Chapter 6. Integrated Health Effects 

of Short-Term PM Exposure 

6.1. Introduction 

This chapter reviews, summarizes, and integrates the evidence of relationships between shortterm exposures to PM and a variety of health-related outcomes and endpoints. Cardiovascular and 

respiratory health effects of short-term exposure to various size fractions and sources of PM have 

been examined in numerous epidemiologic, controlled human exposure and toxicological studies. In 

addition, there is a large body of literature evaluating the relationship between mortality and shortterm exposure to PM. The association between PM exposure and central nervous system function 

has also been assessed, although far fewer studies are available. The research approaches used to 

evaluate health effects of PM exposure are described in Section 1.5 along with advantages and 

limitations of the various study types. Chapter 5 provides an overview of the potential 

pathophysiological pathways and modes of action underlying the PM-induced health effects 

observed in animal and human studies. Evidence from the scientific literature of specific 

cardiovascular and systemic effects, respiratory effects, and central nervous system (CNS) effects 

associated with exposure to PM are presented in Sections 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4, respectively. Evidence of 

associations between short-term exposure to PM and mortality are described in Section 6.5. The 

chapter concludes with an evaluation of PM-induced health effects attributable to specific 

constituents or sources (Section 6.6). More detailed descriptions of each study evaluated for this 

assessment are presented in Annexes C, D, E, and F. 

Findings for cardiovascular and respiratory effects are presented by specific endpoint or 

measure of effect, leading from more subtle health outcome measures (e.g., heart rate variability 

[HRV]) to the more severe, such as hospitalization and mortality for cardiovascular disease. 

Conclusions from the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) are briefly summarized at the 

beginning of each section, and the evaluation of evidence from recent studies builds upon what was 

available during the previous review. For each health outcome, results are summarized for studies 

from the specific scientific discipline, i.e., epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and 

toxicological studies. The sections conclude with summaries of the evidence on the various health 

outcomes and integration of the findings that leads to conclusions regarding causality based upon the 

framework described in Chapter 1. Determination of causality is made for the overall health effect 

category, such as cardiovascular effects, with coherence, consistency and biological plausibility 

being based upon the evidence from across disciplines and also across the suite of related health 

outcomes ranging from the more subtle health outcomes to cause-specific mortality. In the summary 

sections for cardiovascular and respiratory effects and all-cause mortality, the evidence is 

summarized and independent conclusions drawn for relationships with PM2.5, PM10-2.5, and ultrafine 

particles (UFPs) (Sections 6.2.12, 6.3.10, and 6.5.3, respectively). Evidence of central nervous 

system effects is also divided by scientific discipline; however, the lack of data does not allow for 

informative summaries of effect by PM metric in discussing CNS effects (Section 6.4.4). 

 

 Note: Hyperlinks to the reference citations throughout this document will take you to the NCEA HERO database (Health and 

Environmental Research Online) at http://epa.gov/hero. HERO is a database of scientific literature used by U.S. EPA in the process of 

developing science assessments such as the Integrated Science Assessments (ISA) and the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). 

December 2009 6-1 
6.2. Cardiovascular and Systemic Effects 

6.2.1. Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability 

Heart rate (HR), HRV, and BP are all regulated, in part, by the sympathetic and 

parasympathetic nervous systems. Changes in one or more may increase the risk of cardiovascular 

events (e.g., arrhythmias, MI, etc.). Decreases in HRV have been associated with cardiovascular 

mortality/morbidity in older adults and those with significant heart disease (TFESC, 1996, 003061). 

In addition, decreased HRV may precede some clinically important arrhythmias, such as atrial 

fibrillation, as well as sudden cardiac death, in high risk populations (Chen and Tan, 2007, 197461; 

Sandercock and Brodie, 2006, 197465; Thong and Raitt, 2007, 197462). 

HRV is measured using electrocardiograms (ECG) and can be analyzed in the time domain 

(e.g., standard deviation of all NN intervals [SDNN], square root of the mean squared successive NN 

interval differences [rMSSD]), and/or the frequency domain measured by power spectral analysis 

(e.g., high frequency [HF], low frequency [LF], ratio of LF to HF [LF/HF]). SDNN generally 

reflects the overall modulation of HR by the autonomic nervous system (ANS), whereas rMSSD and 

frequency variations in HR generally reflect parasympathetic activity. Thus, rMSSD is generally well 

correlated with HF, which also reflects the parasympathetic modulation of HR. LF is predominately 

determined by both sympathetic parasympathetic tone and increased LF/HF indicates 

sympathoexcitation, which correlates with decreased overall HRV (SDNN, rMSSD). Thus LF/HF is 

thought to estimate the ratio of sympathetic influences on HR to parasympathetic influences. 

While HRV is commonly described as being a reflection of vagal and adrenergic input to the 

heart, there is clearly a more complex phenomenon reflected in HRV parameters. Rowan et al. (2007, 

191911) provide a review of HRV and its use and interpretation with respect to air pollution studies. 

To summarize, HRV indices are excellent measures of extrapulmonary effects from inhaled 

pollutants, but the characterization of the acute, reversible responses to air pollution as being either 

parasympathetic or sympathetic in origin, much less predictive of some adverse outcomes such as 

ventricular arrhythmia, is relatively unsupported by the clinical literature. This is consistent with the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) which stated that there is inherent variability in the 

minute-to-minute spectral measurements, but long-term HRV measures demonstrate excellent 

day-to-day reproducibility. 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented limited evidence of PM-induced 

changes in HRV. However, findings from epidemiologic, controlled human exposure and 

toxicological studies demonstrated both decreases and increases in HRV following PM exposure. 

Recent epidemiologic studies have demonstrated a more consistent decrease in HRV (SDNN and 

rMSSD), which is supported by several controlled human exposure studies published since 2003. In 

these studies, decreases in HRV were observed among healthy adults following short-term exposures 

to PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 CAPs. It is interesting to note that these effects were not observed in adults 

with asthma or COPD. The effect of PM on HRV observed in animal toxicological studies continues 

to vary greatly, which may be due in part to strain differences in baseline HRV. 

6.2.1.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reviewed several studies of PM exposure and 

HR or HRV and described mixed findings across studies. Several additional studies have 

investigated the association between acute changes in multiple HRV parameters and ambient air 

pollutant concentrations in the U.S., Canada, Europe, Mexico, and Asia. Features and results of these 

studies are presented in Table 6-1, and are summarized below. 

In a multicity study, Liao and colleagues (2004, 056590) used data from the fourth cohort 

evaluation of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study (1996-1998). The 6,784 

subjects were 45-64 yr of age and lived in Washington County, MD, Forsyth County, NC, or the 

suburbs of Minneapolis, MN. Linear regression models were used to examine the change in HRV 

associated with PM10, O3, SO2, CO, and NO2 concentrations in the 1-3 days prior to ECG 

measurement. Among all subjects, each 11.5 μg/m3

 increase in mean daily PM10 concentration 1 day 

before the ECG measurement was associated with a 0.06 ms2

 decrease in log-transformed HF (95% 

December 2009 6-2 
CI: -0.10 to -0.02) and a 1.03 ms decrease in SDNN (95% CI: -1.64 to -0.42). A smaller 

non-significant decrease was also observed for log transformed LF. This reduction in cardiac 

autonomic control was larger among hypertensive subjects, suggesting that this group may be 

susceptible to the effects of PM. 

In a study of randomly selected participants in the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI), a 

multicity U.S. study, Whitsel et al. (2009, 191980) found decreases in rMMSD and SDNN in 

association with PM10 concentration. The associations were stronger among participants with 

diabetes. For example, in subjects with impaired fasting glucose, the reduction in rMSSD was 8.3% 

(-13.9, -2.4) among those with high levels of insulin and 0.6% (-2.1, 1.6) among those with low 

levels of insulin. Similar results were observed comparing high and low levels of insulin resistance. 

Timonen et al. (2006, 088747) conducted a multicity panel study of elderly subjects with 

stable coronary heart disease who lived in 3 European cities (Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Erfurt, 

Germany; or Helsinki, Finland). They collected ECGs biweekly for six months in each subject. This 

analysis, done as part of the ULTRA Study, examined changes in HRV (resting, paced breathing, 

supine, and 5-min beat-to-beat NN intervals) associated with changes in fixed monitor particulate 

concentrations (PM2.5, PM10-2.5) with an emphasis on counts of UFPs (0.01-0.1 μm particles) and 

accumulation mode particles (ACP; 0.1-1.0 μm particles). Mixed models were first fit to estimate the 

change in HRV associated with PM (UFP, ACP, PM2.5, and PM10-2.5) concentrations on the same and 

previous 4 days in each city. In pooled analyses, the most consistent results identified were for 

LF/HF (Table 6-1). Estimates for PM2.5, however, differed across cities. PM2.5 was associated with 

decreased HF power and increased LF/HF in Helsinki, increased HF power and decreased LF/HF in 

Erfurt, and not associated with any HRV metric in Amsterdam. In a subsequent analysis, de Hartog 

et al. (2009, 191904) investigated whether exposure misclassification, effect modification by 

medication use, or particle composition differences across the three cities could explain the result 

observed. These authors found that PM2.5 apportioned from traffic, long-range transported PM2.5 and 

outdoor PM2.5 were associated with reduced HRV most strongly among those not taking betablockers (Table 6-1). Indoor and personal PM2.5 were not associated with decreased HRV in this 

study. Therefore, the authors concluded that effect modification by medication use and particle 

composition differences across the three cities may, in part, explain the heterogeneous PM2.5 findings 

in the previous analysis. 

The association between HRV and short-term increases in PM2.5, PM10-2.5, PM10, other size 

fractions and components was also examined in single-city studies conducted in the U.S. or Canada 

(Table 6-1). Among U.S. and Canadian cities, increases in PM2.5 were generally associated with 

decreased SDNN and/or decreased HF power but not in all studies. However, studies also reported 

increased SDNN associated with PM2.5 concentrations (Riediker et al., 2004, 056992; Wheeler et al., 

2006, 088453). In addition, Yeatts et al. (2007, 091266) reported increased rMSSD and HF power 

with increased PM2.5 concentrations as well as SDANN5 (standard deviation of the average of 

normal to normal intervals in all 5-min intervals in a 24-h period), and SDNN24HR (standard 

deviation of the average of all normal to normal intervals in a 24-h period). 

Other size fractions (e.g. coarse PM and UFPs) were also associated with decreases in HRV 

metrics in several single-city studies conducted in the U.S. or Canada. Lipsett et al. (2006, 088753) 

reported significantly decreased SDNN associated with increases in 2- and 6-h mean PM10 and 

PM10-2.5 concentrations. Yeatts et al. (2007, 091266) reported decreased rMSSD, SDNN24HR, 

SDANN5, ASDNN5 (mean of the standard deviation in all 5-min segments of a 24-h recording), 

proportion of NN intervals <50 m apart (pNN50) (7 min and 24 h), and HF power associated with 

increased PM10-2.5 concentration. Of those studies examining HRV associations with particle counts 

(Adar et al., 2007, 001458; Park et al., 2005, 057331), only Adar et al. (2007, 001458) found clear 

evidence of such effects (e.g., decreased SDNN, LF, HF). Decreased HRV was also associated with 

increases in ambient mean SO4

2– concentration (Luttmann-Gibson et al., 2006, 089794), ambient 

mean BC concentration (Park et al., 2005, 057331; Schwartz et al., 2005, 074317), and traffic 

generated particles/pollution (Adar et al., 2007, 001458; Riediker et al., 2004, 056992) in these 

single-city studies. 

Studies in Asia, Europe, and Mexico have also reported decreases in one or several HRV 

metrics (Table 6-1) associated with increases in PM2.5 concentration or other size fractions. However, 

a study conducted in Scotland reported no PM-HRV associations (Barclay et al., 2009, 179935). 

Riojas-Rodriguez et al. (2006, 156913) reported significantly decreased LF and HF power associated 

with each 1 ppm increase in CO concentration, but only small non-significant decreases associated 

with PM2.5. 

December 2009 6-3 
Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Heart Rate and HRV 

HRV studies investigated lagged pollutant concentrations from 2 h-5 days before ECG 

measurement, reporting effects associated with mean pollutant concentrations lagged as short as 

1-2 h, and more consistently with lags of 24-48 h. Taken together, these international and 

U.S./Canadian studies show decreases in HRV associated with PM2.5 in most studies that use SDNN, 

rMSSD or HF power. The effects of PM10-2.5, UFPs, and components were evaluated in fewer studies 

but associations with decreased HRV (e.g., both time and frequency measures) were observed. PM10

studies also found evidence for PM-induced alterations in HRV, however, it is difficult to determine 

which size fraction of PM10 (e.g., PM10-2.5, PM2.5 or UFPs) imparts the effects observed. As a result, 

PM10 studies provide supportive evidence for the overall effect of PM on HRV, but not for a specific 

size fraction. The proportion of studies reporting decreases in HRV may be inflated by publication 

bias (i.e., studies showing little or no effects are not submitted for publication). 

HRV Studies Investigating Specific Mechanisms 

Panel studies investigating PM-HRV associations have also been useful in investigating 

potential mechanistic pathways by which PM may elicit a cardiovascular response. A series of 

analyses using data from the Normative Aging Study, a cohort of older men living in the Boston 

metropolitan area, has also provided mechanistic insights into the PM-HRV association (Baccarelli 

et al., 2008, 191959; Chahine et al., 2007, 156327; Park et al., 2005, 057331; Park et al., 2006, 

091245; Park et al., 2008, 156845; Schwartz et al., 2005, 086296). 

 Park et al. (2005, 057331) studied the association between short-term increases in ambient air 

pollution and changes in HRV using males enrolled in the Normative Aging Study. Using linear 

regression models, the association between HRV metrics and PM2.5, O3, NO2, SO2, CO, BC, and 

particle number count (PNC) moving averages (ma) in the previous 4, 24, and 48 h were examined. 

The modifying effects of hypertension, diabetes, ischemic heart disease (IHD), and use of 

hypertensive medications were also estimated. Of the pollutants examined, only PM2.5 and O3 were 

associated with reductions in HRV, and each pollutant’s effect appeared independent of the other. 

Each 8 μg/m3

 increase in mean PM2.5 concentration in the previous 48 h was associated with a 20.8% 

decrease in HF power (95% CI: -34.2 to -4.6), with larger effects among subjects with hypertension, 

IHD, and diabetes. The authors state that since BC concentrations were also associated with adverse 

changes in HRV, this suggests that traffic pollution may be partially responsible for the HRV 

changes. 

Schwartz et al. (2005, 086296) examined the hypothesis that adverse changes in HRV due to 

PM2.5 are mediated by an oxidative stress response among participants in the Normative Aging 

Study. They examined whether the change in HF power associated with each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

48-h mean PM2.5 was modified by the presence or absence of the allele for glutathione S-transferase 

M1 (GSTM1), use of statins, obesity, high neutrophil counts, higher blood pressure (BP), and/or 

older age. In subjects without the GSTM1 allele and its protection against oxidative stress, each 

10 μg/m3

 increase in 48-h mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with a 34% decrease in HF 

power (95% CI: -52 to -9). There was no association among those with at least one copy of the 

allele. Obesity and high neutrophil counts also worsened the effect of PM on HRV regardless of 

allele. 

Park et al. (2006, 091245) investigated whether transition metals may be responsible for 

cardiorespiratory effects that are observed in association with PM2.5. Again using the Normative 

Aging Study cohort, they investigated whether subjects with two hemochromatosis (HFE) 

polymorphisms associated with increased iron uptake had a smaller decrease in HF power associated 

with PM than those subjects without either variant. Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 48-h mean PM2.5 was 

associated with a 31.7% decrease in HF (95% CI: -48.1 to -10.3) among subjects without either 

polymorphism, but not among those with the 2 protective HFE alleles. 

Chahine et al. (2007, 156327) reported a 10.5% reduction in SDNN (95% CI: -18.2 to -2.2) 

associated with each 10 μg/m3 increase in the mean 48-h PM2.5 concentration among Normative 

Aging Study participants without the GSTM1 allele, but only a 2.0% SDNN decrease 

(95% CI: -11.3, 8.3) in those with the allele. This supports the PM-HF power findings of Schwartz 

et al. (2005, 086296). Further, subjects with the long repeat polymorphism in the HO-1 promoter had 

a greater decline in SDNN associated with each 10 μg/m3

 increase in the mean 48-h PM2.5

December 2009 6-4 
concentration (-8.5% [95% CI: -14.8 to -1.8) than those with the short repeat polymorphism in HO-1 

(7.4 % increase [95% CI: -8.7 to 26.2). Again, this suggests that PM-HRV changes are mediated, in 

part, by oxidative stress. 

Baccarelli et al. (2008, 191959) investigated whether the PM2.5-HRV association was modified 

by dietary intakes of methyl nutrients (folate, vitamins B6 and B12, and methionine) and related 

gene polymorphisms thought to either confer increased or decreased risk of CVD among men 

enrolled in the Normative Aging Study. Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 in the previous 48 h was 

associated with -8.8% (95% CI: -16.7 to -0.2) and -11.8% (95% CI: -20.8 to -1.8) decreases in 

SDNN, among those with CC/TT genotypes of the C677T methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase 

(MTHFR) polymorphism, and the CC genotype of the C1420T cytoplasmic serine 

hydroxymethyltransferase (cSHMT) polymorphism, respectively. There were no changes among 

those with CC MTHFR and CC/TT cSHMT. Further, there were similar HRV reductions in those 

subjects with lower intakes of B6, B12, and/or methionine, but no decreases in those with high 

intakes. Thus these genetic and nutritional variations in the methionine cycle may modify the PMHRV association. 

Finally, among those Normative Aging Study subjects with high chronic lead exposure as 

measured using X-ray fluorescence of the tibia, each 7 μg/m3

 increase in mean PM2.5 concentration 

in the previous 48 h was associated with a 22% decrease in HF power (95% CI: -37.4 to -1.7) (Park 

et al., 2008, 093027). Decreases in HF HRV were also associated with each 2.5 μg/m3

 increase in 

mean SO4

2– concentration in the previous 48 h (22% decrease [95% CI: -40.4 to 1.6). The authors 

suggest that these findings are consistent with an oxidative stress response. Although this series of 

studies suggest a role of oxidative stress and perhaps methyl nutrients and related polymorphisms in 

these short-term associations of PM2.5 with HRV, replication by other investigators in other cities and 

in other populations will aid interpretations of these findings. 

Using data from a randomized controlled trial in Mexico City, Romieu et al. (2005, 086297) 

investigated whether omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil supplements would mitigate the adverse effects 

of acute PM exposure on HRV. Residents of a Mexico City nursing home were randomized to either 

2 g/day of fish oil or 2 g/day of soy oil. They used random-effects regression models to estimate the 

change in HRV associated with mean PM2.5 concentration in the pre-supplementation and 

supplementation phases. In the group receiving the fish oil supplement, each 8 μg/m3

 increase in 24-

h mean total PM2.5 exposure (weighted average of indoor and outdoor PM2.5 based on time activity 

diaries) was associated with a 54% reduction (95% CI: -72 to -24) in log transformed HF power in 

the pre-supplementation phase. However, in the supplementation phase of the trial, each 8 μg/m3

increase in 24-h mean total PM2.5 concentration was associated with only a 7% reduction in log 

transformed HF power (95% CI: -20 to 7). Decreases in other HRV parameters associated with PM2.5

were also muted in the supplementation phase. In the group receiving the soy oil supplement, the 

reduction in HF power was also smaller in magnitude during the supplementation phase. However, 

among those receiving the soy oil supplement, the differences between the pre-supplementation 

PM2.5-HF change and the supplementation PM2.5-HF change were smaller compared to those 

receiving the fish oil, and were not statistically significant. Romieu et al. (2008, 156922)also report 

that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids appear to modulate the adverse effect of PM2.5 based on 

measured biomarkers of oxidative response (Section 6.2.9.1). 

Summary of HRV Studies Investigating Specific Mechanisms 

In summary, several analyses of data from the Normative Aging Study have provided evidence 

that effect of PM2.5 on HRV is modulated by genetic polymorphisms related to oxidative stress 

(Chahine et al., 2007, 156327; Park et al., 2006, 091245; Schwartz et al., 2005, 086296) or dietary 

methyl nutrients or related genetic polymorphisms (Baccarelli et al., 2008, 191959). In addition, 

preexisting conditions such as diabetes, IHD, and hypertension (Park et al., 2005, 057331; Whitsel et 

al., 2009, 191980), beta-blocker use (Folino et al., 2009, 191902; Park et al., 2005, 057331), chronic 

lead exposure (Park et al., 2008, 093027) and omega-3 fatty acid (Romieu et al., 2005, 086297) are 

reported to modulate the effect of PM2.5 on HRV. 

December 2009 6-5 
Table 6-1. Characteristics of epidemiologic studies investigating associations between PM and 

changes in HRV. 

PM Type, Exposure 

Lag Study Subjects Ambient Concentration (μg/m3)* 

Recording 

Length SDNN LF HF, rMSSD LF/HF 

MULTICITY STUDIES 

Liao et al. (2004, 

056590) PM10, 24-h, lag 1-day N=6784 (mean age = 62 yrs), 

ARIC study: MD, NC, MN 24.3 5-min ↓ ↓ ↓ 

Whitsel et al. 

(2009, 191980) 

PM10, 24-h, 3-d avg 

within 5 days preceding 

exam 

N=4295 randomly selected 

participants in the WHI Trial 

28 visit 1 

27 visit 2 

27 visit 3 

10 second ↓ ↓ 

UFP, lags 0-2 days 

Amsterdam: 

17,300 particles/cm3

Erfurt: 

21,100 particles/cm3

Helsinki: 

17,000 particles/cm3

↓ ↑ ↓

AC, lags 0-2 days 

Amsterdam: 

2100 particles/cm3

Erfurt: 

1800 particles/cm3

Helsinki: 

1400 particles/cm3

↓ ↑ ↓

PM2.5, lags 0-2 days 

Amsterdam: 20.0 

Erfurt: 23.1 

Helsinki: 12.7 

↓ ↑ ↓

Timonen et al. 

(2006, 088747) 

PM10-2.5, 2-day lag 

Stable IHD patients (65+ yr) 

Amsterdam, Netherlands 

(N=37) 

Erfurt, Germany (N=47) 

Helsinki, Finland (N=47) 

Amsterdam: 15.3 

Erfurt: 3.7 

Helsinki: 6.7 

5-min 

(Pooled 

estimates 

during paced 

breathing 

presented to 

the right) 

→ → ↓

De Hartog et al. 

(2009, 191904) 

24 h PM2.5 outdoor, PM2.5

traffic, long-range 

transported PM2.5

Stable IHD patients (65+) 

Amsterdam, Netherlands 

(N=37) 

Erfurt, Germany (N=47) 

Helsinki, Finland (N=47) 

(Effects strongest among those 

NOT taking beta-blockers) 

Median Outdoor: 

Amsterdam: 16.7 

Erfurt: 16.3 

Helsinki: 10.6 

5 min ↓ ↓ 

U.S. AND CANADIAN STUDIES 

PM2.5, 48-h avg 

24-h: 11.4 

98th: 30.58 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

PNC, 48-h avg 24-h: 28,942 (13,527) 

particles/cm3

 → ↓ ↓ ↓

Park et al. (2005, 

057331) 

BC, 48-h avg 

N=497 men (mean age = 73 

yr), Normative Aging Study 

Boston, MA 

24-h: 0.92 

4-min 

↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

Riediker et al. 

(2004, 056992) 

In-vehicle PM2.5 (mass) 

9-h avg N=9 healthy state police 9-h in-vehicle: 23 10-min ↑ → ↑ ↓

BC, 24-h 24-h Median: 1.0 ↓ ↓ ↑

Schwartz et al. PM2.5, 24-h 24-h Median: 10 ↓ ↓ ↑

(2005, 074317) Secondary PM 

(estimated), 1-h 

N=28 older adults (61-89 yr), 

12 wk follow-up, Boston, MA 

1-h Median: -1.7 

23-min 

↓ ↓ ↑

PM10-2.5, 24-h 24-h: 5.3 ↓ ↓ ↓ Yeatts et al. (2007, 

091266) PM2.5,24-h 

N=12 adult asthmatics, Chapel 

Hill, NC 24-h: 12.5 

5-min 

↑ ↓ ↑ 

December 2009 6-6 
PM Type, Exposure 

Lag Study Subjects Ambient Concentration (μg/m3

)* 

Recording 

Length SDNN LF HF, rMSSD LF/HF 

PM2.5, 4-h avg N=18 COPD, Atlanta, GA ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

PM2.5, 4-h avg N=12 MI, Atlanta, GA 

4-h: 17.8 

↓ ↑ ↓ ↓

EC, 4-h avg N=18 COPD, Atlanta, GA ↑ 

Wheeler et al. 

(2006, 088453) 

EC, 4-h avg N=12 MI, Atlanta, GA 

4-h: 2.3 

20-min 

↓ 

Dales 2004 (2004, 

099036) 

PM2.5, 24-h avg 

(personal) 

N=36 IHD patients, Toronto, 

Canada 24-h personal: 19.9 Not described → → → →

PM2.5, lag 1-day 24-h: 19.7 ↓ ↓ ↓ 

Sulfate, lag 1-day 24-h: 6.9 ↓ ↓ ↓ 

Nonsulfate PM, lag 1-day 24-h: 10.0 ↓ ↓ ↓ 

Luttmann-Gibson 

et al. (2006, 

089794) 

EC, lag 1-day 

N=32 (65+ yr) 

Steubenville, OH 

24-h: 1.1 

~30-min 

↑ ↓ →

PM2.5, 24-h avg 

24-h: 10.17 

98th: 22.43 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

BC, 24-h avg 330 ng/m3 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

PNC fine 42 particles/cm3 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

Adar et al. (2007, 

001458) 

PNC course 

N=44 (60+ yr), diesel bus riders 

St. Louis, MO 

0.02 particles/cm3

5-min 

↑ ↑ ↑ ↓

Pope et al. (2004, 

055238) 

PM2.5 (FRM), 24-h, lag 

1-day 

N=88 (65+ yr; 250 p-days), 

Utah Valley 23.7 24-h ↓ ↓ 

N=21 (65+ yr) with CVD, 

Seattle WA → → Sullivan et al. 

(2005, 109418) PM2.5, 1, 2, 24-h avg 

N=13 (65+ yr) w/out CVD, 

Seattle WA 

Median:10.7 20-min 

→ →

PM10, 31.0 and 46.1 ↓ ↓ ↓ 

Lipsett et al. (2006, PM10-2.5 None given ↓ ↓ → 088753) 

PM2.5

N=19 IHD (65+ yr), 12 wk fu, 

Coachella Valley, CA 

14 and 23.2 

5-min 

Frequency 

domain; 2-h, 

24-h Time 

domain ↓ ↓ ↑ 

PM10, 24 h 17 ↓ ↓ 

PM10-2.5 5.6 ↑ →

PM2.5, 24-h 

11.4 

98th: 23 ↓ ↓ Ebelt et al. (2005, 

056907) 

PM2.5 Sulfate, 24-h 

outdoor 

N=16 COPD, Vancouver, 

Canada 

2.0 

24-h 

↓ →

Baccarelli et al. 

(2008, 191959) PM2.5, 48 h 

N=549 Normative Aging Study 

and residents of Boston 

metropolitan area 

Geometric mean (95% 

confidence interval) 

10.5 (10.0, 10.9) 

7 min ↓ 

Fan et al. (2008, 

191979) PM2.5 personal, 1 h N=11 crossing guards in New 

Jersey 

Only change in 1-h PM2.5

reported 

Morning shift: 35.2 

Afternoon shift: 24.1 

24 h ↓ 

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES 

N=9 adults (19-29 yr) with lung 

function impairment, Taipei, 

Taiwan 

23,407 (19,836) 

particles/cm3 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

Chan et al. (2004, 

087398) NC0.02-1, 1-4 h 

N=10 adults (42-79 yr) with 

lung function impairment, 

Taipei, Taiwan 

25,529 (20,783) 

particles/cm3

5 min 

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

PM1.0-0.3, 1-4 h 37.2 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

PM2.5-1.0, 1-4 h 12.6 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

Chuang et al. 

(2005, 087989) 

PM10-2.5, 1-4 h 

N=16, Patients with IHD/ 

hypertension , Taipei, Taiwan 

14.0 

5-min 

↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

December 2009 6-7 
PM Type, Exposure 

Lag Study Subjects Ambient Concentration (μg/m3

)* 

Recording 

Length SDNN LF HF, rMSSD LF/HF 

PM1.0-0.3, 1-4 h 26.8 ↓ ↓ ↓ →

PM2.5-1.0, 1-4 h 10.9 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

PM10-2.5, 1-4 h 

N=10 IHD, Taipei, Taiwan 

16.4 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

N=21 without hypertension 

(60-96 yr), Mexico City ↓ ↓ ↑ Holguin et al. 

(2003, 057326) PM2.5, 24-h 

N=13 with hypertension (60-88 

yr), Mexico City 

37.2 5-min 

↓ ↓ ↑

Romieu et al. 

(2005, 086297) 

PM2.5, 24-h (outdoor and 

indoor) 

N=50 nursing home residents 

65+ yr, Mexico City 

Outdoor: 19.4 

Indoor: 18.3 

6-min 

(Indoor PM2.5, 

pre-supplement 

phase 

presented) 

↓ ↓ ↓ 

Riojas-Rodriguez 

et al. (2006, 

156913) 

Personal PM2.5 N=30 IHD patients, Mexico City Geometric mean: 46.8 5-min ↓ ↓ 

Barclay et al. 

(2009, 179935) 

PM10, daily 

PNC, daily 

Estimated PM2.5 and PNC 

N=132, stable coronary heart 

failure 

Aberdeen, Scotland 

Range of daily means: 7.4 

to 68 24 h →

Cárdenas et al. 

(2008, 191900) 

PM2.5-outdoor 

PM2.5-indoor 

N=52 (31 women, 21 men; 20-

40 yr), southeast of Mexico City

Median PM2.5 outdoor: 

28.3 μg/m3 

Median PM2.5 indoor: 10.8 

15 min ↓ ↓ ↓

Folino et al. (2009, 

191902) 

PM10, 24 h 

PM2.5, 24 h 

PM0.25, 24 h 

N=39 (36 male, 3 female; 

mean age = 60 yr) 

Padua, Italy 

PM10

Summer: 46.4 

Winter:73.0 

Spring: 38.3 

PM2.5

Summer: 33.9 

Winter: 62.1 

Spring: 30.8 

PM0.25

Summer: 17.6 

Winter: 30.5 

Spring: 18.8 

24 h ↓ 

Min et al. (2008, 

191901) PM10, 12 h N=1349 (596 males; mean age 

= 44 yr), Korea 1-h avg: 33.2 5 min ↓ ↓ ↓ 

Notes: Increases (↑), decreases (↓) and no effects (→) in HRV associated with PM concentration are indicated. Statistical significance was not necessary to categorize an effect as an increase or decrease. 

For time domain measures moving average lags up to 24-h were explored. For frequency domain measures lags of 2-h, 4-h and 24-h were explored. 

** All concentrations are means measured in μ/m3, unless otherwise noted. 

6.2.1.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) cited one study in which HRV indicators of 

parasympathetic activity increased relative to filtered air control following a 2-h exposure with 

intermittent exercise to PM2.5 CAPs (avg concentration 174 μg/m3

) in both healthy and asthmatic 

volunteers (Gong et al., 2003, 042106). This effect was observed immediately following exposure 

and at 1 day post-exposure, but not at 4 h post-exposure. Although not statistically significant, HRV 

(total power) increased following exposure to filtered air and decreased following exposure to CAPs. 

More recent controlled human exposure studies are described below. 

CAPs 

Two new studies have evaluated the effect of PM2.5 CAPs (2-h exposures to concentrations of 

20-200 μg/m3

) on HRV in elderly subjects (Devlin et al., 2003, 087348; Gong et al., 2004, 087964). 

In both studies, subjects experienced significant decreases in HRV following exposure to CAPs 

relative to filtered air exposures. Interestingly, Gong et al. (2004, 087964) found that decreases in 

HRV were more pronounced in healthy older adults than in those with COPD. In another study, 

December 2009 6-8 
healthy and asthmatic adults were exposed to PM10-2.5 CAPs (avg concentration 157 μg/m3

) for 2 h 

with intermittent exercise (Gong et al., 2004, 055628). HRV was not affected immediately following 

the exposure, but decreased in both groups at 4 and 22 h after the end of the exposure, with greater 

responses observed in non-asthmatics. In a recent study among healthy adults exposed for 2 h with 

intermittent exercise to PM10-2.5 CAPs (avg concentration 89 μg/m3

, MMAD 3.59 μm, Chapel Hill, 

NC), Graff et al. (2009, 191981) observed a significant decrease in overall HRV (SDNN) at 20 h 

post-exposure, although no other measures of HRV were affected. Using a similar study design, the 

same laboratory also evaluated the effect of ultrafine CAPs (avg concentration 49.8 μg/m3

, <0.16 μm 

in diameter) on various HRV parameters (Samet et al., 2009, 191913) Relative to filtered air, both 

HF and LF power increased 18 h following exposure to UF CAPs (36-42% increase per 105

particles/cm3

). Exposure to UF CAPs, expressed as mass concentration, was not associated with 

changes in HF power, and time domain parameters of HRV did not differ between CAPs and filtered 

air in the 24 h following exposure. Gong et al. (2008, 156483) also recently evaluated changes in 

HRV following controlled human exposures to UF CAPs and reported a small and transient decrease 

in LF power (p < 0.05) among healthy (n = 17) and asthmatic (n = 14) adults 4 h after the completion 

of a 2-h exposure with intermittent exercise in Los Angeles (avg concentration 100 μg/m3

, avg 

PNC 145,000/cm3

). No other measure of HRV was shown to be significantly affected by exposure to 

UF CAPs. In one of the largest studies of controlled human exposures to CAPs conducted to date, 

Fakhri et al. (2009, 191914) evaluated changes in HRV among 50 adult volunteers during 2-h 

exposures to PM2.5 CAPs (127 μg/m3

) and O3 (114 ppb), alone and in combination. Neither exposure 

to CAPs nor O3 resulted in any significant changes in HRV relative to filtered air. However, trends 

were observed suggesting a negative concentration-response relationship between CAPs 

concentration and SDNN, rMSSD, HF power and LF power when subjects were concomitantly 

exposed to O3. 

Diesel Exhaust 

In a double-blind, crossover, controlled-exposure study, Peretz et al. (2008, 156855) exposed 

three healthy adult volunteers and 13 adults with metabolic syndrome while at rest to filtered air and 

two levels of diluted DE (PM2.5 concentrations of 100 and 200 μg/m3

) in 2-h sessions. HRV 

parameters were assessed prior to exposure, as well as at 1, 3, 6 and 22 h following the start of 

exposure, and included both time domain (SDNN and rMSSD) and frequency domain parameters 

(HF power, LF power, and the LF/HF ratio). In an analysis including all 16 subjects, the authors 

observed an increase in HF power and a decrease in LF/HF 3 h after the start of exposure to 

200 μg/m3

 relative to filtered air. Although these changes were statistically significant (p < 0.05) the 

effects were not consistent among the study subjects. No other significant effect of DE on HRV was 

observed at either concentration or time point. The authors attributed the lack of consistent effects to 

the small and non-homogeneous population and the timing of measurement. There was no difference 

in either baseline or diesel-induced changes in HRV parameters between normal individuals and 

patients with metabolic syndrome, although the number of normal individuals was quite small. It is 

unclear if patients with metabolic syndrome were taking any medications. 

Model Particles 

Several additional recent controlled human exposure studies have evaluated the effect of 

laboratory generated particles on HRV in healthy and health-compromised individuals. In a random 

order crossover controlled human exposure study, Routledge et al. (2006, 088674) examined the 

effects of UF elemental carbon (EC) particles (50 μg/m3

) alone and in combination with 200 ppb 

SO2 on HRV among 20 healthy older adults (age 56-75 yr), as well as 20 older adults with coronary 

artery disease (age 52-74 yr). Five minute recordings of HRV data were obtained prior to and 

immediately following the 1-h exposure, as well as 3 h post-exposure. In healthy subjects, exposure 

to EC particles resulted in small increases in RR-interval, SDNN, rMSSD, and LF power 

immediately following exposure compared to filtered air control. At 3 h post-exposure, there were no 

significant differences in HRV measures between EC particle and filtered air exposures. Conversely, 

SO2-induced decreases in HRV were observed at 3 h, but not immediately following exposure. 

Concomitant exposure to EC particles and SO2 followed a pattern similar to that observed with SO2

December 2009 6-9 
alone, but did not reach statistical significance. Subjects with coronary artery disease did not 

experience any significant changes in HRV following exposure to either pollutant. The authors 

postulated that this lack of effect may be due to differences in medication between the two groups, as 

70% of subjects with stable angina reported using β blockers, which are known to increase cardiac 

vagal control. The lack of any significant effects on HRV following exposure to EC particles is an 

important finding, as it provides evidence to suggest that the health effects observed following 

exposure to PM may be due to particle constituents other than carbon, or to reactive species found on 

the surface of the particle. These findings are in agreement with those of Zareba et al. (2009, 

190101) who reported small and variable changes in HRV among a group of healthy adults 

following exposure to UF EC. While exposure both at rest and during exercise to 10 μg/m3 UF EC 

resulted in an increase in time domain parameters (rMSSD and SNDD), no such effect was observed 

following exposure to a higher concentration of UF EC (25 μg/m3

) in the same subjects. A recent 

pilot study reported no effect of exposure to EC and ammonium nitrate particles (250-300 μg/m3) on 

HRV parameters in five adults with allergic asthma (Power et al., 2008, 191982). However, when the 

exposure occurred concomitantly with O3 (0.2 ppm), subjects were observed to experience 

significant changes in both time and frequency HRV parameters. These observations should be 

considered very preliminary as the study was limited by a small sample size (n = 5) and did not 

evaluate the effect of exposure to O3 without particles. However, these findings are in agreement 

with the previously described study of CAPs and O3 conducted by Fakhri et al. (2009, 191914). In 

addition to the studies of laboratory generated carbon described above, Beckett et al. (2005, 156261) 

used ZnO as a model particle and exposed twelve resting, healthy adults for 2 h to filtered air and 

500 μg/m3

 in the ultrafine (40.4 ± 2.7 nm) and fine (291.2 ± 20.2 nm) modes. Neither ultrafine nor 

fine ZnO produced a significant change in any time or frequency domain parameter of HRV. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Heart Rate Variability 

The results of several new controlled human exposure studies provide limited evidence to 

suggest that acute exposure to near ambient levels of PM may be associated with small changes in 

HRV. Changes in HRV parameters, however, are variable with some showing increased 

parasympathetic activity relative to sympathetic activity and others showing the opposite. Although a 

direct comparison between younger and older adults has not been made, PM exposure appears to 

result in a decrease in HRV more consistently in healthy older adults (Devlin et al., 2003, 087348; 

Gong et al., 2004, 087964). 

6.2.1.3. Toxicological Studies 

Toxicological studies that examined HR and HRV are presented in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) and overall demonstrated differing responses, which were collectively 

characterized as providing limited evidence for PM-related cardiovascular effects. The studies 

described that reported HR or HRV effects following PM exposure were conducted with a variety of 

particle types (CAPs, diesel, ROFA, metals), exposure methods (inhalation and IT instillation), and 

doses (100-3,000 μg/m3

 for inhalation; up to 8.3 mg/kg for IT instillation). 

CAPs 

Two groups of SH rats exposed to CAPs in Tuxedo, NY for 4 h (single-day mean PM2.5

concentrations 80 and 66 μg/m3

; February 2001 and May 2001, respectively) demonstrated 

decreased HR when exposure groups were combined that returned to baseline values when exposure 

ceased (Nadziejko et al., 2002, 087460). Fine or UF H2SO4 exposure (mean concentration 225 and 

468 μg/m3

) did not induce any HR effects. Another study demonstrated a trend toward increased HR 

in WKY rats following a 1- or 4-day PM2.5 CAPs exposure in Yokohama City, Japan (4.5 h/day; May 

2004, November 2004, and September 2005), but the correlation between change in HR and 

cumulative PM mass collected was not significant (Ito et al., 2008, 096823). Increased HR was 

observed in SH rats exposed to PM2.5 CAPs for two 5-h periods during the spring (mean mass 

concentration 202 μg/m3

) in a suburb of Taipei, Taiwan (Chang et al., 2004, 055637). The response 

December 2009 6-10 
was less prominent in the summer (mean mass concentration 141 μg/m3

), despite the number 

concentrations being similar for the two seasons (2.30×105

 and 2.78×105 particles/cm3, respectively). 

For HRV, decreased SDNN was observed in SH rats exposed to PM2.5 CAPs (mean mass 

concentration 202 μg/m3; mean number concentration 2.30×105 particles/cm3) for two 5-h periods 

separated by 24 h (Chang et al., 2005, 088662). Each of the four animals served as their own control 

and the estimated mean PM effects for the SDNN decreases during exposure were 85-60% of 

baseline. CAPs effects on rMSSD were less remarkable. In a study of Tuxedo, NY PM2.5 CAPs, no 

acute changes in rMSSD or SDNN were observed in either ApoE-/- or C57 mice when the 48-h time 

period postexposure was evaluated (6 h/day×5 day/wk; mean mass concentration over 5-mo period 

110 μg/m3

) (Chen and Hwang, 2005, 087218). 

Diesel Exhaust 

Anselme et al. (2007, 097084) used a MI model of congestive heart failure (CHF) where the 

left anterior descending coronary artery of WKY rats was occluded to induce ischemia. After 3 mo of 

recovery, rats were exposed to diesel emissions for 3 h (PM concentration 500 μg/m3; mass mobility 

diameter 85 nm; NO2 1.1 ppm; CO 4.3 ppm) and decreases in rMSSD were observed during the first 

2 h of the exposure, which returned to baseline values for the last hour of exposure. Healthy rats also 

demonstrated decreased rMSSD when measured over the entire exposure period. 

Model Particles 

In WKY rats exposed to UF carbon particles (mass concentration 180 μg/m3; mean number 

concentration 1.6×107

 particles/cm3) for 24 h, HR increased and SDNN decreased during particle 

inhalation (Harder et al., 2005, 087371). These measures returned to baseline values during the 

recovery period. This study provides evidence that ultrafine carbon exerts its effects through changes 

in ANS mediation, as the HR and HRV responses occurred quickly after exposure started and 

pulmonary inflammation was only observed at the 24-h time point (and not at 4 h). SH rats exposed 

to ultrafine carbon particles under the same conditions (mass concentration 172 μg/m3

; mean number 

concentration 9.0×106

 particles/cm3) demonstrated similar responses, albeit not until recovery days 2 

and 3 (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 159345). 

A model of premature senescence has been developed by Tankersley et al. (2003, 053919), 

using aged AKR mice whose body weight abruptly declines ∼5 wk prior to death and is accompanied 

by deficiencies in other vital physiological function including HR and temperature regulation. When 

exposed to carbon black ([CB]; mean concentration 160 μg/m3

; 3 h/day×3 day), terminal senescent 

mice responded with robust cardiovascular effects, including bradycardia and increased rMSSD and 

SDNN (Tankersley et al., 2004, 094378). SDNN and LF/HF were also increased in healthy senescent 

mice exposed to CB. These studies indicate that HR regulatory mechanisms are altered in susceptible 

mice exposed to PM (sympathetic and parasympathetic changes in healthy senescent mice and 

increased parasympathetic influence in terminally senescent mice), which may translate into lowered 

homeostatic competence in these animals. Results from the near-terminal group should be 

interpreted with caution, as only three mice were in this group. 

Subsequent research with a similar exposure protocol (mean CB concentration 159 μg/m3

) 

used C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ mice to determine whether an acute PM challenge can modify HR 

regulation in two mice strains with differing baseline HR (Tankersley et al., 2007, 097910). There 

were no CB-specific effects on HR or HRV in C3H/HeJ compared to C57BL/6J mice (average HR 

∼80 bpm lower than C3H/HeJ at baseline). Administration of a sympathetic antagonist (propanolol) 

to C57BL/6J mice prior to CB exposure resulted in elevated HR and decreased rMSSD compared to 

air during the last 2 h of exposure, indicating withdrawal of parasympathetic tone. There may be 

differences in regional particle deposition based on strain-specific breathing patterns that may affect 

HR and HRV responses. However, this study revealed that inherent autonomic tone, which is 

genetically varied between these mouse strains, may affect cardiovascular responses following PM 

exposure. In extrapolating these results to humans, individual variation in genetic factors likely plays 

some role in PM-induced adjustments in HR control via the ANS. 

A recent study in mice (C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6J, and C3H/HeOuJ) examined the effects of a 2-h 

O3 (mean concentration 0.584 ppm) pretreatment followed by a 3-h exposure to CB (mean 

December 2009 6-11 
concentration 536 μg/m3

) on HR and HRV measures (Hamade et al., 2008, 156515) HR decreased to 

the greatest extent during O3 pre-exposure for all strains that were then exposed to CB. The percent 

change in SDNN and rMSSD were increased in C3H mice during O3 pre-exposure and CB exposure 

compared to the filtered air group; however, these HRV parameters gradually decreased over the 

duration of the experiment and appeared to be O3 dependent. Together, these findings indicate that 

increases in parasympathetic tone and/or decreases in sympathetic input may explain the observed 

bradycardia. In a subset of all mice pre-exposed to O3, rMSSD remained significantly elevated 

during the CB exposure compared to filtered air. The results from this study confirm what was 

observed in Tankersley et al. (2007, 097910) in that genetic determinants affect HR regulation in 

mice with exposure to air pollutants. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability 

Both increases and decreases in HR have been observed in rats or mice following PM 

exposure. Fine or UF H2SO4 did not result in HR changes in SH rats. Similarly, decreased SDNN 

was reported for UF CAPs exposure and lowered rMSSD was observed with diesel exposure. In 

near-terminal senescent mice, HRV responses were robust following CB exposure and represented 

increased parasympathetic influence. Strain differences in baseline HR and HRV likely contribute to 

PM responses. HRV changes with preexposure to O3 and CB appeared to be O3 dependent, although 

rMSSD remained elevated during PM exposure. 

Source Apportionment and PM Components 

An additional analysis of CAPs data (Chen and Hwang, 2005, 087218; Hwang et al., 2005, 

087957) was conducted to link short-term HR and HRV effects to major PM source categories using 

source apportionment methodology (Lippmann et al., 2005, 087453). 

The source categories were: (1) regional secondary SO4

2– comprised of high S, Si, and OC 

(mean 63.41 μg/m3

); (2) resuspended soil characterized by high concentrations of Ca, Fe, Al, and Si 

(mean concentration 5.88 μg/m3); (3) fly ash emissions from power plants burning residual oil in the 

eastern U.S. and containing high levels of V, Ni, and Se (mean concentration 1.53 μg/m3

); and (4) 

motor vehicle traffic and other unknown sources (34.92 μg/m3

) (Lippmann et al., 2005, 087453). 

Exposures occurred from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m., 5 days/wk for 5 mo. PM2.5 mass was associated 

with a daily interquartile change of -4.1 beat/min HR during exposure in ApoE-/- mice1

 and a similar 

magnitude of effect was observed with resuspended soil (-4.5 beat/min). Resuspended soil was also 

associated with a HR increase in the afternoon post-exposure (2.6 beat/min); the secondary SO4

2–

factor was linked to lowered HR in the same period (-2.5 beat/min). A 6.2% increase in rMSSD 

collected in the afternoon post-exposure was associated with the residual oil factor, compared to a 

5.6% and 2.4% decrease in rMSSD at night for secondary SO4

2– and PM2.5 mass, respectively. 

Resuspended soil was associated with a 4.3% increase in rMSSD the night following CAPs 

exposure. The residual oil and secondary SO4

2– categories showed similar statistically significant 

parameter estimates for SDNN as rMSSD. 

Recent studies of ECG alterations in mice have indicated a role for PM-associated Ni in 

driving the cardiovascular effects. Lippman et al. (2006, 091165) presented a posthoc analysis of 

daily variations in PM2.5 CAPs (mean concentration: 85.6 μg/m3; 7/21/ 2004–1/12/2005; Tuxedo, 

NY) and changes in cardiac dynamics in ApoE-/- mice. On the 14 days that the exposed mice had 

 

1

 Atherosclerosis and related pathways have been studied primarily in the Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout mouse. Developed by 

Nobuyo Maeda’s group in 1992 (Piedrahita et al., 1992, 156868; Zhang et al., 1992, 157180), the ApoE-/- mouse and related models 

have become the workhorse of atherosclerosis research over the past 15 years. The ApoE molecule is involved in the clearance of fats 

and cholesterol. When ApoE (or the LDL receptor) is deleted from the genome, mice develop severely elevated lipid and cholesterol 

profiles; ApoE-/- mice on a high-fat (“Western”) diet exhibit cholesterol levels exceeding 1000 mgdL (normal is ~150 mgdL) (Huber et 

al., 1999, 156575; Moore et al., 2005, 156780). As a result, the lipid uptake into the vasculature is increased and the atherosclerotic 

process is dramatically hastened. Furthermore, the LDLs in ApoE-/- mice are highly susceptible to oxidation (Hayek et al., 1994, 

156527), which may be a crucial event in the air pollution-mediated vascular changes. However it should be noted that this model is 

primarily one of peripheral vascular disease rather than coronary artery disease. 



December 2009 6-12 
unusually elevated HR, Ni, Cr, and Fe comprised 12.4% of the PM mass, compared to only 1.5% on 

the other 89 days. Back trajectory analyses indicated high-altitude winds from the northwest that did 

not traverse population centers and industrial areas except the Sudbury Ni smelter in Ontario, 

Canada. On the 14 days that high HR was observed, the HR elevation lasted for two days, but only 

the current day CAPs concentration was statistically significant. SDNN decreases were statistically 

significant for all three lags (0, 1, 2 days). The GAM regression analysis showed that only Ni 

produced a statistically significant effect for HR and SDNN. 

6.2.2. Arrhythmia 

Epidemiologic and toxicological studies presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) provided some evidence of arrhythmia following exposure to PM. However, a positive 

association between PM and ventricular arrhythmias among patients with implantable cardioverter 

defibrillators was only observed in one study conducted in Boston, MA, while toxicological studies 

reported arrhythmogenesis in rodents following exposure to ROFA, DE, or metals. Recent 

epidemiologic studies have confirmed the findings of PM-induced ventricular arrhythmias in Boston, 

MA, and have also reported increases in ectopic beats in studies conducted in the Midwest and 

Pacific Northwest regions of the U.S. In addition, two studies from Germany have demonstrated 

positive associations between traffic and combustion particles and changes in repolarization 

parameters among patients with IHD. Findings of recent toxicological studies are mixed, with both 

demonstrated decreases and increases in frequency of arrhythmia following exposure to CAPs. 

6.2.2.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Studies of Arrhythmias Using Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators 

One study reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD assessed the effect of short-term fluctuations in 

PM2.5 on ventricular arrhythmias and several recent studies examining this relationship have been 

conducted. Ventricular ectopy and arrhythmia include ventricular premature beats (VPBs), 

ventricular tachycardia (VT), and ventricular fibrillation (VF). VPBs are spontaneous beats 

originating from either the right or left ventricles. VT refers to three or more VPBs in succession at a 

rate of 100 beats per minute or greater, while VF is characterized by rapid and disorganized 

ventricular electrical activation incapable of generating an organized mechanical contraction or 

cardiac output. AF is the most common type of arrhythmia. In this condition, ectopic electrical 

impulses arising in the atria or pulmonary veins, i.e., outside their normal anatomic origin (the 

sinoatrial node), can result in atrioventricular dilatation, dysfunction, and/or thromboembolism. 

Despite being common, clinical and subclinical forms of AF are associated with reduced functional 

status and quality of life. Moreover, the arrhythmia accounts for a large proportion of ischemic 

stroke (Laupacis et al., 1994, 190901; Prystowsky et al., 1996, 156031) and is a strong risk factor for 

CHF (Roy et al., 2009, 190902), contributing to both cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause 

mortality (Kannel et al., 1983, 156623). 

Ventricular arrhythmia is commonly associated with myocardial infarction, heart failure, 

cardiomyopathy, and other forms of structural (e.g., valvular) heart disease. Pathophysiologic 

mechanisms underlying this established cause of sudden cardiac death include activators and 

facilitators of arrhythmia, such as electrolyte abnormalities, modulation of the ANS, membrane 

channels, gap junctions, oxidant stress, myocardial stretch and ischemia. 

Previously, Peters et al. (2000, 011347) conducted a pilot study in Boston, MA to examine the 

association between short-term changes in ambient air pollutant concentrations and increased risk of 

ventricular arrhythmias, among a cohort of patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators 

(ICD). ICDs continuously monitor cardiac rhythm and upon detection of an abnormal rhythm (i.e., 

rapid HR), they can be programmed to deliver pacing and/or shock therapy to restore normal sinus 

rhythm. Those abnormal rhythms that are most severe or rapid are assumed to be due to VT or VF 

(i.e., life-threatening arrhythmias), and are thus treated with electric shock. These ICD devices also 

store information on each abnormal rhythm detected, including the date, time, and therapy given. 

Thus, using the date and time of those arrhythmias resulting in electric shock, Peters et al. (2000, 

December 2009 6-13 
011347) reported an increased risk of ICD shock associated with mean NO2 concentration in the 

previous two days. Among subjects with frequent events (10 or more during 3 yr of follow-up) an 

increased risk of ICD shock was also associated with interquartile range increases in CO, NO2, PM2.5, and BC in the previous 2 days. Several studies were conducted to confirm these findings. The 

study characteristics, as well as the reported effect estimates and 95% CI associated with each PM 

metric, are shown in Table 6-2. Dockery et al. (2005, 078995; 2005, 090743) conducted a follow-up study of ICD patients 

living in eastern Massachusetts and followed subjects for a longer period of time (up to 7 yr). They 

were the first to review the ECG, classify each ICD-detected arrhythmia (e.g., ventricular 

arrhythmia, VF, atrial tachycardia, sinus tachycardia, etc.), and include only ventricular arrhythmias 

(VF or VT; excluding supraventricular arrhythmias). In single-pollutant models using generalized 

estimating equations, increased risks of confirmed ventricular arrhythmias were associated with IQR 

increases in every pollutant (PM2.5, BC, SO4

2–, NO2, SO2, O3, and PNC). Among those with a prior 

ventricular arrhythmia in the past three days, interquartile range increases in 2-calendar-day mean 

PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, SO4

2–, and BC concentrations were all associated with significant and 

markedly higher risks of ventricular arrhythmia than among those without a prior arrhythmia. The 

pollutants associated with increased risk of ventricular arrhythmia implicate traffic pollution. 

Rich et al. (2005, 079620) conducted a case-crossover analysis of these same data to 

investigate moving average pollutant concentrations lagged <48 h. They reported an increased risk 

of ventricular arrhythmia associated with mean PM2.5 and O3 concentrations in the 24 h before the 

arrhythmia. Each pollutant effect appeared independent in two pollutant models. In single-pollutant 

models, NO2 and SO2 were associated with increased risk, but when included in two pollutant 

models with PM2.5, only PM2.5 remained associated with increased risk. They did not, however, find 

evidence of a more acute arrhythmic response to pollution (i.e., larger risk estimates associated with 

moving averages <24 h before arrhythmia detection). In an ancillary case-crossover analysis of data 

from the Boston ICD study, Rich et al. (2006, 088427) identified 91 confirmed episodes of 

paroxysmal AF among 29 subjects. In single pollutant models, they reported a significantly increased 

risk of AF associated with mean O3 and PM2.5 concentrations in the hour before the arrhythmia and 

BC concentration in the 24 h before the arrhythmia. 

Rich et al. (2006, 089814) conducted another case-crossover study in the St. Louis, MO 

metropolitan area. Using the same methods as in Boston, they reported increased risk of ventricular 

arrhythmia associated with mean SO2 concentration in the 24 h before the arrhythmia, but not PM2.5 

(in single-pollutant models). Again, they found no evidence of an arrhythmic response with moving 

average pollutant concentrations <24 h before the arrhythmia. 

In Vancouver, Canada, Vedal et al. (2004, 055630) did not find increased risk of ICD shocks 

associated with increases in any pollutant concentration (PM10, O3, SO2, NO2, and CO). Secondary 

analyses among those subjects with two or more discharges per year, and analyses stratified by 

season were also null for PM10, although an association with SO2 (lag 2 days) was observed. A case 

crossover analysis of these same data examining additional particle pollutant concentrations 

available for a shorter time frame (e.g., PM2.5, SO4

2–, EC, and OC) also found no increased risk of 

ICD shock associated with any pollutant (Rich et al., 2004, 055631). 

The largest ICD study to date examined the risk of ventricular arrhythmias associated with 

increases in the daily concentration of numerous PM and gaseous pollutants in Atlanta, GA (Metzger 

et al., 2007, 092856) (see Table 6-2 for specific pollutants evaluated). Similar to Vedal et al. (2004, 

055630), they did not find significant or consistently increased risk of a ventricular arrhythmia 

associated with any IQR increase in mean daily PM or gaseous pollutant concentration at any lag 

examined. 

Ljungman et al. (2008, 180266) conducted a similar study, using case-crossover methods, on 

ICD patients in Gothenburg and Stockholm, Sweden. They investigated the triggering of confirmed 

ventricular arrhythmias by ambient PM10 and NO2 concentrations, and reported increased relative 

odds of ventricular arrhythmia associated with each 10 μg/m3

 increase in the 2-h ma PM10

concentration (OR = 1.22 [95% CI: 1.00-1.51]), with a smaller non-significant risk associated with 

each 10.3 μg/m3

 increase in the 24-h ma PM10 concentration (OR = 1.23 [95% CI: 0.87-1.73]). The 

NO2 and PM2.5 effect estimates were much smaller and not statistically significant. Effect estimates 

were larger for events occurring near the air pollution monitors in Gothenburg (compared to 

Stockholm). 

Albert et al. (2007, 156201), although not investigating associations with ambient pollution, 

conducted a case-crossover study of the association between ventricular arrhythmia and traffic 

December 2009 6-14 
exposure in the hours before the arrhythmia. They reported an increased risk of ventricular 

arrhythmia associated with traffic exposure or driving in the previous hour. They hypothesized that 

this increased risk was due to either a stress response from being in a car in heavy traffic, or from 

traffic-generated air pollution, or a combination of both. 

Table 6-2. Epidemiologic studies of ventricular arrhythmia and ambient PM concentration, in 

patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators. 

Reference Outcome and 

Sample Size 

Study Design and 

Analytic Method Copollutants PM Metric 

Ambient 

Concentration 

Lag and its 

Increment 

Units 

OR 

95% 

Confidence 

Interval 

PM2.5 Daily Median: 

10.3 μg/m3 2 day 

6.9 μg/m3 1.08 0.96, 1.22 

BC Daily Median: 

0.98 μg/m3 2 day 

0.74 μg/m3 1.11 0.95, 1.28 

Sulfate Daily Median: 

2.55 μg/m3 2 day 

2.04 μg/m3 1.05 0.92, 1.20 

Dockery et al. 

(2005, 078995; 

2005, 090743) 

Eastern MA 

N=670 days with ≥ 1 

confirmed ventricular 

arrhythmias among 

n=84 subjects 

Generalized estimating 

equations 

Lags Evaluated: 2 calendar 

day means 

NO2, CO, SO2, 

O3

PNC Daily Median: 

29,300 particles/cm3

2 day 

19,120 

particles/cm3 1.14 0.87, 1.50 

PM2.5 Daily Median: 

9.8 μg/m3 24-h ma 

7.8 μg/m3 1.19 1.02, 1.38 Rich et al. (2005, 

079620) 

Eastern MA 

N=798 confirmed 

ventricular 

arrhythmias among 

n=84 subjects 

Time-stratified case--

crossover study. 

Conditional logistic regression. Lags evaluated: 3, 6, 

24, 48-h ma 

NO2, CO, SO2, 

O3

BC Daily Median: 

0.94 μg/m3

24-h ma 

0.83 μg/m3 0.93 0.74, 1.18 

PM2.5 Daily Median: 

16.2 μg/m3 24-h ma 

9.7 μg/m3 0.95 0.72, 1.27 

EC Daily Median: 

0.6 μg/m3 24-h ma 

0.5 μg/m3 1.18 0.93, 1.50 

Rich et al. (2006, 

089814) 

St. Louis metro 

area 

N=139 confirmed 

ventricular 

arrhythmias among 

n=56 subjects 

Time-stratified 

case-crossover study. 

Conditional logistic 

regression. Lags 

Evaluated: 6, 12, 24, 48-h 

ma 

NO2, CO, SO2, 

O3

Organic 

Carbon 

Daily Median: 

4.0 μg/m3 24-h ma 

2.3 μg/m3 1.08 0.81, 1.43 

Vedal et al. 

(2004, 055630) 

Vancouver, BC, 

Canada 

N=257 days with ≥ 1 

ICD shock among 

n=50 subjects 

Generalized estimating 

equations 

Lags Evaluated: 0, 1, 2, 3 

daily ma 

NO2, CO, SO2, 

O3 PM10

Daily Median: 

11.6 μg/m3

Lag Day 0 

5.6 μg/m3 1.00* 0.82, 1.19* 

PM10, 

Median Gothenburg

2 h: 18.95 μg/m3

24 h: 19.92 μg/m3

Stockholm 

2 h: 14.62 μg/m3

24 h: 15.23 μg/m3

2-h ma: 14.16 

μg/m3

24-h ma: 11:49 

μg/m3

2 h: 

1.31 

24 h: 

1.24 

1.00, 1.72 

0.87, 1.76 Ljungman et al. 

(2008, 180266) 

Gothenburg and 

Stockholm, 

Sweden 

N=114 ventricular 

arrhythmias among 

73 subjects. 211 total 

subjects were 

followed. 

Conditional logistic 

regression 

Lags evaluated: 2 h, 24 h 

NO2

PM2.5

Median 

Stockholm μg/m3

2 h: 9.17 

24 h: 9.49 μg/m3

2-h ma: 6.69 

μg/m3

24-h ma: 5.27 

μg/m3

2 h: 

1.23 

24 h: 

1.28 

0.84, 1.80 

0.90, 1.84 

PM2.5 Daily Mean: 

8.2 μg/m3 Lag Day 0 

5.2 μg/m3 1.0† 0.9, 1.1† 

PM10

Daily Mean: 

13.3 μg/m3 Lag Day 0 

7.4 μg/m3 0.9† 0.5, 1.5† 

EC Daily Mean: 

0.8 μg/m3 Lag Day 0 

0.4 μg/m3 1.1† 0.9, 1.3† 

Organic 

Carbon 

Daily Mean: 

4.5 μg/m3 Lag Day 0 2.2 μg/m3 1.1† 0.9, 1.3† 

Rich et al. (2004, 

055631) 

Vancouver, BC, 

Canada 

N=77 to 98 days with 

≥ 1 ICD shock 

among n=34 

subjects 

Ambi-directional 

case-crossover study. 

Conditional logistic 

regression 

Lags Evaluated: 0, 1, 2, 

and 3 day ma 

NO2, CO, SO2, 

O3

Sulfate Daily Mean: 

1.3 μg/m3 Lag Day 0 

0.9 μg/m3 0.9† 0.7, 1.2† 

December 2009 6-15 
Reference Outcome and 

Sample Size 

Study Design and 

Analytic Method Copollutants PM Metric 

Ambient 

Concentration 

Lag and its 

Increment 

Units 

OR 

95% 

Confidence 

Interval 

PM2.5 Daily Median: 

16.2 μg/m3

24-h ma 

10 μg/m3

 1.00 0.95, 1.0 

PM10

Daily Median: 

26.4 μg/m3

24-h ma 

10 μg/m3

 1.00 0.97, 1.03 

PM10-2.5

Daily Median: 

8.7 μg/m3

24-h ma 

5 μg/m3 1.03 1.00, 1.07 

PM2.5 EC Daily Median: 

1.4 μg/m3

24-h ma 

1 μg/m3 1.01 0.98, 105 

PM2.5 OC Daily Median: 

3.9 μg/m3

24-h ma 

2 μg/m3 1.01 0.98, 1.03 

PM2.5 

SO4

2–

Daily Median: 

4.1 μg/m3

24-h ma 

5 μg/m3 0.99 0.93, 1.06 

Metzger et al. 

(2007, 092856) 

Atlanta, GA 

N=6287 confirmed 

ventricular 

arrhythmias among 

n=518 subjects 

Generalized estimating 

equations 

Lags Evaluated: 

0, 1, and 2 day ma 

NO2, CO, SO2, 

O3

PM2.5 water 

soluble 

elements 

Daily Median: 

0.022 μg/m3

24-h ma 

0.03 μg/m3 0.95 0.90, 1.00 

Estimated from Figure 3 Vedal et al. (2004, 055630).† Estimated from Figure 3 Rich et al. (2004, 055631) 

Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Arrhythmias using ICDs 

Since 2004, only two studies (in Boston and Sweden), reported adverse associations of PM2.5, 

other size fractions and components with ICD-detected ventricular arrhythmias (Dockery et al., 

2005, 078995; Dockery et al., 2005, 090743; Ljungman et al., 2008, 180266; Rich et al., 2005, 

079620). Studies of ICD-detected ventricular arrhythmias conducted elsewhere did not report 

associations (Dusek et al., 2006, 155756; Metzger et al., 2007, 092856; Rich et al., 2004, 055631; 

Vedal et al., 2004, 055630) nor was an association observed in a study of PM10 and ICD shock in 

Vancouver, Canada (Vedal et al., 2004, 055630). A range in exposure lags was evaluated in the 

Boston study (3 h-3 days) (Dockery et al., 2005, 078995; Dockery et al., 2005, 090743; Rich et al., 

2005, 079620) and Sweden study (2 h and 24 h) (Ljungman et al., 2008, 180266). Reasons for the 

inconsistent findings may include differing degrees of exposure misclassification within each study 

or city due to differences in PM composition and pollutant mixes (e.g., less transition metals and 

sulfates in the Pacific Northwest than the Northeast U.S.), and differences in the size of study areas 

(Boston: within 40 km of PM2.5 monitoring site; Vancouver: Lower Mainland of British Columbia 90 

km east of Vancouver). In addition, Rich et al. (2005, 079620) reported that use of the mean 

pollutant concentration from the specific 24 h before the arrhythmia rather than just the day of the 

arrhythmia, resulted in less exposure misclassification and less bias towards the null, possibly 

explaining the lack of association when using just the day of ICD discharge and daily PM 

concentrations. 

Ectopy Studies Using ECG Measurements 

A few panel studies have used ECG recordings to evaluate associations between ectopic beats 

(ventricular or supraventricular) and mean PM concentrations in the previous hours and/or days 

(Berger et al., 2006, 098702; Ebelt et al., 2005, 056907; Liao et al., 2009, 199519; Sarnat et al., 

2006, 090489). 

Ectopic beats are defined as heart beats that originate at a location in the heart outside of the 

sinus node. They are the most common disturbance in heart rhythm. Ectopic beats are usually 

benign, and may present with or without symptoms, such as palpitations or dizziness. Such beats can 

arise in the atria, AV node, conduction system or ventricles. When the origin is in the atria the beat is 

called an atrial or supraventricular ectopic beat. When such a beat occurs earlier than expected it is 

referred to as a premature supraventricular or atrial premature beat. Likewise, when the origin is in 

December 2009 6-16 
the ventricle the beat is defined as a ventricular ectopic beat, or when early a premature ventricular 

beat. When three or more occur ectopic beats occur in succession, this is called a non-sustained run 

of either supraventricular (atrial) or ventricular origin. When the rate of the run is greater than 100 

beats per minute it is defined as a tachycardia. Sustained VT are the arrhythmias investigated in the 

ICD studies described above. 

Using data from the WHI done in 59 U.S. exam sites in 24 cities, Liao et al. (2009, 199519) 

estimated mean PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations at the addresses of 57,422 study subjects undergoing 

ECG monitoring. They then estimated the risks of ventricular and supraventricular ectopy during that 

10-s ECG recording associated with increases in mean PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations on the same 

day and previous 2 days, as well as over the previous 30 days. Mean PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations 

during the study period were 13.8 and 27.5 μg/m3

, respectively. Using a 2-stage random effects 

model, they reported that among smoking subjects, each 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 concentration on 

lag day 1 was associated with a significantly increased risk of ventricular ectopy (OR = 2.0 [95% CI: 

1.32-3.3]). Similarly, each 10 μg/m3 increase in lag 1 PM10 concentration was associated with an 

increased risk of ventricular ectopy (OR = 1.32 [95% CI: 1.07-1.65]). The lag day 2 PM2.5 risk 

estimate was similar in size, but not statistically significant. There were no associations between 

PM10, PM2.5 and supraventricular ectopy among smokers or non-smokers, and no association with 

any PM metric and ventricular ectopy among non-smokers. 

Sarnat et al. (2006, 090489) conducted a panel study among 32 nonsmoking older adults 

residing in Steubenville, OH. In this study, the median daily PM2.5, SO4

2–, and EC concentrations 

were 17.7, 5.7, and 1.0 μg/m3

, respectively. They used logistic regression models to examine lagged 

effects of 1- to 10-day ma concentrations of PM2.5, SO4

2–, EC, O3, NO2, and SO2. Supraventricular 

ectopy and ventricular ectopy were measured using Holter monitors during a 30-minute protocol of 

alternating rest in the supine position, standing, walking and paced breathing. In single-pollutant 

models, each 10.0 μg/m3 increase in 5-day mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with increased 

risk of supraventricular ectopy (OR = 1.42 [95% CI: 0.99-2.04]), but not ventricular ectopy 

(OR = 1.02 [95% CI: 0.63-1.65]). Similarly, increased risk of supraventricular ectopy, but not 

ventricular ectopy, was associated with each interquartile range increase in 5-day mean SO4

2– and O3

concentration. 

Ebelt et al. (2005, 056907) conducted a repeated measures panel study of 16 patients with 

COPD in Vancouver, British Columbia. Their goal was to evaluate the relative impact of ambient 

and non-ambient exposures to PM2.5, PM10, and PM10-2.5 on several health measures. Subjects wore 

an ambulatory ECG monitor for 24 h to record heart rhythm data and ascertain supraventricular 

ectopic beats. The mean PM2.5 concentration during this study was 11.4 μg/m3

. Using mixed models 

with random subjects effects to investigate only same-day PM concentrations, an increase in 

supraventricular ectopic beats was associated with same day ambient exposures to each PM size 

fraction. 

Berger and colleagues (2006, 098702) conducted a panel study of 57 men with coronary heart 

disease living in Erfurt, Germany. Using 24-h ECG measurements made once every 4 wk, they 

studied associations between runs of supraventricular and ventricular tachycardia and lagged 

concentrations of PM2.5, UFP (0.01-0.1 μm), ACP (0.1-1.0 μm), SO2, NO2, CO, and NO. Using 

GAMs, as well as Poisson and linear regression models, they reported increases in supraventricular 

tachycardia and the number of runs of ventricular tachycardia associated with 5-day mean PM2.5, 

UFP counts, and ACP counts. They found these associations at all lags evaluated (during ECG 

recording, 0-23 h before, 24-47 h before, 48-71 h before, 72-95 h before, and 5-day mean), but the 

largest effect estimates were generally associated with the 24- to 47-h mean and the 5-day mean. 

Summary of Ectopy Studies Using ECG Measurements 

Four studies of ectopic beats and runs of supraventricular and ventricular tachycardia, captured 

using ECG measurements, all report at least one positive association. Further, they report findings in 

regions other than Boston and Sweden (i.e., Midwest U.S., Pacific Northwest, 24 U.S. cities, and 

Erfurt, Germany). A range of lags and/or moving averages were investigated (0-30 days) with the 

strongest effects observed for either the 5-day mean, same day, or 1-day lagged PM concentrations. 

Taken together, these ICD studies and ectopy studies provide evidence of an arrhythmic response to 

PM, although further study is needed to understand the variable ICD study findings. 

December 2009 6-17 
ECG Abnormalities Associated with the Modulation of Repolarization 

No reported investigations of the relationship of PM concentration and ECG abnormalities 

indicating arrhythmia were conducted prior to 2002 and thus were not included in the 2004 PM 

AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Abnormalities in the myocardial substrate, myocardial 

vulnerability, and resulting repolarization abnormalities are believed to be key factors contributing to 

the development of arrhythmogenic conditions such as those discussed above. These abnormalities 

include ECG measures of repolarization such as QT duration (time for depolarization and 

repolarization of the ventricles), T-wave complexity (a measure of repolarization morphology), and 

T-wave amplitude (height of the T-wave). Abnormalities in repolarization may also identify subjects 

potentially at risk of more serious events such as sudden cardiac death (Atiga et al., 1998, 156231; 

Berger et al., 1997, 155688; Chevalier et al., 2003, 156338; Okin et al., 2000, 156002; Zabel et al., 

1998, 156176). Recent studies of changes in these measures following acute increases in air 

pollution are described below. 

Two studies conducted in Erfurt, Germany, (Henneberger et al., 2005, 087960; Yue et al., 

2007, 097968) examined the association between measures of repolarization (QT duration, T-wave 

complexity, T-wave amplitude, T-wave amplitude variability) and particulate air pollution. 

Henneberger et al. (2005, 087960) conducted a panel study of 56 males with IHD. Each subject was 

measured every 2 wk for 6 mo. During the study, the median daily PM2.5, EC, and OC concentrations 

were 14.9, 1.8, and 1.4 μg/m3

,respectively. The median count of UFP was 11,444 particles/cm3, 

while the median count of ACP (0.1-1.0 μm) was 1,238 particles/cm3. They examined the change in 

these ECG parameters associated with the mean pollutant (UFP, ACP, PM2.5, OC, and EC) 

concentrations 0-5, 6-11, 12-17, 18-23, and 0-23 h before, and 2-5 days before the ECG 

measurement. Significant decreases in T-wave amplitude were associated with PM2.5 mass, UFP, and 

ACP. Each 16.4 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM2.5 concentration in the previous 5 h was associated 

with a 6.46 μV decrease in T-wave amplitude (95% CI: -10.88 to -2.04). Each 0.7 μg/m3

 increase in 

the mean OC concentration in the previous 5 h was associated with a 4.15 ms increase in QT interval 

(95% CI: 0.22-8.09). There was a similar sized effect for 24-h mean OC concentration. Significant 

increases in the variability of T-wave complexity were also associated with acute increases in EC and 

OC concentration. 

