technologies. 

Table ES1: Summary Energy Market Results for the Reference and $7 Phased Auction 

Cases

2020 2030 

Projection 2004 AEO2006 

Reference 

Phased 

Auction 

AEO2006 

Reference 

Phased 

Auction 

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (million metric tons CO2 equivalent)

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide 5,900 7,119 6,926 8,114 7,387 

Other Covered Emissions 259 452 195 627 235 

 Total Covered emissions 6,159 7,571 7,121 8,742 7,622 

Total Greenhouse Gases 7,122 8,649 8,087 9,930 8,671 

Emissions Reduction from Reference Case (million metric tons CO2 equivalent)

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide - - 193 - 727 

Other Covered Emissions - - 258 - 392 

Nonenergy Offset Credits - - 111 - 140 

Carbon Sequestration - - 296 - 311 

 Total Emission Reductions - - 562 - 1,259 

 Total (including sequestration) - - 858 - 1,570 

Allowance Price (2004 Dollars per 

metric ton CO2 equivalent) - - 7.15 - 14.18 

Delivered Energy Prices (2004 dollars per unit indicated) (includes allowance costs)

Motor Gasoline (per gallon) 1.90 2.08 2.14 2.19 2.30 

Jet Fuel (per gallon) 1.22 1.42 1.50 1.56 1.69 

Distillate (per gallon) 1.74 1.93 2.04 2.06 2.25 

Natural Gas 

 (per thousand cubic feet) 7.74 7.14 7.55 8.22 9.10 

 Residential 10.72 10.48 10.87 11.67 12.59 

 Electric Power 6.07 5.53 5.99 6.41 7.39 

Coal, Electric Power (per million Btu) 1.39 1.39 2.06 1.51 2.73 

Electricity (cents per kilowatthour) 7.57 7.25 7.51 7.51 8.31 

Fossil Energy Consumption (quadrillion Btu)

 Petroleum 40.1 48.1 47.2 53.6 52.0 

 Natural Gas 23.1 27.7 27.4 27.7 27.9 

 Coal 22.5 27.6 26.4 34.5 27.7 

Electricity Generation (billion kilowatthours)

 Petroleum 120 107 49 115 49 

 Natural Gas 702 1,103 1,184 993 1,190 

 Coal 1,977 2,505 2,370 3,381 2,530 

 Nuclear 789 871 871 871 1,168 

 Renewable 358 515 572 559 823 

 Total 3,955 5,108 5,055 5,926 5,768 

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006B.
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System x

• GDP and consumption impacts in the Full Auction case are substantially larger than those in 

the Phased Auction case. Relative to the reference case, discounted total GDP (in 2000 

dollars) over the 2009-2030 time period in the Full Auction case is $462 billion (0.19 percent 

lower), while discounted real consumer spending is $483 billion (0.29 percent) lower. In 

2030, projected real GDP in the Full Auction case is $94 billion (0.41 percent) lower than in 

the reference case, while aggregate consumption is $106 billion (0.69 percent) lower, almost 

twice the estimated consumption loss in the Phased Auction case. These results reflect the 

substantially higher level of auction revenues under the Full Auction case, which, by 

assumption, are not re-circulated into the economy beyond the $50 billion in expenditures 

from the Climate Change Trust Fund. Because these estimated impacts could change 

significantly under alternative revenue recycling assumptions, these results do not imply a 

general conclusion that a Phased Auction will necessarily result in lesser impacts on GDP 

and consumption than a Full Auction. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 1

1. Background and Scope of the Analysis 

This service report was prepared by the Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 

response to a September 27, 2006, request from Senators Bingaman, Landrieu, 

Murkowski, Specter, Salazar, and Lugar (Appendix A). The Senators requested that EIA 

assess the impacts of a proposal that would regulate emissions of greenhouse gases 

(GHGs) through an allowance cap-and-trade system. The program would set the cap to 

achieve a reduction in emissions relative to economic output, or greenhouse gas 

intensity.7

The analysis presented in this report builds on previous EIA analyses addressing GHG 

limitation, including earlier EIA reports requested by Senator Bingaman8, Senator 

Salazar9, and Senators Inhofe, McCain, and Lieberman.10 All of the analysis cases 

incorporate the economic and technology assumptions used in the AEO2006 reference 

case. While increased expenditures for research and development (R&D) resulting from 

the creation of the Climate Change Trust Fund are expected to lead to some technology 

improvements, a statistically reliable relationship between the level of R&D spending for 

specific technologies and the impacts of those expenditures has not been developed. 

Furthermore, the impact of Federal R&D is also difficult to assess, because the levels of 

private sector R&D expenditures usually are unknown and often far exceed R&D 

spending by the Federal Government. 

However, the recent reports for Senators Bingaman and Salazar include additional 

sensitivity analyses on the assumptions made regarding the availability of GHG 

emissions reductions outside the energy sector and the pace of advances in technology 

used to produce and consume energy. The report for Senators Inhofe, McCain, and 

Lieberman also examines the economic implications of possible alternative approaches to 

recycling revenues collected by government under a cap-and-trade program in which 

significant amounts of government revenue is collected from allowance auctions. 

Alternative assumptions in these areas can have a major impact on the results obtained, 

and the insights from those prior sensitivity cases would also be applicable to the 

proposals analyzed this report. Readers interested in how the results reported below 

might be affected by different assumptions in these areas are encouraged to review the 

earlier reports. 

In this latest request, EIA was asked to analyze the impacts of a draft Congressional bill 

(Appendix B) that was provided with the analysis request. A summary of the program 

and the reasoning behind it (Appendix C) was also provided. The draft bill calls for an 

emissions cap-and-trade program similar to that recommended by NCEP, but with 

differences in timing, flexibility, allowance allocation, and other provisions. The bill also 

establishes a program to provide incentives and fund research, development, and 

deployment (RD&D) of technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

 

7 Greenhouse gas intensity is defined as the emissions of greenhouse gases from covered sources per real dollar of GDP (in 2000 

dollars). Greenhouse gases are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent. 8 Energy Information Administration, Impacts of Modeled Recommendations of the National Commission on EnergyPolicy, 

SR/OIAF/2005-02 (Washington, DC, April, 2005) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/bingaman/index.html 9

 Energy Information Administration, Energy Market Impacts of Alternative Greenhouse Intensity Reduction Goals, SR/OIAF/2006-

01 (Washington, DC, March, 2006) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/agg/pdf/sroiaf(2006)01.pdf 10 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of S.139, the Climate Stewardship Act of 2003, SR/OIAF/2003-02 

(Washington, DC, June 2003) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/ml/pdf/sroiaf(2003)02.pdf
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 2

The gases covered in this analysis of the proposal include energy-related carbon dioxide 

(CO2), methane from coal mining, nitrous oxide from nitric acid and adipic acid 

production, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride.11 Under the 

draft bill, the emissions of these gases would be regulated through an “upstream” marketbased emissions allowance program, meaning fuel suppliers and producers of greenhouse 

gases would be regulated. This contrasts with proposals where the entities responsible 

for the actual release of the emissions, such as electric power producers, manufacturers, 

or building owners are held responsible for emissions compliance and reporting. An 

upstream approach could simplify the administration of a greenhouse gas cap and trade 

program by limiting the number of regulated entities. 

The bill establishes caps on annual emissions by creating a fixed number of tradable 

emission permits, or allowances, which provide the right to release a given amount of 

greenhouse gases in units of carbon dioxide equivalence, based on the global warming 

potential of each gas. To comply, regulated entities would have to submit the allowances 

to cover the emissions that result from their products. The number of allowances issued 

for each year would be determined based on a goal to reduce GHG intensity in two 

phases. In the first phase, from 2012 to 2021, the GHG intensity reduction goal is 2.6 

percent per year, allowing some growth in the absolute level of emissions, because the 

gross domestic product is projected to grow faster, about 3 percent annually, over the 

same period. Beginning in 2022, the GHG intensity reduction goal is raised to 3.0 

percent per year. With an emissions cap based on projected GHG intensity, the cap is 

flexible, allowing a higher level of future emissions if economic growth is faster than 

anticipated or a lower subsequent cap if economic expansion is slower than anticipated. 

To limit the potential cost of the program, a “safety-valve” provision allows regulated 

entities to pay a pre-established emissions fee in lieu of submitting an allowance. As a 

result, actual aggregate emissions could exceed the cap if compliance costs reach the 

safety-valve level, as some entities would pay the fee to meet their obligations. The 

alternative emissions fee, or safety-valve price, is initially set at $7 per metric ton of 

carbon dioxide equivalent for 2012 and increases each year by 5 percent over the 

projected rate of inflation, as measured by the projected increase in the implicit price 

deflator for gross domestic product (GDP). In 2004 dollars, the safety valve is set to 

$5.89 in 2012 and rises to $14.18 in 2030. 

Several provisions offer additional flexibility and extend the effective scope of the 

program. Under the emission offset provision, covered entities can submit “offset 

credits” that reflect certified reductions in greenhouse gases from uncovered (or 

exempted) sources in place of allowances. To provide further flexibility, emission 

allowances can be saved, or banked, for use in subsequent years if they are left unused in 

the year for which they were issued. This provides an incentive to over-comply, or 

reduce emissions further than that required, thus saving the allowances for future years in 

which marginal compliance costs might be higher. Another provision provides incentives 

to reward entities that reduce emissions before the program starts. 

 

11 Specific provisions in the bill define the covered entities and the respective gases subject to regulation more precisely; however, the 

emissions accounting in NEMS precludes a more detailed treatment. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 3

A portion of the emission allowances allocated each year is auctioned by the Federal 

government, with the percentage set at 10 percent in the first 5 years, then increasing by 2 

percentage points each year beginning in 2017. Table 1 shows the percentage of 

allowances distributed by year to individual sectors for 2012 through 2030. The 

methodology for allocating allowances to individual entities in each of the sectors varies, 

but, in general, a “grandfathered” approach where the allocation is based on historical 

output is used. For example, the allocation to individual coal mines is based on the each 

coal mine’s share of the total carbon of coal produced over the 3-year period beginning 

January 1, 2004. Most of the allowances not auctioned each year are allocated to fossil 

fuel suppliers and producers of non-CO2 GHGs, electric power generators and other fuel 

users and GHG emitters in the industrial sector, and State governments. Some 

allowances (up to 1 percent) would be provided as incentives to reward entities that have 

voluntarily reduced emissions in advance of the 2012 start date, while others (up to 5 

percent) would be provided as incentive for activities that sequester carbon, such as 

certain agricultural practices, increases in forestation, and carbon capture and storage. 

Increases in carbon sequestration do not substitute for allowance requirements, so any net 

emissions impact from this provision is incremental. Insofar as the timing of auctions is 

concerned, half the emission allowances are auctioned 4 years in advance of the year for 

which they are issued, and half are auctioned in the year of issue.12

Analysis Cases 

In the original analysis request, EIA was asked to analyze two variants of the proposal: 

one in which the allowances are mostly allocated freely as indicated in the draft bill, with 

some allowances auctioned, and another in which no allowances are allocated freely (all 

are auctioned). These two cases, referred to as the Phased Auction13 case and the Full 

Auction case, will be the primary focus of the analysis. Both cases incorporate the $7 per 

metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent safety-valve price for 2012, which then increases 

each year by 5 percent over the projected rate of inflation. The Phased Auction case 

incorporates the allowance allocation plan outlined above, while the Full Auction case 

provides no free allocation of allowances to fossil fuel suppliers and producers of nonCO2 GHGs, electric power generators and other fuel users and GHG emitters in the 

industrial sector , or State governments. Nor are allowances used as an incentive for 

carbon sequestration or early action. Instead, the Full Auction case assumes all of the 

auction revenue collected goes to the U.S. Treasury. The RD&D spending under the 

bill’s Climate Trust Fund provision, capped at a cumulative $50 billion dollars, is treated 

similarly in the two cases. The difference, however, is that under the Full Auction case, 

the auction revenue collected is substantially more than under the Phased Auction case. 

 

12 An exception is that the early auction for 2012 allowances is held in 2009, 3 years in advance. Also, allowances purchased in

advance may not be used until the year for which they were issued. 13 The term “phased” is meant to describe the gradually increasing share of allowances that are auctioned over time. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 

Table 1. Allowance Distribution 

(Percent) 

Allocation to Fossil Fuel Suppliers and Producers of Non-CO2 GHGs Allocation to Energy Users and Other GHG emitters Set-Aside 

Year Auction 

Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Non-CO2 GHGs Electric Generators Industrial Sectors Agricultural Sequestration 

2012 10.00 7.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 30.00 10.00 5.00 2013 10.00 7.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 30.00 10.00 5.00 2014 10.00 7.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 30.00 10.00 5.00 2015 10.00 7.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 30.00 10.00 5.00 2016 10.00 7.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 30.00 10.00 5.00 2017 12.00 6.75 3.85 1.93 1.93 28.91 9.64 5.00 2018 14.00 6.49 3.71 1.85 1.85 27.82 9.27 5.00 2019 16.00 6.24 3.56 1.78 1.78 26.73 8.91 5.00 2020 18.00 5.98 3.42 1.71 1.71 25.64 8.55 5.00 2021 20.00 5.73 3.27 1.64 1.64 24.55 8.18 5.00 2022 22.00 5.47 3.13 1.56 1.56 23.45 7.82 5.00 2023 24.00 5.22 2.98 1.49 1.49 22.36 7.45 5.00 2024 26.00 4.96 2.84 1.42 1.42 21.27 7.09 5.00 2025 28.00 4.71 2.69 1.35 1.35 20.18 6.73 5.00 2026 30.00 4.45 2.55 1.27 1.27 19.09 6.36 5.00 2027 32.00 4.20 2.40 1.20 1.20 18.00 6.00 5.00 2028 34.00 3.95 2.25 1.13 1.13 16.91 5.64 5.00 2029 36.00 3.69 2.11 1.05 1.05 15.82 5.27 5.00 2030 38.00 3.44 1.96 0.98 0.98 14.73 4.91 5.00 

Source: Senate staff.
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 5

In a follow-up letter (Appendix D), EIA was asked to address several additional issues. 

EIA was asked to examine the impact of higher and lower starting prices for the 

program’s safety valve price. To address this request, two sensitivity cases with the 

safety valve prices starting at $5 and $9, referred to as the $5 Phased Auction and $9 

Phased Auction cases, were prepared. 

EIA was also asked to estimate the impacts of not allowing or limiting GHG offsets. To 

analyze this issue a case not allowing offsets, the No Offsets case, was prepared. One 

category of offset credits is for non-energy use of fossil fuels (primarily for chemical 

feedstocks). The potential carbon dioxide emissions of these fuels would be included in 

this upstream regulatory approach, so the need to adjust for non-energy use of the fuel 

arises. With the National Energy Modeling System (NEMS), however, the potential 

carbon dioxide emissions from these fuels are omitted in the emission accounting and are 

therefore not treated as an offset in this analysis, but are instead omitted from the 

regulated emissions directly. Therefore, the No Offsets case does not change the 

treatment of non-energy use of fossil fuels. The classes of emissions that are treated as 

offsets and for which emissions abatement cost estimates were available from the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are methane emissions from natural gas 

production and distribution and methane emissions from small landfills. Estimated 

emissions reductions from these two sources are excluded in the No Offsets case. 

EIA was further asked to address “the impact on program costs and the distribution of 

those costs associated with using a different point of regulation, specifically an 

alternative in which the point of regulation for coal was downstream (i.e., at electric 

power plants and industrial sources.” EIA can not quantify the effects of a different point 

of regulation using NEMS, but the potential implications of different points of regulation 

will be discussed. The results of the $5 Phased Auction, $9 Phased Auction and No 

Offset sensitivity cases are only discussed in key areas to highlight important impacts 

including the impacts on allowance prices, program compliance, and coal use. In 

previous reports, EIA has prepared numerous greenhouse gas cap-and-trade sensitivity 

analyses, examining the impacts of alternative emission caps, alternative combinations of 

emission caps and safety-valve prices, alternative assumptions about potential emission 

reductions in non-energy related greenhouse gases, and alternative assumptions about the 

cost of performance of new appliances, motor vehicles, and energy production 

equipment.14

Methodology 

The analysis of energy sector and energy-related economic impacts of the various GHG 

emission reduction proposals in this report is based on NEMS results. NEMS projects 

emissions of energy-related CO2 emissions resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels, 

representing about 84 percent of total GHG emissions today. For this analysis, the 

AEO2006 reference case emissions for energy-related CO2 were augmented with baseline 

emissions projections for other covered GHGs to create a baseline for total covered GHG 

emissions. Projections of non-CO2 GHG emissions, including the covered non-CO2

 

14 These reports are all available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/service_rpts.htm.. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 6

gases, are derived from an unpublished, EPA “no-measures” case, a recent update to the 

“business-as-usual” case cited in the White House Greenhouse Gas Policy Book 

Addendum15 released with the Climate Change Initiative. The projections from the Policy 

Book were based on several EPA-sponsored studies conducted in preparation of the U.S. 

Department of State’s Climate Action Report 2002.

16 However, the no-measures case 

used in this analysis was a preliminary, unpublished projection developed by EPA in 

preparation for a forthcoming update of that report.17 

Simulations of the emissions cap-and-trade policy in NEMS were used to estimate the 

price of GHG allowances over time and the resulting changes in the energy system. First, 

starting from the projected level of energy-related CO2 emissions in 2011 from the 

AEO2006 reference case and the EPA projection for emissions of other GHGs in 2011, 

the GHG intensity rate reduction targets for each of the analysis cases were translated 

into annual emissions targets for the 2012 to 2030 period. 

NEMS endogenously calculates changes in energy-related CO2 emissions in the analysis 

cases. The cost of using each fossil fuel includes the costs associated with the GHG 

allowances needed to cover the emissions produced when they are used. These 

adjustments influence energy demand and energy-related CO2 emissions. The GHG 

allowance price also determines the reductions in the emissions of other GHGs based on 

the abatement cost relationships supplied by EPA. With emission allowance banking, 

NEMS solves for the time path of permit prices such that cumulative emissions match the 

cumulative target, provided the permit price remains below the safety-valve permit price. 

Once the safety-valve permit price is attained and the previously-banked permits are 

exhausted, actual GHG emissions can exceed the calculated annual emissions target, as 

covered entities can pay the safety-valve fee in place of providing the government-issued 

emissions allowances. 

