FACTORS AFFECTING U.S. TRADE AND SHIPMENTS OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS: COMPUTER

EQUIPMENT, TELECOMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT, AND

SEMICONDUCTORS

No. ID-02

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIES WORKING PAPER

U.S. International Trade Commission

Theresa H. Canavan

Robert Carr

Christopher Johnson

Office of Industries

U.S. International Trade Commission

February 2002

The authors are with the Office of Industries of the U.S. International Trade Commission.

Office of Industries working papers are the result of the ongoing professional research of

USITC Staff and solely represent the opinions and professional research of individual authors.

These papers do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. International Trade

Commission or any of its individual Commissioners. Working papers are circulated to

promote the active exchange of ideas between USITC Staff and recognized experts outside

the USITC, and to promote professional development of Office staff by encouraging outside

professional critique of staff research. 

ADDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO:

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIES

U.S. INTERNATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, DC 20436 USA
1

 This paper represents solely the views of the authors and is not meant to represent the views of the U.S.

International Trade Commission or any of its commissioners. The invaluable assistance of Scott Baker, Monica

Reed, and Wanda Tolson is gratefully acknowledged. Please direct all correspondence to Robert Carr, Office of

Industries, U.S. International Trade Commission, 500 E Street, SW, Washington, DC 20436, telephone: 

202-205-3402, fax: 202-205-2018, email: rcarr@usitc.gov.

FACTORS AFFECTING U.S. TRADE AND SHIPMENTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

PRODUCTS: COMPUTER EQUIPMENT, TELECOMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT, AND

SEMICONDUCTORS

Theresa H. Canavan

Robert Carr

Christopher Johnson

U.S. International Trade Commission1

ABSTRACT: Despite a recent downturn, the information technology (IT) products sector

experienced a tremendous expansion in trade and shipments during the last decade and became an

increasingly important component of the U.S. economy. This expansion was driven by a variety of

factors such as the globalization of IT production, constant technological innovation, rapid growth in

worldwide consumption, and global trade liberalization. This working paper will examine these

factors, providing particular attention to the computer equipment, telecommunications equipment,

and semiconductor industries.
2

 Reed Electronics Research, Yearbook of World Electronics Data 2000, vol. 2 (UK: Reed Business

Information Ltd., 2000), p. 217. For the purposes of this paper, IT products refer only to merchandise goods;

information technology services are not included. Although there is no universally accepted definition for

information technology products, there is a core group of items that are included in most definitions. These

products are computer equipment, telecommunications equipment, certain office machines, software, electronic

components (semiconductors, capacitors, resistors, connectors, etc.), and certain equipment used to manufacture

electronic components. For the purposes of this paper, these items will be considered to encompass the IT sector.

3

 At the time of the publishing of this paper, Jan. 2002, full year 2001 data was not yet available for either

U.S. trade or shipments.

4

 Alessandra Colecchia and Paul Schreyer, ICT Investment and Economic Growth in the 1990s: Is the

United States a Unique Case? A Comparison of Nine OECD Countries (Paris: OECD, Oct. 25, 2001), pp. 4 and

15; Andrew Szamosszegi, ITA-2: The Case For IT Liberalization (Washington, DC: Economic Strategy Institute,

Sept. 1999), pp. vi-viii; and Information Technology Industry Council, “Digital Trade Policy: Ensuring Access to

Digital Markets,” found at Internet address http://www.itic.org, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001. 

3

FACTORS AFFECTING U.S. TRADE AND SHIPMENTS OF

 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS: COMPUTER EQUIPMENT,

TELECOMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT, AND SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRODUCTION

The United States is the world’s leading producer and consumer of information technology (IT)

products2 which, during 1991-2000,3 came to play an increasingly prominent role in U.S. trade and

manufacturing. During the period, IT trade rose at a much faster rate than overall U.S. trade and, by 2000,

accounted for 17 percent of total imports and 19 percent of total exports (figure 1). The large growth in

trade was accompanied by a similarly impressive expansion in IT shipments, which rose to account for 11

percent of total U.S. manufacturing by 2000. Throughout the decade, the IT sector developed not only as

an important source of U.S. manufacturing and trade, but also emerged as a critical productivity enabler. 

In fact, information technology products have often been credited with facilitating much of the recent

productivity gain experienced by the U.S. economy.4 For these reasons, despite a major downturn in the IT

sector in 2001 as the U.S. and global economies slowed, many industry experts expect the long-term

prospects for the sector to remain positive.

Factors Affecting IT Trade and Shipments

 During 1991-2000, there were substantial changes in the value and patterns of U.S. trade and the 

level of U.S. shipments. Imports of IT products nearly quadrupled to $198 billion while exports of such

items more than tripled to $137 billion (figure 2). As a result, a relatively small trade deficit in 1991 grew

to almost $61 billion in 2000. As presented in tables 1 and 2, there were also considerable shifts in the

composition and relative importance of U.S. trade partners. In general, while the EU, Japan, and Canada

dominated U.S. trade in the early 1990s, their relative importance declined as a number of other producers

and markets emerged, principally in East Asia. U.S. shipments also showed considerable growth

throughout the decade, rising more than 150 percent to nearly $470 billion. 
4
5

Table 1

IT products: U.S. imports for consumption, by principal source, 1991 and 2000 (in thousand

dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Japan ............................. 17,816,449 Japan ........................ 36,223,931

Singapore .......................... 6,058,973 Taiwan ....................... 20,275,776

Canada ............................ 5,487,191 Korea ........................ 19,510,767

Taiwan ............................ 4,997,034 Mexico ........................ 18,818,552

Korea ............................. 3,681,499 Malaysia ...................... 17,088,967

Malaysia ........................... 2,629,387 China ......................... 16,473,879

Mexico ............................. 1,549,844 Canada ....................... 15,846,402

Germany ........................... 1,385,696 Singapore ..................... 14,228,157

United Kingdom ...................... 1,351,301 Philippines ..................... 8,718,291

Hong Kong ......................... 1,349,318 Thailand ...................... 4,835,956

Thailand ........................... 1,211,198 United Kingdom ................. 4,177,322

China .............................. 872,281 Germany ...................... 3,229,820

Philippines .......................... 822,942 Israel ......................... 2,601,106

Ireland ............................. 553,326 Ireland ........................ 2,008,841

France ............................. 523,967 Hong Kong .................... 1,945,970

 All other ......................... 1,971,078 All other ..................... 12,489,674

 Total ............................ 52,261,384 Total ....................... 198,473,411

EU15 .............................. 4,831,730 EU15 ......................... 15,701,855

Source: Compiled by USITC staff from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

Table 2

IT products: U.S. domestic exports, by principal market, 1991 and 2000 (in thousand dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Canada ........................... 6,470,040 Canada ....................... 14,688,408

Japan ............................ 5,305,296 Mexico ........................ 14,453,836

United Kingdom ..................... 3,813,047 Japan ........................ 12,830,478

Germany .......................... 3,437,011 Korea ........................ 10,304,823

Mexico ............................ 2,463,952 Taiwan ....................... 9,140,566

Singapore ......................... 2,440,935 United Kingdom ................. 7,690,010

Netherlands ........................ 1,907,763 Singapore ..................... 6,964,261

France ............................ 1,815,116 Malaysia ...................... 6,733,011

Korea ............................ 1,803,355 Netherlands ................... 5,901,553

Malaysia .......................... 1,796,540 Germany ...................... 5,603,164

Taiwan ........................... 1,629,418 Philippines ..................... 5,245,322

Hong Kong ........................ 1,096,957 Hong Kong .................... 4,249,726

Australia .......................... 947,451 Brazil ......................... 3,500,205

Italy .............................. 928,939 France ........................ 3,250,682

Thailand .......................... 758,143 China ......................... 3,055,978

 All Other ........................ 7,855,408 All Other .................... 22,986,797

 Total ........................... 44,469,370 Total ....................... 136,598,821

 EU15 ............................ 14,489,851 EU15 ......................... 30,129,839

Source: Compiled by USITC staff from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
5

 Improved manufacturing efficiencies for semiconductors were the key component in the price declines

for computers. Industry representative, email to USITC staff, Jan. 14, 2002.

6

 Unlike most other IT products, semiconductor trade reportedly was not significantly affected by the

Mexican peso devaluation. Industry representative, email to USITC staff, Jan. 14, 2002.

6

The primary factors that affected U.S. trade and shipments during the period include the relative

strengths and weaknesses of the U.S. industry, extraordinary growth in global demand, the globalization of

IT manufacturing, and U.S. participation in a number of international trade agreements. The strengths of

the U.S. industry were generally in advanced technologies bolstered by heavy investment in research and

development (R&D), and the availability of an educated workforce, advanced infrastructure, and

institutions of higher learning. Typically, U.S. firms were among the first to bring newer, more advanced

products to market and were leaders in product design and innovation. However, as products matured,

manufacturing often moved to lower cost countries. As such, U.S. exports tended to be concentrated in

higher end, design- and technology-intensive items, while imports were often more mature, lower end

products. 

Chief among those factors influencing demand were the tremendous general expansion in global

consumption of IT products, certain industry-specific developments, and several regional economic events. 

Demand for IT products rose throughout the period as the sophistication and utility of these items

continually improved, making them increasingly attractive to both businesses and consumers. In addition, a

number of important new applications rose to prominence such as data networking, the Internet, and

wireless communications, which further drove demand upward. This growth in consumption was largely

made possible by a virtuous cycle of cost and performance. Due to constant advances in technology and

manufacturing efficiencies, electronic equipment and particularly personal computers (PCs) became more

powerful and offered the greater functionality demanded by consumers while consistently declining in

price.5 The development of increasingly powerful and robust software played an important role in the cycle

by allowing consumers to benefit from the advances in hardware technology while further driving the

development of hardware. The virtuous cycle in turn contributed to an upgrade cycle wherein users

regularly upgraded to more powerful products to take advantage of the newest technologies. 

 Major industry-specific events that affected global demand for IT products include pricing, and

deregulation and privatization in major world telecommunication services markets. Pricing, particularly

price declines in the semiconductor memory and computer markets, had significant impacts on demand and

the levels of trade. With regard to computer equipment, severe price competition throughout the decade

made these items increasingly affordable to larger segments of the population contributing to growth in

global consumption and trade. In contrast, periods of extreme price erosion for semiconductor memory

devices, especially in 1996 and 1998, were severe enough to limit the growth in value of U.S. imports. 

Deregulation and privatization in the major telecommunication services markets led to increased

competition among a growing number of providers to offer expanded communication services, which in

turn created additional global demand for telecommunications equipment.

The primary external economic events that impacted IT demand and trade were the 1994-95

Mexican peso devaluation,6 the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis, and the strong appreciation of the Japanese

yen during the first half of the decade. The severe devaluations of the Mexican and certain Asian

currencies vis-á-vis the U.S. dollar resulted in reduced competitiveness for U.S. exports in those markets as

U.S. products became relatively higher in price. In addition, certain of the countries subject to the

devaluations also experienced recessions with real declines in GDP and consumption. With regard to the

Asian financial crisis, short term declines in U.S. exports to the affected region contributed to a decrease in
7

 Michael Borrus, “Left For Dead: Asian Production Networks and the Revival of U.S. Electronics,”

Berkeley Roundtable on the International Economy (BRIE) Working Paper 100, Apr. 1997, found at Internet

address http://brie.berkeley.edu, retrieved Oct. 26, 2001. As production of IT equipment shifted offshore, Japan’s

position as a market for IT subassemblies, parts, and components declined.

8

 Rising East Asian IT producers include Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand,

and China. During 1991-2000, IT producers also emerged outside of East Asia. Examples include Mexico and

Israel. Many of these countries, and in particular Singapore, Korea, and Taiwan, had been manufacturing IT

products before the 1991-2000 period. However, it was during this decade that their relative importance as

producers advanced significantly. In addition, the level of sophistication of their operations also progressed from

simple assembly work to component manufacturing and in some cases design. 

9

 Items such as television sets, video cassette recorders, and audio equipment. For more on this topic, see

Paolo Guerrieri, “International Competitiveness, Regional Integration, and Corporate Strategies, in the East Asia

Electronics Market,” contained in Stephan Haggard, Dieter Ernst, and Michael Borrus, International Production

Networks in Asia: Rivalry or Riches? (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 31-33. 

10 An example is Korea which used its position as a leading television manufacturer to become a leading

producer of computer monitors. Korea also entered the semiconductor market as a producer of commodity memory

chips. 

7

overall U.S. IT exports in 1998, the only such year-over-year decline during the period. The exchange rate

effects of the Mexican peso devaluation and the Asian financial crisis also influenced trade by making the

affected economies more cost competitive as exporters and more attractive as production locations to global

IT manufacturers. By comparison, the sharp appreciation of the Japanese yen through the mid-1990s

decreased the price competitiveness of Japanese exports and contributed to a process wherein Japanese

firms shifted production to lower cost locales. Partly as a result, Japan’s position as a global IT producer,

exporter, and market diminished during the period.7

 

During 1991-2000, there were considerable shifts in both the composition of U.S. trade partners

and their relative importance. At the beginning of the period, the United States, Japan, and the EU

accounted for most of the world’s IT production, trade, and consumption. However, as the decade

progressed, a number of other countries, principally in East Asia, rose in importance as IT producers,

exporters, and markets.8 With regard to U.S. imports, the globalization of IT production was the primary

catalyst behind a broadening of U.S. suppliers and a relative decline in the importance of traditional import

sources. For example, Japan was the leading source of U.S. IT imports in 1991, accounting for over onethird of the total (table 1). However, by 2000, Japan’s share had declined to 18 percent as significant

Japanese production capacity moved offshore and competition from other sources increased. In contrast,

emerging producers such as Mexico, Korea, the Philippines, and China captured growing portions of the

U.S. import market, with their collective share rising from 9 percent to 31 percent during the period. Often

drawing upon their experience in consumer electronics manufacturing,9 these emerging producers moved up

the skills ladder into the manufacture of IT products, typically starting with low-end, commodity items and

progressing into more advanced products.10 In general, as products and their technology matured and could

be produced in volume in a cost efficient manner, manufacturing tended to migrate to these new locations. 

As a result, these countries became more important as U.S. suppliers while there was a relative decline in

the importance of traditional sources such as Japan, the EU, and Canada. 

 The globalization of production was due both to the outsourcing of production by traditional

manufacturers to affiliates in emerging IT producing countries as well as the establishment in those

countries of indigenous industries. During the decade, principally in efforts to lower production costs,
11 Locating production and/or R&D facilities in strategic markets allows the manufacturer to more quickly

and efficiently respond to changing customer needs. Industry representative, email to USITC staff, Jan. 14, 2002.