Yue et al. (2007, 097968) then used positive matrix factorization to identify 5 sources of 

ambient PM (airborne soil, local traffic-related UFP, combustion-generated aerosols, diesel trafficrelated particles, and secondary aerosols). Using similar statistical models, they examined the 

association between these same repolarization changes and incremental increases in the mean 

concentration of each particle source in the 24 h before the ECG measurement. They also examined 

associations with CRP and vWF concentrations in the blood. Both UFP from local traffic and diesel 

particles from traffic had the strongest associations with repolarization parameters. 

Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of ECG Abnormalities Associated with the 

Modulation of Repolarization 

These two analyses demonstrate associations between PM pollution and repolarization 

changes, at lags of 5 h to 2 days. Moreover, the findings from the Yue et al. (2007, 097968) study 

demonstrate a potential role of traffic particles/pollution. 

6.2.2.2. Toxicological Studies 

The ECG of animal research models frequently exhibit different characteristics than that of 

humans. Mice and rats are notable in this regard, as they do not have an isoelectric ST-segment 

typical of larger species, likely owing to their rapid heart rates (~600 and ~350 bpm, respectively) 

and repolarizing currents. However, the ultimate function of the pumping heart is conserved and 

reflected by the ECG in a remarkably consistent manner across species. Thus, atrial depolarization 

causes an electrical inflection represented by the P-wave, ventricular depolarization elicits the QRS 

complex, and the T-wave represents repolarization of the ventricles. 

December 2009 6-18 
The earliest indication that there may be cardiovascular system effects of PM came from ECG 

studies in susceptible animal models (rats with pulmonary hypertension and dogs with coronary 

occlusion), which were summarized in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). However, a 

study of dogs exposed to ROFA did not demonstrate ECG changes, perhaps due to differences in 

disease state, as these were the oldest dogs in the colony with signs of preexisting, naturally 

occurring heart disease (Muggenburg et al., 2000, 010279). Much of the research conducted since 

the release of the last PM AQCD has been focused on exploring susceptibility or varying exposure 

methodologies, with little new evidence into the mechanisms for ECG changes of inhaled PM. 

CAPs 

Wellenius et al. (2004, 087874) used a susceptible model that was previously shown to 

produce significant results with exposures to ROFA (Wellenius et al., 2002, 025405) to examine 

ECG-related PM2.5 effects. Using an anesthetized model of post-infarction myocardium sensitivity, 

Wellenius and colleagues tested the effects of Boston, MA CAPs on the induction of spontaneous 

arrhythmias in SD rats (1 h; mean mass concentration 523.11 μg/m3; range of mass concentration 

60.3-2202 μg/m3

). Decreased (67.1%) VPB frequency was observed during the post-exposure period 

in rats with a high number of pre-exposure VPB. No interaction was observed with coexposure to 

CO (35 ppm). CAPs number concentration or the mass concentration of any single element did not 

predict VPB frequency. In a follow-up publication, a decreased number of supraventricular ectopic 

beats (SVEB) was reported with CAPs (mean mass concentration 645.7 μg/m3

) (Wellenius et al., 

2006, 156152). Furthermore, an increase in CAPs number concentration of 1,000 particles/cm3

 was 

associated with a 3.3% decrease in SVEB frequency. The findings of decreased ventricular 

arrhythmia differ from those observed following ROFA exposure in the same animal model in that 

an increased frequency of premature ventricular complexes was observed with ROFA, albeit the 

ROFA exposure concentration was >3,000 μg/m3

 (Wellenius et al., 2002, 025405). It is difficult to 

directly compare the results of these studies due to differences in exposure concentrations and 

particle type, but collectively they may suggest an important role for the soluble components of PM, 

including transition metals, as only ROFA induced increases in ventricular arrhythmia occurrence. 

In older rats (Fisher 344; ∼18 months) exposed to PM2.5 CAPs in Tuxedo, NY (4 h; mean 

concentration 180 μg/m3

; August 2000), the frequency of delayed beats was greater than in rats 

exposed to air (Nadziejko et al., 2004, 055632). The majority of these beats were characterized as 

pauses (a delay of 2.5 times the adjacent interbeat intervals) rather than premature beats. When the 

same animals were exposed to generated UF carbon particles (single-day concentrations 500 and 

1280 μg/m3

) or SO2 (1.2 ppm), no significant differences were observed in arrhythmia frequency 

between air controls and exposed animals. The authors also report using the same protocol for young 

WKY rats (concentration 215 μg/m3

) and very few arrhythmias were observed, thus precluding 

statistical analysis. The results of this study indicate (1) involvement of the sino-atrial node, as the 

observed arrhythmias were mostly of a delayed nature; and (2) particle size and PM2.5 constituents 

may play a role in these effects. 

Diesel and Gasoline Exhaust 

Anselme and colleagues (2007, 097084) exposed rats with and without induced CHF to DE for 

3 h (PM concentration 500 μg/m3

; mass mobility diameter 85 nm; NO2 1.1 ppm; CO 4.3 ppm). 

While no dramatic change was noted in HR, prominent increases in the incidence of VPB were 

observed in CHF rats, which lasted at least 4-5 h after exposure ceased. The duration of VPB 

attributable to diesel exposure in CHF rats lasted much longer than the rMSSD change (>5 h 

post-exposure), indicating that the HRV response was not driving the increased arrhythmia 

incidence. It is interesting to contrast the work of Anselme with the studies by Wellenius et al. (2002, 

025405; 2004, 087874; 2006, 156152), as the arrhythmia incidence in the acute infarction model was 

greatest with ROFA, while the CHF model demonstrated sensitivity to DE exposure. However, 

several differences in the research designs preclude strong comparisons. 

Using ApoE-/- mice on a high-fat diet as a model of pre-existing coronary insufficiency 

(Caligiuri et al., 1999, 157365), Campen and colleagues studied the impact of inhaled diesel and 

gasoline exhaust and road dust (6 h/day×3 day) on ECG morphology (Campen et al., 2005, 083977; 

December 2009 6-19 
2006, 096879). Moreover, a high efficiency particle filter was used to compare the whole exhaust 

with an atmosphere containing only the gaseous components. For gasoline exhaust, the 

PM-containing atmosphere (PM mean concentration 61 μg/m3

; PNMD 15 nm; NOX mean 

concentration 18.8 ppm; CO mean concentration 80 ppm) induced T-wave morphological alterations, 

while the PM-filtered atmosphere did not (Campen et al., 2006, 096879). Resuspended road dust 

(PM2.5), at up to 3500 μg/m3

 had no impact on ECG. For DE (PM mean concentration 512, 770, or 

3,634 μg/m3

; MMD 100 nm, CMD 80 nm; NOX mean concentration 19, 105, 102 ppm for low whole 

exhaust, high PM filtered, and high whole exhaust, respectively), dramatic bradycardia, decreased 

T-wave area, and arrhythmia (atrioventricular-node block and VPB) were only observed in mice 

exposed to high filtered and high whole exhaust (Campen et al., 2005, 083977). These effects 

remained after filtration of PM, suggesting that the gaseous components of the whole DE drove the 

cardiovascular findings. The diesel- and gasoline-induced ECG changes contrast, in that the gasoline 

exhaust required particles to induce T-wave changes, whereas the DE did not require PM to cause an 

effect on ECG. However, the differing responses could be attributable to higher PM concentrations in 

the whole DE. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for ECG Abnormalities 

The above toxicological studies demonstrate mixed results for arrhythmias, which may be 

somewhat attributable to the different disease models used. Wellenius et al. (2004, 087874; 2006, 

156152) showed decreased frequency of VPB and SVEB following PM2.5 CAPs exposure in rats 

with induced MI (>12 h prior to exposure). One study reported increased frequency of premature 

beats in older rats exposed to CAPs, which were not observed with UF carbon particles (Nadziejko 

et al., 2004, 055632). Rats with a MI model of CHF (3-mo recovery) had increased incidence of 

VPB with DE exposure (Anselme et al., 2007, 097084). As for ECG morphology changes, T-wave 

alterations were reported for gasoline exhaust that were absent when the PM was filtered (Campen et 

al., 2006, 096879). However, for DE, increased atrioventricular-node block, VPB, and decreased 

T-wave area were observed with whole exhaust and remained after filtration of PM, indicating that 

the gases were responsible for the effects (Campen et al., 2005, 083977). 

6.2.3. Ischemia 

Although no evidence from epidemiologic or controlled human exposure studies of PMinduced myocardial ischemia was included in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), one 

toxicological study was cited that observed ST-segment changes in dogs following a 3-day exposure 

to CAPs. In epidemiologic studies published since the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), 

associations have been demonstrated between PM and ST-segment depression, and one new 

controlled human exposure study reported significant increases in exercise-induced ST-segment 

depression among men with prior MI following a controlled exposure to DE. Results from recent 

toxicological studies confirm the findings presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) and provide coherence and biological plausibility for the effects observed in epidemiologic 

and controlled human exposure studies. 

6.2.3.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

ECG Changes Suggestive of Increased Ischemia 

The ST-segment duration is typically in the range of 0.08-0.12 s (80-120 ms). The direction of 

the ST change is influenced by the extent of the acute myocardial injury. If the ischemia or infarction 

is transmural, i.e., penetrates the entire thickness of the ventricular wall, it usually causes STsegment elevation, while ischemia confined primarily to the ventricular endocardium often causes 

ST-segment depression. Clinical ischemia is typically defined to include a downsloping ST segment 

depression of ≥0.1 mV (ECG voltages are calibrated such that 1 mV equals 10 mm in the vertical 

direction). The studies described below evaluate a range of ECG changes suggestive of increased 

December 2009 6-20 
ischemia including subclinical ST segment depressions (e.g. less than 0.1 mV or 1 mm) in relation to 

ambient PM concentration. 

In a large study of the WHI Trial, Zhang et al. (2009, 191970) examined the change and risk of 

subclinical ST-segment abnormalities, T-wave abnormalities, and T-wave amplitude associated with 

ambient PM2.5 concentrations on the same and previous 6 days. Using logistic regression, each 10 

μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM2.5, on lag days 0-2, was associated with a 4% (95% CI: -3 to 10) 

increase in the relative odds of a ST-segment abnormality, and a 5% (95% CI: 0-9) increase in the 

relative odds of a T-wave abnormality. 

Gold et al. (2005, 087558) studied 24 elderly residents of Boston, MA (aged 61-88 yr) residing 

at or near an apartment complex that was ~ 0.5 km from an air pollution monitoring station. A 

protocol of continuous Holter monitoring including 5 min of rest, 5 min of standing, 5 min of 

outdoor exercise, 5 min of rest, and then 20 cycles of paced breathing was done up to 12 times for 

each subject (n = 269 ECG measurements for analysis). From these ECG measurements, they 

identified occurrences of ST-segment depression and examined whether mean BC, CO, and PM2.5

concentrations in the previous 5 and 12 h were associated with ST-segment depression. The median 

5-h and 12-h mean BC concentrations were 1.28 and 1.14 μg/m3

, respectively (PM2.5 concentrations 

are in Table 6-3). The mean BC concentrations in the 5 and 12 h before testing predicted ST-segment 

depression in most portions of the protocol. However, these effects were strongest in the 

post-exercise periods. For example, during the post-exercise rest period, each 10th-90th percentile 

increase (1.59 μg/m3

) in the mean 5-h BC concentration was associated with a -0.11 mm ST-segment 

depression (95% CI: -0.18 to -0.05). In two pollutant models, CO did not appear to confound this 

association. PM2.5 was not associated with ST-segment depression in this study. These findings 

suggest traffic-generated particulate pollution may be associated with ST-segment depression. 

Previously, Pekkanen et al. (2002, 035050) conducted a panel study of 45 subjects with stable 

coronary heart disease living in Helsinki, Finland. Each subject had biweekly sub-maximal exercise 

testing for 6 mo (n = 342 exercise tests with 72 exercise-induced ST-segment depressions). The 

median daily count of ACP (ACP: 0.1-1.0 μm) was 1,200 particles/cm3

 (PM2.5 concentrations are 

found in Table 6-3). They examined the risk of ST-segment depression associated with mean 

pollutant concentrations (UFP, ACP, PM1, PM2.5, PM10-2.5, NO2, CO) in the previous 24 h, and the 3 

previous lagged 24-h periods. Each 7.9 μg/m3

 increase in mean PM2.5 concentration, lagged 2 days, 

was associated with significantly increased risk of ST-segment depression >0.1 mV (OR: 2.84 [95% 

CI: 1.42-5.66]). Each 760 particles/cm3 increase in the count of ACP, lagged 2 days, was also 

associated with significantly increased risk of ST-segment depression >0.1 mV (OR: 3.29 [95% 

CI: 1.57-6.92]). Similarly sized increased risks of ST-segment depression were also found for other 

particulate pollutants, including PM10-2.5, PM1, and UFP counts. 

This same research group, then conducted a principal components analysis to identify five 

PM2.5 sources (crustal, long range transport, oil combustion, salt, and local traffic) (Lanki et al., 

2006, 088412). Using similar statistical models, each 1 μg/m3

 increase in “local traffic” particle 

concentration, lagged 2 days, was associated with increased risk of ST-segment depression (OR: 1.53 

[95% CI: 1.19-1.97]). Similarly, each 1 μg/m3

 increase in “long-range transport” particle 

concentration was also associated with increased risk of ST-segment depression (OR: 1.11 [95% 

CI: 1.02-1.20]). No significant associations for other sources were reported for any lag time. 

In Boston, Chuang et al. (2008, 155731) studied 48 patients with a prior percutaneous 

intervention following MI, acute coronary syndrome (ACS) without MI, or stable coronary artery 

disease without ACS,. Each patient had a 24-h ECG measurement up to four times during study 

follow-up. Using logistic regression, they estimated the risk of ST-segment depression of ≥0.1 mm, 

during 30-min segments, associated with increases in the mean PM2.5, BC, CO, NO2, O3, and SO2

concentration in the previous 24 h. Each 6.93 μg/m3

 increase in mean PM2.5 concentration was 

associated with a significantly increased risk of ST-segment depression (OR = 1.50 [95% CI: 

1.19-1.89]). Using linear additive models to estimate the change in ST level associated with the same 

PM2.5 change, they observed a significant -0.031 mm change (95% CI: -0.042 to -0.019). In single 

pollutant models, risk estimates were of similar magnitude and statistically significant for BC, NO2, and SO2. In two pollutant models, however, PM2.5 risk estimates were reduced to 1.0 in all models 

with BC, NO2, and SO2. In contrast, the risk estimates for BC, NO2, and SO2 remained elevated and 

statistically significant when modeled with PM2.5. 

In a panel study of 14 Helsinki resident, non-smoking, elderly subjects with coronary artery 

disease, Lanki et al. (2008, 191984) used logistic regression to report that each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

personal PM2.5 concentration in the previous hour was associated with a significantly increased risk 

December 2009 6-21 
of ST-segment depression (OR = 3.26 [95% CI: 1.07-9.98]). In addition, each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

outdoor mean PM2.5 concentration in the previous 4 h was also associated with an increased risk (OR 

= 2.47 [95% CI: 1.05-5.85]). Last, the risk estimates for all time lags examined (1, 4, 8, 12, and 22 or 

24 h) for all PM size fractions were increased, but none other than those described above were 

statistically significant. 

Summary of Epidemiologic Study Findings for Ischemia 

These studies demonstrate associations between PM2.5 pollution and ST-segment depression at 

lags of 1 h-2 days. Moreover, these findings demonstrate a potential role for traffic (Chuang et al., 

2008, 155731; Gold et al., 2005, 087558) and long-range transported PM2.5 (Lanki et al., 2006, 

089788). Mean and upper percentile concentrations reported in these studies are found in Table 6-3. 

Table 6-3. PM Concentrations reported in epidemiologic studies ECG changes suggestive of 

ischemia. 

Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3) Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

PM2.5

Zhang et al. (2009, 191970) Mulitcity, US:WHI Clinical Trial NR NR 

Pekkanen et al. (2002, 035050) Helsinki, Finland 24-h avg: 10.6 (median) 

75th: 16.0 

Max: 39.8 

Gold et al. (2005, 087558) Boston, MA 5-h avg: 9.5 (median) 

12-h avg: 9.8 (median) 

5-h avg 90th: 25.6 Max: 41.0 

12-h avg 90th: 25.9 Max: 35.6 

Chuang et al. (2008, 155731) Boston, MA 12-h avg: 9.91 (median) 

24-h avg: 9.20 (median) 

12-h avg 75th: 13.18 

24-h avg max: 40.38 

Lanki et al. (2008, 191984) Helsinki, Finland 

Personal 

1-h avg: 11.5 (median) 

4-h avg: 10.1 (median) 

22-h avg: 9.3 (median) 

Outdoor 

24-h avg: 12.5 

Personal 

1-h avg 75th: 17.2; Max: 746.3 

4-h avg 75th: 15.7; Max 189.6 

22-h avg 75th: 13.2; Max 52.9 

Outdoor 

24-h avg 75th: 17.7; Max: 30.5 

PM10-2.5

Pekkanen et al. (2002, 035050) Helsinki, Finland 24-h avg: 4.8 (median) 

75th: 8.5 

Max: 37.0 

 

6.2.3.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Diesel Exhaust 

Among a group of 20 men with prior MI, Mills et al. (2007, 091206) found that DE 

(300 μg/m3

 particle concentration, median particle diameter 54 nm) significantly increased 

exercise-induced ischemic burden during exposure, calculated as the product of exercise duration 

and change in ST-segment amplitude. The mechanism by which DE induced the exacerbation of 

ischemic burden remains unclear, and appears to be unrelated to impaired vasodilation. However, the 

December 2009 6-22 
authors suggest that this discrepancy may be due to the timing of the vascular assessment, as 

measures of blood-flow were taken 5 h after the observed increase in ischemic burden. Although it is 

reasonable to assume that the observed increase in ST-segment depression during exercise represents 

an increased magnitude of ischemia, it is important to note that there are other potential explanations 

for the ST change. For example, it is possible that the ST-segment depression could be secondary to 

heterogeneity of electrophysiological responses of particle exposure on the myocardium that is 

enhanced by the metabolic and ionic conditions associated with ischemia or increased HR. It is also 

important to note that the effects observed in this study cannot be conclusively attributed to the 

particles per se, as subjects were also exposed relatively high levels of NO (3.45 ppm), NO2

(1.01 ppm), CO (2.9 ppm), and total hydrocarbons (2.8 ppm). 

6.2.3.3. Toxicological Studies 

CAPs 

A study that examined ECG changes in dogs (female; retired mongrel breeder dogs) following 

PM2.5 CAPs exposure in Boston, MA (mean mass concentration 345 μg/m3

; 9/2000-3/2001) and left 

anterior descending coronary artery occlusion as an indicator of myocardial ischemia reported 

changes in ST-segment (Wellenius et al., 2003, 055691). The experimental protocol was a 6-h 

exposure to CAPs via tracheostomy, followed by a preconditioning occlusion (5 min), rest interval 

(20 min), and the experimental occlusion (5 min). Increased ST-segment elevation was observed 

following PM2.5 during the experimental occlusion period compared to filtered air. Furthermore, 

peak ST-segment elevation attributable to CAPs was reported with the experimental occlusion, 

which remained elevated 24 h post-exposure. Ventricular arrhythmias were rarely observed during 

occlusion and when observed, were unrelated to CAPs exposure. The results from this study support 

those previously observed (Godleski et al., 2000, 000738) and provides greater support that 

enhanced myocardial ischemia occurs relatively quickly (within hours) following PM exposure. 

The Wellenius et al. (2003, 055691) study also attempted to link ST-segment changes with 

four CAPs elements (Si, Ni, S, and BC) as tracers of PM2.5 sources in Boston. In the multivariate 

regression analyses, peak ST-segment elevation and integrated ST-segment change were significantly 

associated with only the mass concentration of Si (Si mean concentration 8.17 μg/m3

; Si 

concentration 2.31-13.93 μg/m3

). In the univariate regression analyses, Pb also demonstrated a 

significant association for both ST-segment measures, although the p-value was greater than that 

observed with Si. 

A recent study in dogs (female mixed-breed canines) evaluated myocardial blood flow during 

myocardial ischemia following 5-h PM2.5 Boston CAPs exposures (daily mean mass concentration 

94.1-1556.8 μg/m3

; particle number concentration 3-69.3×103 particles/cm3; BC concentration 

1.3-32.0 μg/m3

) (Bartoli et al., 2009, 179904). Similar methods were used for the coronary occlusion 

and exposure method as Wellenius et al. (2003, 055691). Immediately following exposure, 

microspheres were injected (15 μm diameter) into the left atrium after 3 min of ischemia during the 

second occlusion. Post-mortem analysis of cardiac tissue and blood samples allowed for 

quantification of microspheres. CAPs-exposed dogs had decreased total myocardial blood flow and 

increased coronary vascular resistance during occlusion that was greatest in tissue within or near the 

ischemic zone. The rate-pressure product (product of HR and SBP) during occlusion was unchanged 

in animals exposed to CAPs, indicating that cardiac metabolic demand was not altered. The 

multilevel linear mixed models demonstrated that myocardial blood flow and coronary vascular 

resistance during occlusion were inversely and significantly associated with CAPs mass 

concentration, particle number concentration, and BC concentration, with the strongest effects 

observed with particle number concentration. The results of this study provide evidence that 

exacerbation of myocardial ischemia following PM exposure is due to reduced myocardial blood 

flow, perhaps via dysfunctional collateral vessels. 

December 2009 6-23 
Intratracheal Instillation 

Cozzi et al. (2006, 091380) exposed ICR mice to UF PM (100 μg IT instillation), followed by 

ischemia/reperfusion injury to the left anterior coronary artery 24 h later. The area-at-risk (the region 

of tissue perfused by the left anterior descending coronary artery) and the infarct size were measured 

2 h following reperfusion, and while the area-at-risk was not affected by PM exposure, the infarct 

size was nearly doubled in mice who received UF PM. Increases in infarct size were associated with 

increased myocardial neutrophil density in the infarct zone and lipid peroxidation in the 

myocardium. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Ischemia 

The studies described above provide evidence that PM can induce greater myocardial 

responses following ischemic events, as demonstrated by, enhanced ischemia, decreased myocardial 

blood flow and increased coronary vascular resistance, and increased infarct size. 

6.2.4. Vasomotor Function 

The most noteworthy new cardiovascular-related revelation in the past six years with regards 

to PM exposure is that the systemic vasculature may be a target organ. The vasculature of all tissues 

is lined with endothelial cells that will naturally encounter any systemically absorbed toxin. The 

endothelium (1) maintains barrier integrity to ensure fluid compartmentalization; (2) communicates 

dilatory and constrictive stimuli to vascular smooth muscle cells; and (3) recruits inflammatory cells 

to injured regions. Smooth muscle cells lie within the layer of endothelium and are crucial to the 

regulation of blood flow and pressure. In states of injury and disease, both cell types can exhibit 

dysfunction and even pathological responses. 

Endothelial dysfunction is a factor in many diseases and may contribute to the origin and/or 

exacerbation of perfusion-limited diseases, such as MI or IHD, as well as hypertension. Endothelial 

dysfunction is also a characteristic feature of early and advanced atherosclerosis. A primary outcome 

of endothelial dysfunction is impaired vasodilatation, frequently due to uncoupling of NOS. It is this 

uncoupling that appears central to impaired vasodilation and thus endothelial dysfunction. 

One controlled human exposure study cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) 

reported a decrease in bronchial artery diameter (BAD) among healthy adults following exposure to 

CAPs in combination with O3. Conclusions based on this finding were limited due to the 

concomitant exposure to O3 as well as a lack of published results from epidemiologic and 

toxicological studies. Recent controlled human exposure studies have provided support to the 

findings described in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), with changes in vasomotor 

function observed following controlled exposures to DE and EC particles. In addition, epidemiologic 

studies have observed associations between PM and decreases in BAD and flow mediated dilatation 

(FMD) in healthy adults and diabetics. These findings are further supported by a large body of new 

toxicological evidence of impaired vasodilation following exposure to PM. 

6.2.4.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

O’Neill et al. (2005, 088423) examined the association between 2 measures of vascular 

reactivity, non-endothelium dependent nitroglycerin mediated reactivity and endothelium-dependent 

flow-mediated reactivity, and ambient mean particulate pollutant concentration (PM2.5, SO4

2–, BC, 

PNC) on the same and previous few days. They studied a panel of 270 subjects with diabetes or at 

risk for diabetes, who lived in the greater Boston metropolitan area. Using linear regression models, 

the change in vascular reactivity associated with moving average pollutant concentrations across the 

same and previous 5 days was estimated. Interquartile range (values not reported) increases in mean 

PM2.5 concentration, BC concentration, and PNC over the previous 6 days were associated with 

decreased vascular reactivity among diabetics, but not among subjects at risk for diabetes. For SO4

2–, 

the mean concentration on lag day 0, lag day 1, and the 3-day, 4-day, and 5-day ma all were 

associated with similarly sized reductions in both metrics of vascular reactivity. Among diabetics, 

each interquartile range increase in the mean SO4

2– concentration over the previous 6 days was 

December 2009 6-24 
associated with a 5.4% decrease in nitroglycerin-mediated reactivity (95% CI: -10.5 to -0.1) and 

flow-mediated reactivity (-10.7% [95% CI: -17.3 to -3.5]). Also among diabetics, each interquartile 

range increase in the mean PM2.5 concentration over the previous 6 days was associated with a 7.6% 

decrease in nitroglycerin-mediated reactivity (95% CI: -12.8 to -2.1) and a non-significant 7.6% 

decrease in flow-mediated reactivity (95% CI: -14.9 to 0.4). Each interquartile range increase in the 

mean BC concentration over the previous 6 days was associated with a 12.6% decrease in flow 

mediated reactivity (95% CI: -21.7 to -2.4), but not nitroglycerin-mediated reactivity. PNC was 

associated with non-significant decreases in both measures. Effect estimates were larger for type 2 

diabetics than type 1 diabetics. 

Dales et al. (2007, 155743) conducted a panel study of 39 healthy volunteers who sat at 1 of 2 

bus stops in Ottawa, Canada for 2 h. FMD of the brachial artery was measured immediately after the 

bus stop exposure, but not before. They examined the association between FMD and 2-h mean 

PM2.5, PM1, NO2, and traffic density at the bus stop (vehicles/h). The authors report that each 

30 μg/m3

 increase in 2-h mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with a significant 0.48% 

reduction in FMD. This represented a 5% relative change in the maximum ability to dilate. 

This same research group conducted a panel study of 25 type 1 or 2 diabetic subjects living in 

Windsor, Ontario (aged 18-65 yr) (Liu et al., 2007, 156705). For each subject, personal PM10

concentrations were measured for 24 h before measurements of BAD, FMD, and other biomarkers. 

Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in personal 24-h mean PM10 concentration was associated with a 0.20% 

increase in end-diastolic FMD (95% CI: 0.04-0.36) and a 0.38% increase in end-systolic FMD (95% 

CI: 0.03-0.73), but decreases in end-diastolic basal diameter (-2.52 μm [95% CI: -8.93 to 3.89]) and 

end-systolic basal diameter (-9.02 μm [95% CI: -16.04 to -2.00]). 

Rundell et al. (2007, 156060) examined the change in FMD associated with high and low PM1

(0.02-1.0 μm) pollution in a panel of 16 young intercollegiate athletes (mean age = 20.5±2.4 yr) in 

Scranton, PA, who were non-smokers, non-asthmatics, and free of cardiovascular disease (Rundell et 

al., 2007, 156060). Each subject had FMD of the brachial artery measured 10-20 min before and 

20-30 min after each of two 30-min exercise tests (85-90% of maximal HR). The exercise tests were 

done outside either on an inner campus location free of automobile and truck traffic (low PM1; 

mean = 5,309±1,942 particles/cm3

) or on a soccer field adjacent to a major highway (high PM1; 

mean = 143,501±58,565 particles/cm3

). The order of the exercise test locations was chosen 

randomly. Using paired t-tests for analysis, they reported FMD was impaired after high PM1

exposure (pre-exercise: 6.8±3.58%; post-exercise: 0.30±2.74%), but not low PM1 exposure 

(pre-exercise: 6.6±4.04%; post-exercise: 4.89±4.42%). Further, they found basal brachial artery 

vasoconstriction (4%; pre-exercise BAD: 4.66±0.61 mm; post-exercise BAD: 4.47±0.63 mm) after 

the ‘high PM1’ exposure, but not the ‘low PM1’ exposure (-0.3% pre-exercise BAD: 4.66±0.63 mm; 

post-exercise BAD: 4.68±0.61 mm). 

In a prospective panel study of 22 type 2 diabetics (aged 61 ± 8 yr), Schneider et al. (2008, 

191985) examined the change in FMD, BAD, small artery elasticity index, larger artery elasticity 

index, and systemic vascular resistance associated with ambient PM2.5 as measured in Chapel Hill, 

NC (November 2004-December 2005). Using additive mixed models with a random subject effect, 

each 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 in the previous 24 h was associated with a decrease in FMD (-

17.3% [95% CI: -34.6 to 0.0]). Similarly, each 10 μg/m3

 increases in PM2.5 was associated with a 

decrease in small artery elasticity index lagged 1 day (-15.1% [95% CI: -29.3 to -0.9]), and lagged 3 

days (-25.4% [95% CI: -45.4 to -5.3]). Significant decreases in larger artery elasticity index and 

increases in systemic vascular resistance lagged 2 and 4 days were also reported. Further, effects 

were greatest among those with high BMI, high glycosylated hemoglobin A1c, low adiponectin, or 

the null GSTM1 polymorphism. However, high myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels were associated with 

greater PM2.5 effects on these measures. 

In a similar study done in Paris, France, Briet (2007, 093049) similarly reported that each 

increase in PM2.5 was associated with a -0.32% decrease in FMD (95% CI: -1.10 to 0.46). Significant 

FMD reductions were associated with increased SO2, NO2, and CO concentrations. Each 1 standard 

deviation increase (units not given) in PM2.5 in the previous 2 wk was associated with a 15.68% 

(95% CI: 7.11-23.30) increase in small artery reactive hyperemia. Each 1 standard deviation increase 

(units not given) in PM10 in the previous 2 wk was associated with a 15.91% (95% CI: 7.74-24.0) 

increase in small artery reactive hyperemia. 

December 2009 6-25 
Summary of Epidemiologic Study Findings for Vasomotor Function 

Vasomotor function has been evaluated using several metrics in the studies described above, 

including FMD, small artery elasticity index, larger artery index, systemic vascular resistance, BAD, 

end diastolic basal diameter, and nitroglycerin-mediated reactivity. The most common measures 

evaluated were BAD, a measure of the relatively static, anatomic/physiological baseline vasomotor 

function, and FMD, the dynamic measure of post- minus pre-occlusion BAD. Each study 

demonstrated an acute association between these measures of vascular function and ambient PM2.5

concentrations (Briet et al., 2007, 093049; Dales et al., 2007, 155743; Liu et al., 2007, 156705; 

O'Neill et al., 2005, 088423; Rundell et al., 2007, 156060; Schneider et al., 2008, 191985). An 

association with PM10 was observed in a study conducted in Windsor Ontario (Liu et al., 2007, 

156705). Three studies evaluated effects on diabetics (Liu et al., 2007, 156705; O'Neill et al., 2005, 

088423; Schneider et al., 2008, 191985), and three evaluated PM-related changes in vasomotor 

function on young healthy subjects (Briet et al., 2007, 093049; Dales et al., 2007, 155743; Rundell et 

al., 2007, 156060). Only two studies investigated multiple lags (lag days 0 to 6) (O'Neill et al., 2005, 

088423; Schneider et al., 2008, 191985), with one reporting the strongest association with the 6-day 

mean PM concentration (O'Neill et al., 2005, 088423), and the other with lag day 0. In other studies, 

responses were observed in as short as 30 min after the exposure (Rundell et al., 2007, 156060). The 

Rundell et al. (2007, 156060) findings are consistent with other studies showing an adverse response 

to ambient particulate pollution emitted from vehicular traffic (Adar et al., 2007, 098635; Adar et al., 

2007, 001458; Riediker et al., 2004, 056992; Riediker et al., 2004, 091261). Mean and upper 

percentile concentrations reported in these studies are found in Table 6-4. 

Table 6-4. PM concentrations reported in epidemiologic studies of vasomotor function. 

Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3) Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

PM2.5

Briet (2007, 093049) Paris, France NR NR 

Dales (2007, 155743) Ottawa, Canada (bus stops) Bus stop 1: 40 

Bus stop 2: 10 

NR 

O’Neill (2005, 088423) Boston, MA 11.5 Range: 1.1 - 20.0 

Schneider (2008, 191985) Chapel Hill, NC 13.6 NR 

PM10

Briet (2007, 093049) Paris, France NR NR 

Liu (2007, 156705) Windsor, Ontario 24h (personal): 25.5 5th to 95th: 9.8 – 133 

 

6.2.4.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Some evidence of a PM-induced increase in brachial artery vasoconstriction is presented in the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Brook et al. (2002, 024987) exposed 24 healthy adults 

to PM2.5 CAPs (150 μg/m3

) along with 120 ppb O3 for a period of 2 h. A significant decrease in BAD 

was observed immediately following exposure compared with filtered air control. No significant 

changes were observed in either endothelial-dependent or endothelial-independent vasomotor 

function, as determined by FMD and nitroglycerin-mediated dilatation, respectively. As described 

below, many more recent studies have evaluated the effects of various types of particles on 

vasomotor function following controlled exposures among healthy and health-compromised 

individuals. 

December 2009 6-26 
CAPs 

A subsequent analysis of the CAPs constituents from the Brook et al. (2002, 024987) study 

revealed a significant negative association between the post-exposure change in BAD and both the 

OC and EC concentrations of CAPs (Urch et al., 2004, 055629). However, the observed vasomotor 

effects cannot conclusively be attributed to PM2.5, as subjects were exposed concurrently to PM2.5

and O3. Mills et al. (2008, 156766) evaluated the effect of fine and UF CAPs on vasomotor function 

in a group of 12 males with stable coronary heart disease (average age 59 yr), as well as in 12 

healthy males (average age 54 yr). Relative to filtered air exposure, exposure to PM (average 

concentration 190 μg/m3

) did not significantly affect vascular function in either group. The authors 

attributed the lack of response in endothelial function to the composition of the CAPs used in the 

study, which were low in combustion-derived particles and consisted largely of sea salt. 

Urban Traffic Particles 

The effect of exposure to urban traffic particles on vasomotor function has recently been 

evaluated among a group of adult volunteers (Bräuner et al., 2008, 191966). In this study, healthy 

young adults (average age 27 yr) exposed for 24 h to urban traffic particles (average PM2.5

concentration 10.5 μg/m3

) were not observed to experience any change in microvascular function 

after 6 or 24 h of exposure relative to filtered air. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Mills et al. (2005, 095757) exposed 30 healthy men (20-38 yr) to both diluted DE (300 μg/m3) 

and filtered air control for 1 h with intermittent exercise. Half of the subjects underwent vascular 

assessments at 6-8 h following exposure to DE or filtered air, while in the other 15 subjects, vascular 

assessments were performed at 2-4 h post-exposure. DE attenuated forearm blood flow increase 

induced by bradykinin, acetylcholine (ACh), and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) infusion measured 2 

and 6 h after exposure. The authors postulated that the effect of DE on vasomotor function may be 

the result of reduced NO bioavailability in the vasculature stemming from oxidative stress induced 

by the nanoparticulate fraction of DE. A DE-induced decrease in the release of tPA was also 

observed at 6 h post-exposure, which may provide additional mechanistic evidence supporting the 

observed association between air pollution and MI. As presented in Tornqvist et al. (2007, 091279), 

changes in vascular function were also evaluated 24 h following exposure in 15 of the 30 subjects. 

Compared with filtered air, exposure to DE significantly reduced endothelium-dependent (ACh) 

vasodilation at 24 h post exposure. Bradykinin-induced vasodilation was marginally attenuated by 

DE, while no effects of diesel on endothelium-independent vasodilation (SNP) were observed. 

Although the release of tPA was not affected by DE 24 h following exposure, the authors suggest 

that the persistent association between diesel exposure and vasomotor function observed in this study 

provides supporting mechanistic evidence of increases in cardiovascular events occurring 24 h after 

a peak in PM concentration. 

To further investigate the effects of DE on vasomotor function, Mills et al. (2007, 091206) 

exposed 20 men (avg age 60 yr) with previous MI on two separate occasions to dilute DE 

(300 μg/m3

; mean particle size 54 nm) or filtered air for 1 h with intermittent exercise. Contrary to 

previous findings in younger, healthy adults (Mills et al., 2005, 095757), DE was found not to affect 

vasomotor function in peripheral resistance vessels at 6 h post-exposure as measured by 

endothelium-dependent (ACh) and endothelium-independent (SNP) vasodilation (forearm blood 

flow). However, vascular assessments were not performed at 2 h post-exposure in this study. The 

same laboratory evaluated the effect of exposure to DE with slightly higher particle concentrations 

(330 μg/m3

, particle number 1.26×106/cm3) on arterial stiffness among healthy adults (Lundbäck et 

al., 2009, 191967). Using radial artery pulse wave analysis, significant increases in augmentation 

pressure and augmentation index, as well as a significant reduction in the time to wave reflection 

were observed 10 and 20 min following exposure to DE relative to filtered air. This finding of a DEinduced reduction in arterial compliance provides additional evidence to suggest that exposure to 

particles may adversely affect vasomotor function. 

December 2009 6-27 
Peretz et al. (2008, 156854) exposed both healthy adults (n = 10) and adults with metabolic 

syndrome (n = 17) for 2 h to filtered air and two concentrations of diluted DE (PM2.5 concentrations 

of 100 and 200 μg/m3

). Compared with filtered air, DE at 200 μg/m3 elicited a statistically significant 

decrease in BAD (0.11 mm [95% CI: 0.02-0.18 mm]) immediately following exposure. A smaller 

DE-induced decrease in BAD (0.05 mm) was observed following exposure to 100 μg/m3. Although 

this latter decrease was not statistically significant, the average decrease was approximately 50% of 

the decrease at the higher particle concentration, which provides suggestive evidence of a linear 

concentration response in this range of concentrations. Exposure to DE was not shown to 

significantly affect endothelium-dependent FMD. Plasma levels of endothelin-1 (ET-1) were 

observed to increase relative to filtered air exposure approximately 1 h after exposure to 200 μg/m3

DE (p = 0.01). Samples collected following the 100 μg/m3

 exposure session were not assayed for 

ET-1. The results of this study provide evidence of an acute endothelial response and arterial 

vasoconstriction resulting from short-term exposure to DE. DE-induced changes in vasoconstriction 

and ET-1 release were more pronounced in the healthy subjects than in the subjects with metabolic 

syndrome. The authors postulated that subjects with metabolic syndrome may have stiffer vessels 

that are not as responsive to vasoconstrictor stimuli. In a study utilizing a similar exposure protocol, 

Lund et al. (2009, 180257) observed a significant increase in ET-1 in healthy adults following a 2-h 

exposure to DE with a particle concentration of 100 μg/m3

. In the previously described studies by Mills et al. (2005, 095757; 2007, 091206), Peretz et al. 

(2008, 156854), Tornqvist et al. (2007, 091279) and Lund et al. (2009, 180257), subjects were 

exposed to DE, which, in addition to PM, includes DE gases such as NOX, CO, and hydrocarbons. 

Therefore, it is possible that the observed effects may be due in part to exposure to non-particle 

components of DE. While the majority of these DE exposures have contained relatively high levels 

of gaseous emissions including NO2 concentrations >2 ppm, the concentrations of these gases were 

much lower in the Peretz et al. (2008, 156854) study (NO2 concentrations ≈ 20 ppb) which used a 

newer diesel engine (2002 Cummins B-series) operating under load at 75% of rated capacity. In this 

study, an apparent linear concentration response relationship was observed between increasing DE 

exposure and decreases in BAD at particle concentrations between 100 and 200 μg/m3

. 

Gasoline Emissions 

Rundell and Caviston (2008, 191986) exposed 15 college athletes to particles generated using 

a 2.5 hp gasoline engine, as well as a clean air control during 6-min periods of maximal exercise on a 

cycle ergometer. Subjects were exposed twice under each condition, with the two clean air exposures 

occurring first, separated by 3 days. The 2 exposures to gasoline emissions were also separated by 

3 days, with the first exposure occurring 7 days after the second clean air exposure. During 

exposures to gasoline emissions, average PNC of PM <1.0 μm were reported as 336,730 and 

396,200 particles/cm3

 during the first and second exposures, respectively, with an average CO 

concentration of 6.3 ppm. There were no differences observed in total work done (kJ) over the 6-min 

exercise periods between the two clean air exposures or between the clean air exposures and the first 

exposure to gasoline exhaust. However, the second gasoline exhaust exposure was demonstrated to 

significantly decrease work accumulated over the 6-min exercise period compared with either of the 

other exposure conditions. The results of this study provide limited evidence to suggest that a very 

short term exposure to gasoline emissions may affect exercise performance in healthy adults. The 

authors speculated that the observed effect of exposure on work accumulated during maximal 

exercise could be due to vasoconstriction and decrease in blood flow in the skeletal muscle 

microcirculation. However, the effect of exposure on vasoreactivity was not explicitly assessed. 

Model Particles 

The results of a recent study by Shah et al. (2008, 156970) provides evidence that exposure to 

UF EC particles (50 μg/m3

) without coexposure to organics, metals, or gaseous copollutants may 

alter vasomotor function in healthy adults. In this study, venous occlusion plethysmography was 

used to measure reactive hyperemia of the forearm prior to exposure, immediately following 

exposure, and 3.5 h, 21 h, and 45 h following a 2-h exposure with intermittent exercise. Peak 

December 2009 6-28 
forearm blood flow was observed to increase after exposure to filtered air, but not following 

exposure to UF EC at 3.5 h post-exposure (p = 0.03). 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Vasomotor Function 

Taken together, the two studies by Mills et al. (2005, 095757; 2007, 091206) along with the 

studies by Peretz et al. (2008, 156854), Lund et al. (2009, 180257) and Tornqvist et al. (2007, 

091279) suggest that, in healthy subjects, DE exposure inhibits endothelium-dependent and 

endothelium-independent vasodilation acutely (within 2-6 h), and that the suppression of 

endothelium-dependent vasodilation may remain up to 24 h following exposure. In patients with 

coronary artery disease, vasodilator function does not appear to be affected 6-8 h following 

exposure; however, vascular assessments were not performed at earlier time points. In addition, the 

use of medications in these patients may have blunted the response to PM. The findings of Shah 

et al. (2008, 156970) suggest that UFP carbon core may be sufficient to produce small changes in 

systemic vascular function, but the mechanisms remain obscure. The authors demonstrated a 

decrease in nitrate levels following exposure to UF EC; however, venous nitrite level, which more 

closely reflects NO production, was unchanged. Exposure to urban traffic particles was not 

demonstrated to alter vasomotor function among healthy adults. 

6.2.4.3. Toxicological Studies 

Vascular dysfunction is a function of altered production of vasoconstrictors and vasodilators. 

In the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), studies examining ET as an activator of 

vasoconstriction were limited to those conducted by Bouthiller et al. (1998, 087110) and Vincent 

et al. (2001, 021184), in which increased plasma ET levels were observed in rats exposed to high 

concentrations (40 or 5 mg/m3) of resuspended Ottawa (EHC-93) or diesel PM, respectively. The 

authors postulated that PM altered vasoconstriction via elevated ET. No studies were cited in the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) that looked at direct measures of vasoreactivity. 

As this area is newly emerging, some studies are included below that utilize IT exposure or 

high concentrations; the studies that exposed vessels directly to particles ex vivo are included in 

Annex D only, as their relevance is questionable. There is clearly a need for more toxicological 

research examining the relationship between vascular measurements and PM exposures using 

ambient particles at lower concentrations. Furthermore, no new studies have advanced the 

knowledge in regards to ET as a biomarker of PM-induced vasoconstriction since the last PM 

review. 

CAPs 

SD rats were exposed to PM2.5 CAPs (5 h/day×3 days; daily mean mass concentration 

73.5-733 μg/m3

; Boston, MA; 3/1997-6/1998) then the pulmonary arterial vasculature was evaluated 

(Batalha et al., 2002, 088109). Some animals were repeatedly exposed to SO2 (5 h/day×5 days/wk×6 

wk) to induce chronic bronchitis. Morphometric measurements indicated that the pulmonary artery 

lumen-to-wall (L/W) ratio (an indicator of arterial narrowing) was decreased for the both CAPs 

groups compared to the normal/air group. Furthermore, decreased L/W ratio in CAPs-exposed 

animals (regardless of pre-treatment) was significantly associated with particle mass and 

composition when the mean concentrations from the second and third exposure days were used in a 

univariate linear regression. These results indicate a change in vascular tone following acute 

exposure to PM. Univariate analyses were conducted that regressed log L/W on differential exposure 

concentrations of tracer elements determined using principal components analysis (Batalha et al., 

2002, 088109). For CAPs exposure (regardless of pretreatment), CAPs mass, Si, Pb, SO4

2–, EC, and 

OC were all negatively correlated with L/W ratio. Si and SO4

2– were negatively correlated with L/W 

ratio in normal rats and Si and OC were negatively correlated with L/W ratio in bronchitic rats. 

When a multivariate analysis was conducted using normal and bronchitic animals, only the 

association with Si remained significant. V was not associated with L/W ratio in any analysis. 

December 2009 6-29 
Diesel Exhaust 

The venous circulation plays a prominent role in heart failure exacerbation (Gehlbach and 

Geppert, 2004, 155784). In heart failure, patients are often volume overloaded and are subsequently 

placed on diuretics to alleviate symptoms of pulmonary congestion and chest pain. Knuckles et al. 

(2008, 191987) hypothesized that if veins constrict in a manner similar to arteries, then patients with 

severe CHF may have temporary shunting of fluid to the pulmonary circulation, which may elicit 

signs and symptoms of CHF. Using mesenteric vessels from mice (C57BL/6) exposed to DE 

(350 μg/m3

×4 h; MMD 100 nm, CMD 80 nm), the authors reported a significant enhancement of 

ET-1-induced vasoconstriction in veins with much weaker responses in arteries. In an ex vivo 

experiment, venous constriction was blocked by the arginine analog, L-NAME, which eliminates the 

feedback NOS activation via endothelial ETB receptors; this is indicative of impaired or uncoupled 

eNOS. The authors hypothesized that volatile organic compounds might be responsible these effects, 

but no significant effects were observed for acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, acetone, hexadecane, or 

pristane. 

Model Particles 

A study by Nurkiewicz et al. (2008, 156816) compared the arteriole dilation responses in the 

spinotrapezius muscle with inhalation exposure to fine or UF TiO2 (1 μm and 21 nm, respectively; 

mean mass concentration 3-16 and 1.5-12 mg/m3

, respectively) for durations of 4-12 h in SD rats. 

Both size fractions of TiO2 induced impaired dilation with a NO-dependent Ca2+ ionophore in a 

dose-dependent manner. When fine and UF TiO2 were compared at similar mass doses, the systemic 

microvascular dysfunction was greater with the UFPs. Furthermore, three exposures of differing 

durations and concentrations that produced equal calculated pulmonary deposition of UF TiO2

(30 μg) demonstrated similar dilation responses, indicating that impairment is dependent upon the 

time×concentration product. No effects on dilation were observed with a dose of 4 μg UF TiO2

(1.5 mg/m3

 for 4 h) or 8 μg fine TiO2 (3 mg/m3 for 4 h). 

In a follow-up study, Nurkiewicz et al. (2009, 191961) examined the effect of pulmonary fine 

and UF TiO2 exposure on endogenous microvasculature NO production in SD rats. The exposure 

concentrations and durations were selected to produce ~50% impairment of microvascular reactivity 

(67 and 10 μg for fine1 and UFF

2

 TiO2, respectively). Similar to the study above (Nurkiewicz et al., 

2008, 156816), impaired endothelium-dependent arteriolar dilation was observed 24 h post-exposure 

with infusion of a Ca2+ ionophore. Earlier studies that used residual oil fly ash (ROFA) or TiO2 via 

IT instillation reported similar findings, regardless of particle type (Nurkiewicz et al., 2004, 087968; 

Nurkiewicz et al., 2006, 088611). There was no difference in arteriolar dilation between sham and 

TiO2 exposed groups with direct administration of the NO donor SNP to the exterior arteriolar wall 

and this response was consistent with that observed following ROFA administered intratracheally 

(Nurkiewicz et al., 2004, 087968). The lack of response to SNP indicates that vascular smooth 

muscle sensitivity to NO is not altered after particle exposure. The amount of ROS in the 

microvascular wall was increased following exposure to either TiO2 size. Local ROS may consume 

endothelial-derived NO and generate peroxynitrite radicals, as microvascular nitrotyrosine (NT) 

formation (the end product of peroxynitrite reactions) was demonstrated after TiO2 exposure. NO 

production was compromised in a dose-dependent manner following particle exposure (8-90 μg for 

fine and 4-38 μg for UF TiO2), and was partially restored with agents for radical scavenging or 

enzyme inhibition for NADPH oxidase and MPO. 

Intratracheal Instillation 

Nurkiewicz et al. (2004, 087968; 2006, 088611) have shown impairment of 

endothelium-dependent dilation in the systemic microvasculature of SD rats following ROFA or 

TiO2 exposure (0.1 or 0.25 mg/rat). NO-independent arteriolar dilation was also impaired by ROFA, 

 

1

 Produced by a 300-min exposure to 16 mg/m3 of fine TiO2

2

 Produced by a 240-min exposure to 6 mg/m3 of ultrafine TiO2

December 2009 6-30 
but arteriole adrenergic sensitivity to phenylephrine (PHE) was not affected by 0.25 mg ROFA, 

indicating that contractile activity was unchanged. In addition, increased venular leukocyte rolling 

and adhesion in the spinotrapezius muscle was also observed following ROFA exposure (Nurkiewicz 

et al., 2004, 087968). 

Further characterization of the leukocyte adherence and “rolling” effects for both ROFA and 

TiO2 were indicative of an activated endothelium (Nurkiewicz et al., 2006, 088611). Vascular 

deposition of MPO was observed in the spinotrapezius muscle 24 h post-exposure and the authors 

suggested that the adherent leukocytes may have deposited the MPO to be taken up by endothelial 

cells (Nurkiewicz et al., 2006, 088611). However, this is in contrast to another study (Cozzi et al., 

2006, 091380) that did not find changes in blood neutrophil MPO release in ICR mice exposed to 

UF PM (100 μg from Chapel Hill, NC; assessed 24 h post-exposure), although this finding may be a 

reflection of differing protocols. Increased oxidative stress in the arteriolar wall was also reported 

with exposure to 0.25 mg ROFA. TiO2 and ROFA induced varying degrees of pulmonary 

inflammation in these animals, but elicited very similar vascular effects, indicating that the vascular 

responses may be due to PM presence in the lung rather than its physiochemical properties or 

intrinsic pulmonary toxicity. 

PM10

Tamagawa et al. (2008, 191988) reported reduced ACh-stimulated relaxation in carotid arteries 

from rabbits (New Zealand White) exposed to PM10 (EHC-93) via intrapharyngeal instillation for 5 

days or 4 wk (total doses 8 and 16 mg/kg, respectively). Endothelium-dependent NO-mediated 

vasorelaxation correlated with increased serum IL-6 levels in the acute study and during wk 1 and 2 

of the 4-wk exposure, which may indicate a role for systemic inflammation in the response. Maximal 

SNP-induced dilation was not affected by PM exposure, indicating that the dilatory response was not 

acting via endothelium-independent NO-mediated mechanisms. This finding is consistent with that 

by Nurkiewicz et al. (2004, 087968) and suggests that the arteriolar smooth muscle is not involved in 

the PM-impaired dilatation response. 

Vasoreactivity of aortic rings was measured in SH rats following exposure to 10 mg/kg PM10

(EHC-93), with an increase in ACh-induced vasorelaxation observed (Bagate et al., 2004, 087945). 

This endothelium-dependent response was greatest at 4 h and was still present at 24 h. Similarly, 

vasorelaxation induced by SNP 4-h post-PM exposure was enhanced. The vasorelaxation response 

was attenuated after denudation of the aortic rings, suggesting that the effect was endothelium 

dependent. The findings of enhanced dilation with PM exposure contrast with those reported by 

Nurkiewicz et al. (2004, 087968; 2006, 088611), Tamagawa et al. (2008, 191988), and Cozzi et al. 

(2006, 091380) and may be attributable to differences in PM type, animal species, or disease models. 

The authors attribute their findings to the SH rat as a well-documented model of sympathetic 

hyperactivity (increased affinity of aortic smooth muscle α-adrenergic receptors) that demonstrates 

upregulation of NO formation and/or release (Safar et al., 2001, 156068). No change in 

vasoconstriction was observed with PM with PHE or potassium chloride. 

Consistent with the impaired vasodilatory responses observed in the microvasculature and 

aortic rings following PM exposure, Courtois et al. (2008, 156369) demonstrated less relaxation to 

ACh in intrapulmonary arteries of Wistar rats exposed to a high dose (5 mg) of ambient PM 

(SRM1648). This response was only observed 12 h after PM exposure and not at shorter (6 h) or 

longer (24 or 72 h) time points. Fine TiO2 did not alter ACh-induced relaxation. 

Ultrafine PM 

Cozzi et al. (2006, 091380) used ICR mice to examine the effects of UF PM exposure (100 μg 

collected from Chapel Hill, NC) on vascular reactivity following PM exposure and 

ischemia/reperfusion injury. Aortic rings were evaluated for their contractile and dilatory responses 

24 h post-exposure and following the ischemia/reperfusion protocol. Maximum ACh-induced 

relaxation was impaired in UF PM-exposed vessels, as well as a rightward shift in sensitivity to 

ACh. There was no difference in constriction to PHE between aortic rings from control and 

PM-exposed mice. The reduced ACh-induced relaxation may be important for reperfusion of critical 

vascular beds following occlusion, potentially leading to a greater area of infarction (as in this 

study). A new study in dogs supports the results observed in the above study and provides evidence 

of reduced myocardial blood flow following PM exposure (Bartoli et al., 2009, 179904), and is 

discussed in more detail in Section 6.2.3.3. 

December 2009 6-31 
Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Vasoreactivity 

The toxicological findings with respect to vascular reactivity are generally in agreement and 

demonstrate impaired dilation following PM exposure that is likely endothelium dependent. These 

effects have been demonstrated in varying vessels (right spinotrapezius muscle, carotid arteries, and 

aortic rings) and in response to different PM types (ROFA, TiO2, EHC-93, UF ambient PM). The 

work by Nurkiewicz et al. (2004, 087968; 2006, 088611; 2008, 156816; 2009, 191961) supports a 

role for increased ROS and RNS production in the microvascular wall that leads to altered NO 

bioavailability and dysfunction following particle exposure. Only one study showed enhanced 

dilation with PM exposure, but the authors attributed the conflicting results to the SH rat. No 

constriction changes in response to PHE were observed following PM exposure. The responses 

observed in the pulmonary circulation after PM exposure include pulmonary vasoconstriction, 

decreased L/W ratio, and impaired vasodilation in intrapulmonary arteries. These results are 

consistent and indicate altered vascular tone. Enhancement of vasoconstriction in mesenteric veins 

following DE is the first study of its kind to report on venous circulatory effects. 

Endothelin 

In addition to studies that look at vascular reactivity, three recent studies have examined 

plasma ET levels following exposure to vehicle emissions and a few studies examined the mRNA 

expression of ET-1 and ET receptors in the hearts of rodents following PM exposure. 

CAPs 

The upregulation of mRNA expressions of ET-1 and the ETA receptor in WKY rats exposed to 

CAPs (1 or 4 days; 4.5 h/day; mean mass concentration range 1,000-1,900 μg/m3; Yokohoma City, 

Japan) was correlated with increasing PM cumulative mass collected on chamber filters (Ito et al., 

2008, 096823). Furthermore, relative cardiac mRNA expressions of ET-1 and ETA receptor were 

significantly correlated with CYP1B1 and HO-1 expression, indicating a possible relationship 

between ET-1 metabolism and oxidative stress. 

Another plasma mediator of vasomotor tone is asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), which 

is an endogenous inhibitor of NOS that is associated with impaired vascular function and increased 

cardiovascular events. Dvonch et al. (2004, 055741) assessed levels of ADMA in Brown Norway 

rats 24 h following a 3-day PM2.5 CAPs exposure in southwest Detroit (8 h/day; July 2002). CAPs 

(mean mass concentration 354 μg/m3) resulted in increased plasma ADMA compared to air controls, 

although the levels reported were well below the 2 μM range associated with increased CVD risk in 

humans in chronic studies. Therefore, the preliminary results identified a new potential biomarker of 

vascular tone that had not previously been used in air pollution toxicological studies. 

Traffic-Related Particles 

A study of old rats (21 mo; F344) exposed to on-road highway aerosols (number concentration 

range 0.95-3.13×105

 particles/cm3; Interstate 90 between Rochester and Buffalo, NY) for 6 h 

demonstrated decreased plasma ET-2 (18 h post-exposure) and unchanged levels of ET-1 and ET-3 

(Elder et al., 2004, 087354). 

Gasoline Exhaust 

In contrast to the study above, circulating levels of ET-1 (measured 18 h post-exposure) were 

elevated in animals exposed to gasoline exhaust and filtration of particles did not reduce this effect 

(study details in Section 6.2.2.2) (Campen et al., 2006, 096879). The results of Campen et al. (2006, 

096879) are consistent with those observed by Bouthillier et al. (1998, 087110) following a very 

high exposure to EHC-93, but it is difficult to attribute the effects to PM alone, as Campen et al. 

(2006, 096879) showed that the gaseous components of the gasoline mixture were required for the 

ET-1 increase. 

Aorta ET-1 mRNA expression was increased with a 7-day gasoline exhaust exposure (60 

μg/m3

) in ApoE-/- mice, but was not changed following a single-day exposure (Lund et al., 2009, 

180257). The expression and activity of MMP-2 and -9 and oxidative stress in aortas of exposed 

December 2009 6-32 
mice were also elevated. The ET-1 and MMP-9 mRNA expressions were attenuated with the addition 

of an ETA receptor antagonist (but not a radical scavenger), indicating that ET-1 may mediate the 

expression of MMP-9 through the ETA receptor. 

Model Particles 

Another study examined the effects of UF carbon particles (mass concentration 172 μg/m3; 

mean number concentration 9.0×106

 particles/cm3) and there was no difference in ET-1, ETA or ETB

receptor mRNA expression between air- and particle-exposed SH rats 1 or 3 days post-exposure 

(Upadhyay et al., 2008, 159345). In lung homogenates, ET-1, ETA and ETB receptor mRNA 

expressions were elevated 3 days after exposure to UF carbon particles (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 

159345). 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Endothelin 

The ET responses were mixed, with one study demonstrating ET-1 increases after exposure to 

gasoline emissions that were particle independent and another reported decreased ET-2, but no 

change in ET-1 or ET-3 with on-road highway exposure. Elevated levels of ET-1 and ETA receptor 

mRNA expression were noted in hearts of rats exposed to CAPs, but not in rats exposed to UF 

carbon particles. However, ET-1, ETA and ETB receptor mRNA expressions were increased in lung 

homogenates of rats following UF carbon exposure. The ETA receptor was found to be involved in 

the ET-1 and MMP-9 responses in the aortas of mice exposed to gasoline exhaust. A relatively novel 

marker, ADMA, was used to evaluate vasomotor tone in rats and was found to be elevated following 

exposure to CAPs, although the results are preliminary and have not been confirmed. 

6.2.5. Blood Pressure 

One of the potential outcomes of air pollution-mediated alterations in vascular tone is its 

impact on variable BP or hypertension. BP is tightly regulated by autonomic (central and local), 

cardiac, renal, and regional vascular homeostatic mechanisms with changes in arterial tone being 

countered by changes in cardiac contractility, HR, or fluid volume. The evidence of PM-induced 

changes in BP presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) is limited and 

inconsistent. Recent epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and toxicological studies have 

similarly reported conflicting results regarding the effect of PM on BP. However, the majority of 

these studies have evaluated changes in BP at some point following exposure to PM. Significant 

increases in DBP have been observed in controlled human exposure studies that evaluated BP during 

exposure (concomitant exposure to CAPs and O3). In addition, evidence from toxicological studies 

suggests that the effect of PM on BP may be modified by health status, as PM-induced increases in 

BP have been more consistently observed in SH rats. 

6.2.5.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Increased BP was associated with PM concentration in two of three studies reviewed in the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Increases in left ventricular BP (systolic and diastolic) 

are well established risk factors for cardiovascular mortality/morbidity (Welin et al., 1993, 156151). 

Changes in HR and BP both reflect changes in autonomic tone, and have been examined following 

short-term increases in PM pollution in several recent studies. 

Ibald-Mulli et al. (2004, 087415) examined associations between BP and ambient PM2.5

concentrations, UFP counts, and ACP counts in a multicity panel study (Amsterdam, the 

Netherlands; Helsinki, Finland; Erfurt, Germany) of 131 adults with coronary heart disease. 

Although based on the same ULTRA Study (Timonen et al., 2006, 088747) with study methods as 

described previously in Section 6.2.1.1, the study period was different. They investigated changes in 

BP (SBP and DBP) associated with mean PM2.5, UFP, and ACP concentration/counts (lag days 0, 1, 

and 2, as well as the 5-day mean) in each city and then generated a pooled estimate across the cities. 

The median PM2.5 concentration for each city is provided in Table 6-5. Pooled analyses across all 3 

cities showed small, but statistically significant decreases in SBP and DBP associated with various 

single day lagged concentrations/counts of each particulate pollutant. Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in the 

December 2009 6-33 
mean PM2.5 concentration over the previous 5 days was associated with a 0.36 mmHg decrease in 

SBP (95% CI: -0.99 to 0.27) and a 0.39 mmHg decrease in DBP (95% CI: -0.75 to -0.03). Each 

10,000 particles/cm3

 increase in UFP was associated with a 0.72 mmHg decrease in SBP (95% 

CI: -1.92 to 0.49), and a 0.70 mmHg decrease in DBP (95% CI: -1.38 to -0.02). Each 

1,000 particles/cm3 increase in 5-day avg ACP was associated with a 1.11 mmHg decrease in SBP 

(95% CI: -2.12 to -0.09) and a 0.95 mmHg decrease in DBP (95% CI: -1.53 to -0.37). The authors 

concluded that these findings do not support previous findings of an increase in BP associated with 

increases in particulate pollutant concentrations. 

Single-city studies examining the association between BP and particulate air pollution have 

been done in several U.S. and Canadian cities. Dales et al. (2007, 155743) conducted a panel study 

of 39 healthy volunteers who sat outside at two different bus stops for 2-h in Ottawa, Canada. The 

median PM2.5 concentrations measured at the bus stops during each 2-h exposure session were 40 

and 10 μg/m3. Post-exposure SBP and DBP were not associated with the mean PM2.5 concentration 

measured at the bus stops during the 2-h exposure session. The change in BP from pre- to 

post-exposure was not evaluated, as health measurements were only made after the 2-h exposure 

sessions. 

Jansen et al. (2005, 082236) studied changes in BP among 16 older subjects (aged 60-86 yr) 

with asthma or COPD in Seattle, Washington, associated with indoor, outdoor, and personal PM10, PM2.5, and BC concentrations on 12 consecutive days. The study authors reported that no 

associations were observed between BP and daily mean PM10, PM2.5, or BC concentrations. 

Zanobetti et al. (2004, 087489) examined the association between BP (SBP, DBP, and mean 

arterial BP) and mean PM2.5 concentrations in the previous 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h in 62 elderly, 

cardiac rehabilitation patients in Boston, MA (Zanobetti et al., 2004, 087489). Each 10.4 μg/m3

increase in mean PM2.5 concentration in the previous 120 h was associated with significant increases 

in resting DBP (2.82 mmHg [95% CI: 1.26-4.41]), SBP (2.68 mmHg [95% CI: 0.04-5.38]), and 

mean arterial BP (2.76 mmHg [95% CI: 1.07-4.48]). 

Mar et al. (2005, 087566) studied this same PM2.5-BP association in 88 subjects aged >57 yr in 

Seattle, WA. Among healthy subjects taking medications (bronchodilators, inhaled corticosteroids, 

anti-hypertensives, β-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and/or cardiac glycosides), each 10 μg/m3

increase in mean outdoor PM2.5 concentration on the same day as the BP measurement was made 

was associated with small increases in SBP and DBP. However, among all subjects, each 10 μg/m3

increase in same day mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with non-significant decreases in SBP 

(-0.81 mmHg [95% CI: -2.34 to 0.73]) and DBP (-0.46 mmHg [95% CI: -1.49 to 0.57]). 

As described earlier, Ebelt et al. (2005, 056907) conducted a repeated measures panel study of 

16 patients with COPD in the summer of 1998 in Vancouver, British Columbia to evaluate the 

relative impact of ambient and non-ambient exposures to PM2.5, PM10, and PM10-2.5 on multiple 

health outcomes including ectopy and BP. Using the same analytic methods, pollutant 

concentrations, and lags, they reported decreased SBP associated with same day ambient exposures 

to each PM size fraction. 

Two similar studies were done in Incheon, South Korea (Choi et al., 2007, 093196) and Taipei, 

Taiwan (Chuang et al., 2005, 156356). Choi et al. (2007, 093196) reported significantly increased 

SBP and DBP associated with the mean PM10 concentration over the same and previous 2 days in the 

warm season only (July to September). Chuang et al. (2005, 156356) reported significant increases 

in SBP and DBP associated with the mean UFP count (0.01-0.1 μm particles) 1-3 h before the BP 

measurement. 

Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Blood Pressure 

These studies (Choi et al., 2007, 093196; Chuang et al., 2005, 156356; Dales et al., 2007, 

155743; Ibald-Mulli et al., 2004, 087415; Mar et al., 2005, 087566; Zanobetti et al., 2004, 087489) 

are not entirely consistent with regard to their BP-PM associations. Most have reported increases in 

SBP and DBP associated with increases in either PM2.5, PM10, or UFP (Choi et al., 2007, 093196; 

Chuang et al., 2005, 156356; Mar et al., 2005, 087566; Zanobetti et al., 2004, 087489). However, 

two studies reported small decreases in BP associated with multiple particulate pollutants (IbaldMulli et al., 2004, 087415; Mar et al., 2005, 087566), Dales et al. (2007, 155743) reported no change 

in BP associated with a 2-h exposure to bus stop PM2.5 and Jansen at al. (2005, 082236) reported null 

findings among older adults in Seattle, WA. Exposure lags ranging from 1-3 h (Chuang et al., 2005, 

December 2009 6-34 
156356), to the same day(Ebelt et al., 2005, 056907; Mar et al., 2005, 087566), to the mean across 

the previous 5 days (Zanobetti et al., 2004, 087489) were reported as having the strongest 

associations with BP. Mean and upper percentile concentrations for PM from these studies are 

presented in Table 6-5. 

Table 6-5. Mean PM concentrations reported in epidemiologic studies of blood pressure. 

Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3) Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

PM2.5

Dales (2007, 155743) Ottawa, Canada (bus stops) Bus stop 1: 40 

Bus stop 2: 10 

NR 

Ebelt (2005, 056907) Vancouver, Canada 

Ambient (measured): 11.4 

Personal (estimated): 7.9 

Personal (measured): 18.5 

Ambient (measured) range: 

4.2-28.7 

Personal (estimated) range: 

0.9-21.3 

Personal (measured) range: 

2.2-90.9 

Amsterdam, Netherlands 20 

50th: 16.9 

75th: 23.9 

Max: 82.2 

Erfurt, Germany 23.1 

50th: 16.3 

75th: 27.4 

Max: 118.1 

Ibald-Mulli (2004, 087415) 

Helsinki, Finland 12.7 

50th: 10.6 

75th: 16 

Max: 39.8 

Jansen (2005, 082236) Seattle, WA 10.47 NR 

Mar (2005, 087566) Seattle, WA 

Healthy: Personal- 9.3 

Indoor- 7.4 

Outdoor- 9 

CVD: Personal- 10.8 Indoor- 9.5 

Outdoor- 12.6 

COPD: Personal- 10.5 

Indoor- 8.5 

Outdoor- 9.2 

NR 

Zanobetti (2004, 087489) Boston, MA Median: 8.8 90th: 17.6 

PM10-2.5

Ebelt (2005, 056907) Vancouver, Canada Ambient (calculated): 5.6 

Personal (estimated): 2.4 

Ambient (calculated) range: -1.2 to 

11.9 

Personal (estimated) range: -0.4 to 

7.2 

PM10

Choi (2007, 093196) Incheon, South Korea July-Sept: 42.1 

Oct.-Dec: 53.5 

July-Sept.: 75%: 52.2 

Max: 136.7 

Oct.-Dec.: 75%: 64.5 

Max: 209.6 

December 2009 6-35 
Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3

) Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

Chuang (2005, 156356) Taipei, Taiwan 54.1 Range: 10.3-139.8 

Ebelt (2005, 056907) Vancouver, Canada Ambient (calculated): 17 

Personal (estimated): 10.3 

Ambient (calculated) range: 7-36 

Personal (estimated) range: 

1.5-23.8 

Jansen (2005, 082236) Seattle, WA 13.47 NR 

Mar (2005, 087566) Seattle, Washington 

Healthy: 14.5 

CVD: 18 

COPD: 14.3 

NR 

 

Right Ventricular Pressure 

Several recent studies, summarized in the section on hospital admissions and emergency 

department (ED) visits for CVD causes, have reported increased risk of hospital admissions for CHF 

associated with increased PM concentration on the same day (Wellenius et al., 2005, 087483; 2006, 

088748). As a possible mechanism for these reported associations, Rich et al. (2008, 156910) 

hypothesized that these hospital admissions for decompensation of heart failure would be preceded 

by more subtle increases in pulmonary arterial (PA) and right ventricular (RV) diastolic pressures. 

They used passively monitored PA and RV pressures on 5,807 person-days, among 11 subjects 

implanted with the Chronicle Implantable Hemodynamic Monitor [Medtronic, Inc. Medtronic, 

MN]). Using a two-stage modeling process, they examined the change in daily mean right heart 

pressures associated with mean PM2.5 concentration on the same and previous 6 days. Each 

11.62 μg/m3 increase in same day mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with small, but 

statistically significant increases in estimated PA diastolic pressure (0.19 mmHg [95% CI: 0.05-

0.33]) and RV diastolic pressure (0.23 mmHg [95% CI: 0.11-0.34]). These effects were not 

attenuated when controlling for all lags simultaneously. Thus, PM induced right heart pressure 

increases may mark another potential pathway between PM exposure and incidence of 

cardiovascular events, but further studies on this same hypothesis are needed for confirmation. 

Wellenius et al. (2007, 092830) conducted a panel study of 28 subjects living in the greater 

Boston metropolitan area, each with chronic stable heart failure and impaired systolic function. They 

hypothesized that circulating levels of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), measured in whole blood at 

0, 6, and 12 wk, were associated with acute changes in ambient air pollution, as a possible 

mechanistic explanation for the observed association between hospital admissions for CHF and 

ambient PM concentration (Wellenius et al., 2005, 087483; 2006, 088748). During the study, the 

mean PM2.5 concentration was 10.9 μg/m3

, while the mean BC concentration was 0.73 μg/m3. Using 

linear mixed models, they reported no association between any pollutant (PM2.5, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, 

and BC) and BNP at any lag (e.g., each 10 μg/m3

 increase in mean daily PM2.5 concentration [0.8% 

increase in BNP (95% CI: -16.4 to 21.5)]) (Wellenius et al., 2007, 092830). However, BNP the active 

peptide has a very short half-life and might not be the best biomarker for such a study. Thus the 

absence of a correlation between PM and BNP may not suggest that PM does not have an impact on 

RV or LV function in individuals with impaired cardiac mechanics. 

6.2.5.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Only one controlled human exposure study cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) reported any PM-induced changes in BP. Gong et al. (2003, 042106) found that exposure to 

PM2.5 (174 μg/m3

) decreased SBP in asthmatics, but increased SBP in healthy subjects. Among 

healthy adults, BP was not affected following 2-h exposures to 200 μg/m3

 diesel PM (Nightingale et 

al., 2000, 011659), 150 μg/m3

 PM2.5 CAPs with 120 ppb O3 (Brook et al., 2002, 024987), or 

10 μg/m3

 UF carbon particles (Frampton, 2001, 019051). The effect of PM on BP has been further 

investigated in several recent controlled human exposure studies, which are described below. 

December 2009 6-36 
CAPs 

One recent study demonstrated a significant increase (9.3%) in DBP among healthy adults 

immediately prior to the end of a 2-h exposure to 150 μg/m3

 PM2.5 CAPs in combination with 

120 ppb O3 (Urch et al., 2005, 081080). The authors also found that the magnitude of change in BP 

was significantly associated with PM2.5 carbon content, but not total PM2.5 mass. It was postulated 

that the disparity between these findings and those of a similar study by the same group (Brook et 

al., 2002, 024987) could be due to differences in experimental methods. The Brook et al. (2002, 

024987) study measured post-exposure BP approximately 10 min following exposure, while the 

study by Urch et al. (2005, 081080) measured BP during exposure. In a follow up study that 

evaluated changes in BP during a 2-h exposure to PM2.5 CAPs, Fakhri et al. (2009, 191914) reported 

a significant increase in DBP with exposure to CAPs with, but not without, coexposure to O3. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Several recent studies have assessed BP changes following a 1-h exposure to DE with a 

particle concentration of 300 μg/m3

. Mills et al. (2005, 095757) evaluated changes in BP 2 h 

following exposure to DE and found a 6 mmHg increase in DBP of marginal statistical significance 

(p = 0.08) compared to filtered air control. In this same group of subjects, Tornqvist et al. (2007, 

091279) did not observe any such changes in BP 24 h following DE exposure. At lower particle 

concentrations in diluted DE (100-200 μg/m3

 PM2.5), Peretz et al. (2008, 156854) did not observe 

any changes in systolic or DBP in either healthy adults or adults with metabolic syndrome 

immediately following a 2-h exposure. Further, although Lundback et al. (2009, 191967) reported an 

increase in arterial stiffness following exposure to DE with a particle concentration of 330 μg/m3

among healthy young adults, no changes in systolic or diastolic BP were observed during or 

following exposure relative to filtered air. 

