NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY

and Restoration

2015–2020

for Rehabilitation
The Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA) is a 

public-private partnership of organizations that 

share the same goal: to protect native plants by 

ensuring that native plant populations and their 

communities are maintained, enhanced, and 

restored. The PCA Federal Committee, chaired 

by the Bureau of Land Management, developed 

the “National Seed Strategy for Rehabilitation 

and Restoration 2015-2020” in cooperation with 

Federal and non-Federal partners.

For more information on the Plant Conservation Alliance and its members and activities, 

please visit http://www.blm.gov/pca.

Copies of this publication may be obtained online at www.blm.gov/seedstrategy.

BLM/WO/GI-15/012+7400
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction .

Scope .

The Four Goals of the “National Seed Strategy for 

Rehabilitation and Restoration” .

Background and Development .

Strategy Vision and Mission .

Vision .

Mission .

Guiding Values and Principles . 

Goal 1: Identify Seed Needs, and Ensure

the Reliable Availability of Genetically

Appropriate Seed . 

Background/Rationale . 

Objective 1.1: Assess the Seed Needs of Federal

 Agencies and the Capacity of Private and

 Federal Producers . 

Objective 1.2: Assess Capacity and Needs

 of Tribes, States, Private Sector Seed

 Producers, Nurseries, and

 Other Partners . 

Objective 1.3: Increase the Supply and

 Reliable Availability of Genetically

 Appropriate Seed . 

Goal 2: Identify Research Needs and Conduct 

Research to Provide Genetically Appropriate

Seed and to Improve Technology for Native

Seed Production and Ecosystem

Restoration . 

Background/Rationale . 

Objective 2.1: Characterize Genetic Variation 

 of Restoration Species to Delineate Seed

 Zones, and Provide Seed Transfer

 Guidelines for Current and Projected

 Future Environmental Conditions . 

Objective 2.2: Conduct Species-Specific

 Research to Provide Seed Technology,

 Storage, and Production Protocols for

 Restoration Species . 

Objective 2.3: Conduct Research on Plant

 Establishment, Species Interactions,

 and Ecological Restoration . 

Objective 2.4: Develop or Modify Monitoring 

Techniques, and Investigate Long-Term

Restoration Impacts and Outcomes . 

Goal 3: Develop Tools that Enable Managers to 

Make Timely, Informed Seeding Decisions for 

Ecological Restoration . 

Background/Rationale . 

Objective 3.1: Develop Training Programs for 

 Practitioners, Producers, and Stakeholders

 on the Use of Genetically Appropriate Seed

 for Restoration . 

Objective 3.2: Develop Native Seed Source 

 Availability Data and Tools for Accessing 

 the Data . 

Objective 3.3: Integrate and Develop Science 

 Delivery Tools to Support Restoration

 Project Development and

 Implementation . 

Objective 3.4: Build on Ecological Assessments 

 and Disturbance Data, and Provide Training 

 that will Allow Managers to Anticipate 

 Needs and Establish Spatially-Explicit

 Contingency Strategies . 

Goal 4: Develop Strategies for Internal and

External Communication . 

Background/Rationale . 

Objective 4.1: External Communications: 

 Conduct Education and Outreach

 through the Plant Conservation

 Alliance Network . 

Objective 4.2: Internal Communications:

 Distribute and Implement the Strategy 

 Across Agencies, and Provide

 Feedback Mechanisms . 

Objective 4.3: Report Progress, Recognize 

 Achievements, and Revise Strategy . 

Literature Cited . 

Acknowledgments . 

Glossary . 

Appendix: Action Summary Tables . 

Organization Acronyms . 

Goal 1 Summary Tables . 

Goal 2 Summary Tables . 

Goal 3 Summary Tables . 

Goal 4 Summary Tables . 
ii NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 1

INTRODUCTION

In 2012, more than 2 million acres of important 

sagebrush habitat burned in four Western States. 

In the East, Hurricane Sandy caused not only 

widespread damage to homes and businesses, but 

also to native plant communities that stabilized soils 

and filtered water. Three years later, many of these 

eastern and western lands are still in need of basic 

stabilization, rehabilitation, or other restoration 

treatments. 

The “National Seed Strategy for Rehabilitation and 

Restoration 2015-2020” (Strategy) will provide 

a more coordinated approach for stabilization, 

rehabilitation, and restoration treatments. It 

provides a framework for actively working with the 

private sector in order to build a “seed industry” for 

rehabilitation and restoration. This will help address 

future challenges so that we, as a Nation, will be 

better prepared to respond appropriately to largescale disturbances and other stressors that threaten 

important plant communities and the ecosystem 

services they provide on Federal, state, local, and 

private land. These stressors include the spread 

of invasive plant species, altered wildfire regimes, 

habitat modification, land overuse, and climate 

change. 

This Strategy also provides guidance for, and 

implements a number of, major national initiatives, 

such as the President’s Climate Action Plan; National 

Fish, Wildlife & Plants Climate Adaptation Strategy 

(NFWPCAP 2012); National Strategy to Promote 

the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators 

(Pollinator Health Task Force 2015); Department 

of the Interior (DOI) Secretarial Orders 3330 on 

mitigation and 3336 on rangeland fire; and Executive 

Order 13112 on invasive species.

Success on a national scale will be achieved through 

coordinated establishment of a nationwide network 

of native seed collectors, a network of farmers 

and growers working to develop seed, a network 

of nurseries and seed storage facilities to supply 

adequate quantities of appropriate seed, and a 

network of restoration ecologists who know how to 

put the right seed in the right place at the right time. 

Achieving this will require additional investments, 

research, improved decision tools, and enhanced 

communication. But most importantly, successful 

implementation of this Strategy will require the 

active participation of a diverse set of public and 

private partners. Increased coordination is vital to 

accelerate the pace and scale of restoration and 

provide native plant materials when and where 

they are needed. To that end, this Strategy will help 

coordinate the efforts of tribal, state, Federal, local, 

and private entities to restore plant communities 

that have been altered by natural or human-caused 

events. 

This Strategy recognizes the importance of healthy 

native plant communities as an essential foundation 

for ecosystem integrity and diversity. Healthy native 

plant communities create habitat for animals; 

provide ecosystem services that sustain people, 

their communities, and their economies; and have 

intrinsic and irreplaceable biotic value that will 

become increasingly important in the future. 

Restoring native plant communities on a landscape 

scale poses special challenges. Land managers 

must often replant large acreages quickly to avoid 

severe erosion or colonization by nonnative invasive 

plants. Adding to the challenges are the expense 

and difficulty of obtaining and delivering adequate 

quantities of appropriate seed to meet the need, 

which is often difficult to predict. This seed must be 

available for use at the right time and in the right 

place.
2 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

To the extent practicable, 

utilize locally-adapted 

seeds and native plant 

materials appropriate to 

the location, conditions, 

and management 

objectives for vegetation 

management and 

restoration activities, 

including strategic 

sourcing for acquiring, 

storing, and utilizing 

genetically-appropriate 

seeds and other plant 

materials native to 

the sagebrush-steppe 

ecosystem.

SECRETARIAL ORDER NO. 3336

Rangeland Fire Prevention, Management

and Restoration, January 5, 2015

The Departments of Agriculture and the Interior shall 

establish a reserve of native seed mixes, including 

pollinator-friendly plants, for use on post-fire 

rehabilitation projects and other restoration activities.

PRESIDENTIAL MEMORANDUM: 

Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health 

of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators, June 20, 2014

As the lead agency on the Plant Conservation 

Alliance (PCA) Federal Committee, the Bureau of 

Land Management (BLM) worked closely with the 

PCA and others to develop this Strategy. The goals 

and objectives resulted from the June 2014 Seed 

Conference held in Washington, D.C., that brought 

together Federal agency leadership. The PCA is an 

umbrella organization of 12 Federal agencies and 

more than 300 non-Federal partners who work 

together to conserve and restore native plant 

populations and communities across the United 

States.

This Strategy builds on the achievements and 

progress made through efforts such as the BLM’s 

interagency Native Plant Materials Development 

Program (including Seeds of Success), the U.S. 

Forest Service’s Native Plant Restoration Program, 

the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Plant 

Materials Program that includes 27 plant materials 

centers from Hawaii and Alaska to New Jersey and 

Florida established in 1935 to address the needs 

described in this strategy, the Agricultural Research 

Service’s National Plant Germplasm System, and 

other public/private efforts to conserve native plant 

diversity.

The PCA Federal Committee is developing a 

business plan to accompany this Strategy. This 

Great strides have been made in developing 

seed reserves and infrastructure to support land 

managers. However, there is a need for more 

coordinated and focused research, development, 

and technology transfer to provide genetically 

appropriate seed and seedlings for stabilizing and 

restoring damaged and degraded areas. Genetically 

appropriate plant materials are environmentally 

adapted to a restoration site and are likely to 

establish, survive, and promote community and 

ecological relationships. In addition, more stringent 

assessment is needed for determining seed quality, 

and seed suppliers need to be encouraged to 

continue producing high-quality seed in agricultural 

settings while maintaining genetic diversity. The 

use of high-quality, genetically appropriate seed, 

along with improved restoration equipment and 

methodologies, will result in more successful 

restoration of plant communities. The transition to 

a reliance on native plant materials will be guided 

by coordinated efforts in fundamental and applied 

research. This strategy envisions that the collective 

resources of participating agencies could support 

basic science needs of all the partners. In addition, 

new decision support tools and monitoring 

applications will aid managers throughout the 

restoration process from planning through 

implementation to effectiveness monitoring.
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 3

business plan will not create a government-run seed 

business. It will include anticipated costs of Strategy 

implementation so that Federal partners can develop 

an interagency budget initiative and so that nonFederal partners can determine opportunities to 

raise non-Federal funds to support the Strategy’s 

work.

 Scope

This Strategy is national in scope and engages both 

Federal and non-Federal partners working toward 

restoration on public, tribal, state, municipal, and 

private lands. While the Strategy will be renewed in 

5-year cycles, its actions will affect landscapes and 

habitats far into the future. The plants of interest 

are forbs (wildflowers), shrubs, and grasses that are 

used in ecological restoration. The Strategy does not 

address federally or state-listed species, rare endemic 

plants, or commercial timber species. Products and 

collaborations developed through the Strategy 

will help land managers select appropriate plant 

materials to use in public and private ecological 

restoration efforts at all scales.

The Strategy aims to provide all land managers—

Federal, tribal, state, county, private, and 

nongovernmental organization—the tools they need 

to address ecological restoration across the United 

States. The Strategy seeks to develop seed and other 

plant materials1

 that will meet long-term goals to 

maintain and improve the biological and physical 

conditions at a site, ranging from reclamation to 

1

 The term “plant materials” encompasses seed as well as 

other plant materials, including seedlings and container 

stock.

restoration. Use of genetically appropriate plant 

materials is encouraged; however, this Strategy does 

not preclude the use of nonnative plant materials 

where they are appropriate. 

With almost 30 percent of U.S. lands under 

Federal management, this Strategy encourages 

large-scale habitat restoration on Federal lands; 

however, smaller scale restoration will benefit 

from large-scale public investment in commercial 

native seed production. Ultimately, this Strategy 

will benefit U.S. landscapes by recognizing and 

supporting the ecosystem services provided by 

plant communities such as clean air, clean water, 

temperature regulation, and carbon storage. The 

Strategy also supports additional benefits of healthy 

plant communities such as aesthetics, recreational 

opportunities, food, fiber, and potential commercial 

products, as well as habitat for other organisms and 

species, from pollinators to game species. 

One outcome of the Strategy is the creation of a 

national network of native seed reserves and storage 

facilities (Federal, tribal, state, local, and private 

facilities) that would serve all partners and provide 

storage capabilities. This network would support 

the 2014 Presidential Memorandum on pollinators 

and help increase the availability of native seed to a 

broader user base.

This Strategy does not set agency policy—many 

agencies have different authorizing legislation or 

charters, missions, and policies—but it supports the 

science and values the use of native plant materials 

in land management activities.
4 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

THE FOUR GOALS

GOAL 1

Identify seed needs, and ensure the 

reliable availability of genetically 

appropriate seed.

GOAL 2

Identify research needs and conduct 

research to provide genetically 

appropriate seed and to improve 

technology for native seed production 

and ecosystem restoration.

GOAL 3

Develop tools that enable managers 

to make timely, informed seeding 

decisions for ecological restoration.