12 Both NAFTA and the Uruguay Round Agreements address intellectual property rights protections and

technical barriers to trade such as standards-related measures.

8

improve market access, and demonstrate a commitment to important markets,11 leading global equipment

firms increasingly shifted portions of their manufacturing operations to these emerging production locales. 

This outsourcing of production took the form of direct investment by global (often U.S.-headquartered)

manufacturers as well as the use of contract manufacturers. Initially, outsourcing tended to be for low-end

component production or assembly work, but increasingly entire systems were manufactured, and in some

cases designed, offshore. In addition to outsourcing related to foreign affiliates or contract manufacturers,

indigenous IT industries also developed in these areas. Examples include the emergence of world class

semiconductor producers in Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, and the growth of the computer equipment

industry in Taiwan. 

During the period, U.S. export markets also shifted and broadened considerably, due primarily to

the migration of IT production discussed above as well as the general rise in global IT consumption. In

1991, the EU, Canada, and Japan accounted for nearly 60 percent of U.S. exports. However, by 2000, that

total had declined to 42 percent. Export markets that rose in importance include Mexico, Korea, Taiwan,

the Philippines, China, and Brazil. Collectively, these markets nearly doubled their share of U.S. exports

during the period, accounting for one third of the total in 2000. Most of these growing U.S. export markets

are also emerging IT producers. In the process of manufacturing IT equipment, these countries often

needed to import substantial quantities of integral components and subassemblies. In addition to supplying

parts and components to other IT producers, U.S. exports to non-IT producing regions also rose. In

general, as income levels increased worldwide and the prices for IT products declined, more consumers

were able to afford these items. 

International trade agreements also had an effect on U.S. trade, although likely to a more modest

extent than the other factors discussed above. Throughout the period, IT products benefitted from a

number of tariff reduction agreements including the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA), the North

American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) Uruguay Round

Agreements, and the Information Technology Agreement (ITA). Because U.S. tariffs on information

technology products were already very low, these agreements presumably had little impact on the level of

U.S. imports. However, the agreements did lower tariff barriers in a number of important foreign markets

and likely contributed to increased U.S. exports by improving the U.S. price advantage in those markets. In

addition, nontariff measures affecting the IT industry such as intellectual property rights protection and

standards, testing, and certification issues were addressed in trade agreements such as NAFTA, the

Uruguay Round Agreements, and a 1998 Mutual Recognition Agreement between the United States and the

European Union.12
13 For the purposes of this paper, computer equipment includes the following products: computers, parts,

and peripherals, including keyboards, printers, display units, optical scanners and magnetic ink recognition

devices, storage units, and power supplies; automatic teller machines; and cash registers. These products are

classified under 8470, 8471, 8472, 8473.30, and part of 8504.40 of the Harmonized System (HS), 3341 under the

North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), and under 3571, 3572, 3575, and 3577 of the Standard

Industrial Classification (SIC). (Semiconductors are not included in this definition, and are discussed separately

later in this paper.)

14 Reed Electronics Research, Yearbook of World Electronics Data 2000, vol. 2 (UK: Reed Business

Information Ltd., 2000), p. 217.

15 U.S. Department of Commerce (USDOC), “Computer Equipment,” U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994, 

p. 26-1.

9

COMPUTER EQUIPMENT, TELECOMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT, AND

SEMICONDUCTORS

This section will examine in greater detail the principal factors affecting trends in U.S. trade and

shipments during 1991-2000 of computer equipment, telecommunications equipment, and semiconductors. 

These are the largest product groups within the IT sector and in 2000 combined to account for nearly 85

percent of total IT trade and more than two-thirds of IT shipments. Although the 

three product groups were influenced by many of the same factors during the period, each has a distinct

storyline. 

Computer Equipment13

Overview

During 1991-2000, the United States was the leading producer and consumer of computer

equipment.14 U.S. firms that manufacture these products were among the world’s largest and were in the

forefront of many of the industry’s technological advances. During the period, there was a tremendous

expansion in U.S. trade, shipments, and consumption, with imports in particular exhibiting strong growth

and generally increasing their share of U.S. consumption (figure 3). While also strong, export growth was

less than that of imports, which resulted in a constant widening of the U.S. trade deficit for these products. 

U.S. patterns of trade also experienced significant change, as import sources and export markets shifted

throughout the decade. 

The primary factors affecting U.S. trade and shipments of computer equipment were the

extraordinary growth in U.S. and global demand for these products and a continuing trend toward the

globalization of production and component sourcing. Certain general economic and industry trends

contributed to the growth in demand including the development of increasingly productive computer

applications and software for home and business use, intense price competition, technological advances,

regional macroeconomic events, and duty reduction agreements. Globalization proceeded throughout the

decade as computer equipment industries continued to develop outside of the United States, principally in

East Asia, and U.S. firms established or expanded offshore manufacturing operations. 

Global demand for computers rose as they became more useful to both home and business users. 

Growing financial, educational, and entertainment uses contributed to consumer demand for computer

equipment. Likewise, from inventory management to customer service functions, businesses worldwide

recognized the increased operating efficiencies that computer technology offered.15 In recent years, the
16 T.W. Rabbit, “Wired U.S. population grows steadily,” PCWorld.com, Feb. 19, 2001, found at Internet

address http://www.pcworld.com, retrieved Oct. 3, 2001; Computer Industry Almanac, Inc., “U.S. Has 33% Share

of Internet Users Worldwide Year-end 2000,” found at Internet address http://www.c-i-a.com, retrieved Oct. 10,

2001. According to the Computer Industry Almanac, Internet usage in North America rose by 390 percent during

1995-2000, while worldwide usage grew by 688 percent for the same period.

17 During the period, an ongoing market trend toward the use of PCs and away from the use of

mainframes and minicomputers continued. This trend was made possible as the computing power of PCs advanced

markedly, while PC prices remained well below mainframes and minicomputers. By the end of the decade, PCs

dominated the global computer market. As PCs became more powerful, they also became less expensive for

purchasers. By 2000, the largest segment of the PC market was for machines priced under $1,000. 

18 Gordon E. Moore, former chairman of Intel Corporation, interview, Scientific American, Sept. 1997,

found at http://www.sciam.com, retrieved Sept. 21, 2001. Moore accurately predicted in 1965 that the number of

(continued...)

10

development of the Internet and electronic commerce have been leading demand drivers for both business

and home users. These technologies along with the evolution of computer networking permit companies to

manage and communicate with their employees, customers, and suppliers, while offering consumers

convenience and functionality by enabling remote transactions such as banking, shopping, and electronic

mail. With regard to home users, Internet access in the United States rose throughout the decade, reaching

roughly 60 percent of the population in 2000. Although the United States is still the leading user of the

Internet, international use is now growing more quickly.16

Fierce price competition among the leading computer equipment manufacturers also contributed to

worldwide consumption. As prices declined and computers became more affordable, they were

increasingly adopted by both corporate and home users.17 As discussed earlier, the declines in selling

prices for computers were largely made possible by the technological advances that led to falling

production costs for computer parts and subassemblies, particularly semiconductors.18 Advances in
18 (...continued)

transistors per integrated circuit would double every year through 1975. Moore, Gordon E., “Cramming more

components onto integrated circuits,” Electronics, vol. 38, No. 8, Apr. 19, 1965, found at Internet address

http://www.intel.com, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001. As predicted by Moore’s law, the number of transistors per

integrated circuit has increased geometrically, while the costs of production have declined proportionately. The

increasing power of computer processors creates an “upgrade cycle,” which refers to the propensity of computer

users to seek the fastest processors available. The need for faster processors to handle more powerful operating

system and application software contributes to this cycle. Manufacturers were also able to lower production costs

during the decade by shifting toward a build-to-order model rather than building to forecasts with the associated

costs of carrying inventory. Reduced production costs could then be passed on to customers in the form of lower

pricing. In addition, producers such as Dell Computer began to directly market and sell products to their

customers, cutting out retail establishments and associated price mark-ups. 

19 U.S. companies began to rely on foreign affiliates and offshore parts sourcing during the 1980s. 

However, this process accelerated during 1991-2000. 

20 Computer companies such as IBM are referred to as original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), while

contract manufacturers such as Flextronics, Solectron, and Celestica are often referred to as electronics

manufacturing services (EMS) firms. EMS firms have traditionally been assembly operations, but in recent years

have begun assuming additional roles including component sourcing, distribution, and design. Short product lifecycles are critical to competitiveness in the computer industry, and EMS firms reduce OEM costs by decreasing

time to market and improving materials procurement and logistics, thus providing increased flexibility to the

supply chain. Contract manufacturers also often offer greater economies of scale and reduce the OEM’s exposure

to capital equipment expenditures. Claire Serant and Laurie Sullivan, “EMS providers taking on demand creation

role,” EBN, Oct. 2, 2001, found at Internet address http://www.ebnonline.com, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001; Celestica,

“About Celestica,” found at Internet address http://www.celestica.com, retrieved Oct. 3, 2001. Claire Serant,

“Xerox sells four plants to Flextronics in cost cutting move,” EBN, Oct. 2, 2001, found at Internet address

http://www.ebnonline.com, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001; and Flextronics International, “Corporate Information,” found

at Internet address http://www.flextronics.com, retrieved Oct. 3, 2001.

21 Reportedly, more than 60 percent of the hardware value of a typical U.S. PC is made up of floppy and

hard drives, motherboards, mouses, monitors, semiconductor memory, and other parts imported from Asia.

USDOC, “Computer Equipment,” U.S. Industrial and Trade Outlook, 1999 (New York: McGraw Hill/USDOC,

1999), p. 27-1. 

11

computer technology also led to an upgrade cycle and replacement market in which consumers often

replaced existing computer equipment every few years with newer products in order to take advantage of

improvements in software applications. In turn, the availability of newer, more powerful machines drove

down the price of older models, further fueling demand and feeding the cycle by expanding the number of

consumers that could afford them. 

During 1991-2000, the globalization of computer equipment manufacturing influenced the growth

of U.S. trade as well as the mix of U.S. trade partners. In a climate of intense price competition, U.S. firms

established or expanded manufacturing operations outside the United States and increased their sourcing of

parts from foreign suppliers in efforts to increase global competitiveness by lowering production costs and

improving proximity to markets.19 In addition, many U.S.-headquartered computer equipment producers,

such as IBM, Compaq Computer, and Hewlett-Packard, established relationships with contract

manufacturers that often produced complete computer systems on their behalf, typically in countries such

as China, Malaysia, and Mexico, where they are near centers of component manufacturing and labor costs

are a fraction of those in the United States.20 As a result, U.S.-headquartered firms have increasingly

supplied the U.S. market with parts or complete systems manufactured abroad.21 During the period, EU

and Japanese manufacturers also shifted portions of their production and component sourcing abroad,

principally to East Asia. In addition, indigenous computer equipment industries in this region have
22 Examples include the computer equipment industries in Taiwan and Korea.

23 Some countries reduced tariffs by as much as 100 percent on computer parts. U.S. Trade Representative

(USTR), “The Uruguay Round,” Annual Report 1994, found at Internet address http://www.ustr.gov, retrieved

Oct. 10, 2001.

24 USITC, Industry & Trade Summary: Computers, Peripherals, and Computer Components, pub. 2821,

Oct. 1994, p. 23.

25 India’s current basic tariff on computers is 15 percent, but with additional special duties and surcharges,

the effective rate is nearly 39 percent. USDOC, International Trade Administration (ITA), Office of Information

Technologies, ExportIT India, Feb. 2001, found at Internet address http://exportit.ita.doc.gov, retrieved

Oct. 9, 2001, p. 3. 

26 As of Feb. 1, 2001, 56 countries participated in the ITA, up from the 37 original participants.

27 Business Software Alliance, Letter to Robert Zoellick, USTR, May 4, 2001, found at Internet address

http://www.bsa.org, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001.

28 USDOC, “Computer Equipment,” in U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994, p. 26-2.

12

continued to develop.22 Because of these trends, U.S. imports and the import share of U.S. consumption

increased, and the relative importance of import suppliers shifted. 

Certain regional macroeconomic events also had significant impacts on U.S. trade and shipments,

particularly the Mexican peso crisis and the Asian financial crisis. In general, U.S. exports to these regions

declined as a result of the crises. With regard to the peso crisis, some U.S. manufacturers took advantage

of NAFTA and the devaluation of the peso by moving portions of their in-house manufacturing to Mexico

or shifting production to contract manufacturers located there.

Duty reduction agreements also contributed to the growth in U.S. trade in computer equipment,

although the impact of these agreements was likely modest. While the Uruguay Round Agreements

significantly reduced tariffs faced by U.S. exporters in certain markets,23 the tariff barriers between the

United States and its major trading partners were already quite low.24 Similarly, the implementation of

NAFTA and the Information Technology Agreement (ITA) also likely had relatively small impacts on U.S.

trade. Some ITA signatories such as India continue to have high effective duty rates.25 In addition, tariffs

on computer equipment remain high in many countries that have not yet signed the ITA.26 Although these

countries represented a relatively small share of world consumption, high tariffs limited demand for U.S.

computer equipment by imposing additional costs on both businesses and consumers in these countries.27

Imports

During the period, U.S. imports of computer equipment more than tripled to $90 billion,

representing an average annual growth rate of 15 percent (figure 3). The first half of the decade exhibited

the greatest growth; during 1991-96, imports increased at an average annual rate of 19 percent as the PC

became increasingly popular among both businesses and consumers. Average import growth slowed

considerably to 8 percent from 1996-1998, but rebounded to 12 percent during 1998-2000. The heightened

demand for PCs also boosted demand for computer parts and accessories. During the period, imports of

computer parts and accessories almost quadrupled to $32 billion, and on a yearly basis generally accounted

for one-third of U.S. imports of computer equipment.

During the first part of the decade (1991-93), the U.S. market for computer equipment exhibited

strong growth, particularly for PCs.28 The ever increasing computing power of PCs combined with their
29 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Industries 1993

Annual Report, inv. No. 332-345, pub. 2805, Sept. 1994, p. 138, for additional information.

30 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Commodity Areas

Annual Report for 1991, inv. No. 332-345, pub. 2517, June 1992, p. 67, for additional information.

31 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1995, inv. No.

332-345, pub. 2992, Sept. 1996, p. 11-5, for additional information.