The NEMS Macroeconomic Activity Module (MAM), which is based on the Global 

Insight U.S. model, interacts with the energy supply, demand, and conversion modules of 

NEMS to solve for an energy-economy equilibrium. In an iterative process within 

NEMS, MAM reacts to changes in energy prices, energy consumption, and allowance 

revenue, solving for the effect on macroeconomic and industry level variables such as 

real GDP, the unemployment rate, inflation, and real industrial output. These economic 

impacts, in turn, feed back into the energy sectors of NEMS. The cycle is repeated until 

an integrated solution is obtained. The economic impacts of the legislation stem partly 

from its impact on energy prices and its effects on production, imports, and exports of 

energy goods and services. In addition, the auction and distribution of the GHG 

 

15 See “Addendum” in the “Global Change Policy Book” at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/climatechange.html. 

The business-as-usual (BAU) projections cited in the addendum are somewhat higher than a “Policies and Measures” case EPA 

developed for the U.S. Climate Action Report 2002. 16 U.S. Department of State, U.S. Climate Action Report 2002 (Washington, DC, May 2002), Chapter 5, “Projected Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions,” pp. 70-80, web site: 

http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsUSClimateActionReport.html . 17 Personal communication from Casey Delhotal, of the Environmental Protection Agency, to Dan Skelly of the Energy Information 

Administration, on July 7, 2005. EIA adjusted the EPA’s preliminary no-measures case projections to extrapolate from the most 

recent 2002-to-2004 data on these gases as published by EIA, as well as to estimate the intervening years of the projections, since the 

projections were only provided for every 5 years beginning in 2005 and ending in 2020. In addition, EIA extrapolated the projection 

to 2030 for this analysis based on the average annual growth rates of individual emissions sources from 2015 to 2020. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 7

allowances generate revenue streams to the government and private sectors. The MAM 

represents the revenue streams accruing to these sectors based on the allowance 

allocations specified in the draft bill, as well as the bill’s $50 billion in cumulative 

RD&D18 expenditures funded from auction revenues. Together, these energy-related 

price, quantity, and revenue allocation effects impact on the aggregate level of prices, 

output, and employment within the economy. 

While NEMS is able to represent the broad energy and economic impacts of the 

emissions allowance program, there is little in the model to distinguish the merits of the 

point of regulation (downstream or upstream) and only a limited ability to represent 

alternate allowance allocation schemes. Depending on the distribution of allowances, 

some industries, firms, or localities may be partly or fully compensated for the 

compliance costs and economic disruption. While such free allowance allocation can 

offset some of the direct cost of compliance to recipients, their incentives to take action 

based on allowance opportunity costs are similar whether they are given the allowances 

or whether they buy them at auction. NEMS is not designed to evaluate the 

distributional impacts of whether industries are better or worse off under a given 

allocation scheme, but it does reflect the marginal allowance opportunity costs that give 

rise to emission compliance activities. In addition, NEMS simulates the broad impacts of 

the emissions policy on the economy as a whole, without regard to how individual 

industries or communities will fare under such a program. 

This analysis assumes that the transaction and administrative costs of implementing and 

operating a GHG cap and trade program will be small when compared to the costs of the 

allowances themselves. The “upstream” regulatory approach in the proposal analyzed, 

which requires large suppliers of fossil fuel and other sources of greenhouse gases to 

submit government-issued allowances based on the emissions potential of their products, 

is designed to reduce the control program costs. Because so many sources produce GHG 

emissions, a “downstream” approach that focuses on monitoring each source of actual 

emissions and collecting the required allowances from them could be much more costly. 

For example, there are more than 100 million residential and commercial buildings and 

over 200 million personal autos that produce GHG emissions. A program that required 

monitoring all of these sources would likely be more expensive than the one in the 

proposed bill. If the program costs were to turn out to be significant when compared to 

the cost of allowances, the efficiency and success of the program would be impacted. 

NEMS, like all models, is a simplified representation of reality. Projections are 

dependent on the data, methodologies, model structure, and assumptions used to develop 

them. Since many of the events that shape energy markets are random and cannot be 

anticipated (including severe weather, technological breakthroughs, and geopolitical 

developments), energy markets are subject to uncertainty. Moreover, future 

developments in technologies, demographics, and resources cannot be foreseen with 

certainty. Nevertheless, well-formulated models are useful in analyzing complex 

 

18 The potential energy efficiency improvements and other carbon mitigation effects of the proposed RD&D provisions and incentives 

of the bill are not evaluated in this report. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 8

policies, because they ensure consistency in accounting and represent key 

interrelationships, albeit imperfectly, to provide insights. 

EIA’s projections are not statements of what will happen, but what might happen, given 

technological and demographic trends and current policies and regulations. EIA’s 

AEO2006 reference case is based on current laws and regulations as of October 31, 2005. 

Thus, it provides a policy-neutral starting point that can be used to analyze energy policy 

initiatives. EIA does not propose, advocate, or speculate on future legislative or 

regulatory changes within its reference case. Laws and regulations are generally assumed 

to remain as currently enacted or in force (including sunset or expiration provisions); 

however, the impacts of scheduled regulatory changes, when clearly defined, are 

reflected. 

This report, like other EIA analyses of energy and environmental policy proposals, 

focuses on the impacts of those proposals on energy choices made by consumers in all 

sectors and the implications of those decisions for the economy. This focus is consistent 

with EIA’s statutory mission and expertise. The study does not account for any possible 

health or environmental benefits that might be associated with curtailing GHG emissions. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 9

2. Energy Market Impacts of Alternative Greenhouse Gas Intensity 

Reduction Goals 

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Permit Prices 

Relative to the AEO2006 reference case, projected GHG emissions are reduced starting in 

2012 as a result of the allowance program and the GHG intensity targets (Figure 1). With 

banking of allowances permitted, an incentive exists to over-comply in the first few years 

of the program, when the emissions targets are relatively easy to meet and allowance 

prices are low, and to draw down the bank balance later as the targets become more 

stringent and prices rise. As a result, projected emissions in both the Phased Auction and 

Full Auction cases are below the intensity-based target for emissions from 2012 to 2020 

and above the target thereafter.19 Once the market price for allowances reaches the safety 

valve level in 2026, the gap between covered emissions and the target continues to widen. 

Figure 1: Covered Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Net of Offset Credits 

 (million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent) 

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, and 

BL_FULL7.D112006C.

 

19 The figure plots total covered GHG gas emissions, less offsets credits, compared to the target. Not shown are the increases in 

carbon sequestration in the Phased Auction case that are projected as a result of the proposed bill’s allowance allocation incentives. 

Total GHG emissions are somewhat higher than covered emissions because some sources are exempted. 

6,000

6,500

7,000

7,500

8,000

8,500

9,000

2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030

Reference

Full Auction

Phased Auction

Target

Banking Allowances Using Banked Allowances

Paying Safety Valve
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 10

The market price for emissions allowances is assumed to reflect financial incentives to 

bank emissions allowances over time, limited by the established safety-valve price, which 

grows over time at a rate of 5 percent per year (after inflation). To represent the proposed 

bill, a path of allowance prices is calculated based on an assumed rate of return on 

banked allowances of 8.5 percent per year up until the safety valve price is reached.20 

Under these assumptions, the allowances prices derived in the Phased Auction and Full 

Auction cases are essentially the same (Figure 2). However, the economic impacts of 

these cases, and some of the energy market impacts, differ due to the distributional 

impacts from allowance allocation. Table 2 summarizes the emissions and energy market 

impacts of the Phased and Full Auction cases relative to the AEO2006 reference case. 

Figure 2: Projected Allowance Prices 

 (2004 dollars per metric ton carbon dioxide equivalent) 

$2

$4

$6

$8

$10

$12

$14

$16

$18

$20

2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030

Full Auction

Phased Auction

$5 Phased Auction

$9 Phased Auction

No Offsets

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs BL_FULL.D112006C, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, 

BL_PHASED5.D111306A, BL_PHASED9.D112006B, and BL_PHASED7NO.D112006B.

 

20 The 8.5-percent rate (real dollars) approximates the cost of capital in the electric power industry, where investments to reduce GHG 

emissions are likely to be tied to expectations of allowance price growth. Under this reasoning, allowance prices are assumed to 

increase at a real rate of 8.5 percent per year until the safety-valve level is reached or the bank balance of allowances is exhausted. 

Once the safety-valve price is attained, holding bank allowances would be uneconomical due to the assumed 5 percent escalation rate 

of the safety-valve price. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 11

Table 2: Summary Energy Market Results for the Reference, Phased Auction, and 

Full Auction Cases 

2020 2030 

Projection 2004 AEO2006 

Reference 

Phased 

Auction 

Full 

Auction 

AEO2006 

Reference 

Phased 

Auction 

Full 

Auction 

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (million metric tons CO2 equivalent)

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide 5,900 7,119 6,926 6,913 8,114 7,387 7,358 

Other Covered Emissions 259 452 195 195 627 235 235 

 Total Covered Emissions 6,159 7,571 7,121 7,107 8,742 7,622 7,593 

Total Greenhouse Gases 7,122 8,649 8,087 8,073 9,930 8,671 8,641 

Emissions Reduction from Reference Case (million metric tons CO2 equivalent)

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide - - 193 206 - 727 757 

Other Covered Emissions - - 258 258 - 392 392 

Nonenergy Offset Credits - - 111 111 - 140 140 

Carbon Sequestration - - 296 - - 311 - 

 Total Emissions Reduction - - 562 576 - 1,259 1,289 

 Total (including sequestration) - - 858 576 - 1,570 1,289 

Allowance Price (2004 Dollars 

per metric ton CO2 equivalent) - - 7.15 7.17 - 14.18 14.18 

Delivered Energy Prices (2004 dollars per unit indicated) (includes allowance costs)

Motor Gasoline (per gallon) 1.90 2.08 2.14 2.13 2.19 2.30 2.30 

Jet Fuel (per gallon) 1.22 1.42 1.50 1.51 1.56 1.69 1.69 

Distillate (per gallon) 1.74 1.93 2.04 2.03 2.06 2.25 2.23 

Natural Gas 

 (per thousand cubic feet) 7.74 7.14 7.55 7.55 8.22 9.10 9.09 

 Residential 10.72 10.48 10.87 10.87 11.67 12.59 12.57 

 Electric Power 6.07 5.53 5.99 5.96 6.41 7.39 7.39 

Coal, Electric Power (per 

million Btu) 

1.36 1.39 2.06 2.06 1.51 2.73 2.73 

Electricity (cents per 

kilowatthour) 7.57 7.25 7.51 7.65 7.51 8.31 8.48 

Fossil Energy Consumption (quadrillion Btu)

 Petroleum 40.1 48.1 47.2 47.2 53.6 52.0 52.1 

 Natural Gas 23.1 27.7 27.4 27.3 27.7 27.9 27.9 

 Coal 22.5 27.6 26.4 26.4 34.5 27.7 27.4 

Electricity Generation (billion kilowatthours)

 Petroleum 120 107 49 48 115 49 48 

 Natural Gas 702 1,103 1,184 1,166 993 1,190 1,180 

 Coal 1,977 2,505 2,370 2,362 3,381 2,530 2,500 

 Nuclear 789 871 871 875 871 1,168 1,156 

 Renewable 358 515 572 579 559 823 857 

 Total 3,955 5,108 5,055 5,039 5,926 5,768 5,749 

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, and 

BL_FULL7.D112006C.

Lower energy related CO2 emissions and other GHG emissions both contribute to the 

total reduction in GHG emissions, but their respective shares of total reductions change 

over time. Abatement cost curves for other GHG based on EPA research suggest that 

there are a significant amount of emissions reductions that can be made at relatively low 

costs. As a result, in the early years of the program, when allowance prices are relatively 

low, other GHG emissions reductions dominate the overall emissions reductions. For 

example, in 2020 in the Phased Auction case, reductions in other GHG emissions account 

for nearly 66 percent of the total GHG emissions reductions (Figure 3). By 2030, 

however, higher allowance prices lead to a significant shift in the fuels used in the energy 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 12

sector, particularly in the electricity sector, and the reduction in energy related CO2

emissions account for almost 58 percent of the total GHG emissions reductions. 

Figure 3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions in the Phased Auction Case 

 (difference from reference case in million metric tons CO2 equivalent) 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

2020 2030

Energy Related CO2 Other Greenhouse Gases

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006B .

There is also an increase in carbon sequestration in the Phased Auction case. The draft 

bill calls for allocating up to 5 percent of the allowances each year to create a pilot 

program to stimulate increased agricultural carbon sequestration. Because it is a pilot 

program, the increase in sequestration stimulated does not count towards meeting the 

GHG intensity reduction target. However, based on the supply curves for carbon 

sequestration opportunities used in EIA’s recent GHG analyses, the allowance allocation 

incentives would stimulate an increase in carbon sequestration of over 300 million metric 

tons CO2 equivalent (Table 2). In the Full Auction case, the allowance allocation 

incentives for carbon sequestration were assumed unavailable, since no allowances would 

be available to use as incentives, and the draft bill proposed no other mechanism whereby 

auction revenues might be used directly to promote carbon sequestration. 

Because the safety-valve price is binding in these cases, establishing higher or lower 

safety-valve prices will influence the emission compliance results, including incentives to 

bank allowances and the extent to which the emissions targets are achieved. Figure 4 

compares covered emissions in the Phased Auction case to those in the $5 and $9 Phased 

Auction cases. In the $5 Phased Auction case, which assumes a lower starting value for 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 13

the safety valve, the allowance price reaches the safety-valve level in 2022, four years 

earlier than in the original Phased Auction case, which assumes a $7-per-metric-ton 

starting price for the safety valve (nominal dollar price). Covered emissions in the $5 

Phased Auction case remain higher than the original Phased Auction case throughout the 

projection. In the $9 Phased Auction case, the safety valve is not triggered until 2029. 

As a result, on a cumulative basis, the emissions intensity targets are projected to be 

achieved through 2029 in the $9 Phased Auction case, compared to 2025 in the original 

Phased Auction case. 

Figure 4: Covered Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Net of Offset Credits in Sensitivity 

Cases 

 (million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent) 

6,000

6,500

7,000

7,500

8,000

8,500

9,000

2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030

Reference

Phased Auction

$5 Phased Auction

$9 Phased Auction

No Offsets

Target

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, 

BL_PHASED5.D111306A, BL_PHASED9.D112006B, and BL_PHASED7NO.D112006B.

In the No Offsets case, the provision to allow compliance with emissions reduction 

credits from uncovered sources is removed. Without these relatively low-cost emission 

reduction opportunities, the marginal compliance cost is driven up, reflected in a higher 

market price for allowances. The projected allowance price in the No Offsets case 

reaches the safety-valve level in 2022, 4 years earlier than in the Phased Auction case 

(Figure 2). As a result, the overall reductions in GHG emissions are somewhat less in the 

No Offsets case (Figure 4). 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 14

In previous assessments of similar cap-and-trade proposals for GHGs, EIA has included 

sensitivity results to highlight some key areas of uncertainty, including the importance of 

the assumed abatement costs for non-CO2 gases and the effect of alternative assumptions 

about energy technology cost, performance, and availability. Rather than repeating those 

sensitivity cases, we will simply point out that these assumptions have had a bearing on 

the magnitude and cost of compliance. With less optimistic assumptions about abatement 

opportunities for other GHGs, the projected cost of compliance is driven up, the safetyvalve price is likely to be attained several years earlier, and cumulative emissions 

reductions will be correspondingly less. 

With regard to technology assumptions, the technological improvements reflected in the 

AEO2006 reference case may under- or overpredict future technology trends. For 

example, the results of the integrated advanced technology case indicated projected CO2

emissions would be 9 percent lower than in the reference case in 2030. Under such 

assumptions, compliance costs under the proposed bill would be less, and the intensity 

targets would be achieved over a longer time frame before the safety-valve price is 

triggered, if at all. 

As shown in Figures 1 and 2, the emissions and allowance price paths in the Phased and 

Full Auction cases are very similar. As a result, with the exception of electricity price 

and macroeconomic effects, the market impacts in the two cases are essentially the same. 

The analysis in the remainder of this chapter will focus on the Phased Auction case, only 

discussing other cases where they are important. 

Electricity Sector Emissions, Generation and Prices 

Implementing the proposed GHG intensity reduction program could have significant 

impacts on power sector CO2 emissions, generation by fuel, generating technology 

selection, electricity sales, and electricity prices. The power sector shifts away from its 

long-term reliance on coal-fired generation, towards increasing reliance on nuclear, nonhydroelectric renewable, and natural gas generation. These changes lead to lower 

emissions. However, increased capital expenditures for these technologies, together with 

higher fossil-fuel prices, result in higher electricity prices. Because a portion of the 

allowances are allocated to regulated utilities for free in the Phased Auction case and 

because regulators are expected to pass these savings on to consumers, the impact on 

electricity prices is slightly smaller than in the Full Auction case. 

CO2 Emissions 

In the reference case, total power sector CO2 emissions are projected to increase 44.4 

percent between 2004 and 2030 as the industry increases its use of fossil fuels, 

particularly coal (Figure 5). However, in the Phased Auction case, CO2 emissions are 

forecast to increase by less than half that amount, about 21 percent between 2004 and 

2030, because of a greater reliance on nuclear and renewable and a less carbon-intensive 

fossil fuel mix. Power sector CO2 emissions are expected to be 4.5 percent below the 

reference case level in 2020 and 15.9 percent below the reference case level in 2030 in 

the Phased Auction case. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 15

Figure 5: Power Sector CO2 Emissions 

 (million metric tons CO2) 

1,894

2,148 2,127

2,344 2,267

2,877

2,373

296

297 301

403 394

344

371

109

87 88

89

45

97

48

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

Coal Natural Gas Petroleum/Other

Reference

2004 2010 2020 2030

Auction Auction Auction

Phased Phased Phased Reference Reference

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Generation by Fuel 

To reduce its CO2 emissions, the power industry, including generators in the industrial 

and commercial sectors, is expected to shift away from its historical reliance on coal 

generation (Figure 6). Total coal generation in 2020 is projected to be 135 billion 

kilowatthours (5.4 percent) below the reference case level in the Phased Auction case. 