GOAL 4

Develop strategies for internal and 

external communication.

of the “National Seed Strategy for 

Rehabilitation and Restoration”
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 5

Native plant communities, especially 

those containing perennial native 

grasses and forbs essential to ecosystem 

integrity and diversity, provide ecosystem 

services that sustain wildlife, such 

as greater sage-grouse and native 

pollinators. Perennial grasses are the 

best competitors with invasive annual 

grasses and promote resilience. A reliable 

supply of genetically appropriate and 

locally adapted seed, as well as seeding 

technology and equipment, is needed 

for effective restoration of the sagebrushsteppe ecosystem.

“An Integrated Rangeland Fire Management Strategy,” 

Final Report to the Secretary of the Interior, May 2015
6 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 7

BACKGROUND

AND DEVELOPMENT

The critical shortage of native plant materials 

available for seeding following the extensive 

wildfires of 1999 and 2000 led Congress to direct the 

BLM and U.S. Forest Service to facilitate development 

of a long-term program to provide a stable and 

economical supply of native plant materials for 

restoration and rehabilitation efforts on public lands 

(USC HR 2000). The U.S. Forest Service and BLM 

responded to this by establishing the Native Plant 

Restoration Program and the Native Plant Materials 

Development Program. The immediate focus was 

to increase the availability of diverse native plant 

materials and to foster more efficient management 

of that supply.

The fiscal year 2002 House report on appropriations 

for the Department of the Interior (USDI) and related 

agencies reiterated Congress’ order to the agencies 

to “continue to implement the long-term program 

to manage and supply native plant materials for use 

in various Federal land management restoration 

and rehabilitation needs” (USC HR 2001). In April 

2002, the DOI and U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) issued the “Report to the Congress: 

Interagency Program to Supply and Manage Native 

Plant Materials for Restoration and Rehabilitation 

on Federal Lands” (DOI & USDA 2002), which 

called for a commitment to native plant materials 

research, production, and use that included a 

recommendation for financial and organizational 

support from the DOI and USDA. In this report, the 

DOI and USDA also stated their intent to improve 

and expand partnerships in cooperation with the 

private seed and nursery industry, develop and 

enhance science delivery to practitioners, and 

expand outreach and education to the general 

public.

The agencies have made great achievements since 

establishing the Native Plant Materials Development 

Program and Native Plant Restoration Program. For 

example, provisional and species-specific seed zones 

are increasingly being used to guide the selection 

of genetically appropriate seed for ecological 

restoration projects, thereby increasing the potential 

for success (Rogers and Montalvo 2004; Johnson 

et al. 2010). The National Vegetation Classification, 

adopted by the Federal Geographic Data Committee, 

provides a standard approach to describe plant 

species assemblages throughout the Nation in the 

full range of environmental settings (FGDC 2008). 

Seed production research has provided agricultural 

practices for growing a wider array of restoration 

species, while improved equipment, seeding and 

planting technologies, and decision tools provide 

users with greater flexibility when dealing with 

complex seeding mixes and site conditions (DOI BLM 

2009). Importantly, Seeds of Success collection teams 

have made more than 15,000 native seed collections 

covering more than 5,000 taxa for use in developing 

native seed crops and ex situ conservation (Haidet 

and Olwell 2015).

Multiple agencies (Federal, state, tribal, and local), 

nongovernmental organizations, private sector 

industries, and universities are collaborating through 

ecoregional programs to provide plant materials 

suitable for restoration in specific ecoregions. The 

Great Basin Native Plant Project led by the U.S. Forest 

Service and BLM, for example, was established 

in 2002 (Shaw et al. 2012). Its goal is to increase 

seed availability and develop the knowledge and 

technology to restore native plant communities 

across millions of acres of burned lands, with a 

focus on restoring native sagebrush habitat and 

increasing native forb production. Partners in the 

Colorado Plateau (Wood et al. 2015), Mojave Desert, 

and Pacific Northwest (Riley et al. 2015; Erickson 

2008) are conducting similar programs. Through 

BLM ecoregional programs alone, seed from more 
8 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

than 200 native plant populations have been made 

available for restoration projects, conservation gene 

banking, and commercial markets (DOI BLM 2009). 

To ensure coverage across the United States, these or 

similar programs will need to be established in areas 

of the U.S. where they currently do not exist.

Achievement of the long-term goals of the Native 

Plant Materials Development Program will require 

an even greater commitment to collaboration 

across agencies and with other partners to share 

expertise and facilities and to produce and use plant 

materials more efficiently. Leaders of the 12 Federal 

agencies of the PCA met in Washington, D.C., in June 

2014 to celebrate 20 years of plant conservation 

collaboration and to renew the memorandum of 

understanding that established the partnership. 

The meeting provided a forum for agency leaders 

and staff to initiate discussions on development of a 

national seed strategy to address long-term goals for 

the program. The PCA Federal Committee served as 

the steering committee for this Strategy. Members 

of this committee, or their representatives, worked 

with agency experts on the seed supply, research, 

decision tools, and communication teams to further 

develop priority objectives under the four goals 

and collaborative actions for accomplishing these 

objectives and to better describe outcomes.

Implementation of this Strategy will enhance 

coordination and forge strong partnerships among 

agencies, tribes, states, and nongovernmental 

organizations, as well as with the private seed and 

nursery industry. Such partnerships are vital to the 

success of ecological restoration efforts throughout 

the United States.
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 9

STRATEGY

VISION AND MISSION

Vision

The right seed in the right place at the right time.

Mission

To ensure the availability of genetically appropriate 

seed to restore viable and productive plant 

communities and sustainable ecosystems.
10 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 11

GUIDING VALUES

AND PRINCIPLES

 Native plant communities provide ecosystem 

services that sustain people, communities, and 

their economies.

 Native plant communities are key to ecosystem 

integrity and resilience, and they provide 

essential habitat and food sources for wildlife, 

including pollinators.

 Native plant communities have intrinsic and 

irreplaceable biotic value that will become 

increasingly important in the future.

 Native seed is a critical natural resource asset 

that deserves greater recognition in light of the 

ecological challenges of the 21st century.

 Native, locally adapted seed sources are vital 

for restoration and management because they 

reflect the evolutionary and adaptive capability 

of plants in an area.

 Native plants, including crop wild relatives, 

contain unique properties, and the full benefit of 

these may not yet be recognized but should be 

preserved for future generations.

 Botanical, ecological, and genetic scientific 

expertise plays a vital role in providing 

information to support and guide ecological 

restoration.

 Nonnative species and cultivars may be used 

to achieve site stabilization, wildfire breaks, 

or invasive plant control. Their use should be 

limited to transitional, noninvasive species, 

replaced by natives in subsequent ecological 

restoration or during natural successional 

processes.

 Interagency collaboration is essential to advance 

ecological management and research activities, 

reduce costs, and avoid duplication.

 Non-Federal partners, such as tribes, states, and 

private sector and nonprofit organizations, make 

important and valuable contributions to the 

development of native seed.

 The Strategy recognizes the value of using the 

native seed bank that exists in the soil; not all 

disturbances require active reseeding to restore 

habitat.

 The Strategy recognizes the value of partnering 

with a diverse group of stakeholders.

 Strategy participants support opportunities to:

• Maintain or increase the number of acres of native 

plant communities that provide ecosystem services.

•Include Federal, tribal, state, and local governments; 

academic institutions; nonprofits; and the private 

sector when addressing restoration issues.

•Improve the availability of genetically appropriate 

seed required to restore healthy native plant 

communities and support other uses.

• Develop strategies and tools for conducting more 

effective restoration.

•Promote research, science delivery, and education 

required to meet new restoration challenges 

imposed by increasing threats.

•Communicate the value of native plant communities 

and restoration to stakeholders and the general 

public.
12 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 13

GOAL 1

Background/

Rationale

The ability of land managers to respond effectively 

to both emergency and planned restoration 

needs—and to advance ecological management 

and research activities—is highly dependent on the 

reliable availability of genetically appropriate seed. 

This requires comprehensive and integrated seed 

planning and production, as well as seed storage 

systems that provide sufficient quantities of suitable 

plant materials when and where they are needed. 

Actions under this goal will assess seed needs and 

fulfillment capacities, with an eye toward targeting 

infrastructure investments, increasing coordinated 

wildland seed collection and field production, and 

expanding cooperation and partnerships within and 

among public and private sectors. Increased financial 

and organizational support for achieving this work is 

essential, as is coordinating and communicating with 

the private seed industry. A number of actions in 

Goal 1 will inform actions in Goals 2 and 3.

Objective 

1.1

Assess the Seed Needs of Federal

Agencies and the Capacity of Private 

and Federal Producers

Increasing Federal agency use of native conservation 

seed will stimulate seed supply and also help 

smaller organizations and private landowners access 

more native plant materials. Actions under this 

objective will lead to a better understanding of the 

overall capacity of Federal agencies to meet their 

stabilization, rehabilitation, and restoration needs 

with native plant materials. The assessment will 

capture those needs that relate to current priorities 

for pollinators and climate change adaptation, as 

well as projections for both planned restoration 

and emergency response. After the initial baseline 

assessment, agencies may repeat a revised needs 

and capacity assessment every 5 years to provide 

measures of progress and inform priorities over 

time as recommended under Objective 4.3 (Report 

Progress, Recognize Achievements, and Revise 

Strategy).

This objective also aims to evaluate existing 

databases and reporting systems that can contribute 

to the seed needs and capacity planning processes. 

In the long-term (beyond 5-year timeframe), this 

objective will seek to assess the conservation value 

of existing collections (i.e., the genetic diversity 

captured by current accessions) and take steps to 

correct deficiencies.

Identify Seed Needs, and Ensure the Reliable

Availability of Genetically Appropriate Seed 
14 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 1.1.1 Conduct an 

assessment of seed needs for all 

Federal agencies and their offices 

that provide or use seed.

This assessment will capture the types and quantities 

of seed each Federal agency needs on an ecoregional 

basis for its restoration projects, including those 

targeting pollinator habitat enhancement to comply 

with the Presidential Memorandum on pollinators. 

Agencies should seek to include all relevant program 

areas and field offices that provide or use seed. 

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2016

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Connecticut Department of Energy 

and Environmental Protection – Natural Diversity 

Data Base

Action 1.1.2 Identify and inventory 

agency and private sector seed 

collections, nurseries, and storage 

capacity.

This action will identify existing agency seed 

supplies and related staff, nurseries, storage 

facilities, tools, equipment, and costs. It will seek 

information specifically on seed supplies that help 

resist nonnative plant competition and that provide 

habitat for at-risk species, including pollinators. It 

will also identify strengths and weaknesses in seed 

production and facilities networks and needs for 

new infrastructure, staffing, and training. Production 

and facilities networks include nurseries, seed 

extractories, plant materials centers, and seed 

production and storage facilities, some of which may 

be held by non-Federal partners (see Action 1.2.1).

Within this action, agencies will identify policies, 

guidance, or publications that inform management 

practices for seed collection and production 

methods. Within the second year of implementing 

this action, Strategy implementers will have 

identified and catalogued agency infrastructure and 

will have evaluated databases and reporting systems 

for seed use, seed inventory, and field performance 

monitoring.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2016

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Connecticut Department of 

Energy and Environmental Protection – Natural Diversity 

Data Base

Action 1.1.3 Identify existing 

Federal seed and restoration 

policies and guidance.

This action will ensure that the Strategy captures 

all current Federal policies related to development 

and use of plant materials and restoration. Outputs 

for this action will include identification of plant 

and restoration policy compatibilities, gaps, and 

challenges across Federal agencies. This action 

provides information for actions in Goal 4, as well.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

Action 1.1.4 Analyze results of 

needs and capacity assessment to 

determine if current Federal policies, 

seed collections, and storage and 

production facilities meet agency 

needs.

Reviewing results to determine strengths and 

correct weaknesses in Federal seed systems should 

lead to specific actions to improve proactive shortand long-term planning capabilities and to ensure 

agency staffing can respond to projected restoration 

needs within the third year of implementing 

the Strategy. Seed and capacity needs could be 

prioritized by habitat (e.g., for species such as 

pollinators and sage-grouse) and/or by seed zone.

Other results of this action would include the 

creation of a map of agency production and 

storage facilities, the evaluation of investment 

needs and seed use policies, and the discussion of 

concerns and benefits related to the use of native 
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 15

plant materials. Actions to address deficiencies 

should be incorporated under actions identified 

under Objectives 1.2 and 1.3, and other goals, as 

appropriate.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2017

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Institute for Applied Ecology

Action 1.1.5 Analyze results of 

assessment of restoration policies, 

and develop a comprehensive 

restoration program with consistent 

funding to restore native plant 

communities on a landscape scale 

across public lands.