32 “Computers: Hardware,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Surveys, July 10, 1997, pp. 1-2, and 7, found at

Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved, Sept. 21, 2001.

13

lower price relative to mainframes and minicomputers attracted business and consumer interest.29 Intense

price competition in PC markets that led to growth in consumption was the primary reason for the increase

in U.S. imports during these years. In 1991, peripherals, storage units, and partially assembled computers

were important import segments, accounting for almost three-fourths of total U.S. imports of computer

equipment.30 To remain competitive, U.S. firms purchased these components from lower cost Asian

suppliers such as Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan, which together accounted for 67 percent of U.S. imports

in 1991 (table 3). Though much smaller, Malaysia, China, and Korea were the three fastest growing

suppliers during 1991-93. The product mix of imported computer equipment also shifted during these

years. By 1993, imports of fully assembled portable computers, peripheral devices (primarily printers and

monitors), and computer parts accounted for most of the growth in computer equipment imports.

While the implementation of NAFTA on January 1, 1994 likely did not significantly impact U.S.

trade in computer equipment with Canada and Mexico, the Mexican peso crisis in late 1994 probably did. 

Prior to the implementation of NAFTA, duties on computer equipment among the member states were

already negligible, and subsequent increases in U.S. imports from Canada and Mexico were due primarily

to heightened U.S. demand for computer equipment. In addition, the devaluation of the peso increased

Mexico’s attractiveness as an import source, and U.S. firms increased their manufacturing presence in

Mexico at this time. Partly as a result, U.S. imports of computer equipment from Mexico doubled between

1994 and 1996, a period when Japan’s share of U.S. imports declined as the value of the yen appreciated.

Continued strong demand by U.S. consumers for price-competitive computers, disk drives, and

printers fueled the growth of U.S. imports between 1994 and 1996. U.S. imports of disk drives and other

data storage devices rose sharply.31 Particularly significant were the increases in imports from Korea,

Malaysia, and Singapore, major sources for the low cost, standardized components used in PCs. U.S.

imports from these three countries rose by a combined $7 billion, or 54 percent during this period.

The rate of growth of U.S. imports of computer equipment, in terms of value, slowed in 1997 as

demand for these products increased at a more restrained pace.32 Nevertheless, U.S. consumers continued

to demand inexpensive computer equipment supplied primarily by Asian producers. Japan, Singapore, and

Taiwan remained the three leading sources for U.S. imports, accounting for 54 percent of total U.S.

imports of computer equipment. However, Japan continued to lose market share as Japanese producers

shifted manufacturing to lower cost Asian locales, particularly China and Malaysia. U.S., European, and

Asian firms operating in higher cost Asian countries (namely Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan) also shifted

production to lower cost areas in Asia.
14

Table 3

Computer equipment: U.S. imports for consumption, by principal source, 1991 and 2000

(in thousand dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Japan ........................ 9,497,727 Japan ......................... 14,502,522

Singapore ..................... 4,493,528 Taiwan ........................ 10,682,035

Taiwan ....................... 3,587,818 China .......................... 10,618,332

Canada ....................... 2,140,485 Singapore ...................... 10,092,690

Korea ........................ 1,203,008 Mexico ......................... 9,042,814

United Kingdom ................. 912,192 Malaysia ....................... 8,149,368

Hong Kong .................... 690,904 Korea ......................... 7,769,765

Mexico ........................ 655,360 Canada ........................ 3,741,679

Germany ...................... 557,466 Philippines ...................... 2,917,725

Thailand ...................... 534,229 Thailand ....................... 2,738,645

Malaysia ...................... 409,375 United Kingdom .................. 2,100,970

Ireland ........................ 400,566 Ireland ......................... 1,458,084

France ........................ 241,975 Hungary ........................ 1,262,752

China ......................... 193,969 Costa Rica ...................... 835,842

Israel ......................... 118,299 Germany ....................... 747,822

 All other .................... 634,827 All other ...................... 3,603,374

 Total ....................... 26,271,428 Total ........................ 90,264,419

EU15 ......................... 2,488,420 EU15 .......................... 5,986,205

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

During 1991-2000, the general shift in production locations to lower cost locales significantly

altered the relative importance of U.S. import partners. Japan’s share of U.S. computer equipment imports

dropped from 36 to 16 percent, Taiwan’s share declined from 14 to 12 percent, and Singapore’s share fell

from 17 to 11 percent. In contrast, emerging Asian producers such as China and Malaysia enlarged their

shares. During the period, China’s share rose from near zero to 12 percent, making it the third largest U.S.

supplier. Malaysia’s share grew from less than 2 percent to 9 percent. Due in part to U.S. investment,

Mexico also rose in importance as a U.S. supplier, with its share of U.S. imports growing from 2 to 10

percent. 

Exports

During the 10-year period, U.S. exports of computer equipment more than doubled from

$22 billion to $46 billion, representing an average annual growth rate of 8 percent (figure 3). Trends in

export growth paralleled those of import growth; exports grew at an average annual rate of 11 percent

during 1991-96, moderated between 1996-1999 largely as a result of the Asian financial crisis, and rose

strongly by 16 percent in 2000. Global demand for computer equipment rose with the corporate adoption

of computers to streamline business processes, the growth of electronic commerce, the increasing diversity

of content on the Internet, the growing availability of lower priced Internet connectivity for consumers, and

the increasing availability of inexpensive, high performance PCs. Another factor driving worldwide
33 Ibid; and U.S. Foreign Commercial Service (USFCS) and U.S. Department of State (DOS), “Personal

computers and peripherals,” Industry Sector Analysis: Japan, Aug. 15, 2000, found at Internet address

http://www.usatrade.gov, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001. USFCS and DOS, Industry Sector Analysis: Taiwan found at

Internet address http://www.usatrade.gov, retrieved Oct. 10, 2001. 

34 HS 8473.30.

35 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Commodity Areas

Annual Report for 1991, inv. No. 332-345, pub. 2517, June 1992, p. 67, and USITC, “Automatic data processing

machines,” U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Industries 1993 Annual Report, inv. No. 332-345, pub. 2805, Sept. 1994,

p. 138, for additional information.

36 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1995, inv. No.

332-345, pub. 2992, Sept. 1996, p. 11-5, for additional information.

37 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1995, inv. No.

332-345, pub. 2992, Sept. 1996, p. 11-6, for additional information.

38 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1997, inv. No.

332-345, pub. 3120, July 1998, p. 13-6, for additional information.

39 For example, Compaq’s Scottish plant opened in November 1987 and expanded significantly in 1994

due to additional investment. Sun Microsystems opened its Scottish plant in 1990, and by 2000, Scotland

reportedly accounted for almost half of Sun’s worldwide output. Sun’s Scottish production center also controls the

supply chain throughout Europe and Asia.

15

demand for computer equipment was the large and growing replacement PC market.33 U.S. leadership in

new computer technology and aggressive pricing contributed to global demand for U.S.-manufactured

computer equipment. Computer parts and accessories remained the primary U.S. export throughout the

period, accounting for approximately two-thirds of exports.34 A significant portion of these exports were

likely to offshore manufacturing operations of U.S. affiliates.

During the first part of the decade (1991-93), the global market for computer equipment grew less

rapidly than the U.S. market. Incomplete computers, storage units, and peripherals accounted for threequarters of U.S. exports of computer equipment.35 Canada, Japan, and the EU were the dominant U.S.

export markets during this period, accounting for more than 70 percent of the total in 1991.

As noted earlier, the conclusion of NAFTA in January 1994 likely did not significantly impact U.S.

trade in computer equipment with Canada and Mexico. However, the Mexican peso devaluation reduced

the price competitiveness of U.S. exports to that market, which declined 17 percent between 1994-95. 

Overall, however, U.S. exports expanded in 1995 due to strong demand for U.S.-manufactured printed

circuit boards and other computer parts in East Asia and the EU.36 Demand for U.S. computer parts was

particularly strong in Germany and Japan, which caused U.S. exports to those countries to increase by

30 percent and 23 percent, respectively. With regard to completed PCs and network servers, the leading

destinations for U.S. exports were Germany, Japan, Canada, and the United Kingdom. While important

markets, these countries were also used by U.S. firms as distribution hubs for sales to other parts of Europe

and Asia.37

In 1996-97, U.S. exports of computer equipment continued to expand with the growing demand for

U.S. computer equipment in most markets. During this period, U.S. exports to the United Kingdom grew

by 25 percent, due in part to price reductions implemented by leading vendors to encourage sales in the

small business market segment and reduce inventory levels of older technology products.38 In addition, the

United Kingdom was a major destination for U.S. exports of components and subassemblies, reflecting

U.S. firms’ manufacturing operations established there to serve the European market.39 U.S. exports to

Canada, which consisted primarily of finished computers and peripherals, rose due to competitive pricing

and corporate adoption of client/server personal networks. Economic recession in Japan and an increase in
40 See USITC, “Automatic data processing machines,” Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1998, inv. No.

332-345, pub. 3220, July 1999, p. 13-9, for additional information.

41 See USITC, “Computers, Peripherals, and Parts,” Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 2000, pub. 3436,

July 2001, p. 12-6, for additional information.

16

Japan’s consumption tax resulted in a slight decline in computer equipment exports to that market,

although computer parts exports increased slightly.

U.S. export levels experienced considerable fluctuation during 1998-2000. In 1998, exports

declined for the only time during the decade, by roughly 7 percent. The Asian financial crisis and

downturns in major markets, such as Japan, contributed to this decline.40 Exports were relatively flat in

1999, but rebounded strongly by 16 percent in 2000. Computer parts, most of which were destined for

foreign affiliates or contract manufacturers accounted for the largest part of the growth.41 In addition,

Asian markets began to recover from the financial crisis. 

Although Canada, Japan, and the United Kingdom were the top 3 U.S. export markets throughout

the decade, their relative importance declined slightly. Canada’s share of U.S. exports dropped from 15 to

13 percent, Japan’s from 14 to 10 percent, and the United Kingdom’s from 11 to 9 percent (table 4). 

In contrast, Mexico, Korea, and China increased their share of U.S. exports. During the period, exports to

Mexico and Korea roughly quadrupled, while exports to China increased by over 5000 percent. Exports to

these countries were both for consumption as well as for incorporation into unfinished computer equipment

which, after further assembly, was often exported. 

Table 4

Computer equipment: U.S. domestic exports, by principal market, 1991 and 2000

(in thousand dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Canada ......................... 3,231,333 Canada ........................ 5,878,620

Japan .......................... 3,091,344 Japan ......................... 4,447,042

Germany ........................ 2,433,510 United Kingdom .................. 4,145,946

United Kingdom ................... 2,420,641 Netherlands ..................... 4,031,645

Netherlands ...................... 1,264,632 Mexico ......................... 3,229,616

France .......................... 1,115,804 Germany ....................... 2,811,886

Mexico .......................... 781,829 Korea ......................... 1,936,885

Australia ........................ 748,111 Singapore ...................... 1,850,823

Singapore ....................... 689,049 Hong Kong .................... 1,608,366

Korea .......................... 527,246 Ireland ......................... 1,554,990

Italy ............................ 489,071 Brazil .......................... 1,465,756

Ireland .......................... 487,331 France ......................... 1,234,028

Taiwan ......................... 393,787 China .......................... 1,137,759

Belgium ......................... 366,873 Australia ....................... 1,019,930

Hong Kong ...................... 336,837 Taiwan ........................ 935,045

 All Other ...................... 3,814,480 All Other ..................... 7,861,223

 Total ......................... 22,191,480 Total ........................ 45,149,559

 EU15 .......................... 9,462,973 EU15 .......................... 15,415,538

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
42 According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. employment in the computer equipment industry

was 361,000 in 2000. Employment declined rapidly during 1991-1993, and moved irregularly throughout the

remainder of the period.

43 For the purposes of this paper, telecommunications equipment comprises most wireline network and

terminal equipment, including switching and transmission equipment, as well as telephone sets, facsimile

machines, and parts for these products. Also included are most types of wireless telecommunications infrastructure

and terminal equipment such as transceivers and cellular telephones. Communications satellites, optical fiber,

fiber optic cable, and broadcast equipment are not included in the discussion. Telecommunications equipment is

covered under HS 8517 and part of HS 8525, NAICS 33421and part of 33422, and SIC 3661and part of SIC 3663. 

44 National Research Board (NRB), “Industry, Technology and the Global Marketplace,” Science and

Engineering Indicators 2000 (Arlington, VA: National Academy Press, 2000), pp. 7-1 to 7-29; Science and

Engineering Indicators 1998, pp. 6-1 to 6-38; Ronald A. Cass and John Hening, “Telecommunications Markets,

(continued...)

17

Balance of Trade

Throughout the decade, the United States maintained a trade deficit with the world in computer

equipment. The deficit grew more than tenfold to $45 billion in 2000, at an average annual growth rate of

31 percent, as U.S. producers continued to shift production abroad and source components and

subassemblies from lower cost producers. The deficit grew most rapidly during 1991-96 due to enormous

U.S. demand for imports of price-competitive products. Export growth, while strong, rose less rapidly than

did imports. The U.S. trade deficit with leading Asian producers such as Japan, Singapore, Taiwan,

Korea, and Malaysia grew throughout the period. The exception was 1998, when U.S. deficits with these

countries decreased in part as a result of exchange rate effects associated with the Asian financial crisis. 

The U.S. maintained a significant though fluctuating surplus with Canada throughout the decade. The U.S.

trade balance with Mexico shifted from surplus to deficit in 1994 due to the devaluation of the peso and the

continued development of the Mexican industry.

U.S. Shipments

During the period, U.S. shipments of computer equipment rose from $55 million to $135 million,

an average annual growth rate of 11 percent. Although exports increased, the growth in shipments

primarily reflected strong U.S. demand for computer equipment. The same factors which influenced

growth in U.S. imports and exports, such as intense price competition, technological advances, the growth

of the Internet, and international trade agreements such as the ITA, also fueled the rise in U.S. demand and

shipments. In 1999, shipments declined slightly even as domestic consumption continued to rise, indicating

displacement of U.S.-produced equipment by imports, primarily from East Asia. However, in 2000 U.S.

shipments rebounded by 19 percent as U.S. and global consumption rose strongly. Exports as a share of

shipments declined irregularly during the period, from 41 percent in 1991 to 34 percent in 2000. During

the decade, the U.S. industry experienced tremendous gains in labor productivity as employment declined

by 15 percent while the value of shipments grew by 145 percent.42

Telecommunications Equipment43 

Overview

The United States, along with Japan and the EU, was one of the world’s largest producers and

consumers of telecommunications equipment during 1991-2000.44 U.S. manufacturers were generally
44 (...continued)

ch. in International Trade in Telecommunications (Washington, DC: The AEI Press, 1998), pp. 107-127; Japanese

External Trade Organization, “Communications Equipment,” Japanese Market Report 1998, App.1, figs. 1-3, 

p. 1, found at Internet address www.jetro.go.jp; and official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce and

European Union. 

