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United States 

Environmental Protection 

Agency 

Office of Water 

Regulations and Standards 

Criteria and Standards Division 

Washington, DC 20460 

EPA 440/5-88-001 

February 1988 

EPA Water 

Ambient 

Water Quality 

Criteria 

for 

Chloride-1988 
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR 

CHLORIDE 

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY 

DULUTH, MINNESOTA 
NOTICES 

This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division, Office 

of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and 

approved for publication. 

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement 

or recommendation for use. 

This document is available to the public through the National Technical 

Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. 

NTIS accession No. PB88-175 047 

ii 
FOREWORD 

Section 304(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217) requires 

the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water 

quality criteria that accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on 

the kind and extent of all identifiable effects on health and welfare that 

might be expected from the presence of pollutants in any body of water, 

including ground water. This document is a revision of proposed criteria 

based upon consideration of comments received from other Federal agencies, 

State agencies, special interest groups, and individual scientists. Criteria 

contained in this document replace any previously published EPA aquatic life 

criteria for the same pollutant(s). 

The term “water quality criteria” is used in two sections of the Clean 

Water Act, section 304(a)(1) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a different 

program impact in each section. In section 304, the term represents a 

non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects. Criteria 

presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality 

criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water 

quality standards under section 303, they become enforceable maximum 

acceptable pollutant concentrations in ambient waters within that State. 

Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality standards could have the 

same numerical values as criteria developed under section 304. However, in 

many situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria developed 

under section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions and human exposure 

patterns before incorporation into water quality standards. It is not until 

their adoption as part of State water quality standards that criteria become 

regulatory. 

Guidance to assist States in the modification of criteria presented in 

this document, in the development of water quality standards, and- in other 

water-related programs of this Agency has been developed by EPA. 

William A. Whittington 

Director 

Office of Water Regulations and Standards 

iii 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Duane A. Benoit 

(author) 

Environmental Research Laboratory 

Duluth, Minnesota 

Charles E. Stephan 

(document coordinator) 

Environmental Research Laboratory 

Duluth, Minnesota 

iv 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii 

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv 

Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi 

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 

Toxicity to Aquatic Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

National Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bioaccumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Other Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Unused Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

8 

Implementat ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

9 

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

V 
TABLES 

1. Acute Toxicity of Chloride to Aquatic Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

2. Chronic Toxicity of Chloride to Aquatic Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic 

Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4. Toxicity of Chloride to Aquatic Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

5. Other Data on Effects of Chloride on Aquatic Organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Page 

11 

16 

17 

19 

22 

vi 
Introduction 

The major anthropogenic sources of chloride in surface waters are deicing 

salt, urban and agricultural runoff, and discharges from municipal wastewater 

plants, industrial plants, and the drilling of oil and gas wells (Birge et al. 

1985; Dickman and Gochnauer 1978; Sonzogni et al. 1983). Beeton (1965) 

reported that concentrations of chloride had been rising in Lake Erie, Lake 

Ontario, and Lake Michigan since the early 1900s, and in Lake Huron since the 

1950s, but Sonzogni et al. (1983) stated that the rate of change of chloride 

inputs to the Great Lakes had stabilized or decreased. 

Chloride has long received special attention from researchers interested 

in fish. In 1937, Ellis discussed the concept that “fresh-water fish tolerate 

an osmotic pressure of the external medium equal to that of their own blood if 

the various salts and substances in the water are balanced against each other 

so as to exclude the specific toxic effects” and presented supporting data. 

Chloride has been used as a nutrient and prophylactic for fish (Hinton and 

Eversole 1979; Phillips 1944). It has also been suggested for use as a 

reference toxicant (Adelman and Smith 1976a,b; Threader and Houston 1983). 

Because anthropogenic sources of chloride are unlikely to pose a threat 

to saltwater species, this document concerns effects on only freshwater 

species. Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations of chloride in water 

reported herein from toxicity and bioconcentration tests are expected to be 

essentially equivalent to dissolved chloride concentrations. All 

concentrations are expressed as chloride, not as the chemical tested. An 

understanding of the “Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality 

Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses” (Stephan et 

al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the response to 

public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to understand the 

1 
following text, tables, and calculations. Results of such intermediate 

calculations as recalculated LC50s and Species Mean Acute Values are given to 

four significant figures to prevent roundoff errors in subsequent 

calculations, not to reflect the precision of the value. The latest 

comprehensive literature search for information for this document was 

conducted in- August 1985; some more recent information was included. 

Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 

Data that may be used, according to the Guidelines, in the derivation of 

a freshwater Final Acute Value for chloride are presented in Table 1. When 

compared on the basis of mg of chloride/L, the chlorides of potassium, 

calcium, and magnesium are generally more acutely toxic to aquatic animals 

than sodium chloride (Biesinger and Christensen 1972; Dowden 1961; Dowden and 

Bennett 1965; Hamilton et al. 1975; Patrick et al. 1968; Trama 1954). Only 

for sodium chloride, however, are enough data available to allow derivation of 

a water quality criterion. In addition, it seems likely that most 

anthropogenic chloride in ambient water is associated with sodium, rather than 

potassium, calcium, or magnesium (Dickman and Gochnauer 1978; Sonzogni et al. 