Using the output from Action 1.1.3, review results 

of assessment of restoration policies to determine 

strengths and correct weaknesses in Federal 

restoration policies and to determine agency 

staffing so they can respond to projected restoration 

needs within the third year of implementing the 

Strategy. Other results of this action would include 

the development of a restoration program with 

consistent funding to consistently buy native 

seed for restoring native plant communities on a 

landscape scale. Actions to address deficiencies 

should be incorporated under actions identified 

under Objectives 1.2 and 1.3, and other goals, as 

appropriate.

TARGET YEARS: 2017-2018

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service

OTHER PARTICPANTS: NatureServe

Objective

1.2

Assess Capacity and Needs of Tribes, 

States, Private Sector Seed Producers, 

Nurseries, and Other Partners

To achieve this objective, agencies will work with 

tribal, state, private sector, and nonprofit partners 

and agricultural extension offices to assess nonFederal-sector interest in and capacity to collect 

and produce native seed. Results of this objective 

may lead to expanded contractor pools, changes in 

contract specifications and timelines to minimize risk 

and uncertainty, creation of an annual seed forum, 

or the organization of field tours to grower farms. 

Accomplishing this objective may require identifying 

a regional liaison to work with farmers and seed 

producers to provide mechanisms for regular 

communications regarding Federal seed needs, to 

assist with equipment needs, and to help producers 

navigate the Federal procurement system.

Action 1.2.1 Conduct a needs and 

capacity assessment of tribal, state, 

local, private sector, and nonprofit 

seed storage and distribution 

facilities.

This assessment will capture the seed production 

and storage capacity of non-Federal entities. This 

action will require collaboration with partners who 

can work with key sectors to obtain the necessary 

information. Guidance developed to implement this 

action should also elicit information on growers’ 

expertise and ability to provide training about 

tools, techniques, and capacity for seed collection; 

germination; and establishment of native plant 

communities. This assessment can also elicit 

information on states’ capacities to certify location 

and origin, and it should gather information on 

procurement processes. Upon obtaining collaborator 

input, discrete milestones should be identified for 

anticipated achievements within each of the first 5 

years of implementing the Strategy.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020
16 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Natural Resources Conservation Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Seed Trade Association, 

Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Florida 

Association of Native Nurseries, Lady Bird Johnson 

Wildflower Center, Mid-Atlantic Regional Seed Bank, New 

England Wild Flower Society

Action 1.2.2 Work collaboratively 

with private seed producers, 

nurseries, and other partners to 

leverage strengths and address 

deficiencies in the distribution 

and availability of genetically 

appropriate seed.

This action will identify training needs and 

opportunities, such as working with seed producers 

to assist with smaller scale, niche market seed 

production. This action should also explore 

promoting a seed market system that is responsive 

to regional native seed needs of the agencies (see 

Objective 1.3). This action should result in a regular 

assessment of collaboration efforts that can be 

summarized and shared. Outcomes under this action 

might include identifying mechanisms to increase 

collaboration by 2017 and to overcome any barriers 

to collaboration with the private sector by 2020.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Seed Trade Association, 

Applied Ecological Services/Taylor Creek Restoration 

Nurseries, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 

Florida Association of Native Nurseries, Institute for 

Applied Ecology, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Seed Bank, NatureServe

Action 1.2.3 Analyze results of 

non-Federal needs and capacity 

assessment to determine if current 

seed collections, as well as storage 

and production facilities, meet 

restoration needs.

Reviewing results to determine strengths and 

challenges in non-Federal seed systems will lead 

to a better understanding of the non-Federal seed 

system capabilities. This review can inform agencies 

on how they could work with non-Federal partners 

to improve availability of seed in non-Federal 

systems.

Actions to address deficiencies should be 

incorporated under actions identified under 

Objective 1.3, and other goals, as appropriate.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2017

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Botanic Gardens Conservation 

International, Institute for Applied Ecology, Lady Bird 

Johnson Wildflower Center
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 17

Increase the Supply and Reliable

Availability of Genetically

Appropriate Seed

The actions under this objective will require an 

analysis of the seed needs and capacity assessments 

completed under Objectives 1.1 and 1.2. Achieving 

these actions should include setting goals for 

increasing collection, cleaning, testing, storage, and 

application capacity. Accordingly, implementation 

needs should set goals for achieving these 

milestones under each action.

Action 1.3.1 Expand and improve 

facilities and plant production 

capacity.

This action draws from the capacity and needs 

assessments and will result in adequate facilities, 

seed reserves, and plant production capacity to 

meet seed needs. It will target expansion and 

improvement of Federal and non-Federal capacity 

and will also encourage the commercial seed 

industry to enhance capacity, if necessary. This may 

include new processes to streamline planning and 

increase coordination for collecting, propagating, 

and sharing seed among the agencies, possibly 

through a memorandum of understanding by 2020.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Seed Trade Association, 

Chicago Botanic Garden, Florida Association of Native 

Nurseries

Action 1.3.2 Improve agency and 

partner capability to plan for seed 

needs by seed zone.

This action will increase planning and coordination 

by agencies and external partners in collecting, 

propagating, procuring, and sharing plant materials 

Objective 

1.3

by seed zones and will increase the use of genetically 

appropriate seed in both emergency and planned 

restoration. This action will build upon research 

emanating from other Strategy actions, such as 

Action 2.1.1 (Conduct genetic research to develop 

seed zones for key restoration species.), and may 

include coordinating multiagency procurement 

planning and seed sharing, where appropriate.

Existing regional seed banking networks between 

growers and end users, such as the Deschutes Basin 

Native Plant Seedbank, U.S. Forest Service Northern 

Region seed cache, and Mid-Atlantic Regional Seed 

Bank, may serve as models for accomplishing this 

goal. This action should include considerations for 

creating (or improving) a national online database 

that provides source-identified seed availability. 

Note: Some databases already exist, as informed by 

Action 1.1.1.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Florida 

Association of Native Nurseries, Mid-Atlantic Regional 

Seed Bank, New England Wild Flower Society

Action 1.3.3 Assess and implement 

alternative seed production 

methods for “workhorse” shrub 

species to augment wildland seed 

collection.

This action aims to increase the supply of genetically 

appropriate shrub seed. Alternatives might include 

creation of shrub orchards (e.g., sagebrush or 

bitterbrush) or protection of wildland or private 

land stands for commercial seed harvesting. Best 

management practices may need to be developed to 

preclude damage to wildland populations. 

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Institute of Food and Agriculture, National Park 

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Lady Bird 

Johnson Wildflower Center
18 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 1.3.4 Expand collection, 

conservation, and assessment of 

native plant genetic resources 

for use now and into the future 

through Seeds of Success and other 

complementary efforts.

This action will lead to field collections of seed 

that represent the genetic diversity of species 

populations for use in seed zone development, 

seed production, restoration, research, breeding, 

and conservation. It will include training collection 

teams on seed collection methods to ensure the 

genetic diversity within species is collected. The 

outcome would be the conservation, assessment, 

and distribution of genetic resources for research 

purposes through the Agricultural Research Service’s 

National Plant Germplasm System (and other 

agencies and institutions) and restoration purposes 

through regional seed banks, such as the MidAtlantic Regional Seed Bank.

This action will also identify in situ reserve areas 

important for native plants, such as wilderness 

areas and research natural areas. It would include 

improving agency permitting for seed collection on 

Federal lands, writing best management practices 

for seed collection, and potentially developing 

programmatic National Environmental Policy Act 

documents to streamline the permit process, where 

needed.

This action may consider whether or how to 

prioritize germplasm collection for species based 

on potential use (e.g., crop wild relatives) and rarity, 

including salvage of seed material prior to activities 

that will damage the landscape. One tool resulting 

from this action could be a database that tracks seed 

collection sites on Federal lands.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Smithsonian Institution, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Public Gardens 

Association, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 

Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver Botanic Gardens, Lady 

Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, NatureServe

Action 1.3.5 Engage Federal 

procurement specialists to assess 

current contracting regulations and 

practices to identify strengths and 

take actions to correct deficiencies.

This action should explore how existing 

procurement practices (e.g., reacting to fires) 

may contribute to price fluctuations and seed 

demand due to unpredictability in wildfires and 

other impacts to the land. This action should result 

in improved mechanisms for coordination and 

communication between the Federal Government 

and the commercial seed industry to encourage 

the commercial seed industry to meet seed 

needs (e.g., indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity 

contract, blanket purchase agreement, permitting 

practices). Additional deliverables under this action 

may include developing a planning framework 

to deliver seed for emergency stabilization and 

burned area rehabilitation and providing training 

to small business owners on navigating the Federal 

procurement system. Strategy implementers can also 

examine procurement staffing and training needs 

under this action.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2017

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Institute of Food and Agriculture, National Park 

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Seed Trade Association, 

Florida Association of Native Nurseries, Institute for 

Applied Ecology, Mid-Atlantic Regional Seed Bank
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 19

GOAL 2

Identify Research Needs and Conduct Research to Provide

Genetically Appropriate Seed and to Improve Technology for 

Native Seed Production and Ecosystem Restoration

Background/

Rationale

The use of native plants to restore disturbed 

communities is essential to provide diversity, 

improve ecosystem functioning, facilitate adaptation 

to climate change, and meet management 

objectives. To ensure that adapted plant materials 

are available to provide long-term sustainability, 

additional research is required. This includes 

developing and testing seed zones; developing 

reliable protocols for seed testing, storage, and 

production; and defining effective restoration 

strategies and monitoring systems. Under the 

following objectives and actions, agencies will 

assess research priorities in each of these areas in 

order to provide the knowledge, plant materials, 

and technology essential for conducting fully 

functioning plant materials programs where 

needed. Accomplishing these actions will entail 

collaboration among managers, scientists, seed 

regulatory agencies, and the private sector seed 

industry. It will be essential to have agency support 

for targeted research projects. Outcomes of research 

will contribute to development of decision tools as 

described in Goal 3.

Objective

2.1

Characterize Genetic Variation of 

Restoration Species to Delineate Seed 

Zones, and Provide Seed Transfer 

Guidelines for Current and Projected 

Future Environmental Conditions

Because seed zones and seed transfer guidelines 

are lacking for most noncommercial species, 

research is urgently needed to aid managers in 

selecting genetically appropriate seed materials for 

restoration. Improving plant material availability 

entails collaboration among land managers within 

ecoregions, seed zones, mapped vegetation types, 

or other biogeographical areas to identify key 

restoration species, including those currently in use, 

and additional species required to meet restoration 

and management goals. Actions within this goal 

will foster the research needed to further refine 

climate-based provisional seed zones used for the 

many species for which genetic data is lacking. For 

widespread, commonly used restoration species, 

studies of genetic variation are required to develop 

empirical seed zones and seed transfer guidelines. 

Models based on these research results can be 

used to predict climate change effects on plant 

distributions and inform restoration efforts.
20 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 2.1.1 Conduct genetic 

research to develop seed zones for 

key restoration species.

Key restoration species collaboratively identified by 

managers and researchers will determine priorities 

for the development of empirical (species-specific) 

seed zones. For these species, this would entail 

common garden and reciprocal transplant studies to 

identify adaptive plant traits for use in empirical seed 

zones. 

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service/Plant Materials Centers, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. 

Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Botanic Gardens Conservation 

International, Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver Botanic 

Gardens, Great Basin Research Center, Institute for 

Applied Ecology, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Seed Bank, NatureServe, New 

England Wild Flower Society, Utah Department of Natural 

Resources, universities

Action 2.1.2 Develop predictive 

models of climate change effects 

on target restoration species and 

genetic diversity using 20-year or 

mid-century climate models.

Predictive models of climate change effects are 

used to assess threats to important restoration 

species and opportunities for targeting, prioritizing, 

and implementing restoration projects in light 

of potential changes in species distributions and 

community composition. Models will identify 

changes in species distributions and seed zone 

boundaries that will aid in identifying potential 

refugia areas, bottlenecks to species’ movement, and 

selection of appropriate populations for inclusion 

in restoration projects to reduce the risk of future 

maladaptation.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Public Gardens 

Association, Chicago Botanic Garden, Institute for Applied 

Ecology, NatureServe, universities,

Objective

2.2

Conduct Species-Specific Research to 

Provide Seed Technology, Storage, and 

Production Protocols for Restoration 

Species

Reliable species-specific protocols are required for 

evaluating seed quality and maintaining viability of 

seed in storage if seed reserves are to be available 

when needed. Similarly, guidelines for producing 

seed of restoration species, particularly native 

forbs, in agricultural settings are required to reduce 

economic risks to growers. Accomplishing this action 

will require that research needs be identified and 

prioritized by users, growers, seed analysts, and 

others and communicated to seed technologists and 

agronomists having appropriate areas of expertise 

(e.g., seed biology and technology, crop science, 

pollinator biology, soil science). Federal liaisons to 

private sector growers, as recommended under 

Objective 1.2, could provide coordination for this 

process. Outcomes will include additions to the 

Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA) Rules for 

Testing Seeds, guidance for construction of regional 

and local storage facilities, and improved equipment 

and technology for native seed production. 