By 2030, coal generation relative to the reference case is 851 billion kilowatthours (25 

percent) less in the Phased Auction case. In the reference case, coal accounts for 57 

percent of total generation in 2030, but its share falls to 44 percent in the Phased Auction 

case. While coal generation in 2030 in the Phased Auction case is well below the 

reference case projection it would still be substantially above the current level, increasing 

by 28 percent between 2004 and 2030. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 16

Figure 6: Generation by Fuel 

 (billion kilowatthours) 

1,977 2,218 2,199 2,505 2,370

3,381

2,530

789

809 809

871 871

871

1,168

358

476 482

515 572

559

823

702

774 784

1,103 1,184

993

1,190

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

Coal Nuclear Renewables Natural Gas Oil/Other

2004 2010 2020 2030

Reference Phased Reference Phased Phased Reference

Auction Auction Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

The higher coal costs in the Phased Auction case greatly influence the relative economics 

of new plant alternatives. In the reference case, 174 gigawatts of new coal capacity is 

projected to be added between 2004 and 2030. In the Phased Auction case, the amount 

added over the same period is 51 gigawatts. The plant choice results are very sensitive to 

the allowance price, as indicated by the projections of coal generation across the cases 

(Figure 7). In the $5 Phased Auction case, projected coal generation in 2030 is 14 

percent below the reference case level, compared to 25 percent below in the original 

Phased Auction case and 31 percent below in the $9 Phased Auction case. Projected coal 

generation in 2030 grows from its current level in all of the cases analyzed. 

While successful development of carbon capture and storage technologies might allow 

coal-fired plants to remain competitive under a GHG allowance program, the allowance 

prices in this analysis are not sufficiently high to compensate for the increased capital and 

operating costs. As a result, power plants using carbon capture and storage are not 

projected to be commercially viable within the 2030 time frame in the analysis cases. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 17

Figure 7: Coal Generation in Sensitivity Cases 

 (billion kilowatthours) 

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Reference Phased Auction $5 Phased Auction $9 Phased Auction No Offsets

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, 

BL_PHASED5.D111306A, BL_PHASED9.D112006B, and BL_PHASED7NO.D112006B.

In contrast to the situation for coal generation, nuclear generation is projected to increase 

significantly in the Phased Auction case. In the reference case, nuclear generation is 

projected to increase from 789 billion kilowatthours in 2004 to 871 billion kilowatthours 

in 2030, as existing plants are upgraded by 3 gigawatts and 6 gigawatts of new capacity, 

stimulated by incentives in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT2005), are added. The 

47 gigawatts of nuclear capacity added in the Phased Auction case increases nuclear 

generation to 1,168 billion kilowatthours. As a result of the additions, the share of 

generation accounted for by nuclear plants in 2030 increases from 15 percent in the 

reference case to 20 percent in the Phased Auction case. 

Renewable generation is also expected to see significant growth in the Phased Auction 

case. In the reference case, renewable generation is projected to increase from 358 

billion kilowatthours in 2004 to 559 billion kilowatthours in 2030. Part of this growth is 

stimulated by tax incentives for certain renewable technologies in EPACT2005. In the 

Phased Auction case, renewable generation is projected to grow to 572 billion 

kilowatthours by 2020 and to 823 billion kilowatthours by 2030. Most of the increase in 

renewable generation is expected to be from non-hydroelectric renewable generators, 

mainly biomass and wind. In the reference case, biomass generation is forecast to rise 

from 37 to 103 billion kilowatthours between 2004 and 2030. In the Phased Auction 

case, biomass generation is expected to increase three-fold relative to the reference case 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 18

to 306 billion kilowatthours. Wind generation, projected to increase from 14 billion 

kilowatthours in 2004 to 65 billion kilowatthours in the reference case by 2030, is 

expected to increase to almost twice that amount in the Phased Auction case, where it 

grows to 108 billion kilowatthours. As a result, the non-hydroelectric renewable share of 

generation, 2.2 percent in 2004, increases significantly in the Phased Auction case. By 

2030, the share grows to 9 percent in the Phased Auction case, more than twice the 4 

percent share in the reference case. 

Oil and natural gas generation are also impacted by efforts to reduce power sector GHG 

emissions, but to lesser degrees than coal, nuclear, and renewables. Oil generation, 

already a very small part of electricity market, falls even further in the Phased Auction 

case. Relative to the reference case, natural gas generation in 2030 is 20 percent higher 

in the Phased Auction case, as new combined-cycle plants become more attractive, 

relative to coal plants, for new baseload capacity. 

Electricity Prices 

The shift away from coal to increased use of nuclear and renewable fuels, together with 

the costs of fuel suppliers holding emissions permits, affects electricity prices (Figure 8). 

The impacts are slightly different in the Phased and Full Auction cases because of the 

different approaches used to distribute allowances. In the reference case, real electricity 

prices fall from 7.6 cents per kilowatthour to 7.2 cents per kilowatthour in 2020, and then 

increase slowly to 7.5 cents per kilowatthour in 2030 as fuel prices rise. In the Phased 

and Full Auction cases, 2020 electricity prices are, respectively, 4 and 6 percent higher 

than in the reference case. As the GHG permit price continues to rise between 2020 and 

2030 in the Phased and Full Auction cases, the cost of using fossil fuels also continues to 

grow, contributing to electricity prices that are respectively, 11 and 13 percent above the 

reference case level in 2030. Electricity prices are slightly lower in the Phased Auction 

case because a portion of the allowances are given out to power producers for free, 

lowering the revenue requirements of those producers who are subject to rate regulation. 

Consumers’ total electricity bills in 2020 in the Phased and Full Auction cases are $10 

and $15 billion (2.9 and 4.4 percent), respectively, higher than in the reference case. By 

2030, the increase in consumer bills above the reference case level in the Phased and Full 

Auction cases grows to $34 billion and $41 billion (8.6 and 10.2 percent). 

The different regulatory regimes in the various regions of the country do affect the 

electricity prices in the Phased Auction case. While electricity prices are higher in all 

regions in both the Phased and Full Auction cases, the price impacts are smaller in the 

Phased Auction case in regions where prices are set under cost-of-service regulation. For 

example, in the South Atlantic and Florida regions, 2030 electricity prices are 0.2 cents 

lower in the Phased Auction case than they are in the Full Auction case. In contrast, in 

regions where electricity prices are set competitively, the changes relative to the 

reference case are the same in both the Phased and Full Auction cases. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 19

Figure 8: Electricity Prices 

 (2004 cents per kilowatthour) 

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Reference Full Auction Phased Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_FULL7.D112006c, and 

BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

End-Use Energy Consumption 

In response to higher delivered fossil fuel and electricity prices in the Phased and Full 

Auction cases, consumers and businesses in all sectors of the economy are projected to 

reduce their energy consumption and, where possible, shift their consumption away from 

fossil fuels. These changes reduce overall energy consumption, but raise consumers’ 

energy bills. 

Residential and Commercial 

Higher fuel prices under the proposed GHG cap and trade program provide an incentive 

for residential and commercial consumers to use less energy than otherwise. Relative to 

the reference case, total delivered residential energy consumption in the Phased Auction 

case is 0.4 percent lower in 2020, and 1.2 percent lower in 2030 (Figure 9). Similarly, for 

the commercial sector, total delivered energy consumption in the Phased Auction case is 

0.8 percent lower in 2020 and 2.2 percent lower in 2030 (Figure 10). 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 20

Figure 9: Delivered Residential Energy Consumption 

 (quadrillion btu) 

4.4 5.0 5.0 5.8 5.7 6.5 6.4

5.0

5.3 5.3

5.7 5.6

5.8 5.7

1.6

1.5 1.5

1.4 1.4

1.3 1.3

0.4

0.4 0.4

0.4 0.4

0.4 0.4

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18 Electricity Natural Gas Petroleum Renewable Coal

2004 2010 2020 2030

Reference Reference Reference Phased Phased Phased

Auction Auction Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Figure 10: Delivered Commercial Energy Consumption 

 (quadrillion Btu) 

4.2 4.9 4.9

6.0 6.0

7.3 7.2

3.1

3.2 3.2

3.7 3.6

4.1 4.0

0.8

0.8 0.8

0.8 0.8

0.8 0.8

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Electricity Natural Gas Petroleum Renewable Coal

2004 2010 2020 2030

Reference Reference Reference Phased Phased Phased

Auction Auction Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 21

These changes result from consumer responses to higher costs for all fossil fuels and 

electricity in the Phased Auction case. These costs include the purchase price of the fuels 

together with the costs of permits needed to cover the GHG emissions associated with 

their use. For example, relative to the reference case, the average delivered price of 

natural gas is $0.40 per million Btu (6 percent) higher in 2020 in the Phased Auction 

case. By 2030, this difference grows to $0.86 per million Btu (11 percent). For distillate 

fuel oil and electricity, the projected percentage changes in average prices are similar to 

those for natural gas. 

Even with lower energy consumption, households are projected to see higher energy bills 

because household energy consumption is relatively unresponsive to energy prices. 

Compared to the reference case, annual per-household energy expenditures in 2020 are 3 

percent ($41) higher in the Phased Auction case. By 2030, the difference increases, with 

annual per household energy expenditures 7 percent ($118) higher in the Phased Auction 

case. 

Where possible, homeowners will increase their use of non-fossil energy. For example, 

relative to the reference case, the number of homes with solar photovoltaic (PV) systems 

increases 22 percent in the Phased Auction case by 2030. However, even with a large 

percentage change, the stock of homes with PV systems remains small. The 22-percent 

increase results in about 0.1 percent of the homes having PV systems by 2030. 

As in the residential sector, the impact of higher energy prices outweighs the impact of 

reductions in commercial energy consumption, resulting in a $6-billion (3 percent) 

increase in commercial energy expenditures in the Phased Auction case in 2020, relative 

to the reference case. The increase in expenditures is greater by 2030, reaching $18 

billion (8 percent) higher than commercial sector energy expenditures in the reference 

case in the Phased Auction case. 

Also, as in the residential sector, commercial consumers are expected to increase their 

use of renewable energy in response to a GHG cap and trade program. In the Phased 

Auction case, total commercial sector PV capacity is 5 percent higher in 2020 than in the 

reference case. By 2030, commercial sector PV capacity in the Phased Auction case is 35 

percent higher than in the reference case. 

The GHG cap and trade program also stimulates commercial users to increase their 

investments in natural gas-fired combined heat and power plants (CHP). These facilities 

can be very efficient, and higher fossil fuel prices make investments in them more 

attractive. Overall, commercial natural gas-fired CHP capacity is 0.6 percent higher in 

2020 in the Phased Auction case, when compared to the reference case. By 2030, the 

increase relative to the reference case increases to 9 percent. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 22

Industrial 

Industrial consumers also reduce their energy consumption in response to higher energy 

prices, particularly their consumption of coal, which includes coal used to produce oil 

and electricity in coal-to-liquids (CTL) plants. Relative to the reference case, delivered 

industrial energy consumption in the Phased cases is 2 percent lower in 2020 and 6 

percent lower in 2030 in the Phased Auction case (Figure 11). The largest percentage 

reductions occur in coal used in CTL production and purchased electricity. In the 

AEO2006 reference case, industrial coal use is projected to grow rapidly in the latter half 

of the projection as CTL plants are introduced. Under the proposed GHG program policy 

cases, the cost of coal reduces the economic potential for these plants. Relative to the 

reference case, total industrial coal use is 15 percent lower in 2020 and 39 percent lower 

in 2030 in the Phased Auction case. In 2030, the use of coal in CTL plants is lower by 

nearly 85 percent in the Phased Auction case, and the domestic petroleum supply from 

CTL plants is about 650 thousand barrels a day lower, compared to the reference case. 

Figure 11: Industrial Energy Consumption 

 (quadrillion Btu) 

3.5 3.6 3.6 3.9 3.9 4.3 4.2

8.8 9.2 9.2 9.8 9.7 10.3 10.2

9.6 10.0 10.0

10.6 10.6

11.7 11.5

1.7

1.8 1.8

2.0 2.0

2.3 2.3

2.2

2.1 2.1

2.5 2.1

3.6

2.2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Electricity Natural Gas Petroleum Renewable Coal

Reference Reference Reference Phased Phased Phased

Auction Auction Auction

2004 2010 2020 2030

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Compared to the reference case, purchased electricity consumption in the industrial sector 

is 1 percent lower in 2020 and 3 percent lower in 2030 in the Phased Auction case. 

While energy consumption falls in the industrial sector in the Phased Auction case, total 

industrial energy expenditures rise. Relative to the reference case, industrial energy 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 23

expenditures increase by $8 billion (5 percent) in 2020 and $21 billion (10 percent) in 

2030, in the Phased Auction case. Industrial output, measured in year 2000 dollars, is 

also reduced relative to the reference case by $91 billion (1 percent) in 2030 in the 

Phased Auction case. 

Transportation 

Responding to higher gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel prices, transportation consumers also 

reduce their energy consumption under the GHG proposal (Figure 12). Relative to the 

reference case, the higher prices projected in the Phased Auction case lead to 1 percent 

lower transportation sector energy consumption in 2020 and 2 percent lower 

transportation sector energy consumption in 2030. 

Lower transportation energy consumption results from a combination of reduced travel 

and increased purchases of more efficient vehicles. In 2020, the reduction in light-duty 

vehicle miles traveled from the reference case level is 19 billion miles (1 percent) in the 

Phased Auction case. By 2030, this difference grows to 46 billion miles (1 percent). 

Freight truck travel is also slightly lower in the Phased Auction case because of lower 

industrial output. 

Figure 12: Transportation Sector Energy Consumption by Mode 

 (quadrillion Btu) 

16.8 18.4 18.4

21.0 20.9

23.8 23.4

5.0

5.7 5.7

6.7 6.6

7.9 7.7

2.8

3.3 3.3

3.9 3.9

4.1 4.1

1.5

1.6 1.6

1.8 1.8

1.8 1.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

Light Duty Vehicles Heavy Truck Air Other Rail Shipping

2004 2010 2020 2030

Reference

Auction Auction Auction

Phased Phased Phased Reference Reference

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 24

Though energy use by railroads accounts for only a small part of overall transportation 

energy use, projected growth in railroad shipments is expected to be significantly 

impacted by large reductions in the projected growth of coal use (Figure 13). Relative to 

the reference case, 2020 rail ton-miles traveled are 50 billion ton-miles (3 percent) lower 

in the Phased Auction case. With a growing reduction over time in coal use relative to 

the reference case, by 2030 rail ton-miles are 245 billion ton-miles (10 percent) lower 

than in the reference case. 

Figure 13: Railroad Freight Shipments 

 (billion ton miles traveled) 

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Reference Phased Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Improved fuel economy also contributes to the lower transportation sector energy 

consumption. The higher fuel prices in the Phased Auction case stimulate consumers to 

shift away from light trucks and purchase more hybrid and diesel vehicles. However, the 

increase in gasoline prices in 2030, $0.11 per gallon (2004 dollars), is not large enough to 

stimulate a significant shift in the mix of vehicles purchased. The changes that do occur 

are gradual, but by 2030, the percent of new light vehicle sales that are cars increases 

from 45 percent in the reference case to 46 percent in the Phased Auction case. Sales of 

hybrid vehicles in 2030 grow from 12 percent of new light vehicle sales in the reference 

case to 11.5 percent of new light vehicle sales in the Phased Auction case. Because of 

the shift in vehicle purchases in the Phased Auction case, new light-duty vehicle fuel 

economy is 0.4 miles per gallon (1 percent) higher in 2030 than in the reference case. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 25

Fuel Supply 

Natural Gas 

In general, relative to the reference case, total natural gas consumption changes very little 

in the Phased and Full Auction cases (Figure 14). The change in consumption occurs 

mainly in the electric power sector, but most other sectors show small changes. Electric 

power sector natural consumption is projected to be 0.2 quadrillion Btu (2 percent) below 

the reference case level in the Phased Auction case in 2020 due to reduced total 

generation requirements. However, by 2030, the pattern reverses itself and electric 

power sector natural gas consumption is expected to be 0.5 quadrillion Btu (8 percent) 

higher in the Phased Auction case than in the reference case. 

Figure 14: Natural Gas Consumption by Sector 

 (trillion cubic feet) 

7.4 7.8 7.8 8.3 8.2 8.8 8.7

5.3 5.5 5.6

7.5 7.3 6.4 6.9

4.9 5.2 5.2

5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 3.0 3.1 3.1

3.6 3.5 4.0 3.9

1.1 1.1 1.1

1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

0.7

0.6 0.6

0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Industrial Electric Power Residential Commercial Lease and Plant Fuel Transportation Pipeline Fuel

Reference Reference Reference Phased Phased Phased

Auction Auction Auction

2004 2010 2020 2030

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Coal 

Because of large reductions in coal use in the electric power sector and in the production 

of liquid fuels, coal production is much lower in the Phased Auction case (Figure 15). 

Relative to the reference case, total coal production is 73 million tons (5 percent) lower in 

2020 and 383 million tons (22 percent) lower in 2030 in the Phased Auction case. 

However, even with these changes, coal production in 2030 in the Phased Auction case is 

projected to be 17 percent (196 million tons) greater than 2004 production. Both eastern 

and western coal production are lower in the Phased Auction case, but the impact is 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 26

larger in the west because that is where coal production is projected to grow most rapidly 

in the reference case. 

Petroleum 

Relative to the reference case, the consumption of petroleum products is lower in the 

Phased Auction case, as consumers respond to the higher delivered petroleum product 

prices that result from cost of allowances under the cap-and-trade program. Petroleum 

consumption in 2020 is projected to be 0.4 million barrels per day (2 percent) lower in 

the Phased Auction case than in the reference case. By 2030 the difference grows to 0.7 

million barrels per day (3 percent) lower in the Phased Auction case than in the reference 

case. However, domestic crude oil production is relatively unaffected because the world 

crude oil prices are unchanged. The reduction in petroleum supply in the Phased Auction 

case comes from reductions in imports and reductions in domestic CTL production. In 

the Phased Auction case in 2020, CTL production is 0.2 million barrels per day (74 

percent) lower than in the reference case. By 2030, the change is 0.6 million barrels per 

day (85 percent) lower than in the reference case. The cost of allowances increases the 

cost of using coal, making CTL production much less competitive with imported and 

domestic oil. 