Model Particles 

Routledge et al. (2006, 088674) did not observe any changes in BP among healthy older adults 

and older adults with stable angina following a 1-h exposure to UF EC (50 μg/m3), with or without 

coexposure to 200 ppb SO2. Similarly, neither Shah et al. (2008, 156970), nor Beckett et al. (2005, 

156261) reported any changes in BP among healthy adults following exposure to UF EC (50 μg/m3

) 

or ZnO (500 μg/m3 fine and ultrafine), respectively. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for BP 

The findings of these new studies do not provide convincing evidence of an association 

between PM exposure and an increase in BP; however, they do suggest that there is a need for 

additional investigations of PM-induced changes in BP at various time points following exposure. 

6.2.5.3. Toxicological Studies 

In healthy animal models, little evidence exists for significant BP changes following inhalation 

exposure to environmentally-relevant concentrations of PM. Only one animal toxicological study is 

mentioned in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) that examined BP with PM exposure 

and no effect was observed (Vincent et al., 2001, 021184). 

CAPs 

In a recent study of dogs, exposure to PM2.5 CAPs from Boston (mean mass concentration 

358.1 μg/m3

; mass concentration 94.1-1557 μg/m3) for 5 h resulted in increased SBP (2.7 mmHg), 

DBP (4.1 mmHg), mean arterial pressure (3.7 mmHg), and lowered pulse pressure (1.7 mmHg) 

when measured upstream of the femoral artery (Bartoli et al., 2009, 156256). Administration of an 

December 2009 6-37 
α-adrenergic antagonist (prazosin) prior to CAPs attenuated the BP responses. These findings 

indicate that CAPs exposure may have activated α-adrenergic receptors and increased peripheral 

vascular resistance. Baroreflex sensitivity was measured immediately before and after exposure 

during a transient elevation of arterial pressure that was induced by PHE; increased baroreflex 

sensitivity was observed in subgroup of dogs exposed to CAPs, which is consistent with an 

upregulation of vagal reflexes. 

Chang et al. (2004, 055637) noted slight increases in SH rat BP (5-10 mmHg) when exposed 

to PM2.5 CAPs (mean mass concentration 202 μg/m3

) during spring months. However, during 

summer months, when the CAPs exposure level was less (140 μg/m3

), this effect was not observed. 

It was unclear, therefore, whether the effects were seasonal or dose-related. In a preliminary study of 

SH rats exposed to CAPs during a dust storm event, mean BP was elevated the third and fourth hour 

of a 6-h exposure, although interpretation of this finding is difficult due to few animals in the 

exposure group (n = 2) (Chang et al., 2007, 155719). In another study, the increased change in mean 

BP measured using the tail cuff method following CAPs exposure weakly correlated with PM mass 

accumulated on chamber filters over the entire exposure duration (Section 6.2.4.3 for details) (Ito et 

al., 2008, 096823). Furthermore, ETA receptor mRNA expression in cardiac tissue was positively 

correlated with the change in mean BP. 

Model Particles 

In WKY rats, 24-h exposure to UF carbon particles (mass concentration 180 μg/m3; mean 

number concentration 1.6×107

 particles/cm3) did not alter mean BP during exposure or the recovery 

periods (Harder et al., 2005, 087371). SH rats exposed to UF carbon particles for 24 h (mass 

concentration 172 μg/m3; mean number concentration (9.0×106 particles/cm3) resulted in elevated 

mean BP (by 6 mmHg) on the first and second days of recovery following exposure that was 

attributable to increases in both SBP and DBP (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 159345). Increased plasma 

renin concentrations were observed in CB-exposed rats on the first and second days of recovery, 

although renin activity and angiotensin (Ang) I and II concentrations were not affected by particle 

exposure. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Blood Pressure 

Limited toxicological evidence provides support for elevated BP in dogs or compromised rats 

with CAPs, UF CAPs, CAPs during a dust storm event, or UF carbon particle exposure. However, 

most of the CAPs studies were conducted outside of the U.S. 

6.2.6. Cardiac Contractility 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) did not include any toxicological studies that 

evaluated cardiac contractility either directly or indirectly following exposure to PM. Two recent 

animal toxicological studies have demonstrated reductions in cardiac fractional shortening, 

diminished ejection shortening, or changes in the QA interval following PM exposure. The results of 

these studies provide some evidence of PM-induced changes in cardiac contractility in animal 

models. 

6.2.6.1. Toxicological Studies 

The strength of the contracting heart is reflected by its contractility. In heart failure, 

contractility wanes significantly and the heart cannot compensate during periods of increased 

physical activity. Measuring true contractility in a whole animal is difficult, requiring extensive 

surgical instrumentation and monitoring. 

December 2009 6-38 
CAPs 

Using radiotelemetry to indirectly measure cardiac contractility through the QA interval, SH 

rats were repeatedly and alternately exposed to UF CAPs in Taiwan on separate days in spring or 

summer (details provided in Section 6.2.5.3) (Chang et al., 2004, 055637). The QA interval was 

calculated as the time duration between the Q wave in the ECG and point A (upstroke in aortic 

pressure) in the pressure trace and is not as reliable as other measures, such as echocardiography. 

During the spring exposure, QA interval decreased by 1.6 ms (as demonstrated by fixed effects in 

linear mixed-effects modeling), which indicates an increase in cardiac contractility. There were no 

changes in QA interval observed for the summer months, which may be attributable to lower UF PM 

concentrations (mean mass concentration 140 μg/m3

) or differing PM compositions. 

Model Particles 

A recent study using old (18-28-mo) mice (C57BL/6, C3H/HeJ, and B6C3F1) demonstrated 

significant reductions in cardiac fractional shortening (due to increased left ventricular end-diastolic 

and end-systolic diameters) following a 4-day (3 h/day) exposure to CB (PM2.5 mean concentration 

401 μg/m3

; PM10 mean concentration 553 μg/m3) using echocardiography (Tankersley et al., 2008, 

157043). Hemodynamic measurements of diminished ejection fraction and maximum change in 

pressure over time further supported lowered myocardial contractility. Furthermore, increased right 

ventricular pressure associated with elevated right atrial and pulmonary vascular pressures and 

resistance, was indicative of pulmonary vasoconstriction in CB-exposed mice. Heart tissue and 

isolated cardiomyocytes from exposed animals demonstrated enhanced ROS that was partially 

attributable to NOS3-uncoupling and elevated MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels, which may implicate 

myocardial remodeling. The combined results from this study suggest that cellular mechanisms 

involving NOS-uncoupled ROS generation likely mediate PM-induced cardiac effects. Furthermore, 

mRNA expression for atrial and brain natriuretic peptides was increased in hearts from exposed mice 

compared to control, which is consistent with pulmonary congestion. There were no reported 

strain-related differences in any response. 

Intratracheal Instillation 

Similar to the responses observed by Tankersley et al. (2008, 157043), decreases in fractional 

shortening and increases in left ventricular end diastolic diameter measured by echocardiography 

were also reported for SD rats at 24 h post-IT exposure to DE particles (250 μg) (Yan et al., 2008, 

098625). A subset of rats received isoproterenol to induce myocardial injury prior to IT instillation of 

DE particles and these animals demonstrated lowered fractional shortening at baseline, which was 

decreased to an even greater extent with DE particle exposure; left ventricular end diastolic diameter 

was not affected by DE particles in these rats. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Cardiac Contractility 

The studies above provide some evidence that cardiac contractility may be altered 

immediately following PM exposure in animal models. Results from the Tanksersley (2008, 157043) 

and Yan (2008, 098625) studies provide the strongest support for PM-induced contractility changes 

with inhalation exposure, as echocardiography and hemodynamic measurements are well-established 

for examining cardiac function. 

6.2.7. Systemic Inflammation 

The evidence presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) of increases in 

markers of systemic inflammation associated with PM was limited and not sufficient to formulate a 

definitive conclusion. Recent controlled human exposure and toxicological studies continue to 

provide mixed results for an effect of PM on markers of systemic inflammation including cytokine 

December 2009 6-39 
levels, C-reactive protein (CRP), and white blood cell (WBC) count. While results from recent 

epidemiologic studies have also been inconsistent across studies, there is some evidence to suggest 

that PM levels may have a greater effect on inflammatory markers among populations with 

preexisting diseases. 

6.2.7.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Several studies reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) investigated the 

association of short-term fluctuations in PM concentration with markers of inflammation. These 

studies were found to offer limited support for mechanistic explanations of the associations between 

PM concentration and heart disease outcomes. Recent studies, published since 2002, are reviewed 

below. CRP was measured in multiple studies, allowing the consistency of findings across 

epidemiologic studies to be evaluated. Several other markers were examined in only a few studies, in 

relation to a wide range PM size fractions and components. These markers included IL-6, TNF-α, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), soluble 

CD40 ligand (sCD40L), WBCs, and soluble adhesion molecules (sP-selectin and e-selectin). 

Diez-Roux et al. (2006, 156400) examined whether CRP increased in response to changes in 

the mean ambient PM2.5 concentrations in the prior day, prior 2 days, prior week, prior 30 days, and 

prior 60 days among participants in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort. 

Subjects (n = 5,634) lived in either Baltimore City or County, MD, Chicago, IL, Forsyth County, 

NC, Los Angeles County, CA, Northern Manhattan and the Bronx, NY, or St. Paul, MN. The authors 

report finding no evidence of a short-term effect of PM2.5 on CRP in their population-based sample. 

Of the five exposure measures examined, only the 30-day and 60-day mean exposures showed 

positive associations with PM2.5 (3% [95% CI: -2 to 10] and 4% [95% CI: -3 to 11] per 10 μg/m3

, 

respectively). 

Ruckerl et al. (2007, 156931) conducted a multicity longitudinal study to examine whether 

changes in markers of inflammation were associated with short-term increases in particulate 

concentrations (PM10, PM2.5, PNC) and gaseous pollutant (NO2, SO2, CO, O3). Study subjects were 

MI survivors (n= 1,003) living in either Athens, Greece; Augsburg, Germany; Barcelona, Spain; 

Helsinki, Finland; Rome, Italy; or Stockholm, Sweden. Repeated measurements of IL-6 and CRP 

were made during the study. Fibrinogen was also measured in this study and results are discussed in 

Section 6.2.8.1. The mean city-specific pollutant concentrations during the study are shown below in 

Table 6-6. In pooled analyses, each interquartile range (not provided) increase in PNC in the 12-17 h 

before the health measurement was associated with a 2.7% increase in the geometric mean IL-6 

levels (95% CI: 1.0-4.6). None of the pollutants, at any lag, were associated with CRP levels in these 

subjects. There did not appear to be effect modification of these results by smoking, diabetes, or 

heart failure. Ljungman et al. (2009, 191983) studied the modification of the IL-6 association with 

several PM size fractions (PM10, PM2.5, PNC) by three IL-6 SNPs, one fibrinogen α chain (FGA) 

single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and one fibrinogen β chain (FGB) SNP. The associations of 

PM2.5 and PM10 with plasma level of IL-6 were stronger among those with the homozygous minor 

allele genotype of FGB rs1800790 and among those homozygous for the major allele genotype of 

IL-6 rs2069832. Gene-environment interactions were most pronounced for CO. Modification the 

PNC-IL-6 association by genotype was not apparent in these data, nor was modification of the PMIL-6 associations by FBA. 

Single-city studies of systemic inflammation have also been conducted in the U.S. and 

Canada. Delfino et al. (2008, 156390) measured CRP, IL-6, TNF-α, sP-selectin, sVCAM-1 and 

sICAM-1 in blood during a period of 12 wk. Associations of these markers with average PM 

concentration (PM0.25, PM0.25-2.5, PM10-2.5, PNC, EC, OC, BC, primary OC, secondary OC) 24 h to 9 

days prior to the blood draw were examined. Subjects included residents of two downtown Los 

Angeles nursing homes who were >65 yr old with a history of coronary artery disease. Both 24-

h avg and multiday average concentrations of PM0.25, EC, primary OC, BC, PNC and gaseous 

pollutants were associated with CRP, IL-6 and sP-selectin. 

Pope et al. (2004, 055238) conducted a panel study of 88 non-smoking, elderly subjects 

residing in the Salt Lake City, Ogden, and Provo metropolitan area of Utah. Each 100 μg/m3

 increase 

in same day mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with a 0.81 mg/dL increase in CRP (95% 

CI: 0.48-1.14), but not WBCs. However, when excluding 1 influential subject, each 100 μg/m3

increase in same day mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with only a 0.19 mg/dL increase in 

December 2009 6-40 
CRP (95% CI: -0.01 to 0.39). Several markers of coagulation were examined in this study and are 

discussed in Section 6.2.8.1. 

Zeka et al. (2006, 157177) studied 710 elderly members of the VA Normative Aging Study to 

examine changes in CRP, sediment rate and WBCs with acute changes in PM concentrations in the 

previous 48 h, 1 wk, and 4 wk. Results for fibrinogen are discussed in Section 6.2.8.1. They did not 

find consistent or significant associations with any pollutant and CRP or WBC count. Sediment rate 

was significantly increased with PNC, BC and PM2.5 concentration averaged over the previous 4 wk 

period. Modification of these PM effects by obesity, GSTM1 genotype and statin use was suggested 

in this study. 

O’Neill et al. (2007, 091362) conducted a cross-sectional study of 92 Boston residents with 

type 2 diabetes, to examine the association between plasma levels of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and PM 

concentrations. Results for markers of coagulation measured in this study are discussed in 

Section 6.2.8.1. PM2.5, BC, and SO4

2- concentrations were measured 0.5 km from the patient exam 

site. For all moving averages examined (1-6 days), increases in mean PM2.5 and BC concentration 

were associated with increased ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 concentrations. Each 7.6 μg/m3

 increase in 

the mean PM2.5 concentration over the previous 6 days was associated with a 11.76 ng/mL increase 

in VCAM-1 (95% CI: 3.48-20.70), and each 0.6 μg/m3

 increase in the mean BC concentration over 

the previous 6 days was associated with a 27.51 ng/mL increase in VCAM-1 (95% CI: 11.96-45.21). 

There were no consistent associations between mean SO4

2- concentration and any marker at any lag. 

Sullivan et al. (2007, 100083) conducted a panel study of 47 subjects (aged >55 yr) either with 

COPD (n = 23) or without COPD (n = 24) in Seattle, WA. They examined the association between 

levels of CRP and mean daily PM2.5 concentration. Most values for IL-6 and TNF-α were below the 

limit of detection, so these cytokines were not included in the analyses. Results for fibrinogen and 

D-dimer are discussed in Section 6.2.8.1. They did not find any associations between 24-h mean 

PM2.5 concentrations and levels of CRP in individuals with or without COPD. 

In the study by Liu et al. (2006, 192002; 2007, 156705), conducted in Toronto, Ontario, 

neither CRP (0.11 μg/mL [95% CI: -0.03 to 0.25]) nor TNF-α (0.03 pg/mL [95% CI: -0.07 to 0.13]) 

was associated with personal exposure to PM10 (24-h averaging time). 

Similarly, there was no association with IL-6. However, significant positive associations with 

markers of oxidative stress, FMD and BP were found and are discussed in Sections 6.2.9.1, 6.2.4.1, 

and 6.2.5.1, respectively. 

In the St. Louis Bus Study, each 5.4 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM2.5 concentration over the 

previous week was associated with 5.5% increase in WBCs (95% CI: 0.10-11) (Dubowsky et al., 

2006, 088750). Each 6.1 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM2.5 concentration over the previous 5 days 

was associated with a 14% increase in CRP among all subjects (95% CI: -5.4 to 37), but an 81% 

increase in CRP (95% CI: 21-172) among subjects with diabetes, obesity, and/or hypertension. 

Associations between PM2.5 and IL-6 were only observed among those with diabetes, obesity, and/or 

or hypertension. In another study of in-vehicle PM2.5, each 10 μg/m3

 increase during a work-shift 

was associated with decreased lymphocytes, increased mean corpuscular volume, neutrophils, and 

CRP over the next 10-14 h among 9 healthy North Carolina state troopers (Riediker et al., 2004, 

056992). Associations of roadside and ambient PM2.5 with systemic inflammatory markers were 

weaker and non-significant in this population. 

International studies of the effect of air pollution on markers of inflammation have been 

conducted with mixed results. Two studies conducted among 57 male patients with coronary heart 

disease in Erfurt, Germany, found associations of UFP, ACP and PM10 with CRP (Ruckerl et al., 

2006, 088754) and UFP and ACP with sCD40L, a marker for platelet activation (Ruckerl et al., 

2007, 156931). In a large cross-sectional study of healthy subjects in Tel Aviv, Steinvil et al. (2008, 

188893) examined biological markers of inflammation (CRP and WBCs) collected as part of routine 

health examinations for 3,659 individuals. Associations with air pollutants (including PM10) 

measured at local monitoring sites for the day of the examination and up to 7 days prior were 

examined. No significant associations were found between pollutant levels and indications of 

enhanced inflammation. By contrast, PM10, PM2.5, SO4

2– and nitrate (3-day avg concentrations) were 

associated with increases in hs-CRP in healthy students in Taiwan (Chuang et al., 2007, 091063). 

PM10, PM2.5 and PM0.25 were not associated with CRP in a study of MI patients in Italy, although 

associations with autonomic dysregulation and more severe arrhythmias were observed (Folino et 

al., 2009, 191902). Kelishadi et al. (2009, 191960) reports that CRP, as well as markers of insulin 

resistance and oxidative stress (discussed in Section 6.2.9.1), were associated with PM10 in a crossDecember 2009 6-41 
sectional study of a population-based sample of children 10-18 yr old in Iran (mean PM10

concentration 122.08 μg/m3

). 

Summary of Epidemiologic Study Findings for Systemic Inflammation 

The most commonly measured marker of inflammation in the studies reviewed was CRP. CRP 

was not consistently associated with short-term PM concentrations (PM2.5, PM10, SO4

2–, EC, OC, 

PNC). A multicity study of MI survivors in Europe (Ruckerl et al., 2007, 156931) failed to provide 

evidence of an effect of PM (e.g., PM10, PM2.5, PNC) on CRP and no effect was observed by DiezRoux et al. (2006, 156400) in a population-based study when concentrations were averaged over 

periods less than 30 days. Several other markers of inflammation have been examined in relation to 

several PM size fractions and components, but the number of studies examining the same 

marker/PM metric combination is too few to allow results to be compared across epidemiologic 

studies. Mean and upper percentile concentrations for those epidemiologic studies that evaluated 

systemic inflammation are included in Table 6-6. 

Table 6-6. PM concentrations reported in epidemiologic studies of inflammation, hemostasis, 

thrombosis, coagulation factors and oxidative stress. 

Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3) Upper Percentile Concentrations

(μg/m3) 

PM2.5

Chuang (2007, 091063) Taipei, Taiwan 

1-day avg: 31.8 

2-day avg: 36.4 

3-day avg: 36.5 

1-day avg (range): 16.2-50.1 

2-day avg (range): 15-53.4 

3-day avg (range): 12.7-59.5 

Diez-Roux (2006, 156400) 

Chicago, IL 

Baltimore, MD 

Forsyth County, NC 

Los Angeles, CA 

New York City, NY 

St. Paul, MN 

Prior day (median): 14.3 

Prior 2 days (median): 14.4 

Prior 7 days (median): 15.24 

Prior 30 days (median): 15.69 

Prior 60 days (median): 15.9 

Prior day (75th): 20.9 

Prior 2 days (75th): 20.35 

Prior 7 days (75th): 19.7 

Prior 30 days (75th): 19.22 

Prior 60 days (75th): 19.08 

Dubowsky (2006, 088750) St. Louis (bus stops) 16 

75th: 22 

100th: 28 

Folino (2009, 191902) Padua, Italy 

Summer: 33.9 

Winter: 62.1 

Spring: 30.8 

NR 

O’Neill (2007, 091362) Boston, MA 11.4 Range: 0.07-33.7 

Park (2008, 156845) Boston, MA 12 Range: 2-62 

Peters (2009, 191992) 

Helsinki, Finland 

Stockholm, Sweden 

Augsburg, Germany 

Rome, Italy 

Barcelona, Spain 

Helsinki: 8.2 

Stockholm: 8.8 

Augsburg: 17.4 

Rome: 24.5 

Barcelona: 24.2 

Total: 16.4 

Helsinki (range): 1-28 

Stockholm (range): 0-27 

Augsburg (range): 6-39 

Rome (range): 4-95 

Barcelona (range): 3-95 

Total (range): 0-95 

December 2009 6-42 
Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3

) Upper Percentile Concentrations

(μg/m3) 

Pope (2004, 055238) Salt Lake City, Ogden, Provo Utah 

FRM-Filled: 23.7 

Not filled: 25.8 

TEOM: 18.9 

RAMS/PC-BOSS: 26.5 

FRM-Filled (range): 1.7-74 

Not filled (range): 1.7-74 

TEOM (range): 2.2-61.5 

RAMS/PC-BOSS (range): 5.6-72.4 

Riediker (2004, 056992) North Carolina State Troopers 

Light Scatter: 24.1 

Mass: 23 

Ambient: 32.3 

Roadside: 32.1 

Light Scatter (range): 4.5-54.4 

Mass (range): 7.1-38.7 

Ambient (range): 9.9-68.9 

Roadside (range): 8.9-62.2 

Helsinki, Finland 8.2 (19.4) NR 

Stockholm, Sweden 8.8 (19.1) NR 

Augsburg, Germany 17.4 (29.3) NR 

Rome, Italy 24.5 (54.1) NR 

Barcelona, Spain 24.2 (64.7) NR 

Ruckerl (2007, 156931) 

Athens, Greece 23 (46) NR 

Sørensen (2003, 157000) Copenhagen, Denmark Personal (median): 16.1 

Urban background (median): 9.2 

Personal (Q25-Q75): 10-24.5 

Urban background (Q25-Q75): 5.3-14.8 

Sullivan (2007, 100083) Seattle, WA Outdoor (median): 7.7 

Indoor (median): 7.7 

Outdoor: 75th- 11.5 

90th- 19.9 

Max- 33.9 

Indoor: 75th- 12.1 

90th- 16 

Max- 81.4 

Zeka (2006, 157177) Boston, MA 48h (median): 9.39 

75th: 14.57 

90th: 21.48 

PM10-2.5

Delfino (2008, 156390) Los Angeles, CA Outdoor: 10.04 (4.07) 

Indoor: 4.12 (4.76) 

Outdoor (range): 1.76-22.38 

Indoor (range): 0.12-37.63 

Peters (2009, 191992) 

Helsinki, Finland 

Stockholm, Sweden 

Augsburg, Germany 

Rome, Italy 

Barcelona, Spain 

Helsinki: 8.9 

Stockholm: 9 

Augsburg: 15.8 

Rome: 16.8 

Barcelona: 16.5 

Total: 13.3 

Helsinki (range): 1-38 

Stockholm (range): 0-40 

Augsburg (range): -1 to 35 

Rome (range): -33 to 65 

Barcelona (range): 1-102 

Total (range): -33 to 102 

PM10

Baccarelli (2007, 090733) Lombardia Region, Italy 

Sep-Nov (median): 51.2 

Dec-Feb (median): 68.5 

Mar-May (median): 64.1 

Jun-Aug (median): 44.3 

Sep-Nov (max): 148.9 

Dec-Feb (max): 238.3 

Mar-May (max): 158.5 

Jun-Aug (max): 94.7 

Baccarelli (2007, 091310) Lombardia Region, Italy Median: 34.1 Maximum: 390 

Chuang (2007, 091063) Taipei, Taiwan 

1-day avg: 49.2 

2-day avg: 55.3 

3-day avg: 54.9 

1-day avg (range): 29.5-83.4 

2-day avg (range): 25.5-85.1 

3-day avg (range): 22.2-87.2 

December 2009 6-43 
Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3

) Upper Percentile Concentrations

(μg/m3) 

Folino (2009, 191902) Padua, Italy 

Summer: 46.4 

Winter: 73 

Spring: 38.3 

NR 

Kelishadi (2009, 191960) Isfahan, Iran 122.08 

75th: 153 

100th: 191 

Liao (2005, 088677) 

Washington County, MD 

Forsyth County, NC 

Minneapolis, MN (suburbs) 

29.9 Q4: 47.3 

Liu (2007, 156705) Windsor, Ontario, Canada 

Personal (median): 

0-24 h before clinical visit: 25.5 

0-6 h before clinical visit: 15.3 

7-12 h before clinical visit: 17 

13-18 h before clinical visit: 28.5 

19-24 h before clinical visit: 30.5 

Personal (5th to 95th): 

0-24 h before clinical visit: 9.8-133 

0-6 h before clinical visit: 5.3-83.2 

7-12 h before clinical visit: 7.1-186.3 

13-18 h before clinical visit: 11.4-167 

19-24 h before clinical visit: 10.1-148.2 

Peters (2009, 191992) 

Helsinki, Finland 

Stockholm, Sweden 

Augsburg, Germany 

Rome, Italy 

Barcelona, Spain 

Helsinki: 17.1 

Stockholm: 17.8 

Augsburg: 33.1 

Rome: 42.1 

Barcelona: 40.7 

Total: 30.3 

Helsinki (range): 4-53 

Stockholm (range): 0-57 

Augsburg (range): 7-71 

Rome (range): 15-91 

Barcelona (range): 6-194 

Total (range): 0-194 

Helsinki, Finland 17.1 NR 

Stockholm, Sweden 17.8 NR 

Augsburg, Germany 33.1 NR 

Rome, Italy 42.1 NR 

Barcelona, Spain 40.7 NR 

Ruckerl (2007, 156931) 

Athens, Greece 38.5 NR 

Steinvil (2008, 188893) Tel Aviv, Israel 64.5 75th: 60.7 

 

6.2.7.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Several controlled human exposure studies were included in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905) which evaluated markers of systemic inflammation following exposure to PM. Salvi 

et al. (1999, 058637) exposed 15 healthy volunteers (21-28 yr) for 1 h to DE (300 μg/m3

 particle 

concentration) and observed a significant increase in neutrophils in peripheral blood 6 h postexposure compared with filtered air control. However, Ghio et al. (2003, 087363) reported no 

changes in plasma cytokine levels (e.g., IL-6 and TNF-α), WBC count, or CRP 0 or 24 h following a 

2-h exposure to PM2.5 CAPs (120 μg/m3

). Gong et al. (2003, 042106) did not observe any effect of 

PM2.5 CAPs (174 μg/m3) on serum amyloid A, while Frampton (2001, 019051) reported no change in 

leukocyte activation following exposure to a low concentration (10 μg/m3

) of UF carbon. The results 

of studies published since the completion of the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) are 

discussed below. 

December 2009 6-44 
CAPs 

Several controlled human exposure studies have reported no change in plasma CRP levels 

0-24 h after exposure to UF (avg concentration 50-100 μg/m3

), PM2.5 (avg concentration 190 μg/m3), 

or PM10-2.5 (avg concentration 89 μg/m3

) CAPs (Gong et al., 2008, 156483; Graff et al., 2009, 

191981; Mills et al., 2008, 156766; Samet et al., 2009, 191913). In a study of exposures to PM2.5

CAPs (200 μg/m3

), Gong et al. (2004, 087964) observed increased peripheral basophils 4 h 

following a 2-h exposure in a group of healthy older adults, which provides limited evidence of a 

CAPs-induced systemic inflammatory response. 

Urban Traffic Particles 

In a recent investigation of controlled exposures (24 h) to urban traffic particles, Bräuner et al. 

(2008, 191966) observed no effect of PM concentration (avg PM2.5 concentration 10.5 μg/m3) on 

markers of inflammation including CRP, IL-6 and TNF- α in peripheral venous blood. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Recent controlled human exposure studies have observed no effect of DE on plasma CRP 

concentrations or peripheral blood cell counts (Blomberg et al., 2005, 191991; Carlsten et al., 2007, 

155714; Mills et al., 2005, 095757; Mills et al., 2007, 091206; Tornqvist et al., 2007, 091279). Mills 

et al. (2005, 095757) found no effect of DE (300 μg/m3) on serum IL-6 or TNF-α among healthy 

adult volunteers 6 h after exposure. However, as reported by Tornqvist et al. (2007, 091279), a 

significant increase in these cytokines was observed 24 h after exposure. Although the physiological 

significance of this finding is unclear, this study does provide evidence of a mild systemic 

inflammatory response induced by exposure to DE. In an effort to better understand the 

inflammatory response of exposure to PM, Peretz et al. (2007, 156853) conducted a pilot study in 

which gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of healthy human volunteers 

was evaluated following a 2-h controlled exposure to DE (200 μg/m3

 PM2.5). Adequate RNA samples 

for microarray analysis from both pre- and 4 h post-exposure to filtered air and DE were available in 

4 of the 11 subjects enrolled. The authors found differential expression of 10 genes involved in the 

inflammatory response when comparing DE exposure (8 upregulated, 2 downregulated) to filtered 

air. Two participants had paired samples from 20 h post-exposure which were adequate for analysis. 

At this time point, DE was associated with 4 differentially expressed genes (1 upregulated, 3 

downregulated). However, this study is limited by a small sample size with limited statistical power. 

Wood Smoke 

Barregard et al. (2006, 091381) recently reported an increase in serum amyloid A at 0, 3, and 

20 h following a 4-h exposure to wood smoke (PM2.5 concentrations of 240-280 μg/m3

) among a 

group of 13 healthy adults (20-56 yr). 

Model Particles 

Frampton et al. (2006, 088665) evaluated the effect of varying concentrations (10-50 μg/m3) of 

UF EC on blood leukocyte expression of adhesion molecules in healthy and asthmatic adults. 

Healthy subjects (n = 40) were exposed for 2 h to filtered air and UF EC under three separate 

protocols: 10 μg/m3

 at rest (n = 12), 10 and 25 μg/m3 with intermittent exercise (n = 12), and 

50 μg/m3

 with intermittent exercise (n = 16). Asthmatics (n = 16) were exposed at a single 

concentration (10 μg/m3) for 2 h with intermittent exercise. Leukocyte expression of surface markers 

were quantified using flow cytometry on peripheral venous blood samples collected prior to and 

immediately following exposure, as well as at 3.5 and 21 h post-exposure. Among healthy resting 

adults, UF EC exposure at a concentration of 10 μg/m3

 had no effect on blood leukocytes. The 

expression of adhesion molecules CD54 and CD18 on monocytes, and CD18 on PMNs was shown 

December 2009 6-45 
to decrease with UF EC exposure in healthy exercising adults. In exercising asthmatics, expression 

of CD11b on monocytes and eosinophils, as well as CD54 on PMNs were reduced following 

exposure to UF EC. In both asthmatics and healthy adults, a UF EC-induced decrease in eosinophils 

and basophils was observed 0-21 h following exposure. Although the clinical significance of these 

findings is unclear, the authors concluded that their findings of UF EC-induced changes in leukocyte 

distribution and expression were consistent with increased retention of leukocytes in the pulmonary 

vasculature, which may be due to an increase in pulmonary vasoconstriction. Other studies have 

reported no changes in plasma cytokine levels, peripheral blood counts, or CRP following exposure 

to ZnO or UF EC (Beckett et al., 2005, 156261; Routledge et al., 2006, 088674). 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Systemic 

Inflammation 

New studies involving controlled exposures to various particle types have provided limited 

and inconsistent evidence of a PM-induced increase in markers of systemic inflammation. 

6.2.7.3. Toxicological Studies 

There has been limited evidence that enhanced hematopoiesis may occur in animals exposed 

to PM. Two studies in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provided support for this 

effect, with one study measured stimulated release of PMNs from bone marrow and another 

examined peripheral blood PMN and blood cell counts; however, one study did not find associations 

between CAPs and peripheral blood counts. Thus, it was concluded that consistent evidence of 

PM-induced hematopoiesis remained to be demonstrated. However, in a study of humans exposed to 

biomass burning during the 1997 Southeast Asian smoke-haze episodes, PM10 demonstrated the best 

relationship with blood PMN band cell counts expressed as a percentage of total PMN at lag 0 and 1, 

indicating a relatively quick response (Tan et al., 2000, 002304). 

CAPs 

A 2-day CAPs study employing SH rats did not report increased WBCs 18-20 h post-exposure 

(Kodavanti et al., 2005, 087946). A study utilizing fine and/or UF CAPs demonstrated decreased 

WBCs in SH rats 18 h after a 2-day (6 h/day) exposure (Kooter et al., 2006, 097547). The decrease 

was largely attributable to lowered neutrophils in the fine CAPs-exposed rats and reduced 

lymphocytes in the fine+UF CAPs-exposed animals. 

Model Particles 

In a study of fine and UF CB particles (WKY rats; 7 h; mean mass concentration 1,400 and 

1,660 μg/m3

 for fine and UF CB, respectively; mean number concentration 3.8×103 and 5.2×104

particles/cm3

, respectively), only UF CB induced elevated blood leukocytes at 0 and 48 h 

post-exposure compared to the control rats and no effect was observed at 16 h (Gilmour et al., 2004, 

054175). In another study of SH rats exposed to UF carbon particles for 24 h (mass concentration 

172 μg/m3

; mean number concentration 9.0×106 particles/cm3), the percent neutrophils and 

lymphocytes were increased on the first recovery day, but not the third day (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 

159345); CRP was unchanged. In another study, blood neutrophils were decreased in SH rats 

exposed to UF CB for 6 h and no effects were observed in old F344 rats (Elder et al., 2004, 055642). 

Plasma IL-6 levels were unchanged (Elder et al., 2004, 055642). 

Coal Fly Ash 

Smith et al. (2006, 110864) examined the hematology parameters in SD rats following a 3-day 

inhalation exposure (4 h/day) to coal fly ash (mean mass concentration 1,400 μg/m3

) and reported 

increased blood neutrophils and reduced blood lymphocytes at 36 h but not 18 h post-exposure. 

December 2009 6-46 
Intratracheal Instillation 

Elevated systemic IL-6 and TNF-α levels were observed following PM10 instillation in mice 

(details provided in Section 6.2.8.3) (Mutlu et al., 2007, 121441). IL-6 was decreased with PM 

exposure in macrophage-depleted mice, indicating that some of the IL-6 release originated from 

macrophages. For mice (male C57Bl/6J) exposed to PM10-2.5 derived from coal fly ash (200 μg), 

increased plasma IL-6 levels were only observed in animals that also received 100 μg of LPS 

(Finnerty et al., 2007, 156434) and this response was not observed with LPS alone, indicating a role 

for PM10-2.5. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Systemic Inflammation 

Overall, these studies provide evidence of time-dependent responses of systemic inflammation 

induced by PM exposure. Alterations in WBCs have been reported generally as elevations 

immediately (0 h) or <36 h post-exposure and no change or reductions are noted from 18-24 h. 

6.2.8. Hemostasis, Thrombosis and Coagulation Factors 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented limited and inconsistent evidence 

from epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and toxicological studies of PM-induced changes in 

blood coagulation markers. The body of scientific literature investigating hemostatic effects of PM 

has grown significantly since the publication of the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), with 

a limited number of epidemiologic studies demonstrating consistent increases in von Willebrand 

factor (vWf) associated with PM and less consistent associations with fibrinogen. Recent controlled 

human exposure and toxicological studies have also observed changes in blood coagulation markers 

(e.g., fibrinogen, vWf, factor VII, t-PA) following exposure to PM. However, the findings of these 

studies are somewhat inconsistent, which may be due in part to differences in the post-exposure 

timing of the assessment. 

6.2.8.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Several studies investigating the association of short-term fluctuations in PM concentration 

with markers of coagulation (e.g., blood viscosity and fibrinogen) were included in the 2004 PM 

AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). These preliminary studies offered limited support for mechanistic 

explanations of the associations of PM concentration with heart disease outcomes. New studies, 

published since 2002, are reviewed in this section. Only vWF and fibrinogen were measured in 

enough comparable studies to allow the consistency of findings to be evaluated across epidemiologic 

studies. Other markers of coagulation studied included D-dimer, prothombin time, Factor VII/VIII 

and tPA. 

Liao et al. (2005, 088677) used a cross-sectional study to examine the association between 

short-term increases in air pollutant concentrations (mean PM10, NO2, CO, SO2, and O3 over the 

previous 3 days) and several plasma hemostatic markers (fibrinogen, factor VIII-C, vWF, albumin). 

Study subjects were middle aged participants in the ARIC (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities) 

study (n = 10,208), and were residents of Washington County, MD, Forsyth County, NC, selected 

suburbs of Minneapolis, MN, or Jackson, MS. Each 12.8 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM10

concentration 1 day before the health measurements were made was associated with a 3.93% 

increase in vWF (95% CI: 0.40-7.46) among diabetics, but not among non-diabetics (-0.54% [95% 

CI: -1.68 to 0.60]). Each 12.8 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM10 concentration 1 day before the health 

measurements were made was also associated with a 0.006 g/dL decrease in serum albumin 

(95% CI: -0.012 to 0.000) among those with cardiovascular disease (CVD), but not among those 

without CVD (0.029 g/dL increase [95% CI: -0.004 to 0.062]). The mean CO concentration on the 

previous day was also associated with a significant decrease in serum albumin. The authors reported 

significant curvilinear associations between PM10 and factor VIII-C, which may indicate a threshold 

effect. Similar curvilinear associations were observed between O3 with fibrinogen, and vWF, and 

SO2 with factor VIII-C, WBC, and serum albumin (Liao et al., 2005, 088677). No significant 

associations with fibrinogen and PM10 or gaseous pollutants were observed. 

December 2009 6-47 
In the European multicity study described in Section 6.2.7.1, Ruckerl et al. (2007, 156931) 

found that each 13.5 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM10 concentration over the previous 5 days was 

associated with a 0.6% increase in the arithmetic mean fibrinogen level (95% CI: 0.1-1.1). Further 

these investigators found that promoter polymorphisms within FGA and FGB modified the 

association of 5-day avg PM10 concentration with plasma fibrinogen levels (Peters et al., 2009, 

191992). This association was 8-fold higher among those homozygous for the minor allele genotype 

of FGB rs1800790 compared with those homozygous for the major allele. 

Several smaller studies have been conducted in the U.S. and Canada. Delfino et al. (2008, 

156390) measured fibrinogen and D-dimer in blood of subjects who resided at two downtown Los 

Angeles nursing homes. As described in Section 6.2.7.1, measurements were made over a period of 

12 wk and subjects were >65 yr old with a history of coronary artery disease. These markers were 

not associated with the broad array PM metrics studied (e.g., PM0.25, PM0.25-2.5, PM10-2.5, EC, OC, 

primary OC, BC). In the study of 92 Boston residents with type 2 diabetes described previously, 

O’Neill et al. (2007, 091362) found that increases in mean PM2.5 and BC concentration were 

associated with vWF concentrations for all moving averages examined (1-6 days). Reidiker et al. 

(2004, 056992) reported that in-vehicle PM2.5 was associated with increased vWF over the next 

10-14 h among nine police troopers. Sullivan et al. (2007, 100083) did not observe associations with 

fibrinogen, or D-dimer in individuals with or without COPD. Red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, nor 

blood viscosity were associated with PM2.5 concentration in a panel study of 88 non-smoking elderly 

subjects residing in the Salt Lake City, Ogden and Provo metropolitan area of Utah (Pope et al., 

2004, 055238). Although Zeka et al. (2006, 157177) did not observe an association with CRP in the 

analysis of the Normative Aging Study population in Boston (Section 6.3.7.1), increased fibrinogen 

level was associated with increases in the number of particles/cm3 over the previous 48 h and 1 wk, 

and an incremental increase in BC concentration over the previous 4 wk. There were no consistent 

findings for lagged PM2.5 or sulfates (Zeka et al., 2006, 157177). 

Several studies of coagulation markers were conducted outside the U.S. and Canada. In a 

study of healthy individuals in Taiwan, associations were observed for PM2.5, PM10, nitrate, and 

SO4

2– concentrations with fibrinogen and plasminogen activator fibrinogen inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) 

(Chuang et al., 2007, 091063). In a large cross-sectional study of healthy subjects in Tel-Aviv, 

Steinvil et al. (2008, 188893) examined fibrinogen collected as part of routine health examinations 

for 3,659 individuals. No significant associations were found between pollutant levels (lagged 

1-7 days) and fibrinogen. Finally, Baccarelli and colleagues reported associations between PM10 and 

prothrombin time among normal subjects (Baccarelli et al., 2007, 090733). 

Summary of Epidemiologic Study Findings for Hemostasis, Thrombosis and 

Coagulation 

The most commonly measured markers of coagulation in the studies reviewed were fibrinogen 

and vWF. Associations of PM10 (Liao et al., 2005, 088677) and PM2.5 (O'Neill et al., 2007, 091362; 

Riediker et al., 2004, 056992) with increased vWF were observed across the limited number of 

studies examining this association among both diabetics and healthy state troopers state troopers 

(Liao et al., 2005, 088677; Riediker et al., 2004, 056992). Results for fibrinogen were not consistent 

across epidemiologic studies. Positive associations with fibrinogen were reported in older adults 

residing in Boston (Zeka et al., 2006, 157177) and in the multicity European study of MI survivors. 

Liao et al. (2005, 088677) in a population based multicity study and Sullivan et al. (2007, 100083) 

did not observe associations of PM10 or PM2.5 with fibrinogen. Several other markers have been 

examined (e.g., D-dimer, prothrombin time), but not in adequate numbers of studies to allow 

comparisons across epidemiologic studies. Mean and upper percentile concentrations of the studies 

discussed in this section are listed in Table 6-6. 

6.2.8.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

In two separate studies conducted by Ghio and colleagues, controlled exposures (2 h) to fine 

CAPs (Chapel Hill, NC) at concentrations between 15 and 350 μg/m3

 were shown to increase blood 

fibrinogen 18-24 h following exposure among healthy adults (Ghio et al., 2000, 012140; Ghio et al., 

2003, 087363). Increases in blood fibrinogen or factor VII would suggest an increase in blood 

coagulability, which could result in an increased risk of coronary thrombosis. However, a similar 

December 2009 6-48 
study conducted in Los Angeles observed a PM2.5 CAPs-induced decrease in factor VII blood levels 

in healthy subjects and found no association between PM2.5 CAPs and blood fibrinogen among 

healthy and asthmatic volunteers (Gong et al., 2003, 042106). Since the publication of the 2004 PM 

AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), several new controlled human exposure studies have evaluated 

the effects of PM on blood coagulation markers. 

CAPs 

Two studies of controlled human exposures to Los Angeles CAPs among older adults with 

COPD (PM2.5 CAPs) and adults with and without asthma (UF CAPs) reported no significant 

association between exposure and blood coagulation markers at 0, 4, or 22 h post-exposure (Gong et 

al., 2004, 087964; 2008, 156483). Graff et al. (2009, 191981) observed a decrease in the 

concentration of D-dimer of marginal statistical significance in healthy adults (11.3% decrease per 

10 μg/m3

, p = 0.07) following exposure to PM10-2.5 CAPs (89 μg/m3). At 20 h post-exposure, levels of 

tPA in plasma were shown to decrease by 32.9% from baseline per 10 μg/m3 increase in CAPs 

concentration. No other markers of hemostasis or thrombosis were affected by exposure to PM10-2.5

CAPs. However, in a similar study from the same laboratory, Samet et al. (2009, 191913) reported a 

statistically significant increase in D-dimer immediately following, as well as 18 h, after a 2-h 

exposure to UF CAPs (49.8 μg/m3

; 120,662 particles/cm3) in a group of healthy adults (18-35 yr). 

Plasma concentrations of PAI-1 were also reported to increase 18 h after exposure to UF CAPs, 

although this increase was not statistically significant (p = 0.1). No changes in fibrinogen, tPA, vWF, 

plasminogen, or factor VII were observed. The finding of an increase in D-dimer following exposure 

to UF CAPs provides potentially important information in elucidating the relationship between 

elevated concentrations of PM and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality observed in 

epidemiologic studies. Whereas many coagulation markers provide evidence of an increased 

potential to form clots (e.g., an increase in fibrinogen or a decrease in tPA), D-dimer is a degradation 

product of a clot that has formed. 

Urban Traffic Particles 

In a study of controlled 24-h exposures to urban traffic particles (avg PM2.5 concentration 

10.5 μg/m3) among 29 healthy adults, Bräuner et al. (2008, 191966) did not observe any particleinduced change in plasma fibrinogen, factor VII, or platelet count after 6 or 24 h of exposure. 

Similarly, Larsson et al. (2007, 091375) observed no change in PAI-1 or fibrinogen in peripheral 

blood of healthy adult volunteers 14 h after a 2-h exposure to road tunnel traffic with a PM2.5

concentration of 46-81 μg/m3

. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Mills and colleagues have recently demonstrated a significant effect of DE (particle 

concentration 300 μg/m3

) on fibrinolytic function both in healthy men (n = 30) and in men with 

coronary heart disease (n = 20) (Mills et al., 2005, 095757; 2007, 091206). In both groups of 

volunteers, bradykinin-induced release of tPA was observed to decrease 6 h following exposure to 

DE compared to filtered air exposure. The same laboratory did not observe an attenuation of tPA 

release 24 h after a 1-h exposure to DE (300 μg/m3

) in a group of health adults (Tornqvist et al., 

2007, 091279), or observe any change in markers of hemostasis or thrombosis 6 or 24 h following 

DE exposure at the same particle concentration among a group of older adults with COPD 

(Blomberg et al., 2005, 191991). Carlsten et al. (2007, 155714) conducted a similar study involving 

exposure of healthy adults to DE with a PM2.5 concentration of 200 μg/m3

. Although the authors 

observed an increase in D-dimer, vWF, and platelet count 6 h following exposure to DE, these 

increases did not reach statistical significance. In a subsequent study with a similar study design, the 

same laboratory found no effect of a 2-h exposure to DE (100 and 200 μg/m3

 PM2.5) on 

prothrombotic markers in a group (n = 16) of adults with metabolic syndrome (Carlsten et al., 2008, 

156323). The authors postulated that the lack of significant findings could be due to a relatively 

small sample size. In addition, Carlsten et al. (2007, 155714; 2008, 156323) exposed subjects at rest 

December 2009 6-49 
while Mills et al. (2005, 095757) exposed subjects to a higher concentration (300 μg/m3

) with 

intermittent exercise. A more recent study of DE which exposed healthy adults to a slightly higher 

particle concentration (330 μg/m3

) evaluated the effect of DE on thrombus formation using an ex 

vivo perfusion chamber (Lucking et al., 2008, 191993). Thrombus formation, as well as in vivo 

platelet activation, was observed to significantly increase 2 h following exposure to DE relative to 

filtered air, thus providing some evidence of a potential physiological mechanism which may explain 

in part the associations between PM and cardiovascular events observed in epidemiologic studies. 

Wood Smoke 

Barregard et al. (2006, 091381) recently evaluated the effect of wood smoke on markers of 

coagulation, inflammation, and lipid peroxidation. Subjects (n = 13) were healthy males and females 

(20-56 yr) and were exposed for 4 h to PM2.5 concentrations of 240-280 μg/m3. The authors reported 

an increase in the ratio of factor VIII/vWF, which is an indicator of an increased risk of venous 

thromboembolism, at 0, 3, and 20 h following exposure to wood smoke. 

Model Particles 

Routledge et al. (2006, 088674) did not observe any changes in fibrinogen or D-dimer 

following a 1-h exposure to UF carbon among a group of resting healthy older adults and older 

adults with stable angina. Similarly, Beckett et al. (2005, 156261) found no changes in hemostatic 

markers (e.g., factor VII, fibrinogen, and vWF) following exposure to UF and fine ZnO (500 μg/m3

). 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Hemostasis, 

Thrombosis and Coagulation 

Taken together, these new studies have provided some additional evidence that short-term 

exposure to PM at near ambient levels may have small, yet statistically significant effects on 

hemostatic markers in healthy subjects or patients with coronary artery disease. 

6.2.8.3. Toxicological Studies 

In general, the limited toxicological studies reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) reported positive and negative findings for plasma fibrinogen levels or other factors 

involved in the coagulation cascade. Rats exposed to New York City CAPs did not have any 

exposure-related effects on any measured coagulation markers (Nadziejko et al., 2002, 050587), 

whereas rats exposed to a high concentration of ROFA demonstrated increased plasma fibrinogen 

(Kodavanti et al., 2002, 025236). 

CAPs 

A PM2.5 CAPs exposure conducted for 2 days (4 h/day; mean mass concentration 

144-2,758 μg/m3

; 8-10/2001; RTP, NC) in SH rats induced plasma fibrinogen increases (measured 

18-20 h post-exposure) in 5 of 7 separate studies (Kodavanti et al., 2005, 087946). Fibrinogen was 

not different from the air control group on the two days with the highest CAPs concentrations (1,129 

and 2,758 μg/m3

), indicating that the response was likely not attributable to mass alone. 

In SH rats exposed to PM2.5 CAPs for 6 h in one of three locations in the Netherlands (mean 

mass concentration range 270-2,400; 335-3,720; and 655-3,660 μg/m3), plasma fibrinogen was 

increased 48 h post-exposure when all CAP-exposed animals were combined in the analysis (Cassee 

et al., 2005, 087962). In WKY rats pre-exposed to O3 (8 h; 1,600 μg/m3

) and CAPs for 6 h, increases 

in RBCs, hemoglobin, and hematocrit were observed 2 days after CAPs exposure. For SH rats 

exposed to CAPs only, decreased mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration were reported. 

December 2009 6-50 
A similar study conducted by the same group (Kooter et al., 2006, 097547) reported no 

changes in plasma fibrinogen measured 18 h after a 2-day exposure (6 h/day) to PM2.5 or PM2.5+UF 

CAPs (mean mass concentration range 399.0-1,067.5 and 269.0-555.8 μg/m3

, respectively; 1/2003- 

4/2004). However, elevated vWF was observed in SH rats exposed to the highest concentration of 

PM2.5 CAPs. Decreases in mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and elevations in mean platelet volume 

(MPV) and mean platelet component (MPC) were reported in SH rats 18 h following a 2-day 

exposure to PM2.5+UF CAPs in a freeway tunnel. 

Traffic-Related Particles 

Plasma fibrinogen levels were elevated 18 h following a single 6-h exposure to on-road 

highway aerosols when groups of rats pretreated with saline or influenza virus were combined 

(i.e., there was a significant effect of particles) (Elder et al., 2004, 087354). 

Model Particles 

The coagulation effects of inhaled UF CB at a concentration of 150 μg/m3 (number count not 

provided) for 6 h were evaluated 24 h post-exposure in two aged rat models (11-14 mo SH and 23 

mo F344), some of which received LPS via intraperitoneal injection prior to particle exposure (Elder 

et al., 2004, 055642). LPS has been shown to induce the expression of molecules involved in 

coagulation, inflammation, oxidative stress, and the acute-phase response. In those animals only 

exposed to CB, SH rats demonstrated increased thrombin-anti-thrombin complexes (TAT) and 

decreased fibrinogen. For F344 rats, TAT complexes and fibrinogen were elevated only in those that 

received LPS and CB. Whole-blood viscosity was not altered in either rat strain with particle 

exposure. 

In another study of SH rats exposed to UF carbon particles for 24 h (mass concentration 172 

μg/m3

; mean number concentration 9.0×106 particles/cm3), the number of RBCs and platelets and 

hematocrit percent, were unchanged 1 and 3 days following exposure (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 

159345). Fibrinogen levels were similar in both air and UF carbon-exposed groups. However, 

mRNA expression of PAI-1 and TF in lung homogenates (but not in heart) was increased on 

recovery day 3 after exposure. A study of similar design that employed SH rats did not report any 

effect on plasma fibrinogen 4 or 24 h following UF carbon exposure (mass concentration 180 μg/m3

; 

mean number concentration 1.6×107

 particles/cm3) (Harder et al., 2005, 087371). Similarly, clotting 

factor VIIa and thrombomodulin, PAI-1, and tPA mRNA expression were not affected by UF carbon 

exposure at 24 h post-exposure. 

Coal Fly Ash 

One study that employed coal fly ash (mean mass concentration 1,400 μg/m3; 4 h/day×3 days) 

demonstrated increases in hematocrit and MCV in SD rats at 36 h but not 16 h post-exposure (Smith 

et al., 2006, 110864). 

Intratracheal Instillation 

Mutlu et al. (2007, 121441) used a PM10 sample collected from Dusseldorf, Germany, in mice 

(C57BL/6) with and without the gene coding for IL-6. The authors report using a moderate IT 

instillation dose (10 μg/mouse; roughly equivalent to 400-500 μg/kg); the PM sample had previously 

been characterized as having significant Fe, Ni, and V content (Upadhyay et al., 2003, 097370). In 

C57BL/6 mice, the Dusseldorf PM shortened bleeding (32%), prothrombin (13%), and activated 

partial thromboplastin (16%) times and increased platelet count, fibrinogen, and Factors II, VIII, and 

X activities 24 h following exposure. The authors further demonstrated accelerated coagulation by a 

reduction in the left carotid artery occlusion time (experimentally-derived by direct application of 

FeCl3). Additional experiments demonstrated that IL-6-/- or macrophage-depleted mice showed 

dramatically attenuated effects of PM10 on hemostatic indices, thrombin generation, and occlusion 

December 2009 6-51 
time. In IL-6-/- mice, there was no change in total cell counts or differentials in BALF compared to 

the wild-type mice, despite the lack of IL-6. In contrast, the model of macrophage depletion had 

reduced levels of macrophages and IL-6 in BALF, following PM exposure. These studies suggest 

that instillation of Dusseldorf PM10 activates clotting through an alveolar macrophage-dependent 

release of IL-6; however, other factors may also be involved in the prothrombotic response 

(i.e., activation of neutrophils, other inflammatory cells, or alterations in the levels of other 

cytokines). 

In a study employing PM10-2.5 collected from six European locations with contrasting traffic 

profiles, fibrinogen increases were observed in SH rats exposed to 10 mg/kg via IT instillation at 24 

h post-exposure and similar responses were observed with PM2.5 (Gerlofs-Nijland et al., 2007, 

097840). PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 samples from Prague or Barcelona administered intratracheally to SH 

rats (7 mg/kg) resulted in elevated plasma fibrinogen levels 24 h post-exposure compared to rats 

instilled with water (Gerlofs-Nijland et al., 2009, 190353). No changes were observed in vWF for 

whole particle suspensions, but Barcelona PM10-2.5 organic extract induced greater levels of vWF 

than Barcelona PM10-2.5. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Hemostasis, Thrombosis and 

Coagulation 

Increases in coagulation and thrombotic markers were observed in some studies of rats or mice 

exposed to PM. Plasma TAT complexes were increased in CB-exposed SH rats and shortened 

bleeding, prothrombin, and activated partial thromboplastin times were observed in mice exposed 

via IT instillation to PM10. Furthermore, the latter study also reported increased levels of Factors II, 

VIII, and X activities in mice. Another study demonstrated increased vWF in response to PM2.5

CAPs. As for plasma fibrinogen, these studies provide some evidence that increased levels are 

observed 18-48 h post-exposure to PM, although one study reported no change and another reported 

a decrease in this biomarker. Alterations in platelet measurements have also been observed with PM 

exposure, including increased platelet number, mean platelet volume, and mean platelet component. 

The toxicological results of RBC-related measurements are limited and inconsistent following PM 

exposure, which may be attributable to different exposure protocols, time of analysis, or rat strain. 

6.2.9. Systemic and Cardiovascular Oxidative Stress 

Very little information on systemic oxidative stress associated with PM was available for 

inclusion in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). However, recent epidemiologic studies 

have provided consistent evidence of PM-induced increases in markers of systemic oxidative stress 

including plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), CuZn-super oxide dismutase 

(SOD), 8-oxo-7-hydrodeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), and total homocysteine. This is supported by a 

limited number of controlled human exposure studies that observed PM-induced increases in freeradical mediated lipid peroxidation, as well as upregulation of the DNA repair gene hOGG1. In 

addition, recent toxicological studies have demonstrated an increase in cardiovascular oxidative 

stress following PM exposure in rats. 

6.2.9.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

No studies of markers of oxidative stress were reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905). Since 2002, numerous studies have examined whether short-term increases in mean 

PM concentrations are associated with changes in systemic markers of oxidative stress. 

In an analysis of the randomized trial of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in Mexico City 

nursing home residents described previously (Section 6.2.1.1), Romieu et al. (2008, 156922) 

investigated the effect of this intervention on markers of systemic oxidative stress (Cu/Zn SOD 

activity, LPO in plasma and GSH in plasma). A significant decrease of Cu/Zn SOD was associated 

with a 10 μg/m3

 increase of PM2.5 in both groups (Fish oil: β = -0.17 [SE = 0.05], p = 0.002; Soy oil: 

β = -0.06 [SE = 0.02], p <0.001). A decrease in GSH was associated with a 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

PM2.5 in the fish oil group (β = -0.09 [SE = 0.04], p = 0.017). 

December 2009 6-52 
Two studies evaluated plasma homocysteine levels in relation to PM. Baccarelli et al. (2007, 

091310) investigated fasting and post-methionine load total homocysteine (tHcy) among 1,213 

normal subjects in Lombardia, Italy. Plasma homocysteine is a risk factor for CVD and a marker for 

oxidative stress. Among smokers, average PM10 level during the 24 h preceding the measurement 

was associated with 6.3% (95% CI: 1.3-11.6) and 4.9% (95% CI: 0.5-9.6) increases in fasting and 

post-methionine load tHcy, respectively. No associations were observed among non-smokers. Park 

et al. (2008, 156845) investigated the association of BC, OC, SO4

2– and PM2.5 with tHcy among 960 

male participants of the Normative Aging Study. Effect modification by folate and vitamins B6 and 

B12 was also examined. BC and OC were associated with increases in tHcy and associations were 

more pronounced in those with lower plasma folate and vitamin B12. 

In smaller studies with 25-50 healthy or diseased participants, several markers of oxidative 

stress have been associated with PM size fractions or components. These associations include 

TBARS with 24-h PM10 (Liu et al., 2006, 192002); Cu/Zn-SOD with several PM metrics (e.g., UF, 

PM10-2.5, EC, OC, BC and PNC) (Delfino et al., 2008, 156390); PM2.5, BC, V and Cr with plasma 

proteins (Sørensen et al., 2003, 157000); DNA damage assessed by 8-oxodG in lymphocytes 

(Sørensen et al., 2003, 157000), and 8-OHdG with sulfates (Chuang et al., 2007, 091063). In 

addition, a cross-sectional study of children (10-18 yr) in Iran showed an association of PM10 with 

oxidized LDL (oxLDL), malondialdehyde (MDA) and conjugated diene (CDE) (Kelishadi et al., 

2009, 191960). 

Summary of Epidemiologic Study Findings for Systemic and Cardiovascular 

Oxidative Stress 

Oxidative stress responses measured by one or more markers (plasma tHcy, CuZn-SOD, 

TBARS, 8-oxodG, oxLDL and MDA) have been consistently observed (Baccarelli et al., 2007, 

091310; Chuang et al., 2007, 091063; Delfino et al., 2008, 156390; Kelishadi et al., 2009, 191960; 

Liu et al., 2007, 156705; Romieu et al., 2008, 156922; Sørensen et al., 2003, 157000). In addition, a 

series of analyses examining the modification the PM-HRV association by genetic polymorphisms 

related to oxidative stress has provided insight into the possible mechanisms of CVD observed in 

association with PM concentrations (Section 6.2.1.1). Mean and upper percentile concentrations of 

the epidemiologic studies of systemic oxidative stress are included in Table 6-6. 

6.2.9.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Urban Traffic Particles 

Bräuner et al. (2007, 091152) recently investigated the effect of urban traffic particles on 

oxidative stress-induced damage to DNA. Healthy adults (20-40 yr) were exposed to low 

concentrations of urban traffic particles as well as filtered air for periods of 24 h, with and without 

two 90-min periods of exercise. Exposures took place in an exposure chamber above a busy road 

with high traffic density in Copenhagen. Non-filtered air was pumped into the chamber from above 

the street, with avg PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 mass concentrations of 9.7 μg/m3

 and 12.6 μg/m3, 

respectively. The UF/PM2.5 (6-700 nm) particle number concentration was continuously monitored 

throughout the exposure (avg PNC 10,067 particles/cm3). The PM2.5 fraction was rich in sulfur, V, 

Cr, Fe, and Cu. PBMCs were isolated from blood samples collected at 6 and 24 h. DNA damage, as 

measured by strand breaks (SB) and formamidopyrimidine-DNA glycosylase (FPG) sites, was 

evaluated using the Comet assay. The activity and mRNA levels of the DNA repair enzyme 

7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine-DNA glycosylase (OGG1) were also measured. The authors observed 

increased levels of DNA strand breaks and FPG sites following 6 and 24 h of exposure to PM. Using 

a mixed-effects regression model, the particle concentration at the 57 nm mode was found to be the 

major contributor of these measures of DNA damage. The results of this study suggest that shortterm (6-24 h) exposure to ambient levels of UFPs cause systemic oxidative stress resulting in 

damage to DNA. 

December 2009 6-53 
Diesel Exhaust 

Tornqvist et al. (2007, 091279) reported an increase in plasma antioxidant capacity in a group 

of healthy volunteers 24 h after a 1-h exposure to DE with a particle concentration of 300 μg/m3

. The 

investigators suggested that systemic oxidative stress occurring following exposure may have caused 

this up-regulation in antioxidant defense. Peretz et al. (2007, 156853) observed some significant 

differences in expression of genes involved in oxidative stress pathways between exposure to DE 

(200 μg/m3

 PM2.5) and filtered air. However, the conclusions of this investigation are limited by a 

small number of subjects (n = 4). 

Wood Smoke 

In a controlled human exposure study of controlled exposure to wood smoke, Barregard et al. 

(2006, 091381) found an increase in urinary excretion of free 8-iso-prostaglandin2α among healthy 

adults (n = 9) approximately 20 h following a 4-h exposure to PM2.5 (mass concentration of 

240-280 μg/m3

). This finding provides evidence of a PM-induced increase in free-radical mediated 

lipid peroxidation. From the same study, Danielsen et al. (2008, 156382) reported an increase in the 

mRNA levels of the DNA repair gene hOGG1 in peripheral mononuclear cells 20 h after exposure to 

wood smoke relative to filtered air. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Systemic and 

Cardiovascular Oxidative Stress 

Based on the results of these studies, it appears that exposure to PM at or near ambient levels 

may increase systemic oxidative stress in human subjects. 

6.2.9.3. Toxicological Studies 

Very little information was available for inclusion in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) on oxidative stress in the cardiovascular system. A few new studies have evaluated ROS in 

blood or the heart following PM exposure. Some studies have used chemiluminescence (CL), which 

is measured using the decay of excited states of molecular oxygen, and may also be prone to artifact. 

CAPs 

Gurgueira et al. (2002, 036535) measured oxidative stress in SD rats immediately following a 

5-h CAPs exposure (PM2.5 mean mass concentration 99.6-957.5 μg/m3

; Boston, MA; 7/2000-2/2001) 

and reported increased in situ CL in hearts of CAPs-exposed animals. CL evaluated after 1- and 3-h 

CAPs exposure did not demonstrate changes from the filtered air group, although a 5-h exposure 

resulted in increased CL in hearts. When animals were allowed to recover for 24 h, oxidative stress 

returned to control values. To compare potential particle-induced differences in CL, rats were 

exposed to ROFA (1.7 mg/m3

 for 30 min) or CB (170 μg/m3 for 5 h) and only the ROFA-treated 

animals exhibited increased CL in cardiac tissue. Additionally, levels of antioxidant enzymes in the 

heart (Cu/Zn-SOD and MnSOD) were increased in CAPs-exposed rats. Individual PM component 

concentrations were linked to CL levels in rat heart tissue using separate univariate linear regression 

models, with total PM mass, Al, Si, Ti, and Fe having p-values ≤ 0.007 (Gurgueira et al., 2002, 

036535). The highest R2

 value in the regression analyses was for Al (0.67) and its concentration 

ranged from 0.000 to 8.938 μg/m3

. 

Recently, Rhoden et al. (2005, 087878) tested the role of the ANS in driving CAPs-induced 

cardiac oxidative stress in heart tissues of SD rats. At PM2.5 mass concentrations of 700 μg/m3

(Boston, MA), pretreatment with an antioxidant, a β1-receptor antagonist, or a muscarinic receptor 

antagonist attenuated the CL and TBARS effects observed in the heart following a 5-h PM2.5

exposure. The wet/dry ratio (edema) of cardiac tissue also returned to control values in animals 

treated with the antioxidant prior to CAPs. These combined results indicate involvement of both the 

December 2009 6-54 
sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways in the cardiac oxidative stress response observed 

following PM exposure. 

More recently, a type of irritant receptor, the transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor 1 

(TRPV1), was identified as central to the inhaled CAPS-mediated induction of cardiac tissue CL and 

TBARS in SD rats (Ghelfi et al., 2008, 156468). In these studies (PM2.5 mean mass concentration 

218 μg/m3

; Boston, MA), capsazapine (a TRPV1 inhibitor) abrogated cardiac CL, TBARS, edema, 

and QT-interval shortening when measured at the end of the 5-h exposure. These studies provide 

some evidence that the ANS may be involved in producing cardiac oxidative stress following 

exposure to CAPs. Furthermore, this response could be acting, at least in part, via TRPV receptors. 

In WKY rats exposed to PM2.5 CAPs in Japan, relative mRNA expression of HO-1 was 

increased in cardiac tissue and was also significantly correlated with the cumulative mass of PM 

collected on chamber filters throughout the exposure (Ito et al., 2008, 096823). 

Road Dust 

A composite of PM2.5 road dust samples obtained from New York City, Los Angeles, and 

Atlanta induced cardiac ROS as measured by CL in the low exposure group (306 μg/m3

) and TBARS 

in the high exposure group (954 μg/m3); thus, the CL and TBARS methods provided different results 

for the various source types (Seagrave et al., 2008, 191990). 

Gasoline and Diesel Exhaust 

Gasoline exhaust exposure also resulted in increased ROS (measured by TBARS) in aortas of 

ApoE-/- mice, as discussed in Section 6.2.4.3 (Lund et al., 2009, 180257). Similarly, a 6-h exposure 

to gasoline exhaust (PM mass concentration 60 μg/m3

, CMD 15-20 nm; MMD 150 nm; CO 

concentration 104 ppm, NO concentration 16.7 ppm, NO2 concentration 1.1 ppm, SO2 concentration 

1.0 ppm) in SD rats demonstrated increased CL in the heart, but no change in TBARS and the CL 

response was not duplicated when the particles were filtered (Seagrave et al., 2008, 191990). 

Increased lipid peroxides in the serum of male SH rats exposed to gasoline exhaust (PM mass 

concentration 59.1 μg/m3; NO concentration 18.4 ppm; NO2 concentration 0.9 ppm; CO 

concentration 107.3 ppm; SO2 concentration 0.62 ppm) was observed following a 1-wk exposure to 

gasoline exhaust and this effect was attenuated with particle filtration (Reed et al., 2008, 156903). 

An IT instillation study of diesel particles in mice demonstrated increased myocardial MPO activity 

12 and 24 h post-exposure to the residual particle component that remained after extraction with 

dichloromethane (Yokota et al., 2008, 190109). 

Model Particles 

Other studies previously presented also demonstrated ROS (via CL) and NT expression (via 

ELISA) in the left ventricle with CB exposure (Tankersley et al., 2008, 157043) and oxidative stress 

in the systemic microvasculature following TiO2 inhalation (Nurkiewicz et al., 2009, 191961) or 

ROFA IT instillation exposure (Nurkiewicz et al., 2006, 088611). Decreased HO-1 mRNA 

expression in hearts of SH rats exposed to UF carbon particles was observed 3 days following 

exposure (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 159345) and there was a trend toward increased HO-1 mRNA 

expression 1 day post-exposure. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Systemic and Cardiovascular 

Oxidative Stress 

When considered together, the above studies provide evidence that PM exposure results in 

oxidative stress as measured in cardiac tissue by CL, TBARS, HO-1 mRNA expression, and NT 

expression. However, the PM concentration/dose and method of ROS measurement could also affect 

the response. Cardiac oxidative stress may have resulted from PM stimulation of the ANS, although 

these studies have only been conducted in one laboratory. Multiple studies from two different 

December 2009 6-55 
laboratories provide support for vascular oxidative stress as demonstrated in aortas following 

gasoline exhaust exposure and in the microvasculature after TiO2 inhalation or ROFA IT exposure. 

6.2.10. Hospital Admissions and Emergency Department Visits 

The 1996 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 1996, 079380) considered just two time-series studies 

regarding the association between daily variations in PM levels and the risk of CVD morbidity as 

measured by the number of daily hospitalizations with primary discharge diagnoses related to CVD 

(Burnett et al., 1995, 077226; Schwartz and Morris, 1995, 046186). In contrast, the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reviewed more than 25 publications relating PM and risk of CVD 

hospitalizations. Results from a handful of larger multicity studies were emphasized, with the 

greatest emphasis placed on findings from the U.S. National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution 

Study (NMMAPS) (Samet et al., 2000, 010269) and a subsequent reanalysis (Zanobetti and 

Schwartz, 2003, 157174). The NMMAPS study evaluated the effect of daily changes in ambient PM 

levels on total CVD hospitalizations among elderly Medicare beneficiaries in 14 U.S. cities and 

found a ~1% excess risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10. The 2004 PM AQCD concluded that these 

results, along with those of the other single- and multicity studies reviewed “generally appear to 

confirm likely excess risk of CVD-related hospital admissions for U.S. cities in the range of 

[0.6-1.7% per 10 μg/m3

] PM10, especially among the elderly” (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). The 2004 

PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) also concluded that there was some evidence from single-city 

studies suggesting an excess risk specifically for hospitalizations related to IHD and heart failure. 

Furthermore, the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) found that “insufficient data exist from 

the time-series CVD admissions studies [...] to provide clear guidance as to which ambient PM 

components, defined on the basis of size or composition, determine ambient PM CVD effect 

potency” (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). The key studies reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905) on this topic included those by Burnett and colleagues (1997, 084194; 1999, 017269), 

Lippman and colleagues (2000, 011938), Ito (2003, 042856), and Peters et al. (2001, 016546). 

Recent large studies conducted in the U.S., Europe, and Australia and New Zealand have 

confirmed these findings for PM10, and have also observed consistent associations between PM2.5

and cardiovascular hospitalizations. However, findings from single-city studies have demonstrated 

regional heterogeneity in effect estimates. It is apparent from these recent studies that the observed 

increases in cardiovascular hospitalizations are largely due to admissions for IHD and CHF rather 

than CBVDs (such as stroke). The new literature on hospitalizations and ED visits for cardiovascular 

causes published since 2002 is reviewed in the following sections. First, the specific CVD outcomes 

captured using ICD codes from hospital admissions databases are discussed. Second, the methods 

used in the large and multicity studies are described. For each outcome considered, evidence from 

large/multicity studies is emphasized and results from U.S. and Canadian single-city studies are also 

discussed. Although the single-city studies may lack statistical power needed to evaluate interactions 

and detect some of the subtle effects of air pollution, they inform the interpretation of the 

heterogeneous effect estimates that have been observed across North America. 

Cardiovascular Disease ICD Codes 

When the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) was written, few studies had evaluated 

the link between ambient PM and specific CVD outcomes such as CHF, IHD or ischemic stroke. In 

contrast, the majority of recent studies have focused on specific CVD outcomes. This trend is 

justified by the fact that the short-term exposure effects of PM may be very different for different 

cardiovascular outcomes. For example, given the current putative biological pathways involved in 

the acute response to PM exposure, there is no a priori reason why short-term fluctuations in PM 

levels would have similar effects on the risk of acute MI, chronic atherosclerosis of the coronary 

arteries, and hemorrhagic stroke. 

Almost all of the published time-series studies of cardiovascular hospitalizations and ED visits 

identified cases based on administrative discharge diagnosis codes as defined by the International 

Classification of Disease 9th revision (ICD-9) or 10th revision (ICD-10) (NCHS, 2007, 157194). A 

complicating factor in interpreting the results of these studies is the lack of consistency in both 

defining specific health outcomes and in the nomenclature used. 

December 2009 6-56 
Table 6-7. Description of ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes for diseases of the circulatory system. 

Description ICD-9 Codes ICD-10 Codes 

All Cardiovascular Disease 390-459 I00-I99 

IHD 410-414 I20-I25 

Acute MI 410 I21 

Diseases Of Pulmonary Circulation 415-417 I26-I28 

CHF 428 I50 

Arrhythmia 427 I47, I48, I49 

CBVD 430-438 I60-I69 

Ischemic Stroke And Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) 430-432 I63 

Hemorrhagic Stroke 433-435 I60-I62 

Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) 440-448 I70-I79 

Table 6-7 shows major groups of diagnostic codes used in air pollution studies for diseases of 

the circulatory system. The codes ICD-9: 390-459 are frequently used to identify all CVD morbidity. 

Note that this definition of CVD includes diseases of the heart and coronary circulation, CBVD, and 

peripheral vascular disease. In contrast, the term cardiac disease specifically excludes diseases not 

involving the heart or coronary circulation. While this distinction is conceptually straightforward, the 

implementation of the definition of cardiac disease in terms of ICD-9 or ICD-10 codes varies among 

authors. Even greater heterogeneity can be found among studies in the implementation of definitions 

related to CBVD. 