Resolution of information gaps and production 

bottlenecks is often essential to expanded and 

economical production and use of individual species. 

Action 2.2.1 Conduct seed 

germination studies and develop 

seed testing protocols for key 

restoration species.

This action will support research to determine the 

germination biology and provide the AOSA-accepted 

seed testing protocols for commonly seeded 

restoration species, as well as species in demand but 

not currently in use. Publications on germination 

biology and ecology for these species will be 

reviewed. Knowledge gaps will be identified and 

prioritized by managers, growers, and researchers. 

The resulting research will inform seeding practices 

(e.g., requirements for dormancy release, seed 
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 21

pretreatments, seeding rates, dates, depths) for seed 

production fields and wildland seedings. Studies 

designed to formulate standardized germination 

testing procedures for individual species are 

refereed by AOSA prior to acceptance into the 

Rules for Testing Seeds. Close coordination with the 

AOSA Native Seed Testing Committee is required 

to schedule referee testing. The rules are used by 

certified seed laboratories across the country to 

increase uniformity in results. Standardized testing 

procedures are needed to evaluate seed lot quality. 

Outcomes of this action and existing data will 

be synthesized and compiled in existing or new 

databases.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest 

Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver 

Botanic Gardens, Great Basin Research Center, Institute 

for Applied Ecology, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 

private seed testing laboratories and seed companies, 

state seed laboratories, universities

Action 2.2.2 Develop storage 

guidelines for restoration species 

to improve maintenance of seed 

viability.

This action aims to provide species-specific 

requirements needed to manage stored seed 

supplies and conserve seed quality. Seed handling 

and management protocols to maintain viability 

from harvest through conditioning, storage, and 

use are lacking for most restoration species. Optimal 

temperature and relative humidity requirements to 

maximize seed longevity in storage have rarely been 

identified. Although many restoration species can 

be stored successfully in warehouses under ambient 

conditions for short periods, others lose viability 

rapidly, resulting in lost profits to growers or lost 

reserves to users. Available database information, 

literature, storage records, and observational reports 

will be reviewed on a regional or seed zone basis to 

identify problematic species and prioritize research. 

Public and private researchers, including certified 

seed laboratory personnel, will be solicited to 

conduct required studies. Response may be limited 

due to the long-term nature of the research and 

availability of suitable facilities and equipment for 

conducting the studies. Products and publications 

will include storage protocols, expanded seed 

technology databases and synthesis documents.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver 

Botanic Gardens, Great Basin Research Center, private 

seed testing laboratories and seed companies, state seed 

laboratories, universities, Utah Department of Natural 

Resources

Action 2.2.3 Develop species-specific 

protocols for seed and seedling 

production practices that maintain 

genetic diversity.

This action fosters research needed to aid growers 

in producing seed crops and nursery seedlings 

efficiently and economically while maintaining 

genetic diversity. Bottlenecks to successful 

production often appear when wildland species are 

grown as monocultures in seed fields or nurseries. 

Review of seed needs assessments by ecoregion 

or seed zone, combined with an examination of 

pertinent literature; databases; and surveys of 

growers, nurserymen, and researchers, is needed 

to identify obstacles to the successful production 

of individual species. Regional liaisons may be 

required to aid in prioritizing and expediting 

research. Scientists with expertise in improving 

stand establishment, weed control, irrigation, 

pollinator management, plant pathology, root and 

soil microorganisms and facilitators, and a wide array 

of other disciplines may be called upon to resolve 

specific problems. Input from geneticists is required 

to set guidelines for maintaining genetic diversity 

from seed collection through seed conditioning and 

seed or seedling production. Outcomes of this work, 

in addition to seed supplies and nursery seedlings, 

will include publications, technical notes, databases, 

webinars, workshops, and field days.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Great 

Basin Research Center, Institute for Applied Ecology, Lady 

Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, public and private seed 

producers and nurseries, state agencies, universities
22 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Objective

2.3

Conduct Research on Plant 

Establishment, Species Interactions, 

and Ecological Restoration

Increasing the use of native species requires 

greater knowledge of requirements for seedling 

establishment, species interactions (among natives 

and between natives and nonnatives), and more 

effective strategies for conducting restoration 

in ecological settings ranging from wetlands to 

semiarid landscapes. Actions under this objective will 

encourage collaboration among agency personnel, 

private sector seed industry and restoration 

contractors, and Federal and non-Federal scientists 

to prioritize research needs by plant community. 

Although studies of seedling establishment and 

species interactions may be completed within the 

5-year timeframe, restoration research will be long 

term, collaborative among all involved parties, and 

interdisciplinary. Research outcomes will be reported 

through publications and also transmitted to users 

via tools described in Objective 3. It is expected that 

outcomes may indicate a need for added agency 

support, personnel trained in restoration ecology, 

and investment in infrastructure.

Action 2.3.1 Develop site 

preparation and seeding and 

transplanting strategies that 

improve plant establishment and 

community diversity.

This action will identify issues limiting successful 

restoration and prioritize needed research activities. 

Available literature, seeding and planting records, 

and practitioner surveys will be reviewed and 

synthesized to provide immediate guidance and to 

identify research needs on an ecoregional, seed zone, 

or plant community basis. Broad research topics will 

likely include factors limiting plant establishment, 

species interactions (among natives and native 

competition with nonnative weeds and forage 

species), and strategies for meeting challenging 

restoration situations, ranging from localized to 

landscape scales and including urban and wildland/

urban interface restorations. Prioritization of needs 

will be completed in the first 2 years of the Strategy. 

However, many of the required studies will be long 

term and interdisciplinary, requiring collaboration 

among agencies, landowners, and researchers 

from public agencies and universities. Products 

will include, but not be limited to, new chemical, 

physical, and biological (including biocontrol 

and biopesticide) methods and strategies for site 

preparation; seeding and transplant strategies for 

reestablishing varied communities and habitats; 

and seed mix recommendations that include early 

colonizers and later colonizing perennials, where 

appropriate and effective for restoration.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest 

Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver 

Botanic Gardens, Great Basin Research Center, Institute 

for Applied Ecology, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 

universities

Action 2.3.2 Within seed zones, 

investigate the capacity of native 

plant materials to establish and 

persist with invasive species, 

while maintaining plant diversity/

function.

Native communities across the country are 

threatened by the encroachment of nonnative 

invasive species that compete with native species 

for resources and often preclude establishment of 

their seedlings. This action will facilitate research 

within seed zones to examine populations of native 

species that have undergone rapid evolution when 

growing within populations of nonnative annual or 

perennial invasive species. These native populations 

may have potential value as restoration material 

if their competitive ability is heritable and if they 

have not become competitive to the extent that 

they will preclude establishment of other native 

species in a seed mix. Literature reviews and surveys 

of researchers working in this newly evolving 

field will be compiled to identify potential native 

species and nonnative invasive combinations that 

may lend themselves to study for potential plant 

material development. The interaction of identified 

competitive natives with target nonnative species 

will be examined, and traits indicative of increased 
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 23

competitive ability with target nonnatives will be 

identified. Assessment of the benefits and risks of 

competitive natives on the diversity and function of 

native plant communities and ecosystems will be an 

essential component of the research.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest 

Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Great 

Basin Research Center, Institute for Applied Ecology, Lady 

Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, universities

Action 2.3.3 Advance 

investigations to diversify depleted 

native communities to improve 

structure and function and to 

replace nonnative monocultures 

with native communities.

Actions will include assessing site conditions and 

establishing measurable objectives for restoring 

appropriate structure and diversity to a wide variety 

of plant communities that have been depleted 

by overgrazing, wildfires, or other disturbances at 

scales ranging from local to landscape. Successful 

restoration and ecosystem function depend on 

understanding site factors and native vegetation that 

provide critical habitat and increase sustainability. 

Agencies are in need of recommendations to 

enhance establishment and persistence of native 

species, including plant material recommendations, 

as well as seeding and planting equipment and 

technology for adding species to depleted native 

communities. Strategies are in place for some 

communities, but new approaches or more effective 

techniques are required for others. Agencies are 

also seeking guidance for replacing nonnative 

grasses that were planted on millions of acres of 

Federal lands. Diversifying some seedings often 

proves unsuccessful due to the competitiveness 

of the nonnatives and their ability to recover 

following treatments; thus, technology to improve 

replacement is essential. Collaborative identification 

of local or regional research needs should provide 

a basis for formulation of studies that include 

examination of species interactions, treatment 

requirements, and overall strategies for successful 

diversification or replacement. Research needs may 

be prioritized over the first 2 years, but timelines 

for this work will likely extend beyond the 5-year 

framework of this Strategy.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Great 

Basin Research Center, Institute for Applied Ecology, Lady 

Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, NatureServe, universities

Action 2.3.4 Assess soil 

degradation, and develop 

treatments, soil amendments, and 

other site preparation techniques 

that enhance germination, 

establishment, and development 

of healthy communities capable 

of resisting invasion by nonnative 

species.

Consideration of soil condition is often not 

adequately incorporated into restoration planning. 

Addressing gaps in our understanding of soil’s 

role in restoration will result in more successful 

restoration. Agencies require tools to aid in assessing 

site conditions (e.g., updated Natural Resources 

Conservation Service soil maps and ecological 

site descriptions) and making informed decisions 

regarding soil treatments, amendments, and site 

preparation practices. A synthesis of assessment 

methods and technologies to stabilize soils and 

improve the establishment and persistence of native 

species will be a starting point that will provide 

guidance for practitioners and identify research 

gaps. This synthesis can be completed within 2 years. 

Research will require interdisciplinary collaboration 

among Federal and non-Federal scientists. Outcomes 

will contribute to tools and training sessions 

described in Objective 3.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2018

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Great 

Basin Research Center, Institute for Applied Ecology, Lady 

Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, universities
24 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Objective

2.4

Develop or Modify Monitoring 

Techniques, and Investigate Long-Term 

Restoration Impacts and Outcomes

Monitoring techniques and their application vary 

among agencies. Techniques used to evaluate 

restoration projects are often modified from 

standard ecological monitoring methods and 

may or may not provide needed data, particularly 

for evaluating early establishment of seedings. 

Increased capabilities for compiling retrospective 

and current monitoring data from seedings into 

electronic databases provides an additional tool 

for evaluating the efficacy of standardly used plant 

materials and seeding techniques, the ability of 

seedings to meet management goals, and seeding 

response to environmental conditions. Actions 

outlined in this objective will foster needed research 

and enable users to evaluate past seeding mixes and 

techniques for meeting current goals and to obtain 

improved data on response of their restoration 

efforts.

Action 2.4.1 Analyze new and 

existing monitoring methodologies 

to evaluate restoration outcomes.

Actions in this objective will include agency 

analyses of current monitoring techniques for their 

effectiveness in evaluating the success of restoration 

projects over short and long time periods. An 

additional consideration will be the ability of 

these methodologies to measure progress toward 

meeting management priorities (e.g., establishment 

of pollinator habitat). Adequacies and deficiencies 

identified through these analyses will be synthesized 

at ecoregional or other appropriate scales to 

recommend needed research to modify existing 

techniques or formulate new ones. The results will 

provide guidelines for improved and cost-effective 

short- and long-term monitoring that informs 

restoration practices and guides ecologically robust 

adaptive management postseeding.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. 

Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver 

Botanic Gardens, Florida Association of Native Nurseries, 

Great Basin Research Center, Institute for Applied Ecology, 

Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, NatureServe, 

universities

Action 2.4.2 Quantify major 

short- and long-term ecological 

and economic costs and benefits 

of planting native or nonnative 

plants on public lands (e.g., value 

to pollinators, biodiversity, and 

ecosystem functions).

Many Federal initiatives, policies, regulations, and 

other documents encourage the use of native 

species to protect native germplasm and diversity 

and to provide healthy, functioning ecosystems. 

Questions, however, remain regarding costs, 

establishment, competitive ability with nonnative 

invasives, and longevity of natives, particularly on 

arid and semiarid sites. Although many nonnative 

species have been seeded successfully and 

economically to provide forage and soil stabilization, 

their ability to support diversity and provide 

functioning ecosystems to meet multiple use and 

sustained yield mandates is limited. With improving 

ability to select genetically appropriate plant 

materials and seed diverse species, it is important 

for practitioners to have data available that provides 

guidance when planning restoration projects and 

selecting plant materials. This research will focus 

on specific systems where nonnative species are 

commonly used to aid in better defining alternative 

materials and tradeoffs resulting from plant materials 

decisions.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2017

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior, 

National Institute of Food and Agriculture, National Park 

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Public Gardens 

Association, Chicago Botanic Garden, Florida Association 

of Native Nurseries, Institute for Applied Ecology, 

universities
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 25

Action 2.4.3 Conduct retrospective 

studies of selected native plant 

restoration projects to evaluate 

short- and long-term plant 

community responses to these 

treatments and to biotic and abiotic 

conditions.