Figure 15: Coal Production 

 (million short tons) 

497 559 554 542 515

633

491

627

702 698

813

767

1,070

829

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

East West

2004 2010 2020 2030

Reference

Auction Auction Auction

Phased Phased Phased Reference Reference

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 27

Economic Impacts 

Implementing a GHG emissions cap-and-trade program based on a targeted rate of 

reduction in emissions intensity in which some emissions permits will be auctioned and 

others will be sold if the safety valve is triggered will impact the economy through two 

mechanisms. First, efforts to reduce GHG emissions and the requirement to hold permits 

for all remaining GHG emissions will raise energy prices, particularly those for fossil 

fuels. Second, the auctioning of permits and the sale of additional permits if the safety 

valve is triggered will increase revenues to the government. In turn, higher energy prices 

and increased government revenues will impact aggregate economic growth. 

Government Revenues 

Projected government revenue from the allowance program is a function of the market 

price of the allowances, the number of initial allowances auctioned, and the additional 

revenue from safety valve fees. The value of allowances allocated for free can be 

considered a revenue transfer in the sense that recipients will accrue revenue from the 

resale of these allowances. For simplicity in the following discussion, free allowance 

allocation from the Federal government to recipients is treated as a revenue transfer. 

The auctioning of allowances and their free distribution under the proposal will result in 

revenue flows to different sectors of the economy. Industry will presumably apply some 

of the value of allowances allocated to them to implement energy-saving processes and 

technologies. States will use the funds for a variety of programs, such as addressing 

economic impacts and promoting technology or energy efficiency. As specified in the 

proposal, the revenue generated by the Federal government (auction proceeds plus safetyvalve fees) is initially used to fund early technology deployment, subject to a $50-billion 

cap on the maximum cumulative deposits to the trust fund. This limit is projected to be 

reached in 2017 in the Phased Auction case, after which all remaining revenue flows to 

the U.S. Treasury and is assumed to be used to retire some part of the Federal debt. 

Figure 16 shows the flows of these funds among the various sectors for the Phased 

Auction case. The projected change in the Federal deficit relative to the reference case 

differs from the amount of allowance revenue allocated to debt reduction due to the 

impact of the proposed program on the overall economy. 

The Full Auction case considers the effects of a policy of letting all of the allowance 

receipts flow to the Federal government as an alternative to the allocation scheme in the 

proposal. The Federal expenditure profile for revenue deposited in the Climate Change 

Trust Fund is assumed to be the same as in the Phased Auction case. The difference in 

the two cases is the impact on funds flowing to the Federal government and the 

subsequent rate at which the Federal debt level is lowered (Figure 17). In essence, the 

Full Auction case draws more money away from the spending stream of the economy and 

thus lowers aggregate demand to a much larger degree than the Phased Auction case. 

Some discussion of possible alternative approaches to revenue recycling and their 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 28

implications is provided in an earlier EIA report requested by Senators Inhofe, McCain, 

and Lieberman21

Figure 16: Allocation of Allowance Revenue in the Phased Auction Case 

 (billion nominal dollars) 

Allocation of Allowance Revenue

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

debt reduction

gov't spending

states

private spending

Source: National Energy Modeling System run, BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Prices 

The energy market impacts of the proposed program influence the aggregate economy 

through the effect on prices and energy expenditures. Figure 18 shows the percentage 

changes in the consumer price index (CPI) for energy and the All-Urban CPI, a measure 

of aggregate consumer prices in the economy. The CPI for energy, a summary measure 

of energy prices facing households at the retail level incorporating the energy price 

impacts associated with rising petroleum, natural gas, and electricity prices, increases by 

approximately 8 percent above the reference case level by 2030. Ultimately the 

consumer sees higher prices directly through final prices paid for energy goods and 

service, plus higher prices for other goods and services that come about due to changes in 

the price of other goods and services resulting from energy price changes, as well as 

changes in interest rates and other prices driven by the flow of revenues to the 

government and other sectors under the proposal. 

In the Phased Auction case, the All-Urban CPI rises steadily and by 2030 is 

approximately one percent above the reference case. In the Full Auction case, both 

 

21 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of S.139, the Climate Stewardship Act of 2003, SR/OIAF/2003-02 (Washington, 

DC, June 2003) web site http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/ml/pdf/sroiaf(2003)02.pdf. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 29

Figure 17: Projected Improvement in the Federal Surplus 

 (billion nominal dollars) 

Improvement in the Federal Surplus

-50

0

50

100

150

200

250

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Phased Auction Full Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs BL_FULL7.D112006c, and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

Figure 18: Impacts on the CPI for Energy and the All Urban CPI 

 (percent change from reference case) 

Percent Change CPI-Energy

-2.00%

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Phased Auction Full Auction

Percent Change CPI-All Urban

-0.20%

0.00%

0.20%

0.40%

0.60%

0.80%

1.00%

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Phased Auction Full Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs BL_FULL7.D112006c, and BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 

interest rates and aggregate demand are lower. Interest rates are lower for two main 

reasons. First, there is less inflationary pressure due to lower aggregate demand and the 

slightly higher unemployment. Second, with a lower government deficit there is less 

demand for credit. With less inflationary pressure, the Full Auction variant of the 

proposal has a lesser effect on the All-Urban CPI than the Phased Auction version. This 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 30

result implies that energy prices are higher relative to the prices of other goods in the Full 

Auction case than in the Phased Auction case. 

The alternative values of the safety valve price considered in the sensitivity cases will 

have relatively symmetric impacts on aggregate prices. Figure 19 shows that the AllUrban CPI will rise to approximately 1.2 percent above the reference case by 2030 in the 

Phased $9 case compared to a 1.0-increase in the Phased Auction case.

Figure 19: Impacts on the CPI for Energy and the All Urban CPI with Alternative 

 Safety Valves 

 (percent change from reference case) 

Percent Change CPI-All Urban

-0.21%

0.00%

0.21%

0.42%

0.63%

0.84%

1.05%

1.26%

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

$5 Phased Auction Phased Auction

$9 Phased Auction

Percent Change CPI-Energy

-2.00%

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

12.00%

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Phased Auction $5 Phased Auction

$9 Phased Auction

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, 

BL_PHASED5.D111306A, and BL_PHASED9.D112006B.

Real GDP and Consumption Impacts22

The higher delivered energy prices and the collection of additional government revenues 

lower real output for the economy in both the Phased and Full Auction cases. They 

reduce energy consumption, but also indirectly reduce real consumer spending for other 

goods and services due to lower purchasing power. The lower aggregate demand for 

goods and services in the both the Phased and Full Auction cases results in lower real 

GDP relative to the reference case (Figure 20). Relative to the reference case, total 

discounted GDP over the 2009 to 2030 time period is $232 billion (0.10 percent) lower in 

the Phased Auction case and $462 billion (0.19 percent) lower in the Full Auction case. 

Projected GDP impacts generally increase over time, as the cap-and-trade program 

requires larger changes in the energy system. Relative to the reference case, real GDP in 

2030 is $59 billion (0.26 percent) lower in the Phased Auction case and $94 billion (0.41 

percent) lower in the Full Auction case. Because the additional impact on economic 

activity under a Full Auction could be significantly, or even fully, mitigated under 

alternative revenue recycling assumptions, the results for the Full Auction case presented 

 

22 All dollar values reported in this section and beyond are expressed in real 2000 dollars unless otherwise stated
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 31

here should not be construed as suggesting a general conclusion that a Phased Auction 

will necessarily result in lesser impacts on GDP than a comparable Full Auction. 

The alternative values of the safety valve price considered in the sensitivity cases have 

relatively symmetric impacts on projected GDP losses. The estimated loss in GDP in 

2030 is 0.32 percent in the Phased $9 case, compared to 0.26 percent for the Phased 

Auction case and 0.16 percent for the Phased $5 case. In terms of cumulative GDP 

losses, the difference between the Phased Auction and Phased $9 cases is much smaller, 

0.10 percent compared to 0.11 percent, reflecting the fact that the safety valve does not 

become binding until after 2025 in the Phased Auction case, so that economic impacts up 

to that date follow the same path in either case. Under the Phased $5 case, the safety 

valve comes into play at an earlier date, so there is a longer period of time over which 

projected economic impacts differ from those in the Phased Auction case. 

Figure 20: GDP Impacts 

 (billion 2000 dollars) 

Change in Real GDP

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Full Auction Phased Auction

$5 Phased Auction $9 Phased Auction

Cumulative Loss in Real GDP

-856

-461 -462

-232

-288

-141

-533

-270

-900

-800

-700

-600

-500

-400

-300

-200

-100

0

Full Auction Phased Auction

$5 Phased Auction $9 Phased Auction

Undiscounted Present Value @ 4%

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, 

BL_PHASED5.D111306A, and BL_PHASED9.D112006B.

While real GDP is a measure of what the economy produces, ultimately consumers are 

interested in their purchases of goods and services. GDP and consumption impacts of a 

proposed policy can differ if the policy leads to changes the shares of the GDP 

components, which include consumption, investment, government expenditures, and net 

exports, as well as the level of GDP. Figure 21 shows two measures of consumption 

impacts: the change in consumption relative to the reference case and the cumulative 

discounted loss in consumption over the 2009 to 2030 period. Cumulative discounted 

consumption losses relative to the reference case are $236 billion (0.14 percent) in the 

Phased Auction case and $483 billion (0.29 percent) in the Full Auction case. 

Consumption impacts, like GDP impacts, generally grow over time. In 2030, projected 

real consumption in the Phased Auction and Full Auction case is, respectively, $55 

billion (0.36 percent) and $106 billion (0.69 percent) below the reference case level. 

Starting from the Phased Auction case in which the safety valve is binding before the end 

of the modeled time horizon, a lower initial value for the safety valve lowers estimated 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 32

consumption losses, while a higher safety valve raises them (Figure 21). In terms of 

cumulative discounted consumption losses over the 2010 to 2030 period, the impact of 

the $5 Phased Auction and $9 Phased Auction sensitivity cases on consumption losses is 

somewhat asymmetric relative to the $236 billion estimated cumulative discounted 

consumption loss in the Phased Auction case. The $5 Phased Auction case lowers the 

estimated cumulative discounted consumption loss to $161 billion (0.10 percent), while 

the $9 Phased Auction case raises it to $277 billion (0.17 percent). 

Table 3 provides more detail on the two main Auction cases. 

Figure 21: Consumption Impacts 

 (billion 2000 dollars) 

Change in Consumption

-120

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Full Auction Phased Auction

$5 Phased Auction $9 Phased Auction

Cumulative Loss in Consumption

-897

-483 -447

-236

-305

-161

-524

-277

-1000

-900

-800

-700

-600

-500

-400

-300

-200

-100

0

Full Auction Phased Auction

$5 Phased Auction $9 Phased Auction

Undiscounted Present Value @ 4%

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_PHASED7.D112006B, BL_PHASED5.D111306A, and 

BL_PHASED9.D112006B. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 33

Table 3: Economic Impacts of Phased and Full Auction Cases 

2020 2030 

Projection 2004 AEO2006 

Reference 

Phased 

Auction 

Full 

Auction 

AEO2006 

Reference 

Phased 

Auction 

Full 

Auction 

Allocation of Allowance Revenue (billion nominal dollars) 

Private Spending - - 39.0 0.0 - 58.6 0.0 

States - - 21.4 0.0 - 54.9 0.0 

Government Spending - - 0.0 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 

Debt Reduction - - 13.3 73.7 - 86.4 199.9 

 Total Revenue - - 73.7 73.7 - 199.9 199.9 

Aggregate Prices in the Economy 

WPI – Fuel & Power (1982 

=1.0) 

1.27 1.77 1.88 1.88 2.49 2.79 2.79 

CPI – Energy (1982/84 = 1.0) 1.51 2.19 2.27 2.28 2.96 3.20 3.20 

CPI – All Urban (1982/84 = 

1.0) 

1.89 2.86 2.88 2.87 3.78 3.82 3.80 

Inflation Rate, Unemployment Rate and the Federal Funds Rate (percent) 

Inflation 2.68 3.06 3.13 3.10 2.67 2.68 2.68 

Unemployment Rate 5.53 4.37 4.44 4.46 4.90 5.01 5.02 

Federal Funds Rate 1.35 5.24 5.24 5.16 5.04 4.96 4.86 

Components of GDP (billion 2000 dollars)

GDP 10,756 17,541 17,520 17,503 23,112 23,053 23,018 

Disposable Income 8,004 13,057 13,037 12,991 17,562 17,468 17,367 

Consumption 7,589 11,916 11,898 11,880 15,352 15,298 15,247 

Investment 1,810 3,293 3,291 3,288 4,985 4,990 4,973 

Government 1,952 2,464 2,474 2,464 2,838 2,861 2,839 

Exports 1,118 3,776 3,759 3,765 6,833 6,785 6,813 

Imports 1,719 3,659 3,660 3,647 6,156 6,165 6,121 

Source: National Energy Modeling System runs AEO2006.D111905A, BL_FULL7.D112006c, and 

BL_PHASED7.D112006b. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 34

Uncertainty 

All long-term projections engender considerable uncertainty. It is particularly difficult to 

foresee how existing technologies might evolve or what new technologies might emerge 

as market conditions change, particularly when those changes are fairly dramatic. This 

analysis suggests that, to comply with the GHG emissions growth limits necessary to 

meet the intensity reduction targets, all energy providers, particularly electricity 

producers, will increasingly rely on technologies that play a relatively small role today or 

have not been built in the United States in many years. Sensitivity analyses included in 

previous EIA studies of cap-and-trade systems for GHG show that estimates of both 

energy and economic impacts of such programs can change significantly under 

alternative assumptions regarding the cost and availability of new technologies. 

Non-hydroelectric renewable generators currently provide 2.2 percent of the electricity 

generated. In the reference case, their share is expected to grow to 4.3 percent in 2030. 

In the Phased and Full Auction cases their share grows to 9 and 10 percent of generation 

by 2030. While this level of growth is certainly possible, particularly since the GHG 

emission targets are tightened gradually, it comes with some uncertainty. It is possible 

that such growth might lead to significant reductions in the costs of these technologies. 

On the other hand, it is also possible that costly hurdles such as siting resistance, higher 

than expected transmission interconnection costs, or fuel supply limits could arise that 

limit their development. 

Similarly, this analysis suggests that the power sector would significantly increase its 

reliance on nuclear power in order to reduce GHG emissions. This is despite the facts 

that the last nuclear order in the United States was placed in 1978 and the last nuclear 

plant to enter service began operating in 1996. However, several factors, including rising 

fossil fuel prices, concern about GHG emissions, tax incentives in the EPACT 2005 and 

new nuclear plant designs, have recently spurred renewed interest in new nuclear plants. 

In the reference case, nuclear capacity is projected to increase by 9 gigawatts, including 3 

gigawatts of uprates at existing plants and 6 gigawatts of new nuclear plants, about 4 to 6 

new plants. In the Phased and Full Auction cases, nuclear capacity is projected to grow 

by 48 gigawatts and 46 gigawatts, respectively. Such growth in nuclear power might lead 

to significant cost reductions, encouraging more expansion than projected. On the other 

hand, costly hurdles, such as unexpectedly high construction costs, public resistance to 

the siting of facilities, or waste disposal concerns, could arise to limit their development. 

If the development of these technologies is limited for one reason or another, power 

providers will have two choices. First, they can turn to other low-GHG or non-GHG 

technologies, such as new fossil generators with carbon capture and sequestration 

equipment, that play a fairly small role in today’s market. Second, they can comply by 

paying more safety-valve fees to maintain their reliance on current fossil-fired generation. 

To the extent this occurs, projected reductions in GHGs would be reduced. One way or 

another, significantly reducing energy-related GHG emissions would require a shift away 

from fossil energy sources that accounted for 86 percent of U.S. energy consumption in 

2004. The costs of such a shift are inherently uncertain. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 35

Particularly uncertain in this analysis is the role that increased research and development 

(R&D) expenditures might play in spurring the development and deployment of new 

more efficient, lower emitting technologies. The draft proposal calls for spending 

significant resources on R&D, but it is impossible to predict the impact of such 

expenditures. 

A final source of uncertainty involves assumptions regarding the availability of 

reductions in covered GHG emissions outside the energy sector. To the extent that this 

analysis overstates the availability of such reductions, additional reductions in emissions 

within the energy sector or additional purchases of allowances at the applicable safety 

valve price would be required to comply with the proposed program. Previous studies 

have explored the sensitivity of energy and economic impact estimates to alternative 

estimates of available emissions reductions outside the energy sector. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 36

Appendix A. Analysis Request Letter 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 37
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 38
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 39

Appendix B. Draft Bill Language 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 40

Title: To manage the carbon content of United States domestic energy supply. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 

America in Congress assembled, 

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

This Act may be cited as the “__________ Act of ____”. 

SEC. 2. ACTIONS TO ADDRESS GLOBAL CLIMATE. 

Title XVI of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (42 U.S.C. 13381 et seq.) is amended— 

(1) by inserting after the title designation and heading the following: 

“Subtitle A—General Provisions”; 

and 

(2) by adding at the end the following: 

“Subtitle B—Actions to Address Global Climate Change 

“SEC. 1611. PURPOSE. 

“The purpose of this subtitle is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions intensity in the 

United States, beginning in calendar year 2012, through an emissions trading system 

designed to achieve emissions reductions at the lowest practicable cost to the United 

States. 

“SEC. 1612. DEFINITIONS. 

“In this subtitle: 

“(1) CARBON DIOXIDE EQUIVALENT.—The term ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’ 

means— 

“(A) for each covered fuel, the quantity of carbon dioxide that would be 

emitted into the atmosphere as a result of complete combustion of a unit of the 

covered fuel, to be determined for the type of covered fuel by the Secretary; 

and 

“(B) for each greenhouse gas (other than carbon dioxide) the quantity of 

carbon dioxide that would have an effect on global warming equal to the effect 

of a unit of the greenhouse gas, as determined by the Secretary, taking into 

consideration global warming potentials. 

“(2) COVERED FUEL.—The term ‘covered fuel’ means— 

“(A) coal; 

“(B) petroleum products; 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 41

“(C) natural gas; 

“(D) natural gas liquids; and 

“(E) any other fuel derived from fossil hydrocarbons (including bitumen and 

kerogen). 

“(3) COVERED GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS.— 

“(A) IN GENERAL.—The term ‘covered greenhouse gas emissions’ means— 

“(i) the carbon dioxide emissions from combustion of covered fuel 

carried out in the United States; and 

“(ii) nonfuel-related greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, 

determined in accordance with section 1615(b)(2). 

“(B) UNITS.—Quantities of covered greenhouse gas emissions shall be 

measured and expressed in units of metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. 