45 The higher end segments of the market included fiber optic transmission, network switching, and

cellular infrastructure equipment.

46 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), 2001 MultiMedia Telecommunications Market Review

and Forecast (Washington, DC: TIA, 2001), pp. 3-15; National Research Council, The Internet’s Coming of Age

(Washington, DC: 2001), pp. 5, 53-55, and 108-112; Barbara M. Schmitz, “Sustaining the Internet Revolution,”

Computer-Aided Engineering, vol. 12, Dec. 2000, p. 14; and James B. Murray, Wireless Nation: The Frenzied

Launch of the Cellular Revolution in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Perseus, Aug. 2001), pp. 1-50. 

18

considered to be global leaders during this period in the development and manufacture of leading-edge

products, particularly digital switching and transmission equipment, data communications and networking

equipment, and high-end terminal equipment, such as voice processing systems and multimedia cellular

devices. However, as the U.S. telecommunications equipment markets opened further due to increased

deregulation and liberalization of telecommunications services, the U.S. industry faced growing competition

in its own market from producers in Canada, the EU, and Japan in the higher end network segments of the

market.45 Meanwhile, early in the period, Japan also dominated global production in the relatively less

sophisticated terminal equipment segments, such as traditional telephones and facsimile machines, although

it progressively shifted such production to lower wage Asian countries, such as Korea, Singapore, Taiwan,

Malaysia, Thailand, and China, throughout the decade. Those countries, along with Mexico, increasingly

dominated global production of less-expensive commodity products, beginning with traditional telephones,

followed by facsimile machines, cordless telephones, and simple cellular handsets.

Some of the factors affecting U.S. trade and production trends during the period include the

relative technological capabilities of U.S. and foreign telecommunications and networking equipment firms;

increased deregulation and privatization of the telecommunication services industries (the major customers

for telecommunications equipment) in the United States and in important overseas markets; the rapid

evolution of wireless communications, data communications, and Internet services;46

increased production sharing and global outsourcing of equipment and components by U.S., EU, Japanese,

and Canadian producers; and reduction and elimination of customs duties for telecommunications

equipment through various trade agreements concluded between the United States and its major trading

partners.

Imports

During 1991-2000, U.S. imports of telecommunications equipment increased at an average annual

rate of 22 percent to $34 billion (figure 4). The growth in imports accelerated toward the end of the period,

rising by an average annual rate of 37 percent during 1996-2000, and by 65 percent from 1999 to 2000. 

Much of the increase in imports resulted from rapidly rising domestic demand for telecommunications

equipment, as U.S. consumption increased by an average annual rate of 14 percent

during the entire period, and by 33 percent from 1999 to 2000. Growing U.S. imports supplemented U.S.

production of telecommunications equipment to meet the rising demand.

Japan was by far the largest supplier of U.S. imports in 1991, accounting for $1.8 billion

(table 5), or over one-third of U.S. imports of telecommunications equipment in that year. Although
47 Other less advanced Asian countries and Mexico were also beginning to increase their supply of U.S.

imports of telecommunications equipment, especially lower end equipment such as traditional telephones; and later

facsimile machines, and cordless and cellular telephones as well. 

48 The factors driving growth in data communications included the increase in Internet Protocol (IP)

traffic over the Internet and the increased amounts of data being transported between businesses. Mark

Cavalollone, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Dec. 31, 1998, pp. 1-10, found

at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 28, 2001. 

19

Canada was the second leading source of U.S. imports in 1991, it accounted for less than one half of the

total for Japan.47 As the period progressed, the need for greater data-carrying capacity (bandwidth)

associated with rising Internet usage and new services prompted domestic telecommunications service

carriers to increase spending on new advanced technologies48 leading to increased purchases of equipment

from both domestic and foreign manufacturers. Cable television companies and other service providers

seeking to expand bandwidth also attracted more U.S. imports of advanced digital equipment. U.S.

producers and producers from Canada, the EU, and Japan were responsible for supplying the largest

amounts of the more sophisticated network wireline equipment in the first several years of the period. 

However, much of the growth during the latter part of the period is attributed to movement of more

production of low-margin products to low-wage countries and dramatic growth in the U.S. wireless market,

much of which was supplied by foreign producers in Sweden, Finland, Mexico, and emerging Asian

countries. As a result of this increased demand for foreign-made and assembled equipment, U.S. import to

consumption ratios rose each year during the period from 17 percent in 1991 to 32 percent in 2000. 
49 This traditional equipment included such goods as central office switching, transmission, and even

some terminal equipment.

50 AT&T Technologies, the manufacturing arm of AT&T, would be divested by AT&T in 1996 into a

separate company named Lucent Technologies (Lucent).

51 Nortel’s corporate headquarters are in Brampton, Ontario, Canada. During the decade, Nortel expanded

its presence as a manufacturer in the United States and currently has approximately 25,000 U.S. employees

engaged in manufacturing and R&D operations. On May 1, 2000, Bell Canada Enterprises (BCE), which had been

the Canadian-owned parent of Nortel, divested the majority of its Nortel holdings and company officials state that

since October 2000, Nortel has been majority owned by U.S. shareholders. SEC filings by Nortel, and telephone

and email communications with U.S. industry representatives by USITC staff, Jan. 2002.

52 For more information on the breakup of Bell System, please see Robert W. Crandall, After the Breakup:

U.S. Telecommunications in a More Competitive Era (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1991); and

Michael P. Ryan, Knowledge Diplomacy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press), p. 194. 

20

Table 5

Telecommunications equipment: U.S. imports for consumption, by principal source, 1991 and

2000

(in thousand dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Japan ............................. 1,845,190 Canada ........................ 9,065,413

Canada ............................ 694,421 Mexico ......................... 5,863,411

Malaysia ........................... 506,944 Japan ......................... 3,646,647

China .............................. 487,895 China .......................... 3,312,227

Singapore .......................... 280,556 Korea ......................... 3,182,509

Taiwan ............................ 273,796 Malaysia ....................... 2,019,047

Korea ............................. 271,263 Taiwan ........................ 1,891,293

Thailand ........................... 225,416 United Kingdom .................. 914,119

Sweden ............................ 181,298 Israel .......................... 889,332

Hong Kong ......................... 176,646 Sweden ........................ 663,644

Israel .............................. 127,690 Thailand ....................... 487,402

Mexico ............................. 124,785 France ......................... 379,414

France ............................. 105,170 Germany ....................... 379,030

United Kingdom ...................... 101,471 Brazil .......................... 342,667

Philippines .......................... 93,678 Singapore ...................... 336,729

 All other ......................... 250,709 All other ...................... 1,095,508

 Total ............................ 5,746,928 Total ........................ 34,468,392

EU15 .............................. 554,461 EU15 .......................... 2,858,934

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

Mirroring trade trends in EU and Japanese markets, U.S. imports increased slowly in the years just

preceding the 1991-2000 period, as embedded technology and compatibility concerns may have constrained

demand by U.S. telecommunications service firms for equipment from nontraditional suppliers. Most

traditional telecommunications network and terminal equipment49 continued to be supplied by major

domestic producers such as AT&T50 and Nortel Networks (Nortel),51 whose growing presence in the U.S.

market since its entry in 1971 had positioned it well to take advantage of new opportunities created by the

1984 breakup of AT&T’s Bell System.52 In that breakup, AT&T’s local telephone service operating units
53 RBOCs are also sometimes referred to as Regional Holding Companies (RHCs), a more accurate but

less commonly used description of the regional and local telephone service operations divested by AT&T. 

54 Harry M. Shooshan III, “The Bell Breakup,” ch. in Disconnecting Bell: The Impact of the AT&T

Divestiture (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984), pp. 8-22.

55 The agreement by AT&T and the U.S. Department of Justice (often referred to as the Modified Final

Judgment) to break up the Bell System monopoly allowed AT&T to continue to provide long-distance

telecommunications services and manufacture telecommunications equipment, including equipment for its own

long distance network. However, even though AT&T was allowed to continue to compete for equipment sales to

the newly independent RBOCs, with the loss of captive control over those companies, it faced intense competition

from major foreign-based firms. For more information on the AT&T breakup and its implications for

telecommunications service and equipment markets, see Harry M. Shooshan III, Disconnecting Bell: The Impact of

the AT&T Divestiture (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984), chs. 2, 3, and 4, pp. 8- 82. 

56 AT&T’s long distance service division, AT&T Long Lines, was renamed AT&T Communications in

1986.

57 These long-distance service providers had increased their presence in the U.S. market during the late

1970s and 1980s as the result of some important decisions by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission

(FCC), permitting increased competition with AT&T, the traditional monopoly supplier of telecommunications

services (as well as equipment) in the U.S. market.

58 Despite the rapidly increasing share of U.S. telecommunications equipment imports held by Malaysia,

Thailand, and China, the largest suppliers of U.S. imports in the mid-1990s, were Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and

Korea, together accounting for well over half of total U.S. imports in 1996.

21

were divested into independent Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs),53 effectively eliminating the

long-term captive supply arrangement between AT&T’s manufacturing equipment division and its local

telephone service operating units.54 Although this provided potential new opportunities for other U.S. and

foreign-headquartered equipment manufacturers, it took several years for the newly divested RBOCs and

manufacturers to adjust to the changed U.S. market situation. However, by the early 1990s, U.S. and

foreign competitors, especially from Canada, the EU, and Japan, had increased their penetration of the U.S.

market for higher end network transmission and switching equipment, a market previously dominated by

AT&T.55 Although AT&T’s manufacturing division continued to be the primary supplier of equipment to

AT&T Communications,56 still the dominant long distance service provider in the United States, foreign

suppliers to local and regional telephone companies were able to increase their shipments of network

infrastructure equipment to emerging long distance competitors such as MCI and U.S. Sprint.57 

As the decade progressed, expanded U.S. demand for telecommunications equipment and strong

marketing efforts by foreign firms largely accounted for the accelerated growth in U.S. imports. Increasing

challenges to AT&T’s manufacturing division by domestic and foreign producers led to fierce competition

with respect to both pricing and technology offerings to maintain or gain market share. In addition, in

order to concentrate on development and production of higher end network and transmission equipment,

traditional U.S. and foreign-based competitors increasingly moved production of lower cost items such as

telephone sets and labor-intensive assembly to a number of Asian countries with low production costs and

advanced manufacturing skills. For example, as previously indicated, Japan started relocating low-end

production of terminal equipment to Asian countries, such as Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, and

China, which increased the shares of these latter countries of U.S. imports of facsimile machines and

telephones.58 The steady appreciation of the Japanese yen during 1989-95 contributed to this shift in

production. 

Mexico also became an increasingly important supplier of telecommunications equipment as its

maquiladora program prompted U.S. producers to relocate the manufacture and assembly of laborintensive products. Such assembly was facilitated by U.S. tariff provisions under Harmonized Tariff

Schedule of the United States (HTS) subheading 9802.00.80, which provided duty preferences on imported
59 Although the combined effects of these various agreements likely had some influence on increased U.S.

imports during the 1991-2000 period, it is unlikely that any one agreement had particularly significant effects. For

instance, NAFTA, which took effect on January 1, 1994, had a negligible effect on the almost $400 million

increase in U.S. imports of telecommunications equipment from Mexico from 1993 to 1996. The average trade

weighted duty for communications equipment imported from both Mexico and Canada decreased by less than 1

percentage point during 1993-96. The rise instead was primarily attributed to the sharp devaluation of the peso in

1995, a decrease in Japanese exports of such equipment to the United States, and rising demand for

communications equipment in the United States, including demand for U.S. imports from Mexico that entered

under HTS subheading 9802.00.80. For further information, see USITC inv. No. 332-381, The Impact of the North

American Free Trade Agreement on the U.S. Economy and Industries: A Three-Year Review, pub. 3045, June

1997, pp. 6-183 to 6-185.

60 P.L. 104-104, 110 Stat. 56 (Feb. 8, 1996).

61 For a more detailed examination of this agreement, see “Examination of WTO Agreement on Basic

Telecommunications,” ch. in USITC, inv. No. 332-345, Recent Trends in U.S. Services Trade: 1998 Annual

Report, pub. 3105, pp. 4-1 to 4-98. 

62 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), 2002 MultiMedia Telecommunications Market Review

and Forecast (Washington, DC: TIA, 2001), pp. 3-15.

63 New U.S. entrants in local telephone services were known as competitive local exchange carriers

(CLECs). According to some industry observers, CLECs and other local phone companies accounted for much of

the growth in telecommunications services and became important consumers of telecommunications equipment. 

Ron Insana, “Can He Save Lucent,” Money, Oct. 2001, p. 67. 

64 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Aug. 2, 2001,

pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001.

22

products from Mexico containing U.S. components. The 1994-95 peso crisis in Mexico, which devalued

that currency relative to the U.S. dollar, accelerated this trend of increased imports. The Mexican peso

devaluation also coincided with the appreciation of the Japanese yen and directly resulted in an increase in

U.S. imports from Mexico at the expense of Japan in lower end terminal equipment. 

Although U.S. duty rates for telecommunications equipment at the beginning of the period were

higher than the average U.S. tariffs on other IT products, a series of agreements including, but not limited

to, the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA, the WTO’s Uruguay Round Agreements, and the

Information Technology Agreement led to a steady reduction in, and final elimination of, U.S. customs

duties for telecommunications equipment during the 1991-2000 period. Many analysts believe that the

combined tariff reductions had some influence on the expansion of U.S. consumption and imports.59

However, general growth in demand and continuing efforts to foster competition in the U.S.

telecommunication services market were likely of greater importance. 

Two examples of telecommunications deregulation efforts after the AT&T breakup were the 1996

Telecommunications Act60 of the United States and the 1997 WTO Agreement on Basic

Telecommunications61 between the United States and other WTO trading partners to open their

telecommunications markets to increased international competition.62 These promoted more competition in

the U.S. telecommunication services market, permitted thousands of new service providers to challenge the

entrenched incumbent carriers,63 and allowed local telephone companies, long distance carriers, and cable

television operators to enter one another’s markets under specified conditions.64 These new entrants to the

services market, in turn, added to the customer base for both U.S. and foreign-made telecommunications

equipment producers (table 6). 
65 A duopoly is a market dominated by two companies. Most local or regional cellular markets in the

United States had been limited to two cellular providers until 1996.