This action will accelerate agency compilation 

of regional monitoring data from historic and 

current seedings as one means of evaluating 

agencies’ current and planned restoration practices. 

Researchers will examine available retrospective 

data to evaluate short- and long-term responses of 

restoration projects to treatments, seed mixes, and 

environmental conditions to characterize variation 

in establishment and longevity of individual plant 

materials. This data will also be used to examine the 

role of weather conditions and other environmental 

variables on plant community development 

and ability to resist nonnative species invasions. 

Estimates of economic and ecological costs and 

benefits of restoration will be strengthened by the 

availability of long-term data from multiple seedings.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Institute of Food and Agriculture, National Park 

Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological 

Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver 

Botanic Gardens, Florida Association of Native Nurseries, 

Great Basin Research Center, Institute for Applied Ecology, 

universities
26 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 27

GOAL 3

Develop Tools that Enable Managers to Make Timely,

Informed Seeding Decisions for Ecological Restoration

Background/

Rationale

Restoration goals must be placed in the context of 

economic, social, and political considerations, as 

well as site-specific ecosystem recovery potential. In 

addition, managers and decisionmakers are often 

faced with uncertainty and having to work with 

incomplete information and varying availability 

of native plant materials. New tools are needed to 

help managers assess the risks, guide the scope, 

and predict the efficacy of restoration treatments. 

This would include tools that (1) help prioritize 

treatment locations and refine site and speciesspecific strategies; (2) improve mechanisms to 

obtain suitable native seed; and (3) determine 

genetically appropriate plant materials and seed 

zones in order to maximize restoration success in 

light of the most reliable short-term (10-30 year) 

anticipated climate changes. The use of nonlocal 

seed in restoration risks the movement of nonlocal 

genes into local populations. Potential effects must 

be clearly defined and disclosed so that restoration 

managers can make informed choices. Addressing 

these challenges requires syntheses of research on 

native species ecology and the development of tools 

to communicate and apply relevant knowledge. 

Prioritizing efforts and being responsive to emerging 

information on past successes and failures will help 

ensure that native plant communities are resilient 

and resistant to historical and novel stressors.

Objective

3.1

Develop Training Programs for Practitioners, Producers, and Stakeholders on 

the Use of Genetically Appropriate Seed 

for Restoration

Training programs and a certification program 

should be developed to promote and strengthen 

professional standards in all activities devoted to the 

use of genetically appropriate seed and ecological 

restoration. The training programs will increase 

the understanding of restoration principles, and 

the certification program will help evaluate the 

education and professional experience of restoration 

biologists, thus ensuring more successful restoration.
28 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 3.1.1 Develop a training 

cadre of multidisciplinary 

restoration experts, and work with 

external partner(s) to establish a 

restoration practitioner certification 

program.

An output of this action will be a list of past and 

current training courses offered across agencies and 

restoration partners. Implementers will identify gaps 

between training courses offered and training needs. 

This should lead to resources to support costs of 

local or regional trainings for field managers.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, Federal Highway 

Administration, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, 

National Park Service, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Institute 

for Applied Ecology

Action 3.1.2 Use and, where 

appropriate, expand the network of 

existing restoration field sites and 

demonstration areas.

Plan and implement the development of one to 

three demonstration areas per year distributed 

across ecoregions and provisional seed zones. Work 

with appropriate partners and available resources to 

prioritize the work.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Institute of Food 

and Agriculture, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden

Action 3.1.3 Develop resources for 

managers to highlight successful 

and unsuccessful native plant 

projects, including site visits.

Outputs for this action may include ecoregional, 

interagency site visits, webinars, trainings, and other 

activities to inform managers on successful and 

unsuccessful native plant projects. Implementers will 

consider developing and maintaining a restoration 

website that is organized by ecoregion and provides 

one-stop shopping, including links to webinars, 

contacts, and resources for managers. 

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, Federal Highway 

Administration, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, 

National Park Service, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Botanic Gardens Conservation 

International, Institute for Applied Ecology, Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Seed Bank
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 29

Objective

3.2

Develop Native Seed Source Availability 

Data and Tools for Accessing the Data 

To increase the development and use of genetically 

appropriate seed by Federal, tribal, state, and local 

agencies, as well as nongovernment partners, it will 

be necessary to develop national/ecoregional data, 

databases, and websites with seed needs and seed 

availability, including the identification of provisional 

or empirical seed zones.

Action 3.2.1 To further build local 

practitioner knowledge and assist 

their needs, support regional and 

nongovernmental native seed 

networks that provide seed with 

provisional and empirical seed zone 

origin designations.

Outputs for this action will include incorporating 

provisional and empirical seed zones into a national 

or linked series of regional databases listing 

commercially available native seed. Information on 

site of origin (e.g., soil type) will be included. This 

action includes work with local nonprofits. Examples 

could include the Native Seed Network database or 

NatureServe’s Biotics database.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Institute for Applied Ecology, 

Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, NatureServe, New 

England Wild Flower Society

Action 3.2.2 Maintain a website 

with all available seed zone maps 

and publications, and develop a 

dynamic, web-based seed selection 

tool to match the seed source with 

the planting site.

Continuously update the U.S. Forest Service 

Western Wildland Environmental Threat Assessment 

Center’s Seed Zone Mapper website with new or 

existing publications and maps with provisional 

and empirical seed zones. Maps will be provided in 

a variety of formats. Develop web-based tools that 

match seed lots with planting sites or project areas at 

regional or national levels.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: U.S. Forest Service, U.S. 

Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Institute for Applied Ecology, 

NatureServe

Action 3.2.3 Work with partners 

to create a multiagency and nonFederal partner seed inventory 

system.

This action’s output would provide updates of seed 

availability and a list of commercial growers and 

nurseries to help identify additional partners to 

increase native species.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management; 

Natural Resources Conservation Service; U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service; U.S. Forest Service/Reforestation, 

Nurseries, and Genetic Resources

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Institute for Applied Ecology, Lady 

Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, NatureServe

Action 3.2.4 Develop and enhance 

existing Federal interagency 

agreement and procurement tools 

to facilitate multiagency seed 

acquisition.

This action would encourage collaboration among 

managers and procurement officials from Federal 

agencies to develop interagency agreements and 

procurement and agreement tools that facilitate 

seed acquisition between agencies. (See also Action 

1.3.5)

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2018

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, Federal Highway 

Administration, National Park Service, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined
30 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 3.3.2 Write and distribute 

ecoregional native plant project 

reports.

Develop a template for ecoregional reports. Then, 

develop native plant project reports using the 

common format (e.g., Great Basin, Colorado Plateau, 

Pacific Northwest, Longleaf Pine Project). Reports 

summarize research accomplishments, findings, and 

needs.

TARGET YEARS: 2016, then annually

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Park Service, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden, Denver 

Botanic Gardens, nongovernmental organizations

Action 3.3.3 Support field 

implementation of restoration tools.

Develop “scientist/manager/practitioner” tools and 

“grower-to-grower” models of technology transfer, 

along with science delivery through vehicles such 

as the Joint Fire Science Program’s Fire Science 

Exchange Network. To ensure these newly developed 

tools are used in the field, support broad distribution 

and delivery. These models include Federal and nonFederal partners.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, Federal Highway 

Administration, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Public Gardens 

Association, Chicago Botanic Garden, Lady Bird Johnson 

Wildflower Center, contractors, land lessees

Objective

3.3

Integrate and Develop Science Delivery 

Tools to Support Restoration Project 

Development and Implementation

Ecological restoration is a science with different 

tools, protocols, and species that are dependent 

upon the ecological region where the restoration 

is occurring. Restoration strategies may vary from 

region to region. Therefore it will be necessary to 

work on an ecoregional basis in developing guides 

and techniques for practitioners to use.

Action 3.3.1 Work with Federal and 

state agencies, nongovernmental 

organizations, and other partners to 

identify available restoration guides 

and protocols by ecoregion.

Conduct a survey and assessment of ecoregional 

restoration guides, including native plant 

communities and soil types, and identify ecoregional 

gaps. This action will determine where ecoregional 

restoration guides exist and which ecoregions need 

guides. Further, it will lead to revision of outdated 

guides and preparation of guides needed to fill gaps.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Agricultural Research Service, 

Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, 

Federal Highway Administration, National Park Service, 

Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Botanic Gardens Conservation 

International, Chicago Botanic Garden, Institute for 

Applied Ecology, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 

Landscape Conservation Cooperatives, Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Seed Bank, NatureServe, New England Wild 

Flower Society
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 31

for restoration and conservation planning and a list 

of primary implementation practices and databases 

that are similar or different across plant communities 

and agencies. The lists should help managers 

identify needs and information gaps that could 

be informed by climate- and soil-based geospatial 

tools. Geodatabases will be developed that include 

information on past and current restoration activities 

to aid in planning future efforts.

TARGET YEARS: 2015

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, Federal Highway 

Administration, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Institute for Applied Ecology, 

NatureServe

Action 3.4.3 Assess climate 

modeling and soil/water remote 

sensing for their ability to 

forecast the likelihood of seedling 

establishment and persistence.

An output would be a tool linked to the Natural 

Resources Conservation Service’s Web Soil Survey, 

which relates onsite soil conditions to the probability 

of restoration success. There is a need for a suite of 

tools focused on specific geographic areas or plant 

communities, such as resistance and resiliency 

science, including the Fire and Invasives Assessment 

Tool (FIAT) process. 

TARGET YEARS: 2016 for testing; 2017 for version 1

COORDINATING AGENCIES: National Park Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: NatureServe

Action 3.4.4 Develop GIS-based 

tools for prioritizing seed needs and 

projects that incorporate factors, 

such as disturbance and climate 

change, into decisions.

An output of this action would be dynamic tools 

linked to websites, such as the U.S. Forest Service 

Western Wildland Environmental Threat Assessment 

Center’s Seed Zone Mapper website.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, 

Objective 

3.4

Build on Ecological Assessments and 

Disturbance Data, and Provide Training 

that will Allow Managers to Anticipate 

Needs and Establish Spatially-Explicit 

Contingency Strategies

Managers need to evaluate their restoration projects 

within the context of the larger landscape to 

determine genetically appropriate plant materials 

and seed zones to maximize restoration success in 

light of the most reliable short-term (10-30 year) 

anticipated climate changes. The ecoregional 

context must be clearly defined and disclosed so that 

restoration managers can make informed choices. 

An ecological site description is an example of a tool 

that managers can use.

Action 3.4.1 Identify and inventory 

available climate-based geospatial 

tools to inform decisions regarding 

restoration site prioritization and 

methods.

Conduct an inventory of available climate-based 

geospatial tools, assess their applicability, and 

provide access to them via appropriate websites.

TARGET YEARS: 2015

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

Bureau of Land Management, Federal Highway 

Administration, National Park Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Institute for Applied Ecology, 

NatureServe

Action 3.4.2 Develop a crosswalk of 

existing agency habitat restoration 

priorities and tools by provisional 

seed zone and plant community 

type.

Outputs of this action would include a list of ongoing 

and past efforts by agencies that prioritize habitats 
32 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 3.4.7 Develop informational 

tools and guidelines on the 

appropriate use of cultivars, hybrids, 

and noninvasive nonnative species 

in limited circumstances.

This Strategy does not preclude the use of 

nonnative plant materials, where and when they 

are appropriate. Although land managers in some 

agencies may plant nonnative species to achieve 

site stabilization, wildfire breaks, or invasive plant 

control, the use of nonnatives should be limited to 

transitional, noninvasive species, replaced by natives 

in subsequent ecological restoration or during 

natural successional processes. Guidance will be 

developed for species effectiveness under different 

response scenarios, with ultimate restoration of 

native species.

TARGET YEARS: 2016-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

U.S. Geological Survey 

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Chicago Botanic Garden,

NatureServe

Action 3.4.5 Use wildfire risk-based 

assessment tools to help prioritize 

treatment locations and refine 

site and species-specific strategies 

based on wildfire disturbance and 

severity.

Tools will be developed to aid in analyzing site 

conditions post-wildfire to determine treatment 

needs and priorities.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2020

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. 

Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANT: NatureServe

Action 3.4.6 Develop a decision 

tool of belowground assessment 

and treatment.

Build on research identified in Goal 2 to better 

understand belowground ecological drivers and 

interactions with native plant establishment and 

competition with nonnative species. The tool is 

intended to minimize the number of potential 

analyses and site treatments a manager will need to 

consider. Initiate with literature review in 2015, and 

continue into 2018 as research from Goal 2 develops.