“(4) EMISSIONS INTENSITY.—The term ‘emissions intensity’ means, for any 

calendar year, the quotient obtained by dividing— 

“(A) covered greenhouse gas emissions; by 

“(B) the forecasted GDP for that calendar year. 

“(5) FORECASTED GDP.—The term ‘forecasted GDP’ means the predicted amount 

of the gross domestic product of the United States, based on the most current 

projection used by the Energy Information Administration of the Department of 

Energy on the date on which the prediction is made. 

“(6) FORECASTED GDP IMPLICIT PRICE DEFLATOR.—The term ‘forecasted GDP 

implicit price deflator’ means [TO BE SUPPLIED]. 

“(7) GREENHOUSE GAS.—The term ‘greenhouse gas’ means— 

“(A) carbon dioxide; 

“(B) methane; 

“(C) nitrous oxide; 

“(D) hydrofluorocarbons; 

“(E) perfluorocarbons; and 

“(F) sulfur hexafluoride. 

“(8) INITIAL ALLOCATION PERIOD.—The term ‘initial allocation period’ means the 

period beginning January 1, 2012, and ending December 31, 2021. 

[“(9) NATURAL GAS PROCESSING PLANT.—The term ‘natural gas processing plant’ 

means a facility designed to separate natural gas liquids from natural gas.] 

“(10) NONFUEL REGULATED ENTITY.—The term ‘nonfuel regulated entity’ 

means— 

“(A) the owner or operator of a facility that manufactures 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 42

hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, or nitrous oxide; 

“(B) an importer of hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur 

hexafluoride, or nitrous oxide; 

“(C) the owner or operator of a facility that emits nitrous oxide associated 

with the manufacture of adipic acid or nitric acid; 

“(D) the owner or operator of an aluminum smelter; 

“(E) the owner or operator of an underground coal mine that emitted more 

than 35,000,000 cubic feet of methane during 2004 or any subsequent calendar 

year; and 

“(F) the owner or operator of facility that emits hydrofluorocarbon-23 as a 

byproduct of hydrochlorofluorocarbon-22 production. 

“(11) OFFSET PROJECT.—The term ‘offset project’ means any project to— 

“(A) reduce greenhouse gas emissions; or 

“(B) sequester a greenhouse gas. 

“(12) PETROLEUM PRODUCT.—The term ‘petroleum product’ means— 

“(A) a refined petroleum product; 

“(B) residual fuel oil; 

“(C) petroleum coke; or 

“(D) a liquefied petroleum gas. 

“(13) REGULATED ENTITY.—The term ‘regulated entity’ means— 

“(A) a regulated fuel distributor; or 

“(B) a nonfuel regulated entity. 

“(14) REGULATED FUEL DISTRIBUTOR.—The term ‘regulated fuel distributor’ 

means— 

“(A) the owner or operator of— 

“(i) a petroleum refinery; 

“(ii) a coal mine that produces more than 10,000 short tons during 2004 

or any subsequent calendar year; or 

“(iii) a natural gas processing plant [size threshold]; 

“(B) an importer of— 

“(i) petroleum products; 

“(ii) coal; 

“(iii) coke; or 

“(iv) natural gas liquids; or 

“(C) any other entity the Secretary determines under section 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 43

1615(b)(3)(A)(ii) to be subject to section 1615. 

“(15) SAFETY VALVE PRICE.—The term ‘safety valve price’ means— 

“(A) for 2012, $7 per metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent; and 

“(B) for each subsequent calendar year, an amount equal to the product 

obtained by multiplying— 

“(i) the safety valve price established for the preceding calendar year 

increased by 5 percent, unless a different rate of increase is established for 

the calendar year under section 1622; and 

“(ii) the ratio that— 

“(I) the forecasted GDP implicit price deflator for the calendar 

year; bears to 

“(II) the forecasted GDP implicit price deflator for the preceding 

calendar year. 

“(16) SECRETARY.—The term ‘Secretary’ means the Secretary of Energy, unless 

the President designates another officer of the Executive Branch to carry out a 

function under this subtitle. 

“(17) SUBSEQUENT ALLOCATION PERIOD.—The term ‘subsequent allocation 

period’ means— 

“(A) the 5-year period beginning January 1, 2022, and ending December 31, 

2026; and 

“(B) each subsequent 5-year period. 

“SEC. 1613. QUANTITY OF ANNUAL GREENHOUSE 

GAS ALLOWANCES. 

“(a) Initial Allocation Period.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than December 31, 2008, the Secretary shall— 

“(A) make a projection with respect to emissions intensity for 2011, using— 

“(i) the Energy Information Administration’s most current projections 

of covered greenhouse gas emissions for 2011; and 

“(ii) the forecasted GDP for 2011; 

“(B) determine the emissions intensity target for 2012 by calculating a 2.6 

percent reduction from the projected emissions intensity for 2011; 

“(C) in accordance with paragraph (2), determine the emissions intensity 

target for each calendar year of the initial allocation period after 2012; and 

“(D) in accordance with paragraph (3), determine the total number of 

allowances to be allocated for each calendar year during the initial allocation 

period. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 44

“(2) EMISSIONS INTENSITY TARGETS AFTER 2012.—For each calendar year during 

the initial allocation period after 2012, the emissions intensity target shall be the 

emissions intensity target established for the preceding calendar year reduced by 2.6 

percent. 

“(3) TOTAL ALLOWANCES.—For each calendar year during the initial allocation 

period, the quantity of allowances to be issued shall be equal to the product obtained 

by multiplying— 

“(A) the emissions intensity target established for the calendar year; and 

“(B) the forecasted GDP for the calendar year. 

“(b) Subsequent Allocation Periods.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than the date that is 4 years before the beginning of 

each subsequent allocation period, the Secretary shall— 

“(A) except as directed under section 1622, determine the emissions intensity 

target for each calendar year during that subsequent allocation period, in 

accordance with paragraph (2); and 

“(B) issue the total number of allowances for each calendar year of the 

subsequent allocation period, in accordance with paragraph (3). 

“(2) EMISSIONS INTENSITY TARGETS.—For each calendar year during a subsequent 

allocation period, the emissions intensity target shall be the emissions intensity 

target established for the preceding calendar year reduced by 3.0 percent. 

“(3) TOTAL ALLOWANCES.—For each calendar year during a subsequent 

allocation period, the quantity of allowances to be issued shall be equal to the 

product obtained by multiplying— 

“(A) the emissions intensity target established for the calendar year; and 

“(B) the forecasted GDP for the calendar year. 

“(c) Administrative Requirements.— 

“(1) DENOMINATION.—Allowances issued by the Secretary under this section 

shall be denominated in units of metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. 

“(2) PERIOD OF USE.—An allowance issued by the Secretary under this section 

may be used during— 

“(A) the calendar year for which the allowance is issued; or 

“(B) any subsequent calendar year. 

“(3) SERIAL NUMBERS.—The Secretary shall— 

“(A) assign a unique serial number to each allowance issued under this 

subtitle; and 

“(B) retire the serial number of an allowance on the date on which the 

allowance is submitted under section 1615. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 45

“SEC. 1614. ALLOCATION AND AUCTION OF 

GREENHOUSE GAS ALLOWANCES. 

“(a) Allocation of Allowances.— 

“(1) DEFINITION OF STATE.—In this subsection, the term ‘State’ means— 

“(A) each of the several States of the United States; 

“(B) the District of Columbia; 

“(C) the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; 

“(D) Guam; 

“(E) American Samoa; 

“(F) the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands; 

“(G) the Federated States of Micronesia; 

“(H) the Republic of the Marshall Islands; 

“(I) the Republic of Palau; and 

“(J) the United States Virgin Islands. 

“(2) ALLOCATIONS.—Not later than the date that is 2 years before the beginning 

of the initial allocation period, and each subsequent allocation period, the Secretary 

shall allocate for each calendar year during the allocation period a quantity of 

allowances in accordance with this subsection. 

“(3) QUANTITY.—The total quantity of allowances available to be allocated to 

industry and States [OR: to industry and by the President] for each calendar year of 

an allocation period shall be the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(A) the total quantity of allowances issued for the calendar year under 

subsection (a)(3) or (b)(3) of section 1613; and 

“(B) the allocation percentage for the calendar year under subsection (c). 

“(4) ALLOWANCE ALLOCATION RULEMAKING.—Not later than 18 months after the 

date of enactment of this subtitle, the Secretary shall establish, by rule, procedures 

for allocating allowances in accordance with the criteria established under this 

subsection, including requirements (including forms and schedules for submission) 

for the reporting of information necessary for the allocation of allowances under this 

section. 

“(5) DISTRIBUTION OF ALLOWANCES TO INDUSTRY.—The allowances available for 

allocation to industry under paragraph (3) shall be distributed as follows: 

“(A) COAL MINES.— 

“(i) DEFINITION OF ELIGIBLE COAL MINE.—In this subparagraph, the 

term ‘eligible coal mine’ means a coal mine located in the United States 

that is a regulated fuel distributor. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 46

“(ii) TOTAL ALLOCATION.—For each year, eligible coal mines shall be 

allocated \7/55\ of the total quantity of allowances available for allocation 

to industry under paragraph (3). 

“(iii) INDIVIDUAL ALLOCATIONS.—For any year, the quantity of 

allowances allocated to an eligible coal mine shall be the quantity equal to 

the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(I) the total allocation to eligible coal mines under clause (ii); and 

“(II) the ratio that— 

“(aa) the carbon content of coal produced at the eligible coal 

mine during the 3-year period beginning on January 1, 2004; 

bears to 

“(bb) the carbon content of coal produced at all eligible coal 

mines in the United States during that period. 

“(B) PETROLEUM REFINERS.— 

“(i) TOTAL ALLOCATION.—For each year, the petroleum refining sector 

shall be allocated \4/55\ of the total quantity of allowances available for 

allocation to industry under paragraph (3). 

“(ii) INDIVIDUAL ALLOCATIONS.—For any year, the quantity of 

allowances allocated to a petroleum refinery located in the United States 

shall be the quantity equal to the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(I) the total allocation to the petroleum refining sector under 

clause (i); and 

“(II) the ratio that— 

“(aa) the carbon content of petroleum products produced at 

the refinery during the 3-year period beginning on January 1, 

2004; bears to 

“(bb) the carbon content of petroleum products produced at 

all refineries in the United States during that period. 

“(C) NATURAL GAS PROCESSORS.— 

“(i) DEFINITION OF ELIGIBLE NATURAL GAS PROCESSOR.—In this 

subparagraph, the term ‘eligible natural gas processor’ means a natural gas 

processor located in the United States that is a regulated fuel distributor. 

“(ii) TOTAL ALLOCATION.—For each year, eligible natural gas 

processors shall be allocated \2/55\ of the total quantity of allowances 

available for allocation to industry under paragraph (3). 

“(iii) INDIVIDUAL ALLOCATIONS.—For any year, the quantity of 

allowances allocated to an eligible natural gas processor shall be the 

quantity equal to the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(I) the total allocation to eligible natural gas processors under 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 47

clause (ii); and 

“(II) the ratio that— 

“(aa) the sum of, for the 3-year period beginning on January 

1, 2004— 

“(AA) the carbon content of natural gas liquids produced 

by the eligible natural gas processor; and 

“(BB) the carbon content of the natural gas delivered into 

commerce by the eligible natural gas processor; bears to 

“(bb) the sum of, for that period— 

“(AA) the carbon content of natural gas liquids produced 

by all eligible natural gas processors; and 

“(BB) the carbon content of the natural gas delivered into 

commerce by all eligible natural gas processors. 

“(D) ELECTRICITY GENERATORS.— 

“(i) DEFINITION OF ELIGIBLE ELECTRICITY GENERATOR.—In this 

subparagraph, the term ‘eligible electricity generator’ means an electricity 

generator located in the United States that is a fossil fuel-fired electricity 

generator. 

“(ii) TOTAL ALLOCATION.—For each year, eligible electricity generators 

shall be allocated \30/55\ of the total quantity of allowances available for 

allocation to industry under paragraph (3). 

“(iii) INDIVIDUAL ALLOCATIONS.—For any year, the quantity of 

allowances allocated to an eligible electricity generator shall be the 

quantity equal to the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(I) the total allocation to eligible electricity generators under 

clause (ii); and 

“(II) the ratio that— 

“(aa) the carbon content of the fossil fuel input of the eligible 

electricity generator during the 3-year period beginning on 

January 1, 2004; bears to 

“(bb) the total carbon content of fossil fuel input of eligible 

electricity generators in the United States during that period. 

“(E) CARBON-INTENSIVE MANUFACTURING SECTORS.— 

“(i) DEFINITION OF ELIGIBLE MANUFACTURER.—In this subparagraph, 

the term ‘eligible manufacturer’ means a carbon-intensive manufacturer 

located in the United States that [used more than _____ during ____; need 

to define/specify; need to exclude fossil fuel-fired electricity generation]. 

“(ii) TOTAL ALLOCATION.—For each year, eligible manufacturers shall 

be allocated \10/55\ of the total quantity of allowances available for 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 48

allocation to industry under paragraph (3). 

“(iii) INDIVIDUAL ALLOCATIONS.—For any year, the quantity of 

allowances allocated to an eligible manufacturer shall be the quantity 

equal to the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(I) the total allocation to eligible manufacturers under clause (ii); 

and 

“(II) the ratio that— 

“(aa) the carbon content of fossil fuel combusted at the 

eligible manufacturer during the 3-year period beginning on 

January 1, 2004; bears to 

“(bb) the total carbon content of fossil fuel combusted at all 

eligible manufacturers in the United States during that period. 

“(F) NONFUEL REGULATED ENTITIES.— 

“(i) TOTAL ALLOCATION.—For each year, nonfuel regulated entities 

shall be allocated \2/55\ of the total quantity of allowances available for 

allocation to industry under paragraph (3). 

“(ii) INDIVIDUAL ALLOCATIONS.—For any year, the quantity of 

allowances allocated to a nonfuel regulated entity shall be the quantity 

equal to the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(I) the total allocation to nonfuel regulated entities under clause 

(i); and 

“(II) the ratio that— 

“(aa) the carbon dioxide equivalent of the nonfuel-related 

greenhouse gas produced or emitted by the nonfuel regulated 

entity at facilities in the United States during the 3-year period 

beginning on January 1, 2004; bears to 

“(bb) the carbon dioxide equivalent of the nonfuel-related 

greenhouse gases produced or emitted by all nonfuel regulated 

entities at facilities in the United States during that period. 

“(6) ALLOWANCES TO STATES.— 

“(A) DISTRIBUTION.—The allowances available for allocation to States under 

paragraph (3) shall be distributed as follows: 

“(i) For each year, \1/2\ of the quantity of allowances available for 

allocation to States under paragraph (3) shall be allocated among the 

States based on the ratio that— 

“(I) the greenhouse gas emissions of the State during the 3-year 

period beginning on January 1, 2004; bears to 

“(II) the greenhouse gas emissions of all States for that period. 

“(ii) For each year, \1/2\ of the quantity of allowances available for 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 49

allocation to States under paragraph (3) shall be allocated among the 

States based on the ratio that— 

“(I) the population of the State, as determined by the 2000 

decennial census; bears to 

“(II) the population of all States as determined by that census. 

“(B) USE.— 

“(i) IN GENERAL.—During any year, a State shall use not less than 90 

percent of the allowances allocated to the State for that year— 

“(I) to mitigate impacts on low-income energy consumers; 

“(II) to promote energy efficiency; 

“(III) to promote investment in nonemitting electricity generation 

technology; 

“(IV) to encourage advances in energy technology that reduce or 

sequester greenhouse gas emissions; 

“(V) to avoid distortions in competitive electricity markets; 

“(VI) to mitigate obstacles to investment by new entrants in 

electricity generation markets; 

“(VII) to address local or regional impacts of climate change 

policy, including providing assistance to displaced workers; 

“(VIII) to mitigate impacts on energy-intensive industries in 

internationally-competitive markets; or 

“(IX) to enhance energy security. 

“(ii) DEADLINE.—A State shall allocate allowances for use in 

accordance with clause (i) by not later than 1 year before the beginning of 

each allowance allocation period. 

[“(6) [POSSIBLE SUBSTITUTE FOR (6)] distribution of allowances by president.—

]] 

[“(A) IN GENERAL.—The President shall distribute the allowances available 

for allocation by the President under paragraph (3) in a manner designed to 

mitigate the undue impacts of the program under this subtitle.] 

[“(B) USE.—During any year, the President shall use not less than 90 percent 

of the allowances available for allocation by the President for that year—] 

[“(i) to mitigate impacts on low-income energy consumers;] 

[“(ii) to promote energy efficiency;] 

[“(iii) to promote investment in nonemitting electricity generation 

technology;] 

[“(iv) to support advances in energy technology that reduce or sequester 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 50

greenhouse gas emissions;] 

[“(v) to avoid distortions in competitive electricity markets;] 

[“(vi) to mitigate obstacles to investment by new entrants in electricity 

generation markets;] 

[“(vii) to address local or regional impacts of climate change policy, 

including providing assistance to displaced workers;] 

[“(viii) to mitigate impacts on energy-intensive industries in 

internationally-competitive markets; and] 

[“(ix) to enhance energy security.] 

[“(C) DEADLINE.—The President shall allocate allowances for use in 

accordance with subparagraph (B) by not later than 1 year before the beginning 

of each allowance allocation period. [Corresponding changes needed elsewhere 

if this paragraph is selected.]] 

“(7) COST OF ALLOWANCES.—The Secretary shall distribute allowances under this 

subsection at no cost to the recipient of the allowance. 

“(b) Auction of Allowances.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall establish, by rule, a procedure for the 

auction of a quantity of allowances during each calendar year in accordance with 

paragraph (2). 

“(2) BASE QUANTITY.—The base quantity of allowances to be auctioned during a 

calendar year shall be the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(A) the total number of allowances for the calendar year under subsection 

(a)(3) or (b)(3) of section 1613; and 

“(B) the auction percentage for the calendar year under subsection (c). 

“(3) SCHEDULE.—The auction of allowances shall be held on the following 

schedule: 

“(A) In 2009, the Secretary shall auction— 

“(i) \1/2\ of the allowances available for auction for 2012; and 

“(ii) \1/2\ of the allowances available for auction for 2013. 

“(B) In 2010, the Secretary shall auction \1/2\ of the allowances available for 

auction for 2014. 