1983). 

Results listed in Table 1 from Dowden and Bennett (1965), Hamilton et al. 

(1975). and Kostecki and Jones (1983) were obtained from 24- and 48-hr tests, 

rather than the 96-hr tests specified in the Guidelines. Use of such results 

is considered acceptable for chloride because the acute values changed little 

from 24 to 48 or 96 hours, depending on the species, in acute toxicity tests 

on chloride. For example, ratios of 24-hr and 48-hr LC50s for sodium chloride 

with a midge and a daphnid were 0.91 and 0.81, respectively (Dowden and 

Bennett 1965; Thornton and Sauer 1972). Reed and Evans (1981) obtained a 

2 
ratio of 1.0 for 24-hr and 14-day LC50s determined with the channel catfish, 

bluegill., and largemouth bass (Table 5). Adelman and Smith (1976a,b) and 

Adelman et al. (1976) obtained ratios of 24- and 96-hr LC50s of 0.74 and 0.97 

with goldfish and fathead minnows, respectively, in tests in which the fish 

were fed (Table 5). 

Adult fingernail clams were more sensitive than juveniles (Anderson 

1977), but for the American eel (Hinton and Eversole 1978) and the bluegill 

(Cairns and Scheier 1959) smaller organisms were slightly more sensitive than 

larger ones. No pronounced relationships have been observed between the acute 

toxicity of chloride to freshwater animals and hardness, alkalinity, or pH. 

Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as geometric means of 

the acute values from tests on sodium chloride, and then Genus Mean Acute 

Values (Table 3) were calculated as geometric means of the Species Mean Acute 

Values. Of the twelve genera for which acute values are available. the most 

sensitive genus, Daphnia, was only 6 times more sensitive than the most 

resistant, Anguilla. Invertebrates were generally more sensitive than 

vertebrates. The Final Acute Value for chloride was calculated to be 1,720 

mg/L using the procedure described in the Guidelines and the Genus Mean Acute 

Values in Table 3. The acute value for Daphnia pulex is lower than the Final 

Acute Value. 

Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 

The available data that are usable according to the Guidelines concerning 

the chronic toxicity of chloride are presented in Table 2. In the life-cycle 

test with Daphnia pulex, survival was as good as in the control treatment at 

chloride concentrations up to 625 mg/L (Birge et al. 1985). At 314 mg/L, 

reproduction was as good as in the control, but at 441 and 625 mg/L, 

3 
reproduction was reduced by 27 and 39%, respectively. Thus, the chronic 

limits are 314 and 441 mg/L, the chronic value is 372.1 mg/L, and the 

acute-chronic ratio is 3.951. 

In an early life-stage test with rainbow trout, a chloride concentration 

of 2,740 mg/L killed all the exposed organisms (Spehar 1987). Survival was 

54% at 1,324 mg/L, but was 97% or higher at 643 mg/L and at two lower 

concentrations and in the control treatment. The mean weights of the fish 

alive at the end of the test at 1,324 mg/L and the lower tested concentrations 

were within 5% of the mean weight of the fish in the control treatment. The 

chronic value and the acute-chronic ratio obtained with the rainbow trout were 

922.7 mg/L and 7.308, respectively. 

In an early life-stage test with the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, 

Birge et al. (1985) found that weight was as good as in the control treatment 

up to a chloride concentration of 533 mg/L. Survival was reduced 9% by a 

concentration of 352 mg/L and was reduced 15% by 533 mg/L. The chronic value 

is 433.1 mg/L, and the acute-chronic ratio is 15.17: 

The three acute-chronic ratios available for chloride are 7.308, 15.17. 

and 3.951 (Table 3). The geometric mean of these three is 7.594, which is 

used as the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio. Division of the Final Acute Value by 

the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio results in a Final Chronic Value of 226.5 mg/L, 

which is substantially lower than all three chronic values in Table 2. 

Toxicity to Aquatic Plants 

Data on the toxicity of chloride to aquatic plants show a wide range of 

sensitivities (Table 4). The alga, Spirogvra setiformis, was extremely 

sensitive to the effects of chloride; inhibition of growth, chlorophyll, and 

fixation of 14C occurred at 71 mg/L (Shitole and Joshi 1984). Growth of 

4 
Netrium digitus was affected at 200 mg/L, but the other sixteen tested species 

were affected by concentrations ranging from 642 to 36,400 mg/L. A Final 

Plant Value, as defined in the Guidelines, cannot be obtained because no test 

in which the concentrations of chloride were measured and the endpoint was 

biologically important has been conducted with an important aquatic plant 

species. 