Design and Methods of Large and Multicity Hospital Admission and ED Visit 

Studies 

Recently, multiple research groups in the U.S., Europe, and Australia have created large 

datasets to evaluate specific CVD and respiratory endpoints using more detailed and relevant 

measures of PM concentration. In the U.S., the MCAPS analyses of Dominici et al. (2006, 088398), 

Bell et al. (2008, 156266) and Peng et al. (2008, 156850) are large, comprehensive and informative 

studies based on Medicare hospitalization data. Likewise, the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study (Metzger 

et al., 2004, 044222; Peel et al., 2005, 056305; Tolbert et al., 2007, 090316) is the largest and most 

comprehensive study of U.S. cardiovascular and respiratory ED visits. In Europe, the APHEA 

initiative (Le Tertre et al., 2002, 023746; Le Tertre et al., 2003, 042820) the more recent HEAPSS 

study (Von Klot et al., 2005, 088070), and the French PSAS program (Host et al., 2008, 155852; 

Larrieu et al., 2007, 093031) are similarly noteworthy for their large sample size, geographic 

diversity, and consideration of specific CVD and/or respiratory endpoints. These studies contain 

adequate data to examine interactions by season and region; the effects of different size fractions, 

components and sources of PM; or the effect of PM on susceptible populations. The following 

section provides a detailed review of the study design and methods used by each of the large studies. 

A discussion of the results of each study can be found later in Section 6.2.10. 

MCAPS: Medicare Air Pollution Study 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) created a database of daily time-series of hospital admission 

rates (1999-2002) for a range of cardiovascular and respiratory outcomes among Medicare 

beneficiaries aged ≥65 yr, ambient PM2.5 levels, and meteorological variables for 204 U.S. urban 

counties. The specific CVD outcomes considered were: CBVD (ICD-9: 430-438), peripheral 

vascular disease (440-448), IHD (410-414, 429), heart rhythm disturbances (426, 427), and CHF 

December 2009 6-57 
(428). Injuries (800-849) were evaluated as a control outcome. Gaseous and other particulate 

pollutant size fractions were not considered. 

Data on PM2.5 were obtained from the AQS database of the U.S. EPA. Within each county, 

associations between cause-specific hospitalization rates and same-day PM2.5 levels were evaluated 

using Poisson regression models controlling for long-term temporal trends and meteorologic 

conditions with natural cubic splines. County-specific results were subsequently averaged using 

Bayesian hierarchical models. In addition to evaluating single-day lags, 3-day distributed lag models 

(lags 0, 1, and 2 days) were also considered in a subset of 90 U.S. counties with daily PM2.5 data 

available during the study time period. 

Subsequently, Peng et al. (2008, 156850) and Bell et al. (2008, 156266) extended the database 

of daily time-series of hospital admissions, PM2.5, and other covariates for 202 U.S. counties through 

2005. Importantly, Peng et al. (2008, 156850) added data on PM10-2.5 to this database for 108 U.S. 

counties with one or more co-located PM2.5 and PM10 monitors. Analyses with PM10-2.5 were carried 

out using similar methods to those of Dominici et al. (2006, 088398). Peng et al. (2008, 156850) 

evaluated the robustness of PM2.5 associations to adjustment for PM10-2.5 (Peng et al., 2008, 156850). 

Gaseous pollutants were not considered in these analyses. 

SOPHIA: Study of Particulates and Health in Atlanta 

SOPHIA investigators (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222; Peel et al., 2005, 056305; Tolbert et al., 

2000, 010320) compiled data on 4,407,535 ED visits between 1993 and 2000 to 31 hospitals in the 

Atlanta metropolitan statistical area (20 counties). Specific cardiovascular outcomes considered 

were: IHD (ICD-9: 410-414), acute MI (410), cardiac dysrhythmias (427), cardiac arrest (427.5), 

CHF (428), peripheral vascular and CBVD (433-437, 440, 443-444, 451-453), atherosclerosis (440), 

and stroke (436). Finger wounds (883.0) were evaluated as a control outcome. 

The air quality data included measurements of criteria pollutants (PM and gaseous pollutants) 

for the entire study period, as well as detailed measurements of mass concentrations for PM2.5 and 

PM10-2.5 and several physical and chemical characteristics of PM2.5 for the final 25 mo of the study 

using data from the ARIES monitoring station. Rates of ED visits for specific causes were assessed 

in relation to the 3-day ma (lags 0-2 days) of daily measures of air pollutants using Poisson 

generalized linear models (GLMs) controlling for long-term temporal trends and meteorologic 

conditions with cubic splines. Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) published interim results of this study in 

relation to both cardiovascular and respiratory disease visits, Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) 

published the main results for CVD visits, and Peel et al. (2005, 056305) published the main results 

for respiratory conditions. An analysis of co-morbid conditions that may make individuals more 

susceptible to PM-related cardiovascular risk was carried out by Peel et al. (2007, 090442). Tolbert 

et al. (2007, 090316) extended the available data through 2002 and compared results from single and 

multipollutant models, while Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) evaluated the risk of ED visits for 

cardiovascular and respiratory diseases in relation to specific sources of ambient PM using the 

extended dataset. 

APHEA and APHEA-2: Air Pollution and Health: a European Approach 

APHEA-2 investigators compiled daily data on cardiovascular (Le Tertre et al., 2002, 023746; 

2003, 042820) and respiratory (Atkinson et al., 2001, 021959; 2003, 042797) disease hospital 

admissions in the following 8 European locations: Barcelona, Birmingham, London, Milan, the 

Netherlands (considered a “city” for this study, due to its small size and dense population), Paris, 

Rome, and Stockholm. (The publications on respiratory diseases were reviewed in the 2004 PM 

AQCD). The specific CVD outcomes considered in each city were: cardiac diseases (ICD-9: 

390-429), IHD (410-413) and CBVDs (430-438). Routine registers in all cities provided daily data 

on hospitalizations. Only emergency hospitalizations were considered, except in Milan, Paris, and 

Rome where only general admissions data were available. 

Ambient PM10 levels were available in all cities except Paris (PM13 used), and Milan and 

Rome (TSP used). Data on gaseous pollutants (NO2, SO2, CO, and O3) were also available in most 

cities. Five of the eight cities provided data on black smoke (BS). The length of the available 

time-series varied by city but generally spanned from the early to mid-1990s. 

Within each city, associations between cause-specific hospitalization rates and same-day PM2.5

levels were evaluated using Poisson GAMs controlling for long-term temporal trends and 

meteorologic conditions. City-specific results were subsequently averaged using standard 

December 2009 6-58 
meta-analytic methods. The original analyses (Atkinson et al., 2001, 021959; Le Tertre et al., 2002, 

023746) were carried out using general additive models (GAM) and LOESS smoothers. Following 

reports of problems associated with using the default convergence criteria in the standard S-plus 

GAM procedure (Dominici et al., 2002, 030458), study authors reanalyzed the data on cardiac 

admissions using GAMs and stricter convergence criteria, and GLMs with natural splines and 

penalized splines (Atkinson et al., 2003, 042797; Le Tertre et al., 2003, 042820). The authors found 

that the results of the original analyses were insensitive to the choice of convergence criteria and that 

the use of GLMs with penalized splines yielded very similar results. 

HEAPSS: Health Effects of Air Pollution among Susceptible Subpopulations 

HEAPSS investigators collected data on patients hospitalized for a first MI in five European 

cities between 1992 and 2000. Patients were identified from MI registers in Augsburg and 

Barcelona, and from hospital discharge registers in Helsinki, Rome and Stockholm. Data on daily 

levels of PM10, were measured at central monitoring sites in each city. Particle number concentration 

was measured for a year in each city and then modeled retrospectively for the whole study period. 

Associations of outcomes with gaseous criteria pollutants were also evaluated. 

Von Klot et al. (2005, 088070) identified 22,006 survivors of a first MI in the five participating 

European cities and collected data on subsequent first cardiac re-hospitalizations between 1992 and 

2001. Readmissions of interest were those with primary diagnoses of acute MI, angina pectoris, or 

cardiac disease (which additionally includes dysrhythmias and CHF). Within each city, associations 

between cause-specific hospitalization rates and same-day levels of PM10 were evaluated using 

Poisson GAMs controlling for long-term temporal trends and meteorologic conditions using 

penalized splines. City-specific results were combined using standard meta-analytic methods. 

Subsequently, Lanki et al. (2006, 089788) used HEAPSS data from 26,854 patients to evaluate the 

association between daily PM10 and particle number concentrations and the risk of hospitalization for 

first MI. 

PSAS: The French National Program on Air Pollution Health Effects 

Larrieu et al. (2007, 093031) evaluated the association between PM10 and the risk of 

hospitalization in eight French cities between 1998 and 2003. The cities examined were: Bordeaux, 

Le Havre, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Paris, Rouen and Toulouse. The specific CVD outcomes 

considered in each city included: total CVD (ICD-10: I00-I99), cardiac disease (I00-I52), IHD 

(I20-I25) and stroke (I60-I64, G45-G46). The available data did not differentiate between emergency 

and non-emergency hospitalizations. Daily mean PM10 and NO2 levels as well as 8-h max O3 levels 

were obtained from a network of monitors in each city. 

Within each city, associations between cause-specific hospitalization rates and 2-day ma (lag 

0-1 days) levels of PM10 were evaluated using Poisson GAMs controlling for long-term temporal 

trends and meteorologic conditions using penalized splines. City-specific results were combined 

using standard meta-analytic methods. Host et al. (2008, 155852) used a subset of these data (6 

cities, 2000-2003) to compare the effects of PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 on the risk of cardiovascular and 

respiratory admissions. CVD outcomes assessed in this analysis were all CVD (ICD-10 I00-I99), 

cardiac disease (I00-I52) and IHD (I20-I25). PM2.5 levels were obtained from the same network of 

background monitors described above. PM10-2.5 was calculated by subtracting PM2.5 levels from PM10

levels. Gaseous pollutants and hospital admissions for stroke were not considered in this analysis. 

Multicity Studies in Australia and New Zealand 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) collected data on daily CVD emergency hospital admissions 

among older adults and pollution data between 1998 and 2001 in five Australian cities (Brisbane, 

Canberra, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney) and two cities in New Zealand (Auckland, Christchurch). In 

2001, these cities covered 53% of the Australian population and 44% of the New Zealand 

population. The specific outcomes considered in each city were: all circulatory diseases (ICD-9 

390-429, ICD-10 I00-I99 with exclusions); CHF (ICD-9 428, ICD-10 I50); arrhythmia (ICD-9 427 

ICD-10 I46-49); cardiac disease (ICD-9 390-429, ICD-10 I00-I52, I97.0, I97.1, I98.1); IHD (ICD-9 

410-413, ICD-10 I20-24, I25.2); acute MI (ICD-9 410, ICD-10 I21-22); and stroke (ICD-9 430-438, 

ICD-10 I60-66, I67, I68, I69, G45-46 with exclusions). 

December 2009 6-59 
Air pollutants considered were 24-h avg PM10, 24-h avg PM2.5, BSP and gaseous pollutants. 

Within each city, associations between cause-specific hospitalization rates and 2-day ma (lags 

0-1 days) of PM10 were evaluated using the time-stratified case-crossover approach which controls 

for long-term and seasonal time trends by design rather than analytically. City-specific results were 

combined using random effects meta-analytic methods. 

EMECAS: Spanish Multicentric Study on the Relation between Air Pollution and Health 

Ballester et al. (2006, 088746) collected data on daily cardiovascular emergency hospital 

admission and air pollution data between approximately 1995 and 1999 in 14 cities in Spain. The 

specific outcomes considered in each city were: total CVD (ICD-9: 390-459) and heart diseases 

(410-414, 427, 428). Air pollutants considered were PM10, TSP, BS, SO2, NO2 (24-h avg), CO and 

O3 (8-h max). 

Within each city, associations between cause-specific hospitalization rates and daily levels of 

each pollutant metric were evaluated using Poisson GAMs with strict convergence criteria. In all 

models, pollutants were entered as linear continuous variables and included control for confounding 

by meteorological variables, influenza rates, long-term time trends, and unusual events. The authors 

considered both distributed lag models (lags 0-3 days) and the 2-day ma of pollution (lags 0-1 days). 

City-specific results were combined using standard meta-analytic methods. 

6.2.10.1. All Cardiovascular Disease 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) incorporated the results of a large number of 

time-series studies in the U.S. and elsewhere relating ambient PM levels and risk of hospitalization 

for CVD. The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) noted that the strongest evidence for this 

association came from the NMMAPS study (Samet et al., 2000, 010269) and the subsequent 

reanalysis by Zanobetti and Schwartz (2003, 157174). 

Since then, the U.S. MCAPS study evaluated the association between PM2.5 and risk of CVD 

hospitalization in 202 U.S. counties between 1999 and 2005 and found a 0.8% (95% posterior 

interval (PI): 0.6-1.0) increase in risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 on the same day (Bell et al., 

2008, 156266; Peng et al., 2008, 156850). In 108 U.S. counties with co-located PM10 and PM10-2.5

monitors, Peng et al. found a 0.4% (95% PI, 0.1- 0.7, lag 0) increase in risk per 10 μg/m3

 PM10-2.5

and no associations at lags of 1 and 2 days (Peng et al., 2008, 156850). In a two-pollutant model 

adjusted for PM2.5, the association between PM10-2.5 and CVD hospitalization lost precision (0.3% 

[95% PI: −0.1 to 0.6, lag 0]). Bell et al. (2008, 156266) found evidence of substantial and 

statistically significant variability in the effects of PM2.5 on cardiovascular hospitalizations by season 

and region, with the highest national average estimates occurring in the winter and the highest 

regional estimates in the northeastern U.S. (1.08% [95% PI: 0.79-1.37, lag 0, per 10 μg/m3

 increase 

in PM2.5]). Estimates for the nation (1.49% [95% PI: 1.09-1.89, lag 0]) and northeast (2.01% [95% 

PI: 1.39-2.63, lag 0]) were highest in the winter. 

Bell et al. (2009, 191997) and Peng et al. (2009, 191998) used data from the MCAPS study 

and the EPA’s Speciation Trends Network (STN) to identify the components of PM2.5 that are most 

strongly associated with hospitalizations for CVD. Peng et al. (2009, 191998) focused on the 

components that make up the majority of PM2.5 mass (SO4

2–, NO3–

, Si, EC, OC, Na+ and NH4

+

) and 

found that in multipollutant models, only EC and OC were significantly associated with risk of 

hospitalization for CVD. Bell et al. (2009, 191997) used data from 20 PM2.5 components and found 

that EC, Ni, and V were most positively and significantly associated with the risk of cardiovascular 

hospitalizations. These results suggest that the observed associations between PM2.5 and CVD 

hospitalizations may be primarily due to particles from oil combustion and traffic. 

Additional evidence is provided by several large multicity studies conducted outside of the 

U.S. The European APHEA2 study (Le Tertre et al., 2002, 023746) looked at admissions for CVD 

among those aged ≥65 and found a 0.7% (95% CI: 0.4-1.0, lag 0-1 day avg) increase in risk per 

10 μg/m3

 PM10. The Spanish EMECAS study (Ballester et al., 2006, 088746) looked at admissions 

for CVD and found a 0.9% (95% CI: 0.4-1.5, lag 0-1 day avg) increase in risk per 10 μg/m3

 PM10. 

The French PSAS program looked at CVD hospitalizations among the elderly and found a 1.9% 

(95% CI: 0.9-3.0, lag 0-1 day avg) increase in risk with a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 and a 1.1% 

(95% CI: 0.5-1.7) increase in risk with PM10 (Host et al., 2008, 155852; Larrieu et al., 2007, 

093031). Non-significant increases in CVD hospital admissions association with PM10-2.5 were 

December 2009 6-60 
reported (1.0% [95% CI: -1.0 to 3.0]) (Host et al., 2008, 155852). In multiple cities across New 

Zealand and Australia, Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) found a 1.3% (95% CI: 0.6-2.0, lag 0-1 day avg) 

increase in risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5. The Atlanta-based SOPHIA study found a 3.3% (95% CI: 1.0-5.6, lag 0-2 day avg) and a 0.9% 

(95% CI: -0.2 to 1.9, lag 0-2 day avg) increase in risk with a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 and PM10, 

respectively (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222). In a more recent analysis from this study with an 

additional four years of data, ED visits for CVD were not significantly associated with PM10 or 

PM2.5, but were significantly associated with total carbon (1.6% [95% CI: 0.5-2.6, per IQR 

increase]), EC (1.5% [95% CI: 0.5-2.5, per IQR increase]) and OC (1.5% [95% CI: 0.5-2.6, per IQR 

increase]) components of PM2.5 (2007, 090316). A weak non-significant association PM10-2.5 was 

observed in these data (Tolbert et al., 2007, 090316) More recently, Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) used 

multiple source-apportionment methods to evaluate the association between all CVD ED visits and 

specific PM2.5 sources and found consistent positive associations with sources related to motor 

vehicles and biomass combustion. These results were insensitive to the source-apportionment 

technique used. It is noteworthy that other traffic-related gaseous pollutants were associated with 

CVD ED visits in the SOPHIA study (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222). 

Using meta-regression techniques and the reported association between PM10 and CVD 

hospitalizations from the 14 cities included in the NMMAPS analysis, Janssen et al. (2002, 016743) 

examined whether the between-city variability in relative risk estimates were related to the local 

contribution of a number of PM sources. The authors found that in multivariate analyses PM10

coefficients increased significantly with increasing percentage of PM10 emissions from highway 

vehicles/diesels and oil combustion. 

A small number of additional single-city studies have been published showing positive 

associations between hospital admissions and ambient PM in Copenhagen, Denmark (Andersen et 

al., 2007, 093201), weak nonsignificant associations in Spokane, WA (Schreuder et al., 2006, 

097959; Slaughter et al., 2005, 073854), and no associations in two small counties in Idaho (Ulirsch 

et al., 2007, 091332). Schreuder et al. (2006, 097959) performed a source apportionment analysis 

using seven years of daily speciation data from the same residential monitor in Spokane, WA used by 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854). These authors related daily levels of four sources (wood smoke, an 

As-rich source, motor vehicle emissions, and airborne soil) to the excess risk of cardiovascular ED 

visits. During the heating season, the only notable association for CVD-related ED visits was with 

wood smoke, while in the non-heating season the only notable association was with airborne soil. 

While neither of these associations reached statistical significance, the study likely lacked the 

statistical power to find effects of the expected magnitude. In fact, it is doubtful that studies 

conducted outside of large metropolitan areas have sufficient statistical power to detect associations 

of the expected magnitude. Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) evaluated the effects of the 2003 California 

wildfires and observed a slightly larger excess risk of total CVD admissions during the wildfire 

period compared to the period prior to the wildfire, although excess risk estimates were generally 

weak and non-significant. 

Studies in several cities in Australia have investigated the association of CVD admissions with 

PM concentration and sources. A study from Sydney, Australia found a 1.8% (95% CI: 0.4-3.2) and 

0.3% (95% CI: -0.8 to 1.4) excess risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in the 2-day ma (lags 0-1 days) in 

PM2.5 and PM10, respectively (Jalaludin et al., 2006, 189416). Johnston et al. (2007, 155882) and 

Hanigan et al. (2008, 156518) studied the association between PM10 and cardiovascular and 

respiratory hospitalizations in Darwin, Australia, where the predominant source of PM is from 

biomass combustion. The authors found little or no evidence of an association between PM10 and 

CVD hospital admissions in the general population. 

Crustal material has also been investigated in an effort to explain associations of PM 

concentration with CVD admissions. Studies of a dust storm in the Gobi desert that transported PM 

across the Pacific Ocean reaching the western U.S. in the spring of 1998 have been conducted. An 

analysis of the health impacts of this event on the population of British Columbia’s (Canada) Lower 

Fraser Valley found no excess risk of cardiac or respiratory hospital admissions despite hourly PM10

levels >100 μg/m3

 (Bennett et al., 2006, 088061). On the other hand, a number of studies in Asia and 

eastern Europe have reported associations between CVD hospital admissions and dust storm events. 

Middleton et al. (2008, 156760) found that dust storms in Cyprus were associated with a 4.7% (95% 

CI: 0.7-9.0) and 10.4% (95% CI: -4.7 to 27.9) increase in risk of hospitalization for all causes and 

CVD, respectively. Chan et al. (2008, 093297) studied the effects of Asian dust storms on 

cardiovascular hospital admissions in Taipei, Taiwan and also found significant adverse effects 

December 2009 6-61 
during 39 Asian dust events with high PM10 levels (daily PM10 >90 μg/m3

). Bell et al. (2008, 

091268) analyzed these data independently and concluded that Asian dust storms were positively 

associated with risk of hospitalization for IHD. 

Study Location Lag Covariates Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

0 65+ Overall PM2.5

0 65+ NE 

0 65+, Winter 

Bell et al. (2008, 156266) 202 Counties, US 

0 65+ NE Winter 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 65+ 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) 7 Cities, Australia/NZ 0-1 65+ 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA 1 All Ages 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) CA 0-1 All Ages, Wildfires 

0 65+ PM10-2.5

1 65+ 

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) 108 Counties, US 

2 65+ 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 65+ 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages 

Zanobetti & Schwartz (2003, 043119) 10 Cities, US 0-1 65+ PM10

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) Atlanta, GA 0-2 All ages 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages 

Ballester et al. (2006, 088746) 14 Cities, Spain 0-1 65+ 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332) Pocatello, Chubbuck, ID 0 50+ 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA 1 All ages 

Le Tertre et al. (2002, 023746) 8 Cities, Europe 0-1 65+ 

* ED Visits 

 Excess Risk Estimate 

Figure 6-1. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10 

concentration for CVD ED visits and HAs. Studies represented in the 

figure include all multicity studies, as well as single-city studies conducted in the 

U.S. or Canada. 

The effect estimates from multicity studies and single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and 

Canada are included in Figure 6-1. Information on PM concentrations during the relevant study 

period is presented in Table 6-8. In summary, large studies from the U.S., Europe, and Australia/New 

Zealand published since the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provide support for an 

association between short-term increases in ambient levels of PM2.5 and PM10 and increased risk of 

hospitalization for total CVD. The evidence for an association of CVD hospitalization with PM10-2.5

is relatively limited. Peng et al. (2008, 156850) reported that their PM10-2.5 estimate was not robust to 

adjustment for PM2.5 and estimates from the other studies are imprecise. The average excess risk 

among the U.S. elderly is likely in the range of 0.5-1.0% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5, although 

substantial variability by region of the country and season has been demonstrated. An excess risk of 

ED visits for CVD of a similar magnitude appears likely. The excess risk of CVD hospitalization 

may be somewhat greater in Europe and Australia/New Zealand than in the U.S. Sources including 

wood burning, oil burning, traffic and crustal material have been associated with increases in 

cardiovascular hospitalization or ED visits, but the best evidence suggests that in the U.S., oil 

combustion, wood burning, and traffic are likely the sources of PM2.5 most strongly associated with 

cardiovascular hospitalizations or ED visits. 

December 2009 6-62 
Table 6-8. Characterization of ambient PM concentrations in epidemiologic studies of hospital 

admission and ED visits for cardiovascular diseases. 

Pollutant Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

Concentration (μg/m3) 

PM2.5 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) 7 cities in Australia 8.1-11.0 NR 

Bell et al. (2008, 156266) 202 counties in the U.S. 12.92 34.16 

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto Canada 18 95th: 34.0, Max: 90 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 204 counties in the U.S. 13.4 NR 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 counties CA 18.4-32.7 45.3-76.1 (wildfire period) 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 cities in France 13.8-18.8 95th: 25-33 

Ito et al. (2003, 042856); Lippman (2000, 011938) Detroit, MI 18 98th: 55.2 

Lisabeth et al. (2008, 155939) 7 75th: 10 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) Atlanta, GA 17.8 

90th: 32.3 

98th: 39.8 

Pope et al. (2006, 091246) Wasatch Front, Utah 10.1-11.3 Max: 82-144 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA NR 90th: 20.2 

Sullivan et al. (2005, 050854) King County, WA 12.8 90th 27.3, Max: 147 

Symons et al. (2006, 091258) Baltimore, MD 16 Max: 69.2 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 17.1 98th: 38.7 

Villenueve et al. (2006, 090191) Edmonton, Canada 8.5 75th: 11 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2005, 088069) Boston, MA 11.1 (median) 

95th: 26.31 

98th: 55.2 

PM10-2.5

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Canada 12.2 Max: 68 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 cities in France 7-11 95th: 12.5-21.0 

Ito et al. (2003, 042856); Lippman (2000, 011938) Detroit, MI 13 Max: 50 

Le Tertre et al. (2002, 023746) 8 cities in Europe NR NR 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) Atlanta, GA 9.1 90th: 16.2 

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) 204 cities in the U.S. 9.8 (Median) 75th: 15.0 

Peters et al. (2001, 016546) Boston, MA 7.4 95th: 15.2 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA NR NR 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 9 Max: 50.3 

PM10

Ballester et al. (2006, 088746) 14 cities in Spain 32.8-43.2 90th: 50.3-62.6 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) 7 cities in Australia and New 

Zealand 16.5-20.6 NR 

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Canada 30.2 95th: 56.0 

Ito et al. (2003, 042856); Lippman (2000, 011938) Detroit, MI 31 NR 

Jalaludin et al. (2006, 189416) Sydney, Australia 16.8 

75th: 19.9 

Max: 103.9 

Larrieu et al. (2007, 093031) 8 cities in France 21.0-28.9 NR 

Le Tertre et al. (2002, 023746) 8 cities in Europe Range: 15.5-55.7 Range 75th: 19.9-66 

December 2009 6-63 
Pollutant Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

Concentration (μg/m3) 

Linn et al. (2000, 002839) Los Angeles, California 45 78 (summer) -132 (fall) 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) Atlanta, GA 26.3 90th: 44.7 

Morris et al. (1998, 024924) Chicago, Illinois 41 

75th: 51 

Max: 117 

Peters et al. (2001, 016546) Boston, MA 19.4 95th: 37.0 

Schwartz et al. (1995, 046186) Detroit, MI 48 90th: 82 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA NR 90th: 41.9 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 26.6 Max: 98.4 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332)* 2 cities in southeast Idaho 24.2/23.2 90th: 40.7/37.4 

Wellenius et al. (2005, 087483) Pittsburgh, PA 31.1 95th: 70.5 

Wellenius et al. (2005, 088685) 9 cities in the U.S. 28.4 (median) 90th: 57.9 

Wellenius et al. (2006, 088748) 7 cities in the U.S. 28.3 (median) 90th: 57 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2005, 088069) Boston, MA 28.4 (median) 90th: 53.6 

*Results presented separately for 2 separate time series 

6.2.10.2. Cardiac Diseases 

Cardiac disease represents a subset of CVD which specifically excludes hospitalizations for 

CBVD, peripheral vascular disease, and other circulatory diseases not involving the heart or 

coronary circulation. Only a small number of studies published since the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) have evaluated the association between ambient PM and hospitalizations 

for cardiac diseases, as most investigators have focused instead on more narrowly defined outcomes. 

The French PSAS program found a 2.4% (95% CI: 1.2-3.7, lag 0-1) and 1.5% (95% CI: 

0.5-2.2, lag 0-1) excess risk among the elderly per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 and PM10, 

respectively (Host et al., 2007, 155851; Larrieu et al., 2007, 093031). Host et al. (2008, 155852) also 

found a positive less precise association with PM10-2.5, (excess relative risk per 10 μg/m3

: 1.6% [95% 

CI: -0.8 to 4.1]). The European HEAPSS study looked at cardiac readmissions among survivors of a 

first MI and found a 2.1% (95% CI: 0.4-3.9, lag 0) excess risk per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10

(Von Klot et al., 2005, 088070). A 1.9% (95% CI: 1.0-2.7, lag 0-1) excess risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase 

in PM2.5 was observed in several cities in Australia and New Zealand (Barnett et al., 2006, 089770). 

Single-city studies of hospital admissions from Kaohsiung and Taipei, Taiwan, and an ED visit study 

from Sydney, Australia also reported statistically significant positive associations(Chang et al., 2005, 

080086; Jalaludin et al., 2006, 189416; Yang et al., 2004, 094376). On the other hand, Slaughter 

et al. (2005, 073854) found no association between either PM2.5 or PM10 and risk of cardiac 

hospitalization in Spokane, Washington. 

In summary, although relatively few studies have focused on all cardiac diseases, large studies 

from Europe and Australia/New Zealand published since the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) report positive associations between short-term increases in ambient levels of PM2.5, PM10-2.5, and PM10 and increased risk of hospitalization for cardiac disease. The results from small 

single-city studies are less consistent. The excess risk for cardiac hospitalizations may be somewhat 

larger than for total CVD hospitalizations. 

6.2.10.3. Ischemic Heart Disease 

IHD represents a subset of all cardiac disease hospitalizations and typically includes acute MI 

(ICD 9: 410), other acute and subacute forms of IHD (411), old MI (412), angina pectoris (413), and 

other forms of chronic IHD (414). Some authors term this category coronary heart disease. Published 

studies evaluating IHD as a single outcome are considered first, followed by consideration of studies 

looking at acute MI, a specific form of IHD. 

In one of the first studies to evaluate IHD, Schwartz and Morris (1995, 046186) reported a 

0.6% (95% CI: 0.2-1.0) excess risk of hospitalization for IHD per 10 μg/m3

 increase in mean PM10

December 2009 6-64 
levels over the previous two days among elderly Medicare beneficiaries living in Detroit between 

1986 and 1989. As reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), similar associations 

were subsequently observed in many single-city studies including: London, England (Atkinson et al., 

1999, 007882), Toronto, Canada (Burnett et al., 1999, 017269), and Seoul, Korea (Lee et al., 2003, 

095552). Studies in Hong Kong (Wong et al., 1999, 009172; Wong et al., 2002, 023232), 

Birmingham, England (Anderson et al., 2001, 017033), and London, England (Wong et al., 2002, 

023232) yielded positive point estimates of a similar magnitude, but did not reach statistical 

significance. 

The positive associations between short-term changes in PM and IHD hospitalizations 

observed in the early single-city studies have been confirmed in several large multicity studies. The 

U.S. MCAPS study (Dominici et al., 2006, 088398) found a 0.4% (95% CI: 0.0-0.8) excess risk of 

hospitalization for IHD per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 two days earlier. The European APHEA-2 

study (Le Tertre et al., 2002, 023746) considered PM10 and found a 0.8% (95% CI: 0.3-1.2, lag 0-1) 

excess risk among those aged ≥65 yr. Among the elderly in 5 cities in Australia and New Zealand 

(Barnett et al., 2006, 089770) there was a 4.3% (95% CI: 1.9-6.4, lag 0-1) excess risk per 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5. Among the elderly in several French cities there was a 4.5% (95% CI: 2.3-6.8, lag 

0-1), 6.4% (95% CI: 1.6-11.4, lag 0-1) and 2.9% (95% CI: 1.5-4.3, lag 0-1) excess risk per 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5, PM10-2.5 (Host et al., 2008, 155852), and PM10, respectively (Larrieu et al., 2007, 

093031). 

With regard to ED visits, the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222) 

found positive associations with PM2.5 and PM10 (ranging from 1.1 to 2.3%), but the effect estimates 

did not reach statistical significance. Similarly, associations of EC and OC with IHD were increased 

but not significant. In 6 cities across Canada, Szyszkowicz (2009, 191996) observed a 2.4% (95% 

CI: 1.2-3.6) and 1.4% (95% CI: 0.7-2.0) excess risk of ED visits for angina per 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

same-day PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. Although excess risks were generally weak and nonsignificant, Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) observed a slightly larger excess risk of IHD during 

wildfires compared to the pre-wildfire period. In Sydney, Australia, Jalaludin et al. (2006, 189416) 

found a 2.6% (95% CI: 0.1-5.2) and 0.8% (95% CI: -1.2 to 2.8) excess risk of ED visits for IHD per 

10 μg/m3 increase in 2-day ma of PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. A recent study in Helsinki, Finland, 

found no evidence of an association of IHD hospital admissions with UFP, ACP, PM2.5, PM10-2.5, or 

source-specific PM2.5 (Halonen et al., 2009, 180379). 

To explore this link further, Pope et al. (2006, 091246) used data from an ongoing registry of 

patients undergoing coronary angiography at a single referral center in Salt Lake City, UT, between 

1994-2004. The authors found a 4.8% (95% CI: 1.0-8.8, lag 0) excess risk of acute MI or unstable 

angina per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 among 4,818 patients. These results were robust to changes in 

the definition of the outcome. The results of this study are particularly noteworthy given the high 

specificity of the outcome definition. 

In summary, large studies from the U.S., Europe, and Australia/New Zealand published since 

the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provide support for an association between 

short-term increases in ambient levels of PM10 and PM2.5 and increased risk of hospitalization or ED 

visits for ischemic heart diseases. Although estimates are less precise for PM10-2.5, most results from 

single pollutant models provide evidence of a positive association between PM10-2.5 and IHD. 

Moreover, Host et al. (2008, 155852) found that the effect estimates for the association of PM2.5 and 

PM10-2.5 with IHD were very similar when scaled to the IQR of each metric. Estimates of the excess 

risk vary considerably between studies, but as was the case for total CVD hospitalizations, the excess 

risk appears to somewhat greater in Europe and Australia/New Zealand. Results from multicity 

studies and U.S. and Canadian single-city studies are presented in Figure 6-2. 

December 2009 6-65 
Study Location Lag Age Effect Estimate (95% CI)

ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 1 65+ PM2.5

Pope et al. (2006, 091246) Utah Valley, UT 0 All 

Host et al. (2007, 155851) 6 Cities, France 0-1 All 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA 0-3 All 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 15-64 

0 65+ 

1 65+ 

2 65+ 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 204 Counties, US 

0-2 DL 65+ 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 65+ 

Host et al. (2007, 155851) 6 Cities, France 0-1 65+ 

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Can 0,1 All 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 Counties, CA 

(Wildfires) 

0,1 All 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 1 65+ PM10-2.5

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA 0-3 All 

Host et al. (2007, 155851) 6 Cities, France 0-1 All 

0-1 65+ 

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Can 0 All 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 1 65+ PM10

Le Tertre et al. (2002, 023746) 8 Cities, Europe 0-1 <65 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All 

Larrieu et al. (2007, 093031) 8 Cities, France 0-1 All 

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Can 0-1 All 

Le Tertre et al. (2002, 023746) 8 Cities, Europe 0-1 65+ 

Jalaludin et al. (2006, 189416)* Sydney, Australia 0-1 65+ 

Larrieu et al. (2007, 093031) 8 Cities, France 0-1 65+ 

MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION PM2.5

Peters et al. (2001, 016546) Boston, MA 2 h 61.6 Mean 

24 h 61.6 Mean 

1 h 21-98 

2 h 21-98 

4 h 21-98 

Sullivan et al. (2005, 050854) King County, WA 

24 h 21-98 

Zanobetti & Schwartz (2006, 090195) Boston, MA 0 65+ 

PM10-2.5

Peters et al. (2001, 016546) Boston, MA 2 h 61.6 Mean 

24 h 61.6 Mean 

Linn et al. (2000, 002839) Los Angeles, CA 0 >30 PM10

Peters et al. (2001, 016546) Boston, MA 2 h 61.6 Mean 

24 h 61.6 Mean 

Zanobetti & Schwartz (2005, 088069) 21 Cities, US 0 65+ 

 * ED Visits 

 DL Distributed Lag Excess Risk (%) 

Figure 6-2. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg (unless otherwise noted) 

PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10 concentration for MI and IHD ED visits and HAs. Studies 

represented in the figure include all multi-city studies as well as single-city 

studies conducted in U.S. or Canada. 

December 2009 6-66 
6.2.10.4. Acute Myocardial Infarction 

Because even IHD refers to a heterogeneous collection of diseases and syndromes, several 

authors have evaluated the association between short-term fluctuations in ambient PM and acute MI, 

a specific form of IHD. 

In 2001, Peters et al. (2001, 016546) published their study evaluating the effects of PM on the 

risk of MI among 772 Boston-area participants in the Determinants of MI Onset Study. The authors 

found that a 10 μg/m3

 increase in the 2-h or 24-h avg levels of PM2.5 was associated with a 17% 

(95% CI: 4-32) and 27% (95% CI: 6-53) excess risk of MI, respectively. An imprecise, nonsignificant association between PM10-2.5 and onset of MI was observed in Boston. In contrast, a study 

among 5793 patients in King County, WA that used similar methods, found no association with PM2.5

with lag times of 1, 2, 4, or 24 h (Sullivan et al., 2005, 050854). Among 852 hospitalized patients in 

Augsburg, Germany, Peters et al. (2005, 087759) also found no association between PM2.5 and MI 

risk within this time frame, although they did find a positive and statistically significant association 

with time spent in traffic (Peters et al., 2004, 087464). 

These three studies are particularly important because in each one: (1) cases were 

prospectively identified based on clinical criteria rather than retrospectively based on discharge 

diagnoses; and (2) time of MI symptom onset was used for exposure assessment rather than date of 

hospital admission. Whether the discrepant results among these studies are due to regional 

differences in population characteristics and/or air pollution sources remains unclear. The King 

County study suggests that differences in statistical approaches are unlikely to account for the 

discrepant results (Sullivan et al., 2005, 050854). Analyses from the U.S. MCAPS study suggest that 

substantial heterogeneity of effects are to be expected across regions of the country (Bell et al., 2008, 

156266) 

Several studies have assessed the association between acute exposure to ambient PM and MI 

using administrative databases. In the U.S., MI was not one of the specific endpoints evaluated in the 

MCAPS study (Dominici et al., 2006, 088398) or in the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study of ED visits 

(Metzger et al., 2004, 044222). However, Zanobetti and Schwartz (2005, 088069) found a 0.7% 

(95% CI: 0.3-1.0) excess risk of MI per 10 μg/m3 increase in same-day PM10 among elderly 

Medicare beneficiaries in 21 cities. Subsequently, the same authors found that among elderly 

Medicare beneficiaries living in the Boston metropolitan region, a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 was 

associated with a 4.9% (95% CI: 1.1-8.2) excess risk on the same day (Zanobetti and Schwartz, 

2006, 090195). 

This body of evidence may implicate traffic-related pollution generally as a risk factor for MI. 

In the study described above, Peters et al. (2001, 016546) found positive associations between risk of 

hospitalization for MI and potential markers of traffic-related pollution measured at a central monitor 

including BC, CO and NO2. However, none of these associations were statistically significant in 

models adjusting for season, meteorological variables, and day of week. Zanobetti and Schwartz 

(2006, 090195) examined the association between traffic-related pollution and risk of hospitalization 

for MI among Medicare beneficiaries in the Boston area and found that MI risk was positively and 

significantly associated with measures of PM2.5, BC, NO2, and CO, but not with levels of 

non-traffic-related PM2.5. Peters et al. (2004, 087464) interviewed 691 subjects with MI who 

survived at least 24-h after the event and found a strong positive association between self-reported 

exposure to traffic and the onset of MI within 1 h (OR: 2.9 [95% CI: 2.2-3.8]). The association was 

somewhat stronger among subjects traveling by bicycle or public transportation in the hour prior to 

the event. Of note, however, this study did not directly measure traffic-related pollution. 

Similar studies with administrative databases have been conducted in Europe, Australia, and 

New Zealand. Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) observed that in five cities in Australia and New 

Zealand, a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 was associated with a 7.3% (95% CI: 3.5-11.4, lag 0-1 day) 

excess risk. In Rome, D’Ippoliti et al. (2003, 074311) carried out a case-crossover study and found a 

statistically significant positive association between TSP and the risk of hospitalization for MI. In 

contrast, the HEAPSS study found no evidence of an association between PM10 and risk of 

hospitalization for a first MI in five European cities (Lanki et al., 2006, 089788), although there is 

some indication that among survivors of a first MI, risk of re-hospitalization for MI may be related 

to transient elevations in PM10 (Von Klot et al., 2005, 088070). 

In summary, large studies from the U.S., Europe, and Australia/New Zealand published since 

the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provide support for an association between 

short-term increases in ambient levels of PM2.5 and PM10and increased risk of hospitalization for MI. 

Some of the heterogeneity of results is likely explained by regional differences in pollution sources, 

December 2009 6-67 
components, and measurement error. One study of the effect of 2- and 24-h avg PM10-2.5

concentration on admissions for MI produced effect estimates that were positive, but imprecise 

(Peters et al., 2001, 016546). These results need to be interpreted together with those studies 

evaluating hospitalization for IHD since MIs make up the majority of hospitalizations for IHD. U.S. 

studies of MI are included in Figure 6-2. 

6.2.10.5. Congestive Heart Failure 

Perhaps the first suggestion of an association between ambient PM and hospitalization for 

CHF was provided by the study of Schwartz and Morris (1995, 046186). These authors reported that 

among elderly Medicare beneficiaries living in Detroit between 1986-1989, a 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

mean PM10 levels over the previous two days was associated with a 1.0% (95% CI: 0.4-1.6) increase 

in risk of hospitalization for CHF. As reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), 

using similar approaches, statistically significant positive associations with PM2.5 or PM10 were 

subsequently reported in single-city studies looking at hospitalizations for CHF in Toronto (Burnett 

et al., 1999, 017269), Hong Kong (Wong et al., 1999, 009172), and Detroit (Ito, 2003, 042856), but 

not Los Angeles (Linn et al., 2000, 002839) or Denver (Koken et al., 2003, 049466). Burnett et al. 

(1999, 017269) reports a significantly increased risk of CHF hospitalization with PM10-2.5 while 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222) and Ito et al. found (2003, 042856) less precise associations. 

Subsequent multicity studies support the presence of a positive association between PM 

concentration and CHF hospitalization. In the U.S., the MCAPS study found a 1.3% (95%: 0.8-1.8) 

excess risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in same-day PM2.5 (Dominici et al., 2006, 088398). In addition, 

Wellenius et al. (2006, 088748) reported a 0.7% (95% CI: 0.4-1.1) excess risk of hospitalization for 

CHF per 10 μg/m3 increase in same-day PM10 among elderly Medicare beneficiaries in seven cities. 

In Australia and New Zealand, Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) found a 9.8% (95% CI: 4.8-14.8, lag 0-1 

day) and 4.6% (95% CI: 2.8-6.3, lag 0-1 days) excess risk of hospitalization for CHF associated with 

a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. Results from more recent single-city studies in 

Pittsburgh (Wellenius et al., 2005, 087483), Utah’s Wasatch Front (Pope et al., 2008, 191969), 

Kaohsiung, Taiwan (Lee et al., 2007, 196613) and Taipei, Taiwan (Yang, 2008, 157160) have also 

reported positive associations between PM and CHF hospital admissions. In addition, Yang et al. 

(2009, 190341) found that hospitalizations for CHF were elevated during or immediately following 

54 Asian dust storm events (while single day lags 0-3 were evaluated, maximum excess risk 

occurred at lag 1: 11.4% [95% CI: -0.7 to 25.0]). Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) observed a slightly 

larger excess risk of total CHF during wildfires occurring in California compared to the period 

before the wildfires. 

While most studies suggest an association at very short lags (0-1 days), the study by Pope 

et al. (2008, 191969) failed to find such short term associations and instead suggested that PM2.5

levels averaged over the past 2-3 wk may be more important. Pope et al. (2008, 191969) observed a 

13.1% (95% CI: 1.3-26.2) increase in CHF hospitalization per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 (imputed 

values used in analysis). Whether findings at longer lags in this population represent true cumulative 

effects of PM or are due to misclassification of symptom onset times remains to be determined. 

Findings from the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222) also support 

the presence of a positive association between PM and CHF ED visits. Specifically, the SOPHIA 

study found a 5.5% (95% CI: 0.6-10.5, lag 0-2 days) excess risk of ED visits for CHF per 10 μg/m3

increase in the 3-day ma of PM2.5. Positive associations were also observed for CHF and EC and OC 

components of PM2.5. No associations were observed with PM10 and a weak, imprecise increase was 

observed in association with PM10-2.5. 

Only one published study has attempted to evaluate the effects of ambient particles on CHF 

symptom exacerbation using data which was not derived from administrative databases. Symons 

et al. (2006, 091258) interviewed 135 patients with prevalent CHF hospitalized for symptom 

exacerbation in Baltimore, MD. The authors found a 7.4% (95% CI: -7.5 to 24.2) excess risk of 

hospitalization per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 two days prior to symptom onset. This finding did not 

reach statistical significance and may be attributable to the lack of statistical power needed to find an 

effect of the expected magnitude. 

In summary, large studies from the U.S., Europe, and Australia/New Zealand published since 

the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provide support for an association between 

short-term increases in ambient levels of PM2.5 and PM10 and increased risk of hospitalization and 

ED visits for CHF. Although the number of studies is fewer (and only Metzger et al., 2004, 044222

December 2009 6-68 
is new since the 2005 AQCD), elevated risks of hospitalization or ED visits for CHF in association 

with PM10-2.5 have been observed. The excess risks associated with CHF hospitalizations and ED 

visits are consistently greater than those observed for other CVD endpoints. The results of multicity 

studies and U.S. and Canadian single-city studies are summarized in Figure 6-3. 

Study Location Lag Age Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Canada 0-2 All Ages PM2.5

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 1 65+ 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 15-64 

Symons et al. (2006, 091258) Baltimore, MD 2 All Ages

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 204 U.S counties 0 65+ 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 65+ 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) CA wildfires 0-1 All Ages

Pope et al. (2008, 191969) Utah 14d DL All Ages

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Canada 0-2 All Ages PM10-2.5

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 65+ 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages

Burnett et al. (1999, 017269) Toronto, Canada 0-2 All Ages PM10

Linn et al. (2000, 002839) Los Angeles, CA 0 >30 

Ito et al. (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 65+ 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 15-64 

Schwartz & Morris (1995, 046186) Detroit, MI 0-1 65+ 

Morris & Naumova (1998, 086857) Chicago, IL 0 65+ 

Wellenius et al. (2005, 087483) Pittsburgh, PA 0 65+ 

Wellenius et al. (2006, 088748) 7 Cities, U.S. 0 65+ 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 65+ 

 * ED Visits Excess Risk Estimate 

Figure 6-3. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10

concentration for CHF ED visits and HAs. Studies represented in the 

figure include all multicity studies as well as single-city studies conducted in the 

U.S. and Canada. 

6.2.10.6. Cardiac Arrhythmias 

A number of studies based on administrative databases have sought to evaluate the association 

between short-term fluctuations in ambient PM levels and the risk of hospitalization for cardiac 

arrhythmias (also known as dysrhythmias). Typically in these studies a primary discharge diagnosis 

of ICD-9 427 has been used to identify hospitalized patients. However, ICD-9 427 includes a 

heterogeneous group of arrhythmias including paroxysmal ventricular or supraventricular 

tachycardia, atrial fibrillation and flutter, ventricular fibrillation and flutter, cardiac arrest, premature 

beats, and sinoarterial node dysfunction. One study in the Netherlands found that the positive 

predictive value of ICD-9 codes related to ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death was 

82% (De Bruin et al., 2005, 155746). The positive predictive value of other codes related to cardiac 

arrhythmias is unknown, but likely to be lower. 

The results from early studies of arrhythmia-related hospitalizations have been inconsistent, 

with positive findings in Toronto (Burnett et al., 1999, 017269) and null findings in Detroit 

(Schwartz and Morris, 1995, 046186), Los Angeles (Linn et al., 2000, 002839), and Denver (Koken 

et al., 2003, 049466). The U.S. MCAPS study found a statistically significant 0.6% (95% CI: 

0.0-1.2) excess risk of hospitalization for the combined outcome of cardiac arrhythmias and 

conduction disorders (ICD-9: 426, 427) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in same-day PM2.5 (Dominici et al., 

2006, 088398). A multicity study in Australia and New Zealand found no evidence of an association 

between arrhythmia hospitalizations and either PM2.5 or PM10 (Barnett et al., 2006, 089770). A study 

in Helsinki, Finland, found no evidence of an association between either PM2.5 or PM10-2.5 and risk of 

hospitalization for arrhythmias (Halonen et al., 2009, 180379), although there was an association 

with smaller particles (0.03-0.1 μm). 

December 2009 6-69 
With regard to ED visits, the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study found no evidence of an 

association between any measure of ambient PM and the rate of ED visits for cardiac arrhythmias 

(Metzger et al., 2004, 044222). However, in São Paulo, Brazil, Santos et al. (2008, 192004) found a 

3.0% (95% CI: 0.5-5.4) excess risk of ED visits for arrhythmias per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 on 

the same day. 

In summary, the current evidence does not support the presence of a consistent association 

between short-term increases in ambient levels of PM2.5, PM10-2.5, or PM10 and increased risk of 

hospitalization for cardiac arrhythmias. However, it should be noted that studies of hospital 

admissions or ED visits are ill-suited to the study of cardiac arrhythmias since most arrhythmias do 

not lead to hospitalization. Studies in patients with implanted defibrillators, human panel studies 

with ambulatory ECG recordings, and animal toxicological studies provide a more appropriate 

setting for evaluating this endpoint. Results of these studies are described in Section 6.2.2. 

6.2.10.7. Cerebrovascular Disease 

Time-series studies evaluating the hypothesis that short-term increases in ambient PM2.5 or 

PM10 levels are associated with increased risk of hospitalization for CBVD have been inconsistent, 

with few studies reporting positive associations (Chan et al., 2006, 090193; Dominici et al., 2006, 

088398; Metzger et al., 2004, 044222; Wordley et al., 1997, 082745), and several studies reporting 

null or negative associations (Anderson et al., 2001, 017033; Barnett et al., 2006, 089770; Burnett et 

al., 1999, 017269; Halonen et al., 2009, 180379; Jalaludin et al., 2006, 189416; Larrieu et al., 2007, 

093031; Le Tertre et al., 2002, 023746; Peel et al., 2007, 090442; Villeneuve et al., 2006, 090191; 

Wong et al., 1999, 009172). 

The U.S. MCAPS study found a 0.8% (95% CI: 0.3-1.4) excess risk of hospitalization for 

CBVD per 10 μg/m3 increase in same-day PM2.5 (Dominici et al., 2006, 088398). The association 

showed regional variability with the strongest associations observed in the eastern U.S. The 

Atlanta-based SOPHIA study found a 5.0% (95% CI: 0.8-9.3, lag 0-2 days) excess risk of ED visits 

for cerebrovascular and peripheral vascular disease combined (excluding hemorrhagic strokes) per 

10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 and a 2.0% (95% CI: -0.1 to 4.3, lag 0-2 days) excess risk for PM10 

(Metzger et al., 2004, 044222). Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) observed a weak association between 

excess risk of CBVD admissions before and during a wildfire occurring in California and slightly 

higher risks after the wildfire period. 

Large multicity studies conducted outside of North America have failed to observe an 

association between PM and CBVD hospitalizations. The APHEA study found no excess risk (0.0% 

[95% CI: -0.3 to 0.3]) of hospitalization for CBVD per 10 μg/m3

 increase in the 2-day ma of PM10 in 

8 European cities (Le Tertre et al., 2002, 023746). Investigators from the French PSAS program 

reported a 0.8% (95% CI: -0.9 to 2.5, lag 0-1 days) excess risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10 among 

patients aged ≥65 yr and a 0.2% (95% CI: -1.6 to 1.9, lag 0-1 days) excess risk among all patients 

(Larrieu et al., 2007, 093031). Although neither estimate was statistically significant, the estimated 

excess risk among the elderly is very similar to that observed in the U.S. MCAPS study. Barnett 

et al. (2006, 089770) examined this hypothesis in New Zealand and Australia and reported no 

association. 

All of the above studies have identified cases of CBVD based on ICD-9 or ICD-10 codes 

(most commonly ICD-9 430-438). However, the range of ICD codes commonly used in these studies 

includes ischemic strokes, hemorrhagic strokes, transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) and several poorly 

defined forms of acute neurological events (e.g., seizures from a vascular cause) (Table 6-7). It is 

plausible that ambient PM has different effects on each of these disparate outcomes. 

Ischemic Strokes and Transient Ischemic Attacks 

An increasing number of studies have specifically evaluated the association between PM10 and 

PM2.5 and the risk of ischemic stroke (Chan et al., 2006, 090193; Henrotin et al., 2007, 093270; Linn 

et al., 2000, 002839; Lisabeth et al., 2008, 155939; Low et al., 2006, 090441; Szyszkowicz, 2008, 

192128; Tsai et al., 2003, 080133; Villeneuve et al., 2006, 090191; Wellenius et al., 2005, 087483). 

Linn et al. (2000, 002839) found a 1.3% (95% CI: 1.0-1.6 per 10 μg/m3

, PM10 lag 0) excess risk of 

hospitalization for ischemic stroke in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Wellenius et al. (2005, 

087483) reported a statistically significant 0.4% (95% CI: 0.0-0.9) excess risk per 10 μg/m3 increase 

December 2009 6-70 
in same-day PM10 among elderly Medicare beneficiaries in nine U.S. cities. Low et al. (2006, 

090441) reported an absolute increase of 0.08 (95% CI; 0.002-0.16) ischemic stroke hospitalizations 

per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10 in New York City. In Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Tsai et al. (2003, 080133) 

found a 5.9% (95% CI: 4.3-7.4, lag 0-2 days) excess risk of hospitalization for ischemic stroke per 

10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 after excluding days with mean daily temperature <20°C. Meanwhile, in 

Taipei, Taiwan, Chan et al. (2006, 090193) found a 3.0% (95% CI: -0.8 to 6.6, lag 3) and 1.6% (95% 

CI: -0.8 to 3.9, lag 3) excess risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. Villeneuve 

et al. (2006, 090191) and Szyszkowicz et al. (2008, 192128) found no association between either 

PM2.5 or PM10 and ED visits for acute ischemic stroke in Edmonton, Canada. 

Two recent studies are particularly noteworthy given the high specificity of the outcome 

definition. Henrotin et al. (2007, 093270) used data on 1432 confirmed cases of ischemic stroke 

from the French Dijon Stroke Register and found 0.9% (95% CI: -7.0 to 9.4) excess risk of ischemic 

stroke per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10 on the same day and a 1.1% (95% CI: -0.2 to 9.4) excess risk 

on the previous day (lag 1 day). Lisabeth et al. (2008, 155939) used data on 2,350 confirmed cases 

of ischemic stroke and 1,158 cases of TIA from the Brain Attack Surveillance in Corpus Christi 

Project (BASIC), a population-based stroke surveillance project designed to capture all strokes in 

Nueces County, Texas. The authors found a 6.0% (95% CI: -0.8 to 13.2) and 6.0% (95% CI: -1.8 to 

14.4) excess risk of ischemic stroke/TIA per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 on the previous day and the 

same day, respectively. 

Only the study by Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191) specifically evaluated the association 

between ambient PM and the risk of TIAs. This study failed to find any evidence of an association 

with either PM2.5 or PM10. 

A limitation of all of these studies is that they have assessed exposure based on the date of 

hospital admission or ED presentation rather than the date and time of stroke symptom onset. It has 

been shown that this can bias health effect estimates towards the null by up to 60% (Lokken et al., 

2009, 186774). Therefore, if there is a causal link between PM and the risk of stroke, it is likely that 

the existing studies underestimate the true effects. Moreover, most of these studies have evaluated 

only very short-term effects (lags of 0-2 days) and none have considered lags longer than 5 days. It is 

possible that the lag structure of the association between PM and stroke differs from that of other 

CVDs and it might even differ by stroke type. 

Hemorrhagic Strokes 

Most of the studies in the preceding section also evaluated the association between ambient 

PM and the risk of hemorrhagic stroke (Chan et al., 2006, 090193; Henrotin et al., 2007, 093270; 

Tsai et al., 2003, 080133; Villeneuve et al., 2006, 090191; Wellenius et al., 2005, 087483). In 

Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Tsai et al. (2003, 080133) noted a 6.7% (95% CI: 4.2-9.4, lag 0-2 days) excess 

risk of hospitalization for hemorrhagic stroke per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10, after excluding days 

where the mean temperature was <20°C. However, in the U.S., Wellenius et al. (2005, 088685) 

failed to find any association between ambient PM10 levels and risk of hemorrhagic stroke among 

Medicare beneficiaries in nine U.S. cities. Similarly, Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191) found no 

evidence of an association between ED visits for hemorrhagic stroke and either PM2.5 or PM10 levels 

in Edmonton, Canada. Henrotin et al. (2007, 093270) found no evidence of an association between 

risk of hospitalization and PM10 levels in Dijon, France, and Chan et al. (2006, 090193) found no 

evidence of an association between risk of hospitalization and either PM2.5 or PM10levels in Taipei, 

Taiwan. 

In summary, large studies from the U.S., Europe, and Australia/New Zealand published since 

the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provide inconsistent support for an association 

between short-term increases in ambient levels of PM2.5 and PM10 and risk of hospitalization and ED 

visits for CBVD (Figure 6-4). Studies of PM10-2.5 and CBVD or stroke have not been conducted. The 

heterogeneity in results is likely partly attributed to: (1) differences in the sensitivity and specificity 

of the various outcome definitions used in the studies; (2) lag structures between PM exposure and 

stroke onset which may vary by stroke type and patient characteristics; and (3) exposure 

misclassification due to the use of hospital admission date rather than stroke onset time, which may 

vary by region, population characteristics, and stroke type. Effect estimates from multicity studies 

and single-city U.S. and Canadian studies are included in Figure 6-4. 

December 2009 6-71 
6.2.10.8. Peripheral Vascular Disease 

In the U.S., the large MCAPS study Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) evaluated the association 

between mean daily PM2.5 levels and the risk of hospitalization among elderly Medicare 

beneficiaries in 204 urban counties and found that a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 was not significantly 

associated with risk of hospitalization for peripheral vascular disease 0-2 days later. An earlier study 

in Toronto (Burnett et al., 1999, 017269) found a negative association with PM2.5 (point estimate and 

confidence intervals not reported), a positive statistically significant association with PM10-2.5 (2.2% 

[95% CI: 0.1-4.3]), and a positive non-significant association with PM10 (0.5% [95% CI: -0.5 to 

1.6]). The Atlanta-based SOPHIA study (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222) of ED visits grouped visits 

for PVD with those for CBVD, making interpretation of these results challenging. 

Study Location Age Lag Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

204 counties U, .S. CBVD 65+ 0 PM2.5

Northeast, U.S. CBVD 65+ 0 

Southeast, U.S. CBVD 65+ 0 

Midwest, U.S. CBVD 65+ 0 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 

South, U.S. CBVD 65+ 0 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA CBVD / PVD All Ages 0-2 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) CA Wildfires CBVD All Ages 0-1 

Metzger et al. (2004, 044222)* Atlanta, GA CBVD / PVD All Ages 0-2 PM10

Le Tertre et al. (2003, 042820) 8 Cities, Europe CBVD 65+ 0-1 

Larrieu et al. (2007, 093031) 8 Cities, France CBVD 65+ 0-1 

8 Cities, France CBVD All Ages 0-1 

IS, Cool 65+ 0-2 PM2.5

IS, warm 65+ 0-2 

TIA, Cool 65+ 0-2 

Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191)* Edmonton, Canada 

TIA, Warm 65+ 0-2 

Lisabeth et al. (2008, 155939) Nueces County, TX IS/TIA All Ages 0 

IS/TIA All Ages 1 

Wellenius et al. (2005, 088685) 9 Cities, U.S. IS 65+ 0 PM10

IS, Cool 65+ 0-2 

IS, Warm 65+ 0-2 

TIA, Cool 65+ 0-2 

Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191)* Edmonton, Canada 

TIA, Warm 65+ 0-2 

Linn et al. (2000, 002839) Los Angeles, CA IS >30 0 

 PM2.5

Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191)* Edmonton, Canada HS, Cool 65+ 0-2 

HS, Warm 65+ 0-2 

Wellenius et al. (2005, 088685) 9 Cities, U.S. HS 65+ 0 PM10

Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191)* Edmonton, Canada HS, Cool 65+ 0-2 

HS, Warm 65+ 0-2 

* ED Visits Excess Risk Estimate 

 Figure 6-4. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5 and PM10

concentration for CBVD ED visits and HAs. Studies represented in the 

figure include all multicity studies as well as single-city studies conducted in the 

U.S. and Canada. 

In summary, there is insufficient published data to determine whether or not there may be an 

association between short-term increases in ambient levels of, PM2.5, PM10-2.5, or PM10 and increased 

risk of hospitalization and ED visits for PVD. 

6.2.10.9. Copollutant Models 

Relatively few studies have evaluated the effects of PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 on the risk of hospital 

admissions and ED visits in the context of two-pollutant models. Generally, results for health effects 

of both size fractions are similar even after controlling for SO2 or O3 levels (Figure 6-5). However, 

controlling for NO2 or CO has yielded mixed results. Among the large multicity studies, the Atlantabased SOPHIA study found that the association between PM2.5 (total carbon) and risk of 

cardiovascular ED visits was somewhat attenuated in two-pollutant models additionally controlling 

for either CO or NO2 (Tolbert et al., 2007, 090316). Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) found that the 

December 2009 6-72 
associations they observed between PM2.5 and cardiac hospitalizations in Australia and New Zealand 

were attenuated after control for 24-h NO2, but not after control for CO. 

Only a few studies have attempted to evaluate the effects of one PM size fraction while 

controlling for another PM size fraction. The large U.S. MCAPS study evaluating the effects of 

PM10-2.5 on cardiovascular hospital admissions lost precision after controlling for PM2.5, but did not 

consider gaseous pollutants (Peng et al., 2008, 156850). Andersen et al. (2008, 189651) found that 

associations between both PM10 and PM2.5 and cardiovascular hospitalizations in Copenhagen were 

not attenuated by control for particle number concentration. 

A number of studies have also evaluated PM10 effects in the context of two-pollutant models 

with inconsistent results. The multicity Spanish EMECAS study (Ballester et al., 2006, 088746) 

found that the statistically significant positive associations observed between PM10 and cardiac 

hospitalizations were robust to control for other pollutants in two-pollutant models. Jalaludin et al. 

(2006, 189416) found that the effects of PM10 as well as PM2.5 on cardiovascular ED visits in Sydney 

Australia were attenuated by additional control for either NO2 or CO. Wellenius et al. (2005, 

087483) found that the PM10-related risk of hospitalization for CHF in Allegheny County, PA, was 

attenuated in two-pollutant models controlling for either CO or NO2. In contrast, Chang et al. (2005, 

080086) examined CVD hospitalizations in Taipei and found attenuation of PM10 effects by control 

for NO2 or CO, but only during warm days. In Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Tsai et al. (2003, 080133) found 

that the association between PM10 and ischemic stroke hospitalizations was not materially attenuated 

in two-pollutant models controlling for either NO2 or CO. 

The inconsistent findings after controlling for gaseous pollutants or other size fractions are 

likely due to differences in the correlation structure among pollutants, as well as differing degrees of 

exposure measurement error. 

December 2009 6-73 
Study Outcome Pollutant Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

PM2.5 Adjusted for Gases and Other Size Fractions

PM2.5

PM2.5TC 

PM2.5TC+CO 

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) CVD 

PM2.5TC+NO2

PM2.5

PM2.5+NO2

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Heart Disease 

PM2.5+CO 

Hemorrhagic Stroke PM2.5

PM2.5+NO2

Ischemic Stroke PM2.5

PM2.5+NO2

PM2.5

Villeneuve et al. (2006, 090191) 

TIE 

PM2.5+NO2

PM2.5

PM2.5+O3 

PM2.5+NO2

PM2.5+SO2 

Burnett et al. (1997, 084194) Heart Disease 

PM2.5+CO 

PM2.5

PM2.5+O3 

PM2.5+SO2 

PM2.5+NO2

CHF 

PM2.5+CO 

PM2.5

PM2.5+O3 

PM2.5+SO2 

PM2.5+NO2

Ito (2003, 042856) 

IHD 

PM2.5+CO 

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316) CVD PM2.5

PM2.5+CO 

PM2.5

PM2.5+NO2

PM2.5+NO2

Jalaludin et al. (2006, 189416) CVD 

PM2.5+NO2

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) CVD PM2.5

PM2.5+PM10-2.5

Andersen et al. (2008, 189651) CVD PM2.5

UFP(Number) 

PM10-2.5 Adjusted for Gases and Other Size Fractions

Ito (2003, 042856) IHD PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+SO2

PM10-2.5+NO2

PM10-2.5+CO 

CHF PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+SO2

PM10-2.5+NO2

PM10-2.5+CO 

Burnett et al. (1997, 084194) Heart Disease PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+NO2

PM10-2.5+SO2

PM10-2.5+CO 

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) CVD PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+PM2.5

 Excess Risk (%) 

Figure 6-5. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, and PM10-2.5 for 

cardiovascular disease ED visits or HAs, adjusted for co-pollutants. 

December 2009 6-74 
6.2.10.10. Concentration Response 

The concentration-response relationship has been extensively analyzed primarily through 

studies that examined the relationship between PM and mortality. These studies, which have focused 

on short- and long-term exposures to PM have consistently found no evidence for deviations from 

linearity or a safe threshold (Daniels et al., 2004, 087343; Samoli et al., 2005, 087436; Schwartz, 

2004, 078998; Schwartz et al., 2008, 156963) (Sections 6.5.2.7 and 7.1.4). Although on a more 

limited basis, studies that have examined PM effects on cardiovascular hospital admissions and ED 

visits have also analyzed the PM concentration-response relationship, and contributed to the overall 

body of evidence which suggests a log-linear, no-threshold PM concentration-response relationship. 

The evaluation of cardiovascular hospital admission and ED visit studies in 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) found no evidence for a threshold in the dose-response relationship 

between short-term exposure to PM10 and IHD hospital admissions (Schwartz and Morris, 1995, 

046186). An evaluation of recent single- and multicity studies of hospital admission and ED visits 

for CVD further supports this finding. 

 Ballester et al. (2006, 088746) examined the linearity of the relationship between air 

pollutants (including PM10) and cardiovascular hospital admissions in 14 Spanish cities within the 

EMECAM project. In this exploratory analysis, the authors examined the models used when 

pollutants were added in either a linear or non-linear way (i.e., with a spline smoothing function) to 

the model. Although the study does not present the results for each of the pollutants evaluated 

individually, overall Ballester et al. (2006, 088746) found that the shape of the pollutantcardiovascular hospital admission relationship was most compatible with a linear curve. Wellenius 

et al. (2005, 087483) conducted a similar analysis when examining the relationship between PM10

and CHF hospital admissions among Medicare beneficiaries. The authors examined the assumption 

of linearity using fractional polynomials and linear splines. The results of both approaches 

contributed to Wellenius et al. (2005, 087483) concluding that the assumption of linearity between 

the log relative risk of cardiovascular hospital admissions and PM concentration was reasonable. 

Unlike the aforementioned studies that examined the linearity in the concentration-response 

curve as part of the model selection process (i.e., to determine the most appropriate model to use to 

examine the relationship between PM and cardiovascular hospital admissions and ED visits), 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2005, 088069) conducted an extensive analysis of the shape of the 

concentration-response curve and the potential presence of a threshold when examining the 

association between PM10 and MI hospital admissions among older adults in 21 U.S. cities. The 

authors examined the concentration-response curve by fitting a piecewise linear spline with slope 

changes at 20 and 50 μg/m3

. This approach resulted in an almost linear concentration-response 

relationship between PM10 and MI hospital admissions with a steeper slope occurring below 

50 μg/m3

 (Figure 6-6). Additionally, Zanobetti and Schwartz (2005, 088069) found no evidence for a 

threshold. 

December 2009 6-75 
Source: Zanobetti and Schwartz (2005, 088069). 

Figure 6-6. Combined random-effect estimate of the concentration-response relationship 

between MI emergency hospital admissions and PM10, computed by fitting a 

piecewise linear spline, with slope changes at 20 μg/m3 and 50 μg/m3. 

Overall, the limited evidence from the studies that examined the concentration-response 

relationship between PM and cardiovascular hospital admissions and ED visits supports a nothreshold, log-linear model, which is consistent with the observations made in studies that examined 

the PM-mortality relationship (Section 6.5.2.7). 

6.2.10.11. Out of Hospital Cardiac Arrest 

One study of out of hospital cardiac death conducted in Seattle, WA (Checkoway et al., 2000, 

015527), which reported no association with PM was included in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905). In the U.S., the survival rate of sudden cardiac arrest is less than 5%. In addition, as 

discussed in Section 6.5, Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) found that the estimated mortality risk due to 

short-term exposure to PM10 was much higher for out-of-hospital cardiovascular deaths than for 

in-hospital cardiovascular deaths. The analysis of studies that examine the association between PM 

and cardiac arrest could provide evidence for an important link between the morbidity and mortality 

effects attributed to PM. 

Sullivan et al. (2003, 043156) examined the association between the incidence of primary 

cardiac arrest and daily measures of PM2.5 (measured by nephelometry) using a case-crossover 

analysis of 1,206 Washington State out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (1985-1994) among persons with 

(n = 774) and without (n = 432) clinically recognized heart disease. The authors examined PM 

associations at 0- through 2-day lags using the time-stratified referent sampling scheme (i.e., the 

same day of the week and month of the same year). The estimated relative risk for a 13.8-μg/m3

increase in 1-day lag PM2.5 (nephelometry: IQR = 0.54 10-1 km-1 bsp) was 0.94 (95% CI: 0.88-1.02), 

or 0.96 (95% CI: 0.91-1.0) per 10 μg/m3

 increase. Similar estimates were reported for 0- or 2-day 

lags. The presence or absence of clinically recognized heart disease did not alter the result. This 

finding is consistent with the previous study of cardiac arrest in Seattle (Levy et al., 2001, 017171) 

that reported no PM association. It is also consistent with the Sullivan et al. (2005, 050854) analysis 

of PM and onset of MI, and the Sullivan et al. (2007, 100083) analysis of PM and blood markers of 

inflammation in the elderly population, both of which were conducted in Seattle. Note also that the 

analysis of the NMMAPS data for the years 1987-1994 also found no PM10 association for all-cause 

mortality in Seattle. Overall, the results of studies conducted in Seattle consistently found no 

association between PM and cardiovascular outcomes or all-cause mortality. 

December 2009 6-76 
Rosenthal et al. (2008, 156925) examined associations between PM2.5 and out-of-hospital 

cardiac arrests in Indianapolis, Indiana for the years 2002-2006 using a case-crossover design with 

time-stratified referent sampling. Using all the cases (n = 1,374), they found no associations between 

PM2.5 and cardiac arrest in any of the 0- through 3-day lags or multiday averages thereof (e.g., for 

0-day lag, OR = 1.02 [CI: 0.94-1.11] per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5). However, for cardiac arrests 

witnessed by bystanders (n = 511), they found a significant association with PM2.5 exposure (by 

TEOM, corrected with FRM measurements) during the hour of the arrest (OR = 1.12 [CI: 1.01-1.25] 

per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5), and even larger risk estimates for older adults (age 60-75) or those 

that presented with asystole. There have been very few PM studies that used hourly PM 

measurements, and further studies are needed to confirm associations at such time scales. 

In Rome, Forastiere et al. (2005, 086323) examined associations between air pollution (PNC, 

PM10, CO, NO2, and O3) and out-of-hospital coronary deaths (n = 5,144) for the study period of 

1998-2000. A case-crossover design with the time-stratified referent sampling was used to examine 

the pollution indices at lag 0- through 3 days and the average of 0-1 lags. They found associations 

between deaths and PNC (lag 0 and 0-1), PM10 (lag 0, 1, and 0-1), and CO (lag 0 and 0-1) but not 

with NO2 or O3. The risk estimate for 0-day lag PM10 was 1.59% (CI: 0.03-3.18) per 10 μg/m3

increase. The older adults (65-74 and ≥75 age groups) showed higher risk estimates than the younger 

(35-64) age group. Because PNC is considered to be associated with UFPs, and CO was also 

associated with out-of-hospital cardiac arrests, combustion sources were implicated. 

In summary, only a few studies have examined out-of-hospital cardiac arrest or deaths. The 

two studies from Seattle, WA consistently found no association (also consistent with other cardiac 

effects and mortality studies conducted in that locale); a study in Indianapolis, IN found an 

association with hourly PM2.5 but not daily PM2.5; and a study in Rome found an association with 

PM10, but also with PNC and CO. Because multicity mortality studies examining this association 

found heterogeneity in PM risk estimates across regions, future studies of out-of-hospital cardiac 

arrest will need to consider location and the air pollution mixture during their design. Mean and 

upper percentile concentrations are found in Table 6-9. 

Table 6-9. PM concentrations reported in studies of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. 

Author Location Mean Concentration (μg/m3) Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

PM2.5

Sullivan et al. (2003, 043156) Washington State Nephelometry: 0.71 x 10-1 km-1 bsp Maximum: 5.99 x 10-1 km-1 bsp 

Rosenthal et al. (2008, 156925) Indianapolis, Indiana NR NR 

PM10

Sullivan et al. (2003, 043156) Washington State 28.05 89.83 

Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) Range in Means: 15.9 (Honolulu) -

37.5 (Cleveland) NR 

Forastiere et al. (2005, 086323) Rome, Italy 52.1 

75th: 65.7 

 

6.2.11. Cardiovascular Mortality 

An evaluation of studies that examined the association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 

and PM10-2.5 and mortality provides additional evidence for PM-related cardiovascular health effects. 

Although the primary analysis in the majority of mortality studies evaluated consists of an 

examination of the relationship between PM2.5 or PM10-2.5 and all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality, 

some studies have examined associations with cause-specific mortality including cardiovascularrelated mortality. 