66 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Aug. 2, 2001,

pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001.

23

Table 6

Telecommunications equipment: Selected producers supplying the U.S. market in 1997-98, by

headquarter country and major products

Headquarter

country

Company

Name

Products

United States Lucent Wireline, wireless network and terminal equipment

Motorola Wireless network and terminal equipment

Cisco Networking equipment

3COM Networking equipment

Canada Nortel

Networks

Wireline, wireless network and terminal equipment

France Alcatel Wireline, wireless network and terminal equipment

Germany Siemens Wireline, wireless network and terminal equipment

Sweden Ericsson Wireline, wireless network and terminal equipment

Finland Nokia Wireless network and terminal equipment

Netherlands Philips Terminal equipment

United Kingdom GPT Wireline, wireless network and terminal equipment

Japan NEC Wirleine, wireless network and terminal equipment

Fujitsu Wireline terminal and transmission systems, wireless infrastructure

and terminal equipment

Toshiba Wireline, network and terminal equipment

Hitachi Wireline network and terminal equipment

Matsushita Cellular telephones, telephone sets and systems, some network

equipment

Oki Electric Wireless and wireline network and terminal equipment, including

facsimile machines (largely facsimile in U.S.)

Ricoh Facsimile machines

Korea Samsung

Electronics

Wireless and wireline network and terminal equipment, including

wireless telephones

Daewoo

Telecom

Wireline switching and transmission equipment

Sources: Reed Research, Northern Business Information, Korea Ministry of Information and Communication,

company annual reports, and other sources. 

The U.S. regulatory body for the telecommunications industry, the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC), further promoted competition and network expansion with the subsequent opening of

U.S. wireless duopolies65 to as many as seven new competitors in each of their markets. This led to

increased purchases of infrastructure and terminal equipment for such mobile services as cellular and

personal communications systems (PCS).66 Motorola, the U.S.-headquartered global pioneer in mobile

communications; Lucent Technologies, the successor company to AT&T Technologies; and Nortel were all

able to take advantage of this trend. In addition, EU-headquartered companies like Ericsson and Nokia,

whose home countries of Sweden and Finland, respectively, were among the first in the world to establish

comprehensive mobile networks, gained from their experiences at home to become strong competitors to

U.S. and other foreign companies in the U.S. market. These developments resulted in increased U.S.
67 However, previously important EU-headquartered suppliers of traditional wireline network and

transmission equipment, Siemens and Alcatel, lost some of their competitiveness as telecommunications equipment

suppliers due to their lack of expertise in the rapidly emerging mobile communications market.

68 Nokia and Motorola also manufacture or contract out manufacture of cellular handsets in Korea. 

Korean Ministry of Information and Communications officials, interview by USITC staff, Apr. 26, 2001. 

69 For instance, Ericsson handed the task of manufacturing its ordinary cellular handsets to Flextronics in

Singapore while concentrating its cellular efforts on the manufacture of more sophisticated handsets. Stephen

Baker and Andy Reinhardt, “Can Nokia Keep Outrunning the Pack?” Business Week, Sept. 24, 2001, p. 114. 

70 Dennis H. Leibowitz and others, The Wireless Communications Industry (New York: Donaldson,

Lufkin, and Jenrette Securities Corp., Winter 1999/2000), pp. 56-57.

71 Other high technology equipment manufactured by U.S. companies included digital switching and

cellular communications equipment.

72 Even before the 1997 agreement among WTO members to open their telecommunications markets to

international competition, formerly government-owned telecommunication services operators in the EU and Japan,

(continued...)

24

imports of mobile infrastructure equipment and cellular telephones.67 Korea, led by Samsung Electronics,68

also became a major source of U.S. imports of both cellular infrastructure and terminal equipment. 

However, in the final years of the decade, cellular phones were increasingly manufactured in Mexico and

emerging Asian countries.69 These countries, which had become important suppliers of U.S. imports of

corded and cordless telephones, began to increase production of the least costly, simplest cellular telephone

handsets while Nortel, Nokia, and Ericsson concentrated their efforts on mobile infrastructure equipment

and high-end terminal equipment such as multimedia PCS telephones containing web browsing software

and e-mail capabilities. By 1999, U.S. imports of cellular telephones, driven by the expanding U.S.

cellular market and the rapid increase in mobile telephone subscribership in the United States, replaced

cordless telephone sets as the leading U.S. import of telecommunications equipment.70

Exports

U.S. exports of telecommunications equipment increased by an average annual rate of 18 percent

during 1991-2000. Exports grew every year of the period, although they rose negligibly during 1997-98,

when U.S. sales to Asian countries decreased significantly as a result of the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis. 

Exports as a share of U.S. shipments increased each year from 13 percent in 1991 to 22 percent in 1995,

before declining slightly to 20 percent in 2000. During the period, U.S. producers benefitted from

competitive advantages in the production of high technology equipment, such as networking, routing, and

other data communications equipment71 used to build up the Internet and other networks used by businesses

and consumers. The United States was also regarded as the world leader in advanced fiber optic

transmission equipment and higher end terminal equipment such as voice processing systems. The U.S.

competitive advantage in these areas stemmed from technological developments in related information

technology sectors in which the United States excelled, such as microprocessors, software, and computers,

which were incorporated into digital network telecommunications equipment. Finally, U.S. exporters also

profited from the continued liberalization of the formerly closed EU and Japanese telecommunications

service markets throughout the period and significant efforts and expenditures by a number of emerging

Asian countries to rapidly establish advanced telecommunications infrastructures. Such initiatives required

imports of high-technology network and transmission equipment from U.S.-based companies specializing in

that segment. 

U.S. exports of telecommunications equipment to the EU increased rapidly during 1991-1995 as 

privatization and deregulation efforts opened EU services markets, leading to increased procurement of

foreign-made equipment.72 For instance, U.S. exports of telecommunications equipment to the United
72 (...continued)

which had long favored procurement from traditional national suppliers, were either in the process of privatization,

or in the case of the United Kingdom, had completed privatization. In connection with the privatization, major EU

countries, including Germany and France, began allowing gradual entry of new competitors with the national

services suppliers. This resulted in new customers for equipment and also increased pressures on the oncedominant national carriers to upgrade their telecommunications networks with the latest technology. This

advantaged North American manufacturers such as AT&T’s equipment division (later divested and renamed

Lucent) and Nortel, which were able to profit from their expertise in advanced digital and fiber optic network

technology. For more information, see chs. 2 and 5, USITC, inv. No. 332-301, Global Competitiveness of U.S.

Advanced Technology Manufacturing Industries: Communications Technology and Equipment, pub. 2439, Oct.

1991, p. 4-71; and USITC, Telecommunications Equipment: U.S. Performance in Selected Major Markets, Staff

Research Study 24, pub. 3150, Dec. 1998, pp. 3-11 to 3-13. 

73 For further information, see USITC, inv. No. 332-380, Advice Concerning the Proposed Modification

of Duties on Certain Information Technology Products and Distilled Spirits, pub. 3031, Apr. 1997, pp. 4-6 and 4-

7.

74 For further information on expanding U.S. exports to Japan, see USITC, inv. No. 332-345, U.S. Trade

Shifts in Selected Industries, 1993 Annual Report, pub. 2805, p. 140. 

75 U.S. exports of telecommunications equipment also declined negligibly during 1998-99, primarily

reflecting assignment of more manufacturing responsibilities by a U.S. firm to its Mexican production sharing

partner. However, U.S. exports to Mexico picked up significantly again in 2000, increasing by 22-percent from the

previous year, as the Mexican market increasingly became an important final market in its own right for U.S.-

made telecommunications equipment, in addition to remaining an important partner in U.S.-Mexican production

sharing trade. 

25

Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, and France more than doubled from $671 million in 1991 to

$1.6 billion in 1995 (table 7). U.S. exporters took advantage of efforts by EU countries to update older

telecommunications systems with advanced digital fiber-optic systems, an area of expertise for U.S.

producers. However, with the exception of several countries, overall U.S. exports to the EU declined in

1996, partly due to a general economic downturn in the EU. Some U.S. industry officials suggested that

efforts of EU government officials to promote the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

standard adopted by the EU, rather than either of the two prevailing U.S. standards at that time, also

negatively affected sales of U.S. wireless equipment in that year.73 Due to a steady increase in the relative

value of the yen compared to the U.S. dollar, U.S. exports of telecommunications equipment to Japan

increased rapidly from 1991-95, but slowed somewhat in 1996, as the dollar regained value against the yen,

making U.S.-equipment more expensive in Japan. U.S. exports to Japan also rose significantly during the

first part of the decade as the result of a contract signed in early 1993 between Nortel and the primary

Japanese telecommunications service provider, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), in which Nortel

agreed to supply NTT with digital switches from a plant in North Carolina. Finally, sales of cellular

switches by other U.S. producers, such as Lucent and Motorola, also contributed to the increase in exports

to Japan.74 

Production sharing relationships between U.S. and Mexican firms over the past decade made

Mexico an important destination for U.S. exports of telecommunications equipment components and parts

to be assembled into finished equipment for export back to the United States. Further, as the decade

progressed, Mexico increasingly became an important market in its own right for the more sophisticated

telecommunications equipment manufactured in the United States. U.S. sector exports to Mexico rose

consistently through the period, from almost $323 million in 1991 to $2.9 billion by 2000, dropping

significantly only in 1995 due to the peso crisis, which increased the price of U.S.-made equipment in the

Mexican market.75 U.S. exports to Canada rose consistently throughout the period, including exports of

telecommunications equipment and subassemblies produced by Nortel in its U.S. manufacturing facilities. 
76 For further information on expanding U.S. exports to Asia, see USITC, U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected

Industries; 1993 Annual Report, inv. No. 332-345, pub. 2805, pp. 139-140. 

77 See USITC, inv. No. 332-345, U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Industries: 1993 Annual Report, pub. 2805,

Sept. 1994, p. 140.

78 Countries most affected by the Asian financial crisis included Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the

Philippines, and Thailand.

26

Table 7

Telecommunications equipment: U.S. domestic exports, by principal market, 1991 and 2000

(in thousand dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Canada ........................... 635,593 Canada ..................... 2,784,650

Japan ............................ 501,263 Mexico ...................... 1,942,456

Mexico ............................ 322,938 Japan ...................... 1,863,035

United Kingdom ..................... 288,887 United Kingdom ............... 1,091,368

Taiwan ........................... 190,696 Korea ...................... 1,016,665

Korea ............................ 187,658 Netherlands .................. 906,399

Italy .............................. 187,590 Germany .................... 689,172

Germany .......................... 183,556 Brazil ....................... 674,722

Netherlands ........................ 105,015 China ...................... 581,025

Hong Kong ........................ 99,082 Ireland ...................... 437,522

France ............................ 92,558 Taiwan ..................... 423,315

China ............................. 75,716 Australia .................... 410,326

Spain ............................. 67,560 Argentina .................... 399,381

Saudi Arabia ....................... 67,194 Hong Kong .................. 359,167

Singapore ......................... 61,969 France ...................... 339,543

 All Other ........................ 1,077,313 All Other .................. 4,104,272

 Total ........................... 4,144,589 Total ..................... 18,023,018

 EU15 ............................ 1,118,757 EU15 ....................... 4,582,003

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

In 1993, U.S. exports to Asia began to grow significantly to Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong,

Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, and especially China, as all of these countries engaged in efforts to improve

telecommunications infrastructure and increase main telephone line penetration ratios to reach more

people.76 For example, China began implementing an ambitious program to expand its networks with the

goal of reaching 100 million telephone lines by the year 2000, and Korea opened its telecommunication

equipment procurement to foreign competition in 1993, allowing AT&T to provide almost 20 percent of the

equipment Korea procured in that year.77 Further growth in U.S. exports to Asian markets continued

unabated throughout the period, except for a short downturn in 1998 as a result of the Asian financial

crisis.78

U.S. exports to South America expanded for similar reasons, as countries in that region began

modernizing their communications infrastructures with a significant amount of U.S. equipment. For

example, Brazil, which has the largest telecommunications market in Latin America, received almost
79 The increased U.S. exports to these countries and other developing countries establishing new

telecommunications networks consisted primarily of repeaters and central office switches, which are basic

requirements for telecommunications networks. Other products exported by U.S. companies were parts for central

office switches and other telephone apparatus, including PBXs, internal switching systems used in office telephone

systems. In recent years, wireless equipment has become a more significant portion of U.S. exports to these

markets.

80 For more information on these reforms and growth of the Brazilian telecommunications equipment

market, see USITC, Telecommunications Equipment: U.S. Performance in Selected Major Markets, Staff Research

Study 24, pub. 3150, Dec. 1998, p. 2-7; and USDOC, International Trade Administration, National Trade Data

Bank, “Brazil: Leading Sectors for U.S. Exports and Investments,” Stat-USA Database, found at Internet address

http://www.stat-usa.gov, retrieved Sept. 26, 2001.

81 During 1993-97, the combined revenues for Cisco, 3Com, and Bay Networks grew from $3 billion to

$11 billion, and increased at an average annual rate of 50 percent through the end of the decade. Bay Networks

was acquired by Nortel in August 1998 (Lucent had previously acquired a data communications equipment

supplier, Octel, in 1996). USITC, Telecommunications Equipment: U.S. Performance in Selected Major Markets,

Staff Research Study 24, pub. 3150, Dec. 1998, pp. 2-5 to 2-6; “The Electronic Business Top 200,” Electronic

Business, July 1998, July 1999, July 2000, and July 2001; and U.S. investment analyst, telephone interview by

USITC staff, Sept. 20, 2001.

82 U.S. government and industry representatives, telephone interviews by USITC staff, Mar. 15-23, 2001. 

27

30 percent of its telecommunications equipment imports from the United States.79 U.S.

telecommunications equipment manufacturers especially benefitted from Brazilian government reforms that

encouraged major foreign and domestic investment in the telecommunication services sector which led to

increased purchases of U.S.- and other foreign-made telecommunications equipment.80 

As the decade progressed, pioneer companies in the development and manufacture of Internet

routing, switching, and other data communications equipment, including Cisco, 3Com, U.S. Robotics, and

Bay Networks, as well as key developers of mobile communications technology, such as Motorola, joined

Lucent and Nortel as major U.S. exporters of telecommunications equipment.81 The increased demand for

data communications products was due to continued rapid growth and popularity of data-intensive

applications, such as Internet access, real-time data backup, electronic mail, video conferencing,

multimedia file transfers, movement of large blocks of stored data, and digital cable television systems.82

Balance of Trade

The U.S. trade balance for telecommunications equipment began as a deficit during the early part

of the 1991-2000 period. However, the deficit gradually declined each year until 1995, when the U.S.

trade balance improved to a U.S. surplus of $1.3 billion, with the surplus peaking at $1.6 billion in 1997. 