Eyster (1962) reported that a concentration of 0.18 mg/L stimulated the 

growth of many algae, and Sonzogni et al. (1983) discussed the possibility 

that concentrations above 10 mg/L might shift phytoplankton communities toward 

nuisance, taste-and-odor-causing blue-green algae. When chloride was added to 

a small stream at a concentration of 610 mg/L, the algal density decreased 

whereas the bacterial density increased. 

Although most of the data on toxicity of chloride to freshwater plants 

has been obtained with sodium chloride, some evidence indicates that a similar 

cation-anion toxicity relationship exists for both aquatic plants and 

animals. Patrick et al. (1968) demonstrated that potassium chloride was 2.3 

times more toxic to a diatom than sodium chloride (Table 4), although calcium 

chloride was 1.3 times less toxic than sodium chloride. Tuchman and Stoermer 

(Manuscript a,b) found that potassium chloride had a greater inhibitory effect 

on algal population dynamics and nutrient uptake than sodium chloride. 

Bioaccumulation 

No data that are usable according to the Guidelines are available 

concerning the accumulation of chloride by freshwater species. 

Other Data 

Additional data on the lethal and sublethal effects of chloride on 

freshwater species are presented in Table 5. Anderson (1944.1948) and 

5 
Biesinger and Christensen (1972) found the same cation-anion toxicity 

relationship that is apparent in Table 1. Sreenivasan et al. (1979) reported 

that the rotifer, Brachionus rubens, tolerates chloride up to at least 1,400 

mg/L. Wallen et al. (1957) reported that magnesium chloride-was less toxic to 

the mosquitofish than’sodium chloride: however, these tests were conducted in 

very turbid water and therefore the results might be atypical. A concentration of 13% sodium chloride in the diet of trout caused no ill effects, 

whereas 25 mg in gelatin capsules caused edema and death of brook trout 

(Phillips 1944). Food consisting of 12% sodium chloride did not affect growth 

of Atlantic salmon (Shaw et al. 1975). Hasan and Macintosh (1986) and Tomasso 

et al. (1980) reported that chloride reduced the acute toxicity of nitrite to 

fish. 

Unused Data 

Some data concerning the effects of chloride on aquatic organisms and 

their uses were not used because the tests were conducted with species that 

are not resident in North America (e.g., Coetzee and Hattingh 1977; Das and 

Srivastava 1978; Ferri and Sesso 1982; Katz and Ben-Sasson 1984; Meech and 

Thomas 1980; Schiewer 1974, 1984; Stangenberg 1975; Vaidya and Nagabhushanam 

1979). Jennings (1976) compiled data from other sources. Data were not used 

when chloride was a component of an effluent (Birge et al. 1985). Reports by 

Batterton et al. (1972), Hosiaisluoma (1976), and Palmer and Maloney (1955) 

provided no usable data on the toxicity of chloride. Arnold (1974), Davis et 

al. (1972), and Edmister and Gray (1948) did not adequately describe their 

test procedures or results or both. 

Results of some laboratory tests were not used because the tests were 

conducted in distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate 

6 
salts (e.g., Kardatzke 1980, 1981; Lee 1973; Mahajan et al. 1979; Pappas and 

Pappas 1983; Stamper 1969: Thornton and Wilhm 1974, 1975: Zaim and Newson 1979) 

or were conducted in chlorinated or “tap” water (e.g., Kumar and Srivastava 

1981). Christensen (1971/72) and Christensen and Tucker (1976) exposed plasma 

or enzymes. Length of exposure was not reported by Batterton and Van Baalen 

(1971). High control mortalities occurred in tests reported by Lewis (1971). 

Tests conducted without controls (e.g., Vosjan and Siezen 1968) or with too 

few test organisms (e.g., Leblanc and Surprenant 1984) were also not used. 

Hughes (1968, 1973) did not adequately acclimate the test organisms. Ten-day 

LC50s (Threader and Houston 1983) were not used because the fish had not been 

fed during the tests. 

Many studies were not used because they addressed the metabolism, 

regulation, or transport, rather than toxicity. of chloride (e.g., Carrasquer 

et al. 1983; Castille and Lawrence 1981; De Renzis and Maetz 1973; Greenway 

and Setter 1979a,b; Hinkle et al. 1971; Konovalov 1384; McCormick and Naiman 

1984; Ooshima and Oguri 1974; Perry et al. 1984; Shomer-Ilan and Waisel 1976; 

Sullivan et al. 1981; Ticku and Olsen 1977). Some references were not used 

because they were foreign-language reports for which no translation was 

available and no useful data could be obtained from the English abstracts 

(e.g., Frahm 1975; Mushak 1968; Schiewer 1976; Turoboyski 1960). 