December 2009 6-77 
Multicity mortality studies that examined the PM2.5-cardiovascular mortality relationship on a 

national scale (Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) – 27 U.S. cities; Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) – 25 

U.S. cities; and Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) – 112 U.S. cities) have found consistent 

positive associations between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and cardiovascular mortality ranging 

from 0.47 to 0.85% per 10μg/m3

 at lag 0-1 (Section 6.5). The associations observed on a national 

scale are consistent with those presented by Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) in a study that examined the 

PM2.5-mortality relationship in nine California counties (0.6% [95% CI: 0-1.1] per 10 μg/m3

). Of the 

multicity studies evaluated, one examined single day lags and found evidence for slightly larger 

effects at lag 1 compared to the average of lag days 0 and 1 for cardiovascular mortality (94% 

[95% CI: -0.14 to 2.02] per 10 μg/m3

) (Franklin et al., 2007, 091257). Although the overall effect 

estimates reported in the multicity studies evaluated are consistently positive, it should be noted that 

a large degree of variability exists between cities when examining city-specific effect estimates 

potentially due to differences between cities and regional differences in PM2.5 composition (Figure 

6-24). Only a limited number of studies that examined the PM2.5-mortality relationship have 

conducted analyses of potential confounders, such as gaseous copollutants, and none examined the 

effect of copollutants on PM2.5 cardiovascular mortality risk estimates. Although the recently 

evaluated multicity studies did not extensively examine whether PM2.5 mortality risk estimates are 

confounded by gaseous copollutants, evidence from the limited number of single-city studies 

evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) suggests that gaseous copollutants do 

not confound the PM2.5-cardiovascular mortality association. This is further supported by studies that 

examined the PM10-mortality relationship in both the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) 

and this review. The evidence from epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and toxicological 

studies that examined the association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and cardiovascular 

morbidity provide coherence and biological plausibility for the cardiovascular mortality effects 

observed. Overall, the cardiovascular mortality PM2.5 effects were similar to those reported for allcause (nonaccidental) mortality (Section 6.5), and are consistent with the effect estimates observed 

in the single- and multicity studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) also examined PM10-2.5 mortality associations in 47 

U.S. cities and found evidence for cardiovascular mortality effects (0.32% [95% CI: 0.00-0.64] per 

10 μg/m at lag 0-1) similar to those reported for all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality (0.46% [95% CI: 

0.21-0.67] per 10 μg/m). In addition, Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) reported seasonal (i.e., 

larger in spring and summer) and regional differences in PM10-2.5 cardiovascular mortality risk 

estimates. A few single-city studies evaluated also reported associations, albeit somewhat larger than 

the multicity study, between PM10-2.5 and cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix, AZ (Wilson et al., 

2007, 157149) (3.4-6.6% at lag 1) and Vancouver, Canada (Villeneuve et al., 2003, 055051) (5.4% at 

lag 0). The difference in the PM10-2.5 risk estimates observed between the multi- and single-city 

studies could be due to a variety of factors including differences between cities and compositional 

differences in PM10-2.5 across regions (Figure 6-29). Only a small number of studies have examined 

potential confounding by gaseous copollutants or the influence of model specification on PM10-2.5

mortality risk estimates, but the effects are relatively consistent with those studies evaluated in the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

6.2.12. Summary and Causal Determinations 

6.2.12.1. PM2.5 

Several studies cited in the 2004 AQCD reported positive associations between short-term 

PM2.5 concentrations and hospital admissions or ED visits for CVD, although few were statistically 

significant. In addition, U.S. and Canadian-based studies (both multi- and single-city) that examined 

the PM2.5-mortality relationship reported associations for cardiovascular mortality consistent with 

those observed for all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality and relatively stronger than those for 

respiratory mortality. Significant associations were also observed between MI and short-term PM2.5

concentrations (averaged over 2 or 24 h), as well as decreased HRV in association with PM2.5. Several controlled human exposure and animal toxicological studies demonstrated HRV effects from 

exposure to PM2.5 CAPs, as well as changes in blood coagulation markers. However, the effects in 

these studies were variable. Arrhythmogenesis was reported for toxicological studies and generally 

December 2009 6-78 
these results were observed in animal models of disease (SH rat, MI, pulmonary hypertension) 

exposed to combustion-derived PM2.5 (i.e., ROFA, DE, metals). One study demonstrated significant 

vasoconstriction in healthy adults following controlled exposures to CAPs, although this response 

could not be conclusively attributed to the particles as subjects were concomitantly exposed to 

relatively high levels of O3. The results reported for systemic inflammation in toxicological studies 

were mixed. 

A large body of evidence from studies of the effect of PM2.5 on hospital admissions and ED 

visits for CVD has been published since the 2004 PM AQCD. Associations with PM2.5 are 

consistently positive with the majority of studies reporting increases in hospital admissions or ED 

visits ranging from 0.5 to 3.4% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 (Section 6.2.10). The largest U.Sbased multicity study, MCAPs, reported excess risks in the range of approximately 0.7% with the 

largest excess risks in the Northeast (1.08%) and in the winter (1.49%), providing evidence of 

regional and seasonal heterogeneity (Bell et al., 2008, 156266; Dominici et al., 2006, 088398). Weak 

or null findings for PM2.5 have been observed in two single-city studies both conducted in 

Washington state (Slaughter et al., 2005, 073854; Sullivan et al., 2007, 100083) and may be 

explained by this heterogeneity. Weak associations were also reported in Atlanta for PM2.5 and CVD 

ED visits, with PM2.5 traffic components being more strongly associated with CVD ED visits than 

other components (Tolbert et al., 2007, 090316). Multicity studies conducted outside the U.S. and 

Canada have shown positive associations with PM2.5. Studies of specific CVD outcomes indicate that 

IHD and CHF may be driving the observed associations (Sections 6.2.10.3 and 6.2.10.5, 

respectively). Although estimates from studies of cerebrovascular diseases are less precise and 

consistent, ischemic diseases appear to be more strongly associated with PM2.5 compared to 

hemorrhagic stroke (Section 6.2.10.7). The available evidence suggests that these effects occur at 

very short lags (0-1 days), although effects at longer lags have rarely been evaluated. Overall, the 

results of these studies provide support for associations between short-term PM2.5 exposure and 

increased risk of cardiovascular hospital admissions in areas with mean concentrations ranging from 

7 to 18 μg/m3

. 

Epidemiologic studies that examined the association between PM2.5 and mortality provide 

additional evidence for PM2.5-related cardiovascular effects (Section 6.2.11). The multicity studies 

evaluated found consistent, precise positive associations between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and 

cardiovascular mortality ranging from 0.47 to 0.85% at mean 24-h avg PM2.5 concentrations above 

13 μg/m3

. These associations were reported at short lags (0-1 days), which is consistent with the 

associations observed in the hospital admission and ED visit studies discussed above. Although only 

a limited number of studies examined potential confounders of the PM2.5-cardiovascular mortality 

relationship, the studies evaluated in both this review and the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) support an association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and cardiovascular mortality. 

Recent studies that apportion ambient PM2.5 into sources and components suggest that 

cardiovascular hospital admissions associated with PM2.5 may be attributable to traffic-related 

pollution and, in some cases, biomass burning (Section 6.2.10). Further supporting evidence is 

provided by studies that have used PM10 collection filters (median diameter generally <2.5 μm) to 

identify combustion- or traffic-related sources associated with cardiovascular hospital admissions. 

Metals have also been implicated in these effects (Bell et al., 2009, 191997). A limited number of 

older publications have reported that particle acidity of PM2.5 is not more strongly associated with 

CVD hospitalizations or ED visits than other PM metrics. 

Changes in various measures of cardiovascular function have been demonstrated by multiple 

independent laboratories following controlled human exposures to different types of PM2.5. The most 

consistent effect is changes in vasomotor function, which has been demonstrated following exposure 

to CAPs and DE. The majority of the new evidence of particle-induced changes in vasomotor 

function comes from studies of exposures to DE (Section 6.2.4.2). None of these studies have 

evaluated the effects of DE with and without a particle trap. Therefore, the changes in vasomotor 

function cannot be conclusively attributed to the particles in DE as subjects are also concomitantly 

exposed to relatively high levels of NO2, NO, CO, and hydrocarbons. However, it is important to 

note that a study by Peretz et al. (2008, 156854) used a newer diesel engine with lower gaseous 

emissions and reported significant DE-induced decreases in BAD. In addition, increasing the particle 

exposure concentration from 100 to 200 μg/m3

, without proportional increases in NO, NO2, or CO, 

resulted in an approximate 100% increase in response. An additional consideration is that, while 

fresh DE used in these studies contains relatively high concentrations of PM2.5, the MMAD is 

typically ≤ 100 nm, which makes it difficult to determine whether the observed effects are due to 

December 2009 6-79 
PM2.5 or, more specifically, due to the UF fraction. Further evidence of a particle effect on vasomotor 

function is provided by significant changes in BAD demonstrated in healthy adults following 

controlled exposure to CAPs with O3 (Brook et al., 2002, 024987). These findings are consistent with 

epidemiologic studies of various measures of vasomotor function (e.g., FMD and BAD were the 

most common), which have demonstrated an association with short-term PM2.5 concentration in 

healthy and diabetic populations (Section 6.2.4.1). A limited number of epidemiologic studies 

examined multiple lags and the strongest associations were with either the 6-day mean concentration 

(O'Neill et al., 2005, 088423) or the concurrent day (Schneider et al., 2008, 191985). 

The toxicological findings with respect to vascular reactivity are generally in agreement and 

demonstrate impaired dilation following PM2.5 exposure that is likely endothelium dependent 

(Section 6.2.4.3). These effects have been demonstrated in varying vessels and in response to 

different PM2.5 types, albeit using IT instillation exposure in most studies. Further support is 

provided by IT instillation studies of ambient PM10 that also demonstrate impaired vasodilation and a 

PM2.5 CAPs study that reported decreased L/W ratio of the pulmonary artery. An inhalation study of 

Boston PM2.5 CAPs reported increases in coronary vascular resistance during ischemia, which 

indicated a possible role for PM-induced coronary vasoconstriction. The mechanism behind impaired 

dilation following PM exposure may include increased ROS and RNS production in the 

microvascular wall that leads to altered NO bioavailability and endothelial dysfunction. Despite the 

limited number of inhalation studies conducted with concentrations near ambient levels, the 

toxicological studies collectively provide coherence and biological plausibility for the myocardial 

ischemia observed in controlled human exposure and epidemiologic studies. 

Consistent with the observed effects on vasomotor function, one recent controlled human 

exposure study reported an increase in exercise-induced ST-segment depression (a potential indicator 

of ischemia) during exposure to DE in a group of subjects with prior MI (Mills et al., 2007, 091206). 

In addition, toxicological studies from Boston that employed CAPs provide further evidence for 

PM2.5 effects on ischemia, with changes in ST-segment and decreases in total myocardial blood flow 

reported (Section 6.2.3.3). These findings from toxicological and controlled human exposure studies 

provide coherence and biological plausibility for the associations observed in epidemiologic studies, 

particularly those of increases in hospital admissions and ED visits for IHD. Several epidemiology 

studies have reported associations between short-term PM2.5 concentration (including traffic sources 

or components such as BC) and ST-segment depression or abnormality (Section 6.2.3.1). 

Toxicological studies provide biological plausibility for the PM2.5 associations with CHF 

hospital admissions by demonstrating increased right ventricular pressure and diminished cardiac 

contractility in rodents exposed to CB and DE (Section 6.2.6.1). Similarly, increased coronary 

vascular resistance was observed following PM2.5 CAPs exposure in dogs with 

experimentally-induced ischemia. Further, a recent epidemiology study reported small but 

statistically significant decreases in passively monitored diastolic pressure and right ventricular 

diastolic pressure (Rich et al., 2008, 156910). 

In addition to the effects of PM on vasomotor response, there is a growing body of evidence 

that demonstrates changes in markers of systemic oxidative stress following controlled human 

exposures to DE, wood smoke, and urban traffic particles. However, these effects may be driven in 

part by the UF fraction of PM2.5. Toxicological studies provide evidence of increased cardiovascular 

ROS following PM2.5 exposure to CAPs, road dust, CB, and TiO2, as well as increased systemic ROS 

in rats exposed to gasoline exhaust (Section 6.2.9.3). Epidemiologic studies of markers of oxidative 

stress (e.g., tHcy, CuZn-SOD, TBARS, 8-oxodG, oxLDL and MDA) are consistent with these 

toxicological findings (Section 6.2.9.1). 

A few epidemiologic studies of ventricular arrhythmias recorded on ICDs that were conducted 

in Boston and Sweden (Table 6-2) found associations with short-term PM2.5 concentration (also BC 

and sulfate). While Canadian and U.S. studies conducted outside of Boston did not find positive 

associations between PM2.5 and ICD recorded ventricular arrhythmias, several such studies observed 

associations with ectopic beats and runs of supraventricular or ventricular tachycardias (Section 

6.2.2.1). Toxicological studies also provide limited evidence of arrhythmia, mainly in susceptible 

animal models (i.e., older rats, rats with CHF) (Section 6.2.2.2). 

Most epidemiologic studies of HRV have reported decreases in SDNN, LF, HF, and rMSSD 

(Section 6.2.1.1). While there are also a significant number of controlled human exposure studies 

reporting PM-induced changes in HRV, these changes are often variable and difficult to interpret 

(Section 6.2.1.2). Similarly, HRV increases and decreases have been observed in animal 

toxicological studies that employed CAPs or CB (Section 6.2.1.3). In a study in mice, resuspended 

December 2009 6-80 
soil, secondary sulfate, residual oil, and motor vehicle/other sources, as well as Ni were implicated in 

HRV effects (Lippmann et al., 2006, 091165). Further, cardiac oxidative stress has been implicated 

as a consequence of ANS stimulation in response to CAPs. Modification of the PM-HRV association 

by genetic polymorphisms related to oxidative stress has been observed in a series of analyses of the 

population enrolled in the Normative Aging Study. Changes in HRV measures (whether increased or 

decreased) are likely to be more useful as indicators of PM exposure rather than predictive of some 

adverse outcome. Furthermore, the HRV result may be reflecting a fundamental response of an 

individual that is determined in part by a number of factors including age and pre-existing 

conditions. 

Although not consistently observed across studies, some investigators have reported 

PM2.5-induced changes in BP, blood coagulation markers, and markers of systemic inflammation in 

controlled human exposure studies (Sections 6.2.5.2, 6.2.8.2, and 6.2.9.2, respectively). Findings 

from epidemiologic studies, which are largely cross-sectional and measure a wide array markers of 

inflammation and coagulation, are not consistent; however, a limited number of recent studies of 

gene-environment interactions offer insight into potential individual susceptibility to these effects 

(Ljungman et al., 2009, 191983; Peters et al., 2009, 191992). Similarly, toxicological studies 

demonstrate mixed results for systemic inflammatory markers and generally indicate relatively little 

change at 16-20 h post-exposure (Section 6.2.7.3). Increases in BP have been observed in 

toxicological studies (Section 6.2.5.3), with the strongest evidence coming from dogs exposed to 

PM2.5 CAPs. For blood coagulation parameters, the most commonly reported change in animal 

toxicological studies is elevated plasma fibrinogen levels following PM2.5 exposure, but this 

response is not consistently observed (Section 6.2.8.3). 

In summary, associations of hospital admissions or ED visits with PM2.5 for CVD 

(predominantly IHD and CHF) are consistently positive with the majority of studies reporting 

increases ranging from 0.5 to 3.4% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5. Seasonal and regional variation 

observed in the large multicity study of Medicare recipients is consistent with null findings reported 

in several single city studies conducted in the Western U.S. The results from the hospital admission 

and ED visit studies are supported by the associations observed between PM2.5 and cardiovascular 

mortality, which also provide additional evidence for regional and seasonal variability in PM2.5 risk 

estimates. Changes in various measures of cardiovascular function that may explain these 

epidemiologic findings have been demonstrated by multiple independent laboratories following 

controlled human exposures to different types of PM2.5. The most consistent PM2.5 effect is for 

vasomotor function, which has been demonstrated following exposure to CAPs and DE. 

Toxicological studies finding reduced myocardial blood flow during ischemia and altered vascular 

reactivity provide coherence and biological plausibility for the myocardial ischemia that has been 

observed in both controlled human exposure and epidemiologic studies. Further, PM2.5 effects on STsegment depression have been observed across disciplines. In addition to ischemia, PM2.5 may act 

through several other pathways. Plausible biological mechanisms (e.g., increased right ventricular 

pressure and diminished cardiac contractility) for the associations of PM2.5 with CHF have also been 

proposed based on toxicological findings. There is a growing body of evidence from controlled 

human exposure, toxicological and epidemiologic studies demonstrating changes in markers of 

systemic oxidative stress with PM2.5 exposure. Inconsistent effects of PM on BP, blood coagulation 

markers and markers of systemic inflammation have been reported across the disciplines. Together, 

the collective evidence is sufficient to conclude that a causal relationship exists between 

short-term PM2.5 exposures and cardiovascular effects. 

6.2.12.2. PM10-2.5

There was little evidence in the 2004 AQCD regarding PM10-2.5 cardiovascular health effects. 

Two single-city epidemiologic studies found positive associations of PM10-2.5 with cardiovascular 

hospital admissions in Toronto (Burnett et al., 1999, 017269) and Detroit, MI (Ito, 2003, 042856; 

Lippmann, 2000, 024579) and the effect estimates were of the same general magnitude as for PM10

and PM2.5. Both studies reported positive associations and estimates appeared robust to adjustment 

for gaseous copollutants in two-pollutant models. An imprecise, non-significant association between 

PM10-2.5 and onset of MI was observed in Boston (Peters et al., 2001, 016546). No controlled human 

exposure or toxicological studies of PM10-2.5 were presented in the 2004 AQCD. 

Several recent epidemiologic studies of the effect of ambient PM10-2.5 concentration on hospital 

admissions or ED visits for CVD were conducted (Section 6.2.10). In a study of Medicare patients in 

December 2009 6-81 
108 U.S. counties, Peng et al. (2008, 156850) reported a significant association between PM10-2.5 and 

CVD hospitalizations in their single pollutant model. In a study of six French cities, Host et al. 

(2008, 155852) reported a significant increase in IHD hospital admissions in association with PM10-

2.5. In contrast, associations of cardiovascular outcomes with PM10-2.5 were weak for CHF and null 

for IHD in the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study (Metzger et al., 2004, 044222). Results from single-city 

studies are generally positive, but effect sizes are heterogeneous and estimates are imprecise 

(Section 6.2.10). Crustal material from a dust storm in the Gobi desert that was largely coarse PM 

(generally indicated using PM10) was associated with hospitalizations for CVD, including IHD and 

CHF in most studies (Section 6.2.10). Mean PM10-2.5 concentrations in the hospital admission and 

ED visit studies ranged from 7.4-13 μg/m3. A few epidemiologic studies that examined the 

association between short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and cardiovascular mortality (Section 6.2.11) 

provide supporting evidence for the hospital admission and ED visit studies at similar 24-h avg 

PM10-2.5 concentrations (i.e., 6.1-16.4 μg/m3

). A multicity study reported risk estimates for 

cardiovascular mortality of similar magnitude to those for all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality 

(Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2009, 188462). However, the single-city studies evaluated (Villeneuve et 

al., 2003, 055051; Wilson et al., 2007, 157149) reported substantially larger effect estimates, but this 

could be due to differences between cities and compositional differences in PM10-2.5 across regions. 

Of note is the lack of analyses within the studies evaluated that examined potential confounders of 

the PM10-2.5-cardiovascular mortality relationship. 

The U.S. study of Medicare patients (Peng et al., 2008, 156850) and the multicity study that 

examined the association between PM10-2.5 and mortality (Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2009, 188462) 

were the only studies to adjust PM10-2.5 for PM2.5. Peng, et al. (2008, 156850) found that the PM10-2.5

association with CVD hospitalizations remained, but diminished slightly after adjustment for PM2.5. 

These results are consistent with those reported by Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462), which 

found PM10-2.5-cardiovascular mortality risk estimates remained relatively robust to the inclusion of 

PM2.5 in the model. Because of the greater spatial heterogeneity of PM10-2.5, exposure measurement 

error is more likely to bias health effect estimates towards the null for epidemiologic studies of 

PM10-2.5 versus PM10 or PM2.5, making it more difficult to detect an effect of the coarse size fraction. 

In addition, models that include both PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 may suffer from instability due to 

collinearity. Further, the lag structure of PM10-2.5 effects on risk of cardiovascular hospital admissions 

and ED visits, as well as mortality, has not been examined in detail. 

Several epidemiologic studies of cardiovascular endpoints including HRV, BP, ventricular 

arrhythmia, and ECG changes indicating ectopy or ischemia were conducted since publication of the 

2004 PM AQCD. Supraventricular ectopy and ST-segment depression were associated with PM10-2.5

(Section 6.2.3.1), and the only study to examine the effect of PM10-2.5 on BP reported a decrease in 

SBP (Ebelt et al., 2005, 056907) (Section 6.2.5.1). HRV findings were mixed across the 

epidemiologic studies (Section 6.2.1.1). A limited number of studies have evaluated the effect of 

controlled exposures to PM10-2.5 CAPs on cardiovascular endpoints in human subjects. These studies 

have provided some evidence of decreases in HRV (SDNN) and tPA concentration among healthy 

adults approximately 20 hours following exposure (Section 6.2.1.2). However, it is important to note 

that no other measures of HRV (e.g., LF, HF, or LF/HF), nor other hemostatic or thrombotic markers 

(e.g., fibrinogen) were significantly affected by particle exposure in these studies. 

There are very few toxicological studies that examined the effect of exposure to PM10-2.5 on 

cardiovascular endpoints or biomarkers in animals. The few studies that evaluated cardiovascular 

responses were comparative studies of various size fractions, and only blood or plasma parameters 

were measured (Sections 6.2.7.3 and 6.2.8.3). These studies used IT instillation methodologies, as 

there are challenges to exposing rodents via inhalation to PM10-2,5, due to near 100% deposition in 

the ET region for particles >5 μm (Raabe et al., 1988, 001439) and only 44% nasal inhalability of a 

10 μm particle in the rat (Ménache et al., 1995, 006533). These studies also employed relatively high 

doses of PM10-2.5. Despite these shortcomings, increased plasma fibrinogen was observed and the 

response was similar to that observed with PM2.5. At this time, evidence of biological plausibility for 

cardiovascular morbidity effects following PM10-2.5 exposure is sparse, due to the small number of 

studies, few endpoints examined, and the limitations related to the interpretation of IT instillation 

exposures. 

In summary, several epidemiologic studies report associations with cardiovascular endpoints 

including IHD hospitalizations, supraventricular ectopy, and changes in HRV. Further, dust storm 

events resulting in high concentrations of crustal material are linked to increases in cardiovascular 

disease hospital admissions or ED visits for cardiovascular diseases. A large proportion of inhaled 

December 2009 6-82 
coarse particles in the 3-6 μm (dae) range can reach and deposit in the lower respiratory tract, 

particularly the TB airways (Figures 4-3 and 4-4). The few toxicological and controlled human 

exposure studies examining the effects of PM10-2.5 provide limited evidence of cardiovascular effects 

and biological plausibility to support the epidemiologic findings. Therefore the available evidence is 

suggestive of a causal relationship between PM10-2.5 exposures and cardiovascular 

effects. 

6.2.12.3. UFPs

There was very little evidence available in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) on 

the cardiovascular effects of UFPs. Findings from one study presented in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) of controlled exposures to UF EC suggested no particle-related effects on 

various cardiovascular endpoints including blood coagulation, HRV, and systemic inflammation. No 

epidemiologic studies of short-term UFP concentration and cardiovascular endpoints were included 

in the 2004 AQCD and there were no relevant toxicological studies reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) that exposed animals to UFPs. A small number of new epidemiologic 

studies, as well as several controlled human exposure and toxicological studies have been conducted 

in recent years, but substantial uncertainties remain as to the cardiovascular effects of UFPs. For a 

given mass, the enormous number and large surface area of UFPs highlight the importance of 

considering the size of the particle in assessing response. For example, UFPs with a diameter of 

20 nm, when inhaled at the same mass concentration, have a number concentration that is 

approximately six orders of magnitude higher than for a 2.5-μm diameter particle. Particle surface 

area is also greatly increased with UFPs. Many studies suggest that the surface of particles or 

substances released from the surface (e.g., transition metals, organics) interact with biological 

substrates, and that surface-associated free radicals or free radical-generating systems may be 

responsible for toxicity, resulting in greater toxicity of UFPs per particle surface area than larger 

particles. Additionally, smaller particles may have greater potential to cross cell membranes and 

epithelial barriers. 

Controlled human exposure studies are increasingly being utilized to evaluate the effect of 

UFPs on cardiovascular function. While the number of studies of exposure to UFPs is still limited, 

there is a relatively large body of evidence from exposure to fresh DE, which is typically dominated 

by UFPs. As described under the summary for PM2.5, studies of controlled exposures to DE (100-300 

μg/m3

) have consistently demonstrated effects on vasomotor function among adult volunteers 

(Section 6.2.4.2). In addition, exposure to UF EC (50 μg/m3, 10.8×106 particles/cm3) was recently 

shown to attenuate FMD (Shah et al., 2008, 156970). Changes in vasomotor function have been 

observed in animal toxicological studies of UFPs, although very few studies have been conducted 

(Section 6.2.4.3). Inhaled UF TiO2 impaired arteriolar dilation when compared to fine TiO2 at similar 

mass doses (Nurkiewicz et al., 2008, 156816). This response may have been due to ROS in the 

microvascular wall, which may have led to consumption of endothelial-derived NO and generation 

of peroxynitrite radicals. Support for an UFP effect on altered vascular reactivity is also provided by 

studies of DE and IT instillation exposure to ambient PM. The response to DE did not appear to be 

due to VOCs. One epidemiologic study showed that PNC was associated with a nonsignificant 

decrease in flow- and nitroglycerine-mediated reactivity as measures of vasomotor function in 

diabetics living in Boston (O'Neill et al., 2005, 088423). 

New studies have reported increases in markers of systemic oxidative stress in humans 

following controlled exposures to different types of PM consisting of relatively high concentrations 

of UFPs from sources including wood smoke, urban traffic particles, and DE (Section 6.2.9.2). 

Increased cardiac oxidative stress has been observed in mice and rats following gasoline exhaust 

exposure and it appeared the effect was particle-dependent (Section 6.2.9.3). 

The associations between UFPs and HRV measures in epidemiologic studies include increases 

and decreases (Section 6.2.1.1), providing some evidence for an effect. Exposure to UF CAPs has 

been observed to alter parameters of HRV in controlled human exposure studies, although this effect 

has been variable between studies (Section 6.2.1.2). Alterations in HR, HRV, and BP were reported 

in rats exposed to <200 μg/m3

 UF CB (<1.6×107 particles/cm3) (Sections 6.2.1.3 and 6.2.5.3). The 

effects of UFPs on BP have been mixed in epidemiologic studies (Section 6.2.5.1). 

There is some evidence of changes in markers of blood coagulation in humans following 

controlled exposure to UF CAPs, as well as wood smoke and DE; however, these effects have not 

December 2009 6-83 
been consistently observed across studies (Section 6.2.8.2). Toxicological studies demonstrate mixed 

results for systemic inflammation and blood coagulation as well (Sections 6.2.7.3 and 6.2.8.3). 

Few time-series studies of CVD hospital admissions have evaluated UFPs. The SOPHIA study 

found no association between any outcome studied (all CVD, dysrhythmia, CHF, IHD, peripheral 

vascular and cerebrovascular disease) and 24-h mean levels of UFP (Metzger et al. 2004). The 

median UF particle count in Atlanta during the study period was 25,900 particles/cm3

. UFP were not 

associated with CVD hospitalizations in the elderly in Copenhagen, Denmark, but were associated 

with cardiac readmission or fatal MI in the European HEAPSS study (Section 6.2.10). In the 

Copenhagen study, the mean count of particles with a 100 nm mean diameter was 0.68×104

particles/cm3, whereas the PNC range was approximately 1.2-7.6×104 particles/cm3 in HEAPSS 

study. Spatial variation in UFP concentration, which diminishes within a short distance from the 

roadway, may introduce exposure measurement error, making it more difficult to observe an 

association if one exists. 

A limited number of epidemiologic studies have evaluated subclinical cardiovascular measures 

and a number of these were conducted in Boston. UFPs have been linked to ICD-recorded 

arrhythmias in Boston and supraventricular ectopic beats in Erfurt, Germany (Section 6.2.2.1). One 

study reported no UFP association with ectopy (Barclay et al., 2009, 179935). ST-segment 

depression in subjects with stable coronary heart disease was associated with UFPs in Helsinki 

(Section 6.2.3.1). The limited number of studies that examine this size fraction makes it difficult to 

draw conclusions about these cardiovascular measures. 

In summary, there is a relatively large body of evidence from controlled human exposure 

studies of fresh DE, which is typically dominated by UFPs, demonstrating effects of UFP on the 

cardiovascular system. In addition, cardiovascular effects have been demonstrated by a limited 

number of laboratories in response to UF CB, urban traffic particles and CAPs. Responses include 

altered vasomotor function, increased systemic oxidative stress and altered HRV parameters. Studies 

using UF CAPs, as well as wood smoke and DE, provide some evidence of changes in markers of 

blood coagulation, but findings are not consistent. Toxicological studies conducted with UF TiO2, 

CB, and DE demonstrate changes in vasomotor function as well as in HRV. Effects on systemic 

inflammation and blood coagulation are less consistent. PM-dependent cardiac oxidative stress was 

noted following exposure to gasoline exhaust. The few epidemiologic studies of UFPs conducted do 

not provide strong support for an association of UFPs with effects on the cardiovascular system. 

Based on the above findings, the evidence is suggestive of a causal relationship between 

ultrafine PM exposure and cardiovascular effects.

6.3. Respiratory Effects 

6.3.1. Respiratory Symptoms and Medication Use 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented evidence from epidemiologic 

studies of increases in respiratory symptoms associated with PM, although this was not supported by 

the findings of a limited number of controlled human exposure studies. Recent epidemiologic studies 

have provided evidence of an increase in respiratory symptoms and medication use associated with 

PM among asthmatic children, with less evidence of an effect in asthmatic adults. The lack of an 

observed effect of PM exposure on respiratory symptoms in controlled human exposure studies does 

not necessarily contradict these findings, as very few studies of controlled exposures to PM have 

been conducted among groups of asthmatic or healthy children. 

6.3.1.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) concluded that the effects of PM10 on 

respiratory symptoms in asthmatics tended to be positive, although they were somewhat less 

consistent than PM10 effects on lung function. Most studies showed increases in cough, phlegm, 

difficulty breathing, and bronchodilator use, although these increases were generally not statistically 

significant for PM10. The results from one study of respiratory symptoms and PM10-2.5 (Schwartz and 

December 2009 6-84 
Neas, 2000, 007625) found a statistically significant association with cough with PM10-2.5. The 

results of two studies examining respiratory symptoms and PM2.5 revealed slightly larger effects for 

PM2.5 than for PM10. 

Asthmatic Children 

Two large, longitudinal studies in urban areas of the U.S. investigated the effects of ambient 

PM on respiratory symptoms and/or asthma medication use with similar analytic techniques (i.e., 

multistaged modeling and generalized estimating equations [GEE]): the Childhood Asthma 

Management Program (CAMP) (Schildcrout et al., 2006, 089812) and the National Cooperative 

Inner-City Asthma Study (NCICAS) (Mortimer et al., 2002, 030281). A number of smaller panel 

studies conducted in the U.S. evaluated the effects of ambient PM concentrations on respiratory 

symptoms and medication use among asthmatic children (Delfino et al., 2002, 093740; 2003, 

090941; 2003, 050460; Gent et al., 2003, 052885; 2009, 180399; 2006, 088031; Slaughter et al., 

2003, 086294). 

In the CAMP study, the association between ambient air pollution and asthma exacerbations in 

children (n = 990) from eight North American cities was investigated (Schildcrout et al., 2006, 

089812). In contrast to several past studies (Delfino et al., 1996, 080788; 1998, 051406), no 

associations were observed between PM10 and asthma exacerbations or medication use. PM10

concentrations were measured on less than 50% of study days in all cities except Seattle and 

Albuquerque. While PM10 effects were not observed for the entire panel of children, they were 

observed in recent reports on the children participating at the Seattle center (Slaughter et al., 2003, 

086294; Yu et al., 2000, 013254). In a smaller panel study of asthmatic children (n = 133) enrolled in 

the CAMP study, daily particle concentrations averaged over three central sites in Seattle was used 

as the exposure metric (Slaughter et al., 2003, 086294). Children were followed for 2 months, on 

average. Daily health outcomes included both a 3-category measure of asthma severity based on 

symptom duration and frequency, and inhaled albuterol use. In single-pollutant models, an increased 

risk of asthma severity was associated with a 10 μg/m3

 increase in lag 1 PM2.5 (OR 1.20 [95% CI: 

1.05-1.37]) and with a 10 μg/m3

 increase in lag 0 PM10 (OR 1.12 [95% CI: 1.05-1.22]). In 

copollutant models with CO, the associations remained (OR for PM2.5 1.16 [95% CI: 1.03-1.30]; OR 

for PM10 1.11 [95% CI: 1.03-1.19]). Associations between inhaler use and PM were positive in 

single-pollutant models (RR lag 1 PM2.5 1.08 [95% CI: 1.01-1.15]; RR lag 0 PM10 1.05 [95% CI: 

1.00-1.09]), but attenuated and no longer statistically significant in copollutant models. 

The eight cities included in the NCICAS (Mortimer et al., 2002, 030281) were all in the East 

or Midwest: New York City (Bronx, E. Harlem), Baltimore, Washington DC, Cleveland, Detroit, St. 

Louis, and Chicago. In this study, 864 asthmatic children, aged 4-9 yr, were followed daily for four 

2-wk periods over the course of nine months. Morning and evening asthma symptoms (analyzed as 

none vs. any) and peak flow were recorded. For the three urban areas with air quality data, each 

10 μg/m3

 increase in the mean of the previous 2 days (lag 1-2) PM10, increased the risk for morning 

asthma symptoms (OR 1.12 [95% CI: 1.00-1.26]). This effect was robust to the inclusion of O3 (OR 

1.12 [95% CI: 0.98-1.27]). In a related study, O’Connor et al. (2008, 156818) examined the 

relationship between short-term fluctuations in outdoor air pollutant concentrations and changes in 

pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms among children with asthma in seven U.S. inner-city 

communities. PM2.5 concentration was not statistically associated with respiratory symptoms in this 

study. 

December 2009 6-85 
Study Location Lag Endpoint Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Phlegm PM2.5

0 + Runny Nose 

Rodriguez et al. (2007, 092842) Perth, Australia 0-5 

Ranzi et al. (2004, 089500) Emilia-Romagna, Italy 0-3 Cough 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) Thailand 0 

Gent et al. (2009, 180399) New Haven, CT 0-2 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

Rodriguez et al. (2007, 092842) Perth, Australia 0-5 

Gent et al. (2009, 180399) New Haven, CT 0-2 Wheeze 

0-2 +Shortness of Breath

OConnor et al. (2008, 156818) Multicity, US 0-4 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

0 

Rodriguez et al. (2007, 092842) Perth, Australia 0-5 

Gent et al. (2009, 180399) New Haven, CT 0-2 Chest Tightness 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Any Symptoms 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) Thailand 0 + URS 

0 + LRS 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 + LRS 

Gent et al. (2009, 180399) New Haven, CT 0-2 Med Use 

Rabinovitch et al .(2006, 088031) Denver, CO 1 

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Seattle, WA 1 

Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753) Denver, CO 0-2 Asthma Exacerbation 

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Seattle, WA 1 

PM10-2.5

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Phlegm 

0 + Runny Nose 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) Thailand 0 Cough 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

0 Wheeze 

0 +Shortness of Breath

0 Any Symptoms 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) Thailand 0 + URS 

0 + LRS 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 + LRS 

PM10

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Phlegm 

0 + Runny Nose 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) Thailand 0 Cough 

Just et al. (2002, 035429) Paris, France 0-4 

Jalaludin et al. (2004, 056595) Australia 0-5 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

Jalaludin et al. (2004, 056595) Australia 0-5 Wheeze 

Andersen et al. (2008, 096150) Copenhagen, Den 2-4 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

0 +Shortness of Breath

Delfino et al. (2003, 050460) California 0 Any Symptom 

Mortimer et al. (2002, 030281) Multicity, US 1-2 + Score >1 

Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753) Denver, CO 0-3 + Current Day 

0-3 + Previous Night 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

CA, 1-h Max 0-2 

CA, 8-h Max 0-2 

Delfino et al. (2002, 093740) 

CA, 24-h Avg 0-2 

Schildcrout et al. (2006, 089812) US and Can 0-2 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) Thailand 0 + URS 

0 + LRS 

Just et al. (2002, 035429) Paris, France 0-4 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 + LRS 

Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753) Denver, CO 0-3 Med Use 

Jalaludin et al. (2004, 056595) Australia 0-5 

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Seattle, WA 0 

Schildcrout et al. (2006, 089812) US and Can 0-2 

Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753) Denver, CO 0-3 

Just et al. (2002, 035429) Paris, France 0-4 

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Seattle, WA 0 Asthma Exacerbation 

ORs and 95% CIs standardized to increments of 10 μg/m3

.

 

 Odds Ratio 

Figure 6-7. Respiratory symptoms and/or medication use among asthmatic children 

following acute exposure to PM. 

December 2009 6-86 
 Table 6-10. Characterization of ambient PM concentrations from epidemiologic studies of 

respiratory morbidity and short-term exposures in asthmatic children and adults. All 

concentrations are for the 24-h avg unless otherwise noted. 

Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

PM2.5

Adamkiewicz et al. (2004, 087925) Steubenville, OH 20.43 

75th: 23 

98th: 51.79 

Max: 51.79 

Adar et al. (2007, 001458) St. Louis, MO 10.13 

98th: 22.43 

Max: 23.24 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) North Thailand Max: 24.8-26.3 

Allen et al. (2008, 156208) Seattle, WA 11.2 Max: 40.38 

Barraza-Villarreal et al. (2008, 156254) Mexico City 8-h max: 28.9 Max: 102.8 

Bourotte et al. (2007, 150040) Sao Paulo, Brazil 11.9 Max: 26.6 

de Hartog et al. (2003, 001061) Multicity, Europe 12.8-23.4 Max: 39.8-118.1 

Delfino et al. (2006, 090745) Southern CA 3.9-6.9 Max: 8.8-11.6 

DeMeo et al. (2004, 087346) Boston, MA 10.8 NR 

Ebelt et al. (2005, 056907) Vancouver, Canada 11.4 

98th: 23 

Max: 28.7 

Ferdinands et al. (2008, 156433) Atlanta, GA 27.2 Max: 34.7 

Fischer et al. (2007, 156435) The Netherlands 56 75th: 187 

Gent et al. (2003, 052885) CT & MA 13.1 

60th: 12.1 

80th: 19.0 

Gent et al. (2009, 180399) New Haven, CT 17.0 NR 

Girardot et al. (2006, 088271) Smoky Mountains 13.9 Max: 38.4 

Hogervorst et al. (2006, 156559) The Netherlands 19.0 NR 

Hong et al. (2007, 091347) Incheon City, Korea 20.27 Max: 36.28 

Jansen et al. (2005, 082236) Seattle, WA 14.0 Max: 44 

Johnston et al. (2006, 091386) Darwin, Australia 11.1 Max: 36.5 

Koenig et al. (2003, 156653) Seattle, WA 13.3 Max: 40.4 

Lagorio et al. (2006, 089800) Rome, Italy 27.2 Max: 100 

Lee et al. (2007, 093042) Seoul, South Korea 51.15 

75th: 87.54 

Max: 92.71 

Lewis et al. (2004, 097498) Detroit, MI 15.7-17.5 Max: 56.1 

Liu et al. (2009, 192003) Windsor, Ontario 7.1 

95th: 19.0 

98th: 19.0. 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 8.1-11.0 NR 

Mar et al. (2005, 088759) Seattle, WA 5-26 NR 

McCreanor et al. (2007, 092841) London, England 1-h avg: 11.9-28.3 1-h max: 55.9-76.1 

Moshammer et al. (2006, 090771) Linz, Austria 8-h avg: 15.70 Max 24-h avg: 76.39 

Murata et al. (2007, 189159) Tokyo, Japan 39.0 Max 1-h avg: 120 

O’Connor et al. (2008, 156818) Multicity, U.S. 14 Max: 35 

December 2009 6-87 
Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

Peled et al. (2005, 156015) Multicity, Israel 23.9-29.2 NR 

Penttinen et al. (2006, 087988) Helsinki, Finland 8.37 

75th: 11.15 

Max: 33.53 

Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753) Denver, CO 10.8 

98th: 29.3 

Max: 53.5 

Rabinovitch et al. (2006, 088031) Denver, CO 10.8 98th: 23.4 

Ranzi et al. (2004, 089500) Emilia-Romagna, Italy 

Urban: 53.07 

Rural: 29.11 

NR 

Rodriguez et al. (2007, 092842) Perth, Australia 1-h avg: 20.8 

24-h avg: 8.5 

Max 1-h avg: 93.4 

Max 24-h avg: 39.4 

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Seattle, WA 7.3a 75th: 11.3 

Strand et al. (2006, 089203) Denver, CO 12.7 Max: 32.3 

Timonen et al. (2004, 087915) Multicity, Europe 12.7-23.1 Max: 39.8-118.1 

Trenga et al. (2006, 155209) Seattle, WA 8.6-9.6a 75th: 13.1-14.8 

Max: 40.4-41.5 

von Klot et al. (2002, 034706) Erfurt, Germany 30.3b 75th: 41.3b

Max: 133.8b

Ward et al. (2002, 025839) Birmingham and Sandwell, U.K. 12.3-12.7 Max: 28-37 

PM10-2.5

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) North Thailand NR NR 

Bourotte et al. (2007, 150040) Sao Paulo, Brazil 21.7 Max: 62.0 

Ebelt et al. (2005, 056907) Vancouver, Canada 5.6 Max: 11.9 

Lagorio et al. (2006, 089800) Rome, Italy 15.6 Max: 39.6 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 8.7-13.5 NR 

von Klot et al. (2002, 034706) Erfurt, Germany 10.3 

75th: 14.6 

Max: 64.3 

PM10

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089908) North Thailand 31.9-37.5 Max: 113.3-153.3 

Andersen et al. (2008, 096150) Copenhagen, Denmark 25.1 75th: 30.2 

Boezen et al. (2005, 087396) The Netherlands 26.6-44.1 Max: 89.9-242.2 

de Hartog et al. (2003, 001061) Multicity, Europe 19.6-36.5 Max: 67.4-112.0 

Delfino et al. (2002, 093740) Alpine, CA 20 

90th: 32 

Max: 42 

Delfino et al. (2003, 050460) Los Angeles, CA 59.9 90th: 86/0/Max: 126 

Delfino et al. (2004, 056897) Alpine, CA 29.7 

90th: 40.9 

Max: 50.7 

Delfino et al. (2006, 090745) Southern CA 35.7-70.8 Max: 105.5-154.1 

Desqueyroux et al. (2002, 026052) Paris, France 23-28 Max: 63-84 

Ebelt et al. (2005, 056907) Vancouver, Canada 17 Max: 36 

Hong et al. (2007, 091347) Incheon City, Korea 35.3 Max: 124.87 

Jalaludin et al. (2004, 056595) Sydney, Australia 22.8 75th: 122.8 

Jansen et al. (2005, 082236) Seattle, WA 18.0 Max: 51 

December 2009 6-88 
Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

Concentrations (μg/m3) 

Johnston et al. (2006, 091386) Darwin, Australia 20 Max: 43.3 

Just et al. (2002, 035429) Paris, France 23.5 Max: 44.0 

Lagorio et al. (2006, 089800) Rome, Italy 42.8 Max: 123 

Laurent et al. (2008, 156672) Strasbourg, France 20.8 Max: 106.3 

Lee et al. (2007, 093042) Seoul, South Korea 71.40 

75th: 87.54 

Max: 148.34 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 16.8-24.5 NR 

Mortimer et al. (2002, 030281) Multicity, U.S. 53 NR 

Moshammer et al. (2006, 090771) Linz, Austria 8-h avg: 24.85 Max 24-h: 76.39 

Odajima et al. (2008, 192005) Fukuoka, Japan 3-h avg: 32.6-41.5 Max 3-h avg: 126.0-191.3 

Peacock et al. (2003, 042026) Southern England 21.2 Max: 87.9 

Peled et al. (2005, 156015) Multicity, Israel 31.0-67.1 NR 

Preutthipan et al. (2004, 055598) Bangkok, Thailand 111.0 Max: 201 

Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753) Denver, CO 28.1 Max: 102.0 

Ségala et al. (2004, 090449) Paris, France 24.2 Max: 97.4 

Schildcrout et al. (2006, 089812) Multicity, U.S. 17.7-32.4a 75th: 26.2-42.7 

90th: 32.5-53.9 

Slaughter et al.(2003, 086294) Seattle, WA 21.0a 75th: 29.3 

Steinvil et al. (2008, 188893) Tel Aviv, Israel 64.5 75th: 60.7 

von Klot et al. (2002, 034706) Erfurt, Germany 45.4 

75th: 59.7 

Max: 172.4 

a

Median 

b

Includes UFP, for complete information on number concentration from this study, please see corresponding table in Annex E. 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) studied asthmatic children (n = 9) in Spokane, WA. Increases in 0-, 

1- or 2-day lags of each of the PM size classes studied were associated with cough. When all lower 

respiratory tract symptoms (wheeze, cough, shortness of breath, sputum production) were grouped 

together, positive associations were reported for each 10 μg/m3

 increase in same-day PM10 (OR 1.07 

[95% CI: 1.00-1.14]), or lag 0 or lag 1 PM2.5 (OR 1.18 [95% CI: 1.00-1.38]; OR 1.21 [95% CI: 

1.00-1.46], respectively), and 10 μg/m3

 increase in lag 0 and lag 1 PM1.0 (OR 1.21 [95% CI: 

1.01-1.44]; OR 1.25 [95% CI: 1.01-1.55], respectively). No associations were reported for PM10-2.5

and grouped lower respiratory tract symptoms (Mar et al., 2004, 057309). 

Gent et al. (2003, 052885) reported on daily symptom and medication use during one summer 

for 271 asthmatic children living in southern New England. In single-pollutant models for users of 

maintenance medication (n = 130), PM2.5 ≥19 μg/m3

 lagged by 1 day was associated with a 10-25% 

increase in risk of symptoms compared to PM2.5 <6.9 μg/m3

: OR for persistent cough 1.12 (95% CI: 

1.02-1.24); OR for chest tightness 1.21 (95% CI: 1.00-1.46); OR for shortness of breath 1.26 

(95% CI: 1.02-1.54). Effects were attenuated in models including O3 (OR for persistent cough 1.00 

[95% CI: 0.88-1.15]; OR for chest tightness 0.91 [95% CI: 0.71-1.17]; OR for shortness of breath 

1.20 [95% CI: 0.94-1.52]). No statistical associations between ambient particle exposure and 

respiratory health were found for asthmatic children not on maintenance medication. 

Annual PM2.5 levels at monitoring sites in New Haven, CT exceed the annual standard of 

15 μg/m3

. Gent et al. (2009, 180399) conducted a study here to examine the associations between 

daily exposure to PM2.5 components and sources identified through source apportionment, and daily 

symptoms and medication use in asthmatic children. Asthmatic children (n = 149) aged 4-12 yr were 

enrolled in the study between 2000 and 2003. Factor analysis was used to identify six sources of 

PM2.5 (motor vehicle, road dust, sulfur, biomass burning, oil, and sea salt). Total PM2.5 was not 

associated with any symptoms or medication use; however trace elements originating from motor 

vehicle, road dust, biomass burning and oil sources were associated with symptoms and/or 

December 2009 6-89 
medication use. For example, an increased risk of wheeze, shortness of breath, chest tightness or 

short-acting inhaler use was associated with increasing EC mass concentration. Risks remain in 

models that include all six PM2.5 sources as well as NO2, which may be considered a marker for 

traffic. NO2 was found to be an independent risk factor for increased wheeze. 

Two panel studies were conducted over the course of three winters at a school in Denver 

(Rabinovitch et al., 2004, 096753; 2006, 088031). In the first report, approximately 86 different 

children contributed data on asthma symptoms and medication use over three consecutive winters 

(Rabinovitch et al., 2004, 096753). The exposure metric was the 3-day average concentration of 

PM2.5 measured at a site located next to the school for the first two winters and from a central site 

located 4.8 km (3 miles) away for the third. A strong correlation was observed during the first two 

winters between PM2.5 values measured locally and at a downtown monitoring station (Pearson 

product-moment correlation = 0.93) and between PM10 values measured locally and at a downtown 

monitoring station (correlation = 0.84). Therefore, in year 3, all ambient data were collected from 

nearby community monitoring stations. No statistical associations were found between asthma 

symptoms or medication use and PM. Rabinovitch et al. (2006, 088031) enrolled a panel of 73 

children and evaluated associations with morning maximum PM2.5 measured at the central site. PM 

measurements were available hourly from two co-located monitors, an FRM and a TEOM monitor. 

Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in morning maximum 1-h PM2.5 concentration was associated with an 

increased likelihood of rescue medication use (OR for FRM 1.02 [95% CI: 1.01-1.03]; OR for 

TEOM 1.03 [95% CI: 1.00-1.6]). Interestingly, the association between inhaler use and particle 

exposure was not evident when the 24-h avg PM2.5 was used in the model. 

Two smaller panel studies enrolling asthmatic children conducted by Delfino et al. (2002, 

093740; 2003, 050460) in southern California examined the health effects of different averaging 

times for PM10 (1-h, 8-h, 24-h) (Delfino et al., 2002, 093740), and 24-h avg of two PM10 components 

(EC and OC) (Delfino et al., 2003, 050460). In the first study, 22 children living in a “lower” 

pollution area were followed daily for two months in spring. In contrast with Gent et al. (2003, 

052885), positive statistical associations with asthma symptoms (measured on a 6-point severity 

scale) were found only for the children not taking anti-inflammatory medication. For these 12 

children, in single-pollutant models each 10 μg/m3 increase in lag 0 1-h max PM10 nearly doubled 

the risk of clinically meaningful symptoms (i.e., an asthma symptom score ≥3) (OR 1.14 [95% CI: 

1.04-1.24]) and each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 3-day avg 24-h PM10 increased the risk by 1.25 (95% CI: 

1.06-1.48). No statistical associations were found between exposure to ambient particles and 

symptoms in the ten children who were taking anti-inflammatory medication. No multipollutant 

models were reported. The second study enrolled 22 asthmatic children living in an area of higher 

pollution. For children living in this community, each 10 μg/m3

 increase in lag 0, 24-h PM10 was 

associated with an increased risk of asthma symptom score >1: OR 1.10, (95% CI: 1.03-1.19) 

(Delfino et al., 2003, 050460). The correlation among PM10, EC and OC was substantial: 0.80 

between PM10 and either EC or OC, and 0.94 between EC and OC. Associations between EC or OC 

and asthma symptoms were very similar to those for PM10: each 3 μg/m3

 increase in lag 0, 24-h EC 

or 5 μg/m3

 increase in lag 0, 24-h OC was associated with an increased risk of asthma symptoms 

(OR 1.85 [95% CI: 1.11-3.08] or OR 1.88 [95% CI: 1.12-3.17], respectively) (Delfino et al., 2003, 

050460). 

The association between incident wheezing symptoms and air pollution was assessed in the 

Copenhagen Prospective Study of Asthma in Children among a birth cohort of 205 children in 

Copenhagen, Denmark. In addition to PM10 and other gaseous air pollutants, the study examined 

UFP concentrations collected from a central background monitoring station. This is the only study 

identified that examined the association between UFPs and respiratory symptoms in children. There 

were strong adverse effects for PM10 and UFPs, as well as for NO2, NOX, and CO for wheezing 

symptoms in infants which attenuated after the age of 1 yr (lag 2-4 PM10 OR 1.21 (95% CI 0.99-

1.48); lag 2-4 UFP OR 1.92 (95% CI: 0.98-3.76)). These associations remained in copollutant 

models including NO2, NOX and CO. 

Studies from Australia (Rodriguez et al., 2007, 092842), Europe (Andersen et al., 2008, 

096150; Laurent et al., 2008, 156672; Laurent et al., 2009, 192129; Ranzi et al., 2004, 089500), and 

Asia (Aekplakorn et al., 2003, 089908) provide additional evidence of an association between 

ambient PM and respiratory symptoms and/or medication use among asthmatic children. Two studies 

(Jalaludin et al., 2004, 056595; Just et al., 2002, 035429) found no association between ambient PM 

levels and these health endpoints. 

December 2009 6-90 
Asthmatic Adults 

Since the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), one U.S. and several European studies 

have investigated the effects of ambient PM levels on respiratory symptoms and medication use 

among asthmatic adults. The respiratory symptom and medication use results from these studies are 

summarized by particle size and displayed in Table 6-10 and Figure 6-8. Relatively few studies 

examined these effects in healthy adults, and they did not identify a relationship between ambient 

PM levels and respiratory symptoms or medication use. These studies of healthy adults are 

summarized in Annex E, but will not be described in detail in this section. 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) studied asthmatic adults (n = 16) in Spokane, WA over a 3-yr time 

period. No associations were found between PM and respiratory symptoms among the adults. 

Several panel studies conducted in Europe have examined effects of daily exposures to air 

pollution on adults with asthma, including studies in the Pollution Effects on Asthmatic Children in 

Europe (PEACE) study (Boezen et al., 2005, 087396), Exposure and Risk Assessment for Fine and 

UFPs in Ambient Air (ULTRA) study (De Hartog et al., 2003, 001061), in Germany (Von et al., 

2002, 034706), and in Paris (Desqueyroux et al., 2002, 026052; 2004, 090449). Boezen et al. (2005, 

087396) enrolled 327 elderly adults in the Netherlands to examine the role of airway 

hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and IgE levels in susceptibility to air pollution. For subjects with both 

AHR (defined as ≥ 20% FEV1 decline at ≤ 2 mg cumulative methacholine [Mch]) and high total IgE 

(>20 kU/L), each 10 μg/m3

 increase in lag 2 PM10 concentration was associated with an increased 

risk of upper respiratory symptoms (URS) among males (OR 1.06 [95% CI: 1.02-1.10]), and at lag 0 

with increased cough among females (OR 1.04 [95% CI: 1.00-1.08]). Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in BS 

at lag 0, lag 1, and the 5-day mean was associated with URS and cough among males. The strongest 

association in both cases was for the 5-day mean (OR for URS 1.43 [95% CI: 1.20-1.69]; OR for 

cough 1.16 [95% CI: 1.05-1.29]). The authors suggest that the sex differences observed may be 

explained by differential daily exposure to traffic exhaust experienced by men compared to women 

(Boezen et al., 2005, 087396). 

As part of the multicenter ULTRA study, de Hartog et al. (2003, 001061) enrolled 131 older 

adults with coronary artery disease in three cities (Amsterdam, Erfurt [Germany], and Helsinki). 

Pooling data from all 3 cities, associations were observed between PM2.5 and shortness of breath and 

phlegm: each 10 μg/m3

 increase in the 5-day avg PM2.5 was associated with an increased risk of 

symptoms (OR for shortness of breath 1.12 [95% CI: 1.02-1.24]; OR for phlegm 1.16 [95% CI: 

1.03-1.32]). Unlike fine particles, UFPs were not consistently associated with symptoms. 

In a study that took place in Erfurt, Germany, von Klot et al. (2002, 034706) examined daily, 

winter time exposure to ambient PM10-2.5, PM2.5-0.01 and PM0.1-0.01 and respiratory health effects in 53 

adult asthmatics. The authors examined associations between wheeze, use of inhaled, short-acting 

β2-agonists or inhaled corticosteroids and exposure to particles in single and multipollutant models. 

Particle exposure metrics examined included same-day, 5-day and 14-day average concentrations. 

No effects were observed for wheeze and exposure to PM10-2.5 for any averaging time. The strongest 

association between wheeze and exposure to UFPs was for a 14-day avg: each 7,700 increase in the 

NC0.01-0.1 increased the risk of wheeze by 27% (OR 1.27 [95% CI: 1.13-1.43]). The effect was 

attenuated in copollutant models that also included PM2.5-0.01 (OR 1.12 [95% CI: 1.01-1.24]), NO2

(OR 1.12 [95% CI: 0.99-1.26]), CO (OR 1.05 [95% CI: 0.92-1.19]) or SO2 (OR 1.14 [95% CI: 

1.04-1.26]). The correlations between UFPs and two gaseous pollutants, NO2 and CO, were high: 

0.66 for each. 

December 2009 6-91 
Study Location Lag Endpoint Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

de Hartog et al. (2003, 001061) Netherlands 0-4 Phlegm PM2.5

0 

0 + Runny Nose 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 

0 Cough 

de Hartog et al. (2003, 001061) Netherlands 0-4 Wheeze 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

0 

Shortness of breath 

Johnston et al. (2006, 091386) Australia 0-5 Asthma Symptoms 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

0 + LRS 

PM10-2.5

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Phlegm 

0 + Runny Nose 

von Klot et al. (2002, 034706) Germany 0-4 Wheeze 

0 

0 Shortness of breath 

0 Cough 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 

0 Any Symptom 

von Klot et al. (2002, 034706) Germany 0-4 Medication Use 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Asthma Symptoms 

PM10

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 Phlegm 

0 + Runny Nose 

Boezen et al. (2005, 087396) Netherlands 0-4 Cough 

Segala et al. (2004, 090449) Paris, France 0 ` 

0 

0 Wheeze 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 

0 Shortness of breath 

Desqueyroux et al. (2002, 026052) Paris, France 3-5 Asthma Symptoms 

Johnston et al. (2006, 091386) Australia 0-5 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 

Boezen et al. (2005, 087396) Netherlands 0-4 + URS 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) Spokane, WA 0 + LRS 

 Odds Ratio 

Figure 6-8. Respiratory symptoms and/or medication use among asthmatic adults following 

acute exposure to particles. Summary of studies using 24-h avg of PM10, PM2.5, 

PM10-2.5. ORs and 95% CIs were standardized to increments of 10 μg/m3. 

In the same study, no association was found between exposure to PM10-2.5,, PM2.5, or UFPs and 

use of short-acting inhalers, though there was an association with maintenance medication. Increased 

likelihood of maintenance medication was significantly associated with PM of all sizes and all 

averaging times (same-day, 5- and 14-day avg) and gaseous copollutants in single or copollutant 

models. The strongest effects were seen for 14-day avg of PM10-2.5 (for each 10 μg/m3

 increase OR 

1.43 [95% CI: 1.28-1.60]), PM2.5-0.01 (for each 20 μg/m3

 increase OR 1.54 [95% CI: 1.43-1.66]), 

NC0.01-0.1 (for each 7,700 increase OR 1.45 [95% CI: 1.29-1.63]). For PM2.5-0.01, effects were 

unchanged in copollutant models, including a model with UFPs. The authors conclude that this is 

evidence for independent effects of PM2.5 and UFPs (Von et al., 2002, 034706). 

In Paris, Segala et al. (2004, 090449) recruited 78 adults from an otolaryngology clinic and 

followed them for three months. Both PM10 and BS (which were highly correlated [r =.88]) were 

associated with cough: OR 1.24 (95% CI: 1.01-1.52) for a 10 μg/m3

 increase in mean 0-4 day PM10

and OR 1.18 (95% CI: 1.02-1.39) for a 10 μg/m3

 increase in BS. 

Also in Paris, 60 severe asthmatics were followed for 13 months and the relationship between 

daily air quality (including 24-h PM10 as measured at the site nearest to the subject’s home) and 

asthma attack (defined as the need to increase rescue medication use and one or more positive signs 

on clinical exam of wheezing, expiratory brake, thoracic distention, hypertension with tachycardia, 

polypnea) were examined with GEE models (Desqueyroux et al., 2002, 026052). Each 10 μg/m3

increase in PM10 increased the risk of asthma attack, but only after lags of 3-5 days. The strongest 

effect was seen for the mean lag of days 3-5 (OR 1.21 [95% CI: 1.04-1.40]). Effect sizes were larger 

among patients not on regular oral steroid therapy: for PM10 lag 3-5 (OR 1.41 [95% CI: 1.15-1.73]). 

This effect persisted in copollutant models for winter time levels of PM10 and SO2 (OR 1.51 [95% 

December 2009 6-92 
CI: 1.20-1.90]) or NO2 (OR 1.43 [95% CI: 1.16-1.76]), but not in summer time models with O3 (OR 

1.09 [95% CI: 0.71-1.67]). 

Copollutant Models 

A limited number of respiratory symptoms studies reported results of copollutant models. 

Generally, the associations between respiratory symptoms and PM were robust to the inclusion of 

copollutants (Figure 6-9), though Desqueyroux et al. (2002, 026052) indicate the effects of PM may 

be potentiated by NO2 and SO2 during the winter months. Gent et al. (2003, 052885) also reported 

the results of copollutant models, though the categorical exposure groups used in the analysis did not 

allow these results to be included in Figure 6-9. As reported above, the investigators found that 

effects were attenuated in models including O3. 

Study Outcome Pollutant Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Asthma Severity PM2.5 PM2.5 Asthmatic Children

PM2.5+CO 

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089909) Cough PM2.5

PM2.5+SO2

PM10-2.5 Asthmatic Children

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089909) Cough PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+SO2

PM10 Asthmatic Children

Slaughter et al. (2003, 086294) Asthma Severity PM10

PM10+CO 

Mortimer et al. (2002, 030281) AM Asthma Symptoms PM10

PM10+O3

Aekplakorn et al. (2003, 089909) Cough PM10

PM10+SO2

PM10

PM10+NO2

Andersen et al. (2008, 096150) Wheeze 

PM10+CO 

UFP Asthmatic Children

UFP 

UFP+ PM10

UFP+ NO2

Andersen et al. (2008, 096150) Wheeze 

UFP+CO 

PM10 Asthmatic Adults

PM10

PM10+NO2

PM10+O3

Desqueyroux et al. (2002, 026052) Asthma Attack 

PM10+SO2

 Odds Ratio 

Figure 6-9. Respiratory symptoms following acute exposure to particles and additional 

criteria pollutants. Circles represent single pollutant effect estimates and 

squares represent copollutant effect estimates. 

6.3.1.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

CAPs 

Neither new controlled human exposure studies nor studies cited in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) have found significant effects of CAPs on respiratory symptoms among 

healthy or asthmatic adults, or among older adults with COPD (Gong et al., 2000, 155799; 2003, 

042106; 2004, 087964; 2004, 055628; 2005, 087921; 2008, 156483; Petrovic et al., 2000, 004638). 

December 2009 6-93 
Urban Traffic Particles 

One new study reported an increase in respiratory symptoms (upper and lower airways) among 

healthy volunteers (19-59 yr) during a 2-h exposure to road tunnel traffic (PM2.5 concentration 46-

81 μg/m3

) (Larsson et al., 2007, 091375). However, information on specific respiratory symptoms 

(e.g., throat irritation, wheeze or chest tightness) was not provided. In addition, this study only 

evaluated respiratory symptoms pre- versus post-exposure, and did not compare response with a 

filtered air control exposure. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Respiratory symptoms including mild nose and throat irritation have been reported following 

controlled exposure to DE; however, other symptoms such as cough, wheeze and chest tightness 

have not been observed (Mudway et al., 2004, 180208). 

Model Particles 

Pietropaoli et al. (2004, 156025) found no association between exposure to UF carbon 

particles and respiratory symptoms in healthy adults at concentrations between 10 and 50 μg/m3, or 

asthmatics at a concentration of 10 μg/m3

. Beckett et al. (2005, 156261) exposed healthy subjects to 

UF and fine ZnO (500 μg/m3

) and observed no difference in respiratory symptoms compared to 

filtered air control 24 h following exposure. In a study evaluating respiratory effects of exposure to 

ammonium bisulfate or aerosolized H2SO4 (200 and 2,000 μg/m3

) among healthy and asthmatic 

adults, Tunnicliffe et al. (2003, 088744) observed no change in respiratory symptoms with either 

particle type or concentration relative to filtered air. This finding is in agreement with many similar 

older studies which have generally reported no increase in respiratory symptoms following exposure 

to acid aerosols at concentrations <1,000 μg/m3 (U.S. EPA, 1996, 079380; 2004, 056905).. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Respiratory 

Symptoms 

These new studies confirm previous reports that have found no association between PM 

exposure and respiratory symptoms. 

6.3.2. Pulmonary Function 

Epidemiologic studies cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) observed small 

decrements in pulmonary function associated with both PM2.5 and PM10 (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

The majority of controlled human exposure studies reported no effect of PM on pulmonary function, 

while the results from toxicological studies were mixed, with some evidence of changes in tidal 

volume and respiratory rate following exposure to CAPs. Epidemiologic studies published since the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) have reported an association between PM2.5

concentration and decrements in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), particularly among 

asthmatic children. These findings are coherent with recent toxicological evidence of AHR 

following CAPs exposure. Results from recent controlled human exposure studies have been 

inconsistent, with some studies demonstrating small decreases in arterial oxygen saturation, FEV1 or 

maximal mid-expiratory flow following exposure to CAPs or EC. It is interesting to note that these 

effects appear to be more pronounced among healthy adults than adults with asthma or COPD. A 

number of recent animal toxicological studies demonstrated alterations in respiratory frequency 

following short-term exposure to CAPs. 

December 2009 6-94 
6.3.2.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) concluded that both PM2.5 and PM10 appeared 

to affect lung function in asthmatics. A limited number of studies evaluated UFPs and found them to 

be associated with a decrease in peak expiratory flow (PEF). Few analyses were able to clearly 

distinguish the effects of PM2.5 and PM10 from other pollutants. Results for PM10 PEF analyses in 

non-asthmatic studies were inconsistent, with fewer studies reporting strong associations. 

Asthmatic Children 

Several recent panel studies have been conducted in the U.S. examining the association of 

exposure to ambient PM and lung function in asthmatic children (Allen et al., 2008, 156208 in 

Seattle; Lewis et al., 2003, 088413 in Southern California; 2004, 097498; Lewis et al., 2005, 081079

in Detroit; O'Connor et al., 2008, 156818; Rabinovitch et al., 2004, 096753 in Denver). Mean 

concentration data from these studies are summarized in Table 6-10. In the Inner-City Asthma Study 

(ICAS), FEV1 and PEF tidal were statistically related to the 5-day avg of PM2.5 but not to the 1-

day avg concentration (O'Connor et al., 2008, 156818). The risk of experiencing a percent-predicted 

FEV1 more than 10% below personal best was related to the 5-day avg concentration of PM2.5 (1.14 

[95% CI: 1.01-1.29]). The risk of experiencing a percent-predicted PEF rate more than 10% below 

personal best was related to PM2.5 (1.18 [95% CI: 1.03-1.35]). This effect remained robust in 

copollutant models with O3 and NO2 for the FEV1 effect, but not the PEF rate effect. 

The Denver study (Rabinovitch et al., 2004, 096753), described in Section 6.3.1.1, also 

examined daily FEV1 and PEF in 86 asthmatic children over the course of three winters (some 

subjects participated in more than one winter). Lung function measurements were performed under 

supervision daily at the elementary school where all subjects attended, and without supervision every 

evening and on nonschool days. As described above, the authors chose to use a 3-day moving 

average of 24-h PM2.5 or PM10 as the exposure metric. No statistical associations were observed 

between morning or afternoon FEV1 or PEF and particle exposure. The same group of researchers 

(Strand et al., 2006, 089203) used regression calibration to estimate personal exposures to ambient 

PM2.5 and found that a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 was associated with a 2.2% (95% CI: 0.0-4.3) 

decrease in FEV1 at a 1-day lag as compared with the estimate of a 1.0% decrease in FEV1 using 

ambient PM2.5 concentrations from fixed monitors. These results underscore the effects of exposure 

error on epidemiologic study results; the effect estimate using an estimate of personal exposure to 

ambient PM2.5 was twice that for central site PM2.5. 

From winter 2001 to the spring of 2002, the same number (n = 86) of primary school-age 

asthmatic children participated in six 2-wk seasonal assessments of lung function in Detroit (Lewis 

et al., 2005, 081079). Using a protocol similar to that used in Rabinovitch et al. (2004, 096753), 

morning lung function measurements (FEV1, PEF) were self-administered at school under 

supervision by research staff. Evening and weekend measurements were recorded by subjects at 

home, without supervision from research staff. Community-level exposure was assessed using 

monitors placed on a school roof top of both of the communities. Most of the subjects (82 of 86) 

lived within 5 km of their respective community monitors. In single-pollutant models using GEE and 

only among children reporting the use of maintenance medication (corticosteroids), each 10 μg/m3

increase in lag 2 PM10 was associated with a decrease in the lowest daily percent predicted FEV1 (a 

reduction of 1.15%, [95% CI: -2.1 to -0.25]). Among children reporting presence of URI on the day 

of lung function measurement, increases in the average of lag 3-5 of either PM2.5 or PM10 resulted in 

a decrease in the lowest daily FEV1 (for a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 the reduction was 2.24% [95% 

CI: -4.4 to -0.25]; and for a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10 the reduction was 2.4% [95% CI: -4.5 to 

-0.3]). In copollutant models that included one particle pollutant and O3, and among children using 

maintenance medication, lag 3-5 PM2.5 continued to be associated with lowest daily FEV1 as well as 

diurnal FEV1 variability: each 10 μg/m3

 increase was associated with a 2.23% decrease in FEV1

(95% CI: -3.92 to -0.57) and a 2.22% increase in FEV1 variability (95% CI: 1.0 to 3.50). Increases in 

lag 1 or lag 2 of PM10 were associated with FEV1 and FEV1 diurnal variability in copollutant models. 

The strongest association was with lag 2 for diurnal variability (for each 10 μg/m3

 increase 

variability increased by 7.0% [95% CI: 4.2-9.6). It is unclear what role the lack of supervision during 

the evening and weekend measures may have had on these diurnal results. 

Two panel studies in southern California examined the association of PM exposure on lung 

function in asthmatic children (Delfino et al., 2003, 050460; 2004, 056897). In Delfino et al. (2003, 

December 2009 6-95 
050460), described above, no association between exposure to particles and PEF was found for 22 

Hispanic, asthmatic children living in an area of relatively high pollution. In Delfino et al. (2004, 

056897) 19 asthmatic children, aged 9-17 yr, were followed for 2 weeks and daily, self-administered 

FEV1 measurements were taken. Particle exposures studied included central-site PM10 in addition to 

personal PM (in the range of 0.1-10 μm range, with the highest response in the fine PM range), and 

home stationary measurements of both PM2.5 and PM10. The authors report inverse associations 

between percent expected FEV1 and PM indicators. The strongest association for exposure to 

personal PM was for a 5-day moving average of 12-h daytime PM: for each 10 μg/m3

 increase, FEV1

decreased by 7.1% (95% CI: -9.9 to -2.9). Effects for all stationary sites (inside and outside of 

residence, central site) for PM2.5 were on the order of 1-2% reductions in FEV1, with the strongest 

associations for the 5-day moving average (presented in figures only). Likewise for PM10 measured 

at stationary sites, the strongest effects were for the 5-day moving average and ranged from 

approximately 3.8% reduction associated with indoor monitors to about 1.5% for both the outdoor 

and central site monitors (presented in figures only). A helpful comparison among all 24-h measures 

is given for 10 μg/m3

 increases in personal PM and PM2.5 associated with decreases in percent 

predicted FEV1: an increase of 10 μg/m3 personal PM is associated with a decrease in FEV1 of 3.0% 

(95% CI: -5.6 to -0.5); 10 μg/m3

 increase in indoor PM with 2.4% decrease (95% CI: -4.2 to -0.6); 

10 μg/m3

 increase in outdoor PM with 1.5% decrease (95% CI: -3.4 to 0.1); 10 μg/m3 increase in 

central site PM with 0.9% decrease (95% CI: -2.6 to 0.5). 

Trenga et al. (2006, 155209) reported associations among personal, residential, and central site 

PM2.5 and lung function in 17 asthmatic children in Seattle. The only statistical association with 

decline in FEV1 was with indoor measurements of PM2.5: each 10 μg/m3 increase in lag 1 indoor 

PM2.5 was associated with a decline in FEV1 of 64.8 mL (95% CI: -111.3 to 18.3) (a 3.4% decline 

from the mean of 1.9 L). Indoor PM2.5 (lag 1) was also associated with declines in PEF (by 9.2 L/min 

[95% CI: -17.5 to -0.9], a 3.6% decline from the 254 L/min avg) and in maximal mid-expiratory 

flow (MMEF) for the six subjects not taking anti-inflammatory medication (by 12.6 L/min [95% CI: 

-20.7 to -4.6], a 13.7% decline from the 92 L/min avg). Personal PM2.5 (lag 1) was only statistically 

associated with PEF for the six subjects not on anti-inflammatory medication: each 10 μg/m3

increase resulted in a 10.5 L/min ([95% CI: -18.7 to -2.3], a 4.5% decline from the 233 L/min avg) 

reduction in PEF. Anti-inflammatory medication use attenuated associations with PM2.5. Also in Seattle, Allen et al. (2008, 156208) evaluated the effect of different PM2.5 exposure 

metrics in relation to lung function among children in wood smoke-impacted areas. The authors 

found that the ambient-generated component of PM2.5 exposure was associated with decrements in 

lung function only among children not using inhaled corticosteroids, whereas no association was 

reported with the nonambient exposure component. All of the ambient concentrations were 

associated with decrements in both PEF and maximal expiratory flow (MEF). There were no 

associations between any exposure metrics and forced vital capacity (FVC). The authors suggest that 

lung function may be especially sensitive to the combustion-generated component of ambient PM2.5, 

whereas airway inflammation may be more closely related to some other source. 

In a longitudinal study, Liu et al. (2009, 192003) examined the association between acute 

increases in ambient air pollutants and pulmonary function among children (ages 9-14 yr) with 

asthma. FEV1 and FEF25-75% exhibited a consistent trend of negative associations with PM2.5 across 

lag days 0, 1, 0-1, and 0-2, with the strongest effects for FEF25-75% on lag day 0 (-1.12% [95% CI: 

-2.06 to -0.18]) and lag days 0-1 (-1.18% [95% CI: -2.24 to -0.12]). Copollutant models including 

O3, SO2 or NO2 did not result in marked changes in the PM2.5 risk estimates for FEV1 or FEF25-75%. 