TARGET YEARS: 2015-2018

COORDINATING AGENCIES: National Park Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 33

GOAL 4

Develop Strategies for Internal

and External Communication

Background/

Rationale

Successful implementation of this Strategy will 

require broad communication and outreach to 

engage agency staff and stakeholders in the shared 

goals of the Strategy. Both Federal and non-Federal 

partners play an important role in achieving the 

Strategy’s goals. Key to implementation will be 

the ability to foster progress as a collaborative 

multiagency effort. Communications should 

be tailored to key audiences, including agency 

partners, collaborators, other stakeholders, and 

interested publics. Following a national, coordinated 

rollout, each agency will take steps to incorporate 

actions into their own policies and programs 

and communicate with their key stakeholders. 

Each agency will report progress on Strategy 

implementation to leadership and other Strategy 

participants. An emphasis on feedback, evaluation, 

and improvement of the Strategy will help ensure 

it remains relevant and responsive to evolving 

needs. And finally, success stories, lessons learned, 

and recommendations for improvements should 

be highlighted in communications products and 

materials.

Objective

4.1

External Communications: Conduct

Education and Outreach through the 

Plant Conservation Alliance Network

The importance of this Strategy and the significant 

role of collaboration in meeting the Strategy’s 

goals should be shared with a broad audience and 

incorporated into partner communications and 

materials, as appropriate.
34 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Action 4.1.1 Develop a 

communications plan, including 

goals, target audiences, and key 

messages.

Working together, the agencies and partners should 

develop and implement a broad communications 

plan that outlines how the Strategy will be promoted 

within and outside of partner organizations. The 

communications plan would define communication 

goals, audiences, and key messages that would 

influence the development of appropriate 

communication products or methods. Each 

agency would then develop an agency-specific 

communications approach to implement the plan. 

TARGET YEAR: 2015

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration, Smithsonian Institution

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Botanic Gardens Conservation 

International, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, PCA 

cooperators

Action 4.1.2 Involve the 

Plant Conservation Alliance in 

communications for the Strategy.

Including the Strategy as a focus of the PCA annual 

meetings and adding the Strategy as a standing 

agenda item on bimonthly webinar meetings 

will provide important opportunities to share 

expertise and highlight key information needs. 

The PCA website and email distribution list are 

effective vehicles for connecting with collaborating 

institutions and the public. Efforts should be made 

to increase participation of agencies and partners 

currently not yet involved in the PCA. The PCA 

Steering Committee for the Strategy is a source 

of expertise on issues pertaining to using and 

developing native plant materials and can help 

identify resources, information, and additional 

expertise as needed. The PCA expertise comes 

from a broad spectrum of botanical, horticultural, 

agronomic, and species experts.

TARGET YEARS: Ongoing

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration, Smithsonian Institution

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: American Public Gardens 

Association, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 

cooperators
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 35

initiatives and objectives. Outputs may include 

instruction memoranda, policy directives, native 

plant policies, information bulletins, and handbooks. 

Agencies should identify key programmatic and field 

contacts and networks to assist in implementing 

the Strategy and appropriate channels for reporting 

progress within their agency (to inform Action 4.3.1).

TARGET YEARS: Ongoing

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. 

Forest Service, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, 

Agricultural Research Service, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Federal Highway Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Applied Ecological Services/Taylor 

Creek Restoration Nurseries, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower 

Center, PCA cooperators

Action 4.2.3 Make existing agency 

native plant policies available to the 

public.

This action aims to collate agency policies and 

guidance on the use of native plant materials and 

provide them in a web-based format to make 

policies and guidance more accessible to Strategy 

collaborators and other interested parties. Several 

actions under Goals 1, 2, and 3 of this Strategy may 

inform this deliverable. Content should also be 

incorporated into the PCA Federal member agency 

interface webpages, which link to each Federal 

member’s website on the PCA website. This action 

may require assistance from appropriate agency 

outreach and technical web experts.

TARGET YEARS: 2015

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

Action 4.2.4 Incorporate the 

Strategy’s goals and key messages 

into appropriate existing landscapescale restoration initiatives.

Many ongoing restoration activities encompass 

the aims of the Strategy. Incorporating goals and 

Internal Communications: Distribute 

and Implement the Strategy Across 

Agencies, and Provide Feedback 

Mechanisms

Internal communication within the agencies will 

ensure that appropriate staff members are given 

opportunities to become fully informed about the 

Strategy and its relevance to their work. Greater 

awareness of the Strategy within the agencies will 

also enhance collaboration and facilitate linkages 

between the Strategy and related agency initiatives.

Action 4.2.1 Develop internal 

communications plans.

Federal partners will develop internal 

communication plans to increase awareness and 

facilitate implementation of the Strategy. Plans will 

incorporate the key messages developed in Action 

4.1.1 and describe how the Strategy supports the 

agency mission and national initiatives, such as 

climate change, invasive species, and pollinator 

initiatives. Internal communications should consider 

key programmatic areas that will be contributing 

to or benefiting from information, training, and 

products emanating from the Strategy.

TARGET YEARS: 2015

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

Action 4.2.2 Identify and use 

communication mechanisms for 

implementing the Strategy.

Each agency will coordinate its own implementation 

plan for the Strategy, as it pertains to agency 

Objective

4.2
36 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

TARGET YEAR: 2015

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

Action 4.3.2 Recognize and 

promote achievements made 

and improvements needed in 

implementing the Strategy across all 

agencies and partners.

This action would promote successes as well as 

elicit recommendations for improvement and future 

direction. Recognition is achieved through a number 

of venues, such as new or existing award programs—

potentially through the PCA—press events, articles, 

etc.

TARGET YEARS: 2016 and beyond

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service,

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs,

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

Action 4.3.3 Review and revise the 

Strategy every 5 years or as needed.

This action will result in a dynamic Strategy, with 

actions that evolve and are endorsed by agency 

leaders through the PCA. To implement this action, 

consider prospects for revisions to be made as 

needed, timing, and other considerations for 

revisions when the PCA federal memorandum of 

understanding is renewed.

TARGET YEARS: Ongoing

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: To be determined

Objective

4.3

Report Progress, Recognize 

Achievements, and Revise Strategy

Actions under this objective will encourage two-way 

communication and feedback and raise the visibility 

of restoration efforts that result from actions outlined 

in the Strategy. Planning for progress, achievements, 

and revisions to the Strategy will help ensure that 

the goals remain relevant.

Action 4.3.1 Establish a mechanism 

to report on the progress achieved 

through the Strategy, including 

successful native plant projects and 

lessons learned.

Under this action, PCA annual meetings could 

provide a feedback mechanism for collaborators 

to report achievements. This could facilitate 

production of an annual report to track progress on 

the Strategy for use and analysis in 5-year progress 

measures and future directions. Agencies will 

have identified appropriate channels for reporting 

progress within their agency, and data calls might 

coincide with the end of the fiscal year with a goal 

of providing information early the following year 

(e.g., by February 1). The agency communication 

plans might also include as deliverables the training, 

collaboration, and technology transfer objectives of 

the other goals in this Strategy (e.g., see Goal 3, in 

particular). 

key messages into those relevant initiatives will 

facilitate collaboration and set the stage for feedback 

mechanisms to inform the Strategy.

TARGET YEARS: 2016

COORDINATING AGENCIES: Bureau of Land Management, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Federal Highway 

Administration

OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower 

Center
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 37

LITERATURE CITED

Aubry, C., R. Shoal, and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass 

cultivars: their origins, development, and 

use on national forests and grasslands in the 

Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 

pages, plus appendices.

Bower, A., J.B. St. Clair, and V. Erickson. 2014. 

Generalized provisional seed zones for 

native plants. Ecological Applications 24 (5): 

913–919

(DOI) U.S. Department of the Interior. 2013. Order 

No. 3330: Improving Mitigation Policies and 

Practices of the Department of the Interior. 

Retrieved from http://www.doi.gov/news/

upload/secretarial-order-mitigation.pdf

(DOI) U.S. Department of the Interior. 2015. Order 

No. 3336: Rangeland Fire Prevention, 

Management and Restoration. Retrieved 

from http://www.doi.gov/news/download/

upload/Final-Rangeland-SO-greater.pdf

(DOI BLM) U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau 

of Land Management. 2009. Native Plant 

Materials Development Program. Progress 

Report for FY2001-2007. BLM/WO/GI10/008+1800. Washington, DC. 42 p.

(DOI & USDA) U.S. Department of the Interior & U.S. 

Department of Agriculture. 2002. Report 

to the Congress: Interagency program to 

supply and manage native plant materials 

for restoration and rehabilitation on federal 

lands. U.S. Department of the Interior and 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

DC. 17 p. Retrieved from http://www.nps.

gov/plants/npmd/Native%20Plant%20

Materials%202002%20Report%20To%20

Congress.pdf

Erickson, V.J. 2008. Developing native plant 

germplasm for National Forests and 

Grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. Native 

Plants Journal 9 (3): 255-266.

Executive Order No. 13112, 64 F.R. 6183. 1999. 

Retrieved from https://www.federalregister.

gov/articles/1999/02/08/99-3184/invasivespecies

(FGDC) Federal Geographic Data Committee. 2008. 

Vegetation Classification Standard, FGDCSTD-005, Version 2. Washington, DC.

Haidet, M., and P. Olwell. 2015. Seeds of Success: a 

national seed banking program working 

to achieve long-term conservation goals. 

Natural Areas Journal 35: 165-173.

Havens, K., P. Vitt, S. Still, A.T. Kramer, J.B. Fant, and K. 

Schatz. 2015. Seed sourcing for restoration 

in an era of climate change. Natural Areas 

Journal 35: 122-133.

Johnson, R., L. Stritch, P. Olwell, S. Lambert, M.E. 

Horning, and R. Cronn. 2010. What are the 

best seed sources for ecosystem restoration 

on BLM and USFS lands? Native Plants 

Journal 11: 117-131.

Kramer, A.T., D.J. Larkin, and J.B. Fant. 2015. Assessing 

potential seed transfer zones for five forb 

species from the Great Basin floristic region, 

USA. Natural Areas Journal 35: 174-188.

(NFWPCAP) National Fish, Wildlife and Plants 

Climate Adaptation Partnership. 2012. 

National Fish, Wildlife and Plants Climate 

Adaptation Strategy, Association of Fish and 

Wildlife Agencies, Council on Environmental 

Quality, Great Lakes Indian Fish and 
38 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Wildlife Commission, National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, and 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, 

DC. 112 p. Retrieved from http://www.

wildlifeadaptationstrategy.gov/pdf/

NFWPCAS-Final.pdf

(NISC) National Invasive Species Council. 2006. 

Invasive species definition clarification 

and guidance white paper. Definitions 

Subcommittee of the Invasive Species 

Advisory Committee (ISAC). 11 p. Retrieved 

from http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/

docs/council/isacdef.pdf

Pollinator Health Task Force. 2015. National Strategy 

to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and 

Other Pollinators. White House, Washington, 

DC.

Riley, L.E., D.E. Steinfeld, L.A. Winn, and S.L. Lucas. 

2015. Best management practices: an 

integrated and collaborative approach to 

native plant restoration on highly disturbed 

sites. Natural Areas Journal, 35 (1): 45-53.

Rogers, D.L., and A.M. Montalvo. 2004. Genetically 

appropriate choices for plant materials to 

maintain biological diversity. University of 

California, Berkeley, CA. Report to the USDA 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, 

Lakewood, CO. 335 p. Retrieved from http://

www.fs.fed.us/r2/publications/botany/

plantgenetics.pdf

(SER) Society for Ecological Restoration, Science & 

Policy Working Group. 2004. SER primer on 

ecological restoration. Version 2. Society 

for Ecological Restoration, Washington, 

DC. Retrieved from http://www.ser.

org/resources/resources-detail-view/

ser-international-primer-on-ecologicalrestoration

Shaw, N., M. Pellant, M. Fisk, and E. Denney. 2012. 

A collaborative program to provide 

native plant materials for the Great Basin. 

Rangelands 34: 11-16.

 (USC HR) U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 

2000. Report from the House of 

Representatives 106-914. Washington, 

DC. Retrieved from http://www.gpo.gov/

fdsys/pkg/CRPT-106hrpt914/html/CRPT106hrpt914.htm

(USC HR) U.S. Congress, House of Representatives. 

2001. Report from the House of 

Representatives 107-234. Retrieved from 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT107hrpt234/html/CRPT-107hrpt234.htm

U.S. Forest Service. 2008. Chapter 2070 – Vegetation 

Ecology. In FSM 2000 – National Forest 

Resource Management. Amendment No. 