Summary 

Although few data are available concerning the toxicity of any chloride 

salt other than sodium chloride, the data that are available indicate that, 

when compared on the basis of mg of chloride/L, the chlorides of potassium, 

calcium,. and magnesium are generally more toxic to freshwater species than 

sodium chloride. Based on tests on sodium chloride, the acute sensitivities 

7 
of freshwater animals to chloride ranged from 1,470 mg/L for Daphnia pulex to 

11,940 mg/L for the American eel. Invertebrate species were generally more 

sensitive than vertebrates. Results from tests with a variety of species show 

that if freshwater animals do not die within the first 24 hr of the test, they 

probably will not die during periods ranging from 48 hr to 11 days. No 

relationships have been observed between the acute toxicity of chloride to 

freshwater animals and hardness, alkalinity, pH, or life-stage of the test 

organisms. 

A life-cycle test with Daphnia pulex and early life-stage tests with the 

rainbow trout and fathead minnow produced chronic values of 372.1, 922.7, and 

433.1 mg/L, respectively. The acute-chronic ratios were calculated to be 

3.951 for Daphnia pulex, 7.308 for rainbow trout, and 15.17 for the fathead 

minnow. Freshwater plants were affected at concentrations of chloride ranging 

from 71 to 36,400 mg/L. No data are available concerning bioaccumulation of 

chloride by freshwater organisms. 

National Criteria 

The procedures described in the “Guidelines for Deriving Numerical 

National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and 

Their Uses” indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species 

is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be 

affected unacceptably if-the four-day average concentration of dissolved 

chloride, when associated with sodium, does not exceed 230 mg/L more than once 

every three years on the average and if the one-hour average concentration 

does not exceed 860 mg/L more than once every three years on the average. 

This criterion probably will not be adequately protective when the chloride is 

associated with potassium, calcium, or magnesium, rather than sodium. In 

8 
addition, because freshwater animals have a narrow range of acute 

susceptibilities to chloride, excursions above this criterion might affect a 

substantial number of species. 

Implementation 

As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation (U.S. EPA 1983a) 

and the Foreword to this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life 

has regulatory impact only after it has been adopted in a State water quality 

standard. Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is 

consistent with a particular designated use. With the concurrence of the U.S. 

EPA, States designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment 

thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S. EPA 

1983b, 1987). In each standard a State may adopt the national criterion, if 

one exists, or, if adequately justified, a site-specific criterion. 

Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion 

concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983b), but also site-specific, and possibly 

pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed 

excursions (U.S. EPA l985b). The averaging periods of “one hour” and “four 

days” were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning how 

rapidly some aquatic species react to increases in the concentrations of some 

pollutants, and “three years” is the Agency’s best scientific judgment of the 

average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between 

excursions (Stephan et al. 1985; U.S. EPA 1985b). However, various species 

and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates. Therefore, if 

adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or pollutant-specific 

concentrations, durations, and frequencies may be higher or lower than those 

given in national water quality criteria for aquatic life, 

9 
Use of criteria, which have been adopted in State water quality 

standards, for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing 

waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload 

allocation model. Although dynamic models are preferred for the application 

of these criteria (U.S. EPA 1985b), limited data or other considerations might 

require the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986). Guidance on mixing 

zones and the design of monitoring programs is also available (U.S. EPA 

1985b, 1987). 

10 
Table t. Acute Toxicity of Cltoride to Aquatic Animats 

Species 

Snail, 

Phvso avrino 

Snail, 

Phvsa heterostropha 

Fingernail clam 

(adult >5 cm), 

Musculium tronsversum 

[ingernoi I clam 

(adult >5 cm), 

Uusculium transversum 

Fingernai I clam 

(juvenile tS cm), 

Uusculium transversum 

Fingernoi I clam 

(juvenile <5 cm), 

Musculium transversum 

Fingernoi I clam 

(juvenile t5 cm), 

Musculium transversum 

Clodoceran (1st instar) 

Daphni a maqna 

Met hoda Chemicul 

I, M 

s, u 

s, M 

s, u 

s. M 

s. M 

5. w 

5. u 

Sod i um 

chloride 

Potassium 

chloride 

Potassium 

chloride 

Pot ass i urn 

chloride 

Potassium 

chloride 

Potasri urn 

chloride 

Potassium 

chloride 

Sod i um 

chloride 

Hardness LCSO 

(m!t/L 0s or EC50 

CoC03L IdL)b 

FRESHWATER SPCCIES 

Species Mean 

Acute Value 

Ilee/L)c Reference 

100 2,540 2,540 8irge et al. 1985 

451 Academy oi Natural 

Sciences 1960; 