Moshammer and Neuberger (2003, 041956) used a novel technique for assessing exposure to 

PM in a study they conducted in Austria. They employed a diffusion charging particle sensor (model 

LQ 1-DC, Matter Engineering AG, Wohlen, Switzerland) and a photoelectric aerosol sensor (model 

PAS 2000 CE, EcoChem Analytics, League City, TX) to relate the spirometry scores of Upper 

Austrian children, aged 7-10 yr, to particle surface area and particle-bound PAH concentration, 

respectively. Details on these methods for measuring surface area and PAH can be found in Shi et al. 

(2001, 078292) and Burtscher (2005, 155710), respectively. By measuring the surface area 

distribution, it was possible to understand potential for contact area with respiratory tract cells. The 

authors found that acute decrements of pulmonary function (FVC, FEV1, MEF50) were related to the 

active surface of particles after adjustment for PM10. For short-term lung impairments, this indicates 

that active particle surface is a better index of exposure than PM mass. 

A number of additional panel studies conducted outside of the U.S. and Canada also examined 

lung function using more traditional exposure metrics. Several European and Asian studies reported 

December 2009 6-96 
associations with PM measurements and decrements in pulmonary function (FEV1, FVC, FEF, MEF, 

PEF rate) (Hogervorst et al., 2006, 156559; Hong et al., 2007, 091347; Moshammer et al., 2006, 

090771; Odajima et al., 2008, 192005; Peacock et al., 2003, 042026; Peled et al., 2005, 156015). 

Others found little evidence for a relationship between PM and daily changes in PEF after correction 

for the confounding effects of weather, trends in the data, and autocorrelation (Fischer et al., 2002, 

025731; Holguin et al., 2007, 099000; Just et al., 2002, 035429; Preutthipan et al., 2004, 055598; 

Ranzi et al., 2004, 089500; Ward, 2003, 157111). 

Adults 

Trenga et al. (2006, 155209) examined personal, residential, and central site monitoring of 

particles and the relationship with lung function in Seattle. In models controlling for gaseous 

copollutants (CO, NO2), adults, regardless of COPD status, experienced a decline in FEV1 associated 

only with measurements of PM2.5 at the central site: each 10 μg/m3

 increase in lag 0 PM2.5 was 

associated with a 35.3 mL (95% CI: -70 to -1.0) decrease in FEV1. This represents a 2.2% decline in 

mean FEV1 (mean 1.6 L during the study). Results for personal, indoor and outdoor measures of 

PM2.5 were inconsistent. No statistical associations were reported with outdoor PM10-2.5. Girardot et al. (2006, 088271) assessed the effects of PM2.5 on the pulmonary function of adult 

day hikers in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Hikers performed spirometry both before 

their hike and when they returned from their hike. The authors reported no statistically significant 

responses in pulmonary function with an average of five hours of outdoor exercise at ambient PM2.5

levels that were below the current NAAQS. Specifically, post-hike percentage changes in FVC, 

FEV1, FEV1/FVC, FEF25-75, and PEF were not associated with PM2.5 exposure. 

Ebelt et al. (2005, 056907) developed an approach to separately estimate exposures to PM of 

ambient and non-ambient origin based on a mass balance model. These exposures were linked with 

respiratory and cardiovascular health endpoints for 16 patients with COPD in Vancouver, Canada 

(mean age 74 yr). Effect estimates for estimated ambient exposure were generally equal to or larger 

than those for the respective ambient concentration levels for post-FEV and ΔFEV1, and were 

statistically significant for all ΔFEV1 comparisons (estimated from figure). 

Several studies outside of the U.S. and Canada examined the relationship between PM 

concentrations and lung function and all reported a decrease in lung function in adults (FEV1, FVC, 

PEFR) associated with PM exposure (Boezen et al., 2005, 087396; Bourotte et al., 2007, 150040; 

Lagorio et al., 2006, 089800; Lee et al., 2007, 093042; McCreanor et al., 2007, 092841; Penttinen et 

al., 2006, 087988). 

Measures of Oxygen Saturation 

Oxygen saturation measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream 

occupied by oxygen. DeMeo et al. (2004, 087346) estimated the change in oxygen saturation and 

mean PM2.5 concentration in the previous 24 h in a panel of elderly subjects. They used the same 

panel of elderly Boston residents (n = 28) and study protocol and analytic methods (12 wk of 

repeated oxygen saturation measurements) as Gold et al. (2005, 087558) and Schwartz et al. (2005, 

074317) in studies of ST-segment depression and HRV, respectively. At each clinic visit, subjects had 

5 min each of rest, standing, post-exercise rest, and 20 cycles of paced breathing. The median PM2.5

concentration during the study period was 10.0 μg/m3 (Schwartz et al., 2005, 074317). Each 

10 μg/m3

 increase in the mean PM2.5 concentration in the previous 6 h was associated with a 0.15% 

decrease in oxygen saturation (95% CI: -0.22 to 0.0) during the baseline rest period. Each 10 μg/m3 

increase in mean 6-h PM2.5 concentration was also associated with a decline in oxygen saturation 

during the post-exercise period (-0.15% [95% CI: -0.22 to 0.0]), and post-exercise paced breathing 

period (-0.07% [95% CI: -0.22 to 0.0]), but not during the exercise period. The authors suggest that 

these oxygen saturation reductions may result from pulmonary vascular and inflammatory changes. 

In a similar study, Goldberg et al. (2008, 180380) examined the association between oxygen 

saturation, pulse rate, and ambient PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 concentrations in a panel of 31 subjects in 

Montreal, with NYHA Class II or III heart failure who were aged 50-85 yr. Although each 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5 on lag day 0 was associated with a -0.119 (95% CI = -0.196 to -0.042) change in 

oxygen saturation in unadjusted models, once adjusted for temperature and barometric pressure, the 

estimated change was smaller and no longer significant (-0.077 [95% CI = -0.160 to 0.007). Only 

December 2009 6-97 
SO2 was significantly associated with reduced oxygen saturation in copollutant models. None of the 

pollutants examined, including PM2.5, were associated with a change in pulse rate. 

6.3.2.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

As with respiratory symptoms, there is little evidence from controlled human exposure studies 

of PM-induced changes in pulmonary function. One study cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905) noted a significant decrement in thoracic gas volume in healthy adults following a 2-h 

exposure to PM2.5 CAPs (92 μg/m3); however, no significant changes were observed in spirometric 

measurements, diffusing capacity (DLCO), total lung capacity, or airways resistance (Petrovic et al., 

2000, 004638). Other studies found no significant changes in pulmonary function in healthy adults 

following exposure to inhaled iron oxide particles (Lay et al., 2001, 020613) or UF EC (Frampton, 

2001, 019051), or in healthy and asthmatic adults following exposure to CAPs (Ghio et al., 2000, 

012140; Gong et al., 2000, 155799; 2003, 087365). Rudell et al. (1996, 056577) reported a 

significant increase in specific airways resistance following exposure to DE, an effect that was not 

attenuated by reducing the particle number by 46% (2.6×106 particles/cm3 compared with 1.4×106 

particles/cm3) using a particle trap. The particle trap did not affect the concentrations of other 

measured diesel emissions including NO2, NO, CO, or total hydrocarbons. As described below, more 

recent controlled human exposure studies provide limited and inconsistent evidence of changes in 

lung function following exposure to particles from various sources. 

CAPs 

Among a group of healthy and asthmatic adults exposed to UFPs (Los Angeles, mean 

concentration 100 μg/m3

), Gong et al. (2008, 156483) observed small, yet statistically significant 

decrements in arterial oxygen saturation immediately following exposure, 4 h post-exposure, and 

22 h post-exposure (0.5% mean decrease relative to filtered air across all time points, p < 0.05). A 

statistically significant decrease in FEV1 was also observed, but only at 22 h post-exposure (2% 

decrease relative to filtered air, p < 0.05). The responses demonstrated in this study were not affected 

by health status. No such effects were observed in a similar study conducted in Chapel Hill, NC 

which exposed healthy adults to a lower concentration of UF CAPs (49.8 μg/m3

) (Samet et al., 2009, 

191913). In addition, two studies evaluating effects of exposure to PM10-2.5 CAPs (average 

concentration 89-157 μg/m3

) on lung function observed no changes in spirometric measurements, 

DLCO or arterial oxygen saturation 0-22 h post-exposure in asthmatic or healthy adults (Gong et al., 

2004, 055628; Graff et al., 2009, 191981). While Gong et al. (2004, 087964) did not observe a 

significant association between exposure to PM2.5 CAPs and spirometry in older subjects (60-80 yr), 

the investigators did report a decrease in oxygen saturation immediately following CAPs exposure. 

This effect was observed more consistently in healthy older adults than in older adults with COPD. 

These findings were confirmed by a subsequent study conducted by the same laboratory (Gong et al., 

2005, 087921). The authors also observed a small decrease in MMEF following a 2-h exposure to 

PM2.5 CAPs (200 μg/m3

) which was more pronounced in healthy subjects. 

Urban Traffic Particles 

Neither short-term exposure to relatively high levels of urban traffic particles nor longer 

exposures to lower concentrations of urban particles have been observed to alter pulmonary function 

in controlled exposures among healthy adults. Larsson et al. (2007, 091375) exposed 16 adults for 

2 h to PM2.5 concentrations of 46-81 μg/m3

 in a room adjacent to a busy road tunnel, with 

concomitant exposure to NO2 (0.12 ppm), NO (0.71 ppm), and CO (5 ppm). Although respiratory 

effects in this study were not compared to filtered air control, no difference in lung function was 

observed 14 h after exposure to traffic particles relative to lung function measured on a day 

following typical activities that did not include transit though a road tunnel. In a study of 24-h 

exposures to urban traffic particles (PM2.5 9.7 μg/m3

), no change in lung function was reported at 

2.5 h after the start of exposure relative to filtered air (Brauner et al., 2009, 190244). 

December 2009 6-98 
Diesel Exhaust 

Mudway et al. (2004, 180208) exposed 25 healthy adults to DE with an average particle 

concentration of 100 μg/m3

 and observed mild bronchoconstriction (airways resistance) immediately 

following exposure relative to filtered air. No changes were observed in FEV1 or FVC following DE 

exposure in these subjects, or in a group of 15 asthmatics exposed using the same protocol (Mudway 

et al., 2004, 180208; Stenfors et al., 2004, 157009). 

Model Particles 

Pietropaoli et al. (2004, 156025) observed a reduction in MMEF and DLCO in healthy adults 

21 h after a 2-h exposure to UF carbon particles (50 μg/m3

). This reduction in DLCO may reflect a 

PM-induced vasoconstrictive effect on the pulmonary vasculature. Tunnicliffe et al. (2003, 088744) 

did not observe any significant change in lung function following exposure to ammonium bisulfate 

or aerosolized H2SO4 (200 and 2,000 μg/m3

) in healthy or asthmatic adults, which is consistent with 

findings of the majority of studies of controlled exposures to acid aerosols presented in the last two 

PM AQCDs (U.S. EPA, 1996, 079380; 2004, 056905). 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Pulmonary Function 

Taken together, the majority of controlled human exposure studies do not provide evidence of 

PM-induced changes in pulmonary function; however, some investigators have observed slight 

decreases in DLCO, MMEF, FEV1, oxygen saturation, or increases in airways resistance following 

exposure to CAPs, DE, or UF EC. 

6.3.2.3. Toxicological Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) included three animal toxicological studies 

which measured pulmonary function following multiday short-term inhalation exposure to CAPs. A 

decreased respiratory rate was noted in the one study involving dogs. Increased tidal volume was 

observed in one study involving rats while no changes were observed in the other rat study. AHR 

was found in four studies of mice, healthy rats or SH rats exposed to ROFA by IT instillation or 

inhalation. Studies conducted since the last review are discussed below. 

CAPs 

SH rats exposed to Tuxedo, NY CAPs via nose-only inhalation for 4 h (mean concentration 

73 μg/m3; single-day concentrations 80 and 66 μg/m3; 2/2001 and 5/2001, respectively) had a 

statistically significant decreased respiratory rate compared with air-exposed controls (Nadziejko et 

al., 2002, 087460). This measure was obtained from BP fluctuations using radiotelemetry. The 

decrease in respiratory rate of 25-30 breaths/min was an immediate response to CAPs, beginning 

shortly after the exposure began and ceasing with the end of exposure. It was accompanied by a 

decrease in HR (Section 6.2.1.3). Rats were also exposed to fine (MMAD 160 nm; 49-299 μg/m3

) 

and UF H2SO4 (MMAD 50-75 nm; 140-750 μg/m3

) (Nadziejko et al., 2002, 087460) because H2SO4

aerosols have the potential to activate irritant receptors. Irritant receptors, found at all levels of the 

respiratory tract, include rapidly-adapting receptors and sensory C-fiber receptors (Alarie, 1973, 

070967; Bernardi et al., 2001, 019040; Coleridge and Coleridge, 1994, 156362; Widdicombe, 2003, 

157145; Widdicombe, 2006, 155519). Activation of trigeminal afferents in the nose causes CNS 

reflexes resulting in decreases in respiratory rate through a lengthened expiratory phase, closure of 

the glottis, closure of the nares with increased nasal airflow resistance and effects on the 

cardiovascular system such as bradycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction and a rise in systolic arterial 

blood pressure. Sneezing, rhinorrhea and vasodilation with subsequent nasal vascular congestion are 

also nasal reflex responses involving the trigeminal nerve (Sarin et al., 2006, 191166). Activation of 

vagal afferents in the tracheobronchial and alveolar regions of the respiratory tract causes CNS 

reflexes resulting in bronchoconstriction, mucus secretion, mucosal vasodilation, cough, and apnea 

December 2009 6-99 
followed by rapid shallow breathing. Besides effects on the respiratory system, effects on the 

cardiovascular system can also occur including bradycardia and hypotension or hypertension. Fine 

H2SO4 induced an overall decrease in respiratory rate, with UF H2SO4 resulting in elevated 

respiratory rate compared to control (Nadziejko et al., 2002, 087460). The authors suggested that 

both CAPs and fine H2SO4 aerosols activated sensory irritant receptors in the upper airways, 

resulting in a decreased respiratory rate. The response to UF H2SO4 aerosols differed from the other 

responses and was thought to be due to deposition of UFPs deeper into the lung with the subsequent 

activation of pulmonary irritant receptors which trigger an increase in respiratory rate. Since irritant 

receptors in nasal, tracheobronchial and alveolar regions act via trigeminal- and vagal-mediated 

pathways, this study indicates a role for neural reflexes in respiratory responses to CAPs. 

Kodavanti et al. (2005, 087946) measured respiratory frequency 1 day after a 2-day exposure 

of SH and WKY rats to CAPs from RTP, NC (mean mass concentration range 144-2,758 μg/m3

; 

<2.5 μm in size; 8/27-10/24/2001) for 4 h/day. Increases in inspiratory and expiratory times were 

seen in SH, but not WKY rats, exposed to CAPs compared with filtered air controls. 

Effects of CAPs on pulmonary function were also investigated in a rat model of pulmonary 

hypertension using SD rats pre-treated with monocrotaline (Lei et al., 2004, 087999). In this study, 

rats were exposed to CAPs from an urban high traffic area in Taiwan (mean mass concentration 

371 μg/m3

) for 6 h/day on three consecutive days and pulmonary function was evaluated 5 h 

post-exposure using whole-body plethysmography. A statistically significant decrease in respiratory 

frequency and an increase in tidal volume were observed following CAPs exposure, along with an 

increase in airway responsiveness (measured as Penh) following Mch challenge. 

In many animal studies changes in ventilatory patterns are assessed using whole body 

plethysmography, for which measurements are reported as enhanced pause (Penh). Some 

investigators report increased Penh as an indicator of AHR, but these are inconsistently correlated 

and many investigators consider Penh solely an indicator of altered ventilatory timing in the absence 

of other measurements to confirm AHR. Therefore use of the terms AHR or airway responsiveness 

has been limited to instances in which the terminology has been similarly applied by the study 

investigators. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Li et al. (2007, 155929) exposed BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice to clean air or to low dose DE 

(containing 100 μg/m3 particles) for 7 h/day and 5 days/wk for 1, 4 and 8 wk. Average gas 

concentrations were reported to be 3.5 ppm CO, 2.2 ppm NO2, and <0.01 ppm SO2. AHR was 

evaluated by whole-body plethysmography at day 0 and after 1, 4 and 8 wk of exposure. Exposure to 

DE for 1 wk resulted in an increased sensitivity of airways to Mch, measured as Penh, in C57BL/6 

but not BALB/c, mice. Other short-term responses of this study are discussed in Sections 6.3.3.3 and 

6.3.4.2. 

McQueen et al. (2007, 096266) investigated the role of vagally-mediated pathways in 

respiratory responses to PM. Respiratory minute volume (RMV) was increased in anesthetized 

Wistar rats 6 h after treatment with 500 μg DE particles (SRM2975) by IT instillation. This response 

was blocked by severing the vagus nerve or pretreatment with atropine. The absence of a respiratory 

response with vagotomy or atropine indicated that the increase in RMV following DE particle 

exposure involved a neural reflex acting via vagal afferents. No statistically significant changes in 

mean BP, HR or HRV were observed in response to DE particles in this study. Vagally-mediated 

inflammatory responses to DEP were also observed in this study and are discussed in 

Section 6.3.3.3. 

Model Particles 

In a study by Last et al. (2004, 097334), BALB/c mice were exposed to 250 μg/m3

laboratory-generated iron-soot (size range 80-110 nm; about 200 μg/m3

 as soot) for 4 h/day and 

3 days/wk for 2 wk. Pulmonary function was measured by whole-body plethysmography after 

challenge with Mch. No AHR, as measured by Penh, was observed following 2-wk exposure to 

iron-soot. Other findings of this study are reported in Sections 6.3.3.3 and 6.3.5.3. 

December 2009 6-100 
Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Pulmonary Function 

Several recent studies demonstrated alterations in respiratory frequency and in airway 

responsiveness following short-term exposure to CAPs and DE. Two studies provide evidence for 

the involvement of irritant receptors and vagally-mediated neural reflexes in mediating changes in 

respiratory functions. 

6.3.3. Pulmonary Inflammation 

The discussion of the effects of PM on pulmonary inflammation in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) was limited by a relative lack of information from controlled human 

exposure and toxicological studies. Although no epidemiologic studies of pulmonary inflammation 

were described in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), several recent studies have 

observed a positive association between PM concentration and exhaled NO (eNO). New controlled 

human exposure and toxicological studies have also generally observed an increase in markers of 

inflammation in the pulmonary compartment following exposure to PM. 

6.3.3.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

No epidemiologic studies of pulmonary inflammation were described in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

Exhaled Nitric Oxide – Asthmatic Children 

Exhaled NO, a biomarker for airway inflammation, was the outcome studied in panels of 

asthmatic children in southern California (Wu et al., 2006, 157156) and Seattle (Allen et al., 2008, 

156208; Koenig et al., 2003, 156653; 2005, 087384; Mar et al., 2005, 088759). Mean concentration 

data from these studies are summarized in Table 6-10. Delfino et al. (2006, 157156) followed 45 

asthmatic children for ten days with offline fractional eNO and examined the associations with 

exposures to personal PM2.5 and 24-h PM2.5, EC and OC as well as ambient PM2.5, EC and OC. The 

strongest associations were between eNO and 2-day avg pollutant concentrations: for a 10 μg/m3

increase in personal PM2.5, eNO increased by 0.46 ppb (95% CI: 0.04-0.79); for 0.6 μg/m3 personal 

EC, eNO increased by 0.7 ppb (95% CI: 0.3-1.1). An association with exposure to ambient PM2.5

was only statistically significant in 19 subjects taking inhaled corticosteroids: for each 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5, eNO increased by 0.77 ppb (95% CI: 0.07-1.47). 

In a panel of 19 asthmatic children in Seattle, effects were observed only among the ten 

non-users of inhaled corticosteroids. For each 10 μg/m3

 increase in personal, outdoor, indoor, or 

central site PM2.5, eNO increased from 3.82 ppb (associated with central site, 95% CI: 1.22-6.43) to 

4.48 ppb (with personal PM2.5, 95% CI: 1.02-7.93) (Koenig et al., 2003, 156653). Further analysis 

examining the association between eNO and outdoor and indoor-generated particles suggested that 

eNO was associated more strongly with ambient particles, but only for non-users of medication: each 

10 μg/m3

 increase in estimated ambient PM2.5 results in an increase in eNO of 4.98 ppb (95% CI: 

0.28-9.69) (Koenig et al., 2005, 087384). 

Also in Seattle, WA, Mar et al. (2005, 088759) examined the association between eNO and 

ambient PM2.5 concentration among children (aged 6-13 yr) recruited from an asthma/allergy clinic. 

Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) was associated with hourly averages of PM2.5 up to 10-12 h 

after exposure. Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 1-h mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with a 6.99 

ppb increase in eNO (95% CI: 3.43-10.55) among children not taking inhaled corticosteroids, but 

associated with only a 0.77 ppb decrease in eNO (95% CI: -4.58 to 3.04) among those taking inhaled 

corticosteroids. 

Allen et al. (2008, 156208), in a reanalysis of data from Koenig et al. (2005, 087384), 

evaluated the effect of different PM2.5 exposure metrics in relation to airway inflammation among 

children in wood smoke-impacted areas of Seattle. The authors found that for the nine non-users of 

inhaled corticosteroids, the ambient-generated component of PM2.5 exposure was associated with 

respiratory responses, both airway inflammation and decrements in lung function, whereas the nonambient PM2.5 exposure component was not. They did note, however, different relationships for 

December 2009 6-101 
airway inflammation and decrements in lung function, with the former significantly associated with 

total personal PM2.5, personal light-absorbing carbon (LAC), and ambient generated personal PM2.5

and the latter related to ambient PM2.5 and its combustion markers. The different results between 

FeNO and lung function were not unexpected; epidemiologic data show that airway inflammation 

indicated by FeNO does not correlate strongly with either respiratory symptoms or lung function 

(Smith and Taylor, 2005, 192176). The authors conclude that lung function decrements may be 

associated with the combustion-generated component of ambient PM2.5, whereas airway 

inflammation may be related to some other component of the ambient PM2.5 mixture. 

In a longitudinal study, Liu et al. (2009, 192003) examined the association between acute 

increases in ambient air pollutants and FeNO among children (ages 9-14 yr) with asthma. FeNO had 

a trend of positive associations with PM2.5, with the strongest association on lag day 0 (3.12% [95% 

CI: -2.12 to 8.82]). Copollutant models including O3, SO2 or NO2 did not result in marked changes in 

the PM2.5 risk estimates for FeNO. 

A few studies outside of the U.S. examined eNO in relation to PM exposure among children. 

Fischer et al. (2002, 025731) and Murata et al. (2007, 189159) found a statistical association 

between increases in PM and increases in the percent of eNO. Holguin et al. (2007, 099000) found 

no association between exposure to PM and eNO. However, they did see statistical associations 

between increases in eNO for the 95 asthmatic subjects and measures of road density of roads 50- 

and 75-m from the home. 

Exhaled Nitric Oxide – Adults 

Three recent panel studies examined the effects of particle exposure on eNO measured in older 

adults (Adamkiewicz et al., 2004, 087925 in Steubenville, OH; Adar et al., 2007, 001458; Jansen et 

al., 2005, 082236 in Seattle). Mean concentration data from these studies are characterized in Table 

6-10. Breath samples were collected weekly for 12 weeks from a group of 29 elderly adults in 

Steubenville, OH (Adamkiewicz et al., 2004, 087925). In single-pollutant models, each 10 μg/m3

increase in 24-h ambient PM2.5 increased eNO by 0.82 ppb (95% CI: 0.19-1.45), a change of 15% 

compared to mean eNO (9.9 ppb). Effects were essentially unchanged in copollutant models that 

included ambient and/or indoor NO. The effect estimates for the seven COPD subjects were higher 

than for normal subjects (2.20 vs. 0.45 ppb, p = 0.03) (Adamkiewicz et al., 2004, 087925). 

In the Seattle panel of older adults (aged 60-86 yr), seven subjects were asthmatic and nine 

had a diagnosis of COPD (five with asthma and four without) (Jansen et al., 2005, 082236). Exhaled 

NO was measured daily for 12 days, along with personal, indoor, outdoor and central site PM10, 

PM2.5 and BC. The strongest associations between 24-h avg PM and eNO were found for the 

asthmatic subjects: 10 μg/m3 increases in outdoor levels (measured outside the subjects’ homes) of 

PM2.5 or PM10 were associated with increases in eNO of 4.23 ppb (95% CI: 1.33-7.13), an increase 

of 22% above the group mean of 19.2 ppb, and 5.87 ppb (95% CI: 2.87-8.88), an increase of 31%, 

respectively. BC measured indoors, outdoors or personally was also associated with increases in 

eNO (of 3.97, 2.32, and 1.20 ppb, respectively) (Jansen et al., 2005, 082236). 

Adar et al. (2007, 001458) conducted a panel study of 44 non-smoking senior citizens residing 

in St. Louis, MO. As part of the study, subjects were taken on group trips to a theater performance, 

Omni movie, outdoor band concert, and a Mississippi River boat cruise. Subjects were driven to and 

from each event aboard a diesel bus. Before and after each bus trip, eNO was measured on each 

subject. Two carts containing continuous air pollution monitors were used to measure group-level 

micro-environmental exposures to PM2.5, BC, and size-specific particle counts (0.3-2.5 μm and 

2.5-10 μm) on the day of each trip. Each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 24-h mean PM2.5 concentration was 

associated with a 36% increase in eNO pre-trip (95% CI: 5-71). Each 10 μg/m3 increase in 

micro-environmental PM2.5 concentration (i.e., during the bus ride) was associated with a 27% 

increase in eNO post-trip (95% CI: 17-38). 

These studies all demonstrated an association between increased levels of eNO and increases 

in PM in the previous 4-24 h. Further, three studies demonstrated effects in elderly populations 

(Adamkiewicz et al., 2004, 087925; Adar et al., 2007, 001458; Jansen et al., 2005, 082236) while 

four others reported a similar acute increase in eNO among children (Delfino et al., 2006, 090745; 

Koenig et al., 2003, 156653; 2005, 087384; 2005, 088999). 

Outside of the U.S., one study examined eNO in a panel of 60 adult asthmatic subjects in 

London. McCreanor et al. (2007, 092841) reported that 1 μg/m3

 increase in personal exposure to EC 

December 2009 6-102 
was associated with increases of approximately 1.75-2.25% in eNO (results were presented 

graphically only) for up to 22 h post-exposure. 

Other Biomarkers of Pulmonary Inflammation and Oxidative Stress 

Other biomarkers of respiratory distress that have been examined in recent panel studies 

include urinary leukotriene E4 (LTE4) in asthmatic children (Rabinovitch et al., 2006, 088031); two 

oxidative stress markers: TBARS and 8-isoprostane in asthmatic children (Liu et al., 2009, 192003) 

and breath acidification in adolescent athletes (Ferdinands et al., 2008, 156433). Mean concentration 

data from these studies are characterized in Table 6-10. 

In Rabinovitch et al. (2006, 088031), LTE4, an asthma-related biological mediator, was used to 

study the response to short-term particle exposure. In the second winter of their 2-yr study of 

asthmatic children (described above in Section 6.3.1.1), urine samples were collected at 

approximately the same time of day from 57 subjects for eight consecutive days. Controlling for 

days with URI symptoms, each 10 μg/m3

 increase in morning maximum PM2.5 (measured by 

TEOM), was associated with an increase in LTE4 levels by 5.1% (95% CI: 1.6-8.7). No statistically 

significant effects were observed on the same day or up to 3 days later based on 24-h averaged 

concentrations from the TEOM monitor or from the FRM central site monitor. 

In a longitudinal study conducted in Windsor, Ontario, Liu et al. (2009, 192003) examined the 

association between acute increases in ambient air pollutants and TBARS and 8-isoprostane among 

children (ages 9-14 yr) with asthma. TBARS, but not 8-isoprostane, was positively associated with 

PM2.5 (percent change in TBARS 40.6% [95% CI: 11.8-81.3], lag 0-2 days). The association with 

TBARS persisted for at least three days. Adverse changes in pulmonary function (Section 6.3.2.1) 

were consistent with those of TBARS in response to PM2.5 with a similar lag structure, suggesting a 

coherent outcome for small airway function and oxidative stress. 

The effects of vigorous outdoor exercise during peak smog season in Atlanta, GA on breath 

pH, a biomarker of airway inflammation, in adolescent athletes (n = 16, mean age = 14.9 yr) were 

examined by Ferdinands et al. (2008, 156433). Median pre-exercise breath pH was 7.58 (range 

4.39-8.09) and median post-exercise breath pH was 7.68 (range 3.78-8.17). The authors observed no 

significant association between ambient PM and post-exercise breath pH. However both pre- and 

post-exercise breath pH were strikingly low in these athletes when compared to 14 relatively 

sedentary healthy adults and to published values of breath pH in healthy subjects. The authors 

speculate that repetitive vigorous exercise may induce airway acidification. 

Effect of Measurement Location on Studies of Pulmonary Function and 

Inflammation 

A number of studies examining exposure to PM2.5 and pulmonary function and inflammation 

have compared the results of exposure assessment based on concentrations recorded from personal, 

indoor, outdoor, and/or ambient monitors (Allen et al., 2008, 156208; Delfino et al., 2004, 056897; 

Delfino et al., 2006, 090745; Koenig et al., 2005, 087384; Trenga et al., 2006, 155209). Two 

investigations evaluated PM2.5 concentrations from indoor, outdoor, personal and central site 

monitors and the relationship with FEV1. Delfino et al. (2004, 056897) reported that personal 

exposure estimates showed a stronger association with FEV1 than any of the stationary exposures, 

and that indoor exposure estimates were associated with a stronger effect than either outdoor or 

central site exposure estimates. However, Trenga et al. (2006, 155209) reported the largest declines 

in FEV1 associated with central site exposure estimates, though the most consistent association with 

declines in FEV1 came from the exposure estimates measured by indoor monitors. Delfino et al. 

(2006, 090745) used personal and ambient exposure estimates in a study of FeNO among asthmatic 

children and found that the personal exposure estimates were more robust than the ambient exposure 

estimates. Two studies conducted in Seattle, WA partitioned personal exposure to PM2.5 into its 

ambient-generated and indoor-generated components. Koenig et al. (2005, 087384) reported that 

ambient-generated PM2.5 was consistently associated with an increase in FeNO, while the indoorgenerated component of PM2.5 was less strongly associated with FeNO. This could reflect the 

difference in composition of indoor-generated PM2.5 as compared to ambient-generated PM2.5. 

Similarly, Allen et al. (2008, 156208) found that FeNO was associated with the ambient-generated 

December 2009 6-103 
component of personal PM2.5 exposure, but not with ambient PM2.5 concentrations measured by 

central site monitors. Overall, these studies provide a unique perspective on how measurement 

location influences the findings of epidemiologic studies. This small group of studies indicates that 

effects are associated with all types of PM measurement, suggesting health effects of both ambientgenerated and indoor-generated particles. It is likely that variability in season, meteorology, 

topography, geography, behavior and exposure patterns contribute to the observed differences. 

6.3.3.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Studies of controlled human exposures presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) provided evidence of pulmonary inflammation induced by exposure to PM. Lay et al. 

(1998, 007683) found that instillation of iron oxide particles (2.6 μm) produced an increase in 

alveolar macrophages and neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) collected 24 h 

post-instillation. Ghio and Devlin (2001, 017122) evaluated the inflammatory response following 

bronchial instillation of particles extracted from filters collected in the Utah Valley both prior to and 

after the closure of an area steel mill. Subjects who underwent pulmonary instillation of particles 

(500 μg) collected while the steel mill was operating (n = 16) had significantly higher levels of 

neutrophils 24 h post-instillation compared with either saline instillation or with subjects (n = 8) who 

were instilled with the same mass of PM collected during the mill’s closure. This finding indicates 

that metals may be an important PM component for this health outcome. In an inhalation study of 

exposure to PM2.5 CAPs (23-311 μg/m3

) from Chapel Hill, NC, Ghio et al. (2000, 012140) observed 

an increase in airway and alveolar neutrophils 18 h after the 2-h exposure. A similar finding was 

reported by Rudell et al. (1999, 001964) following exposure to DE among healthy adults. In this 

study, reducing the particle number from 2.6×106 particles/cm3 to 1.3×106 particles/cm3 while 

maintaining the concentration of gaseous diesel emissions was not observed to attenuate the 

response. One study of controlled exposures to UF EC among healthy adults did not report particlerelated effects on eNO (Frampton, 2001, 019051). As summarized below, several recent studies of 

controlled exposures have provided some additional evidence of pulmonary inflammation associated 

with PM. 

CAPS 

A series of exposures to UF, PM2.5, and PM10-2.5 CAPs from Los Angeles with average particle 

concentrations between 100 and 200 μg/m3

 have not been shown to have a significant effect on 

markers of airway inflammation in healthy or health-compromised adults (Gong et al., 2004, 

087964; 2004, 055628; 2005, 087921; 2008, 156483). However, two recent studies conducted in 

Chapel Hill, NC reported significant increases in percent PMNs and concentration of IL-8 in BALF 

among healthy adults 18-20 h following controlled exposures to PM10-2.5 (89 μg/m3

) and UF (49.8 

μg/m3

) CAPs, respectively (Graff et al., 2009, 191981; Samet et al., 2009, 191913). As discussed 

above, the same laboratory previously reported a mild inflammatory response in the lower 

respiratory tract following exposure to PM2.5 CAPs (Ghio et al., 2000, 012140). In a follow-up 

analysis, Huang et al. (2003, 087377) found the increase in BALF neutrophils demonstrated by Ghio 

et al. (2000, 012140) to be positively associated with the Fe, Se, and SO4

2– content of the particles. 

Alexis et al. (2006, 154323) recently evaluated the effect of PM10-2.5 on markers of airway 

inflammation, specifically focusing on the impact of biological components of PM10-2.5. Healthy men 

and women (n = 9) between the ages of 18 and 35 inhaled nebulized saline (0.9%) as well as 

aerosolized PM10-2.5 collected from ambient air. Subjects were exposed to PM10-2.5 on two separate 

occasions, once using PM10-2.5 that had been heated to inactivate biological material and once using 

non-heated PM10-2.5. Approximately 0.65 mg PM10-2.5 was deposited in the respiratory tract of 

subjects during the exposures. Markers of inflammation and immune function were analyzed in 

induced sputum collected 2-3 h after inhalation of saline or PM10-2.5. Both heated and non-heated 

PM10-2.5 were observed to increase the neutrophil response compared with saline. Exposure to 

non-heated PM10-2.5 was found to increase levels of monocytes, eotaxin, macrophage TNF-α mRNA, 

and was also associated with an upregulation of macrophage cell surface markers. No such effects 

were observed following exposure to biologically inactive PM10-2.5. These results suggest that while 

PM10-2.5-induction of neutrophil response is not dependent on biological components, heat sensitive 

December 2009 6-104 
components of PM10-2.5 (e.g., endotoxin) may be responsible for PM-induced alveolar macrophage 

activation. 

Traffic Particles 

Larsson et al. (2007, 091375) exposed 16 healthy adults to air pollution in a road tunnel for 2 h 

during the afternoon rush hour in Stockholm, Sweden. The median PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations 

during the road tunnel exposures were 64 μg/m3

 and 176 μg/m3, respectively. Bronchial biopsies 

were obtained and bronchoscopy and BAL were performed 14 h after the exposure. The results were 

compared with a control exposure which consisted of exposure to urban air during normal activity. 

The authors reported significant BALF increases in percentage of lymphocytes, total cell number, 

and alveolar macrophages following exposure to road tunnel exposure versus control. These results 

provide evidence of a significant association between exposure to road tunnel air pollution and 

airway inflammation. However, unlike other controlled exposure studies, the control exposure was 

not a true clean air control, but only a lower exposure group with no characterization of personal 

exposure. In addition, it is not possible to separate out the contributions of each air pollutant, 

including PM, on the observed inflammatory response. 

Diesel Exhaust 

In a recent study evaluating the effect of DE exposure on markers of airway inflammation, 

Behndig et al. (2006, 088286) exposed healthy adults (n = 15) for 2 h with intermittent exercise to 

filtered air or DE with a reported PM10 concentration of 100 μg/m3. Eighteen hours after exposure to 

DE, the authors found significant increases in neutrophil and mast cell numbers in bronchial tissue, 

as well as significant increases in neutrophil numbers and IL-8 in BALF compared with filtered air 

control. Similarly, Stenfors et al. (2004, 157009) observed an increase in pulmonary inflammation 

(e.g., airways neutrophilia and an increase in IL-8 in BALF) among healthy adults 6 h following 

exposure to DE (PM10 average concentration 108 μg/m3

). It is interesting to note, however, that no 

such inflammatory effects were observed in a group of mild asthmatic subjects in the same study. 

The DE-induced neutrophil response in the airways of healthy subjects observed in these two studies 

(Behndig et al., 2006, 088286; Stenfors et al., 2004, 157009) is qualitatively consistent with the 

findings of Ghio et al. (2000, 012140) who exposed healthy subjects to Chapel Hill PM2.5 CAPs. In a 

group of healthy volunteers, Bosson et al. (2007, 156286) demonstrated that exposure to O3 (2 h at 

0.2 ppm) may enhance the airway inflammatory response of DE relative to clean air (1-h exposure to 

300 μg/m3

). Exposure to O3 was conducted 5 h after exposure to DE, and resulted in an increase in 

the percentage of neutrophils in induced sputum collected 18 h after exposure to O3. In a subsequent 

study using a similar protocol at the same concentrations, prior exposure to DE was shown to 

increase the inflammatory effects of O3 exposure, demonstrated as an increase in neutrophil and 

macrophage numbers in bronchial wash (Bosson et al., 2008, 196659). 

Wood Smoke 

Barregard et al. (2008, 155675) examined the effect of a short-term exposure (4 h) to wood 

smoke (240-280 μg/m3

) on markers of pulmonary inflammation in a group of healthy adults. 

Exposure to wood smoke increased alveolar NO compared to filtered air (2.0 ppb versus 1.3 ppb) 3 h 

after exposure. Although these results provide some evidence of a PM-induced increase in 

pulmonary inflammation, the physiological significance of the relatively small increase in alveolar 

NO is unclear. 

Model Particles 

Pietropaoli et al. (2004, 156025) observed a lack of airway inflammatory response 21 h after 

exposure to UF EC particles (10-50 μg/m3

) among healthy and asthmatic adults. The same laboratory 

reported no effect of exposure to UF or fine ZnO (500 μg/m3

) on total or differential sputum cell 

December 2009 6-105 
counts 24 h after exposure in a group of healthy adults (Beckett et al., 2005, 156261). Tunnicliffe 

et al. (2003, 088744) measured levels of eNO as a marker of airway inflammation following 1-h 

controlled exposures to ammonium bisulfate or aerosolized H2SO4 (200 and 2,000 μg/m3

) in a group 

of healthy and asthmatic adults. While exposure to ammonium bisulfate increased the concentration 

of eNO immediately following exposure in asthmatics, no such effect was observed in healthy 

adults, or in either healthy or asthmatic adults following exposure to aerosolized H2SO4. 

Instillation 

Schaumann et al. (2004, 087966) investigated the inflammatory response of human subjects 

instilled with PM2.5 (100 μg) collected from two different cities in Germany, Hettstedt and Zerbst. 

Although endobronchial instillation of PM from both cities were shown to induce airway 

inflammation, instillation of PM from the more industrial area (Hettstedt) resulted in greater influxes 

of BALF monocytes compared to PM collected from Zerbst. The authors postulated that the 

difference in response between PM from the two cities may be due to the higher concentration of 

transition metals observed in the samples collected from Hettstedt. Another study reported no change 

in inflammatory markers in nasal lavage fluid 4 and 96 h following intranasal instillation of DEP 

(300 μg/nostril) in asthmatics and healthy adults (Kongerud et al., 2006, 156656). Pre-exposure of 

DEP to O3 was not shown to have any effect on the response. Although not a cross-over design, these 

findings suggest that exposure to DEP without the gaseous component of DE may have little effect 

on inflammatory responses in human subjects. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Pulmonary 

Inflammation 

These new studies strengthen the evidence of PM-induced pulmonary inflammation; however, 

the response appears to vary significantly depending on the source and composition of the particles. 

6.3.3.3. Toxicological Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) discussed numerous studies investigating 

pulmonary inflammation in response to CAPs, ROFA, DEPs, metals and acid aerosols. A wide 

variety of responses was reported depending on the type of PM and route of administration. In 

general, IT instillation exposure to fly ash and metal PM resulted in notable pulmonary 

inflammation. In contrast, inhalation of sulfates and acid aerosols had minimal, if any, effect on 

pulmonary inflammation. More recent animal toxicological studies using CAPs, DE and other 

relevant PM types are summarized below. 

CAPs 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) found that exposure to PM2.5 CAPs at 

concentrations of 100-1,000 μg/m3 for 1-6 h/day and 1-3 days generally resulted in minimal to mild 

inflammation in rats and dogs. Somewhat enhanced inflammation was observed in a model of 

chronic bronchitis. Since the last review, numerous studies have investigated inflammatory responses 

to PM2.5 and UF CAPs in both healthy and compromised animal models. 

In one study of healthy animals, SD rats were exposed to CAPs for 4 h/day on 3 consecutive 

days in Fresno, CA, in fall 2000 and winter 2001 (PM2.5 mean mass concentration 190-847 μg/m3

) 

(Smith et al., 2003, 042107). The particle concentrator used in these studies was capable of 

enhancing the concentration of UF as well as fine particles. Immediately after exposure on the third 

day, BALF was collected and analyzed for total cells and neutrophils. Statistically significant 

increases were observed in numbers of neutrophils during the first week of the fall exposure period 

and in numbers of total cells, neutrophils and macrophages during the first week of the winter 

exposure period. CAPs concentrations were >800 μg/m3

 during both of those weeks. 

Two studies were conducted using CAPs in Boston. In a study by Godleski et al. (2002, 

156478), healthy SD rats were exposed for 5 h/day for 3 consecutive days to CAPs ranging in 

December 2009 6-106 
concentration from 73.5-733.0 μg/m3

. BALF and lung tissue were collected for analysis 1 day later. 

Neutrophilic inflammation was indicated by a statistically significant increase in percent neutrophils 

in BALF. Microarray analysis of RNA from lung tissue and BALF cells demonstrated increased gene 

expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, markers of vascular activation and enzymes involved in 

organic chemical detoxification. This study overlapped in part with previously described studies by 

Saldiva et al. (2002, 025988) and Batalha et al. (2002, 088109) (Section 6.2.4.3). In another study 

(Rhoden et al., 2004, 087969), healthy SD rats were exposed for 5 h to CAPs (mean mass 

concentration 1228 μg/m3

; June 20-August 16, 2002). A statistically significant increase in BALF 

neutrophils was observed 24 h following CAPs exposure. Histological analysis confirmed the influx 

of inflammatory cells (Section 6.3.5.3). Inflammation was accompanied by injury which is discussed 

in Section 6.3.5.3. 

Kodavanti et al. (2005, 087946) reported two sets of studies involving PM2.5 CAPs exposure 

during fall months in RTP, NC. In the first study, SH rats were exposed to filtered air or CAPs (mean 

mass concentration range 1,138-1,765 μg/m3; <2.5 μm) for 4 h and analyzed 1-3 h later. No increase 

in BALF inflammatory cells or other measured parameter was observed. In the second study, SH and 

WKY rats were exposed to filtered air or CAPs (mean mass concentration range 144-2,758 μg/m3

; 

<2.5 μm) for 4 h/day on 2 consecutive days and analyzed 1 day afterward. Differences in baseline 

parameters were noted for the two rat strains since SH rats had greater numbers of BALF neutrophils 

than WKY rats. Following the 2-day CAPs exposure, increased BALF neutrophils were observed in 

the WKY rats but not in the SH rats compared with filtered air controls. Inflammation was not 

accompanied by increases in BALF markers of injury (Section 6.3.5.3). 

Two CAPs studies involving SH rats were conducted in the Netherlands. In the first, SH rats 

were exposed by nose-only inhalation to CAPs (ranging in concentration from 270-3,660 μg/m3 and 

in size from 0.15-2.5 μm) from three different sites in the Netherlands (suburban, industrial and 

near-freeway) for 6 h (Cassee et al., 2005, 087962). Increased numbers of neutrophils were observed 

in BALF 2 days post-exposure compared to air controls. When CAPs exposure was used as a binary 

term, the relationship between CAPs concentration and number of PMN in BALF was statistically 

significant. In contrast, Kooter et al. (2006, 097547) reported no changes in markers of pulmonary 

inflammation measured 18 h after a 2-day exposure (6 h/day) of SH rats to PM2.5 or PM2.5+UFP 

CAPs from sites in the Netherlands (mean mass concentration range 399-3613 and 269-556 μg/m3

, respectively; PM2.5 CAPs site in Bilthoven and PM2.5+UF CAPs site in freeway tunnel in HendrikIdo-Ambacht). 

Pulmonary inflammation was investigated in two studies using a rat model of pulmonary 

hypertension (i.e., SD rats pre-treated with monocrotaline). In the first study, rats were exposed to 

PM2.5 CAPs from an urban high traffic area in Taiwan (mean mass concentration of 371 μg/m3

) (Lei 

et al., 2004, 087999) for 6 h/day on 3 consecutive days and BALF was collected 2 days later. A 

statistically significant increase in total cells and neutrophils was observed in BALF. Levels of TNFα and IL-6 in the BALF were not altered by CAPs exposure. In the second study, rats were exposed 

to PM2.5 CAPs (mean mass concentration 315.6 and 684.5 μg/m3

 for 6 and 4.5 h, respectively; 

Chung-Li area, Taiwan) during a dust storm event occurring March 18-19, 2002 (Lei et al., 2004, 

087884). Only one animal served as control during the 6-h exposure (from 2100-300 on the first 

exposure day) so results from that one animal were combined with that of three control animals from 

the 4.5-h exposure (from 300-730) on the second exposure day. A statistically significant increase in 

total cells and neutrophils in BALF occurred in both CAPs-exposed groups. In addition, increases in 

BALF IL-6 and markers of injury (Section 6.3.5.3) were observed as a function of CAPs exposure. 

In summary, pulmonary inflammation was noted in all three studies involving multiday 

exposure of healthy rats to CAPs from different locations. No pulmonary inflammation was seen in 

one study of SH rats exposed to CAPs for 4 h and analyzed 1-3 h later. In studies involving multiday 

exposure of SH rats, one demonstrated pulmonary inflammation while two did not. In the rat 

monocrotaline model of pulmonary hypertension, both single-day and multiday exposures to CAPs 

resulted in mild pulmonary inflammation. 

On-Road Exposures 

In a study by Elder et al. (2004, 087354) old rats (21 mo) were exposed to on-road highway 

aerosols (particle concentration range 0.95-3.13×105

 particles/cm3; mass concentration estimated to 

be 37-106 μg/m3

; Interstate 90 between Rochester and Buffalo, NY) for 6 h on one or three 

December 2009 6-107 
consecutive days. No increase in BALF inflammatory cells was observed 18 h post-exposure in any 

of the treatment groups. 

Urban Air 

To evaluate inflammatory responses to ambient particles from vehicles, Wistar rats were 

exposed to ambient urban air from a high traffic site (concentration range 22-225 μg/m3

 PM10; Porto 

Alegre, Brazil) or to the same air which was filtered to remove the PM (Pereira et al., 2007, 156019). 

Concentrations of gases were not reported. Compared with controls exposed to filtered urban air, a 

significant increase in total number of BALF cells was observed 24 h following the 20 h continuous 

exposure, but not following the 6 h of exposure to unfiltered urban air. 

Diesel Exhaust 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) summarized findings of the 2002 EPA Diesel 

Document regarding the health effects of DE. Short-term inhalation exposure to low levels of DE 

results in the accumulation of diesel PM in lung tissue, pulmonary inflammation and alveolar 

macrophage aggregation and accumulation near the terminal bronchioles. More recent studies are 

summarized below. 

Pulmonary inflammatory responses were investigated in C57BL/6 mice exposed to DE 

7 h/day for 6 consecutive days (Harrod et al., 2003, 097046). Compared with controls, inflammatory 

cell counts in BALF were increased in mice exposed to the higher concentration of DE (1,000 μg/m3

PM) but not in mice exposed to the lower concentration of DE (30 μg/m3 PM). Concentrations of 

gases present in the higher dose DE were reported to be 43 ppm NOX, 20 ppm CO and 364 ppb SO2. 

In a second study evaluating DE effects on BALF inflammatory cells, no increases in numbers 

of neutrophils, lymphocytes or eosinophils were observed in BALB/c mice exposed by inhalation to 

500 or 2,000 μg/m3

 DE particles for 4 h/day on 5 consecutive days (Stevens et al., 2008, 157010). 

Concentrations of gases reported in this study were 4.2 ppm CO, 9.2 ppm NO, 1.1 ppm NO2, and 

0.2 ppm SO2 for the higher concentration of DE. Transcriptional microarray analysis demonstrated 

upregulation of chemokine and inflammatory cytokine genes, as well as genes involved in growth 

and differentiation pathways, in response to the higher concentration of DE. No gene expression 

results were reported for the lower concentration of DE. Sensitization and challenge with ovalbumin 

(OVA) significantly altered these findings (Section 6.3.6.2). These results demonstrate that changes 

in gene expression can occur in the absence of measurable pulmonary inflammation or injury 

markers (Section 6.3.5.3). 

Li et al. (2007, 155929) exposed mice to clean air or to low dose DE (100 μg/m3 PM) for 

7 h/day and 5 days/wk for 1, 4 and 8 wk as described in Section 6.3.2.3. Analysis of BALF and 

histology of lung tissues was carried out at day 0 and after 1, 4 and 8 wk of exposure. Total numbers 

of cells and macrophages in BALF were significantly increased in C57BL/6 mice, but not in 

BALB/c mice, after 1-wk exposure to DE compared with 0 day controls. Neutrophils and 

lymphocytes were increased after 1-wk exposure to DE in both strains compared with 0 day controls. 

Differences in BALF cytokines were also noted between the two strains after 1-wk exposure to DE. 

No changes were observed by histological analysis. Pulmonary function and oxidative responses 

were also evaluated (Sections 6.3.2.3 and 6.3.4.2). Long-term exposure responses are discussed in 

Sections 7.3.2.2, 7.3.3.2 and 7.3.4.1. 

Healthy F344 rats and A/J mice were exposed to DE containing 30, 100, 300 and 1,000 μg/m3

PM by whole body inhalation for 6 h/day, 7 days/wk for either 1 wk or 6 months in a study by Reed 

et al. (2004, 055625). Concentrations of gases were reported to be from 2.0-45.3 ppm NO, 

0.2-4.0 ppm NO2, 1.5-29.8 ppm CO and 8-365 ppb for SO2 in these exposures. One week of 

exposure resulted in no measurable effects on pulmonary inflammation. Long-term exposure 

responses are discussed in Section 7.3.3.2. 

In a study by Wong et al. (2003, 097707), also reported by Witten et al. (2005, 087485), 

F344/NH rats were exposed nose-only to filtered room air or to DE at concentrations of 35.3 μg/m3 

and 669.3 μg/m3 PM (particle size range 7.2-294.3 nm) for 4 h/day and 5 days/wk for 3 wk. Gases 

associated with the high dose exposure were reported to be 3.59 ppm NO, 3.69 ppm NOX, 0.1 ppm 

NO2, 2.95 ppm CO, 518.96 ppm CO2 and 0.031 ppm total hydrocarbon. The focus of this study was 

December 2009 6-108 
on the possible role of neurogenic inflammation in mediating responses to DE. Neurogenic 

inflammation is characterized by both the influx of inflammatory cells and plasma extravasation into 

the lungs following the release of neuropeptides from bronchopulmonary C-fibers. Pulmonary 

inflammation was evaluated by histological analysis of lung tissue at the end of the 3-wk exposure 

period. Following high, but not low, concentration exposure to DE, a large number of alveolar 

macrophages was found in the lungs. Small black particles, presumably DE particles, were found in 

the cytoplasm of these alveolar macrophages. Perivascular cuffing consisting of mononuclear cells 

was also observed in high dose-exposed animals. Influx of neutrophils or eosinophils was not seen, 

although mast cell number was increased in high-dose exposed animals. Pulmonary plasma 

extravasation was measured by the 99mTechnecium-albumin technique and found to be 

dose-dependently increased in the bronchi and lung parenchyma. Alveolar edema was also observed 

by histology in high concentration-exposed animals. A significant decrease in substance P content in 

lung tissue was reported in DE-exposed rats. These responses initially suggested that DE resulted in 

stimulation of C-fibers and activation of a local axon reflex resulting in the repeated release of the 

stored neuropeptide substance P. Subsequent experiments were conducted using capsaicin 

pretreatment, which inhibits neurogenic inflammation by activating C-fibers and causing the 

depletion of neuropeptide stores. Pretreatment with capsaicin was found to reduce the influx of 

inflammatory cells, but not plasma extravasation, in response to DE. Hence, DE is unlikely to act 

through bronchopulmonary C-fibers to cause neurogenic edema in this model, although there may be 

a different role for bronchopulmonary C-fibers in mediating the inflammatory cell influx. 

Stimulation of bronchopulmonary C-fibers can result in activation of both local and CNS 

reflexes through vagal parasympathetic pathways. McQueen et al. (2007, 096266) investigated the 

role of vagally-mediated pathways in acute inflammatory responses to DE particles. A statistically 

significant increase in BALF neutrophils was observed 6 h after IT instillation treatment of 

anesthetized Wistar rats with 500 μg DE particles (SRM2975). This response was blocked by 

severing the vagus nerve or pretreatment with atropine (McQueen et al., 2007, 096266). Similarly, 

atropine treatment blocked the increase in BALF neutrophils seen 6 h after DE particle exposure in 

conscious Wistar rats. These results provide evidence for the involvement of a pulmonary vagal 

reflex in the inflammatory response to DE particles. 

In summary, several studies demonstrate that short-term inhalation exposure to DE 

(100-1,000 μg/m3

 PM) causes pulmonary inflammation in rodents. No attempt was made in these 

studies to determine whether the responses were due to PM components or to gaseous components. 

However, PM from DE was found to be capable of inducing an inflammatory response, as 

demonstrated by the one IT instillation study described above. Evidence was presented suggesting 

that DEP may act through bronchopulmonary C-fibers to stimulate pulmonary inflammation. 

Gasoline Emissions and Road Dust 

Healthy male Swiss mice were exposed to gasoline exhaust (635 μg/m3 PM and associated 

gases) or filtered air for 15 min/day for 7, 14, and 21 days (Sureshkumar et al., 2005, 088306). 

BALF was collected for analysis 1 h after the last exposure. Histological analysis was also carried 

out at 7, 14, and 21 days. The number of leukocytes in BALF was increased after exposure to 

gasoline exhaust, but this increase did not achieve statistical significance. However, levels of the 

pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly increased in BALF following 14 and 

21 days of exposure. Furthermore, inflammatory cell infiltrate in the peribronchiolar and alveolar 

regions were observed by histology. Evidence of lung injury was also found (Section 6.3.5.3). In this 

study, BALF analysis of inflammatory cells was a less sensitive indicator of pulmonary 

inflammation than BALF analysis of cytokines and histological analysis of lung tissue. Results of 

this study cannot entirely be attributed to the presence of PM in the gasoline exhaust since 

0.11 mg/m3

 SOX, 0.49 mg/m3 of NOX and 18.7 ppm of CO were also present during exposure. 

Using ApoE-/- mice on a high-fat diet, Campen et al. (2006, 096879) studied the impact of 

inhaled gasoline emissions and road dust (6 h/day×3 day) on pulmonary inflammation. For gasoline 

emissions, the PM-containing atmosphere (PM mean concentration 61 μg/m3

; NOX mean 

concentration 18.8 ppm; CO mean concentration 80 ppm) failed to increase numbers of 

inflammatory cells in BALF collected 18 h after the last exposure. However, a statistically 

significant increase in total cells and macrophages was observed in response to resuspended road 

dust (PM2.5) at 3,500 μg/m3

, but not at 500 μg/m3. 

December 2009 6-109 
Model Particles 

In a study by Elder et al. (2004, 055642), pulmonary inflammation was investigated in two 

compromised, aged animal models (11-14 mo old SH and 23 mo old F344) exposed by inhalation to 

UF CB (count median diameter = 36 nm) at a relevant concentration (150 μg/m3

). No changes in 

BALF cells were seen 24 h post-exposure in either model. 

An increase in BALF neutrophils was observed at 24 h, but not at 4 h, in WKY rats exposed to 

UF carbon particles (median particle size 38 nm; mass concentration 180 μg/m3

; mean number 

concentration 1.6×107 particles/cm3) for up to 24 h (Harder et al., 2005, 087371). Changes in HR and 

HRV demonstrated in this study (Section 6.2.1.3) occurred much more rapidly than the inflammatory 

response. 

No evidence of pulmonary inflammation was found by analysis of BALF or histology one or 

three days following 24-h exposure of SH rats to UF carbon particles under similar conditions 

(median particle size 31 nm; mass concentration 172 μg/m3

; mean number concentration 9.0×106

particles/cm3) (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 159345). However increased expression of HO-1, ET-1, ETA

and ETB, tPA and, plasminogen activator-1 was found in lung tissue three days following exposure. 

In a study by Gilmour et al. (2004, 054175), adult Wistar rats were exposed for 7 h to fine and 

UF CB particles (mean mass concentration 1,400 and 1,660 μg/m3

 for fine and UF CB, respectively; 

mean number concentration 3.8×103

 and 5.2×104 particles/cm3, respectively; count median 

aerodynamic diameter 114 nm and 268 nm, respectively). Both treatments resulted in increased 

BALF neutrophils 16 h post-exposure, with the UFPs having the greater response. UFPs also 

increased total BALF leukocytes and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) mRNA in BALF 

cells. Although these exposures may not be relevant to ambient exposures, this study demonstrated 

the greater propensity of UF CB particles to cause a pro-inflammatory response compared with fine 

CB particles. 

In a study by Last et al. (2004, 097334), mice were exposed to 250 μg/m3

 laboratory-generated 

iron-soot over a 2-wk period as described in Section 6.3.2.3. BALF was collected 1-h after the last 

exposure and analyzed for total cells. No increase in total cell number was observed following 

iron-soot exposure. Other findings of this study are described in Sections 6.3.2.3 and 6.3.5.3. Pinkerton et al. (2008, 190471) exposed young adult male SD rats to filtered air, iron, soot or 

iron-soot for 6 h/day for 3 days. The iron particles were mainly less than 100 nm aerodynamic 

diameter, while the soot particles were initially 20-40 nm in diameter but formed clusters of 100-

200 nm in diameter. The size-distribution of iron-soot particles was bimodal over 10-250 nm and 

averaged 70-80 nm in diameter. Rats were exposed to 45, 57 and 90 μg/m3

 iron or to 250 μg/m3 soot 

alone or in combination with 45 μg/m3

 iron. Increased levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β

were observed in lung tissue of rats exposed for 6 h/day for 3 days to 90 μg/m3, but not 57 μg/m3, 

iron. No change in BALF inflammatory cells was observed after exposure to 57 μg/m3 or 90 μg/m3 

iron. Exposures to 250 μg/m3 soot in combination with 45 μg/m3 iron also resulted in increased 

levels of lung IL-1β and activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. Levels of lung IL-1β were 

increased in neonatal rats exposed to 250 μg/m3

 soot in combination with 100, but not 30, μg/m3

iron. Other endpoints of this study are described in Section 6.3.4.2. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Pulmonary Inflammation 

New studies involving short-term exposures to CAPs and urban air strengthen the evidence of 

PM-induced pulmonary inflammation. In addition, several studies demonstrated pulmonary 

inflammation in response to diesel and gasoline exhaust; however it is not known whether PM or 

gaseous components of the exhaust were responsible for these effects. Mixed results were obtained 

in studies using model particles such as CB and iron-soot. 

6.3.4. Pulmonary Oxidative Responses 

The results of a small number of controlled human exposure and toxicological studies 

presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) provided some initial evidence of an 

association between exposure to PM and pulmonary oxidative stress. Recent controlled human 

December 2009 6-110 
exposure studies have provided support for previous findings of an increase in markers of pulmonary 

oxidative stress following exposure to DE, and one new study has observed a similar effect 

following controlled exposure to wood smoke. New findings from toxicological studies provide 

further evidence that oxidative species are involved in PM-mediated effects. No epidemiologic 

studies have evaluated the association between PM concentration and pulmonary oxidative response. 

6.3.4.1. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Two studies cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) observed effects on 

markers of airway oxidative response in healthy adults following controlled exposures to fresh DE or 

resuspended DE particles (Blomberg et al., 1998, 051246; Nightingale et al., 2000, 011659). Several 

recent studies are described below which have further evaluated the oxidative response following 

exposure to particles in human volunteers. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Pourazar et al. (2005, 088305) exposed 15 adults (11 males and four females) for 1 h to air or 

DE (PM10 concentration 300 μg/m3

) in a controlled cross-over study. Bronchoscopy with airway 

biopsy was performed 6 h after exposure. The expression of NF-κB, AP-1 (c-jun and c-fos), p38, and 

JNK in bronchial epithelium was quantified using immunohistochemical staining. DE was observed 

to significantly increase nuclear translocation of NF-κB, AP-1, phosphorylated p38, and 

phosphorylated JNK; however, the findings of this study require confirmation with more quantitative 

methods such as Western blot analysis. The observed activation of redox-sensitive transcription 

factors by DE may result in the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines. There is some evidence to 

suggest that this bronchial response to DE is mediated through the epidermal growth factor receptor 

signaling pathway (Pourazar et al., 2008, 156884). Behndig et al. (2006, 088286) evaluated the 

upregulation of endogenous antioxidant defenses following exposure to DE (100 μg/m3

 PM10) in a 

group of 15 healthy adults. Increases in urate and reduced GSH were observed in alveolar lavage, 

but not bronchial wash, 18 h after exposure. In a study utilizing the same exposure protocol, 

Mudway et al. (2004, 180208) observed an increase in GSH and ascorbate in nasal lavage fluid 6 h 

following exposure to DE in a group of 25 healthy adults. 

Wood Smoke 

Barregard et al. (2008, 155675) observed a significant increase in malondialdehyde levels in 

breath condensate of healthy volunteers (n = 13) immediately following and 20 h after a 4-h 

exposure to wood smoke (240-280 μg/m3 PM). 

Endobronchial Instillation 

Schaumann et al. (2004, 087966) demonstrated an increased oxidant radical generation of 

BALF cells following endobronchial instillation of urban particles compared with instillation of 

particles collected in a rural area. The authors suggested that this difference was likely due to the 

greater concentration of transition metals found in the urban particles. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Pulmonary Oxidative 

Responses 

Taken together, these studies suggest that short-term exposure to PM at near ambient levels 

may produce mild oxidative stress in the lung. Limited data suggest that proximal and distal lung 

regions may be subject to different degrees of oxidative stress during exposures to different pollutant 

particles. 

December 2009 6-111 
6.3.4.2. Toxicological Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reported one study which provided evidence 

that ROS were involved in PM-mediated responses. This particular study used pre-treatment with the 

antioxidant DMTU to block the neutrophilic response to ROFA. More recently, several studies 

evaluated the effects of PM exposure on pulmonary oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can be directly 

determined by measuring ROS or oxidation products of lipids and proteins. An indirect assay 

involves measurement of the enzyme HO-1 or of the antioxidant enzymes SOD or catalase, all of 

which can be induced by oxidative stress. Antioxidant interventions which inhibit or prevent 

responses are a further indirect measure of oxidative stress playing a role in the pathway of interest. 

CAPs 

Gurgueira et al. (2002, 036535) measured oxidative stress as in situ CL. Immediately 

following a 5-h PM2.5 CAPs exposure (mean mass concentration range 99.6-957.5 μg/m3

; Boston, 

MA) increased CL was observed in lungs of CAPs-exposed SD rats. CL evaluated after CAPs 

exposure durations of 3 h was also increased but did not achieve statistical significance compared to 

the filtered air group. When animals were allowed to recover for 24 h following the 5-h CAPs 

exposure, CL levels returned to control values. Interestingly, a decrease in lung CL was observed in 

rats breathing filtered air for three days compared with rats breathing room air for the same duration. 

To compare potential particle-induced differences in in situ CL, rats were exposed to ROFA (1.7 

mg/m3

 for 30 min) or CB (170 μg/m3 for 5 h). Only the ROFA-treated animals exhibited increased 

CL in lung tissue. Additionally, levels of antioxidant enzymes in the lung (MnSOD and catalase) 

were increased in CAPs-exposed rats. A CAPs-associated increase in CL was also seen in the heart 

(Section 6.2.9.3), but not the liver. 

In a similar study, Rhoden et al. (2004, 087969) exposed SD rats for 5 h to PM2.5 CAPs from 

Boston (mean mass concentration 1,228 μg/m3

) or to filtered air. Significant increases in TBARS 

and protein carbonyl content (a measure of protein oxidation) were observed 24 h post-exposure to 

CAPs. Pretreatment with the thiol antioxidant NAC (50 mg/kg i.p.) 1-h prior to exposure prevented 

not only the lipid and protein oxidation observed in response to CAPs, but also the increase in BALF 

neutrophils and pulmonary edema in this model (Sections 6.3.3.3 and 6.3.5.3). Results of this study 

demonstrate the key role played by oxidative stress in these CAPs-mediated effects. 

A later study by Rhoden et al. (2008, 190475) investigated the role of superoxide in mediating 

pulmonary inflammation following exposure to ambient air particles. In this study, adult SD rats 

were exposed by IT instillation to 1 mg of SRM1649. Two hours prior to exposure, half of the rats 

were pretreated with the membrane-permeable SOD mimetic MnTBAP (10 mg/kg, i.p.). MnTBAP 

abrogated the inflammatory response, measured by increased BALF inflammatory cells, and the 

increase in lung superoxide, measured by CL, observed 4 h following exposure to urban air particles. 

Kooter et al. (2006, 097547) reported an increase in HO-1 in BALF and lung tissue measured 

18 h after a 2-day exposure (6 h/day) of SH rats to PM2.5 or PM2.5+UF CAPs (mean mass 

concentration range 399-3613 and 269-556 μg/m3

, respectively; PM2.5 CAPs site in Bilthoven and 

PM2.5+UF site in freeway tunnel in Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht, the Netherlands). This occurred in the 

absence of any measurable pulmonary inflammation (Section 6.3.3.3). 

Urban Air 

To evaluate oxidative stress responses to ambient particles from vehicles, Wistar rats were 

exposed to ambient urban air from a high traffic site (concentration range 22-225 μg/m3 PM10; Porto 

Alegre, Brazil) or to the same air which was filtered to remove the PM (Pereira et al., 2007, 156019). 

Several exposure regimens were carried out: 6- and 20-h continuous exposures or to intermittent 

exposures of 5 h/day for four consecutive days. A significant increase in lipid peroxidation 

(measured as malondialdehyde) was seen in lung tissue immediately following the 20-h continuous 

exposure, but not following the 6-h exposure or the intermittent exposures. Inflammation-related 

endpoints are described in Section 6.3.3.3. 

December 2009 6-112 
Diesel Exhaust 

Li et al. (2007, 155929) exposed mice to clean air or to low dose DE (100 μg/m3 PM) for 

7 h/day and 5 days/wk for 1, 4 and 8 wk as described in Section 6.3.2.3. HO-1 mRNA and protein 

were increased in lung tissues of both mouse strains after 1 wk of DE exposure. In addition, AHR 

and changes in BALF cells and cytokines were observed (Sections 6.3.2.3 and 6.3.3.3). Pretreatment 

with the thiol antioxidant NAC (320 mg/kg, i.p.) on days 1-5 of DE exposure greatly attenuated the 

AHR and inflammatory response seen after 1 wk of DE exposure. Long-term responses are 

discussed in Sections 7.3.2.2, 7.3.3.2 and 7.3.4.1. 

A study by Whitekus et al. (2002, 157142) investigated the adjuvant effects of DE particles in 

an allergic animal model and is discussed in detail below (Section 6.3.6.3). Intervention with the 

thiol antioxidants bucillamine and NAC inhibited the increases in allergen-specific IgE and IgG1 as 

well as the increases in protein carbonyl and lipid hydroperoxides in the lung following DE particle 

exposure. 

Gasoline Exhaust 

Pulmonary oxidative stress was evaluated by measurement of CL and TBARS following 

exposure of SD rats to gasoline engine exhaust (Seagrave et al., 2008, 191990). Animals were 

exposed for 6 h in a nose-only inhalation exposure system. PM mass concentration was reported to 

be 60 μg/m3

; count median diameter 20 nm; mass median diameter 150 nm; while the concentrations 

of gaseous copollutants were 104 ppm CO, 16.7 ppm NO, 1.1 ppm NO2 and 1.0 ppm SO2. A 

statistically significant increase in lung CL was observed without a concomitant increase in lung 

TBARS. Discordant results were also observed for road dust exposures in the heart (Section 6.2.9.3). 

The discrepancy between oxidative stress indicators suggests that the responses may follow different 

time courses. Furthermore, no CL was seen when the gasoline exhaust was filtered to remove the 

particulate fraction. 

Model Particles 

Increased expression of HO-1 was observed in lung tissue three days following 24-h exposure 

of SH rats to UF carbon particles (median particle size 31 nm; mass concentration 172 μg/m3

; mean 

number concentration 9.0×106

 particles/cm3) despite no evidence of pulmonary inflammation 

(Section 6.3.3.3) (Upadhyay et al., 2008, 159345) 

In a study conducted by Pinkerton et al. (2008, 190471), young adult male SD rats were 

exposed to filtered air, soot, iron or iron-soot for 6 h/day for three days as described in Section 

6.3.3.3. A statistically significant decrease in total antioxidant power and a statistically significant 

increase in glutathione-S-transferase activity were observed in lung tissue from rats exposed to 90 

μg/m3

 iron. This high concentration iron exposure also resulted in increased levels of ferritin protein 

in lung tissue, indicating the presence of free iron which has the potential to redox cycle and cause 

oxidative stress. Lung tissue total antioxidant power was decreased and glutathione redox ratio was 

increased by the combined exposure to 250 μg/m3

 soot and 45 μg/m3 iron. The iron-soot exposure 

also increased oxidized glutathione in BALF and lung tissue. These results demonstrate that coexposure to soot enhanced iron-mediated oxidative stress. Furthermore, co-exposure to soot and iron 

resulted in increased expression of cytochrome P450 isozymes CYP1A1 and CYP2E1 in lung tissue, 

an effect not observed in response to either agent alone. Inflammation-related endpoints observed in 

this study are described in Section 6.3.3.3. In a parallel study, Pinkerton et al. (2008, 190471) exposed neonatal male SD rats to iron-soot 

or filtered air 6 h/day for three days during the second and fourth week of life. Both 30 μg/m3 and 

100 μg/m3

 iron in combination with 250 μg/m3 soot resulted in increased BALF oxidized 

glutathione, glutathione redox ratio and glutathione-S-transferase activity and decreased total 

antioxidant power. The higher concentration exposure resulted in increased ferritin expression in 

lung tissue. Effects on cellular proliferation in specific regions of the lung were also noted as 

described in Section 6.3.5.3. 

Nurkiewicz et al. (2009, 191961) exposed SD rats to fine (count median diameter 710 nm) and 

UF (count median diameter 100 nm) TiO2 particles via aerosol inhalation at concentrations of 1.5-16 

December 2009 6-113 
mg/m3

 for 240-720 min. These exposures were chosen in order to produce deposition of 4-90 μg/rat, 

which was demonstrated in a previous study to result in different degrees of impaired microvascular 

function (Nurkiewicz et al., 2008, 156816). Histological analysis of lung tissue did not find any 

significant inflammation, although particle accumulation in alveolar macrophages and a frequent 

association of alveolar macrophage with the alveolar wall was observed 24 h following exposure 

(Nurkiewicz et al., 2008, 156816). Although the main focus of the more recent study was on effects 

of TiO2 on NO production and microvascular reactivity in the spinotrapezius muscle 

(Section 6.2.4.3), the presence of nitrotyrosine was determined in both lung tissue and spinotrapezius 

muscle as a measure of peroxynitrite formation. Peroxynitrite formation occurs mainly as a result of 

the rapid reaction of NO with superoxide and suggests an increase in local superoxide production. 

The area of lung tissue containing nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity increased three-fold 24 h 

following exposure to 10 μg UF TiO2. Nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity was localized in 

inflammatory cells found in the alveolar region of the lung. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Pulmonary Oxidative Responses 

New studies involving short-term exposure to CAPs, urban air, diesel and gasoline exhaust, 

and model particles such as CB, iron-soot and TIO2 consistently demonstrate pulmonary oxidative 

responses. Furthermore, antioxidant treatment ameliorated effects observed in response to CAPs, 

DE and DE particles. 

6.3.5. Pulmonary Injury 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented evidence from several toxicological 

studies of small PM-induced increases in markers of pulmonary injury including thickening of 

alveolar walls and increases in BALF protein. These findings are consistent with the results of recent 

toxicological and controlled human exposure studies demonstrating mild pulmonary injury 

accompanying inflammatory responses to CAPs and wood smoke. One recent epidemiologic study 

has also observed a positive association between PM and urinary concentrations of lung Clara cell 

protein. 

6.3.5.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

One epidemiologic study examined biomarkers of pulmonary injury. The mean concentration 

data from this study are characterized in Table 6-10. Timonen et al. (2004, 087915) enrolled subjects 

with coronary heart disease in Amsterdam (n = 37), Erfurt, Germany (n = 47) and Helsinki (n = 47) 

to study daily variation in PM and urinary concentrations of lung Clara cell protein (CC16). No 

associations were seen between the PNC of the smallest particles (NC0.01-0.1) and CC16. Significant 

associations with NC0.1-1 and PM2.5 (which were strongly correlated with each other [r = 0.8]) were 

seen only for Helsinki subjects: same day, lag 3 and 5-day mean NC0.1-1 increases of 1000 

particles/cm3 were associated with increases in ln (CC16/creatinine) of 15.5% (95% CI: 0.001-30.9), 

17.4% (95% CI: 3.4-31.4), and 43.2% (95% CI: 17.4-69.0), respectively. Similar associations were 

seen for 10 μg/m3

 increases in PM2.5: lag 0 and 5-day mean PM2.5 were associated with increases in 

ln (CC16/creatinine) of 23.3% (95% CI: 6.3-40.3) and 38.8% (95% CI: 15.8-61.8), respectively. 