The deficit declined in the early part of the period due to increased opportunities for sales of U.S.-made

equipment in more liberalized EU and Japanese markets and in developing Asian and Latin American

economies that had embarked on major programs to improve their telecommunications infrastructures. 

The U.S. trade balance began a downward trend into deficit again beginning in 1998, reaching $6.4

billion by 2000. The Asian financial crisis that led to increased U.S. imports and declining exports to that

part of the world in 1998, also accelerated the decade-long movement of terminal equipment production to

Asia. Another major factor contributing to the rise in the U.S. deficit during the latter part of the period

was the significant rise in domestic demand for cellular telephones, which spurred U.S. imports from

Mexico and Asia. As a result of these trends, US. imports more than doubled from 1998-2000, while U.S.

exports increased by just 32 percent. 
83 As a result of intensive capital expenditures by Germany on telecommunications since reunification,

“the formerly backward system of the eastern part of the country has been modernized and integrated with the

western part,” Central Intelligence Agency, “Germany”, World Factbook 2001, p. 8, found at Internet address

http://www.cia.gov, retrieved Oct. 14, 2001. 

84 See USITC invs. No. 332-345, U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Commodity Areas: 1992 Annual Report,

pub. 2677, table B-6, Sept. 1993, p. 210; U.S. Trade Shifts in Selected Industries: 1993 Annual Report, pub. 2805,

table B-5, Sept. 1994, p. 229; U.S. Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1996, pub. 305, table B-9, Sept. 1997, 

p. B-54; Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1998, pub. 3220, table B-9, Sept. 1999, p. 56; and Shifts in U.S.

Merchandise Trade in 2000, table C-9, July 2001, p. C-47.

28

During the 1991-2000 period, Canada replaced Japan as the country with which the United States

had the largest trade deficit in telecommunications equipment. In 1991, the U.S. trade deficit with Japan

was over $1 billion, while the United States experienced a negligible deficit with Canada. However, by

2000, the U.S. deficit with Canada had reached over $6 billion, while the U.S. deficit with Japan had

declined to less than $50 million. These changes were largely due to the rising presence as important

players in the U.S. market of Nortel, JDS Uniphase, and a number of smaller optical networking,

component and equipment firms with manufacturing operations in both the United States and Canada. In

addition, while Japan was still a significant supplier of U.S. imports of higher end switching and fiber

optics transmission equipment, a large portion of its production of facsimile machines, telephones, and

other low-end terminal equipment had shifted to Taiwan, Malaysia, China, and other low-cost Asian

countries as the period progressed. Another major shift occurred in the U.S. trade balance with Mexico,

which changed from a modest U.S. surplus in 1991 to an almost $4 billion deficit in 2000. This shift

resulted to a large extent from steadily increasing production-sharing between the two countries throughout

the period as U.S. firms outsourced labor-intensive manufacturing activities to Mexico while retaining

more advanced manufacturing operations in the United States in efforts to improve their international

competitiveness by lowering production costs. In South America, increased expenditures by the Brazilian

government on telecommunications enabled the United States to achieve a modest surplus with that country

by 2000. 

Throughout the period, the United States maintained significant surpluses in trade with the EU.

The U.S. surplus with Germany more than tripled as that country modernized telecommunications services

in its previously communist eastern states.83 The United States also maintained trade surpluses with most

of the other EU countries, including such important markets as the United Kingdom and France. However,

one major exception was Sweden, whose surplus in telecommunications equipment trade with the United

States continued to grow rapidly throughout the period, largely due to Ericsson’s success in serving the

growing U.S. market for wireless equipment. 

Shipments

Despite rapidly growing U.S. imports, culminating in the U.S. industry’s largest trade deficit ever

in 2000, U.S. shipments increased every year, almost tripling during the period to over $90 billion (figure

4). Such growth represented an average annual rate of increase of over 12 percent during 1991-2000, with

a rise in shipments of almost 21 percent during the last year of the period. Employment in the industry

declined moderately every year during 1991-94, as U.S. companies were able to increase manufacturing

efficiencies in the production of high technology equipment, while discontinuing much of the production of

commodity equipment.84 However, U.S. employment turned upward in 1995 and, except for declines in
85 Employment fell slightly in 1998, as the Asia financial crisis led to reduced U.S. exports in that year,

and again in 1999, before firms had an opportunity to expand capacity again in 2000 to meet rapidly expanding

U.S. and foreign demand for telecommunications equipment. See USITC invs. No. 332-345, Shifts in U.S.

Merchandise Trade in 1996, pub. 305, table B-9, Sept. 1993, p. B-54; Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 1998,

pub. 3220, table B-9, Sept. 1999, p. 56; and Shifts in U.S. Merchandise Trade in 2000, table C-9, July 2991, p. C47.

86 Mark Cavalollone, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Dec. 31,

1998, pp. 1-10, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 28,

2001. 

87 Pradip Bhatnager, “Telecom Reforms in Developing Countries and Outlook for Electronic Commerce,”

Journal of Economic Law, (1999), pp. 695-717; and U.S. industry official, written communication to USITC staff,

Jan. 2002.

88 According to one information technology industry expert, “From a producer’s standpoint, deregulation

has bolstered the US comparative advantage in the telecommunications industry.” John Sullivan Wilson,

“Telecommunications Liberalization: The Goods and Services Connection,” Unfinished Business:

Telecommunications after the Uruguay Round, Gary Clyde Hufbauer and Erika Wada, eds. (Washington, D.C.:

Institute for International Economics, Dec. 1997), p. 65.

89 Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette, The Global Wireless Communications Industry (New York: 2000), 

pp. 4- 7.

90 Multimedia Telecommunications Association (MMTA), 1998 Multimedia Telecommunications Market

Review and Forecast (Arlington, VA: MMTA, 1998), p. 64; and MMTA, 1997, MultiMedia Telecommunications

Market Review and Forecast, p. 39. For further information on growth in the cellular market see USITC,

(continued...)

29

1998 and 1999, continued to rise throughout the rest of the period due to substantial demand in U.S. and

overseas markets for U.S. telecommunications technology.85

The rapid acceleration in domestic demand for digital, data, and mobile communications

equipment, areas in which U.S. companies excel, influenced the increases in U.S. shipments of

telecommunications equipment.86 To a somewhat lesser but still significant extent, the steady increase in

U.S. shipments during the period also resulted from increased demand in foreign markets for U.S.-made

equipment, as U.S. exports more than quadrupled during the period. In addition, some industry experts

assert that completion of tariff-reduction agreements, such as the ITA, also influenced sales of U.S.

equipment in certain overseas markets.87 The growing importance of U.S. exports to U.S. manufacturers of

telecommunications equipment is reflected by the increase in the ratio of exports to shipments from 13

percent in 1991 to 20 percent in 2000. 

As was the case with increased U.S. imports and exports, increasing deregulation of U.S. and

foreign telecommunications service markets and the advanced technological capabilities of U.S. companies,

particularly in digital switching, transmission, and Internet routing equipment, contributed to the consistent

growth in U.S. shipments during the period.88 Lucent’s technological developments in its world-renowned

Bell Laboratories and innovations by relative newcomers to the telecommunications equipment industry,

such as Cisco and 3Com in data communications, enabled those companies to prosper during the period. 

Despite intense competition from Scandinavian producers like Ericsson and Nokia in mobile

communications, Motorola’s pioneering role in mobile and cellular telecommunications technology also

contributed to increased U.S. shipments of telecommunications equipment. Mobile communications, which

were influenced by steadily declining prices, advanced services, and rapidly increasing coverage, grew at an

increasing rate during the final years of the period,89 as the number of wireless subscribers in the United

States more than tripled to over 50 million during 1993-97,90 then doubled to 100 million by 2000.91 Such
90 (...continued)

Telecommunications Equipment: U.S. Performance in Selected Major Markets, Staff Research Study 24, pub.

3150, Dec. 1998, p. 2-12. 

91 Philip D. Wohl, “Telecommunications: Wireless,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Dec. 28, 2000,

p. 1, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Sept. 21, 2001.

92 For the purposes of this paper, semiconductors include integrated circuits as well as discrete devices.

Integrated circuits include analog products, mixed signal devices (analog and digital), and digital items such as

microprocessors, logic, and memory. Discrete semiconductors include items such as transistors, diodes, and

thyristors. Semiconductors are covered under HS 8541and 8542, NAICS 334413, and SIC 3674. 

93 Elsevier Advanced Technology, Yearbook of World Electronics Data (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science,

Ltd., various editions), and Reed Electronics Research, The Yearbook of Electronic Data (UK: Reed Business

Information, Ltd., various editions).

94 David C. Mowery and Richard R. Nelson (Eds.) Sources of Industrial Leadership: Studies of Seven

Industries, Chapter 2, “Semiconductors,” by Richard Langlois and Edward Steinmuller (New York: Cambridge

University Press, 1998). A noteable exception is Micron Technology, a U.S.-headquartered company that is

among the global leaders in production of commodity memory semiconductors. However, on the whole, the United

States is a large net importer of these items.

95 USITC, Industry & Trade Summary: Semiconductors, pub. 2708, Dec. 1993, pp. 10-14. During the

decade, many Japanese semiconductor firms made efforts to shift the concentration of their product offerings from

memory to logic and microcomponents.

30

growth in usage drove accelerating demand for cellular and PCS equipment. U.S. manufacturers benefitted

from their competitive strengths in those technologies to take advantage of the increased demand for that

equipment.

Semiconductors92

Overview

The United States and Japan were the world’s leading semiconductor manufacturers throughout

1991-2000.93 As the decade progressed, the United States largely maintained its position while Japan’s

weakened and the EU, Korea, and others rose in importance. Generally, U.S. companies were leaders in

the production of certain technology- and design-intensive semiconductors such as microprocessors, digital

signal processors, and specialty logic devices.94 The EU industry, though much smaller than its U.S.

counterpart, was also generally strongest in non-commodity products. In contrast, Japanese companies

were strongest in the production of commodity memory products such as dynamic random access

semiconductors (DRAMs) and static random access memory semiconductors (SRAMs) as well as less

design-intensive logic semiconductors.95 Korea emerged during the period as a leading manufacturer of

commodity memory products, competing with and taking substantial global market share from its Japanese

competitors.

During 1991-2000, the U.S. semiconductor industry experienced extraordinary growth

accompanied by significant changes in its patterns of trade. A number of factors affected U.S. trade and

production during the period including the tremendous growth in worldwide demand for semiconductors,

the continuing use of production-sharing operations by U.S. semiconductor producers, the globalization of

electronics production, pricing, external economic shocks, and duty-reduction agreements. The

extraordinary growth in U.S. and global demand for semiconductors was the single most important factor

affecting trade and shipments. During the period, U.S. consumption more than tripled while global demand
96 Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA), “Stats: World Market Shares and Sales, 1991-2000,” found

at Internet address http://www.semichips.org, retrieved Nov. 13, 2001.

97 Bill McLean, “Chip Market Edges Forward,” EETimes, May 27, 1998, found at Internet address

http://www.techweb.com, retrieved July 6, 1998.

98 During the decade, many U.S. production-sharing partners also became significant markets for U.S.

products.

99 See, USITC, Production Sharing: Use of U.S. Components and Materials in Foreign Assembly

Operations, 1992-1995, Apr. 1997. According to data provided by the SIA, production activities in the United

States by U.S.-headquartered companies are generally considered high value-added manufacturing while the

assembly work performed in Asia is considered low value-added. In 2000, 57 percent of U.S.-headquartered

companies’ workforce and 68 percent of labor expenses were in the United States. SIA representatives, email to

USITC staff, Jan. 14, 2002.

100 Because of this relationship, growth in U.S. exports of unfinished semiconductors may be an indicator

of strong domestic demand as many of these products, after foreign assembly, are ultimately re-exported to the

United States for consumption. Unfinished semiconductors accounted for between 49 and 53 percent of exports

during 1991-96, rose to 56 percent during 1997-99, and declined back to 52 percent in 2000. 

31

rose nearly four-fold.96 Demand for semiconductors is primarily driven by demand for the products into

which they are incorporated. The principal consumers of semiconductors were the industries that

manufactured electronic equipment such as computers, telecommunications and data networking

equipment, and consumer electronics, as well as automobiles and industrial machinery. As noted earlier in

this paper, these industries experienced an explosion of growth and product innovation during the decade

including the development of the affordable PC, the Internet, data communications, and wireless

telecommunications. In addition to the growth in electronic equipment production, electronic equipment

also became increasingly semiconductor intensive (a rising percentage of production/input costs were

accounted for by semiconductors), further fueling demand for semiconductors.97

During the period, U.S. semiconductor producers continued to rely heavily on production-sharing

partners, and, as a result, trade with these partners accounted for a large portion of overall U.S.

semiconductor trade. Essentially, semiconductor production-sharing occurred when unfinished

semiconductors fabricated in the United States were sent abroad, primarily to locations in East Asia, for the

finishing stages of assembly and testing. After finishing, the semiconductors were usually re-exported to

the United States or a third-country market for consumption.98 U.S. companies established productionsharing facilities abroad largely to take advantage of lower labor costs in the partner countries during the

relatively more labor-intensive assembly stage of production.99 Because most U.S. companies make use of

these arrangements, roughly one-half of U.S. exports are of unfinished items and, in turn, a significant

quantity of U.S. imports are of U.S.-originated product.100

The continuing globalization of electronics production, both for semiconductors and other IT

products, had a significant impact on the composition of U.S. trade partners as well as their relative

importance. During the period, the number of semiconductor manufacturing countries expanded, thereby

increasing the available sources of U.S. supply. Chief among these emerging producers were Korea,

Taiwan, and Singapore. These producers had long hosted assembly operations, but “graduated” into large

scale semiconductor fabrication during the late 1980s and the 1990s, and increased their relative

importance as U.S. import sources. Semiconductor trade patterns were also affected by a shift of

production capacity for electronic equipment from traditional manufacturers such as the United States,

Japan, and the EU to lower wage rate countries. During the decade, a number of Asia-Pacific locales

developed large electronic equipment manufacturing industries and, as a result, became major markets for

U.S. semiconductor exports.
101 U.S. bound rates for all semiconductors were officially reduced to zero under the Uruguay Round

commitments on Jan. 1, 1999. However, the United States had ceased applying duties on nearly all semiconductor

imports in the 1980s. In 1991, the aggregate U.S. trade-weighted average duty for semiconductors was less than

0.1 percent ad valorem.