Patrick et al 1968 

263 

243 

263 

243 

234 

I 68 Anderson I977 

254 Anderson I977 

472 Anderson I977 

907 Anderson I977 

I, 655’ Anderson I977 

~2.562~ Anderson 1946 

11 
Table I (continued) 

Hardness 

(4 as 

B3L 

LCSO 

or EC50 

~mamb 

I71 

Spec i es Yeon 

Acute Value 

Yet hod’ Chericol flea/LIC Reference 

s, u Potassium 

chloride 

Species 

Clodoceron, Douden I961 

Dophnio mogno 

s, u Calcium 

chloride 

Cladoceran. 486 Douden I961 

Dophnia w 

5. u Sod i um 

chloride 

Cladoceran, 2,024 Douden I961 

Dophnia moqna 

5. u Calcium 

chloride 

1,923 Dowden and Bennetf 

I965 

Ctodoceran, 

Daphnio w 

5. u Yagnes i urn 

chloride 

2,774 Dowden and Bennett 

I965 

Cladoceran, 

Dophnia mogno 

5, u Sodium 

chloride 

3.583 Dorden and Bennett 

I965 

Cladoceron, 

Daphnia w 

5. u Potassium 

chloride 

45 

45 

45 

45 

66 Biesinger ond 

Christensen 1972 

Cladoceran, 

Daphnio w 

5, u Calcium 

chloride 

92 Biesinger and 

Christensen 1972 

Cladoceron, 

Dophnio mapna 

5, u Yagnes i urn 

chloride 

409 Biesinger and 

Christensen 1972 

Cladoceran, 

Daphnio mogno 

5. u Sod i urn 

chloride 

2,565 2.650 Diesinger ond 

Christensen 1972 

Clodoceron, 

Dophnia magna 

12 
Table I. (continued) 

Hardness 

(w/L 0s 

coco3) 

93 

LCSU 

or EC50 

Species Yean 

Acute Value 

IaglL)C 

1,470 

Met hoda 

R, M 

Reference 

Birge et 01. 1985 

Species Chemicut 

Sodium 

chloride 

Cl adoceron, I.470 

Dophnia pulex 

F. u Sodium Birge et al. 1985 

chloride 

I 00 2.950 2,950 lsopod, 

Lirceus fontinalis 

s, u Sod i um 4. 03gf Homilton et al. 1975 

chloride 

Caddisfly. I24 4.039 

Hvdroptila anausta 

s. u Sod i UIII 6.222’ 

chloride 

6,222 Dowden ond Benneti 

I965 

Mosquito (lorvo), 

Culex sp. 

Sod i um 

chloride 

4,900 4,900 Thornton and Sauer 

I972 

Homilton et al. 1975 

Midge, s, u 

Chironomus attenuatus 

s, u Potassium 

chloride 

Uidge, I24 1,434 

Cricotopus trifascia 

s, u Sod i um Hamilton et al. 1975 

chloride 

Midge, I24 3,795 3,795 

Cricotopus trifascia 

Hintan and Eversale 

I978 

Hintan and Eversale 

I979 

s. u Sad i WI 

chlar-ide 

American eel (55 mm), 44 10.900 

Anquilla rostrata 

Sad i UIII 

chloride 

American eel (97 2 mm), 44 I 3.1185 I I ,940 

Anquillo rastrata 

R. U 3, 336g Kastecki and Jones 

I983 

Spehar I987 

Sod i UIII 

chlol ide 

Rainbow trout, 

Salmo qairdneri 

Sod i UN 6,743 

chloride 

Rainbow trout, 46 6,743 

Salma gairdneri 

13 
Table 1. (continued) 

Hardness 

(w/L 0s 

CoC03L 

LC50 

or EC50 

j.*lLlb 

8, 388g 

Species Mean 

Acute Vol ue 

Yet bod’ LaP/L)c 

s. u 

s, u 

f, y 

s. u 

bee i es Cbemicol ReC ereace 

Sod i um 

chloride 

Dorden and Bennett 

I965 

Goldfish, 

Corossius auratus 

Sod i urn 9,455h 8,906 

chloride 

149 

100 

39 

39 

39 

Threader and Houston 

I983 

Goldfish, 

Corassius ouratus 

Sodium 

chloride 

fathead minnow, 6,570 6,570 Birge et al I985 

Pimephales promelas 

Potassium 

chloride 

Bluegill, 956 Trama 1954 

Lepomis macrochirus 

5, u 

5, u 

s, u 

s, u 

s. u 

Calcium 6.804 Trama 1954 

chloride 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis mocrochirus 

Sod i um 

chloride 

Bluegill. 7,846 Trama 1954 

Lepomis macrochirus 

Calcium 

chloride 

6.080 Cairns and Scheier 

I959 

Bluegill (3.9 cm), 

JeDomis mocrochirus 

Calci urn 

chloride 

6,080 Cairns and Scheier 

1959 

Bluegill (6.1 cm), 

Le.pomi s macrochi rus 

Ca I c i um 

chloride 

7,232 Cairns and Scheier 

1959 

Bluegill (14.2 cm), 

Lepomis macrochirus 

5, u Potossium 

chloride 

965 Academy al Natural 

Sciences 1960; 

Patrick et al. 1968 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis mocrochirus 

14 
Table I. (continued) 

Species 

Bluegill. 