6.3.5.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

No studies of controlled human exposures presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) specifically examined the effect of PM on pulmonary injury. However, several recent 

studies have evaluated changes in markers of injury and increased alveolar permeability following 

exposures to various types of particles. 

December 2009 6-114 
Urban Traffic Particles 

Bräuner et al.(2009, 190244) evaluated the effect of exposure to urban traffic particles (24-h 

exposure, PM2.5 9.7 μg/m3

) on the integrity of the alveolar epithelial membrane in a group of 29 

healthy adults, with and without exercise. Following 2.5 h of exposure, alveolar epithelial 

permeability was assessed by measuring the pulmonary clearance of 99mTc-DTPA, which was 

administered as an aerosol during 3 min of tidal breathing. While pulmonary clearance of 

99mTc-DTPA was observed to increase following exercise, there was no significant difference in 

clearance between exposure to urban traffic particles and filtered air. In addition, PM exposure was 

not observed to affect the level of CC16 in plasma or urine at 6 or 24 h after the start of exposure. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Relative to filtered air, exposure for 1 h to DE (300 μg/m3 PM) was not observed to affect the 

plasma CC16 concentration at 6 or 24 h post exposure in a group of 15 former smokers with COPD 

(Blomberg et al., 2005, 191991). 

Wood Smoke 

In a study examining the respiratory effects of wood smoke, Barregard et al. (2008, 155675) 

exposed two groups of healthy adults in separate 4-h sessions to wood smoke with median particle 

concentrations of 243 and 279 μg/m3. At 20 h post-exposure, the mean serum CC16 concentration 

was significantly higher after exposure to wood smoke when compared with filtered air. However, 

when the analysis was stratified by exposure session, a statistically significant effect of wood smoke 

on serum CC16 was observed in the subjects in session 1 but not those in session 2. It is interesting 

to note that while the mean particle concentration was only slightly higher in session 1, the mean 

particle number in session 1 was almost 90% higher than the particle number in session 2, with 

geometric mean particle diameters of 42 and 112 nm, respectively. 

Summary of Controlled Human Exposure Study Findings for Pulmonary Injury 

The findings from these studies provide limited evidence to suggest that exposures to particles 

may increase markers of pulmonary injury in healthy adults. 

6.3.5.3. Toxicological Studies 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reported mild increases in BALF protein, a 

marker of pulmonary injury, in several studies involving inhalation exposure to CAPs. In addition, 

histological analysis demonstrated that the bronchoalveolar junction was the site of the greatest 

inflammation following CAPs exposure. Low level exposure to DE was associated with Type 2 cell 

proliferation and thickening of alveolar walls near alveolar macrophages according to the 2002 EPA 

Diesel Document (U.S. EPA, 2002, 042866). In addition, IT instillation of fly ash and 

metal-containing PM generally caused pulmonary injury as measured by increases in BALF protein, 

LDH and albumin. Proliferation of bronchiolar epithelium was also noted. More recent studies of 

BALF markers of pulmonary injury and histological analysis of lung tissue are summarized below. 

BALF Markers of Pulmonary Injury and Increased Permeability 

CAPs 

Kodavanti et al. (2005, 087946) exposed SH and WKY rats to filtered air or PM2.5 CAPs from 

RTP, NC as described in Section 6.3.3.3. Differences in baseline parameters were noted for the two 

rat strains since SH rats had greater levels of protein and lower levels of LDH, NAG, ascorbate and 

December 2009 6-115 
uric acid in the BALF compared with WKY rats. One day after the 2-day CAPs exposure, increased 

levels of GGT were observed in BALF (a marker of epithelial injury) of SH rats, but not WKY rats, 

compared with filtered air controls. Injury was not accompanied by inflammation (Section 6.3.3.3). 

In a study by Cassee et al. (2005, 087962), SH rats were exposed for 6 h by nose-only 

inhalation to CAPs from three different sites in the Netherlands as described in Section 6.3.3.3. The 

pulmonary injury marker CC16 was increased in BALF two days following CAPs exposure. 

Inflammation was also observed (Section 6.3.3.3). 

Gurgueira et al. (2002, 036535) exposed SD rats to Boston, MA CAPs as described in 

Section 6.3.4.2 and reported a small but statistically significant increase in lung wet/dry ratios after 3 

and 5 h of exposure, indicating the presence of mild edema. This response was accompanied by 

increased oxidative stress as measured by in situ CL (Section 6.3.4.2). In a similar study, Rhoden 

et al. (2004, 087969) reported an increase in lung wet/dry ratio in rats 24 h following a 5-h exposure 

to Boston CAPs which was diminished by pre-treatment of the antioxidant NAC (Section 6.3.4.2). 

Pulmonary injury was investigated in two studies using a rat model of pulmonary hypertension 

(SD rats pre-treated with monocrotaline) which is described in greater detail in Section 6.3.3.3 (Lei 

et al., 2004, 087999). Significant increases in BALF LDH and protein were observed in response to 

CAPs. Pulmonary inflammation was observed in both of these studies (Section 6.3.3.3). 

Diesel Exhaust 

In a study evaluating the effects of DE, no changes were observed in BALF protein and LDH 

in mice exposed by inhalation to concentrations of 50 and 2000 μg/m3 DE particles for 4 h/day on 5 

consecutive days as described in Section 6.3.3.3 (Stevens et al., 2008, 157010). Changes in gene 

expression were observed in the higher exposure group. This study demonstrates that changes in 

gene expression can occur in the absence of measurable markers of injury or pulmonary 

inflammation. 

In a study by Wong et al. (2003, 097707), also reported by Witten et al. (2005, 087485), rats 

were exposed nose-only to filtered room air or to DE over a 3-wk period. This study, focusing on 

neurogenic inflammation, is described in greater detail in Section 6.3.3.3. Pulmonary plasma 

extravasation was measured by the 99mTechnecium-albumin technique and found to be 

dose-dependently increased in the bronchi and lung. Pretreatment with capsaicin, which inhibits 

neurogenic inflammation by activating C-fibers and causing the depletion of neuropeptide stores, did 

not reduce plasma extravasation following DE exposure. Hence, DE is unlikely to act through 

bronchopulmonary C-fibers to cause neurogenic edema in this model. Inflammatory responses 

measured in this study are discussed in Section 6.3.3.3. 

Gasoline Exhaust 

Healthy male Swiss mice were exposed to gasoline exhaust (635 μg/m3 PM and associated 

gases) or filtered air for 15 min/day for 7, 14, and 21 days as described in Section 6.3.3.3

(Sureshkumar et al., 2005, 088306). BALF was collected for analysis 1-h after the last exposure. 

Statistically significant increases in BALF markers of lung injury, alkaline phosphatase, 

gamma-glutamyl transferase and LDH, were observed at all time points studied. Alveolar edema was 

noted following 14 and 21 days of exposure. Other findings of this study, including inflammation 

and histopathological changes, are discussed in Section 6.3.3.3 and below. 

Histopathology 

CAPs 

Histopathological changes were demonstrated in rats exposed for 5 h to Boston CAPs as 

described in Section 6.3.3.3 (Rhoden et al., 2004, 087969). Slight bronchiolar inflammation and 

thickened vessels at the bronchiole were observed 24 h post-exposure, consistent with the influx of 

polymorphonuclear leukocytes observed in BALF (Section 6.3.3.3). 

December 2009 6-116 
Diesel Exhaust 

In a study by Wong et al. (2003, 097707), also reported by Witten et al. (2005, 087485), rats 

were exposed nose-only to filtered room air or to DE over a 3-wk period. This study, focusing on 

neurogenic inflammation, is described in greater detail in Section 6.3.3.3. Pulmonary inflammation 

was evaluated by histological analysis of lung tissue. Following high, but not low, 

concentration-exposure to DE, a large number of alveolar macrophages was found in the lungs. 

Small black particles, presumably DE particles, were found in the cytoplasm of these alveolar 

macrophages. Perivascular cuffing consisting of mononuclear cells was also observed in the high 

exposure animals. Influx of neutrophils or eosinophils was not seen although mast cell number was 

increased. Other indices of injury demonstrated in this study are described above. 

Gasoline Exhaust 

Another study, which is described in greater detail in Section 6.3.3.3, demonstrated 

histopathological responses to gasoline exhaust in mice exposed to gasoline exhaust or filtered air 

for 15 min/day for 7, 14, and 21 days (Sureshkumar et al., 2005, 088306). Histological observations 

showed inflammatory cell infiltrate in the peribronchiolar and alveolar region, alveolar edema and 

thickened alveolar septa at 14 and 21 days post-exposure. Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and 

marker enzymes of lung damage were also increased in BALF. The numbers of inflammatory cells in 

BALF was increased but not significantly, demonstrating that BALF analysis of inflammatory cells 

was a less sensitive indicator of pulmonary inflammation in this study than histological analysis. 

Other indices of injury found in this study are described above. 

Model Particles 

In a study investigating the effects of iron-soot, mice were exposed to 250 μg/m3

laboratory-generated iron-soot as described in Sections 6.3.2.3 and 6.3.3.3 (Last et al., 2004, 

097334). Analysis of airway collagen content was conducted by histology and by biochemical 

analysis of microdissected airways. No increases in airway collagen content were found by either 

method in mice exposed to iron-soot for two weeks. Furthermore, no goblet cells were observed in 

airways of air or iron-soot exposed animals. Other findings of this study are described in Sections 

6.3.2.3 and 6.3.3.3. 

One study demonstrating histopathological responses to PM in neonatal rats was reported by 

Pinkerton et al. (2004, 087465). Rat pups (10 days old) were exposed to soot and iron particles 

(mean mass concentration of 243 μg/m3

; iron concentration 96 μg/m3; size range 10-50 nm) for 

6 h/day on 3 consecutive days. Cell proliferation in different lung regions was evaluated following 

bromodeoxyuridine injection 2 h prior to necropsy. The rate of cell proliferation in the proximal 

alveolar region (immediately beyond the terminal bronchioles) was significantly reduced in iron-soot 

exposed animals compared to controls. This was a region-specific response since the rate of cell 

proliferation was not altered in the terminal bronchioles or the general lung parenchyma. However 

alveolar septation, the process by which alveoli are formed during development, and alveolar growth 

were not altered by iron-soot exposure. Decreased cell viability and increased LDH was also noted 

in BALF of neonatal rats (Pinkerton et al., 2008, 190471). The authors suggest the possibility of 

greater susceptibility to air pollution during the critical postnatal lung development period which 

occurs in animals and humans and that neonatal exposure to PM may contribute to impaired lung 

growth seen in children. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Pulmonary Injury 

New studies involving short-term exposure to CAPs and diesel and gasoline exhaust 

demonstrate mild pulmonary injury, including enhanced BALF markers of injury, pulmonary edema 

and histopathology. In general, injury responses were accompanied by inflammatory responses. In 

addition, altered cellular proliferation in the proximal alveolar region was observed in neonatal rats 

exposed to iron-soot, suggesting the possibility of greater susceptibility to PM during postnatal lung 

development. 

December 2009 6-117 
Relative Toxicity of PM Size Fractions 

Ambient PM Studies 

A recently undertaken multinational project entitled “Chemical and biological characterization 

of ambient thoracic coarse (PM10-2.5), fine (PM2.5-0.2), and UFPs (PM0.2) for human health risk 

assessment in Europe” (PAMCHAR) takes a systematic approach to expanding the present 

knowledge about the physiochemical and toxicological effects of these three PM size fractions. Six 

European cities were selected that represented contrasting ambient PM profiles: Helsinki, Duisburg, 

Prague, Amsterdam, Barcelona, and Athens. For PM collected at all sites, PM10-2.5 induced the 

greatest pulmonary effects in C57BL/6J mice IT instilled with 1, 3, or 10 mg/kg of particles (Happo 

et al., 2007, 096630). Dose-response relationships in BALF parameters measured 24 h post-IT 

instillation exposure, including cell number and protein, were observed for all sites following 

PM10-2.5, and neutrophils were the predominant cell type present in the BALF (Happo et al., 2007, 

096630). Prague PM10-2.5 exposure resulted in decreased macrophages in BALF at 12 h, and 

Amsterdam, Barcelona, and Athens PM10-2.5 induced lymphoplasmacytic cells in BALF (Happo et 

al., 2007, 096630). No inflammatory responses were observed for UFPs measured 12-h after 

exposure. Protein was elevated for PM10-2.5 for all locations with the 10 mg/kg dose; Athens UFPs 

induced protein release only at the two lowest doses 12 h post-exposure. For TNF-α and IL-6, the 

greatest response was observed with PM10-2.5 4 h following exposure (Happo et al., 2007, 096630). 

Exposure to UFPs from Duisburg resulted in elevated TNF-α for the 1 and 3 mg/kg doses. Only the 

Helsinki sample appeared to induce the same level of IL-6 release for PM10-2.5 and PM0.2 at 10 

mg/kg, albeit the collection times differed. In vitro TNF-α and IL-6 responses did not always reflect 

in vivo effects (Table 6-11), as the Duisburg PM10-2.5 sample was the most potent in vivo compared 

to the other sites and elicited much lower cytokine release compared to other cities (except Helsinki) 

in vitro (Happo et al., 2007, 096630; Jalava et al., 2006, 155872; Jalava et al., 2008, 098968). 

Helsinki PM was collected in the spring and generally had the lowest in vivo and in vitro activity for 

PM10-2.5 compared to the other cities (Happo et al., 2007, 096630; Jalava et al., 2006, 155872; Jalava 

et al., 2008, 098968). Spring-time samples were collected because episodes of resuspended road dust 

occur frequently during this season (Pennanen et al., 2007, 155357). There was a high correlation 

between EC content in PM2.5 and PM10-2.5, indicating that traffic impacted both size fractions 

(Sillanpaa et al., 2005, 156980). Duisburg PM collected in fall had the greatest amounts of Mn and 

Zn compared to PM samples from other locations (Pennanen et al., 2007, 155357). Metals industries 

in Duisburg are likely contributors to the observed PM metals concentrations. For the Prague winter 

PM samples, the As content was higher than at any other location (Pennanen et al., 2007, 155357). 

Prague also had the highest PAH levels in all three size fractions, possibly attributable to stable 

atmosphere conditions and incomplete combustion of coal and biomass in residential heating 

(Pennanen et al., 2007, 155357). High levels of ammonium and nitrate in PM samples from 

Amsterdam suggest traffic as a large source of air pollution (Pennanen et al., 2007, 155357). 

Approximately one-third of PM10-2.5 mass from Amsterdam was comprised of sea salt (Sillanpaa et 

al., 2005, 156980), double that of any other city. In Barcelona and Athens, high calcium or Ca2+

contents in spring and summer PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 are indicative of resuspended soil-derived particles 

(Pennanen et al., 2007, 155357). 

December 2009 6-118 
Table 6-11. PAMCHAR PM10-2.5 inflammation results with ambient PM. 

City and Season In Vivoa (mg/kg) In Vitrob (μg/mL) 

BALF protein BALF TNF-α BALF IL-6 BALF KC BALF PMN BALF AM TNF-α IL-6 MIP-2 

Helsinki spring +10 +10 +10 [+3 10] +10 -- +150,300 +150,300 +150,300 

Duisburg fall +10 +10 +10 +10 +10 -- +150,300 +150,300 +300 

Prague winter +10 [+3 10] +10 [+3 10] +10 +10 +150,300 +150,300 +150,300 

Amsterdam winter +10 +10 +10 +10 +10 -- +150 +150,300 +150,300 

Barcelona spring +10 +10 [+3 10] +10 +10 -- +150,300 +150,300 +150,300 

Athens summer +10 [+3 10] [+3 10] [+3 10] +10 -- +150,300 +150,300 +150,300 

a

Source: Happo et al. (2007, 096630); 2 cell lines used for in vitro study were RAW264.7 b

Source: Jalava et al. (2006, 155872); + indicates increased response and numbers that follow indicate at which dose the response was observed

Schins et al. (2004, 054173) employed PM from two cities in Germany, Duisburg and Borken, 

in another study. In contrast to the PAMCHAR study where animals were administered PM 

suspended in pathogen-free water (Happo et al., 2007, 096630), animals received PM via IT 

instillation suspended in saline at a dose of 320 μg (Schins et al., 2004, 054173). In female Wistar 

rats, neutrophils in BALF were significantly elevated for PM10-2.5 from Duisburg and Borken (Table 

6-12), albeit the percent of neutrophils with the PM10-2.5 from Borken was nearly double that of 

Duisburg. The responses with PM2.5 were much smaller. When these PM10-2.5 particles were 

introduced into whole blood to determine overall inflammogenic capacity, IL-8 and TNF-α were 

released in greater quantities than in response to PM2.5. Furthermore, PM10-2.5 from Borken induced 

higher cytokine responses than Duisburg PM10-2.5. 

An in vivo study involving SH rats was conducted using PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 from six different 

European locations with varying traffic densities (3 or 10 mg/kg IT instillation; UFPs were not 

collected) (Gerlofs-Nijland et al., 2007, 097840). It was reported that PM10-2.5 generally induced 

greater responses than PM2.5. IT instillation of PM10-2.5 from a location with high traffic influence in 

Munich, Germany, demonstrated the greatest response in terms of LDH activity, protein, total cells, 

neutrophils, and lymphocytes in BALF 24 h post-exposure. PM10-2.5 collected from a low traffic site 

in Munich induced the greatest cytokine response for TNF-α and MIP-2. Some correlations were 

observed between PM10-2.5 components (Ba and Cu) and BALF parameters, but were largely driven 

by one location (Gerlofs-Nijland et al., 2007, 097840). 

Table 6-12. Other ambient PM – in vivo PM10-2.5 studies – BALF results, 18-24 h post-IT exposure. 

Endotoxin 

(∼ V

Dose 

(mg/kg) 

Cell 

Differentials Cytokines Injury Biomarkers Location Reference alues) 

Germany, Borken; rural Feb-May 2000 6.6 EU/mg 0.58-0.91 ↑* % PMN ↑ TNF-α Schins et al. (2004, 054173) 

Germany, Duisburg; heavy industry 

Feb-May 2000 5.0 EU/mg 0.58-0.91 ↑ % PMN ↑ MIP-2 Schins et al. (2004, 054173) 

USA, Seattle, WA 

Feb-March 2004 6.0 EU/mg 1.25, 5.0 Gilmour, et al. (2007, 096433) 

USA, Salt Lake City, UT 

Apr-May 2004 6.3 EU/mg 1.25, 5.0 ↑ protein Gilmour, et al. (2007, 096433) 

USA, South Bronx, NY 

Dec 2003-Jan 2004 2.8 EU/mg 1.25, 5.0 ↑ PMN ↑ MIP-2 Gilmour, et al. (2007, 096433) 

USA, Sterling Forest, NY 

Dec 2003-Jan 2004 2.9 EU/mg 1.25, 5.0 Gilmour, et al. (2007, 096433) 

December 2009 6-119 
Endotoxin 

(∼ Values) 

Dose 

(mg/kg) 

Cell 

Differentials Cytokines Injury Biomarkers Location Reference 

USA, RTP, NC 

Oct-Nov 1996 0.96 EU/mg 0.5, 2.5, 5.0 ↑↑ PMN ↑ IL-6 Dick (2003, 088776) 

Germany, Munich Ost Bahnhof; high 

traffic A 

Aug 2002 

 2.9 EU/mg 3, 10 

↑↑* total cells 

↑↑ AM 

↑↑*PMN 

↑↑* Lymph 

↑↑ MIP-2 

↑↑ TNF-α

↑↑* LDH 

↑* protein Gerlofs-Nijland, et al. (2007, 097840)

Netherlands, Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht; 

high traffic 

Sept 2002 

 

 6.5 EU/mg 

3, 10 

↑↑ total cells 

↑↑*AM 

↑↑ PMN 

↑↑ Lymph 

↑ MIP-2 

↑↑ TNF-α

↑↑ LDH 

↑ protein Gerlofs-Nijland, et al. (2007, 097840)

Italy, Rome; high traffic 

Apr 2002 1.5 EU/mg 3, 10 

↑ total cells 

↑↑ AM 

↑↑ PMN 

↑↑ Lymph 

↑↑ MIP-2 

↑↑ TNF-α

↑↑ LDH 

Gerlofs-Nijland, et al. (2007, 097840)

Netherlands, Dordrecht; moderate 

traffic 

Apr 2002 

 0.6 EU/mg 3, 10 

↑↑ total cells 

↑ AM 

↑↑ PMN 

↑ Lymph 

↑↑ LDH 

↑ protein Gerlofs-Nijland, et al. (2007, 097840)

Germany, Munich Grosshadern 

Hospital; low traffic 

Jun-Jul 2002 

 2.9 EU/mg 3, 10 

↑ total cells 

↑↑ AM 

↑↑ PMN 

↑↑ Lymph 

↑↑* MIP-2 

↑↑* TNF-α

↑↑* LDH 

↑ protein Gerlofs-Nijland, et al. (2007, 097840)

Sweden, Lycksele; low traffic 

Feb-March 2002 0.9 EU/mg 3, 10 

↑↑ total cells 

↑ AM 

↑↑ PMN 

↑ Lymph 

↑↑ LDH 

↑ protein Gerlofs-Nijland, et al. (2007, 097840)

For Gerlofs-Nijland study, composition data were averaged across seasons. ↑ significant only at highest dose. 

↑↑ Significant at lowest and highest dose. 

* Greatest potency for that endpoint and study. Gilmour et al. (2007, 096433)exposure was via aspiration. 

A more recent study by these investigators (Gerlofs-Nijland et al., 2009, 190353) compared 

responses to PM from three different European cities based on size fraction and content of metals 

and PAH. SH rats were IT instilled with 7 mg/kg PM, and markers of toxicity and inflammation were 

measured in BALF 24 h later. Blood markers of coagulation were also measured and are described in 

Section 6.2.8.3. In the first part of the study, both PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 from Duisburg were found to 

have dramatic effects on inflammatory cell influx and activation as well as on the injury markers 

LDH, protein and albumin in the BALF. The antioxidant species uric acid was increased in BALF 

from rats exposed to both size fractions and was interpreted as an adaptive response to oxidative 

stress. Statistical analysis demonstrated that PM10-2.5 was more potent in eliciting these responses 

than PM2.5. In the second part of the study, responses to metal-rich PM from Duisburg and metalpoor PM from Prague were determined. A statistically significant greater enhancement of BALF 

markers of inflammation and injury was observed for the Duisburg PM compared with the Prague 

PM. Furthermore, responses to PAH-rich PM10-2.5 from Prague and PAH-poor PM10-2.5 from 

Barcelona were determined. PM10-2.5 from Prague was found to have statistically significant greater 

effects compared with PM10-2.5 from Barcelona. However, organic extracts of these PM10-2.5 fractions 

had very little capacity to produce inflammation or toxicity in this model. These findings suggest an 

important role for specific components associated with PM10-2.5 in mediating the pro-inflammatory 

effects. 

December 2009 6-120 
In another study investigating specific components of PM10-2.5, BALB/c mice were IT instilled 

with 25 and 50 μg PM10-2.5 from a rural area of the San Joaquin Valley, California (Wegesser and 

Last, 2008, 190506). Inflammatory cell influx into BALF began at 6 h and peaked at 24 h following 

IT instillation with 50 μg PM, with the increase in neutrophils preceding the increase in 

macrophages. Pro-inflammatory effects were found to be mainly due to insoluble components of 

PM. Furthermore, heat-treatment, which was capable of inactivating endotoxin, had no effect on 

inflammation. Numbers of neutrophils in the BALF were found to correlate with the content of MIP2, a known neutrophil chemoattractant released from macrophages and epithelial cells. Taken 

together, these results demonstrate that the pro-inflammatory effect of this PM10-2.5 was associated 

with insoluble components and not with endotoxin. 

In an in vivo study that employed ambient PM collected in fall 1996 from RTP, NC, 

neutrophilic influx was observed in BALF of female CD1 mice 18 h post-IT instillation (10, 50 or 

100 μg) of coarse PM (3.5-20 μm), although a dose-response relationship was not evident (Dick et 

al., 2003, 088776). Mice were also exposed to fine (1.7-3.5 μm) and fine/ultrafine (<1.7 μm) PM 

fractions. Only the two highest doses of PM for the smaller size fractions induced elevated 

neutrophils. Significant responses in albumin and TNF-α were only observed for the fine PM 

(1.7-3.5 μm) exposure group. Total protein, LDH and NAG responses were unchanged from control 

levels for all PM size fractions. Levels of IL-6 were elevated in mice exposed to 100 μg for coarse, 

fine, and fine/ultrafine (<1.7 μm) PM. When dimethylthiourea (DMTU) was administered 

intravenously prior to exposure, the neutrophil response was attenuated in all groups to levels below 

control. 

Another study compared PM10-2.5, PM2.5, and UFPs collected in Seattle, WA, Salt Lake City, 

UT, South Bronx, NY, and Sterling Forest, NY (Gilmour et al., 2007, 096433). In female BALB/c 

mice, the 100 μg dose of PM10-2.5 (approximately 5 mg/kg) from Salt Lake City induced a significant 

increase in protein in BALF, and the level released was almost as high as that observed after LPS 

exposure. PM10-2.5 from the South Bronx resulted in dose-related increases in neutrophil number and 

MIP-2 levels in BALF. In contrast, no effects were observed with PM10-2.5 from Sterling Forest. The 

greatest amount of LPS was observed in the Salt Lake City and Seattle PM10-2.5 samples. There was a 

less discernable pattern of response with fine and UFPs. 

Coal Fly Ash 

Coal fly ash of differing size fractions and composition was administered to female CD1 mice 

via oropharyngeal aspiration (25 or 100 μg) to assess lung inflammation and injury 18 h following 

exposure (Gilmour et al., 2004, 057420). Montana (low-sulfur subbituminous; 0.83% sulfur, 11.72% 

ash content) or western Kentucky (high-sulfur bituminous; 3.11% sulfur, 8.07% ash content) coal 

was combusted using a laboratory-scale down-fired furnace. Interestingly, no significant effects on 

BALF neutrophils, TNF-α, MIP-2, albumin, total protein, LDH activity, or NAG activity were 

observed 18 h post-exposure to PM10-2.5 from either coal fly ash. However, the UF fraction (PM0.2) 

of combusted Montana coal induced greater numbers of neutrophils than PM10-2.5 or PM2.5 at both 

doses. TNF-α was only elevated in animals exposed to 100 μg of the Montana UFPs; MIP-2 was also 

increased at both doses. The PM2.5 western Kentucky coal fly ash caused increased BALF 

neutrophils, MIP-2, albumin, and protein (Gilmour et al., 2004, 057420). 

In a similar study employing Montana subbituminous coal fly ash particles >2.5 μm, 

C57BL/6J mice were IT instilled with PM alone or PM+LPS and BALF was obtained 18 h 

post-exposure (Finnerty et al., 2007, 156434). TNF-α and IL-6 in lung homogenates were only 

elevated in the animals exposed to PM+100 μg LPS, although it appeared that there was a 

greater-than additive effect. Total cells and cell differentials were not measured. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Relative Toxicity of PM Size Fractions 

Biomarkers of injury and inflammation were measured in in vivo and in vitro studies 

comparing the toxicity of different size fractions of ambient PM from various locations. Responses 

were measured in BALF from rodents following IT instillation or aspiration of PM. In general, the 

PM10-2.5 size fraction was more potent than PM2.5 or UFPs and endotoxin levels did not appear 

responsible. In one study, rural PM10-2.5 from Germany induced a greater inflammatory and cytokine 

response than PM10-2.5 from an industrial location. In contrast, PM10-2.5 from Sterling Forest, NY did 

not lead to any change in BALF inflammation or injury markers. A study that employed coal fly ash 

December 2009 6-121 
indicated that the UF fraction was the most inflammogenic. All of these studies were conducted 

using high doses of PM (0.58-10 mg/kg) and it is unclear if similar effects would be observed at 

lower doses. 

6.3.6. Allergic Responses 

A large number of toxicological and controlled human exposure studies cited in the 2004 PM 

AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reported an exacerbation of existing allergic airway disease 

following exposure to laboratory-generated and ambient particles. In addition, numerous studies 

have demonstrated that PM can alter the immune response to challenge with specific antigens and 

suggest that PM may act as an adjuvant to promote allergic sensitization. Recent toxicological 

studies have provided evidence of enhanced allergic responses and allergic sensitization following 

exposure to CAPs and DE that is consistent with the findings presented in the 2004 PM AQCD. PM 

can enhance allergic responses by facilitating delivery of allergenic material and promoting 

subsequent immune reactivity. The initiation or exacerbation of allergic responses has important 

implications for allergic asthma, the most common form of asthma. Additionally, PM has been 

shown to alter ventilatory measures in non-allergic animal models, suggesting a possible role in 

other forms of asthma. 

6.3.6.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Allergy contributes to a number of respiratory morbidity outcomes, including asthma. 

However, relatively few epidemiologic studies of PM have specifically examined indicators of 

allergy. The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented one study (Hajat et al., 2001, 

016693) showing an association between doctor visits for allergic rhinitis and PM10 among children 

in London. This association was strongest at a lag of 3 or 4 days. Similar results were obtained in a 

new study by Tecer et al. (2008, 180030), which found significant associations between PM2.5, 

PM10-2.5, and PM10 with hospital admissions for allergic rhinitis in Turkish children, particularly at 

lag day 4. While exacerbation of allergic symptoms may occur relatively rapidly, repeated or longer 

exposures may be required for allergic sensitization to develop; a number of studies associating longterm exposure to PM with specific indicators of allergic sensitization are described in Chapter 7. 

6.3.6.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

Exacerbation of Allergic Responses 

Diesel Exhaust and Diesel Exhaust Particles 

Exposure to DE particles was shown to increase the allergic response among atopic 

individuals in several controlled human exposure studies cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905). Nordenhall et al. (2001, 025185) found that exposure to DE significantly decreased 

the concentration of Mch required to induce a 20% decrease in FEV1 in a group of atopic asthmatics 

24 h post-exposure. In addition, Diaz-Sanchez et al. (1997, 051247) demonstrated an increase in 

allergen-specific IgE following exposure via intranasal spray to ragweed plus DE particles (0.3 mg) 

relative to ragweed allergen alone. Decreases in IFN-γ and IL-2, as well as increases in IL-4, IL-5, 

IL-6, IL-10, and IL-13 were also observed when ragweed allergen was administered with DE 

particles. It should be noted that the DE particles used in this study were collected during a cold start 

of a light-duty Isuzu diesel engine, and thus contained relatively high levels of incomplete 

combustion materials and semi-volatiles organics (e.g., PAHs). One new study using the same source 

of DE particles (Bastain et al., 2003, 098690) also observed an increase in IL-4 and allergen specific 

IgE, as well as a decrease in IFN-γ following intranasal administration of ragweed allergen with DE 

particles (0.3 mg) in atopic adults. The protocol was repeated in this study for all subjects, and the 

enhancement of allergic response by coexposure to DE particles was observed to be highly 

reproducible within individuals. In addition, Gilliland et al. (2004, 156471) demonstrated that GST 

December 2009 6-122 
polymorphisms may alter the adjuvant effects of DE particles on allergic response, with individuals 

with GSTM1 null or GSTP1 I105 wild type genotypes showing the largest effects. 

Allergic Sensitization 

Diesel Exhaust Particles 

One controlled human exposure study has demonstrated that de novo sensitization to a 

neoantigen can be induced by exposure to DE particles. In this study, Diaz-Sanchez et al. (1999, 

011346) dosed 25 atopic adults intranasally with 1 mg keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), followed 

by two biweekly challenges with 100 μg KLH. In 15 of the 25 subjects, cold-start DE particles (0.3 

mg) were administered intranasally 24 h prior to each KLH exposure, while in the other ten subjects, 

no DE particles were administered. No KLH-specific IgE was observed in the nasal lavage fluid of 

any of the subjects exposed to KLH without exposure to DE particles. However, KLH-specific IgE 

was present in the nasal lavage fluid of 9 out of 15 subjects 28-32 days after the initial KLH 

immunization when exposures were preceded by administration of DE particles. 

CAPs 

Increased levels of eotaxin, a marker of allergic activation, were observed in healthy adult 

volunteers after inhalation of nebulized ambient Chapel Hill PM10-2.5 (Alexis et al., 2006, 154323). 

This particular effect was found to be due to endotoxin, based on its elimination by heat-inactivation; 

study details are provided in Section 6.3.3.2. 

6.3.6.3. Toxicological Studies 

Exacerbation of Allergic Responses 

Increased use of actual ambient air particle mixes in toxicological studies since the 2004 CD 

has greatly expanded evidence relevant to assessing these and other immunotoxic effects. A number 

of studies have also included ambient-level concentrations, although many still include relatively 

high doses of questionable relevance compared to the doses inhaled by humans. Recent dosimetric 

models reveal that a small fraction of epithelial cells located at the carinal ridges of airway 

bifurcations can receive massive doses that may be even a few hundred times higher than the 

average dose for the whole airway (Chapter 4). These areas, coincidentally, are locations of bronchus 

associated lymphoid tissues (BALT) which are sites at which interaction of T and B lymphocytes 

with antigen presenting cells (APC) occurs. Hence the deposited particles are in near-ideal proximity 

to immunologically active tissues. Doses used for assessing PM immunotoxicity should be viewed 

with this perspective. In many animal studies, changes in ventilatory patterns are assessed using 

whole body plethysmography, for which measurements are reported as enhanced pause (Penh). 

Some investigators report increased Penh as an indicator of AHR, but these are inconsistently 

correlated and many investigators consider Penh solely an indicator of altered ventilatory timing in 

the absence of other measurements to confirm AHR. Therefore use of the terms AHR or airway 

responsiveness has been limited to instances in which the terminology has been similarly applied by 

the study investigators. 

CAPs 

Existing allergic sensitization confers susceptibility to the effects of PM in rodent models. For 

example, studies in allergic rats (Harkema et al., 2004, 056842; Morishita et al., 2004, 087979) 

suggest that allergic sensitization enhances the retention of PM in the airways. Recovery of 

anthropogenic trace elements (La, V, Mn, S) from lung tissue was greater for Detroit PM2.5 CAPs 

exposed OVA sensitized/challenged BN rats than for air exposed or non-allergic CAPs exposed 

controls (24 h post-exposure for 4 or 5 consecutive 10-h days during July or September; time 

weighted avg mass concentration of 676 ± 288 or 313 ± 119 μg/m3

, respectively) (Harkema et al., 

December 2009 6-123 
2004, 056842). Interestingly, despite lower avg mass concentration, increases in these elements were 

observed in September, when the avg number concentration of UFPs was nearly double that of July 

(10,879 ± 5,126 vs. 5,753 ± 2,566 particles/cm3

). September CAPs was associated with eosinophil 

influx and BALF protein content, as well as significantly increased airway mucosubstances, and the 

authors speculated that the high concentration of UFPs facilitated particle penetration into the 

alveolar region of the lungs. IT instillation of fractionated insoluble PM2.5 collected from this period 

resulted in a mild pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation in healthy BN rats, but no differential effects 

were obtained after IT instillation of total, soluble, or insoluble PM2.5 in allergic rats. 

Research has also been conducted to determine the effect of proximity to the roadway on 

exacerbation of existing allergic disease. OVA-allergic BALB/c mice were exposed to PM2.5 or UF 

(≤0.15 μm) CAPs, (avg total concentration 400 μg/m3

) for five 4-h days a week over 2 wk at 50 or 

150 m downwind of a heavily trafficked road (Kleinman et al., 2005, 087880). Markers of allergy 

(serum OVA-specific IgE and IgG1, lung IL-5 and eosinophils) were significantly higher in mice 

exposed to CAPs (PM2.5 or UF) than in air-exposed mice after OVA challenge. IL-5, IgG1, and 

eosinophils were higher in mice closer to the roadway (50 m) than in mice 150 m downwind. The 

authors suggest that the enhanced responses closer to the roadway may reflect a greater proportion of 

UFPs in this vicinity, given that the concentrations of sub-25-nm particles decrease rapidly with 

distance from the roadway and the PM2.5 CAPs closer to the roadway contained a greater number of 

particles for a similar mass, a portion of which were UF. Animal-to-animal variability among the 

biomarkers tested made it necessary to combine values from two exposures spanning two years for 

statistical power (determined prior to the start of the experiment). A subsequent publication 

(Kleinman et al., 2007, 097082) included a third exposure regimen as well as compositional analysis. 

PM2.5 CAPs mass concentration was intentionally adjusted to an avg concentration of approximately 

400 μg/m3

, ranging from 163 to 500 μg/m3, with an estimated particle number of 2.1×105

particles/cm3 at 50 m and 1.6×105 particles/cm3 at 150 m. UFPs ranged from 146 to 430 μg/m3, with 

particle counts of 4.9 ± 1.4×105 particles/cm3

 at 50 m, and 4.4 ± 2.1×105 particles/cm3 at 150 m. 

Analysis of results from the three exposures indicated that OVA-sensitized mice exposed 50 m 

downwind of the roadway exhibited increased levels of IL-5 and IgG1 compared to mice exposed 

150 m downwind or exposed to air. No markers of allergy-related responses were observed in the 

150 m exposure groups, and very little difference was seen between PM2.5 and UF CAPs responses, 

perhaps because PM2.5 contained 20-32% UF components. The strongest associations between 

component concentrations and biological markers of allergy (IL-5 and IgG1) were with EC and OC. 

These studies demonstrate that CAPs can enhance allergic responses, and that proximity to a source 

may be an important factor. 

In a BN rat model for allergic asthma (Heidenfelder et al., 2009, 190026), thirteen 8-h days of 

exposure to Grand Rapids, MI PM2.5 CAPs alone did not result in differential gene expression or 

indicators of asthmatic pathology in the lung, but the combination of CAPs and OVA resulted in 

differential expression of genes predominantly related to inflammation and airway remodeling, along 

with significant increases in IgE, mucin, and total protein in BALF. Consistent with these changes in 

gene expression and BALF markers, OVA with CAPs also induced a more severe allergic 

bronchopneumonia (distribution and severity of bronchiolitis and alveolitis) and increased mucus 

cell metaplasia/hyperplasia and mucosubstances, indicating exacerbation of allergic or asthmatic 

disease. CAPs was collected in July and characterized as having an average mass of 493±391, OC 

244±144, EC 10±4, SO4

2– 79±131 (13 day avg was only about 10% of the CAPs, but a spike 

occurred during the first week), nitrate 39±67, ammonium 39±59, and urban dust (estimated from 

Fe, Al, Ca, and Si) 18±6 (mean ± SD in μg/m3

). 

Diesel Exhaust Particles 

Resuspended DE particles influences airway responses in mice with existing allergic 

sensitization. A single 5-h nose-only exposure to 870 μg/m3

 aerosolized filter-collected DE particles 

(PM2.5) increased Mch-induced increases in ventilatory timing (Penh) in OVA sensitized/challenged 

C57BL/6J mice (Farraj et al., 2006, 088469). Intranasal pretreatment with an antibody against the 

pan neurotrophin receptor p75 attenuated the DE particle-induced increase in airflow obstruction, 

indicating a role for neurotrophins. Neurotrophins are expressed by various structural, nerve and 

immune cells within the respiratory tract and are linked to the etiology of asthma in both humans and 

animal models. DE particles alone in unsensitized mice caused a significant increase in lung 

macrophages; this response was also inhibited by anti-p75, which may suggest mediation of 

macrophage influx by neurotrophin or alternatively may reflect anti-p75 dependent depletion of 

December 2009 6-124 
macrophages due to expression of the p75 receptor. Aside from increased macrophages, the single 

exposure to DE particles had little effect on other markers of airway inflammation. In a similar 

subsequent study, these authors demonstrate neurotrophin-mediated DE particle-induced airflow 

obstruction in OVA sensitized and challenged BALB/c mice (Farraj et al., 2006, 141730), in this case 

using a higher 2000 μg/m3

 single 5-h exposure to aerosolized filter-collected PM2.5. Differences 

between whole body plethysmography and tracheal ventilation measurements indicated that airflow 

obstruction may have originated in the nasal passages. Again, very few indices of inflammation were 

increased; however, similar neurotrophin-dependent increases in lung macrophages were observed 

after DE particle exposure alone, and BALF IL-4 protein levels were increased 5-fold in sensitized, 

challenged, DE particle-exposed mice. This neurotrophin-dependent IL-4 response was not evident 

in the first study, and may be related to the higher dose used in the second study or the characteristic 

allergic/Th2 bias of the BALB/c strain. Airflow obstruction in the absence of airway inflammation in 

OVA-sensitized animals seen in both studies by Farraj et al. (2006, 088469; 2006, 141730) may 

reflect DE particle-induced acute enhancement of neurogenic as opposed to immunologic 

inflammation. 

Diesel Exhaust 

Exposure to relatively low doses of DE has been shown to exacerbate asthmatic responses in 

OVA sensitized/challenged BALB/c mice (Matsumoto et al., 2006, 098017). Mice were intranasally 

challenged one day prior to chamber exposure to DE (100 μg/m3

 PM; CO, 3.5 ppm; NO2, 2.2 ppm; 

SO2 <0.01 ppm) for 1 day or 1, 4, or 8 wk (7h/day, 5 days/wk, endpoints 12-h post-DE exposure). 

Results from the 8 wk study are described in Section 7.3.6.2. It should be noted that control mice 

were left in a clean room as opposed to undergoing chamber exposure to filtered air. Significant 

AHR upon Mch challenge was observed after 1 and 4 wk of exposure, and airway sensitivity 

(provocative concentration of Mch causing a 200% increase in Penh) was significantly increased 

after 1 wk of exposure but not 4 wk. DE had no effect on total cells in BALF, but transiently 

increased expression of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 after 1 day of exposure, MDC after 1 wk, and 

RANTES after 2 and 3 wk. Eotaxin, TARC, and MCP-1 were elevated without statistical 

significance after short-term (1 day or wk) exposure. Statistical power may have been lacking due to 

few animals in the exposure group (n=3). Protein levels of IL-4 and RANTES were significantly 

elevated after one day of DE exposure. DE had no effect on OVA challenge-induced peribronchial 

inflammatory or mucin positive cells. Therefore DE-induced AHR was observed in the absence of 

neutrophilic inflammation, similar to the responses described for aerosolized or nebulized DE 

particles by Farraj et al. (2006, 088469; 2006, 141730) and Hao et al. (2003, 096565). 

Gasoline Exhaust 

Acute exposure to fresh gasoline engine exhaust PM does not appear to exacerbate allergic 

responses (Day et al., 2008, 190204). BALB/c mice were exposed to whole exhaust diluted 1:10 (H), 

1:15 (M), or 1:90 (L), filtered exhaust at the 1:10 (HF), or clean air for 6 h/day over three days. 

Analytes for the high (H) and high filtered (HF) concentrations were: PM mass (μg/m3

) 59.1±28.3 

(H) and 2.3±2.6 (HF); PM number (particles/cm3

) 5.0×105 and 1.1×104; CO (mg/m3) 102.8±33.0 and 

99.5±1.6; NO (mg/m3

) 18.4±2.8 and 17.2±1.9; NO2 (mg/m3) 1.4±0.3 and 1.7±0.2; SO2 (μg/m3) 

1366.8±56.0 and 1051.1±43.0; NH3 (μg/m3

) 1957.7±8.1 and 1241.5±6.1; NMHC (mg/m3) 15.9 and 

25.9. Particles represented only 0.04% of the total exposure mass and particle size in the H exposure 

ranged from 5.5 to 150 nm with the majority between 5-20 nm (MMD 150 nm) (McDonald et al., 

2008, 191978). Although particles were filtered out, it should be noted that NMHC (non-methane 

volatile organics) increased by 62%. Mice were exposed with or without prior sensitization to OVA, 

after one aerosol challenge and with or without secondary challenge. Acute gasoline engine exhaust 

exposure had variable effects on inflammatory and allergic markers depending on the exposure 

protocol, but there were no statistically significant differences between the H and HF exposure 

results, suggesting that the PM fraction of gasoline engine exhaust does not appear to contribute 

significantly to observed health effects. 

Hardwood Smoke 

One study indicated that hardwood smoke exposure only minimally exacerbated indices of 

allergic airway inflammation in an OVA-sensitized BALB/c mouse model and did not alter Th1/Th2 

December 2009 6-125 
cytokine levels (Barrett et al., 2006, 155677). Trend analysis indicated increasing BALF eosinophils 

with increasing dose of hardwood smoke, becoming significantly elevated at 300 μg/m3

 (CO, 

1.6±0.3 ppm; total vapor hydrocarbon, 0.6±0.2 ppm; NOX, below limit of quantitation, PM MMAD 

0.35±2.0 μm), and increasing, but not significantly, OVA-specific IgE levels with hardwood smoke 

up to 1,000 μg/m3. 

Model Particles 

Exposures to an aerosol of soot and iron oxide generated from ethylene (0.235 mg/m3 PM2.5) 

were conducted to test whether the sequence of exposure to OVA aerosol challenge and PM affected 

the observed response of OVA sensitized BALB/c mice (Last et al., 2004, 097334). Though called 

PM2.5, the authors characterized the PM material as UF, 80-110 nm, with the iron oxide crystals often 

spatially segregated from the soot (200 μg/m3 soot, remainder iron oxide, CO <0.8 ppm, NOX

<0.4 ppm, PAH below detection). Mice were exposed to PM via chamber inhalation for 2 wk 

(4h/day, 3 days/wk) before or after 4 wk of OVA inhalation, or simultaneously to PM and OVA for 

6 wk. Among endpoints (BALF cells, Penh, airway collagen, and goblet cells) only goblet cell 

counts were significantly increased with PM exposure in any combination with OVA. There was a 

trend toward increased Penh responses with exposure to PM alone or with OVA, particularly when 

PM exposure immediately preceded Mch challenge (after or during OVA challenge). Results from 

this study are difficult to interpret due to the varied elapsed times between cessation of PM or OVA 

treatment and endpoint determination. The mild responses to PM may be related to the 

intraperitoneal sensitization protocol used, reputed to generate a highly allergic mouse in which any 

additive effects of PM may be obscured by maximal responses to antigen challenge (Deurloo et al., 

2001, 156396; Hao et al., 2003, 096565). 

Residual Oil Fly Ash 

Arantes-Costa and colleagues (2008, 187137) estimated that 60 μg of ROFA would be inhaled 

by a mouse during one day of exposure to Sao Paulo air. This dose, given intranasally every other 

day for 4 days, increased AHR in both nonsensitized and OVA sensitized/challenged BALB/c mice 

upon Mch challenge 2 days after the last exposure. ROFA had no significant impact on eosinophil or 

macrophage numbers in the lung, nor did it increase the chronic lung inflammation or thickening 

induced by OVA. In many studies, particular effects such as airway obstruction are only evident 

when allergic sensitization precedes exposure, but this study and a few others demonstrate allergenindependent AHR after exposure to PM including CAPs (Lei et al., 2004, 087999) and DE or DE 

particles (Hao et al., 2003, 096565; Li et al., 2007, 155929). 

Allergy in Pregnancy or Early Life 

Pregnancy or in utero exposure may confer susceptibility to PM-induced asthmatic responses. 

Exposure of pregnant BALB/c mice to aerosolized ROFA leachate by inhalation or to DE particles 

intranasally increased asthma susceptibility in their offspring (Fedulov et al., 2008, 097482; Hamada 

et al., 2007, 091235). The offspring from dams exposed for 30 min to 50 mg/mL ROFA 1, 3, or 

5 days prior to delivery responded to OVA immunization and aerosol challenge with AHR and 

increased antigen-specific IgE and IgG1 antibodies. AHR was also observed in the offspring of dams 

intranasally instilled with 50 μg of DE particles or TiO2, or 250 μg CB, indicating that the same 

effect could be demonstrated using relatively “inert” particles. Pregnant mice were particularly 

sensitive to exposure to DE particles or TiO2 particles, and genetic analysis indicated differential 

expression of 80 genes in response to TiO2 on the pregnant background. Thus pregnancy may 

enhance responses to PM, and exposure to even relatively inert particles may result in offspring 

predisposed to asthma. 

Allergic Sensitization 

A large number of in vivo animal studies and in vitro studies have demonstrated that particles 

can alter the immune response to challenge with specific antigens and suggest that PM acts as an 

adjuvant to promote allergic sensitization. This phenomenon was introduced in the 2002 Diesel 

December 2009 6-126 
Document, and has been noted in multiple animal and human studies by the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Adjuvants enhance the immune response to antigens through various 

means, including chemoattraction, cytokines, or enhanced antigen presentation and costimulation, 

and may act on a number of cell types. Importantly, adjuvants may be major contributors to the 

development of inappropriate immune responses. These immune responses, mediated by T helper 

cells, fall along a continuum from T helper type 1 (Th1) to T helper type 2 (Th2). Th1 responses, 

characterized by IFN-γ, are inflammatory and in excess can lead to tissue damage. Alternatively, Th2 

responses are characterized by IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, eosinophils, and IgE, and are associated with 

allergy and asthma. Autoimmune diseases may be driven by Th1, Th2, or mixed responses, but 

allergic diseases are predominantly Th2 mediated, and many of the immunologic effects observed 

for PM fall into the Th2 category. 

It has been suggested that the capacity of particles to enhance allergic sensitization is 

associated more strongly with particle number and surface area than particle mass, and several 

studies comparing size fractions of the same material show greater adjuvant activity for an 

equivalent mass dose of smaller particles (de Haar et al., 2006, 144746; Inoue et al., 2005, 088625; 

Nygaard et al., 2004, 058558). This is particularly true of inert or homogeneous materials, such as 

carbon, polystyrene, and TiO2, which vary little in composition with size fraction. Studies using 

CAPs have also observed that adjuvancy and allergic exacerbation are more strongly associated with 

the UF fraction, possibly due to greater oxidative potential (Kleinman et al., 2005, 087880; 

Kleinman et al., 2007, 097082; Li et al., 2009, 190457). In some studies of ambient PM, however, 

PM10-2.5 or PM10 have demonstrated equal or greater adjuvancy compared to PM2.5 (Nygaard et al., 

2004, 058558; Steerenberg et al., 2004, 096024; Steerenberg et al., 2005, 088649). More inhalation 

studies to compare size fractions are needed in order to elucidate the role of particle size in 

mediating adjuvancy, but this may prove difficult given the influence of composition, e.g., 

combustion related materials (Steerenberg et al., 2006, 088249) and metal content (Gavett et al., 

2003, 053153), which differs among various size fractions and sources. 

CAPs 

As little as 0.1 μg of UF Los Angeles CAPs administered intranasally with OVA was able to 

significantly boost allergic antibody responses in BALB/c mice (Li et al., 2009, 190457). A 

comparison of UFPs (aerodynamic diameter <0.15 μm) with a mix of sub-2.5 μm particles 

(PM2.5/UFP) collected 200 m from a major freeway delivered intranasally five times over the course 

of nine days showed that UFP but not PM2.5/UFP were associated with significant adjuvant effects. 

0.5 μg of UFP with OVA (but not alone) led to an increase in BALF eosinophils, allergic cytokines, 

inflammatory mediators, and serum OVA-specific IgE/IgG1, as well as allergic tissue inflammation 

in the upper and lower airways. Adjuvant effects of UFP were observed with two independently 

collected samples (1/2007 and 9/2006) and could not be replicated by administering the same 

amount of endotoxin measured in the particles, indicating that the effects were not unique to the 

sampling period nor mediated by contaminating endotoxin. UFP had a greater OC and PAH content 

than PM2.5/UFP, and induced greater oxidative stress in vitro. Partial blocking of the adjuvant effects 

by antioxidant administration implicates redox potential as a key factor in mediating these effects. 

The authors suggest that the lack of adjuvancy for UF carbon particles (being mostly EC) is due to a 

lack of redox cycling compounds, but this was not tested. In contrast, UF (30-50 nm) CB particles 

have demonstrated intranasal adjuvant activity in other studies (de Haar et al., 2005, 097872) when 

administered with OVA over three consecutive days. A 200-μg dose increased serum OVA-specific 

IgE, local lymph node dendritic cells and OVA-specific Th2 lymphocytes in the lung draining lymph 

nodes and lung, as well as post-challenge airway eosinophilia. Doses as low as 20 μg were able to 

activate adoptively transferred OVA-specific T cells. 

Diesel Exhaust Particles 

Resuspended DE particles have been shown to enhance OVA-specific IgG1 and IgE in 

BALB/c mice exposed via inhalation to doses as low as 200 and 600 μg/m3

, respectively (Whitekus 

et al., 2002, 157142). Mice were exposed to DE particles (200, 600 and 2,000 μg/m3

) for 1 h daily 

for 10 days prior to aerosol OVA challenge. Compared with responses to OVA alone, antibody levels 

were increased by all OVA+DE particle exposures. Statistical significance was reached for IgG1 at 

all DE particle exposure levels, whereas OVA specific IgE was significantly increased at the 600 and 

2,000 μg/m3

 doses and total IgE was significantly elevated at 2,000 μg/m3. Although strong adjuvant 

December 2009 6-127 
effects were observed, no general markers of inflammation such as eosinophils, IL-5, GM-CSF, 

mucin, morphological changes, or eosinophilic major basic protein (MBP) deposition in the airways 

were observed in exposed mice. In vitro experiments using the RAW 264.7 macrophage-like cell line 

indicated a DE particle-induced lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation, which could be inhibited 

by a variety of antioxidants. Also observed was a decrease in the GSH:GSSG ratio and an increase in 

HO-1 expression, both of which were inhibited only by the thiol antioxidants NAC and BUC. These 

same thiol antioxidants were able to completely block DE particle-related increases in IgE and IgG1, 

as well as lipid peroxides and oxidized proteins recovered from BALF at the 2,000 μg/m3

 dose. Thus 

solid correlations between in vivo and in vitro antioxidant activities were found, and the reversal of 

adjuvant effects by antioxidants in vivo clearly indicates a link between oxidative stress and DE 

particle adjuvancy. However, the intranasal adjuvant activity of Ottawa, Canada, dust (EHC-93) in 

the same strain of mice was not inhibited by NAC pretreatment (Steerenberg et al., 2004, 087981), 

suggesting that disparate pathways may be utilized by different materials to exert immune 

stimulation. 

Diesel Exhaust 

DE inhalation during allergen exposure has been shown to augment IgE production and alter 

methylation of T helper genes in BALB/c mice (Liu et al., 2008, 156709) Animals were exposed to 

DE (1280 μg/m3

 PM) over a 3-wk period, 5 h per day, concurrent with periodic intranasal 

sensitization to the common fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. Gas concentrations were not reported. 

Total IgE and BALF eosinophils were elevated with A. fumigatus sensitization and further increased 

by concomitant DE exposure. Greater methylation of the IFN-γ promoter was observed following 

DE and A. fumigatus exposure (but not DE alone) compared to A. fumigatus alone, indicating that 

combined DE and allergen exposure might induce methylation and thus suppress expression of Th1 

genes. Furthermore, hypomethylation of the IL-4 promoter was detected after exposure to A. 

fumigatus and DE compared with exposure to A. fumigatus or DE alone, suggesting pro-allergic Th2 

gene activation upon combined exposure to allergen and DE. The changes in methylation status of 

these genes were associated with alterations in IgE levels in individual animals, indicating that 

modifications at the genetic level could result in predicted downstream effects. This study shows for 

the first time that DE exposure can exert pro-allergic in vivo effects on the mouse immune system at 

the epigenetic level. 

A toxicogenomic approach to investigate early response mechanisms of DE adjuvancy was 

taken by Stevens et al. (2008, 157010). BALB/c mice were chamber exposed to filtered air, 500 or 

2,000 μg/m3

 PM in DE for 4 h/day over 5 consecutive days and intranasally exposed to OVA on each 

of the first 3 days. In the low (500 μg/m3

) vs. high (2,000 μg/m3) DE exposures, CO, NO, NO2, and 

SO2 were <0.1 versus 4.3, <2.5 vs. 9.2, <0.25 vs. 1.1 and <0.06 vs. 0.2 ppm; particle number median 

diameters were 80 and 86 nm, and volume median diameters were 184 and 195 nm, respectively. 

Lung tissues were assessed for alterations in global gene expression (n = 4) 4 h after the last DE 

exposure on day 4. Mice were intranasally challenged with OVA or saline on day 18 and then with 

OVA on day 28. Post-challenge results demonstrated mild adjuvancy with antigen and DE exposure 

as evidenced by significant increases in eosinophils, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and IL-6 in the 

BALF. Antibody responses were not significantly affected by DE exposure, although a slight 

increase in IgE after high concentration exposure was observed. DE alone only increased 

neutrophils, indicating the need for combined exposure to DE and antigen in the development of 

allergic outcomes. Comparison of low DE /OVA vs. air/OVA resulted in no significant changes in 

gene sets associated with this treatment. Comparison of the high DE/OVA versus air/OVA, however, 

showed significant changes in 23 gene sets, including neutrophil homing and other chemokines, 

inflammatory cytokines, numerous interleukins and TNF subtypes, and growth/differentiation 

pathways. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Allergic Responses 

Studies conducted since the last review confirm and extend the 2004 PM AQCD’s (U.S. EPA, 

2004, 056905) finding that PM can modulate immune reactivity in both humans and animals to 

promote allergic sensitization and exacerbate allergic responses. Numerous forms of PM, including 

inert materials, have been shown to function as adjuvants, and although toxicological studies of 

relatively homogeneous materials demonstrate greater adjuvancy for smaller particles, some analyses 

December 2009 6-128 
of ambient PM do not. Recent toxicological studies comparing size fractions of well-characterized 

ambient PM for adjuvant activity in a direct, controlled fashion via inhalation exposure suggest a 

role for oxidative potential, but thus far the relative contributions of size and composition are not 

entirely clear. Although epidemiologic studies examining specific allergic outcomes and short-term 

exposure PM are relatively rare, the available studies, conducted primarily in Europe, positively 

associate various PM size fractions with allergic rhinitis. Similar findings from a number of long 

term studies are described in Chapter 7. 

6.3.7. Host Defense 

The normal and very important role of respiratory immune defense is the detection and/or 

destruction of pathogens that enter the lung via inhalation and removal of damaged, transformed 

(cancerous), or infected cells. Innate immune defenses of the respiratory tract include mucociliary 

clearance, release of toxic antimicrobial proteins into airway surface liquid, and activation of 

alveolar macrophages. The innate immune system is the earliest responder to irritation or infection, 

initiating the normal inflammatory response including the majority of detrimental inflammatory 

processes discussed. Activated macrophages and epithelial cells release cytokines and chemokines 

that can bring into play the adaptive immune system, which in turn can produce long-lasting 

pathogen-specific immune responses critical for resolving and preventing infections. 

6.3.7.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Collectively, results from multicity studies of hospital admissions and ED visits for respiratory 

infection as well as single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and Canada (summarized in Figure 

6-14) show a positive association between PM and respiratory infections. Lag structure was not 

investigated in most studies and effects have been observed in association with current day 

concentration (Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2006, 090195) as well as with concentrations modeled using 

a 14-day distributed lag function (Peel et al., 2005, 056305). Of studies examining multiple lag 

times, associations with increasing lag times were observed (Dominici et al., 2006, 088398; Peel et 

al., 2005, 056305; Peng et al., 2008, 156850). Although no significant positive associations were 

reported, Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) observed a trend of increasing association with increasing 

lag for acute respiratory infection ED visits with PM1, PM2.5, PM10 and PM10-2.5. This delay in the 

onset of disease may reflect the time necessary for an infection to become established and 

symptomatic. The majority of toxicological evidence, described below and in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), suggests that PM impairs innate immunity, the first line of defense in 

preventing infection. 

6.3.7.2. Toxicological Studies 

Several toxicological studies were cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) that 

demonstrated increased susceptibility to infectious agents following exposure to PM. A limited 

number of new studies have evaluated the effect of PM on host defense in rodents. Two recent 

studies have observed an increase in susceptibility to influenza infection and respiratory syncytial 

virus in mice. However, one new study found that wood smoke had no effect on bacterial clearance 

in rodents. 

Bacterial Infection 

Several studies included in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) demonstrated 

increased susceptibility to infectious agents following exposure to various forms of PM. CAPs 

exposed aged rats demonstrated increased S. pneumoniae burdens when a 24-h exposure (65 μg/m3

) 

followed infection (Zelikoff et al., 2003, 039009). In another study, IT instillation exposure to ROFA 

was found to affect bacterial clearance (Antonini et al., 2002, 035342). Examinations of mechanisms 

related to PM interference with host defenses have demonstrated impaired mucociliary clearance and 

modified macrophage phagocytosis and chemotaxis. Prolonged exposure to inhaled particles at 

sufficiently high concentrations can lead to diminished clearance of PM from the alveolar region of 

December 2009 6-129 
the lung, resulting in the accumulation of retained particles and an accompanying chronic alveolar 

inflammation. Diminished clearance of PM may also increase susceptibility to pulmonary infection 

by impeding clearance of pathogens. Impaired phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages may 

contribute to a decrease in the lung’s capacity to deal with increased particle loads (as occurs during 

high-pollution episodes) or infections and affect the local and systemic responses through the release 

of biologically active compounds (cytokines, ROS, NO, isoprostanes). 

Diesel Exhaust 

Since the last review, several additional studies have reported impairment of pathogen 

clearance following exposure to various sources of PM. All levels of DE (30, 100, 300 or 1,000 

μg/m3

) decreased lung bacterial clearance in C57BL/6 mice exposed for 1 wk (7 days/wk, 6 h/day) 

prior to infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Harrod et al., 2005, 088144). This effect appeared 

concentration dependent up to 100 μg/m3

 and was not enhanced at higher concentrations. Lung 

inflammation was not induced by DE in the absence of infection, but infection-induced inflammation 

was exacerbated by DE at all concentrations without apparent concentration dependency. Measures 

of histopathology in infected animals were increased by DE exposure in a concentration-dependent 

manner, peaking at 100 μg/m3

 and leveling off or decreasing with higher concentrations. Particle 

deposition was readily apparent in the lungs after exposure to the lowest concentration of 30 μg/m3. 

A loss of ciliated cells was observed at 30 μg/m3

 and 100 μg/m3 in large airways and in small 

airways at the higher concentration. Alterations in Clara cell morphology and function were 

observed at both concentrations as well. Concentrations of gases were reported to be 2.0-45.3 ppm 

NO, 0.2-4.0 ppm NO2, 1.5-29.8 ppm CO and 8-365 ppb for SO2 (McDonald et al., 2004, 055644). 

PM mass median diameter was ~100-150 nm at all exposure levels (>90% below 1 μm in 

aerodynamic diameter), with lower exposure concentrations having a slightly smaller size 

distribution (Reed et al., 2004, 055625). 

Gasoline Exhaust 

In a study by Reed et al. (2008, 156903), short or long-term exposure to fresh gasoline exhaust 

(6h/day, 7day/wk for 1 wk or 6 mo) did not affect clearance of P. aeruginosa from the lungs of 

C57BL/6 mice. Atmospheric characterizations are described above for the Day et al. (2008, 190204) 

and McDonald et al. (2008, 191978) studies in Section 6.3.6.3. 

Hardwood Smoke 

Similar to gasoline exhaust, hardwood smoke does not appear to have significant impact on 

pathogen clearance. C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 30-1,000 μg/m3

 hardwood smoke by wholebody inhalation for 1 wk and 6 months (Reed et al., 2006, 156043). Long-term responses are 

discussed in Sections 7.3.3.2 and 7.3.7.2. Concentrations of gases ranged from 229.0-14,887.6 

mg/m3

 for CO, 54.9-139.3 μg/m3 for ammonia, and 177.6-3,455.0 μg/m3 for nonmethane volatile 

organic carbon in these exposures. Bacterial clearance of instilled P. aeruginosa was unaffected by 

hardwood smoke. 

 Intratracheal Instillation 

Studies demonstrate that ROFA impairs host defenses and that soluble metals are important 

contributors. Antonini et al. (2004, 097199) compared sources of ROFA in SD rats. Precipitator 

ROFA induced an inflammatory response and diminished pulmonary clearance of L. monocytogenes

while air heater ROFA had no effect on lung bacterial clearance at the same IT dose of 1 mg/100g 

body weight. Precipitator ROFA generated a metal-dependent hydroxyl radical suggesting that 

differences in metal composition were a determinant of the immunotoxicity of ROFA. Subsequent 

studies using soluble extracts of ROFA with or without a chelating agent confirmed that soluble 

metals were responsible for weakening defenses against bacterial infection and impairing both innate 

and adaptive lung immune responses (Roberts et al., 2004, 196994; Roberts et al., 2007, 097623) 

ROFA has also been shown to result in ciliated cell loss in BALB/c mice after intranasal 

administration of 60 μg every other day for 4 days (Arantes-Costa et al., 2008, 187137). 

December 2009 6-130 
Viral Infection 

Diesel Exhaust 

Viral respiratory infections in early life are associated with increased incidence of childhood 

asthma and other pulmonary diseases. DE exposure can enhance the progression of influenza 

infection. BALB/c mice that were chamber exposed to DE 4 h/day for 5 days and subsequently IT 

instilled with influenza A/Bangkok/1/79 virus had increased susceptibility to influenza infection 

(Ciencewicki et al., 2007, 096557). Exposures to two concentrations of DE were conducted: 

500 μg/m3

 (0.9 ppm CO, <0.25 ppm NO2, <2.5 ppm NO, and 0.06 ppm SO2) and 2,000 μg/m3

(5.4 ppm CO, 1.13 ppm NO2, 10.8 ppm NO, and 0.32 ppm SO2). Responses were greater for animals 

exposed to 500 μg/m3

 DE than to 2,000 μg/m3, and were associated with a significant increase in 

IL-6 protein and mRNA expression and IFN-β expression. The authors present the possibility that 

damage to the epithelium at the higher exposure prevented viral infection and replication. After 

exposure to 500 μg/m3

 DE alone or prior to infection, decreased expression of surfactant proteins 

(SP) A and D was observed. These proteins are part of the IFN-independent defense against 

influenza. 

Similarly, Harrod et al. (2003, 097046) demonstrated decreased SP-A expression in the lungs 

following DE exposure and linked it to increased susceptibility to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 

the most common cause of respiratory infection in young children. C57BL/6 mice, a relatively 

RSV-resistant strain, were exposed via inhalation to DE at a concentration of 30 or 1,000 μg/m3

 PM 

6h/day for 7 consecutive days prior to intratracheal viral inoculation. Gaseous copollutants ranged 

from 2.0-43.3 ppm for NOX (~ 90% NO), 0.94-29.0 ppm CO, and 8.3-364.9 ppb SO2. Exposure to 

30 μg/m3

 DE did not induce a statistically significant increase in BALF cell numbers compared to 

air-treated, infected animals. However, distinct consolidated inflammatory infiltrates were observed 

in the peribronchial regions of RSV-infected animals exposed to this concentration, along with 

alterations in Clara cell morphology, decreased CCSP production by these cells, and occasional 

regional myofibril layer thickening. These changes were more pronounced in RSV-infected animals 

exposed to 1000 μg/m3

, and the higher concentration also resulted in significant increases in 

inflammatory cells, predominantly macrophages, in both uninfected and infected mice compared to 

air-exposed controls. Both doses elicited significant levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ in the lungs of 

infected animals, but decreased levels of SP-A. Consistent with this study’s finding of decreased 

SP-A and increased viral gene and inflammatory cytokine expression after DE exposure, SP-A-/-

mice demonstrate decreased clearance of RSV concordant with increased lung inflammation (Levine 

et al., 1999, 156687). Thus, DE may enhance susceptibility to respiratory viral infections by 

reducing the expression and production of SP (Ciencewicki et al., 2007, 096557; Harrod et al., 2003, 

097046), although the contribution of gaseous copollutants, in some instances concentrated 1,000 

times, should be considered for both studies. SP are also essential for clearance of other pathogens, 

including group B Streptococcus (GBS), Haemophilus influenzae, and P. aeruginosa (LeVine and 

Whitsett, 2001, 155928). 

A reduction in host defense molecules and an increase in viral entry sites was observed by 

Gowdy et al. (2008, 097226) after BALB/c mice were exposed to HEPA filtered room air or DE at 

0.5 or 2.0 mg/m3

 for 4hr/day for one or five consecutive days [O2 (%) 21.0±0.10 or 20.7±0.09, CO 

(ppm) 1.7±0.15 or 5.4±0.07, NOX (ppm) 2.0±0.36 or 7.4±0.61, SO2 (ppm) 0.0±0.0 or 0.4±0.3, 

number median (nm) 96.2±2 or 97±2, volume median (nm) 238±2 or 249±2, OC/EC (wt ratio) 

0.4±0.04 or 0.4±0.07 for the 0.5 or 2.0 mg/m3 exposures, respectively]. One of the more notable 

features of this study was the observation that effects of extended exposure to the lower 

concentration (0.5 mg/m3

 for 5 days) tended to persist beyond 18 h post-exposure. Exposure to DE 

significantly increased BALF neutrophils in the higher exposure group, and this response persisted 

beyond 18 h only after the five day exposure. An increase in ICAM-1 expression (a viral entry site) 

was observed in both exposure groups, and was persistent in the lower concentration group after a 

5-day exposure. Persistently elevated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α and 

pro-allergic cytokine IL-13 was observed after five days of low concentration exposure. Nonstatistically significant effects of either concentration or exposure regimen included increased IFN-γ

and MIP-2. Host defense molecules CCSP, SP-A and SP-D were decreased after either exposure 

regimen, persisting beyond 18 h in the low concentration group. 

December 2009 6-131 
Taken together, these data suggest that exposure to DE can weaken host defenses, in some 

cases persistently. A role for PM in these responses is supported by studies demonstrating changes in 

host defense molecules and viral entry sites in vitro consistent with those observed in vivo. In lung 

epithelial cells, DE particles increased the mRNA expression of ICAM-1, LDL and 

platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptors, which can act as receptors for viruses or bacteria (Ito et al., 

2006, 096648). DE particles may therefore enhance the susceptibility to infection by the 

upregulation of bacterial and viral invasion sites in the lungs. Expression of the β-defensin-2 gene, 

which is one antimicrobial mechanism of host defense in the airway, was significantly inhibited by V 

and not Ni or Fe in airway epithelial cells incubated with aqueous leachate of ROFA (Klein-Patel et 

al., 2006, 097092). 

Immunosuppressive Effects of PM 

Diesel Exhaust 

DE may affect systemic immunity. Decreased thymus weight was observed in female F344 

rats exposed to 300 μg/m3 DE for 1 wk by Reed et al. (2004, 055625). Concentrations of gases for 

this PM concentration were reported to be approximately 16.1 ppm for NO, 0.8 ppm for NO2, 

9.8 ppm for CO, and 115 ppb for SO2. Long-term responses are discussed in Section 7.3.8. 

Summary of Toxicological Study Findings for Host Defense 

Toxicological studies demonstrate that short-term inhalation exposures to CAPs and DE, but 

not gasoline exhaust or wood smoke, can increase susceptibility to infection by bacterial and viral 

pathogens. While gaseous copollutants may be contributing factors, a role for particles is 

demonstrated by studies utilizing IT instillation exposure and in vitro studies of PM where 

biomarkers parallel those observed in vivo. Although ethical considerations limit controlled exposure 

studies in humans, epidemiologic evidence reflects an association between most PM size fractions 

and hospital admissions for respiratory infections. Importantly, toxicological studies demonstrate 

impaired host defense against the etiological agents of influenza, pneumonia (S. pneumoniae), and 

bronchiolitis (RSV), which are commonly reported respiratory morbidities associated with PM. 

6.3.8. Respiratory ED Visits, Hospital Admissions and Physician Visits 

The epidemiologic evidence presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) 

linking short-term increases in PM concentration with respiratory hospitalizations and ED visits was 

consistent across studies. Recent investigations provide further support for this relationship, with 

larger effect estimates observed among children and older adults. However, effect estimates are 

clearly heterogeneous, with evidence of both regional and seasonal differences at play. 

Excess risk estimates for hospitalizations or ED visits for all respiratory diseases combined, 

reported in studies reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) fell within the range 

of approximately 1-4% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10. On average, excess risks for asthma were 

higher than excess risks for COPD and pneumonia. Associations with PM2.5 (including PM1) and 

PM10-2.5 were also reported in the limited body of evidence reviewed in the 2004 AQCD. Excess risk 

estimates fell within the range of approximately 2.0-6.0% per 10 μg/m3

 increases in PM2.5 or PM10-2.5

for all respiratory diseases combined as well as COPD admissions. Larger estimates were reported 

for asthma admissions. Many of the associations of respiratory admissions and ED visits with 

short-term PM2.5 concentration were statistically significant. The associations with PM10-2.5 were less 

precise with fewer reaching statistical significance (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Finally, several 

studies reviewed in the 2004 AQCD reported associations of PM with outpatient physician visits, 

suggesting that the population impacted by short-term increases in PM is not restricted to those 

admitted to the hospital or seeking medical attention through an ED. 

December 2009 6-132 
Table 6-13. Description of ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes for diseases of the respiratory system. 

Description ICD 9 Codes ICD 10 Codes 

Diseases of the Respiratory System 460-519 J00-J99 

Asthma 493 J45 

COPD and allied conditions 490-496 (asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, 

bronchiectasis, extrinsic allergic alveolitis) 

Chronic lower respiratory diseases J40-J47 (bronchitis, emphysema, other COPD, asthma, status 

asthmaticus, bronchiectasis) 

Acute Respiratory Infections 460-466 (common cold, sinusitis, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, 

laryngitis & tracheitis, bronchitis & bronchiolitis) 

Acute Upper Respiratory Infections J00-J06 (common cold, sinusitis, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, 

laryngitis & tracheitis, croup & epiglottitis) 

Acute bronchitis and bronchiolitis 466 J20-J22 

Allergic Rhinitis 477 J30.1 

Pneumonia 480-486 J13-J18 

Wheezing 786.09 

 

Hospital admissions or ED visits for respiratory diseases and ambient concentrations of PM 

have been the subject of more than 90 peer-reviewed research publications since 2002 (Annex E). 