32

Semiconductor pricing, regional economic shocks, and the reduction of semiconductor tariffs by a

number of important trading partners also impacted U.S. trade during the period. Volatile pricing for

semiconductors, particularly for commodity memory products, significantly affected markets and the value

of trade and shipments. In certain years, commodity memory products suffered sufficient price erosion to

result in negative value growth for U.S. imports. The Asian financial crisis, the primary regional economic

shock, resulted in depressed demand for electronic equipment in that region, negatively affecting U.S.

semiconductor exports to the area in 1997-98. Tariff reduction agreements such as the 1997 Information

Technology Agreement likely made a small contribution to the level of U.S. semiconductor exports

following its implementation. However, U.S. participation in a number of such agreements during the

decade likely had no impact on U.S. import levels because the United States had already ceased collecting

import duties on semiconductors in the 1980s.101

Imports

Fueled by the strong rise in domestic semiconductor consumption, U.S. imports surged nearly fourfold to $47 billion during 1991-2000 (figure 5). U.S. import trends largely mirrored global 
102 SIA, World Market Sales and Shares for 1991-2000, found at Internet address

http://www.semichips.org, retrieved Sept. 19, 2001.

103 SIA “Semiconductor Industry Association Reports Global Semiconductor Market Tops $200 Billion

Mark for First Time,” Feb. 5, 2001, found at Internet address http://www.semichips.org, retrieved Sept. 19, 2001.

104 Integrated Circuit Engineering (ICE), Bill McLean, ed., Mid-Term 1998, A Report on the Integrated

Circuit Industry (Scottsdale, AZ: ICE, 1998) McLean, ed., Mid-Term 1998, p. 1-18, and USITC, Industry & Trade

Summary: Semiconductors, pub. 2708, Dec. 1993, p. 18. 

105 USITC, Industry & Trade Summary: Semiconductors, pub. 2708, Dec. 1993, p. 20.

106 McLean, ed., Mid-Term 1998, p. 1-4.

107 The unit price of DRAMs, the principal semiconductor memory devices employed in computers,

declined by as much as 70 percent in 1996. The price decline was primarily due to global production expanding at

a faster rate than demand. Increased demand from PC manufacturers caused tremendous growth in the global

DRAM market in 1995 (74 percent) that led to expectations of similar expansion in 1996. As a result, existing

DRAM manufacturers added production capacity, while additional firms entered the market. Although the PC

market experienced strong growth in 1996, the growth fell short of expectations and the increase in DRAM

production led to oversupply and a severe drop in unit prices. These extreme price declines continued into 1997-

98.

33

consumption patterns as both experienced a tremendous expansion from 1991-95, a decline during 1996-

98, and a strong recovery in 1999-2000.102 Throughout most of the decade, growth in U.S. semiconductor

demand and imports was closely tied to U.S. computer industry production. However, during the last

several years, the domestic telecommunications and data networking equipment industries also became

demand drivers for semiconductors103 and accounted for an increasing share of U.S. imports and

consumption.

Driven primarily by demand from the domestic computer industry, U.S. semiconductor imports

nearly tripled during 1991-95 to $39 billion.104 In the early 1990s, extreme price competition in the PC

market made PCs affordable to larger segments of the business and consumer populations and resulted in

rapidly increasing domestic demand for, and production of, computer hardware. In turn, demand expanded

for both the commodity (DRAMs and SRAMs) and non-commodity semiconductors (i.e., microprocessors)

that are integral components for computers. The United States was largely dependent upon Japan and

Korea for commodity semiconductors, and, as a result, imports of these items soared. Because of the high

demand, pricing for commodity memory products was quite strong and further boosted the value of

imports. Production-sharing imports of non-commodity products also rose substantially during the period,

and accounted for a large portion of overall semiconductor imports.105

During 1995-98, the value of U.S. imports declined by 14 percent to $33 billion. This decline was

due largely to supply imbalances that caused severe price declines for commodity memory products,

particularly DRAMs and SRAMs.106 Price erosion was so significant that although U.S. imports of

commodity semiconductors continued to grow on a volume basis, the value of those imports declined

sharply. Because DRAMs and SRAMs were such a large portion of U.S. semiconductor imports at the

time, the overall value of U.S. semiconductor imports experienced several years of decline and did not

surpass the 1995 total until 2000.107 In contrast, production-sharing imports remained relatively strong

during 1996-98, reflecting continued growth in U.S. semiconductor production and domestic demand for

U.S.-made products.

U.S. imports experienced a strong rebound during 1999-2000, rising to $47 billion, a 43 percent

increase over the total for 1998. The recovery was due in part to a relative stabilization in prices for

commodity products as well as strong growth in domestic demand for specialized logic and analog

semiconductors used in telecommunications and data networking equipment. Much of the growth in
108 Not including Japan, which had long been a location of semiconductor fabrication. 

109 Japanese and EU-based companies also use assembly facilities in Southeast Asian countries such as

Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. As such, not all U.S. semiconductor imports from these locales are of

U.S.-originated products.

110 Craig Addison, “Economic Slump Makes Southeast Asian Emerging Markets More Competitive,”

Channel Magazine, found at Internet address http://www/semi.org, retrieved May 29, 1998 and Craig Addison,

“Shifting Patterns of Semiconductor Production,” Channel Magazine, found at Internet address

http://www/semi.org, retrieved May 29, 1998.

34

imports for commodity products were traditional imports from Japan and Korea while imports of

semiconductors for telecommunications and data networking purposes were often U.S.-originated items

returning from offshore production-sharing operations.

Changes in the composition of U.S. import suppliers closely mirrored shifts in production-sharing

partners for the United States and the development in East Asia108 of indigenous semiconductor

manufacturing (table 8). In the beginning of the decade, the principal production-sharing partners for the

United States were Malaysia, Canada, Korea, Singapore, the Philippines, and Taiwan, with Malaysia

playing the dominant role.109 In recent years, due in large part to foreign investment in assembly 

facilities, locales such as the Philippines and Thailand have risen in importance. These countries offer low

wage rates, the availability of skilled labor, government incentives, and, in the case of the Philippines,

English language speakers.110 As a result of its recent strong growth, the Philippines is currently

challenging Malaysia as the leading U.S. production-sharing location. In contrast, both Singapore and

Canada have declined in relative importance as production-sharing locations, likely as a result of rising

labor rates in those countries

Table 8

Semiconductors: U.S. imports for consumption, by principal source, 1991 and 2000 (in

thousand dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Japan ............................ 3,574,552 Japan ...................... 8,044,785

Korea ............................ 1,778,542 Korea ...................... 7,478,707

Malaysia .......................... 1,584,345 Malaysia ................... 6,296,658

Canada ........................... 1,419,743 Philippines ................... 5,531,519

Singapore ......................... 1,172,933 Taiwan ..................... 5,073,665

Taiwan ........................... 672,819 Singapore ................... 3,316,451

Philippines ......................... 650,286 Canada ..................... 2,110,235

Thailand .......................... 382,477 Mexico ...................... 1,511,219

Mexico ............................ 333,612 Thailand .................... 1,394,727

Hong Kong ........................ 276,253 Hong Kong .................. 1,175,654

Germany .......................... 253,775 Germany .................... 798,504

United Kingdom ..................... 228,211 China ....................... 716,081

Israel ............................. 143,980 France ...................... 572,080

France ............................ 117,215 Israel ....................... 497,653

Ireland ............................ 74,516 United Kingdom ............... 480,285

 All Other ......................... 264,881 All Other .................... 2,449,499

 Total ............................ 12,928,139 Total ....................... 47,447,721

EU15 ............................. 838,603 EU15 ....................... 3,030,507

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
111 Jeff Dorsch, “All Eyes Turn to Southeast Asia,” Electronic Business, July 1, 2000, found at Internet

address http://ebnonline.com, retrieved, Sept. 27, 2001.

112 During the decade, companies in Taiwan built a number of semiconductor fabrication facilities in

which they produce semiconductors for customers on a contract basis. Many of the customers are U.S.

semiconductor design firms that cannot afford the capital expense associated with building and equipping a

fabrication facility. Typically, customers supply a product design and the Taiwan foundry produces the

semiconductor to that design. The final product is shipped to the United States or a third market for consumption. 

Although the development of the foundry business model was a relatively recent occurrence, it quickly gained

adherents and currently represents a sizable and growing portion of total semiconductor manufacturing. A

significant portion of Singapore’s fabrication industry is foundry based as well. 

113 Thomas Walter Smith and Erick Scheminske, “Semiconductors,” Standard & Poor’s Industry Surveys,

May 17, 2001, May 17, 2001.

114 USDOC, U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994, p. 15-5. Many of these exports were also unfinished products

that were assembled abroad before being shipped to their ultimate location of consumption.

35

In the early 1990s, the vast majority of traditional or non-production sharing U.S. imports were

from Japan, Korea, and the EU. At that time, Japan was the world’s leading semiconductor producer and

the dominant source of U.S. imports. However, as mentioned earlier, Japan’s position both as a world

producer and supplier to the United States experienced significant weakening throughout the period. While

Japan supplied 28 percent of U.S. imports in 1991, that figure declined to 17 percent by 2000. In contrast,

Korea developed its semiconductor production, particularly of commodity memory products, and

strengthened its position in the U.S. market. In addition, new producers have emerged such as Taiwan and

Singapore.111 Largely the result of tremendous capital investments in recent years, Taiwan emerged as the

world’s largest supplier of “foundry” semiconductor manufacturing services and is currently one of the

fastest growing producers overall.112 

Exports

U.S. semiconductor exports more than quadrupled during the decade to nearly $45 billion. Export

growth was impressive from 1991-95, moderated during 1996-98, and rose strongly again in 1999-2000. 

During the period, generally about one-half of U.S. exports were unfinished semiconductors shipped to

production-sharing locations. Exports of finished semiconductors were often specialized items such as

microprocessors, mixed signal products, certain analog devices, and digital signal processors. Because

many of these latter semiconductors are essential components in telecommunications, data networking, and

computer equipment, U.S. exports benefitted significantly from the strong growth in global demand for

these items.113 

U.S. exports more than doubled from 1991-95 to $23 billion, driven largely by growth in the global

and U.S. computer industries. A large portion of U.S. exports were unfinished production-sharing items

that were ultimately re-exported to the United States after foreign assembly and consumed by the domestic

computer industry. In addition, the United States was the dominant supplier to foreign computer

manufacturers of certain integral semiconductors, principally microprocessors.114 

U.S. export growth slowed during 1996-1998, rising to $29 billion, a relatively modest 21 percent

increase over the 1995 total. During this time the global semiconductor market declined by nearly 5

percent, due largely to slower than expected growth in global computer production and depressed
115 SIA press release, “1999 is the Year of Recovery for the Global Semiconductor Industry; Industry

Gains Double Digit Growth,” June, 1999, found at Internet address http://www.semichips.org, retrieved

Nov. 14, 2001, and USDOC, U.S. Industry and Trade Outlook 2000, p. 16-10.

116 Reed Electronics Research, Yearbook of Electronics Data 2000, vol. 2 (UK: Reed Business

Information, Ltd., 2000), pp. 7, 9, and 10.

117 Japan, an important market throughout the decade, eliminated semiconductor tariffs in the 1980s. 

118 USDOC, U.S. Industry and Trade Outlook 2000 p. 16-9 to 16-11.

36

consumption in East Asia resulting from the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis.115 East Asia had been the

fastest growing market for semiconductors during the first half of the decade. The continued growth in

U.S. exports during a time of global semiconductor recession reflected the relatively stable demand for

design-intensive products such as microprocessors, of which the United States was the dominant producer.

U.S. exports returned to a pattern of impressive growth in 1999-2000, rising to $45 billion, a

54 percent increase over 1998. In particular, exports to East Asian markets rose strongly as those

economies recovered from the financial crisis (table 9).116 U.S. exports to several important markets, 

including the EU, may also have benefitted during this period from the phase-in of duty-elimination

commitments resulting from the 1997 Information Technology Agreement.117 Demand for semiconductors

remained healthy from computer manufacturers, while demand associated with the telecommunications and

data networking equipment industries accelerated tremendously.118 U.S. semiconductor producers are

leading suppliers of the specialized items required by these industries, and 

Table 9

Semiconductors: U.S. domestic exports, by principal market, 1991 and 2000 (in thousand

dollars)

Country 1991 Country 2000

Malaysia ........................... 1,581,259 Korea ...................... 5,435,274

Canada ............................ 1,343,005 Malaysia .................... 5,030,203

Singapore .......................... 1,091,078 Philippines .................. 4,694,596

Japan ............................. 1,048,197 Mexico ...................... 4,487,737

Taiwan ............................ 887,214 Taiwan ..................... 3,845,048

Korea ............................. 740,480 Canada ..................... 3,302,162

United Kingdom ...................... 681,456 Japan ...................... 3,295,506

Philippines .......................... 536,163 Singapore ................... 2,977,516

Hong Kong ......................... 534,083 Thailand .................... 2,099,641

Thailand ........................... 476,606 Hong Kong .................. 1,904,789

Mexico ............................. 403,220 United Kingdom ............... 1,405,185

Germany ........................... 336,593 Germany .................... 1,042,321

France ............................. 287,390 France ...................... 801,200

Netherlands ......................... 143,576 China ....................... 685,815

Italy ............................... 132,361 Brazil ....................... 629,738

 All Other .......................... 608,122 All Other ................... 3,188,545

 Total ............................. 10,830,804 Total ...................... 44,828,274

EU15 .............................. 1,810,816 EU15 ....................... 4,956,301

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
119 Bloomberg News “Short Take: Huge Growth Forecast in Asian Contract Manufacturing,” CNET

News.com, found at http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1003-200-2400747.html, retrieved June 15, 2001.

120 USDOC, U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994, p. 15-7.

121 The two principal Korea-headquartered semiconductor manufacturers, Samsung and Hynix, both

constructed large fabrication facilities in the United States in the late 1990s. These plants fabricate unfinished

DRAMS that are exported to Korea for assembly and then often re-exported to the United States for consumption.