Lepami s mocroch i rus 

Yet hod’ 

s, u 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis macrochirus 

St u 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis macrachirus 

s, u 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis macrochirus 

s, u 

Bluegill, 

Lenamis macrochirus 

8tuegill. 

Lepomis macrochirus 

s, u 

f. M 

Cheni col 

Calcium 

chloride 

Sodium 

chloride 

Potassium 

chloride 

Calcium 

chloride 

Sodium 

chloride 

Sodium 

chloride 

Hardness 

(w/L 0s 

CoC03L 

LC50 

or EC50 

jImalL) b 

Species Mean 

Acute Value 

(mqlL1c 

6,816 

7,897 

2,640g Dowden and Bennett 

I965 

5,3449 Dowden and Benneff 

I965 

8,6169 Dowden and Bennett 

I965 

IO0 5.870 5,870 

Reference 

Academy of Natural 

Sciences 1960; 

Patrick et al. 1968 

Academy of Natural 

Sciences 1960; 

Patrick et al. 1968 

Birge et al. 1985 

a S q static; R = renewal; f = flaw-through; U = unmeasured; M = measured 

b Concentration ot chloride not the chemical 

’ Only data obtained with sodium chloride were used in calculation of Species Mean Acute Values Data far other 

salts are presented far comparison purposes ahty. 

d Test temperature = 7°C; the other tests with this species were at 17°C. 

e Not used in calculations because quantitative values are available far this species. 

I This value is from a 48-hr test (‘;oc text) 

9 This value i> from a 24-hr test (:;ar text) 

h lhis value *a’. der i wed f I om the pub I i ,.heJ graph 

15 
Table 2. Chronic Toxicity of Cbloride to Apuotic Aaimels 

Spec i es 

Hardness 

(4 0s 

u Chemical EaC0&- 

FRESHWATER SPECIES 

Cladoceron, 

Dophnio pulex 

Rainbow trout, 

Solmo gairdneri 

fathead minnow, 

Pimepholes promelas 

LC 

ELS 

ILS 

Sodium 

chlar ide 

Sodium 

chloride 

Sodium 

chloride 

I 00 

46 

I 00 

Limits Chronic Value 

(mlJ& Ima/LI ReC ereace 

314-441 372. I Dirge et al. 1985 

643-l ,324 922.7 Spehar I987 

352-533 433. I Birge et al. 1985 

a LC = life-cycle or partiol life-cycle; ELS = early life-stage. 

b Measured concentrations of chloride. 

Acute-Chronic Ratio 

Species 

Cladoceran, 

Daphnia pulex 

Rainbow trout, 

Salma gairdneri 

Hardness 

(mg/L 0s Acute Value 

CaC03) [ma/L) 

I 00 1,470 

46 6,743 

fathead minnow, 

Pimephales promela:; 

IOU 6,570 

Chronic Value 

(ma/L) 

372 I 

922 7 

433 I 

Ratio 

3.951 

7,308 

I5 17 

16 
Table 3. Ranted Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios 

Ranta 

Genus Yeon 

Acute Value 

Imq/L) Spec i es 

Spec i es Yean Species Mean 

Acute Voiue Acute-Chronic 

fma/L)b Rat i oc 

FRESHWATER SPCCIES 

12 11,940 

II 8,906 

IO 6,743 

9 6,570 

0 6,222 

7 5.070 

6 4,900 

5 4,039 

4 3,795 

3 2.95fl 

2 2,541) 

American eel, 

Anquilla rastrata 

Galdf ish, 

Carassius auratus 

Rainbow trout, 

Salmo qairdneri 

Fat head mi nnow, 

Pimepholes promelas 

Mosquito, 

m sp. 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis macrochirus 

Midge, 

Chironomus attenuatus 

Caddisfly. 

Hydroptilo anqusta 

Midge, 

Cricotopus trifascia 

Isopad, 

Lireus fontinalis 

Snai I, 

Physa qyr i na 

I I ,941l 

0,906 

6,743 

6.5713 

6,222 

5,070 

4.9uu 

4,059 

3,795 

2,951l 

2,5411 

7.308 

15.17 

17 
Table 3. (continued) 

Genus Mean 

Acute Value 

RantO frq/L) Spec i es 

I 1,974 Cladoceran, 

Daphnia maqna 

Cladoceran. 

Daphnia pulex 

Spec i es Year 

Acute ye Imall 

Species Mean 

Acute-Chronic 

Rat i oc 

2,650 

1,470 3.951 

a Ranted from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value 

b From Table I. 