“(C) In 2011, the Secretary shall auction \1/2\ of the allowances available for 

auction for 2015. 

“(D) In 2012 and each subsequent calendar year, the Secretary shall 

auction— 

“(i) \1/2\ of the allowances available for auction for that calendar year; 

and 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 51

“(ii) \1/2\ of the allowances available for auction for the calendar year 

that is 4 years after that calendar year. 

“(4) UNDISTRIBUTED ALLOWANCES.—In an auction held during any calendar year, 

the Secretary shall auction any allowance that was— 

“(A) available for allocation by the Secretary under subsection (a) for the 

calendar year, but not distributed; 

“(B) available during the preceding calendar year for an agricultural 

sequestration or early reduction activity under section 1620 or 1621, but not 

distributed during that calendar year; or 

“(C) available for distribution by a State under subsection (a)(6), but not 

distributed by the date that is 1 year before the beginning of the applicable 

allocation period. 

“(c) Available Percentages.—Except as directed under section 1622, the percentage of 

the total quantity of allowances for each calendar year to be available for allocation, 

agricultural sequestration and early reduction projects, and auction shall be determined in 

accordance with the following table: 

Year 

Percentage 

Allocated to 

Industry 

Percentage 

Allocated to 

States 

Percentage 

Available for 

Agricultural 

Sequestration 

Percentage 

Available for 

Early Reduction 

Allowances 

Percentage 

Auctioned 

2012 55 29 5 1 10 

2013 55 29 5 1 10 

2014 55 29 5 1 10 

2015 55 29 5 1 10 

2016 55 29 5 1 10 

2017 53 29 5 1 12 

2018 51 29 5 1 14 

2019 49 29 5 1 16 

2020 47 29 5 1 18 

2021 45 29 5 1 20 

2022 & 

thereafter 

2 less than 

allocated to 

industry in the 

prior year, but 

not less than 0 

30 5 0 2 more than 

available for 

auction in the 

prior year, but 

not more than 65 

“SEC. 1615. SUBMISSION OF ALLOWANCES. 

“(a) Requirements.— 

“(1) REGULATED FUEL DISTRIBUTORS.—For calendar year 2012 and each calendar 

year thereafter, each regulated fuel distributor shall submit to the Secretary a number 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 52

of allowances equal to the carbon dioxide equivalent of the quantity of covered fuel, 

determined in accordance with subsection (b)(1), for the regulated fuel distributor. 

“(2) NONFUEL REGULATED ENTITIES.—For 2012 and each calendar year thereafter, 

each nonfuel regulated entity shall submit to the Secretary a number of allowances 

equal to the carbon dioxide equivalent of the quantity of nonfuel-related greenhouse 

gas, determined in accordance with subsection (b)(2), for the nonfuel regulated 

entity. 

“(b) Regulated Quantities.— 

“(1) COVERED FUELS.—For purposes of subsection (a)(1), the quantity of covered 

fuel shall be equal to— 

“(A) for a petroleum refinery located in the United States, the quantity of 

petroleum products refined, produced, or consumed at the refinery; 

“(B) for a natural gas processing plant located in the United States, a quantity 

equal to the sum of— 

“(i) the quantity of natural gas liquids produced or consumed at the 

plant; and 

“(ii) the quantity of natural gas delivered into commerce from, or 

consumed at, the plant; 

“(C) for a coal mine located in the United States, the quantity of coal 

produced or consumed at the mine; and 

“(D) for an importer of coal, petroleum products, or natural gas liquids into 

the United States, the quantity of coal, petroleum products, or natural gas 

liquids imported into the United States. 

“(2) NONFUEL-RELATED GREENHOUSE GASES.—For purposes of subsection (a)(2), 

the quantity of nonfuel-related greenhouse gas shall be equal to— 

“(A) for a manufacturer or importer of hydrofluorocarbons, 

perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, or nitrous oxide, the quantity of 

hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, or nitrous oxide 

produced or imported by the manufacturer or importer; 

“(B) for an underground coal mine, the quantity of methane emitted by the 

coal mine; 

“(C) for a facility that manufactures adipic acid or nitric acid, the quantity of 

nitrous oxide emitted by the facility; 

“(D) for an aluminum smelter, the quantity of perfluorocarbons emitted by 

the smelter; and 

“(E) for a facility that produces hydrochlorofluorocarbon-22, the quantity of 

hydrofluorocarbon-23 emitted by the facility. 

“(3) ADJUSTMENTS.— 

“(A) REGULATED FUEL DISTRIBUTORS.— 
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“(i) Modification.—The Secretary may modify, by rule, a quantity of 

covered fuels under paragraph (1) if the Secretary determines that the 

modification is necessary to ensure that— 

“(I) allowances are submitted for all units of covered fuel; and 

“(II) allowances are not submitted for the same quantity of covered 

fuel by more than 1 regulated fuel distributor. 

“(ii) EXTENSION.—The Secretary may extend, by rule, the requirement 

to submit allowances under subsection (a)(1) to an entity that is not a 

regulated fuel distributor if the Secretary determines that the extension is 

necessary to ensure that allowances are submitted for all covered fuels. 

“(B) NONFUEL REGULATED ENTITIES.—The Secretary may modify, by rule, a 

quantity of nonfuel-related greenhouse gases under paragraph (2) if the 

Secretary determines the modification is necessary to ensure that allowances 

are not submitted for the same volume of nonfuel-related greenhouse gas by 

more than 1 regulated entity. 

“(c) Deadline for Submission.—Any entity required to submit an allowance to the 

Secretary under this section shall submit the allowance not later than March 31 of the 

calendar year following the calendar year for which the allowance is required to be 

submitted. 

“(d) Regulations.—The Secretary shall promulgate such regulations as the Secretary 

determines to be necessary or appropriate to— 

“(1) identify and register each regulated entity that is required to submit an 

allowance under this section; and 

“(2) require the submission of reports and otherwise obtain any information the 

Secretary determines to be necessary to calculate or verify the compliance of a 

regulated entity with any requirement under this section. 

“(e) Exemption Authority for Non-Fuel Regulated Entities.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Except as provided in paragraph (2), the Secretary may 

exempt from the requirements of this subtitle an entity that emits, manufactures, or 

imports nonfuel-related greenhouse gases for any period during which the Secretary 

determines, after providing an opportunity for public comment, that measuring or 

estimating the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted, manufactured, or imported by 

the entity is not feasible. 

“(2) EXCLUSION.—The Secretary may not exempt a regulated fuel distributor 

from the requirements of this subtitle under paragraph (1). 

“(f) Retirement of Allowances.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Any person or entity that is not subject to this subtitle may 

submit to the Secretary an allowance for retirement at any time. 

“(2) ACTION BY SECRETARY.—On receipt of an allowance under paragraph (1), 

the Secretary— 
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“(A) shall accept the allowance; and 

“(B) shall not allocate, auction, or otherwise reissue the allowance. 

“(g) Submission of Credits.—A regulated entity may submit a credit distributed by the 

Secretary pursuant to section 1618, 1619, or 1622(e) in lieu of an allowance. 

“(h) Clean Development Mechanism Certified Emission Reductions.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall establish, by regulation, procedures under 

which a regulated entity may submit a clean development mechanism certified 

emission reduction in lieu of an allowance under this section. 

“(2) CLEAR TITLE AND PREVENTION OF DOUBLE-COUNTING.—Procedures 

established by the Secretary under this subsection shall include such provisions as 

the Secretary considers to be appropriate to ensure that— 

“(A) a regulated entity that submits a clean development mechanism certified 

emission reduction in lieu of an allowance has clear title to that certified 

emission reduction; and 

“(B) a clean development mechanism certified emission reduction submitted 

in lieu of an allowance has not been and cannot be used in the future for 

compliance purposes under any foreign greenhouse gas regulatory program. 

“(i) Study on Process Emissions.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than [_________], the Secretary shall— 

“(A) carry out a study of the feasibility of requiring the submission of 

allowances for process emissions not otherwise covered by this subtitle; and 

“(B) submit to Congress a report that describes the results of the study 

(including recommendations of the Secretary based on those results). 

“SEC. 1616. SAFETY VALVE. 

“The Secretary shall accept from a regulated entity a payment of the applicable safety 

valve price for a calendar year in lieu of submission of an allowance under section 1615 

for that calendar year. 

“SEC. 1617. ALLOWANCE TRADING SYSTEM. 

“(a) In General.—The Secretary shall— 

“(1) establish, by rule, a trading system under which allowances and credits may 

be sold, exchanged, purchased, or transferred by any person or entity, including a 

registry for issuing, recording, and tracking allowances and credits; and 

“(2) specify all procedures and requirements required for orderly functioning of 

the trading system. 

“(b) Transparency.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—The trading system under subsection (a) shall include such 

provisions as the Secretary considers to be appropriate to— 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 55

“(A) facilitate price transparency and participation in the market for 

allowances and credits; and 

“(B) protect buyers and sellers of allowances and credits, and the public, 

from the adverse effects of collusion and other anticompetitive behaviors. 

“(2) AUTHORITY TO OBTAIN INFORMATION.—The Secretary may obtain any 

information the Secretary considers to be necessary to carry out this section from 

any person or entity that buys, sells, exchanges, or otherwise transfers an allowance 

or credit. 

“(c) Banking.—Any allowance or credit may be submitted for compliance during any 

year following the year for which the allowance or credit was issued. 

“SEC. 1618. CREDITS FOR FEEDSTOCKS AND 

EXPORTS. 

“(a) In General.—The Secretary shall establish, by rule, a program under which the 

Secretary distributes credits to entities in accordance with this section. 

“(b) Use of Fuels as Feedstocks.—If the Secretary determines that an entity has used a 

covered fuel as a feedstock so that the carbon dioxide associated with the covered fuel 

will not be emitted, the Secretary shall distribute to that entity, for 2012 and each 

subsequent calendar year, a quantity of credits equal to the quantity of covered fuel used 

as feedstock by the entity during that year, measured in carbon dioxide equivalents. 

“(c) Exporters of Covered Fuel.—If the Secretary determines that an entity has 

exported covered fuel, the Secretary shall distribute to that entity, for 2012 and each 

subsequent calendar year, a quantity of credits equal to the quantity of covered fuel 

exported by the entity during that year, measured in carbon dioxide equivalents. 

“(d) Other Exporters.—If the Secretary determines that an entity has exported 

hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, or nitrous oxide, the Secretary 

shall distribute to that entity, for 2012 and each subsequent calendar year, a quantity of 

credits equal to the volume of hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, 

or nitrous oxide exported by the entity during that year, measured in carbon dioxide 

equivalents. 

“SEC. 1619. CREDITS FOR OFFSET PROJECTS. 

“(a) Establishment.—The Secretary shall establish, by regulation, a program under 

which the Secretary shall distribute credits to entities that carry out offset projects in the 

United States that— 

“(1)(A) reduce any greenhouse gas emissions that are not covered greenhouse gas 

emissions; or 

“(B) sequester a greenhouse gas; 

“(2) meet the requirements of section 1623(c); and 

“(3) are consistent with maintaining the environmental integrity of the program 

under this subtitle. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 56

“(b) Categories of Offset Projects Eligible for Streamlined Procedures.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—The program established under this section shall include the 

use of streamlined procedures for distributing credits to categories of projects for 

which the Secretary determines there are broadly-accepted standards or 

methodologies for quantifying and verifying the greenhouse gas emission mitigation 

benefits of the projects. 

“(2) CATEGORIES OF PROJECTS.—The streamlined procedures described in 

paragraph (1) shall apply to— 

“(A) geologic sequestration projects not involving enhanced oil recovery; 

“(B) landfill methane use projects; 

“(C) animal waste or municipal wastewater methane use projects; 

“(D) projects to reduce sulfur hexafluoride emissions from transformers; 

“(E) projects to destroy hydrofluorocarbons; and 

“(F) such other categories of projects as the Secretary may specify by 

regulation. 

“(c) Other Projects.—With respect to an offset project that is eligible to be carried out 

under this section but that is not classified within any project category described in 

subsection (b), the Secretary may distribute credits on a basis of less than 1-credit-for-1-

ton. 

“(d) Ineligible Offset Projects.—An offset project shall not be eligible to receive a 

credit under this section if the offset project is eligible to receive credits or allowances 

under section 1618, 1620, 1621, or 1622(e). 

“SEC. 1620. EARLY REDUCTION ALLOWANCES. 

“(a) Establishment.—The Secretary shall establish, by rule, a program under which the 

Secretary distributes to any entity that carries out a project to reduce or sequester 

greenhouse gas emissions before the initial allocation period a quantity of allowances that 

reflects the actual emissions reductions or net sequestration of the project, as determined 

by the Secretary. 

“(b) Available Allowances.—The total quantity of allowances distributed under 

subsection (a) may not exceed the product obtained by multiplying— 

“(1) the total number of allowances issued for the calendar year under subsection 

(a)(3) of section 1613; and 

“(2) the percentage available for early reduction allowances for the calendar year 

under section 1614(c). 

“(c) Eligibility.—The Secretary may distribute allowances for early reduction projects 

only to an entity that has reported the reduced or sequestered greenhouse gas emissions 

under— 

“(1) the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program of the Energy 

Information Administration under section 1605(b) of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 57

(42 U.S.C. 13385(b)); 

“(2) the Climate Leaders Program of the Environmental Protection Agency; or 

“(3) a State-administered or privately-administered registry that includes early 

reduction actions not covered under the programs described in paragraphs (1) and 

(2). 

“SEC. 1621. AGRICULTURAL SEQUESTRATION 

PROJECTS. 

“(a) Establishment.—The Secretary of Agriculture shall establish, by rule, a program 

under which agricultural sequestration allowances are distributed to entities that carry out 

soil carbon sequestration projects [and other projects?] that— 

“(1) meet the requirements of section 1623(c); and 

“(2) achieve sequestration results that are— 

“(A) greater than sequestration results achieved pursuant to standard 

agricultural practices; and 

[“(B) long-term.] 

“(b) Quantity.—During a calendar year, the Secretary of Agriculture shall distribute 

agricultural sequestration allowances in a quantity not greater than the product obtained 

by multiplying— 

“(1) the total number of allowances issued for the calendar year under section 

1613; and 

“(2) the percentage of allowances available for agricultural sequestration under 

section 1614(c). 

“(c) Oversubscription.—If, during a calendar year, the qualifying agricultural 

sequestration exceeds the quantity of agricultural sequestration allowances available for 

distribution under subsection (b), the Secretary of Agriculture may distribute allowances 

on a basis of less than 1-allowance-for-1-ton. 

“SEC. 1622. CONGRESSIONAL REVIEW. 

“(a) Interagency Review.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than January 15, 2016, and every 5 years thereafter, 

the President shall establish an interagency group to review and make 

recommendations relating to— 

“(A) each program under this subtitle; and 

“(B) any similar program of a foreign country described in paragraph (2). 

“(2) COUNTRIES TO BE REVIEWED.—An interagency group established under 

paragraph (1) shall review actions and programs relating to greenhouse gas 

emissions of— 

“(A) each member country (other than the United States) of the Organisation 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 58

for Economic Co-operation and Development; 

“(B) China; 

“(C) India; 

“(D) Brazil; 

“(E) Mexico; 

“(F) Russia; and 

“(G) Ukraine. 

“(3) INCLUSIONS.—A review under paragraph (1) shall— 

“(A) for the countries described in paragraph (2), analyze whether the 

countries that are the highest emitting countries and, collectively, contribute at 

least 75 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions of those countries have 

taken action that— 

“(i) in the case of member countries of the Organisation for Economic 

Co-Operation and Development, is comparable to that of the United 

States; and 

“(ii) in the case of China, India, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, and Ukraine, is 

significant, contemporaneous, and equitable compared to action taken by 

the United States; 

“(B) analyze whether each of the 5 largest trading partners of the United 

States, as of the date on which the review is conducted, has taken action with 

respect to greenhouse gas emissions that is comparable to action taken by the 

United States; 

“(C) analyze whether the programs established under this subtitle have 

contributed to an increase in electricity imports from Canada or Mexico; and 

“(D) make recommendations with respect to whether— 

“(i) the rate of reduction of emissions intensity under subsection (a)(2) 

or (b)(2) of section 1613 should be modified; and 

“(ii) the rate of increase of the safety valve price should be modified. 

“(4) SUPPLEMENTARY REVIEW ELEMENTS.—A review under paragraph (1) may 

include an analysis of— 

“(A) the feasibility of regulating owners or operators of entities that— 

“(i) emit nonfuel-related greenhouse gases; and 

“(ii) that are not subject to this subtitle; 

“(B) whether the percentage of allowances for any calendar year that are 

auctioned under section 1614(c) should be modified; 

“(C) whether regulated entities should be allowed to submit credits issued 

under foreign greenhouse gas regulatory programs in lieu of allowances under 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 59

section 1615; 

“(D) whether the Secretary should distribute credits for offset projects 

carried out outside the United States that do not receive credit under a foreign 

greenhouse gas program; and 

“(E) whether and how the value of allowances or credits banked for use 

during a future year should be discounted if an acceleration in the rate of 

increase of the safety valve price is recommended under paragraph (3)(D)(ii). 

“(5) NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL REPORTS.—The President may request such 

reports from the National Research Council as the President determines to be 

necessary and appropriate to support the interagency review process under this 

subsection. 

“(b) Report.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than January 15, 2017, and every 5 years thereafter, 

the President shall submit to the House of Representatives and the Senate a report 

describing any recommendation of the President with respect to changes in the 

programs under this subtitle. 

“(2) RECOMMENDATIONS.—A recommendation under paragraph (1) shall take 

into consideration the results of the most recent interagency review under subsection 

(a). 

“(c) Congressional Action.— 

“(1) CONSIDERATION.—Not later than September 30 of any calendar year during 

which a report is to be submitted under subsection (b), the House of Representatives 

and the Senate may consider a joint resolution, in accordance with paragraph (2), 

that— 

“(A) amends subsection (a)(2) or (b)(2) of section 1613; 

“(B) modifies the safety valve price; or 

“(C) modifies the percentage of allowances to be allocated under section 

1614(c). 

“(2) REQUIREMENTS.—A joint resolution considered under paragraph (1) shall— 

“(A) be introduced during the 45-day period beginning on the date on which 

a report is required to be submitted under subsection (b); and 

“(B) after the resolving clause and ‘That’, contain only 1 or more of the 

following: 

“(i) ‘, effective beginning January 1, 2017, section 1613(a)(2) of the 

Energy Policy Act of 1992 is amended by striking “2.6” and inserting 

“_____”.’. 