2000-2008-1. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, 

DC. Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.

us/wildflowers/Native_Plant_Materials/

documents/FSM_2070.pdf

The White House Office of the Press Secretary. 

2014. Presidential memorandum – creating 

a federal strategy to promote the health 

of honey bees and other pollinators. 4 p. 

Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/

the-press-office/2014/06/20/presidentialmemorandum-creating-federal-strategypromote-health-honey-b

Wood, T.E., K.H. Doherty, and W. Padgett. 2015. 

Development of native plant materials for 

restoration and rehabilitation of Colorado 

Plateau ecosystems. Natural Areas Journal 

35: 134-150.
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 39

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The participating Federal agencies of the Plant 

Conservation Alliance include:

 Agricultural Research Service

 Bureau of Indian Affairs

 Bureau of Land Management

 Federal Highway Administration

 National Institute of Food and Agriculture

 National Park Service

 Natural Resources Conservation Service

 Smithsonian Institution

 United States Botanic Garden

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

 U.S. Forest Service

 U.S. Geological Survey

The Plant Conservation Alliance Federal Committee 

thanks the Steering and Drafting Committee 

members and other individuals who contributed to 

the vision and content of the “National Seed Strategy 

for Rehabilitation and Restoration.” Asterisks indicate 

the lead for each of the teams.

Plant Conservation Alliance Federal 

Committee/Steering Committee

Peggy Olwell (Bureau of Land Management)*

Alix Cleveland (U.S. Forest Service)

Patricia De Angelis (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Jim Dobrowolski (National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture)

Greg Eckert (National Park Service)

John Englert (Natural Resources Conservation 

Service)

Sean Hart (Bureau of Indian Affairs)

Rosalind James (Agricultural Research Service)

Gary Krupnick (Smithsonian Institution)

Olivia Kwong (Bureau of Land Management)

Ray Mims (U.S. Botanic Garden)

Deirdre Remley (Federal Highway Administration)

Jan Schultz (U.S. Forest Service)

Elizabeth Sellers (U.S. Geological Survey)

Nancy Shaw (U.S. Forest Service)
40 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

GOAL 1: Seed Supply Team

Vicky Erickson (U.S. Forest Service)*

John Englert (Natural Resources Conservation 

Service)

Paul Krabacher (Bureau of Land Management)

Deirdre Remley (Federal Highway Administration)

Elizabeth Sellers (U.S. Geological Survey)

Gary Wallace (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

GOAL 2: Research Needs Team

Richard C. Johnson (Agricultural Research Service)*

Jim Dobrowolski (National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture)

Greg Eckert (National Park Service)

John Englert (Natural Resources Conservation 

Service)

Mike Gregg (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Bob Karrfalt (U.S. Forest Service)

Gary Krupnick (Smithsonian Institution)

Tom Monaco (Agricultural Research Service)

Noel Pavlovic (U.S. Geological Survey)

Adrienne Pilmanis (Bureau of Land Management)

Elizabeth Sellers (U.S. Geological Survey)

Brad St. Clair (U.S. Forest Service)

GOAL 3: Decision Tools Team

Sarah Kulpa (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)*

Troy Wood (U.S. Geological Survey)*

Greg Eckert (National Park Service)

John Englert (Natural Resources Conservation 

Service)

Anne Halford (Bureau of Land Management)

Dave Repass (Bureau of Land Management)

Susan Rinehart (U.S. Forest Service)

Elizabeth Sellers (U.S. Geological Survey)

Tony Svejcar (Agricultural Research Service)

Victor Vankus (U.S. Forest Service)

GOAL 4: Communication Team

Megan Haidet (Bureau of Land Management)*

Ray Mims (U.S. Botanic Garden)*

Nicole Balloffet (U.S. Forest Service)

Patricia De Angelis (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

John Englert (Natural Resources Conservation 

Service)

Cynthia Moses-Nedd (Bureau of Land Management)

Rusty Russell (Smithsonian Institution)

Jan Schultz (U.S. Forest Service)

Elizabeth Sellers (U.S. Geological Survey)

Communications Support 

Elizabeth Rieben (Bureau of Land Management)
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 41

GLOSSARY

This glossary describes terms referenced in the 

“National Seed Strategy for Rehabilitation and 

Restoration.” These terms are defined with the intent 

of providing clarity for their use in this Strategy. 

These terms may have been previously described 

by Federal agencies or professional societies or 

in scientific literature; however, the terms may 

have been modified to meet the purposes of this 

document. Sources include: Aubry et al. (2005), 

Bower et al. (2014), Havens et al. (2015), Kramer et 

al. (2015), NFWPCAP (2012), NISC (2006), SER (2004), 

USDI BLM (2009), and U.S. Forest Service (2008).

adaptation (adapted): a change or the process of 

change in structure or habits by which a species or 

organism becomes better suited to its environment.

common garden study: an experiment where 

different genotypes, populations, or varieties are 

grown together in the same environment such 

that environmental effects on trait expression are 

minimized and genetic differences are more readily 

observed.

ecological genetics: the study of how ecologically 

relevant traits evolve in natural populations.

ecology: the study of relationships of organisms to 

one another and their environments.

ecological restoration: See restoration in glossary.

ecoregion: areas of general similarity in 

ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of 

environmental resources. They are designed to serve 

as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, 

management, and monitoring of ecosystems and 

ecosystem components.

ecosystem: the biota (plants, animals, 

microorganisms) within a given area, the 

environment that sustains it, and their interactions.

ecosystem services: the benefits people and wildlife 

obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning 

services such as food, water, timber, pollination, and 

fiber; regulating services such as the regulation of 

climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; 

cultural services such as recreation, aesthetic 

enjoyment, identity, and spiritual fulfillment; 

and supporting services such as soil formation, 

photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling.

empirical seed zone: empirical seed zones are 

developed for individual species across their 

distribution through the following steps: (1) 

Researchers collect seed from diverse geographic 

and climatic areas of the targeted region; (2) 

Researchers evaluate plantings from collected seeds 

in common gardens for production, morphology, 

phenology, and physiological traits; (3) Researchers 

develop regression models that link genetic variation 

across the landscape with collection location 

environments to delineate seed zones for the 

collected species. (See also provisional seed zone in 

glossary.)

establishment: the stage at which the seedling has 

exhausted the food reserves stored in the seed and 

must grow, develop, and persist independently.

ex situ conservation: the technique of conserving 

all levels of biological diversity outside their natural 

habitats through such means as botanical gardens, 

zoos, or seed banks.

gene flow: the transfer of alleles or genes from one 

population to another.

genetically appropriate plant materials:

native plant materials environmentally adapted 

to a restoration site that are likely to establish, 
42 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

persist, and promote community and ecological 

relationships. Such plants would be: sufficiently 

genetically diverse to respond and adapt to 

changing climates and environmental conditions; 

unlikely to cause genetic contamination and 

undermine local adaptations, community 

interactions, and function of resident native species 

within the ecosystem; not likely to become invasive 

and displace other native species; not likely to be a 

source of nonnative invasive pathogens; and likely to 

maintain critical connections with pollinators.

genotype: the genetic makeup of a cell, an 

organism, or an individual. The genetic code of an 

organism.

germination: events beginning with water 

uptake by a seed and ending with the beginning 

of elongation of the embryonic axis through the 

surrounding structures.

habitat: the dwelling place of an organism or 

community that provides the requisite conditions for 

its life processes.

invasive species: a species that is nonnative to 

the ecosystem under consideration and whose 

introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or 

environmental harm or harm to human, animal, or 

plant health.

locally adapted plants: plants from an area 

geographically near a planting site that are 

environmentally adapted and likely to establish and 

persist.

maladaptation: a species that has traits that are 

poorly suited or adapted to a particular situation or 

set of conditions.

native plants: indigenous terrestrial and aquatic 

species that have evolved and occur naturally in 

a particular region, ecosystem, or habitat. Species 

native to North America are generally recognized as 

those occurring on the continent prior to European 

settlement. Native plant species represent a number 

of different life forms, including conifer trees, 

hardwood trees and shrubs, grasses, forbs, and 

others.

native plant communities: recurring assemblages 

of native plant species associated with local 

substrates and natural dynamic processes. Their 

composition varies in space and time in response to 

changes in climate and species dispersal. 

nonnative species: an organism is considered 

nonnative (alien, foreign, nonindigenous, exotic) 

when it has been introduced by humans to a 

location(s) outside its native or natural range. This 

designation applies to a species introduced from 

another continent, another ecosystem, another seed 

zone, and even another habitat within an ecosystem. 

With respect to a particular ecosystem, this includes 

any species, including its seeds, eggs, spores, or 

other biological material, capable of propagating 

that species, that is not native to that ecosystem. This 

definition of nonnative will vary depending on the 

scope and context of projects.

protocol: a standardized method containing 

detailed steps.

provisional seed zone: provisional seed zones 

are based on climate data and used for species 

for which empirical seed zones have not been 

developed. Provisional seed zones in combination 

with established ecoregions can be used to guide 

movement of plant materials for restoration. (See 

also empirical seed zone in glossary.)

reciprocal transplant studies: studies using plants 

from multiple populations of a species that are 

planted in a set of sites that represent local and 

nonlocal climates to test questions of adaptation of 

the populations to their local environments. Such 

studies are useful for evaluating the effectiveness 

of seed transfer guidelines and seed zones. When 

sites represent extreme environments, these studies 

have been used effectively to predict how plants will 

respond to future climate change as climates shift 

toward new extremes.

reclamation: actions to stabilize the terrain, assure 

public safety, improve aesthetics, and usually to 

return the land to what, within the regional context, 

is considered to be a useful purpose. Reclamation 

projects that are more ecologically based can qualify 

as rehabilitation or even restoration.

rehabilitation: rehabilitation emphasizes the 

reparation of ecosystem processes, productivity, 

and services, whereas the goals of restoration also 

include the reestablishment of the preexisting 
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 43

biotic integrity in terms of species composition and 

community structure.

resilience: the degree to which an ecosystem is able 

to regain structural and functional attributes after it 

has suffered harm from stress or disturbance.

restoration: the process of assisting the recovery of 

an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or 

destroyed.

seed reserve: a national network of storage facilities 

for seed that can be used by land managers for 

restoration projects. Seed reserves will include seeds 

of pollinator-friendly plants.

seed transfer guidelines: recommendations for 

protecting the integrity of the natural pattern of 

adaptive variation of wild populations by restricting 

seed transfer to areas within which seed can be 

moved about freely with the expectation that 

they will grow and reproduce successfully and will 

produce no adverse genetic effects.

seed zone: a mapped area with fixed boundaries 

in which seeds or plant materials can be transferred 

with minimal risk of maladaptation.

stabilization: to determine the need for and to 

prescribe and implement emergency treatments to 

minimize threats to life or property or to stabilize 

and prevent unacceptable degradation to natural 

and cultural resources resulting from the effects of 

disturbances.

stakeholder: individuals, organizations, and 

intergovernmental partners who are involved in or 

contribute valuable knowledge to and support for 

implementing the actions outlined in this Strategy, 

or who may be directly or indirectly impacted by the 

actions of the Strategy. Those who have an interest in 

the Strategy’s outcome.

treatment: an action or actions taken to 

ameliorate or repair ecosystem damage. These 

activities vary with objectives but occur along 

the repair continuum, which includes restoration, 

rehabilitation, and reclamation.

workhorse species: species that are locally adapted 

native plants that are abundant across a wide range 

of ecological settings, establish quickly, and produce 

high ground cover on disturbed sites.
44 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 45

APPENDIX

Action Summary Tables

Organization Acronyms

Name Acronym

Agricultural Research Service (USDA) ARS

American Public Gardens Association APGA

American Seed Trade Association ASTA

Applied Ecological Services/Taylor Creek 

Restoration Nurseries

AES/TCRN

Botanic Gardens Conservation 

International

BGCI

Bureau of Indian Affairs (DOI) BIA

Bureau of Land Management (DOI) BLM

Chicago Botanic Garden CBG

Connecticut Department of Energy and 

Environmental Protection

CTDEEP

Denver Botanic Gardens DBG

Department of the Interior (DOI Plant 

Conservation Alliance MOU signatory 

agencies)

DOI

Federal Highway Administration FHWA

Florida Association of Native Nurseries FANN

Forest Service (USDA) USFS

Great Basin Research Center GBRC

Institute for Applied Ecology IAE

Name Acronym

Landscape Conservation Cooperatives LCC

Mid-Atlantic Regional Seed Bank MARS-B

National Institute of Food and Agriculture 

(USDA)

NIFA

National Park Service (DOI) NPS

Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(USDA)

NRCS

NatureServe NS

New England Wild Flower Society NEWFS

Nongovernmental organization NGO

Plant Conservation Alliance PCA

Reforestation, Nurseries, and Genetic 

Resources

RNGR

Seeds of Success SOS

Smithsonian Institution SI

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI) USFWS

U.S. Geological Survey (DOI) USGS

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA 

Plant Conservation Alliance MOU signatory 

agencies)

USDA

Utah Department of Natural Resources Utah DNR

Note: While the “National Seed Strategy for Rehabilitation and Restoration” will be 

renewed in 5-year cycles, its actions will affect landscapes and habitats far into the future. The 

agencies and other participants listed in this document are current as of this printing, but 

additional participation is encouraged and welcomed.
46 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

GOAL 1 Summary Tables

Identify Seed Needs, and Ensure the Reliable Availability of

Genetically Appropriate Seed

Objective 1.1: Assess the Seed Needs of Federal Agencies and the Capacity of Private and Federal Producers

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

1.1.1 Conduct an assessment of seed needs for all 

Federal agencies and their offices that provide or use 

seed.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS

CTDEEP 2015-2016

1.1.2 Identify and inventory agency and private sector 

seed collections, nurseries, and storage capacity.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS

CTDEEP 2015-2016

1.1.3 Identify existing federal seed and restoration 

policies and guidance.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

To be determined 2015-2020

1.1.4 Analyze results of needs and capacity assessment 

to determine if agencies’ needs 

are met. 