’ From Table 2 

final Acute Value = 1,720 mg/L 

Criterion Maximum Concentration = (1,720 mg/L) / 2 = 860.0 mg/l 

final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 7.594 (see text) 

Final Chronic Value = (1,720 mg/l) / 7.594 = 226 5 mg/L 

18 
Table 4. Toxicity of Chloride to Aquofic Plants 

Species Chemical 

Alga, Sodium 

Anacystis nidulans chloride 

Alga, Sodium 

Anoboena variabilis chloride 

Alga, Sodium 

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloride 

Alga. Sodium 

Chlorello emersonii chloride 

Alga, Sodium 

Chlorello fusca Cusca chloride 

Alga, Sodium 

Chlorel lo rusco rubescens chloride 

Alga. Sodium 

Chlorella fusca vacuolato chloride 

Alga. Sodium 

Chlorella kessleri chloride 

Alga, Sodium 

Chlorella luteoviridis chloride 

Duration 

(davs) Effect 

Corcentrat ion 

(lna/L)a 

4 Growth inhibition >24,300 Schiewer 1974 

4 Growth inhibition 14.300 Schiewer 1974 

3-6 Growth inhibition 3.014 Reynoso et al. 1982 

8-14 Growth inhibition 7,000 Setter et al. 1982 

20 Growth inhibition 18.200 Kessler 1974 

28 Growth inhibition 24,300 Kessler 1974 

28 

20 

28 

Growth inhibition 24,300 Kessler 1974 

Growth inhibition 18,200 Kessler 1974 

Growth inhibition 36,4Oll Kessler 1974 

FRESHWATER SPECIES 

Reference 

19 
Table 4. (continued) 

Species 

Alga, 

Chlorelta minutissima 

Alga, 

Chlorel lo orotothecoides 

Alga, 

Chlorella sacchoroDhilio 

Alga, 

Chlorella vulqoris 

Alga, 

Chlorella vulqaris 

Alga. 

Chlorella vulqaris tertia 

Algo, 

Chlorelta vulqaris vulqaris 

Alga, 

Chlorello zofinqiensis 

Alga, 

Pithophora oedoqonia 

Algo, 

Spiroqvra setiformis 

Desmid, 

Netrium diqitus 

Chemical 

Sodium 

chloride 

Sodi urn 

chloride 

Sodi urn 

chloride 

Potassium 

chloride 

Sod i urn 

chloride 

Sod i urn 

chloride 

Sodium 

chloride 

Sodium 

chloride 

Sodi urn 

chloride 

Sod i urn 

chloride 

Sod i urn 

chloride 

Ourat ion 

(davs) 

20 

20 

28 

90-l 20 

90-I 20 

20 

20 

20 

IO 

IO 

21 

EC Tect 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Growth inhibition 

Inhibition of 

i;;w!t, chlorophyl I 

C fixation 

Inhibition of 

,‘:;w!i, chlorophyl I 

C fixation 

Growth inhibition 

Concentration 

Ima/LIO 

12, IOU 

30.300 

30,300 

23.800 

24.100 

18,200 

24,300 

12,100 

886 

71 

2LIO 

Reference 

Kessler 1974 

Kessler 1974 

Kessler 1974 

De Jong 1965 

De Jong 1965 

Kessler I974 

Kessler 1974 

Kessler 1974 

Shitole ond Joshi 1984 

Shitole and Joshi 1984 

Hasiaisluoma 1976 

20 
Table 4. (continued) 

Species Chemi col 

Desmid, Sodium 

Netrium diqitus chloride 

Diatom, 

Nitzschia Iinearis 

Potassium 

chloride 

Diatom, 

Nitzschio Iinearis 

Calcium 

chloride 

Diatom, 

Nitzschia linearis 

Sodium 

chloride 

Eurasian watermilfoil, 

Myriophyllum spicotum 

Sodium 

chloride 

Eurosian wotermilfoil. 

Myriophyllum spicatum 

Sodium 

chloride 

Angiosperm (seed), 

Potamoqeton pectinatus 

Sodium 

chloride 

Angiosperm (9-wt old 

plants), 

Potomoqeton pectinatus 

Sodium 

chloride 

Angiosperm (l3-wk old 

plants), 

Potomoqeton pect i not us 

Sodium 

chloride 

Durot ion 

(davs) Effect 

21 Growth inhibition 

Concentration 

(mq/L)” 

250 

5 EC50 642 

5 EC50 2,003 

5 EC50 I, 482 

32 50% reduction in 

dry weight 

3,617 Stonley 1974 

32 50% reduction in 

dry weight 

4,964 Stanley 1974 

28 

35 

Reduced germination 1,820 Teeter 1965 

Reduced dry weight 1,620 Teeter I965 

35 Reduced shoots and 

dry weight 

1,820 

Reference 

Hosioisluomo 1976 

Academy of Natural 

Sciences 1960; Patrick 

et al. 1966 

Academy of Natural 

Sciences 1960; Patrict 

et 01. 1968 

Academy of Natural 

Sciences 1960; Patrick 

et al. 1968 

Teeter I965 

a Concentration al chloride, not the chemical 

21 
Table 5. Other Data on Effects of Cbloride OR Aquatic Organisms 

SIMC i es Cbmicol 

Hardness 

b9/L 0s 

A@& Durot ion Effect 

FRESHWATER SPECIES 

Alga. 