“(ii) ‘, effective beginning _____, section 1613(b)(2) of the Energy 

Policy Act of 1992 is amended by striking “3.0” and inserting “_____”.’. 

“(iii) ‘, effective beginning _____, section 1612(13)(B) of the Energy 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 60

Policy Act of 1992 is amended by striking “5 percent” and inserting “___ 

percent”.’. 

“(iv) ‘the table under section 1614(c) of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 is amended by 

striking the line relating to calendar year 2022 and thereafter and inserting the following: 

Year 

Percentage 

Allocated to 

Industry 

Percentage 

Allocated to 

States 

Percentage 

Available for 

Agricultural 

Sequestration 

Percentage 

Available for 

Early Reduction 

Allowances 

Percentage 

Auctioned 

2022 & 

thereafter ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ 

“(3) APPLICABLE LAW.—Subsections (b) through (g) of section 802 of title 5, 

United States Code, shall apply to any joint resolution under this subsection. 

“(d) Foreign Credits.— 

“(1) REGULATIONS.—After taking into consideration the initial interagency 

review under section (a), the Secretary may promulgate regulations that authorize 

regulated entities to submit credits issued under foreign greenhouse gas regulatory 

programs in lieu of allowances under section 1615. 

“(2) COMPARABLE PROGRAMS AND PREVENTION OF DOUBLE-COUNTING.—

Regulations promulgated by the Secretary under paragraph (1) shall ensure that 

foreign credits submitted in lieu of allowances are— 

“(A) from foreign greenhouse gas regulatory programs that the Secretary 

determines to have a level of environmental integrity that is not less than the 

level of environmental integrity of the programs under this subtitle; and 

“(B) not also submitted for use in achieving compliance under any foreign 

greenhouse gas regulatory program. 

“(e) International Offsets Projects.— 

“(1) ACTION BY THE SECRETARY.—After taking into consideration the results of 

the initial interagency review under section (a), the Secretary may promulgate 

regulations establishing a program under which the Secretary distributes credits to 

entities that— 

“(A) carry out offset projects outside the United States that meet the 

requirements of section 1623(c); 

“(B) maintain the environment integrity of the program under this subtitle; 

and 

“(C) do not receive credits issued under a foreign greenhouse gas regulatory 

program. 

“(2) STREAMLINED PROCEDURES AND PREVENTION OF DOUBLE-COUNTING.—

Regulations promulgated by the Secretary under the paragraph (1) shall— 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 61

“(A) have streamlined procedures for distributing credits to projects for 

which the Secretary determines there are broadly-accepted standards or 

methodologies for quantifying and verifying the greenhouse gas emission 

mitigation benefits of the projects; and 

“(B) ensure that offset project reductions credited under the program are not 

also credited under foreign programs. 

“SEC. 1623. MONITORING AND REPORTING. 

“(a) In General.—The Secretary shall require, by rule, that a regulated entity shall 

perform such monitoring and submit such reports as the Secretary determines to be 

necessary to carry out this subtitle. 

“(b) Submission of Information.—The Secretary shall establish, by rule, any procedure 

the Secretary determines to be necessary to ensure the completeness, consistency, 

transparency, and accuracy of reports under subsection (a), including— 

“(1) accounting and reporting standards for covered greenhouse gas emissions; 

“(2) standardized methods of calculating covered greenhouse gas emissions in 

specific industries from other information the Secretary determines to be available 

and reliable, such as energy consumption data, materials consumption data, 

production data, or other relevant activity data; 

“(3) if the Secretary determines that a method described in paragraph (2) is not 

feasible for a regulated entity, a standardized method of estimating covered 

greenhouse gas emissions of the regulated entity; 

“(4) a method of avoiding double counting of covered greenhouse gas emissions; 

“(5) a procedure to prevent a regulated entity from avoiding the requirements of 

this subtitle by— 

“(A) reorganization into multiple entities; or 

“(B) outsourcing the operations or activities of the regulated entity with 

respect to covered greenhouse gas emissions; and 

“(6) a procedure for the verification of data relating to covered greenhouse gas 

emissions by— 

“(A) regulated entities; and 

“(B) independent verification organizations. 

“(c) Determining Eligibility for Credits, Agricultural Sequestration Allowances, and 

Early Reduction Allowances.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—An entity shall provide the Secretary with the information 

described in paragraph (2) in connection with any application to receive— 

“(A) a credit under section 1618, 1619, or 1622(e); 

“(B) an early reduction allowance under section 1620 (unless, and to the 

extent that, the Secretary determines that providing the information would not 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 62

be feasible for the entity); or 

“(C) an agricultural sequestration allowance under section 1621. 

“(2) REQUIRED INFORMATION.— 

“(A) GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS REDUCTION.—In the case of a greenhouse 

gas emissions reduction, the entity shall provide the Secretary with information 

verifying that, as determined by the Secretary— 

“(i) the entity has achieved an actual reduction in greenhouse gas 

emissions— 

“(I) relative to historic emissions levels of the entity; and 

“(II) taking into consideration any increase in other greenhouse gas 

emissions of the entity; and 

“(ii) if the reduction exceeds the net reduction of direct greenhouse gas 

emissions of the entity, the entity reported a reduction that was adjusted so 

as not to exceed the net reduction. 

“(B) GREENHOUSE GAS SEQUESTRATION.—In the case of a greenhouse gas 

sequestration, the entity shall provide the Secretary with information verifying 

that, as determined by the Secretary, the entity has achieved actual increases in 

net sequestration, taking into account the total use of materials and energy by 

the entity in carrying out the sequestration. 

“SEC. 1624. ENFORCEMENT. 

“(a) Failure to Submit Allowances.— 

“(1) PAYMENT TO SECRETARY.—A regulated entity that fails to submit an 

allowance (or the safety valve price in lieu of an allowance) for a calendar year not 

later than March 31 of the following calendar year shall pay to the Secretary, for 

each allowance the regulated entity failed to submit, an amount equal to the product 

obtained by multiplying— 

“(A) the safety valve price for that calendar year; and 

“(B) 3. 

“(2) FAILURE TO PAY.—A regulated entity that fails to make a payment to the 

Secretary under paragraph (1) by December 31 of the calendar year following the 

calendar year for which the payment is due shall be subject to subsection (b) or (c), 

or both. 

“(b) Civil Enforcement.— 

“(1) PENALTY.—A person that the Secretary determines to be in violation of this 

subtitle shall be subject to a civil penalty of not more than $25,000 for each day 

during which the entity is in violation, in addition to any amount required under 

subsection (a)(1). 

“(2) INJUNCTION.—The Secretary may bring a civil action for a temporary or 

permanent injunction against any person described in paragraph (1). 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 63

“(c) Criminal Penalties.—A person that willfully fails to comply with this subtitle shall 

be subject to a fine under title 18, United States Code, or imprisonment for not to exceed 

5 years, or both. 

“SEC. 1625. JUDICIAL REVIEW. 

“(a) In General.—Except as provided in subsection (b), section 336(b) of the Energy 

Policy and Conservation Act (42 U.S.C. 6306(b)) shall apply to a review of any rule 

issued under this subtitle in the same manner, and to the same extent, that section applies 

to a rule issued under sections 323, 324, and 325 of that Act (42 U.S.C. 6293, 6294, 

6295). 

“(b) Exception.—A petition for review of a rule under this subtitle shall be filed in the 

United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. 

“SEC. 1626. ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS. 

“(a) Rules and Orders.—The Secretary may issue such rules and orders as the 

Secretary determines to be necessary or appropriate to carry out this subtitle. 

“(b) Data.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—In carrying out this subtitle, the Secretary may use any 

authority provided under section 11 of the Energy Supply and Environmental 

Coordination Act of 1974 (15 U.S.C. 796). 

“(2) DEFINITION OF ENERGY INFORMATION.—For the purposes of carrying out this 

subtitle, the definition of the term ‘energy information’ under section 11 of the 

Energy Supply and Environmental Coordination Act of 1974 (15 U.S.C. 796) shall 

be considered to include any information the Secretary determines to be necessary or 

appropriate to carry out this subtitle. 

“SEC. 1627. EARLY TECHNOLOGY DEPLOYMENT. 

“(a) Trust Fund.— 

“(1) ESTABLISHMENT.—There is established in the Treasury a trust fund, to be 

known as the ‘Climate Change Trust Fund’ (referred to in this section as the ‘Trust 

Fund’). 

“(2) DEPOSITS.—The Secretary shall deposit into the Trust Fund any funds 

received by the Secretary under section 1614(b) or 1616. 

“(3) MAXIMUM CUMULATIVE AMOUNT.—Not more than $50,000,000,000 may be 

deposited into the Trust Fund. 

“(b) Distribution.—Beginning in fiscal year 2010, the Secretary shall transfer any 

funds deposited into the Trust Fund during the previous fiscal year as follows: 

“(1) ZERO- OR LOW-CARBON ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES.—50 percent of the funds 

shall be transferred to the Secretary to carry out the zero- or low-carbon energy 

technologies program under subsection (c). 

“(2) ADVANCED ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES INCENTIVE PROGRAM.—35 percent of the 
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funds shall be transferred as follows: 

“(A) ADVANCED COAL TECHNOLOGIES.—28 percent shall be transferred to 

the Secretary to carry out the advanced coal and sequestration technologies 

program under subsection (d). 

“(B) CELLULOSIC BIOMASS.—7 percent shall be transferred to the Secretary 

to carry out— 

“(i) the cellulosic biomass ethanol and municipal solid waste loan 

guarantee program under section 212(b) of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 

7546(b)); 

“(ii) the cellulosic biomass ethanol conversion assistance program under 

section 212(e) of that Act (42 U.S.C. 7546(e)); and 

“(iii) the fuel from cellulosic biomass program under subsection (e). 

“(3) ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY VEHICLES.—15 percent shall be transferred to the 

Secretary to carry out the advanced technology vehicles manufacturing incentive 

program under subsection (f). 

“(c) Zero- or Low-Carbon Energy Technologies Deployment.— 

“(1) DEFINITIONS.—In this subsection: 

“(A) ENERGY SAVINGS.—The term ‘energy savings’ means megawatt-hours 

of electricity or million British thermal units of natural gas saved by a product, 

in comparison to projected energy consumption under the energy efficiency 

standard applicable to the product. 

“(B) HIGH-EFFICIENCY CONSUMER PRODUCT.—The term ‘high-efficiency 

consumer product’ means a covered product to which an energy conservation 

standard applies under section 325 of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act 

(42 U.S.C. 6295), if the energy efficiency of the product exceeds the energy 

efficiency required under the standard. 

“(C) ZERO- OR LOW-CARBON GENERATION.—The term ‘zero- or low-carbon 

generation’ means generation of electricity by an electric generation unit that— 

“(i) emits no carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, or is fossil-fuel fired 

and emits into the atmosphere not more than 250 pounds of carbon dioxide 

per megawatt-hour (after adjustment for any carbon dioxide from the unit 

that is geologically sequestered); and 

“(ii) was placed into commercial service after the date of enactment of 

this Act. 

“(2) FINANCIAL INCENTIVES PROGRAM.—During each fiscal year beginning on or 

after October 1, 2008, the Secretary shall competitively award financial incentives 

under this subsection in the following technology categories: 

“(A) Production of electricity from new zero- or low-carbon generation. 

“(B) Manufacture of high-efficiency consumer products. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 65

“(3) REQUIREMENTS.— 

“(A) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall make awards under this subsection 

to producers of new zero- or low-carbon generation and to manufacturers of 

high-efficiency consumer products— 

“(i) in the case of producers of new zero- or low-carbon generation, 

based on the bid of each producer in terms of dollars per megawatt-hour of 

electricity generated; and 

“(ii) in the case of manufacturers of high-efficiency consumer products, 

based on the bid of each manufacturer in terms of dollars per megawatthour or million British thermal units saved. 

“(B) ACCEPTANCE OF BIDS.— 

“(i) IN GENERAL.—In making awards under this subsection, the 

Secretary shall— 

“(I) solicit bids for reverse auction from appropriate producers and 

manufacturers, as determined by the Secretary; and 

“(II) award financial incentives to the producers and manufacturers 

that submit the lowest bids that meet the requirements established by 

the Secretary. 

“(ii) FACTORS FOR CONVERSION.— 

“(I) IN GENERAL.—For the purpose of assessing bids under clause 

(i), the Secretary shall specify a factor for converting megawatt-hours 

of electricity and million British thermal units of natural gas to 

common units. 

“(II) REQUIREMENT.—The conversion factor shall be based on the 

relative greenhouse gas emission benefits of electricity and natural 

gas conservation. 

“(C) INELIGIBLE UNITS.—A new unit for the generation of electricity that 

uses renewable energy resources shall not be eligible to receive an award under 

this subsection if the unit receives renewable energy credits under a Federal 

renewable portfolio standard. 

“(4) FORMS OF AWARDS.— 

“(A) ZERO- AND LOW-CARBON GENERATORS.—An award for zero- or lowcarbon generation under this subsection shall be in the form of a contract to 

provide a production payment for each year during the first 10 years of 

commercial service of the generation unit in an amount equal to the product 

obtained by multiplying— 

“(i) the amount bid by the producer of the zero- or low-carbon 

generation; and 

“(ii) the megawatt-hours estimated to be generated by the zero- or lowcarbon generation unit each year. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 66

“(B) HIGH-EFFICIENCY CONSUMER PRODUCTS.—An award for a highefficiency consumer product under this subsection shall be in the form of a 

lump sum payment in an amount equal to the product obtained by 

multiplying— 

“(i) the amount bid by the manufacturer of the high-efficiency consumer 

product; and 

“(ii) the energy savings during the projected useful life of the highefficiency consumer product, not to exceed 10 years, as determined under 

rules issued by the Secretary. 

“(d) Advanced Coal and Sequestration Technologies Program.— 

“(1) ADVANCED COAL TECHNOLOGIES.— 

“(A) DEFINITION OF ADVANCED COAL GENERATION TECHNOLOGY.—In this 

paragraph, the term ‘advanced coal generation technology’ means integrated 

gasification combined cycle or other advanced coal-fueled power plant 

technologies that— 

“(i) have a minimum of 50 percent coal heat input on an annual basis; 

“(ii) provide a technical pathway for carbon capture and storage; and 

“(iii) provide a technical pathway for co-production of a hydrogen slipstream. 

“(B) DEPLOYMENT INCENTIVES.— 

“(i) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall use \1/2\ of the funds provided to 

carry out this subsection during each fiscal year to provide Federal 

financial incentives to facilitate the deployment of not more than 20 

gigawatts of advanced coal generation technologies. 

“(ii) ADMINISTRATION.—In providing incentives under clause (i), the 

Secretary shall— 

“(I) provide appropriate incentives for regulated investor-owned 

utilities, municipal utilities, electric cooperatives, and independent 

power producers, as determined by the Secretary; and 

“(II) ensure that a range of the domestic coal types is employed in 

the facilities that receive incentives under this subparagraph. 

“(C) FUNDING PRIORITIES.— 

“(i) PROJECTS USING CERTAIN COALS.—In providing incentives under 

this paragraph, the Secretary shall set aside not less than 25 percent of any 

funds made available to carry out this paragraph for projects using lower 

rank coals, such as subbituminous coal and lignite. 

“(ii) SEQUESTRATION ACTIVITIES.—After the Secretary has made awards 

for 2000 megawatts of capacity under this paragraph, the Secretary shall 

give priority to projects that will capture and sequester emissions of 

carbon dioxide, as determined by the Secretary. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 67

“(D) DISTRIBUTION OF FUNDS.—A project that receives an award under this 

paragraph may elect 1 of the following Federal financial incentives: 

“(i) A loan guarantee under section 1403(b). 

“(ii) A cost-sharing grant for not more than 50 percent of the cost of the 

project. 

“(iii) Production payments of not more than 1.5 cents per kilowatt-hour 

of electric output during the first 10 years of commercial service of the 

project. 

“(E) LIMITATION.—A project may not receive an award under this subsection 

if the project receives an award under subsection (c). 

“(2) SEQUESTRATION.— 

“(A) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall use \1/2\ of the funds provided to 

carry out this subsection during each fiscal year for large-scale geologic carbon 

storage demonstration projects that use carbon dioxide captured from facilities 

for the generation of electricity using coal gasification or other advanced coal 

combustion processes, including facilities that receive assistance under 

paragraph (1). 

“(B) PROJECT CAPITAL AND OPERATING COSTS.—The Secretary shall provide 

assistance under this paragraph to reimburse the project owner for a percentage 

of the incremental project capital and operating costs of the project that are 

attributable to carbon capture and sequestration, as the Secretary determines to 

be appropriate. 

“(e) Fuel From Cellulosic Biomass.— 

“(1) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall provide deployment incentives under this 

subsection to encourage a variety of projects to produce transportation fuels from 

cellulosic biomass, relying on different feedstocks in different regions of the United 

States. 

“(2) PROJECT ELIGIBILITY.—Incentives under this paragraph shall be provided on 

a competitive basis to projects that produce fuels that— 

“(A) meet United States fuel and emissions specifications; 

“(B) help diversify domestic transportation energy supplies; and 

“(C) improve or maintain air, water, soil, and habitat quality. 

“(3) INCENTIVES.—Incentives under this subsection may consist of— 

“(A) additional loan guarantees under section 1403(b) for the construction of 

production facilities and supporting infrastructure; or 

“(B) production payments through a reverse auction in accordance with 

paragraph (4). 

“(4) REVERSE AUCTION.— 

“(A) IN GENERAL.—In providing incentives under this subsection, the 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 68

Secretary shall— 

“(i) prescribe rules under which producers of fuel from cellulosic 

biomass may bid for production payments under paragraph (3)(B); and 

“(ii) solicit bids from producers of different classes of transportation 

fuel, as the Secretary determines to be appropriate. 

“(B) REQUIREMENT.—The rules under subparagraph (A) shall require that 

incentives shall be provided to the producers that submit the lowest bid (in 

terms of cents per gallon) for each class of transportation fuel from which the 

Secretary solicits a bid. 