37

as such, U.S. exports benefitted substantially. Exports became increasingly important to U.S. producers in

the latter half of the decade as the export to shipment ratio rose from a low of 37 percent in 1995 to a high

of 50 percent in 2000. 

From 1991 to 2000, changes in the composition of U.S. export markets generally reflected the

shifting locations of electronic equipment production worldwide as well as changes in the mix of U.S.

semiconductor production-sharing partners. While the list of leading U.S. export markets did not vary

significantly during the period, there was substantial change in their relative importance. In general,

Mexico and East Asian locales outside of Japan exhibited strong growth in electronic equipment production

and became increasingly prominent export markets for the United States.119 In contrast, Japan lost

importance worldwide as a production location for electronic equipment and its domestic market grew at a

much slower rate as a number of Japanese electronics corporations relocated production facilities to China

and other countries in East Asia in order to lower production costs.120 As a result, Japan’s share of U.S.

exports declined throughout the period, falling from 10 percent in 1991 to 7 percent in 2000. In contrast to

Japan, emerging electronics producing counties such as Korea and Mexico accounted for larger proportions

of U.S. semiconductor exports. Korea’s share of U.S. exports rose from 7 percent in 1991 to 12 percent in

2000 as Korea grew in significance both as a location for electronic equipment production as well as in its

role as a production-sharing partner for the United States.121 With regard to production-sharing exports,

throughout most of the period Malaysia maintained its position as the leading partner for the United States

and was the chief recipient of U.S. exports of unfinished semiconductors. However, the Philippines

challenged Malaysia’s position and in 1999 became the top destination for these U.S. exports. Other

countries that rose in importance as destinations for U.S. exports of unfinished semiconductors include

Thailand, Taiwan, and Mexico. 

Balance of Trade

In the first half of the decade, the United States ran an increasingly large semiconductor trade

deficit, peaking at over $15 billion in 1995. Although export growth was strong during this period, imports

rose at a much faster rate largely because of the tremendous demand growth in the United States for

commodity memory products such as DRAMs and SRAMs on which the United States was highly import

dependent. However, during 1996-98, commodity memory products experienced worldwide oversupply

and extreme price erosion. Because these items accounted for such a large proportion of U.S.

semiconductor imports, the severe decreases in their unit prices led to several years of decline in the value

of total semiconductor imports. While the global market for semiconductor memory softened during much

of the late 1990s, demand for products such as microprocessors, digital signal processors, and other U.S.-

produced semiconductors remained relatively strong. As a result, U.S. exports continued to grow and the

deficit narrowed to near zero by 1999. In 2000, both imports and exports experienced strong growth with

imports increasing more than exports, causing the deficit to expand once again. 
122 According to the U.S. Department of Labor, U.S. employment in the semiconductor industry rose from

232,000 in 1991 to 294,000 in 2000. 

123 “Lehman Brothers Industry Update: Semiconductors & PC Hardware,” Lehman Brothers Equity

Research, 2001, pp. 1-2; Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment: Current Environment,” Standard and

Poor’s Industry Survey, Aug. 2, 2001, pp. 1-7, found at Internet address

http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001; and U.S. industry analysts, telephone

interviews by USITC staff, Sept. 14-16, 2001.

124 Official statistics of the U.S. Department of Commerce. Similar partial-year shipment data was not

available. 

38

During the period, the United States generally ran a trade deficit with partners in East Asia and a

surplus with its NAFTA partners and the EU. The largest U.S. trade deficit was with Japan, peaking at

over $8 billion in 1995 during the height of the global DRAM surge. However, by 2000 the deficit fell to

less than $5 billion as the value of U.S. imports from Japan generally declined in concert with the drop in

global memory prices. By comparison, deficits with Korea and Taiwan rose during the decade to roughly

$2 billion and $1 billion, respectively, as these producers became increasingly prominent U.S. and global

suppliers. While the United States ran a slight trade surplus with each of its future NAFTA partners in

1991, by 2000 Mexico accounted for the largest U.S. surplus at nearly $3 billion. Much of this burgeoning

surplus can be attributed to rising demand for U.S. semiconductors from Mexico’s growing electronics

industry, primarily maquiladoras and contract manufacturers. By 2000, the U.S. surplus with Canada had

risen to more than $1 billion as U.S. exports increased to meet demand from Canadian electronics

manufacturers, particularly telecommunications equipment companies.

Shipments

U.S. semiconductor shipments rose by 240 percent during the period. The largest increase

occurred in 1991-95 (140 percent), due largely to the tremendous growth in U.S. and global semiconductor

consumption attributable to computer equipment manufacturing. During 1996-98, exports began to

account for a growing portion of shipments. At this time, shipments experienced a small increase while

domestic consumption declined, reflecting continued demand abroad for U.S. products. Exports continued

to grow in importance during 1999-2000, a period when U.S. shipments rose by nearly 30 percent. During

the decade, the U.S. industry experienced tremendous gains in labor productivity as employment rose by 23

percent as compared to the 240 percent increase in shipments.122

IT Industry Outlook

The growth in global IT consumption was so extraordinary during 1991-2000 that many producers

and industry investment analysts were caught by surprise by a dramatic drop in demand in 2001 that led to

sharp decreases in U.S. trade and shipments.123 Through the first three-quarters of 2001, U.S. imports of IT

products declined by 18 percent and exports by 17 percent when compared to the same period in 2000.124

Most U.S. and global producers have experienced weakened financial performance and many have laid off

substantial portions of their workforce. While nearly all of the IT sector has been negatively affected by

the downturn, the telecommunications equipment and semiconductor segments have been especially hard
125 SIA press release, “Semiconductor Industry Association Forecasts Semiconductor Recovery for

2002-2004,” Nov. 7, 2001, found at Internet address http://www.semichips.org, retrieved, Nov. 16, 2001.

126 “Market Researcher Expects Chip Market Will Shrink in 2002,” Electronic Buyers’ News, 

Nov. 7, 2001, found at Internet address http://www.ebnonline.com, retrieved Nov. 9, 2001, and “Other Priorities

Send PC Market Tumbling,” CyberAtlas, Sept. 10, 2001, found at Internet address http://cyberatlas.com, retrieved

Oct. 10, 2001. 

127 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment: Current Environment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry

Survey, Aug. 2, 2001, pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved

Aug. 8, 2001; Craig Shere, and Katherine Dorr Abreu, “Telecommunications Wireline: Current Environment,” 

Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, May 31, 2001, pp. 1-13, found at Internet address

http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 28, 2001; and “Tough Talk on 

Telecom: T. Rowe’s Rob Gensler Sorts out the Winners and Losers in the Embattled Sector,” Money, Oct. 2001,

pp. 52-54.

128 Examples include wireline and wireless communications service companies, independent Internet

service and access providers, enterprise networking integrators, digital cable TV companies, and a host of other IT

service providers as well as business and household consumers. 

129 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment: Current Environment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry

Survey, Aug. 2, 2001, pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved

Aug. 8, 2001; and U.S. industry analysts, telephone interviews by USITC staff, Sept. 14-16, 2001.

130 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Surveys, Aug. 2, 2001,

pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001; Ron

Insana, “Can He Save Lucent?” Money, Oct. 2001, pp. 67-71; and U.S. industry analysts, telephone interviews by

USITC staff, Nov. 13-14, 201.

131 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Aug. 2, 2001,

pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001; and

U.S. industry analysts, telephone interviews by USITC staff, Nov. 13-14, 201.

132 Ron Insana, “Can He Save Lucent?” Money, Oct. 2001, pp. 67-71; Ari Bensinger, “Communications

Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Surveys, Aug. 2, 2001, pp. 1-7, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001, at Internet

address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com; and U.S. industry analysts, telephone interviews by

USITC staff, Nov. 13-14, 201.

39

hit. With regard to semiconductors, the global market is forecast to fall by nearly one-third in 2001 while

the North American market alone is expected to decrease by over 40 percent.125 

The current industry downturn has been attributed to a number of causes including a weak global

economy, dampening end-user demand, maturing PC and wireless equipment markets, a current lack of

new “must have” technologies, and excess semiconductor production capacity.126 Much of the decline may

be associated with unmet, and perhaps unrealistically positive industry expectations.127 During the last few

years of the decade, many important consumers128 of IT equipment projected continued dramatic growth in

demand for advanced technology services and invested heavily in expanded network capacity to deliver

such services.129 However, with slowing demand in an increasingly sluggish economy it became apparent

toward the end of 2000 that major telecommunications and other IT service providers would have difficulty

recouping their capital investments in equipment.130 As a result, investment market capital funding that had

been readily available in the previous few years began to dry up, requiring service providers to manage

their capital outlays more conservatively.131 The newly competitive local telecommunications exchange

carriers were also affected since they had planned on taking market share from incumbent carriers by

rapidly building out data-oriented networks. Compounding the problem, other major IT service providers

had overbuilt their networks.132
133 “Lucent Technologies,” Argus Company Report, Argus Research Corp., Sept. 28, 2001, pp. 1-4; Ari

Bensinger, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Surveys, Aug. 2, 2001, pp. 1-7, retrieved

Aug. 8, 2001, at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com; David M. Reimer, “Telecom

Services,” Value Line Investment Survey, Value Line Publishing, Inc., 2001, pp. 1-4; and U.S. industry analysts,

telephone interviews by USITC staff, Nov. 13-14, 2001.

134 Ari Bensinger, “Communications Equipment,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, Aug. 2, 2001,

pp. 1-7, found at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 8, 2001.

135 “Tech Recovery in 2002: A Different Beast,” Forrester Research, 2001, p. 1; and U.S. industry

analysts, telephone interviews by USITC staff, Aug. and Nov. 2001.

136 George Rho, “Telecom. Equipment,” Value Line Investment Survey, Value Line Publishing, Inc.,

2001; George A. Niemond, “Computer & Perip.,” Value Line Investment Survey, 2001, pp. 1-2; “Technology

News Lifts Stock Indexes,” Washington Post, Nov. 2, 2001, p. E03; “Lucent Technologies Inc.” Argus Company

Report, Sept. 28, 2001, p. 2; Telecommunications Industry Association, 2001 MultiMedia Telecommunications

Market Review and Forecast, 2001, pp. 3-15; U.S. industry analysts, telephone interviews by USITC staff, Nov.

13, 2001; and Megan Graham-Hacket, “Computers: Hardware: Industry Profile: The Internet Ushers in a New

Age,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, May 10, 2001, pp. 1-8, found at Internet address

http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 28, 2001.

137 Alessandra Colecchia and Paul Schreyer, Investment and Economic Growth in the 1990s: Is the United

States a Unique Case? A Comparison of Nine OECD Countries (Paris: OECD, Oct. 25, 2001), pp. 5 and 15; and

George A. Niemond, “Computer & Perip.,” Value Line Investment Survey, 2001, pp. 1-2.

138 George A. Niemond, “Computer & Perip.,” Value Line Investment Survey, 2001, pp. 1-2;

Telecommunications Industry Association, 2001 MultiMedia Telecommunications Market Review and Forecast,

2001, pp. 3-15; and U.S. industry analysts, telephone interviews by USITC staff, Nov. 13, 2001.

40

Given slower network build-outs and network overcapacity, overall spending on

telecommunications and other IT equipment, including related semiconductors, dropped precipitously from

the end of 2000 through 2001.133 The abrupt drop in sales left telecommunications and other IT producers,

which had erroneously predicted continued strong spending levels for their equipment, with huge

inventories and oversized cost structures.134 Due to the slower network construction and network

overcapacity, excess inventories, and a slowing U.S. and global economy, industry analysts project that

overall spending for U.S. and foreign telecommunications equipment will continue to decline into at least

2002 or 2003 while demand for services and new product cycles catches up.135

However, despite the dramatic downturn in IT services and equipment markets, most industry

analysts believe that long-term prospects for the IT industry remain optimistic.136 Although there continues

to be uncertainty concerning the present economic outlook in the United States and in the rest of the world,

few analysts disagree that at some point businesses will have to replace aging equipment to retain their

competitiveness. Much of the productivity gains that allowed the economy to expand at a relatively rapid

pace in the 1990s were the product of increasing computerization, and improved communications,

networking, and Internet capabilities.137 A number of experts believe that as the economy recovers,

companies will expand the reach of their computer and communications networks outside of their own

enterprise, improving their interface with customers and suppliers to automatically generate orders and

invoices. This in turn will increase demand for more effective communications technologies and advanced

computers and storage devices to store rapidly increasing amounts of data. Finally, demand will also

increase for the microprocessors and other advanced semiconductors that will enable this to be

accomplished.138
139 Telecommunications Industry Association, 2001 MultiMedia Telecommunications Market Review and

Forecast, 2001, pp. 3-15.

140 Telecommunications Industry Association, 2001MultiMedia Telecommunications Market Review and

Forecast, 2001, pp. 3-15; Katherine Dorr Abreu, “Telecommunications Wireline: Current Environment,”

Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, May 31, 2001, pp. 1-8, found at Internet address

http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 28, 2001; Megan Graham-Hacket, “Computers:

Hardware: Industry Profile: Industry Trends,” Standard and Poor’s Industry Survey, May 10, 2001, pp. 1-6, found

at Internet address http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com, retrieved Aug. 28, 2000. Based on

anticipated growth in electronics equipment demand, the Semiconductor Industry Association is forecasting the

beginning of a recovery for the global semiconductor market in 2002. SIA press release, “Semiconductor Industry

Association Forecasts Semiconductor Recovery for 2002-2004,” Nov. 7, 2001, found at Internet address

http://www.semichips.org, retrieved, Nov. 16, 2001.

41

The fastest growth in demand for IT products has been predicted for markets139 outside of the

United States, and should offer increased export opportunities for U.S. information technology providers. 

For example, telecommunications penetration is low in many countries and leaves much room for growth,

particularly for wireless and Internet services. A recent survey of a leading IT industry trade association

projects international telecommunications services to grow by a nearly 15-percent compound annual rate,

rising to $1.2 trillion by 2004.140 Such growth would require the international IT equipment market to also

grow in order to provide the infrastructure required to supply such services. Both advanced and less

developed countries are aware that if they are to maintain or achieve economic success in domestic and

international markets, it is essential that they make significant investments in efficiency enhancing IT

technologies provided by the computer hardware, semiconductor, telecommunications, and other IT sectors. 

Due to its decade-long dominance and experience in developing and producing these technologies, the U.S.

IT industry is in an excellent position to take advantage of such enhanced international opportunities as the

global economy recovers from its current sluggishness.