Chlorello nvrenoidoso 

Sodi urn 

chloride 

Protozoan, 

Paramecium tetraurelio 

Sodium 

chloride 

Cladoceran (1st instar), Potassium 

Daohnia maana chloride 

Cladoceran (1st instar). Calcium 

Dophnia mouno chloride 

Cladoceran (1st instar), Sodium 

Daohnia lnaana chloride 

Cladoceran, 

Dophnia ~OQ~Q 

Potossium 

chloride 

Clodoceran, 

Daphnio maana 

Calcium 

chloride 

Cladoceron, 

Dophnia w 

Magnes i urn 

chloride 

Clodoceran, 

Daohnia manna 

Sodium 

chloride 

Cladocer,an, 

Dophni o rn~~n~ 

Potassium 

chloride 

45 

24. hr Inhibited 

grout h 

5 days 171. reduction in 

cell division 

16 hr LCSI 

I6 hr LC50 

I6 hr LCSO 

64 hr Incipient 

inhibition 

64 hr Incipient 

inhibition 

64 hr Incipient 

inhibition 

64 hr Incipient 

inhibition 

21 days Reproductive 

impairment 

Concentration 

Idl)o Ref ererce 

301 

35nb 

179 

053 

3,747 

207 

589 

555 

2,245 

44c 

Kal inkino, 1979; Kol inkina 

and Strogonov 1980 

Kalinkina et al. 1978 

Cronkite et al. 1985 

Anderson 1944 

Anderson I944 

Anderson I944 

Anderson 1948 

Anderson 1946 

Anderson I946 

Anderson I948 

Biesinger and Christensen 

1972 

22 
Toble 5. (continued) 

Hardness 

(w/l- as Concentrot ion 

Species Chemical CoC03L Durot ion Effect (me/L)’ Reference 

Biesinger and Christensen 

19.72 

Biesinger ond Christensen 

I972 

Biesinger and Christensen 

I972 

Hamilton et al. 1975 

45 21 days Reproductive 

impairment 

Cladoceran, Calcium 206’ 

Daphnio manna chloride 

45 21 days Reproductive 

impairment 

Cladoceron. Yagnes i urn 23gc 

Dophni o magna chloride 

Clodocaran, Sod i urn 

Dophni o maqno chloride 

45 21 days Reproductive 

impairment 

I ,062’ 

Coddisfly, Potassium 

Hvdroptilo onausta chloride 

I24 48 hr LC5U 2,119 

Goldfish. Sodium 

Corassius auratus chloride 

24 hr 

96 hr 

LC50 (fed) 6,037 

LC5U (fed) 4,453 

Threshold LC50 4,442 

Adelman and Smith 1976o,b 

Adelman et al. 1976 

Shiners, Sodium 

Notronis sp. chloride 

5 days Reduced survi vol 1,525 Van Horn et al. 1949 

Fotheod minnor (II wk), Sod i urn 24 hr 

Pimapholes promelas chloride 96 hr 

LC50 (fed) 4,790 

LC50 (led) 4.640 

Threshold LC5ll 4 640 

Adelman and Smith 19760 b 

Adelmon et al, 1976 

Channel cotfish, Sodium 412 

lctolurus punctotus chloride 

24 hr 

14 days 

LC50 (fed) 8,000 

0) 000 

Reed and Evans 1961 

Yosquitofish, Potassium 24 hr LC5Ud 4,800 

Cambusio offinis chloride 96 hr 442 

Wallen et al. 1957 

Mosquitofish, Calcium 24 hr LC511d 6,576 

Combusio ofrinis chloride 96 hr 8.576 

Wollen et al I957 

24 hr LC5Ud I4,116U 

96 hr 12.370 

Yosquitofish, Yagnes i urn 

Gambusia alfinis chloride 

Wallen et al. 1957 

23 
Table 5. (cootirued) 

Hardness 

SPA i OS Chemical 

Yosquitofish, Sodium 

Cambusia offinis chloride 

Duration Ef fact 

24 hr LC50d 

96 hr 

Concentration 

_ fma/L)” 

11,040 

10,710 

Ref eremce 

Wallen et 01. 1957 

Bluegill, 

Lepomis mocrochirus 

Sodium 

chloride 

412 24 hr 

I4 days 

LCSO (fed) 8,000 

8,000 

Reed and Evans t98f 

Lorgemouth boss (juvenile), Sodium 

Yicronterus solmoidas chloride 

412 24 hr 

I4 days 

LCSO (fed) 8,500 

8,500 

Reed and Evans 1981 

” Concentration of chloride, not the chemical 

b This value was derived from the published groph 

’ Concentrations not measured in test solutions 

d Turbidity = ~25 to 320 mg/L. 

24 
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39