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

IAE 2016-2017

1.1.5 Analyze results of policy and guidance assessment 

and develop restoration program.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS

NS 2017-2018

Objective 1.2: Assess Capacity and Needs of Tribes, States, Private Sector Seed Producers, Nurseries, 

and Other Partners

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

1.2.1 Conduct a needs and capacity assessment of tribal, 

state, local, private sector, and nonprofit seed storage 

and distribution facilities.

BIA, NRCS ASTA, BGCI, FANN, 

LBJWC, MARS-B, NEWFS

2015-2020

1.2.2 Work with partners to leverage strengths and 

address deficiencies in distribution and availability of 

genetically appropriate seed.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS

AES/TCRN, ASTA, BGCI, 

FANN, IAE, LBJWC, 

MARS-B, NS

2015-2020

1.2.3 Analyze results of needs and capacity assessment. BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

BGCI, IAE, LBJWC 2016-2017

Objective 1.3: Increase the Supply and Reliable Availability of Genetically Appropriate Seed

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

1.3.1 Expand and improve facilities and plant production 

capacity. 

BIA, BLM, NIFA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS

ASTA, CBG, FANN 2015-2020

1.3.2 Improve capability to plan for seed needs by seed 

zone.

BIA, BLM, NIFA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS

CBG, FANN, MARS-B, 

NEWFS

2015-2020

1.3.3 Assess and implement alternative seed production 

methods for “workhorse” shrub species.

BLM, NIFA, NPS, USFS, 

USFWS

CBG, LBJWC 2015-2020

1.3.4 Expand collection, conservation, and assessment of 

native plant genetic resources through programs such 

as SOS.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, NPS, NRCS, 

SI, USFS, USFWS

APGA, BGCI, CBG, DBG, 

LBJWC, NS

2015-2020

1.3.5 Engage Federal procurement specialists to 

assess contracting regulations and practices; correct 

deficiencies.

BLM, NIFA, NPS, USFS, 

USFWS

ASTA, FANN, IAE, MARS-B 2015-2017
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 47

GOAL 2 Summary Tables

Identify Research Needs and Conduct Research to Provide Genetically 

Appropriate Seed and to Improve Technology for Native Seed 

Production and Ecosystem Restoration

Objective 2.1: Characterize Genetic Variation of Restoration Species to Delineate Seed Zones, and Provide Seed 

Transfer Guidelines for Current and Projected Future Environmental Conditions

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

2.1.1 Conduct genetic research to develop seed zones 

for key restoration species. 

BLM, NIFA, NRCS/Plant 

Materials Centers, USFS, 

USFWS, USGS

BGCI, CBG, DBG, GBRC, 

IAE, LBJWC, MARS-B, 

NEWFS, NS, Utah DNR, 

universities

2015-2020

2.1.2 Develop predictive models of climate change 

effects. 

NIFA, USFS, USGS APGA, CBG, IAE, NS, 

universities

2016-2020

Objective 2.2: Conduct Species-Specific Research to Provide Seed Technology, Storage, and Production Protocols 

for Restoration Species

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

2.2.1 Conduct seed germination studies and develop 

seed testing protocols for key restoration species. 

ARS, BLM, NIFA, USFS, USFWS, USGSCBG, DBG. GBRC, IAE, LBJWC, private seed testing 

labs and seed companies, 

state seed laboratories, 

universities

2015-2020

2.2.2 Develop storage guidelines for key restoration 

species to improve maintenance of seed viability.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, USFS, USGS CBG, DBG, GBRC, private 

seed testing labs and 

seed companies, state 

seed laboratories, universities, Utah DNR

2015-2020

2.2.3 Develop species-specific protocols for seed and 

seedling production practices to maintain genetic 

diversity.

BLM, NIFA, NRCS, USFS, 

USFWS, USGS

CBG, GBRC, IAE, LBJWC, 

public and private seed 

producers and nurseries, 

state agencies, universities

2015-2020 

Objective 2.3: Conduct Research on Plant Establishment, Species Interactions, and Ecological Restoration

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

2.3.1 Develop site preparation and seeding and 

transplanting strategies that improve plant 

establishment and diversity.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, USFS, 

USFWS, USGS

CBG, DBG. GBRC, IAE, 

LBJWC, universities

2015-2020

2.3.2 Within seed zones, examine capacity of native 

plants to establish and persist.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, USFS, 

USFWS, USGS

CBG, GBRC, IAE, LBJWC, 

universities

2015-2020

2.3.3 Advance investigations to diversify depleted native 

communities.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, NPS, USFS, 

USFWS, USGS

CBG, GBRC, IAE, LBJWC, 

NS, universities

2015-2020

2.3.4 Assess soil degradation, and develop treatments, 

soil amendments, and other site preparation techniques.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, NPS, USFS, 

USFWS, USGS 

CBG, GBRC, IAE, LBJWC, 

universities

2015-2018
48 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

Objective 2.4: Develop or Modify Monitoring Techniques, and Investigate Long-Term Restoration Impacts

and Outcomes

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

2.4.1 Analyze new and existing monitoring 

methodologies to evaluate restoration outcomes.

ARS, BLM, NIFA, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS

CBG, DBG, FANN, 

GBRC, IAE, LBJWC, NS, 

universities

2015-2020

2.4.2 Quantify ecological and economic costs/benefits of 

planting native and nonnative plants on public lands. 

ARS, BLM, DOI, NIFA, NPS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS 

APGA, CBG, FANN, IAE, 

universities

2016-2017

2.4.3 Study selected native plant restoration projects to 

evaluate short- and long-term responses.

BLM, NIFA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS

CBG, DBG, FANN, GBRC, 

IAE, universities

2015-2020

GOAL 3 Summary Tables

Develop Tools that Enable Managers to Make Timely, Informed Seeding 

Decisions for Ecological Restoration

Objective 3.1: Develop Training Programs for Practitioners, Producers, and Stakeholders on the Use of Genetically 

Appropriate Seed for Restoration

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

3.1.1 Develop a cadre of experts, and work with partners 

to establish a restoration certification program.

BIA, BLM, FHWA, NIFA, NPS, 

NRCS, USFS, USFWS

CBG, IAE 2016-2020

3.1.2 Use and, where appropriate, expand the network of 

restoration field sites and demonstration areas.

BIA, BLM, NIFA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS

CBG 2015-2020

3.1.3 Develop resources for managers to highlight 

successful/unsuccessful projects, including site visits.

BIA, BLM, FHWA, NIFA, NPS, 

NRCS, USFS, USFWS, USGS

BGCI, IAE, MARS-B 2015-2020

Objective 3.2: Develop Native Seed Source Availability Data and Tools for Accessing the Data 

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

3.2.1 Support regional/nongovernmental native seed 

networks that provide seed with seed zone origin.

BLM, NRCS, USFWS IAE, LBJWC, NEWFS, NS 2016-2020

3.2.2 Maintain a website with seed zone maps and 

publications, and develop a web-based seed selection 

tool to match seed source/planting site.

USFS, USGS IAE, NS 2016-2020

3.2.3 Create a multiagency and non-Federal partner seed 

inventory system.

BLM, NRCS, USFS/RNGR, 

USFWS

IAE, LBJWC, NS 2016-2020

3.2.4 Develop/enhance Federal agreement/procurement 

tools for multiagency seed acquisition.

BIA, BLM, FHWA, NPS, USFS, 

USFWS

To be determined 2016-2018
NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020 49

Objective 3.3: Integrate and Develop Science Delivery Tools to Support Restoration Project Development and 

Implementation

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

3.3.1 Identify available restoration guides and protocols 

by ecoregion.

ARS, BIA, BLM, FHWA, NPS, 

NRCS, USFS, USFWS, USGS

BGCI, CBG, IAE, LBJWC, 

LCC, MARS-B, NEWFS, NS

2015-2020

3.3.2 Write and distribute ecoregional native plant 

project reports.

BLM, NPS, NRCS, USFS, 

USFWS

CBG, DBG, NGO 2016 and after

3.3.3 Support field implementation of restoration tools. BIA, BLM, FHWA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS

APGA, CBG, LBJWC, 

contractors, land lessees

2016-2020

Objective 3.4: Build on Ecological Assessments and Disturbance Data, and Provide Training that will Allow 

Managers to Anticipate Needs and Establish Spatially-Explicit Contingency Strategies

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

3.4.1 Identify/inventory climate-based geospatial tools 

to inform decisions on restoration site priority/methods.

BIA, BLM, FHWA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS

IAE, NS 2015

3.4.2 Develop crosswalk of agency habitat restoration 

priorities/tools by provisional seed zone and plant 

community.

BIA, BLM, FHWA, NPS, NRCS, 

USFS, USFWS, USGS

IAE, NS 2015

3.4.3 Assess climate modeling and soil/water remote 

sensing to forecast seedling establishment and 

persistence.

NPS, NRCS, USGS NS 2016 for 

testing; 2017 

for version 1

3.4.4 Develop GIS-based tools with disturbance data for 

prioritizing seed needs/projects.

BLM, USFS, USFWS, USGS CBG, NS 2015-2020

3.4.5 Use risk-based assessment tools to prioritize 

treatment locations and refine strategies based on 

wildfire.

BLM, USFS, USGS, USFWS NS 2015-2020

3.4.6 Develop a decision tool of belowground 

assessment and treatment.

NPS, NRCS, USFS, USFWS, 

USGS

To be determined 2015-2018

3.4.7 Develop informational tools and guidelines on the 

appropriate use of cultivars, hybrids, and noninvasive 

nonnative species.

BLM, NPS, USFWS To be determined 2016-2020
50 NATIONAL SEED STRATEGY for Rehabilitation and Restoration | 2015–2020

GOAL 4 Summary Tables

Develop Strategies for Internal and External Communication

Objective 4.1: External Communications: Conduct Education and Outreach through the Plant Conservation 

Alliance Network

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

4.1.1 Develop a communications plan. BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA, SI

BGCI, LBJWC, PCA 

cooperators

2015

4.1.2 Involve the Plant Conservation Alliance in 

communications.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA, SI

APGA, BGCI, PCA 

cooperators

Ongoing

Objective 4.2: Internal Communications: Distribute and Implement the Strategy Across Agencies, and Provide 

Feedback Mechanisms

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

4.2.1 Develop internal communications plans. BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

To be determined 2015

4.2.2 Identify and use communication mechanisms for 

implementing the Strategy.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

AES/TCRN, LBJWC, PCA 

cooperators

Ongoing

4.2.3 Make existing agency native plant policies available 

to the public.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

To be determined 2015

4.2.4 Incorporate Strategy goals and key messages into 

landscape-scale restoration initiatives.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

LBJWC 2016

Objective 4.3: Report Progress, Recognize Achievements, and Revise Strategy

Action Coordinating

Agencies

Other

Participants

Target

Years

4.3.1 Establish mechanism to report progress, including 

successful native plant projects and lessons learned.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

To be determined 2015

4.3.2 Recognize/promote achievements/needed improvements across all agencies and partners.BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

To be determined 2016 and 

beyond

4.3.3. Review and revise the Strategy every 5 years or as 

needed.

BLM, USFWS, NPS, USGS, 

BIA, USFS, NIFA, ARS, NRCS, 

FHWA

To be determined Ongoing