“(f) Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Incentive Program.— 

“(1) DEFINITIONS.—In this subsection: 

“(A) ADVANCED LEAN BURN TECHNOLOGY MOTOR VEHICLE.—The term 

‘advanced lean burn technology motor vehicle’ means a passenger automobile 

or a light truck with an internal combustion engine that— 

“(i) is designed to operate primarily using more air than is necessary for 

complete combustion of the fuel; 

“(ii) incorporates direct injection; and 

“(iii) achieves at least 125 percent of the 2002 model year city fuel 

economy of vehicles in the same size class as the vehicle. 

“(B) ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY VEHICLE.—The term ‘advanced technology 

vehicle’ means a light duty motor vehicle that— 

“(i) is a hybrid motor vehicle or an advanced lean burn technology 

motor vehicle; and 

“(ii) meets the following performance criteria: 

“(I) Except as provided in paragraph (3)(A)(ii), the Tier II Bin 5 

emission standard established in regulations prescribed by the 

Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency under section 

202(i) of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7521(i)), or a lower numbered 

bin. 

“(II) At least 125 percent of the base year city fuel economy for the 

weight class of the vehicle. 

“(C) ENGINEERING INTEGRATION COSTS.—The term ‘engineering integration 

costs’ includes the cost of engineering tasks relating to— 

“(i) incorporating qualifying components into the design of advanced 

technology vehicles; and 

“(ii) designing new tooling and equipment for production facilities that 

produce qualifying components or advanced technology vehicles. 

“(D) HYBRID MOTOR VEHICLE.—The term ‘hybrid motor vehicle’ means a 

motor vehicle that draws propulsion energy from onboard sources of stored 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 69

energy that are— 

“(i) an internal combustion or heat engine using combustible fuel; and 

“(ii) a rechargeable energy storage system. 

“(E) QUALIFYING COMPONENTS.—The term ‘qualifying components’ means 

components that the Secretary determines to be— 

“(i) specially designed for advanced technology vehicles; and 

“(ii) installed for the purpose of meeting the performance requirements 

of advanced technology vehicles. 

“(2) MANUFACTURER FACILITY CONVERSION AWARDS.—The Secretary shall 

provide facility conversion funding awards under this subsection to automobile 

manufacturers and component suppliers to pay 30 percent of the cost of— 

“(A) re-equipping or expanding an existing manufacturing facility to 

produce— 

“(i) qualifying advanced technology vehicles; or 

“(ii) qualifying components; and 

“(B) engineering integration of qualifying vehicles and qualifying 

components. 

“(3) PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY.— 

“(A) PHASE I.— 

“(i) IN GENERAL.—An award under paragraph (2) shall apply to— 

“(I) facilities and equipment placed in service before January 1, 

2016; and 

“(II) engineering integration costs incurred during the period 

beginning on the date of enactment of this Act and ending on 

December 31, 2015. 

“(ii) TRANSITION STANDARD FOR LIGHT DUTY DIESEL-POWERED 

VEHICLES.—For purposes of making an award under clause (i), the term 

‘advanced technology vehicle’ includes a diesel-powered or diesel-hybrid 

light duty vehicle that— 

“(I) has a weight greater than 6,000 pounds; and 

“(II) meets the Tier II Bin 8 emission standard established in 

regulations prescribed by the Administrator of the Environmental 

Protection Agency under section 202(i) of the Clean Air Act (42 

U.S.C. 7521(i)), or a lower numbered bin. 

“(B) PHASE II.—If the Secretary determines under paragraph (4) that the 

program under this subsection has resulted in a substantial improvement in the 

ability of automobile manufacturers to produce light duty vehicles with 

improved fuel economy, the Secretary shall continue to make awards under 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 70

paragraph (2) that shall apply to— 

“(i) facilities and equipment placed in service before January 1, 2021; 

and 

“(ii) engineering integration costs incurred during the period beginning 

on January 1, 2016, and ending on December 31, 2020. 

“(4) DETERMINATION OF IMPROVEMENT.— 

“(A) IN GENERAL.—Not later than January 1, 2015, the Secretary shall 

determine, after providing notice and an opportunity for public comment, 

whether the program under this subsection has resulted in a substantial 

improvement in the ability of automobile manufacturers to produce light duty 

vehicles with improved fuel economy. 

“(B) EFFECT ON MANUFACTURERS.—In preparing the determination under 

subparagraph (A), the Secretary shall enter into an agreement with the National 

Academy of Sciences to analyze the effect of the program under this subsection 

on automobile manufacturers. 

“SEC. 1628. EFFECT OF SUBTITLE. 

“Nothing in this subtitle affects the authority of Congress to limit, terminate, or change 

the value of an allowance or credit issued under this subtitle.”. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 71

Appendix C. Provided Bill Summary 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 72

Market-Based GHG Emission Trading 

Discussion Draft 

The 2005 Sense of the Senate resolution on climate change emphasized that the risks 

associated with a changing climate justify the adoption of mandatory limits on 

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and that an important first step towards addressing 

climate change can be taken at an acceptable cost. In that spirit, this staff draft outlines a 

legislative proposal that would begin with a modest emissions-reduction target and 

strengthen gradually over time. The approach is consistent with that of the successful 

Acid Rain Program in that it sets a “forward price” on emissions to provide both the 

flexibility and incentive needed to accelerate technology development and deployment. 

The long-term price signal that a forward price creates would be critical for giving 

industry certainty and for focusing its decision-making on lower carbon options. 

However, the price signal initially imposed under any domestic regime would not likely 

be strong enough to motivate the development and deployment of the key technologies 

that will ultimately be needed to stop and reverse GHG emissions. Thus, in order to 

speed technology deployment, the staff draft includes provisions to create incentives for 

new technology and provides significant new R&D funding for low- and no-carbon 

technologies. 

Key Features 

Target, Timing and Price Cap 

• Emissions Target: The target is calculated in advance to reflect a 2.6 percent per 

year decline in the emissions intensity of the U.S. economy (expressed as total 

GHG emissions per dollar of GDP) for the first period of program implementation 

(2012 to 2021). The target rate of decline in emissions intensity increases to 3.0 

percent per year in the second period (2022 onward). The emissions target 

establishes the total quantity of allowances available each year. 

• Price Cap: The government would make additional allowances (above and 

beyond the quantity initially allocated under the emissions target) available for 

sale at a fixed price. The price starts at $7 per metric ton of carbon-dioxideequivalent GHG emissions in the first year of program implementation and rises 

steadily thereafter at an annual rate of 5 percent above the rate of inflation. 

Explanation of Approach 

• Consistent with Sense of Senate Resolution: By targeting an annual decline in 

emissions intensity, the proposal is designed to first slow emissions growth (over 

the period from 2012 through 2021), before attempting to stop emissions growth 

starting in 2022. Ultimately, emissions will need to decline in absolute terms to 

stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, meaning that the rate 

of decline in emissions intensity will eventually need to outpace economic 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 73

growth. This proposal establishes a policy framework for achieving a long-term 

trajectory of emissions reductions in what would necessarily be a phased process.

• Limits Costs to the Overall Economy and Provides Price Certainty for 

Investors: By making additional allowances available at a known price, the 

proposal effectively caps the costs imposed on the U.S. economy and on 

consumers. Additional allowances would be purchased (and emissions would 

exceed the economy-wide target) only if the market price of allowances were to 

rise above the price cap. The price cap increases by 5 percent each year above the 

rate of inflation so as to provide progressively stronger incentives for emissions 

abatement over time and to establish a predictable market signal for investors. 

• Changes from 2005 Bingaman Proposal: Based on numerous comments 

received during the Committee’s discussion of this issue, implementation is 

delayed 2 years, from 2010 to 2012. This change will allow the current voluntary 

Administration program to run its full course before any new policy takes effect 

and will provide sufficient time to get the trading program in place. To 

compensate for the delay, the proposed bill accelerates the rate by which the cost 

cap increases, from 5 percent nominal to 5 percent above inflation. The bill also 

changes the targeted decline in emissions intensity from 2.4 percent per year to 

2.6 percent per year in the first allocation period, and from 2.8 percent per year to 

3.0 percent per year in the second period, to adjust for greater “business-as-usual” 

reductions in emissions intensity stemming from higher projected energy prices. 

Scope and Point of Regulation 

• Scope: The program is economy-wide.

• Point of Regulation: Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuels are 

regulated upstream at the point of fossil fuel production, and regulated entities are 

required to submit allowances equal to the carbon content of fuels produced or 

processed at their facilities. 

• Regulated Entities: Entities required to submit allowances include: 

o Petroleum refineries 

o Natural gas processing facilities 

o Coal mines 

o Fossil fuel importers (for petroleum, this includes refined products only) 

and importers of gases with high-global warming potential (GWP) 

o Non-CO2 greenhouse gases: coal mine methane; N2O from adipic acid 

production; high-GWP gases 

Explanation of Approach 

• Placing the point-of-regulation relatively higher up in the progression from energy 

production to consumption reduces the number of sources that must be regulated 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 74

and simplifies program administration. This approach more efficiently captures all 

sources of emissions and all emissions reduction opportunities throughout the 

economy. In addition, an upstream approach may reduce overall administrative 

costs. 

 

Allowance Distribution

• Allocation to Private Sector Entities: For the first five years of program 

implementation, 55 percent of the total quantity of allowances available under the 

emissions target would be allocated without cost to private sector entities. This 

amount is gradually reduced to 0 percent over 30 years. The industry sectors 

receiving free allocations under this proposed approach are: 

o Coal mines and coal importers 

o Petroleum refineries and refined-product importers 

o Natural gas processing plants and natural gas importers 

o Non-CO2 regulated entities 

o Coal, oil and natural gas electric generators 

o Carbon-intensive industrial sectors 

• Auction: For the first five years of program implementation, 10 percent of the 

total quantity of allowances available under the emissions target would be 

auctioned. The share of allowances auctioned would gradually increase to 65 

percent over 30 years. Auction revenues are used for R&D and to support the 

deployment of low- and no-carbon technologies. 

• Agricultural Sequestration: 5 percent of the total quantity of allowances 

allocated under the emissions target annually would be for agricultural 

sequestration activities (see below). 

• Early Reduction Credits: 1 percent of the total quantity of allowances allocated 

under the emissions target for each of the first 10 years would be reserved for 

entities that had undertaken projects resulting in early reductions in greenhouse 

gases. 

• Distribution by States or the President (to “fine tune” allocation): 29 percent 

– 30 percent of the total quantity of allowances allocated under the emissions 

target: 

o States or the President would distribute allowances for certain defined 

purposes, such as addressing economic impacts, promoting technology or 

energy efficiency, and enhancing energy security. 

o If States distribute allowances, their overall amount would be based half 

on emissions and half on population. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 75

Explanation of Approach

• Allocation Based on Cost Impacts: Under the proposal, allowances are 

allocated in a manner that recognizes and roughly addresses the disparate costs 

imposed by the program. Allowances are not allocated solely to regulated entities 

because these entities do not bear all or even most of the costs of the emissions 

trading program. 

• Auction Phased in Over Time: Over time, allowance distribution transitions 

from an approach that fairly compensates sectors for past investments in carbonintensive technologies to an approach that creates incentives for energy efficiency 

and lower carbon technologies. This is accomplished by gradually reducing the 

quantity of allowances given away without cost while gradually increasing the 

quantity of allowances auctioned. 

• Auction Proceeds for Technology R&D and Incentives: Virtually all experts 

agree that significant technology advancements will be needed to adequately and 

affordably address climate change over the next century. Reserving proceeds 

from the auction for energy research, development, and deployment would 

provide the revenue to support significant new development and deployment of 

the breakthrough technologies needed to address climate change. 

• Allocation for Primary Fuel Producers: The compliance costs for fossil fuel 

producers in an upstream system represent only a small portion of the overall 

costs of any trading program. Most upstream producers can and would simply 

pass allowance costs through in the form of higher fuel prices, regardless of 

whether they were to receive free allowances or were required to pay for them. 

Analysis shows that costs to primary fuel producers would be completely offset 

by an allocation of roughly 5 percent to 10 percent of the total pool of allowances. 

However, the EIA analysis of last year’s proposal by Senator Bingaman shows 

that coal companies, while able to pass a substantial portion of their costs through 

in prices, might be more affected than other energy producers. Although coal 

demand and sales would continue to grow under the proposed GHG trading 

program, coal use is projected to grow more slowly under the program than in the 

absence of regulatory action. Accordingly, the proposal acknowledges the slower 

growth in coal demand expected as a result of the bill and allocates 7 percent of 

the total pool of allowances available under the emissions target to coal 

producers. Oil and gas producers would receive 4 percent and 2 percent, 

respectively, of that total allowance pool. 

• Allocations for Downstream Electric Generators: Although electric generators 

would not be regulated under the staff draft proposal, they would face higher 

production costs as fossil fuel prices rise. A portion, though not all, of these 

additional fuel costs would be passed through in higher electricity prices. To the 

extent that generators were to receive allocations of free allowances, they would 

be able to sell those allowances and use the revenue to offset higher fuel costs. 

Based on cost estimates provided by EIA, further analysis suggests that a 10 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 76

percent share of the total allocation would fully offset adverse impacts on electric 

generators. The 10 percent figure assumes that the allocation system perfectly 

targets allowances to the companies that bear non-recoverable costs. Recognizing 

that a perfectly targeted allocation is not possible and that some “passed through” 

costs would revert to fossil-based electric generators, a higher fraction would need 

to be allocated to fossil generators to fairly offset the impacts of increased fuel 

prices. If, in the extreme, fossil generators were to bear all program costs without 

passing any along to rate payers, they would need 40 percent of the total 

allocation pool to offset their costs. Therefore, between 10 percent and 40 percent 

of the total allocation reflects the theoretical range of allowances needed to offset 

the financial impact of increased fuel prices in the electric sector. Using a point in 

this range, the draft allocates 30 percent of the total pool of allowances available 

under the emissions target (equal to roughly 75 percent of electricity sector 

emissions) to fossil-fuel fired generation. 

• Allocations for Carbon-Intensive Industries: Energy-intensive industries, such 

as steel, aluminum, chemicals, pulp and paper, and cement, would not be 

regulated in an upstream trading system. Like electric generators, these industries 

would, however, face higher prices for fossil fuels under a greenhouse gas trading 

system. While price increases would be modest, these industries consume 

significant amounts of fossil fuels and often face stiff competition from foreign 

competitors, most of whom would not be subject to mandatory greenhouse gas 

regulation. Including these industries in the allocation would not affect their 

incentive to improve efficiency and reduce fuel use, but it would offset increased 

energy costs and help to address competitiveness concerns associated with a 

domestic greenhouse gas trading program. If one provided allocations of free 

allowances only to the large, energy-intensive industries noted above—steel, 

aluminum, chemicals, and pulp and paper—close to 10 percent of the overall 

allowance pool would be required. The proposal allocates 10 percent of the total 

annual allocation towards carbon-intensive industries.

• Allowance Pool to “Fine Tune” Allocation: Although the approach outlined 

above generally addresses the cost impacts of the proposal, we recognize that 

costs are imposed on additional groups and that it may be desirable to address 

additional policy goals through the allocation process. Therefore, a significant 

portion of allowances is reserved for these purposes. These allowances would go 

towards several specific purposes, such as addressing economic impacts, creating 

incentives for energy efficiency or other “climate friendly” technologies, and 

enhancing energy security. The proposal presents two options for distributing 

these allowances: either States would distribute the allowances or the allowances 

would be distributed according to a process designated by the President. 

• Early Reduction Programs: For the first ten years, 1 percent of the total pool of 

allowances available annually under the emissions target would be set aside for an 

early reduction credit program that would award allowances to companies or 

other organizations that reduced emissions prior to the implementation of a 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 77

mandatory program. These include reductions reported through DOE/EIA’s 

1605b program, and reductions made through other government-sponsored and 

private programs identified by the Secretary of Energy. 

Offset Projects 

• Cost-Effective Reductions: Allowances could be provided for cost-effective 

emissions reductions not otherwise covered by the trading program (e.g., 

capturing and using methane from landfills). 

• Tiered System: The proposal would establish a tiered system of offsets whereby 

the most easily verified project types could use a streamlined procedure to apply 

for allowances. 

Explanation of Approach 

• Offset projects can provide low-cost emission reductions and create incentives for 

new technologies and approaches. The proposed approach would encourage 

investor certainty and lower transaction costs while ensuring that offset projects 

have environmental integrity. 

Incentives for Farmers 

 

• Agricultural Sequestration: The proposal creates a significant new pilot 

program to encourage and evaluate the benefits of agricultural soil sequestration. 

• Allowance Set-Aside: 5% of the total pool of allowances available annually 

under the emissions target would be reserved for sequestration projects by 

farmers.

Explanation of Approach

• Sequestration of carbon in agricultural soils is a potentially important option for 

addressing greenhouse gases and could eventually create a significant new source 

of revenue for farmers. However, there is relatively little long-term experience 

with monitoring, reporting and verifying agricultural sequestration. Providing 

agricultural sequestration projects with allowances from within the pool of 

allowances established under the program target would allow the nation to 

benefit from large-scale demonstration projects aimed at resolving some of these 

issues, while still ensuring that the program achieves its intended environmental 

goals. Thus, 5 percent of the initial allowance pool would be reserved to provide 

incentives for agricultural sequestration projects. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 78

International Linkages 

• Review of Actions by Trade Partners and Large Emitters: Planned increases 

in the target rate of emissions intensity reductions and in the price cap could be 

halted or modified if, during a review process that would occur every five years 

(Five-Year Review), it were determined that major trade partners and other large 

emitters were not taking appropriate actions to address greenhouse gases. 

 

• Consider Implications of Linking to Other Trading Programs: The Five-Year 

Review Process also provides an opportunity to consider linking the U.S. program 

to other countries’ domestic GHG reduction programs. 

Explanation of Approach 

• All stakeholders recognize the need to encourage comparable action by other 

nations that are major trading partners and key contributors to global GHG 

emissions. The draft acknowledges that the U.S. should show leadership by 

taking action on greenhouse gases. However, after the initial stage, further steps 

would be contingent on a review of progress by other nations in addressing their 

GHG emissions. 

• Differences in the design of domestic trading programs (e.g., different target 

levels, different monitoring and verification systems) might complicate efforts to 

link programs internationally, especially in the near-term. Thus, rather than 

providing a provision for formal linkage now, the draft leaves further 

consideration of these issues to the Five-Year Review process. 
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 79

Appendix D. Follow Up Request Letter
Energy Information Administration / Energy Market and Economic Impacts of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Intensity with a Cap and Trade System 80