Included among these new publications are several large single-city and multicity studies. These new 

studies complement those reviewed in the 2004 AQCD by examining the effect of several PM size 

fractions and components on increasingly specific disease endpoints, as well as evaluating the 

presence of effect modification by factors such as season and region. 

Specific design and methodological considerations of the large and multicity studies included 

in this review were discussed previously (Section 6.2.10). Like the CVD endpoints discussed, the 

respiratory endpoints examined in these studies were heterogeneous and approaches to selecting 

cases for inclusion in the studies were varied. ICD codes commonly used in hospital admission and 

ED visits studies for diseases of the respiratory system are found in Table 6-13. 

6.3.8.1. All Respiratory Diseases 

Findings from new studies of PM and respiratory hospitalization and ED visits among children 

are summarized in Figure 6-10. Results from new studies of adults are summarized in Figure 6-11. Information on the PM concentrations during the relevant study periods is found in Table 6-14. 

Children 

Barnett et al. (2005, 087394) used a case-crossover design to study respiratory hospital 

admissions (ICD-9 460-519) of children (age groups 0, 1-4, and 5-14 yr) in seven cities in Australia 

and New Zealand from 1998 to 2001. All respiratory diseases (ICD10 J00-J99) except Mendelson’s 

Syndrome, post-procedural disorders, asphyxia and certain other symptoms (ICD10 codes 

J95.4-J95.9, R09.1, R09.8) were included in the study. In addition, scheduled admissions and 

transfers from other hospitals were excluded. Using an a priori lag (0- to 1-day avg), increases in 

respiratory hospital admissions of 2.0% (95% CI: -0.13 to 4.3) among infants <1 yr old, 2.3% 

(95% CI: 1.9-7.3) among children 1-4 yr old and 2.5% (95% CI: 0.1-5.1) among children 5-14 yr old 

per 10 μg/m3

 increase in 24-h avg PM10 were observed. Increases of 6.4% (95% CI: 2.7-10.3) among 

infants <1 yr and 4.5% (95% CI: 1.9-7.3) among children 1-4 yr per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 were 

observed. 

Ostro et al. (2009, 191971) studied the effect of PM2.5 and components on respiratory disease 

(ICD9 460-519) hospitalizations among children <19 yr from 2000 to 2003 in six counties in 

California. The nine components examined (EC, OC, nitrates, sulfates, Cu, Fe, K, Si and Zn), were 

chosen because they made up relatively large proportion of PM2.5, had a signal to noise ratio >2, or 

December 2009 6-133 
the majority of their values were greater than the level of detection. Single day lags of 0-3 days were 

evaluated. The largest risks were observed at lag 3 days for PM2.5 (2.8% [95%CI: 1.2-4.3] per 10 

μg/m3

), EC (5.4% [95% CI: 0.8-10.3] per IQR) and Fe (4.7% [95% CI: 2.2-7.2] per IQR increase). 

Although not as great, positive associations were also observed for OC, SO4

2–, nitrate, Cu and Zn. 

In a study of PM2.5 from wildfires in California during 2003, Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 

evaluated conducted stratified analyses comparing PM2.5 associations pre-, post- and during the 

wildfires. Four age groups (0-4, 5-19, 20-64 and ≥65 yr) were considered in these analyses. Authors 

found increased respiratory disease admissions in the periods before (2.6% [95%CI: -5.4 to 11.3]) 

and during (2.7% [95%CI: -1.6 to 7.6]) the wildfires among children 5-19 yr old, but not after the 

wildfire period. Among younger children (0-4 yr), hospital admissions were increased during fire 

periods (4.5% [95% CI: 1-8.2]), but not before or after the wildfire period. Estimated zip code level 

PM2.5 concentrations were 90 μg/m3

 and 75 μg/m3 during heavy and light smoke conditions, 

respectively, compared to 20 μg/m3 during non-fire periods. 

In the study of six cities in France described previously (PSAS), investigators report a change 

of 0.4% (95%CI: -1.2 to 2) per 10 μg/m3

 increases in PM2.5 for all respiratory diseases combined 

(ICD-10: J00-J99) among children from 0-14 yr old (Host et al., 2008, 155852). The same study 

reported a larger increase associated with PM10-2.5 of 6.2% (95% CI: 0.4-12.3, 0-1 day avg) per 

10 μg/m3

 increase among children. A relatively large effect for PM10-2.5 (31% [95% CI: -4.7 to 80]) 

was also observed in a single-city study of children <3 yr in Vancouver (Yang et al., 2004, 087488). 

The non-significant PM2.5 effect estimates were not presented in the publication. Luginaah et al. 

(2005, 057327) did not observe significant increases in respiratory hospitalizations with increasing 

PM10 concentrations among male or female children in Ontario Canada, while Ulirsch et al. (2007, 

091332) reported increased admissions for respiratory hospitalizations, ED and urgent care visits 

combined among children <17 yr in association with PM10. 

As shown in Figure 6-10, studies of respiratory hospitalizations or ED visits reported 

increased risks to children in association with all size fractions. However, increased risk among boys 

was not observed in Ontario (Luginaah et al., 2005, 057327). Estimates are imprecise and it is not 

clear if associations with PM2.5, PM10-2.5, or both are driving associations observed with PM10. 

Study Location Lag Age Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

<1 PM2.5

1-4 

Barnett et al. (2005, 087394) Australia/NZ 0-1 

5-14 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities France 0-1 0-14 

Ostro et al. (2009, 191971) 6 Counties CA 3 0-19 

Delfino et al. (2009, 190254) 6 Counties, CA 0-4 

(wildfires) 

0-1 

5-19 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities France 0-1 14 PM10-2.5

Yang et al. (2004, 087488) Vancouver <3 (31% (-4.7 to 80) Æ

0-1 <1 PM10

0-1 1-4 

Barnett et al. (2005, 087394) Au/NZ 

0-1 5-14 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332)* 2 Cities, SE Idaho 0 0-17 

0-14 Females 

0-14 Females 

0-14 Females 

0-14 Males 

0-14 Males 

Luginaah et al. (2005, 057327) Windsor, Can 1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 0-14 Males 

*Hospital admissions, ED and urgent care visits combined Excess Risk (%) 

Figure 6-10. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10

concentration for ED visits and HAs for respiratory diseases in children. Studies 

represented in the figure include all multicity studies as well as single-city 

studies conducted in the U.S. or Canada. 

December 2009 6-134 
Adults and All Ages Combined 

In the study of four million ED visits from 31 hospitals in Atlanta described previously, 

SOPHIA investigators reported an excess risk of 1.3% (95% CI: 0.4-2.1, lag 0-2) per 10 μg/m3

increase in 24-h avg PM10 for ED visits for respiratory causes combined (ICD-9: 460-466, 477, 

480-486, 491-493, 496, 786.09) among all ages during January 1993-August 2000 (Peel et al., 2005, 

056305). PM2.5, PM10-2.5, UF number count and PM2.5 components (SO4

2–, acidity, EC, OC, and an 

index of water-soluble transition metals) were available for inclusion in analyses beginning August 

1, 1998. Excess risks of 1.6% (95% CI: -0.003 to 3.5) per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5 and 

0.6% (95% CI: -3.6 to 5.1) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10-2.5 were reported. Weaker, less precise 

associations with components were reported and no increase with UF PNC was observed. 

Analyses with four additional years of data were conducted and more recently reported by 

SOPHIA investigators (Tolbert et al., 2007, 090316). Single-pollutant results are included in Figure 

6-11. The effect of PM10 remained with the additional years of data, while the effect of PM2.5 was 

diminished and a decrease in ED visits with PM10-2.5 was observed. The association of PM10 with 

respiratory disease ED visits was robust to adjustment for O3, CO and NO2. In another recent 

analysis using SOPHIA data from 1998 through 2002 to compare source apportionment methods, 

Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) reported that PM2.5 from mobile sources, PM2.5 from biomass burning 

and SO4

2–-rich secondary PM2.5 were associated with respiratory ED visits and associations were 

robust to the choice of the method. Excess risks were statistically significant, ranging from 

approximately 2-4%, depending on the method. 

In a French multicity study, larger increases were observed in association with 24-h avg 

PM10-2.5 concentration compared to PM2.5 concentration among adults as well as children. Among 

adults 15-64 yr, investigators reported increases in respiratory hospitalizations of 0.8% (95%CI: 

-0.7 to 2.3) and 2.6% (95%CI: -0.5 to 5.8) per 10 μg/m3

 for PM2.5 and PM10-2.5, respectively (lag 

0-1 days) (Host et al., 2008, 155852). 

In a study of respiratory hospital admission and ED visits (ICD-9 Codes 460-519) among all 

ages conducted in Spokane, Washington, no associations were observed with any size fraction of PM 

considered (e.g., PM1, PM2.5, PM10-2.5, PM10) (Slaughter et al., 2005, 073854). Furthermore, several 

of the same investigators conducted a source apportionment analysis using daily PM2.5 filter samples 

from the same residential monitor in Spokane (Schreuder et al., 2006, 097959). In this investigation, 

PM2.5 from vegetative burning in the previous day (lag 1) was associated with respiratory hospital 

admissions (2.3% [95% CI: 0.9-3.8] per interquartile range increase in the source marker). In a study 

of PM2.5 from wildfires in California during 2003, associations with respiratory hospitalizations were 

generally stronger relative to associations in the periods before and after the fires (Delfino et al., 

2009, 191994). Among adults 20-64 yr, an increase of 2.4% (95% CI: 0.5-4.4 per 10 μg/m3) was 

reported during the wildfire period compared to 0.9% (95%CI: -0.1 to 1.8 per 10 μg/m3

) for all 

periods combined (pre-, post- and during wildfires). 

Luginaah et al. (2005, 057327) examined respiratory hospital admissions in relation to PM10

concentration across strata for age and gender and compared time series to case-crossover 

approaches. The results for all ages combined, which were relatively precise, stratified by gender and 

all lags are presented in Figure 6-11; the largest estimates for PM10 were for adult males (15-64 yr 

old). Fung et al. (2005, 093262) did not report evidence of an association between respiratory 

admissions and 24-h PM10 concentration among adults <65 yr, in a study in Ontario, Canada, while 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332) reported a significant positive association among all ages and adults 

(18-64 yr) in two Southeast Idaho cities for hospitalizations, ED and urgent care visits combined. 

This estimate was robust to adjustment for gaseous pollutants. 

Older Adults 

Among older adults, MCAPS investigators observed largely null findings for PM2.5 and 

respiratory hospitalizations (ICD-9: 490-492, 464-466, 480-487) for the U.S. as a whole, but 

reported heterogeneity in effect estimates across the country that were explained by regional and 

seasonal factors (Bell et al., 2008, 156266). The nationwide excess risk of respiratory admissions 

with PM2.5 was 0.22% (95% PI: -0.12 to 0.56, lag 0) (Bell et al., 2008, 156266). The largest increase 

was observed during the winter in the Northeast (1.76% [95% PI: 0.60-2.93], lag 0). Significant 

increases in respiratory admissions were also observed at lag 2. In an analysis of PM10-2.5, MCAPS 

December 2009 6-135 
investigators observed small imprecise increases in respiratory admissions with 24-h PM10-2.5

concentration (0.33% [95% PI: -0.21 to 0.86, per 10 μg/m3

, lag 0]) (Peng et al., 2008, 156850), 

which decreased after adjustment for PM2.5 (0.26% [95% PI: -0.32 to 0.84 per 10 μg/m3

 lag 0]). 

Associations with PM2.5 increased (0.7% [95% PI: 0-1.5, lag 0]) or persisted (0.6% [95% PI: -0.2 to 

1.25, lag 2]), after adjustment for PM10-2.5. 

Two recent MCAPS analyses evaluate the effect of PM2.5 components on respiratory hospital 

admissions. Bell et al. (2009, 191997) analyzed a subset of MCAPS data restricted to 106 counties 

with data available for both long-term average concentrations of PM2.5 components (Bell et al., 2007, 

155683) and PM2.5 total mass (1999-2005). The components evaluated included 20 chemicals with 

demonstrated toxicity or that contribute a large proportion of PM2.5 mass (Al, NH4

+

, As, Ca, Cl, Cu, 

EC, OCM, Fe, Pb, Mg, Ni, NO3

-

, K, Si, Na+, Ti, V, Zn). Increases in effect estimates of 511% (95% 

PI: 80.7-941) for EC, 223% (95% PI: 36.9-410) for Ni and 392% (95% CI: 46.3-738) for V per IQR 

increases in county-specific component fraction were observed. Associations were somewhat 

reduced and non-significant in two-pollutant models. When Queens or New York County were 

excluded, the association of V with hospital admissions lost significance. Associations were also 

diminished when alternative lag structures were considered. 

Peng et al. (2009, 191998) linked data on hospital admissions for respiratory causes among 

older adults from 2000-2006 to daily air levels from the STN in 119 counties in which both sets of 

data were available. Chemical constituents evaluated were SO4

2–, nitrate, Si, EC, OCM, sodium and 

ammonium ions. Single-day lags of 0-2 days were considered. These investigators found a 0.82% 

increase (95% PI: 0.22-1.44) per IQR increase in same day OCM. After adjustment for the other 

components, a 1.01% (95% PI: 0.04-1.98, lag 0) increase in respiratory admissions per IQR increase 

OCM was observed. 

French PSAS investigators reported a non-significant increase in hospitalizations for 

respiratory diseases (ICD-10 J00-J99) with 24-h avg PM10-2.5 among older adults. PM2.5 estimates 

were also not significant (Host et al., 2008, 155852). Adjusted estimates from two-pollutant models 

were not presented. Positive associations of first hospitalization, overall hospitalizations and 

readmission for respiratory diseases and PM10-2.5 were also reported among older adults in Vancouver 

(Chen et al., 2005, 087555). PM10-2.5 was associated with an increase of 15% (95% CI: 4.8-22.8) in 

overall admissions per 10 μg/m3

. Increases associated with PM10-2.5 were larger for readmissions 

compared to overall admissions. The association for PM2.5 with overall admissions was 5.1% (95% 

CI: -4.9 to 13) and the association with readmissions was not larger. In this study, effect estimates for 

PM10-2.5 and PM10 lost precision, but were robust to adjustment for gaseous pollutants, while the 

estimate for PM2.5 was null after adjustment for gaseous pollutants. In Vancouver, Fung et al. (2006, 

089789) report increased admissions of 1.8% (95% CI: -2.5 to 5.8) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5

and 3.8% (95% CI: 0-7.6) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10-2.5 (lag 0-1 day avg) among adults ≥65 yr. 

In a multicity Australian study, Simpson et al. (2005, 087438) examined the association 

between PM2.5 measured by nephelometry and respiratory hospital admissions (ICD-9 460-519) 

among older adults (≥65 yr) and reported significant associations (1.055 [95% CI: 1.008-1.1045], lag 

0-1 day avg) from a meta-analysis combining effect estimates from all cities. Results from three 

statistical models were considered, including standard GAM, which produced similar results. 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) reported that PM2.5 from wildfire in California was associated 

with respiratory hospital admissions among older adults (3% 95% CI: 1.1-4.9 per 10 μg/m3

). In two 

analyses of data collected in Copenhagen, Denmark between 1999 and 2004, several size fractions 

including UF and accumulation mode (Andersen et al., 2008, 189651) and PM10 sources (Andersen 

et al., 2007, 093201) were investigated in relation to respiratory hospitalizations (J41-42, J43, 

J44-46) among adults >65 yr of age. Of the size fractions examined (NC total, NC median diameter 

of 12 nm [NCa12], NCa23, NCa57, NCa100, NCa212, PM10, PM2.5) NCa212, typically aged secondary 

long-range transported, NCa57 and PM10 were significantly associated with respiratory 

hospitalizations (Andersen et al., 2008, 189651). PM10 sources including biomass combustion, 

secondary inorganic compounds, oil combustion, and crustal were associated with respiratory 

hospitalizations (excess risks ranged from 3.5% to 5.4% per interquartile range, respectively) 

(Andersen et al., 2007, 093201). PM10 associations were diminished somewhat in two-pollutant 

models (Andersen et al., 2007, 093201; 2008, 189651); the authors note that it was difficult to 

separate the effects of PM10 and NCa212, which were highly correlated in these data. PM2.5 was not 

associated with respiratory hospitalizations in these data. 

Results from other single-city studies offer somewhat consistent evidence for the effect of 

PM10 on respiratory admissions among older age groups. Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332) found 

December 2009 6-136 
increases in hospitalizations, ED and urgent care visits combined among this age group in two cities 

of Southeast Idaho. Two studies in Vancouver report increased admissions for respiratory causes 

with the largest effects observed for a 3-day ma (0-2 days) (Chen et al., 2005, 087555; Fung et al., 

2006, 089789). Fung et al. (2005, 093262) observed non-significant increases in admissions with 

PM10 among older adults in Ontario, Canada, while another study conducted in Ontario (Luginaah et 

al., 2005, 057327) did not provide compelling evidence for an effect that was robust to method 

selection, although some increases among males were observed. Finally, a study of hospital 

admissions for cardiopulmonary conditions combined among older adults (≥ 65 yr) in Allegheny 

County, PA found a positive association with PM10 at lag 0 (Arena et al., 2006, 088631). 

Effect estimates for adults (and combined age groups) as well as older adults are found in 

Figure 6-11. Effects observed in single-city studies are generally imprecise but most studies report 

positive associations. Regional and seasonal variation was observed with the largest effect estimate 

reported by Bell et al. (2008, 156266) in the Northeast during the winter. Although the number of 

studies examining components or sources was limited, EC, OC, Ni, V, and PM2.5 from mobile 

sources were associated with increased respiratory admissions. Several additional studies conducted 

outside the U.S. and Canada reported positive associations of respiratory hospitalizations with PM10

for different age groups and lags (Bedeschi et al., 2007, 090712; Chen et al., 2005, 087555; Chen et 

al., 2006, 087947; Hanigan et al., 2008, 156518; Lai and Cheng, 2008, 180301; Larrieu et al., 2009, 

180294; Middleton et al., 2008, 156760; Oftedal et al., 2003, 055623), PM2.5 (Hinwood et al., 2006, 

088976; Neuberger et al., 2004, 093249; Vigotti et al., 2007, 090711), BS (Bartzokas et al., 2004, 

093252; Tecer et al., 2008, 180030) and with PM10-2.5 (Tecer et al., 2008, 180030). Other studies 

reported no associations with PM10 (Vegni and Ros, 2004, 087448) or TSP (Llorca et al., 2005, 

087825). 

6.3.8.2. Asthma 

Results from multicity studies of hospital admissions and ED visits for asthma as well as 

single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and Canada are summarized in Figure 6-12. Studies 

reviewed in the 2004 AQCD are included for continuity. Concentrations of PM for the relevant study 

period are found in Table 6-14. 

Children 

SOPHIA investigators (Peel et al., 2005, 056305) reported that, of the PM mass indicators 

examined, the largest effect estimate observed using the a priori lag (0- to 2-day avg) was the 

association of PM10 with pediatric (2-18 yr) asthma ED visits (1.6% [95% CI: -0.2 to 3.4]). ED visits 

for both asthma (ICD-9: 493) and wheezing (ICD-9: 786.09) were included in their study. New York 

State DOH (2006, 090132) conducted a study comparing effect estimates for ED visits for asthma 

and 24-h PM2.5 and 1-h PM2.5 across two communities in New York City (the Bronx and Manhattan). 

No associations with 24-h PM2.5 were reported for either borough for age categories 0-4 or 5-18 yr. 

Non-significant increases with 1-h maximum PM2.5 were reported for the Bronx. Asthma hospital 

admissions (ICD-10 J45, J46, J44.8) in children <14 yr were examined in the Australia/New Zealand 

multicity study (Barnett et al., 2005, 087394). In this study, associations for asthma hospital 

admissions with PM2.5 and PM10 were increased but imprecise. 

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) used both time series and case-crossover approaches to investigate 

the influence of PM on asthma hospitalization in children, 6-12 yr old, in Toronto from 1981 to 

1993. These authors report relatively small differences in results obtained through bi-directional case 

crossover and time series approaches, but indicate that unidirectional case-crossover methods may 

overestimate the relative risks. Single- to 7-day avg lags were investigated and estimates appeared to 

increase and then level off at the longer lags (0- to 2-day and 0- to 5-day lags are shown in Figure 

6-12). Effect estimates for PM2.5 are not easily distinguished from the null, but PM10-2.5 is 

significantly associated with asthma admissions among boys and among girls. These associations 

were imprecise, but robust to adjustment for gaseous pollutants, among all children combined. 

December 2009 6-137 
Study Location Lag Age Gender Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

ADULTS OR ALL AGES COMBINED 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All PM2.5

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 1 All 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 15-64 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) California Wildfires 0-1 20-64 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All PM10-2.5

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 1 All 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 15-64 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All PM10

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All 

1 All Female 

2 All Female 

3 All Female 

1 All Male 

2 All Male 

Luginaah et al. (2005, 057327) Windsor, Can 

3 All Male 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 1 All 

2 All 

3 All 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332)** Idaho 0 All 

0 18-64 

0 <65 

0-1 <65 

Fung et al. (2005, 093262) Ontario, Can 

0-2 <65 

OLDER ADULTS (65+ YR) 

202 Counties, US 0 PM2.5

1 

2 

Winter, US 0 

Bell et al. (2008, 156266) 

Winter, Northeast 0 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 

0 

0-2 

0-4 

Fung et al. (2006, 089789) Vancouver, Can 

0-6 

1 

0-1 

Chen et al. (2005, 087555) Vancouver, Can 

0-2 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) California Wildfires 0-1 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 PM10-2.5

0 

1 

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) 108 Counties, US 

2 

0 

0-2 

0-4 

Fung et al. (2006, 089789) Vancouver, Can 

0-6 

1 

0-1 

Chen et al. (2005, 087555) Vancouver, Can 

0-2 

0 PM10

0-2 

0-4 

Fung et al. (2006, 089789) Vancouver, Can 

0-6 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332)** 2 Cities in ID 0 

0 

0-1 

Chen et al. (2005, 087555) Vancouver, Can 

0-2 

0 

0-1 

Fung et al. (2005, 093262) Ontario, Can 

0-2 

Studies represented in the figure include all multicity studies 

as well as single-city studies conducted in the U.S. or Canada 

 * ED Visits 

 ** Hospitalization, ED, and Urgent Care Visits Combined Excess Risk (%)

Figure 6-11. Excess risks estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10

for ED visits and HAs for respiratory diseases among adults. 

December 2009 6-138 
 Although Ostro et al. (2009, 191971) presented estimates for all respiratory diseases 

combined, these authors note that PM2.5 and its components were associated with asthma 

hospitalizations among the children in six counties of Los Angeles studied. Delfino et al. (2009, 

191994) examined the association of PM2.5 before, during, and after wildfires in California with 

asthma hospitalizations among age and gender subgroups. Associations were observed for children 

0-4 yr among children during the wildfire period (8.3% [95% CI: 2.1-14.9] per 10 μg/m3

), but not 

before or after the wildfire period. For older children, 5-19 yr, non-significant increases in asthma 

hospitalizations were found before the wildfire period, but not during or after the fires. 

Hirshon et al. (2008, 180375) studied hospital admissions and ED visits by children 0-17 yr 

old in Baltimore, MD from June 2002-November 2002, in relation to Zn as a component in PM2.5. Single day lags from 0-2 days were tested with the highest estimates observed for the previous day. 

A 23% (95% CI: 7-41) increase in admissions was observed comparing medium (8.63-20.76 ng/m3

) 

concentrations on the previous day to low concentrations (<8.63 ng/m3) on the previous day. 

Previous day high concentration (>20.76 ng/m3

) was associated with an increase in admissions of 

16% (95% CI: -3 to 39) compared to previous day low concentration. Zinc associations were robust 

to adjustment for EC, CO, NO2, Ni, and Cr. However, evidence of effect modification by EC and 

NO2 at lags 1 and 2 was observed. 

Mohr et al. (2008, 180215) used measurements of EC, O3, SO2, and total NOX from the EPA 

supersite in St. Louis for June 2001-May 2003, to examine the association of EC, temperature and 

season with asthma ED visits among children 2-17 yr old. The association of EC with asthma ED 

visits varied by age, season and weekday versus weekend. The largest associations were observed for 

2-5 yr olds during the fall weekends (3% [95% CI: 1-5] per 0.1 μg/m3

) and 11-17 yr olds during 

winter weekdays (3% [95% CI: 0-5] per 0.1 μg/m3

) and summer weekends (9% [95% CI: 2-17] per 

0.1 μg/m3

). Investigators also report that temperature modified the effect of EC after adjusting for 

gaseous copollutants, such that the association of ED visits with EC increased with increasing 

temperature during the summer and increased with decreasing temperature during the winter. 

Authors attribute the temperature modification to time-activity patterns among this age group. 

Sinclair and Tolsma (2004, 088696) investigated respiratory ambulatory care visits using 

ARIES data in Atlanta, GA (also used by SOPHIA investigators) and health insurance records. These 

authors evaluated three 3-day ma lags (0-2, 2-5 and 6-8 days) and reported relative risks, with no 

confidence intervals, for significant results only (not included in Figure 6-12). For childhood asthma 

outpatient visits, OHC, PM10-2.5, PM10, EC and OC were significantly associated with ambulatory 

care visits at lags 0-2 or 2-5 days. 

A study in Anchorage used medical records to examine effects of particle exposure on 

pediatric asthma outpatient visits, inpatient visits and prescriptions for short-acting inhalers 

(Chimonas and Gessner, 2007, 093261). Authors examined Medicaid claims for asthma-related and 

lower respiratory infection visits among children less than 20 yr of age for 5 yr (approximately 

25,000 children were enrolled in Medicaid each year between 1999 and 2003). Citing work done in 

the mid-1980’s, the authors describe their city’s particles as arising primarily from natural, geologic 

sources (PM10), and to a lesser extent from local automotive emissions (PM2.5) (Pritchett and Cooper, 

1985, 156886). Using GEE in a time-series analysis of daily and weekly effects of particle exposure 

on health outcomes, the authors found that each 10 μg/m3

 increase in 24-h avg PM10 was associated 

with a 0.6% increase (95% CI: 0.1-1.3) in outpatient visits for asthma. The same increase in weekly 

PM10 concentration resulted in a 2.1% increase (95% CI: 0.4-3.8) in asthma visits, after adjustment 

for gaseous pollutants. No meaningful associations were observed for PM2.5. 

In Copenhagen, Denmark, Anderson et al. (2007, 093201) found an association between PM10

attributed to vehicle emissions and asthma hospitalizations among children 5-18 yr (5.4% 95% CI: 

0.57-22.9 per 10 μg/m3

, 0- to 5-day avg). In an analysis of size distribution and number 

concentration, accumulation mode particles were most strongly associated with asthma admissions 

(8% [95% CI: 0-17] per 495 particles/cm3

, lag 0-5). (Andersen et al., 2008, 189651). In Helsinki, 

Halonen et al. (2008, 189507) examined the association of various size fractions of PM (e.g., Aitken, 

accumulation mode, PM2.5, PM10-2.5) with ED visits for asthma among children <15 yr. These authors 

evaluated lags 0-5 and noted a different lag structure depending on age with children experiencing 

greater effects at lags 3-5 days compared to adults at lag 0. Aitken, accumulation mode particles and 

traffic-related PM were significantly and most strongly associated with asthma visits among 

children, while no association with PM10-2.5 was observed in this age group. 

December 2009 6-139 
Study Location Lag Covariates, Age Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 1-4 PM2.5

0-1 5-14 

0-2 Boys, 6-12 

0-5 Boys, 6-12 

0-2 Girls, 6-12 

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) Toronto, Can 

0-5 Girls, 6-12 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 counties, CA 0-1 0-4 

(wildfire) 0-1 5-19 

Chimonas & Gessner (2007, 0 Inpatient, 0-19 

093261) 

Anchorage, AK 

0 Outpatient, 0-19 

0-4 0-4 

0-4 5-18 

0-4 0-4 

NYS DOH (2006, 090132) * Bronx, NY 

Manhattan, NY 

0-4 5-18 

0-2 Boys, 6-12 PM 10-2.5

0-5 Boys, 6-12 

0-2 Girls, 6-12 

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) Toronto, Can 

0-5 Girls, 6-12 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) Australia/NZ 0-1 1-4 PM10

0-1 5-14 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 2-18 

0-2 Boys, 6-12 

0-5 Boys, 6-12 

0-2 Girls, 6-12 

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) Toronto, Can 

0-5 Girls, 6-12 

0 Inpatient, 0-19 

Children 

Chimonas & Gessner (2007, 

093261) 

Anchorage, AK 

0 Outpatient, 0-19 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All Ages PM2.5

0-1 All Year, All 

0-1 Warm Season, All 

Ito et al. (2007, 091262)* New York, NY 

0-1 Cool Season, All 

1 All 

2 All 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 

3 All 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 counties, CA 0-1 20-64 

(wildfire) 0-1 65+ 

Sheppard et al. (2003, 042826) Seattle, WA 0 <65 

NYS DOH (2006, 090132)* Bronx, NY 0-4 All 

Manhattan, NY 0-4 All 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All PM10-2.5

1 All 

2 All 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 

3 All 

Sheppard et al. (2003, 042826) Seattle, WA 0 <65 

NYS DOH (2006, 090132)* Bronx, NY 0-4 All 

Manhattan, NY 0-4 All 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 All PM10

0-13 DL All 

3 Cities, OH 3 All cities, 5-34 

3 Cincinnati, 5-34 

2 Columbus, 5-34 

Jaffe et al. (2003, 041957)* 

Cincinnati, OH 

3 Columbus, 5-34 

1 All 

2 All 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 

3 All 

Adults and All Ages Combined 

Sheppard et al. (2003, 042826) Seattle, WA 0 <65 

 * ED Visits 

 DL Distributed Lag Excess Risk (%) 

Figure 6-12. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10

for asthma ED visits and HAs. Studies represented in the figure include all 

multicity studies as well as single-city studies conducted in the U.S. or Canada. 

Adults and All Ages Combined 

Results from the Atlanta SOPHIA study based on the a priori models examining a 3-day ma 

(lag 0-2 days) revealed no statistically significant associations with asthma (ICD-9 493, 786.09) 

December 2009 6-140 
among all ages for any of the PM metrics studied (e.g., PM2.5, PM10-2.5, PM10, UF PNC, PM 

components) (Peel et al., 2005, 056305). However, the 14-day unconstrained distributed lag model 

produced an excess risk of 9.9% (95% CI: 6.5-13.5 per 10 μg/m3

 PM10). The authors note that 

associations of PM2.5 and OC with asthma tended to be stronger during the warmer months. Sinclair 

and Tolsma (2004, 088696) report a significant association between adult outpatient visits for asthma 

and UFPs, but not other PM size fractions (not included in Figure 6-12 because only significant 

results were presented). 

Jaffe et al. (2003, 041957) examined the effects of ambient pollutants (PM10, O3, NO2 and 

SO2) during the summer months (June through August) on the daily number of ED visits for asthma 

among Medicaid recipients aged 5-34 yr from 1991 to 1996 in Cincinnati, Columbus, and Cleveland. 

Lags 1 to 3 were tested and only statistically significant lags were presented. For all cities combined, 

the overall effect estimate for 24-h avg PM10 was 1.0% (95% CI: -1.44 to 3.54 per 10 μg/m3

increase). The effect estimate for Cleveland was the only significantly elevated estimate (2.3% 

[95% CI: 0.0-4.9] per 10 μg/m3 increase) when the cities were examined independently. The authors 

reported results from analyses indicating a possible concentration response for O3, but no consistent 

effects for PM10. In New York City, Ito et al. (2007, 156594) examined numbers of ED visits for asthma among 

all ages (ICD-9 493) in relation to pollution levels from 1999 to 2002; several weather models were 

evaluated. Although the association with NO2 was the strongest, PM2.5 was significantly associated 

with asthma ED visits in each weather model (strongest during the warm months) and remained 

significant after adjustment for O3, NO2, CO and SO2. Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) reported no 

associations with ED visits or hospitalizations for asthma, among all ages, in Spokane, Washington 

for the PM size fractions studied (PM1, PM2.5, PM10, PM10-2.5). An association with CO, which the 

authors attribute to combustion related pollution in general, was observed. The effect of 24-h avg 

and 1-h max PM2.5, PM10-2.5, EC and OC on ED visits for asthma among all ages combined, 

comparing two communities in New York City was investigated (ATSDR, 2006, 090132). In the 

Bronx, an increase in visits of 3.1% (95% CI: 0.6-6.2 per 10 μg/m3

) was observed in relation to 24-h 

avg PM2.5. For PM10-2.5, an increase of 2.7% (95% CI: 0.0-5.4) was observed in the Bronx. Smaller, 

less precise estimates were observed for Manhattan. Increased asthma visits were observed with OC, 

EC and total metals. In the Bronx, the association of 1-h max PM2.5 with ED visits was larger than 

the association with 24-h PM2.5 when standardized to the mean concentration for both communities 

and was generally robust to adjustment for copollutants. 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) examined the association of PM2.5 before, during and after 

wildfires in California with asthma hospitalizations among age and gender subgroups. The increase 

among older adults >65 yr of 10% (95% CI: 3-17.8 per 10 μg/m3) was larger than the increase 

among adults 20-64 yr of 4.1% (95% CI: -0.5 to 9 per 10 μg/m3

). For older adults, the association 

was stronger during the wildfire period compared to the pre-wildfire period and did not diminish 

during the post-wildfire period. 

Effect estimates from studies of hospital admissions and ED visits for asthma are summarized 

in Figure 6-12. Associations with PM2.5 concentration among children are imprecise and not 

consistently positive across different age groups and lags. Findings from two studies of PM10-2.5

(Sinclair and Tolsma, 2004, 088696), as well as PM10 studies both show positive associations, 

although estimates lack precision. Among adults and adults and children combined, associations of 

asthma hospital admissions and ED visits with PM2.5 concentration were observed in most studies. 

Positive, non-significant associations of PM10-2.5 concentration with asthma admissions and ED visits 

were observed in some studies of adults. Again, PM10 estimates are more consistently positive and 

precise compared to other size fractions. Associations were observed with several PM2.5 components 

(e.g., EC, OC and Zn) and sources (e.g., traffic, wildfires). Many factors (e.g., the underlying 

distribution of individual sensitivity and severity, medication use and other personal behaviors) can 

influence the lag time observed in observational studies (Forastiere et al., 2008, 186937). Excess risk 

estimates for asthma were generally sensitive to choice of lag and increase with longer or cumulative 

lags times. Most additional single-city studies conducted in Europe, South America and Asia, have 

investigated the associations of asthma hospitalizations, ED visits or doctor visits and most have 

reported evidence of an association with TSP (Arbex et al., 2007, 091637; Migliaretti and Cavallo, 

2004, 087425; 2005, 088689), PM10 (Bell et al., 2008, 156266; Bell et al., 2008, 091268; Chardon et 

al., 2007, 091308; Chen et al., 2006, 087947; Erbas et al., 2005, 073849; Galan et al., 2003, 087408; 

Jalaludin et al., 2004, 056595; Kim et al., 2007, 092837; Ko et al., 2007, 091639; Kuo et al., 2002, 

036310; Lee et al., 2002, 034826; Lee et al., 2006, 090176) and PM2.5 (Chardon et al., 2007, 091308; 

December 2009 6-141 
Ko et al., 2007, 091639; Ko et al., 2007, 092844) while a few have not shown an association with 

PM10 (Larrieu et al., 2009, 180294; Masjedi et al., 2003, 052100; Tsai et al., 2006, 089768; Yang and 

Chen, 2007, 092847; Yang et al., 2007, 092848). 

6.3.8.3. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 

Results from multicity studies of hospital admissions and ED visits for COPD as well as 

single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and Canada are summarized in Figure 6-13. Studies 

reviewed in the AQCD are included in the figure for continuity. Concentrations of PM for the 

relevant study period are found in Table 6-14. 

In a study of Medicare recipients in 204 U.S. counties, Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 

reported an overall increase of about 1% in COPD hospitalizations (ICD-9 490-492) associated with 

24-h avg PM2.5, with the largest effects at lags 0 and 1. In this study effect estimates were 

heterogeneous across the U.S. with a significant increase of about 4% observed in the Southeast at 

lag 0. In another study using Medicare data in 36 U.S. cities (1986-1999) short-term exposure to 

PM10 was associated with an increase in COPD hospital admissions (ICD-9 490-496, excluding 493) 

of 1.47% (95% CI: 0.93-2.01, lag 1) during the warm season (Medina-Ramon et al., 2006, 087721). 

A smaller effect was observed during the cold season. 

In Atlanta, SOPHIA investigators reported a comparably sized effect estimate for COPD 

(ICD-9 491, 492, 496) and 24-h avg PM2.5 (1.5% [95% CI: -3.1 to 6.3], 0- to 2-day avg]). The 

association of PM10 with COPD reported by Peel et al. (2005, 056305) was 1.8% (95% CI: -0.6 to 

4.3). No associations were observed for PM10-2.5, UF or PM2.5 components. Slaughter et al. (2005, 

073854) reported no associations between any size fraction of PM in Spokane, Washington (PM2.5, 

PM10-2.5, PM10) and COPD (ICD-9 491, 492, 494, 496). In contrast, Chen et al. (2004, 087262) 

reported increases in COPD admissions (ICD-9 490-492, 494, 496) for PM2.5 (17.1% [95% CI: 

4.6-31.0], 0- to 2-day avg), PM10-2.5 (10.0% [95% CI: -1.2 to 22.8, 0- to 2-day avg]), and PM10

(16.5% [95% CI: 6.88-27.02], 0- to 2-day avg]). However, the estimates for PM metrics were 

diminished after adjustment for NO2. 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) examined the association of PM2.5 from the wildfires of 2003 in 

California with COPD hospitalizations among age and gender subgroups. Among older adults (≥65 

years), associations were similar across pre-, post- and wildfire periods with none reaching 

significance. The increase for all periods combined in this age group was 1.9% (95% CI: -0.6 to 4.4, 

per 10 μg/m3

). Michaud et al. (2004, 188530) reported an association for asthma and COPD ED 

visits combined with PM1 (lag 1) in Hilo, Hawaii in a study designed to investigate the effect of 

volcanic fog. 

Halonen et al. (2008, 189507) conducted a study of ED visits for COPD and asthma combined 

(J41, J44-J46) among adults 15-64 yr and older adults >65 yr. These authors examined the effects of 

Aitken mode particles, accumulation mode particles, PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 as well as several sources of 

PM2.5 (traffic, long range transported particles, road dust and coal/oil combustion). Concentrations, 

lagged from 0-5 days, were examined and the largest effects among older adults were observed in 

association with concurrent day PM2.5, PM10-2.5, accumulation mode particles, NO2, and CO 

concentrations. The PM2.5 association was diminished with adjustment for UFPs, NO2 and CO. A 

similar diminishment was observed when PM10-2.5 was adjusted for PM2.5, NO2 and CO. However, 

traffic related particles and long range transported particles (e.g., accumulation mode particles such 

as carbon compounds, sulfates and nitrates from central Europe and Russia) were associated with 

COPD and asthma among older adults. This same research group conducted additional analyses of 

hospital admissions using the same PM metrics focusing on older adults (≥65 yr) (Halonen et al., 

2009, 180379). The PM2.5 results and lag structure were similar to the earlier ED visit study. The 

strongest effect was for accumulation mode particles with COPD/asthma admissions. Traffic related 

PM2.5 was associated with COPD/asthma admissions at lag 1 while no effect was observed with 

concurrent day concentration. Long range transported particles and road dust were also associated 

with admissions for asthma and COPD. 

With the exception of one study conducted in Spokane Washington (Slaughter et al., 2005, 

073854), associations have been consistently observed for PM2.5 and PM10 with COPD in multicity 

and single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and Canada. Associations with PM10-2.5 are fewer and 

less consistent. A study that examined seven single-day lags in association with pooled COPD and 

asthma ED visits in Finland reported that PM2.5, PM10-2.5, traffic sources as well as gaseous pollutants 

December 2009 6-142 
had a more immediate effect in older adults (lags 0 and 1) compared to children experiencing asthma 

(3- to 5-day lags) (Halonen et al., 2008, 189507). Larger estimates at shorter lags were not observed 

consistently across other studies. Most single-city studies conducted outside of the U.S. or Canada 

focused on PM10 (Chiu et al., 2008, 191989; Hapcioglu et al., 2006, 093263; Ko et al., 2007, 091639; 

Ko et al., 2007, 092844; Martins et al., 2002, 035059; Masjedi et al., 2003, 052100; Sauerzapf et al., 

2009, 180082; Yang and Chen, 2007, 092847). 

Study Location Lag Age/Climate Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

0 PM2.5

1 

2 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 204 Counties, US 

0-2 DL 

Peel (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-2 avg All Ages 

1 

2 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 

3 

1 65+ 

2 

3 

Chen (2004, 087262) Vancouver, Can 

3 avg 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 Counties, CA 0-1 avg 65+ 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 65+ 

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316) Los Angeles, CA 0 65+ 

Peel (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 3 ma PM10-2.5

1 

2 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 

3 

1 

2 

3 

Chen (2004, 087262) Vancouver, Can 

3 avg 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 

Zanobetti & Schwartz (2003, 043119) 14 Cities, US 0-1 avg PM10

0 Warm 

1 Warm 

0 Cold 

Medina-Ramon (2006, 087721) 36 Cities, US 

1 Cold 

Peel (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 3 ma 

0-13 DL 

1 

2 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854)* Spokane, WA 

3 

1 

2 

3 

Chen (2004, 087262) Vancouver, Can 

0-2 avg 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316) Los Angeles, CA 0 

Cook County, IL 0 

* ED Visits Excess Risk (%) 

Figure 6-13. Excess risks estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10

for COPD ED visits and HAs among older adults (65+ yr, unless other age group 

is noted). Studies represented in the figure include all multicity studies as well as 

single-city studies conducted in the U.S. or Canada. 

6.3.8.4. Pneumonia and Respiratory Infections 

Results from multicity studies of hospital admissions and ED visits for respiratory infection as 

well as single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and Canada are summarized in Figure 6-14. The 

figure includes studies of respiratory infection reviewed in the 2004 AQCD. Concentrations of PM 

for the relevant study period are found in Table 6-14. 

December 2009 6-143 
Children 

In the study of seven cities in Australia and New Zealand, associations of PM2.5 with 

pneumonia and acute bronchitis (ICD-10 J12-J17, J18.0, J18.1, J18.8, J18.9, J20, J21) were observed 

among infants <1 yr old (4.54% [95% CI: 0.00-9.20]) and children 1-4 yr old (6.44% [95% CI: 

0.26-12.85]) (Barnett et al., 2005, 087394). Although quantitative results were only presented for all 

respiratory diseases combined, Ostro et al. (2009, 191971) examined several specific respiratory 

diseases including acute bronchitis and pneumonia. They reported that PM2.5 and its components 

were more strongly associated with these endpoints compared to other respiratory diseases. Delfino 

et al. (2009, 191994) reports imprecise increases in admissions among children during wildfire 

periods for acute bronchitis and bronchiolitis, as well as pneumonia. 

Inpatient and outpatient visits for lower respiratory tract infections among children in 

Anchorage, Alaska, were not associated with PM2.5 or PM10 (Chimonas and Gessner, 2007, 093261). 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) observed associations of respiratory infections (ICD-9 464, 466, 480-487) 

with PM10-2.5 and PM10 that persisted after adjustment for gaseous pollutants among subjects <15 yr 

old living in Toronto. Analyses were stratified by gender and both single and multiple day lags were 

examined (4- and 6-day avg were presented). The largest significant effect estimates were for 

PM10-2.5. The size of the PM2.5 estimate varied by gender and was sensitive to the choice of lag. PM2.5

results were not generally robust to adjustment for gases. 

All Ages and Older Adults 

SOPHIA investigators examined ED visits for upper respiratory tract infections (URI) (ICD-9 

460-466, 477) and pneumonia (ICD-9 480-486) among all ages. An excess risk of 1.4% (95% CI: 

0.4-2.5 per 10 μg/m3

, lag 0- to 2-day avg) for PM10 was associated with URI visits. With the 

exception of a small increase in risk for OC of 2.8% (95% CI: 0.4-5.3 per 2 μg/m3, 0- to 2-day avg) 

with pneumonia visits, Peel et al. (2005, 056305) reported no association with other PM size 

fractions or components evaluated. However, Sinclair and Tolsma (2004, 088696), who also used 

ARIES data in their analysis, reported significant associations with outpatient visits for LRI. These 

associations were generally observed for 3- to 5-day ma lags, in association with PM10-2.5, PM10, EC, 

OC, and PM2.5 water soluble metals (not pictured in figure because only significant lags were 

reported). No associations with pneumonia for any size fractions were observed among all ages in a 

study conducted in Spokane, Washington (effect estimates were not reported) (Slaughter et al., 2005, 

073854). 

French PSAS investigators examined the effect of PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 on hospital admissions 

for respiratory infection (ICD-10: J10-22) among all ages. Increases of 2.5% (95% CI: 0.1-4.8) and 

4.4% (95%CI: 0.9-8.0) per 10 μg/m3

 were observed in association with PM2.5 and PM10-2.5, 

respectively (Host et al., 2008, 155852). In a multicity study of older adults (≥65 yr) Medina-Ramon 

et al. (2006, 087721) examined hospital admissions for pneumonia (ICD-9 480-487) in 36 U.S. cities 

in relation to 24-h avg PM10 concentration. An increase in pneumonia admissions of 0.84% (95% CI: 

0.50-1.19 per 10 μg/m3, lag 0) was reported by these investigators during the warm season. Cold 

season associations were weaker (0.30% [95% CI: 0.07-0.53] per 10 μg/m3

, lag 0) as were lag 1 

associations. Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) investigated hospital admissions for all respiratory 

infections including pneumonia (ICD-9 464-466, 480-487) among older adults in 204 urban U.S. 

counties in relation to PM2.5 and reported a significant increased risk only at lag 2. Heterogeneity in 

effect estimates was observed across the U.S. with the largest associations reported for the South and 

Southeast. 

In Boston, excess risks of pneumonia hospitalization in association with PM2.5, BC, and CO 

were observed among older adults (Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2006, 090195). A measure of non-traffic 

PM, e.g., the residuals from the regression of PM2.5 on BC, was not associated with pneumonia 

hospitalization in these data. In a California study (Delfino et al., 2009, 190254), effect estimates 

were of similar magnitude for pneumonia admissions associated with PM2.5 from wildfires among all 

ages combined and older adults (2.8% [95% CI: 0.7-5.0] per 10 μg/m3, all ages combined). The 

PM2.5 association with acute bronchitis and bronchiolitis admissions during the wildfire period for all 

age groups showed an approximately 10% increase (9.6% 95% CI: 1.8-17.9, per 10 μg/m3). The 

increase was not larger during the wildfire period compared to the pre-fire period for either outcome. 

December 2009 6-144 
In a study of four cities in Australia, statistically significant associations of pneumonia and 

acute bronchitis with particles measured by nephelometry (but not PM2.5 mass) and NO2 were 

observed among older adults (Simpson et al., 2005, 087438). Halonen et al. (2009, 180379) 

examined pneumonia among older adults (ICD10 J12-J15) in their most recent analysis. Associations 

of PM2.5 (5.0% [95% CI: 1.0-9.3] per 10 μg/m3, lag 5-day mean), as well as accumulation mode 

particles, with pneumonia admissions were observed. 

Although the body of literature is small, several studies of children reported associations of 

PM2.5, PM10-2.5 and PM10 with respiratory infections but the outcomes studied are heterogeneous and 

effect estimates are imprecise. Studies of adults show a similar pattern of increased risk for each of 

these size fractions. Several other single-city studies conducted outside the U.S. and Canada reported 

associations for PM10 (Cheng et al., 2007, 093034; Hwang and Chan, 2002, 023222; Nascimento et 

al., 2006, 093247) and PM2.5 (Hinwood et al., 2006, 088976) with hospitalization or ED visits for 

respiratory infections. 

Study Location Lag Age Outcome Effect Estimate (95% CI)

CHILDREN 

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) 7 Cities, Australia/NZ 0-1 <1 Pneumonia PM2.5

0-1 1-4 Pneumonia 

Chimonas & Gessner (2007, 093261) Anchorage, AK 0 0-19 LRI Outpatient 

0 0-19 LRI Inpatient 

0-1 0-4 Bronchitis, Bronchiolitis Wildfire 

0-1 0-4 Pneumonia Wildfire 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 Counties, S. CA 

0-1 5-19 Pneumonia Wildfire 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Ontario, Can 0-3 <15 RTI 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Ontario, Can 0-3 <15 RTI PM10-2.5

Barnett et al. (2006, 089770) 7 Cities, Australia/NZ 0-1 <1 Pneumonia, Acute Bronchitis PM10

0-1 1-4 Pneumonia, Acute Bronchitis 

Chimonas & Gessner (2007, 093261) Anchorage, AK 0 0-19 LRI Outpatient 

0-1 0-19 LRI Inpatient 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Ontario, Can 0-3 <15 RTI 

ALL AGES COMBINED OR OLDER ADULTS

0 65+ RTI PM2.5

1 65+ RTI 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 204 Counties, US 

2 65+ RTI 

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 90 Counties, US 0-2 DL 65+ RTI 

Zanobetti & Schwartz (2006, 090195) Boston, MA 0 65+ Pneumonia 

0-1 65+ Pneumonia 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-3 All URI 

0-3 All Pneumonia 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 All RTI 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 Counties, S.CA 0-1 All Pneumonia Wildfire 

0-1 All Bronchiolitis Wildfire 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 65+ Pneumonia 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 0-3 All Pneumonia PM10-2.5

0-3 All URI 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities, France 0-1 All RTI 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 65+ Pneumonia 

0 65+ Pneumonia Warm PM10

1 65+ Pneumonia Warm 

0 65+ Pneumonia Cold 

Medina-Ramon et al. (2006, 087721) 36 Cities, US 

1 65+ Pneumonia Cold 

0-3 All URI 

0-13 DL All URI 

0-3 All Pneumonia 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305)* Atlanta, GA 

0-13 DL All Pneumonia 

Zanobetti (2003, 043119) 14 Cities, US 0-1 65+ Pneumonia 

Ito (2003, 042856) Detroit, MI 0 65+ Pneumonia 

*ED Visits 

DL = Distributed Lag Excess Risk (%) 

 Figure 6-14. Excess risks estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, PM10- 2.5, and PM10

for respiratory infection ED visits* and HAs. Studies represented in the 

figure include all multicity studies as well as single-city studies conducted in the 

U.S. 

December 2009 6-145 
Table 6-14. PM concentrations in epidemiologic studies of respiratory diseases. 

Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

concentrations (μg/m3) 

PM2.5 

Andersen et al. (2007, 093201) Copenhagen, Denmark 10 99th: 28 

Barnett et al. (2005, 087394) 7 Cities Australia, NZ 8.1-11 Max: 29.3-122.8 

Bell et al. (2008, 156266) 202 U.S. counties 12.92 98th: 34.16 

Chardon et al. (2007, 091308) Paris, France 14.7 75th: 18.2 

Chen et al. (2004, 087262; 2005, 087555) Vancouver, Canada 7.7 Max: 32

Chimonas and Gessner (2007, 093261) Anchorage, AK 6.1 Max: 69.8 

Delfino et al. (2009, 191994) 6 counties, CA 18.4-32.7 45.3-76.1 (mean during wildfire period)

Dominici et al. (2006, 088398) 204 U.S. counties 13.4 75th: 15.2 

Fung et al. (2006, 089789) Vancouver, Canada 7.72 Max: 32

Halonen et al. (2008, 189507) Helsinki, Finland NR; Median = 9.5 Max: 69.5 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities France 13.8-18.8 95th: 25.0-33.0 

Ito et al. (2007, 091262) New York, NY All yr: 15.1 All yr: 95th: 32 

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) Toronto Canada 17.99 Max: 89.59 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Ontario, Canada 9.59 Max: 73

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316) Los Angeles, CA 22 (median) Max: 86

New York State DOH (2006, 090132) Bronx/Manhattan 15.0/16.7 NR

Peel et al. (2005, 056305) Atlanta, GA 19.2 90th: 32.3; 98th: 39.8 

Sinclair and Tolsma (2004, 088696) Atlanta, GA 17.62 NR

Sheppard et al. (2003, 042826) Seattle, WA 16.7 98th: 46.6 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA NR Max: 20.2 (using 90% of concentrations)

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 17.1 90th: 28.8; 98th: 38.7 

Yang et al. (2004, 087488) Vancouver, Canada 7.7 Max: 32.0 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2006, 090195) 112 U.S. cities 11.1 (Median) 95th: 26.31 

PM10-2.5

Chen et al. (2004, 087262; 2005, 087555) Vancouver, Canada 5.6 Max: 24.6 

Fung et al. (2006, 089789) Vancouver, Canada 5.6 Max: 27.07 

Halonen et al. (2008, 189507) Helsinki, Finland NR; Median: 9.9 Max: 101.4 

Host et al. (2008, 155852) 6 Cities France 7.0-11.0 95th: 12.5-21.0 

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) Toronto, Canada 12.17 Max: 68.00 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Ontario, Canada 10.86 Max: 45

New York State DOH Bronx/Manhattan 7.69/7.10 NR

Peel et al. (2005, 056305) Atlanta, GA 9.7 90th: 16.2 

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) 108 U.S. counties NR; Median: 9.8 75th: 15.0 

Sinclair and Tolsma (2004, 088696) Atlanta, GA 9.67 NR

Sheppard et al. (2003, 042826) Seattle, WA 16.2 Max: 88

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA NR NR

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 9 90th: 15.1; Max: 50.3 

Yang et al. (2004, 087488) Vancouver, Canada 7.7 Max: 24.6 

PM10

Andersen et al. (2007, 093201) Copenhagen, Denmark 25/24 75th: 30 / 99th: 72 

Barnett et al. (2005, 087394) 7 Cities, Australia, NZ 16.5-20.6 Max: 50.2-156.3 

Chardon et al. (2007, 091308) Paris, France 23 Max: 97.3 

Chen et al. (2004, 087262; 2005, 087555) Vancouver, Canada 13.3 Max: 52.2 

Chimonas and Gessner (2007, 093261) Anchorage, AK 27.6 Max: 421 

Fung et al. (2005, 093262) Ontario, Canada 38 Max: 248 

Fung et al. (2006, 089789) Vancouver, Canada 13.3 Max: 52.17 

Gordian and Choudhury (2003, 054842) Anchorage, AK 36.11 Max: 210.0 

Jaffe et al. (2003, 041957) Cincinnati, OH 43 Max: 90

December 2009 6-146 
Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile 

concentrations (μg/m3) 

Jalaludin et al. (2004, 056595) Sydney, Australia 22.8 Max: 44.9

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) Toronto, Canada 30.16 Max: 116.20 

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Ontario, Canada 20.41 Max: 73

Luginaah et al. (2005, 057327) Ontario, Canada 50.6 Max: 349 

Medina-Ramon et al. (2006, 087721) 36 U.S. Cities 15.9-44.0 NR

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316) Los Angeles, CA 22 (median) Max: 86

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316) Cook County, IL 35 (median) Max: 365 

Peel et al. (2005, 056305) Atlanta, GA 27.9 Max: 44.7 

Sinclair and Tolsma (2004, 088696) Atlanta, GA 29.03 NR

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA NR Max: 41.9 (using 90% of concentrations)

Tolbert et al. (2007, 090316) Atlanta, GA 26.6 90th: 42.8 

Ulirsch et al. (2007, 091332) Idaho 23.2 Max: 183.0 

Yang et al. (2004, 087488) Vancouver, Canada 13.3 Max: 52.2 

Zanobetti (2003, 043119);Samet et al. (2000, 010269) 14 U.S. Cities 24.4-45.3 Max 94.8-605.8 

UFP 

Andersen et al. (2008, 189651) Copenhagen, Denmark Mean particles/cm3: 6847 99th: 19,895 particles/cm3

Halonen et al. (2008, 189507) NR: Median particles/cm3: 8,203 Max: 50,990 particles/cm3

6.3.8.5. Copollutant Models 

Some studies have investigated potential confounding by copollutants through the application 

of multipollutant models (Figure 6-15). Several Canadian studies of respiratory hospital admissions 

reported larger effects for PM10-2.5 compared to PM2.5 that were robust to adjustment for gaseous 

pollutants (Chen et al., 2005, 087555; Lin et al., 2002, 026067; Yang et al., 2004, 087488). The 

COPD associations between PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 reported by Chen et al. (2004, 087262) remained 

positive but were diminished slightly after adjustment for NO2. The associations reported by Ito et al. 

(2003, 042856) of PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 with pneumonia hospital admissions remained after adjustment 

for gases, while the association of PM10-2.5 with COPD admissions was not robust to adjustment for 

O3. Associations reported by Burnett et al. (1997, 084194), Moolgavkar et al. (2003, 042864) and 

Delfino et al. (1998, 093624) were not consistently robust to adjustment for gaseous copollutants. In 

the MCAPS study, the effect of PM2.5 was robust to adjustment for PM10-2.5, while the PM10-2.5 effect 

on respiratory admissions was diminished after adjustment for PM2.5 (Peng et al., 2008, 156850). 

Effect estimates for PM10 were robust to adjustment for gases in several recent studies (Andersen et 

al., 2007, 093201; Tolbert et al., 2007, 090316; Ulirsch et al., 2007, 091332). 

Multiple pollutant analyses for other size fractions and components have been conducted in a 

some additional studies. PM10 associations with respiratory disease did not change in models also 

containing total PNC, nor did the association of ACP diminish after adjustment for UFP 

concentration(Andersen et al., 2008, 189651). Peng et al. (2009, 191998) reports an OCM effect that 

was robust to adjustment for other components while the associations with Ni, V, and EC were 

somewhat diminished in models containing multiple components. 

Inconsistency across these study findings is likely due to differences in the correlation 

structure among pollutants as well as differing degrees of exposure measurement error. 

December 2009 6-147 
Study Outcome Pollutant Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) Respiratory Disease PM2.5 PM2.5 Adjusted for Gases and Other Size Fractions

PM2.5+PM10-2.5

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Respiratory Infection PM2.5

PM2.5+CO, SO2, NO2, O3

Chen et al. (2005, 087555) Respiratory Disease PM2.5

PM2.5+CO+O3+NO2+SO2

PM2.5

PM2.5+PM10-2.5

PM2.5+CO 

PM2.5+O3

PM2.5+NO2

Chen et al. (2004, 087262) COPD 

PM2.5+SO2

PM2.5

PM2.5+O3

PM2.5+SO2

PM2.5+NO2

Ito (2003, 042856) Pneumonia 

PM2.5+CO 

Moolgavkar (2003, 042864) COPD PM2.5

PM2.5+NO2

Sheppard (2003, 042826) Asthma PM2.5

PM2.5+CO 

Asthma, Boys PM2.5

Asthma, Girls PM2.5

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) 

Asthma, Children PM2.5+CO, SO2, NO2, O3

Delfino et al. (1998, 093624) Respiratory Disease PM2.5

PM2.5+O3

PM2.5

PM2.5+O3

PM2.5+NO2

PM2.5+SO2

Burnett et al. (1997, 084194) Respiratory Disease 

PM2.5

Thurston et al. (1994, 043921) PM2.5

PM2.5+O3

PM10-2.5 Adjusted for Gases and other Size Fractions

Peng et al. (2008, 156850) Respiratory Disease PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+PM2.5

Lin et al. (2005, 087828) Respiratory Infection PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+CO, SO2, NO2, O3

Chen et al. (2005, 087555) Respiratory Disease PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+CO+O3+NO2+SO2

PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+PM2.5

PM10-2.5+CO 

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+NO2

Chen et al. (2004, 087262) COPD 

PM10-2.5+SO2

Yang et al. (2004, 087488) Respiratory Disease PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+CO, SO2, NO2, O3

PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+SO2

PM10-2.5+NO2

COPD 

PM10-2.5+CO 

PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+SO2

PM10-2.5+NO2

Ito (2003, 042856) 

Pneumonia 

PM10-2.5+CO 

Asthma, Boys PM10-2.5 

Asthma, Girls PM10-2.5

Lin et al. (2002, 026067) 

Asthma, Children PM10-2.5+CO, SO2, NO2, O3

PM10-2.5

PM10-2.5+O3

PM10-2.5+NO2

PM10-2.5+SO2

Burnett et al. (1997, 084194) Respiratory Disease 

PM10-2.5+CO 

 Excess Risk Estimate 

 

Figure 6-15. Excess risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg PM2.5, and PM10-2.5 for 

respiratory disease ED visits or HAs, adjusted for co-pollutants. 

December 2009 6-148 
6.3.9. Respiratory Mortality 

An evaluation of studies that examined the association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 

and PM10-2.5 and mortality provides additional evidence for PM-related respiratory health effects. 

Although the primary analysis in the majority of mortality studies evaluated consists of an 

examination of the relationship between PM2.5 or PM10-2.5 and all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality, 

some studies have examined associations with cause-specific mortality including respiratory-related 

mortality. 

Multicity mortality studies that examine the PM-respiratory mortality relationship on a 

national scale – Franklin et al. (2007, 091257): 27 U.S. cities and Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 

188462): 112 U.S. cities – have found consistent positive associations between short-term exposure 

to PM2.5 and respiratory mortality of approximately 1.68% per 10 μg/m3

 at lag 0-1 (Section 6.5). The 

associations observed on a national scale are consistent with those presented by Ostro et al. (2006, 

087991) in a study that examined the PM2.5-mortality relationship in nine California counties (2.2% 

[95% CI: 0.6-3.9] per 10 μg/m3

). An evaluation of studies that examined additional lag structures of 

associations found smaller respiratory mortality effect estimates when using the average of lag days 

1 and 2 (1.01% [95% CI: -0.03 to 2.05] per 10 μg/m3) (Franklin et al., 2008, 097426), and 

associations consistent with those observed at lag 0-1 when examining single-day lags, specifically 

lag 1 (1.78% [95% CI: 0.2-3.36]). Although the overall effect estimates reported in the multicity 

studies evaluated are consistently positive, it should be noted that a large degree of variability exists 

between cities when examining city-specific effect estimates potentially due to differences between 

cities and regional differences in PM2.5 composition (Figure 6-25). Only a limited number of studies 

that examined the PM2.5-mortality relationship have conducted analyses of potential confounders, 

such as gaseous copollutants, and none examined the effect of copollutants on PM2.5 respiratory 

mortality risk estimates. Although the recently evaluated multicity studies did not extensively 

examine whether PM2.5 mortality risk estimates are confounded by gaseous pollutants, evidence 

from the limited number of single-city studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) suggest that gaseous copollutants do not confound the PM2.5-respiratory mortality 

association. This is further supported by studies that examined the PM10-mortality relationship in 

both the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) and this review. Overall, the respiratory PM2.5

effects observed in the new studies evaluated were larger, but less precise than those reported for allcause (nonaccidental) mortality (Section 6.5), and are consistent with the effect estimates observed 

in the single- and multicity studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) also examined PM10-2.5 mortality associations in 47 

U.S. cities and found evidence for respiratory mortality effects (1.16% [95% CI: 0.43-1.89] per 

10 μg/m3

 at lag 0-1), which are somewhat larger than those reported for all-cause (nonaccidental) 

mortality (0.46% [95% CI: 0.21-0.671] per 10 μg/m3). In addition, Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 

188462) reported seasonal (i.e., larger in spring) and regional differences in PM10-2.5 respiratory 

mortality risk estimates. However, single-city studies conducted in Atlanta, GA (Klemm et al., 2004, 

056585) and Vancouver, Canada ((Villeneuve et al., 2003, 055051) reported no associations between 

short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and respiratory mortality. The difference in the results observed 

between the multi- and single-city studies could be due to a variety of factors including differences 

between cities and compositional differences in PM10-2.5 across regions (Figure 6-30). Only a small 

number of studies have examined potential confounding by gaseous copollutants or the influence of 

model specification on PM10-2.5 mortality risk estimates, but the effects are relatively consistent with 

those studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

6.3.10. Summary and Causal Determinations 

6.3.10.1. PM2.5

Several studies of the effect of PM2.5 on hospital admissions for respiratory diseases reviewed 

in the 2004 AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reported positive associations for several diseases. The 

2004 AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented limited epidemiologic evidence of PM2.5 being 

associated with respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, difficulty breathing, and 

bronchodilator use); observations for PM2.5 were positive, with slightly larger effects for PM2.5 than 

December 2009 6-149 
for PM10. In addition, mortality studies reported relatively higher PM2.5 risk estimates for respiratoryrelated mortality compared to all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality. Controlled human exposure 

studies did not provide support for effects of CAPs on respiratory symptoms. Small decrements in 

peak flow for both PM2.5 and PM10 in asthmatics and nonasthmatics were reported in epidemiologic 

studies included in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), whereas controlled human 

exposure and animal toxicological studies reported few or no effects on pulmonary function with 

inhalation of CAPs. In addition, the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented a number 

of controlled human exposure and toxicological studies that reported mild pulmonary inflammation 

following exposure to PM2.5 CAPs and DE or DE particles, as well as ROFA or other 

metal-containing PM in animals. The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) described 

controlled human exposure studies showing increases in allergic responses among previously 

sensitized atopic subjects after short-term exposure to DE particles. These observations were 

supported by many toxicological studies that added to existing evidence demonstrating that various 

types of PM could promote allergic disease and exacerbate allergic asthma in animal models. 

Toxicological studies also indicated that PM2.5 increased susceptibility to respiratory infection. 

Overall, in recent studies PM2.5 effects on respiratory hospitalizations and ED visits have been 

consistently observed. Most effect estimates were in the range of ~1-4% and were observed in areas 

with mean 24-h PM2.5 concentrations between 6.1 and 22 μg/m3

. Further, recent studies have focused 

on increasingly specific disease endpoints such as asthma, COPD, and respiratory infection. The 

strongest recent evidence of an association comes from large multicity studies of COPD, respiratory 

tract infection, and all respiratory diseases among Medicare recipients (≥65 yr) (Bell et al., 2008, 

156266; Dominici et al., 2006, 088398). Studies of children have also found evidence of an effect of 

PM2.5 on hospitalization for all respiratory diseases, including asthma and respiratory infection. 

However, many of these effect estimates are imprecise, their magnitude and statistical significance 

are sensitive to choice of lag, and some null associations were observed. Although the association of 

PM2.5 with pediatric asthma was not examined specifically, it is noteworthy that one of the strongest 

associations observed in the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study was between PM10 and pediatric asthma 

visits; PM2.5 makes up a large proportion of PM10 in Atlanta (Peel et al., 2005, 056305). Positive 

associations between PM2.5 (or PM10) and hospital admissions for respiratory infection ( Figure 6-14) 

are supported by animal toxicological studies which add to previous findings of increased 

susceptibility to infection following exposure to PM2.5. These include studies demonstrating reduced 

clearance of bacteria (Pseudomonas, Listeria) or enhanced pathogenesis of viruses (influenza, RSV) 

after exposure to DE or ROFA. 

Epidemiologic studies that examined the association between PM2.5 and mortality provide 

additional evidence for PM2.5-related respiratory effects (Section 6.3.9). The multicity studies 

evaluated found consistent, precise positive associations between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and 

respiratory mortality ranging from 1.67 to 2.20% increases at mean 24-h PM2.5 avg concentrations 

above 13 μg/m3

. Although only a limited number of studies examined potential confounders of the 

PM2.5-respiratory mortality relationship, the studies evaluated in both this review and the 2004 PM 

AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) support an association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and 

respiratory mortality. 

Epidemiologic studies of asthmatic children have observed increases in respiratory symptoms 

and asthma medication use associated with higher PM2.5 or PM10 concentrations. Associations with 

respiratory symptoms and medication use are less consistent among asthmatic adults, and there is no 

evidence to suggest an association between respiratory symptoms with PM2.5 among healthy 

individuals. In addition, respiratory symptoms have not been reported following controlled 

exposures to PM2.5 among healthy or health-compromised adults (Section 6.3.1.2). 

Although more recent epidemiologic studies of pulmonary function and PM2.5 have yielded 

somewhat inconsistent results, the majority of studies have found an association between PM2.5

concentration and FEV1, PEF, and/or MMEF. In asthmatic children, a 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 is 

associated with a decrease in FEV1 ranging from 1-3.4% (Section 6.3.2.1). A limited number of 

controlled human exposure studies have reported small decreases in arterial oxygen saturation and 

MMEF following exposure to PM2.5 CAPs with more pronounced effects observed in healthy adults 

than in asthmatics or older adults with COPD (Section 6.3.2.2). In toxicological studies, changes in 

pulmonary function have been observed in healthy and compromised rodents after inhalation 

exposures to CAPs from a variety of locations or DE. A role for the PM fraction of DE is supported 

by altered pulmonary function in healthy rats after IT instillation of DE particles (Section 6.3.2.3). 

December 2009 6-150 
Several lines of evidence suggest that PM2.5 promotes and exacerbates allergic disease, which 

often underlies asthma (Section 6.3.6). Although epidemiologic studies examining specific allergic 

outcomes and short-term exposure to PM are relatively rare, the available studies, conducted 

primarily in Europe, positively associate PM2.5 and PM10 with allergic rhinitis or hay fever and skin 

prick reactivity to allergens. Short-term exposure to DE particles in controlled human exposure 

studies has been shown to increase the allergic response among previously sensitized atopic subjects, 

as well as induce de novo sensitization to an antigen. Toxicological studies continue to provide 

evidence that PM2.5, in the form of CAPs, resuspended DE particles, or DE, but not wood smoke, 

spurs and intensifies allergic responses in rodents. Proposed mechanisms for these effects include 

mediation by neurotrophins and oxidative stress, and one study demonstrated that effects were 

mediated at the epigenetic level (Liu et al., 2008, 156709). 

A large body of evidence, primarily from toxicological studies, indicates that various forms of 

PM induce oxidative stress, pulmonary injury, and inflammation. Notably, CAPs from a variety of 

locations induce inflammatory responses in rodent models, although this generally requires multiday 

exposures. The toxicology findings are consistent with several recent epidemiologic studies of PM2.5

and the inflammatory marker eNO, which reported statistically significant, positive effect estimates 

with some inconsistency in the lag times and use of medication. In asthmatic children, a 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5 is associated with an increase in eNO ranging from 0.46 to 6.99 ppb. Several new 

controlled human exposure studies report traffic or DE-induced increases in markers of inflammation 

(e.g., neutrophils and IL-8) in BALF from healthy adults. Recent studies have provided additional 

evidence in support of a pulmonary oxidative response to DE in humans, including induction of 

redox-sensitive transcription factors and increased urate and GSH concentrations in nasal lavage. In 

addition, exposure to wood smoke has recently been demonstrated to increase the levels of eNO and 

malondialdehyde in breath condensate of healthy adults (Barregard et al., 2008, 155675). 

Preliminary findings indicate little to no pulmonary injury in humans following controlled exposures 

to PM2.5 urban traffic particles or DE, in contrast to a number of toxicological studies demonstrating 

injury with CAPs or DE (Sections 6.3.5.2 and 6.3.5.3, respectively). 

Recent studies have reported associations of hospital admissions, ED or urgent care visits for 

several respiratory diseases with PM2.5 components and sources including Ni, V, OC and EC, wood 

smoke and traffic emissions, in studies of both children and adults. Delfino et al. (2003, 090941; 

2006, 090745) found positive associations between EC and OC components of PM and asthma 

symptoms and between EC and eNO. Particle composition and/or source also appears to heavily 

influence the increase in markers of pulmonary inflammation demonstrated in studies of controlled 

human exposures to PM2.5. For example, whereas exposures to PM2.5 CAPs from Chapel Hill, NC 

have been shown to increase BALF neutrophils in healthy adults, no such effects have been observed 

in similar studies conducted in Los Angeles. In addition, differential inflammatory responses have 

been observed following bronchial instillation of particles collected at different times or from 

different areas (Section 6.3.3.2). One new study found that the increased airway neutrophils 

previously observed by Ghio et al. (2000, 012140) in human volunteers after Chapel Hill CAPs 

exposure could be largely attributed to the content of sulfate, Fe, and Se in the soluble fraction 

(Huang et al., 2003, 087377). 

In summary, new evidence of ED visits and hospital admissions builds upon the positive and 

statistically significant evidence presented in the 2004 PM AQCD to support a consistent association 

with ambient concentrations of PM2.5. Most effect estimates with respiratory hospitalizations and ED 

visits were in the range of ~1-4% and were observed in areas with mean 24-h PM2.5 concentrations 

between 6.1 and 22 μg/m3. The evidence for PM2.5-induced respiratory effects is strengthened by 

similar hospital admissions and ED visit associations for PM10, along with the consistent positive 

associations observed between PM2.5 and respiratory mortality in multicity studies. Panel studies also 

indicate associations with PM2.5 and respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function, and pulmonary 

inflammation among asthmatic children. Further support for these observations is provided by recent 

controlled human exposure studies in adults demonstrating increased markers of pulmonary 

inflammation following DE and other traffic-related exposures, oxidative responses to DE and wood 

smoke, and exacerbations of allergic responses and allergic sensitization following exposure to DE 

particles. Although not consistent across studies, some controlled human exposure studies have 

reported small decrements in various measures of pulmonary function following exposures to PM2.5. 

Numerous toxicological studies demonstrating a wide range of responses provide biological 

plausibility for the associations between PM2.5 and respiratory morbidity observed in epidemiologic 

studies. Altered pulmonary function, mild pulmonary inflammation and injury, oxidative responses, 

December 2009 6-151 
AHR in allergic and non-allergic animals, exacerbations of allergic responses and increased 

susceptibility to infections were observed in a large number of studies involving exposure to CAPs, 

DE, other traffic-related PM, and wood smoke. The evidence for an effect of PM2.5 on respiratory 

outcomes is somewhat restricted by limited coherence between some of the findings from 

epidemiologic and controlled human exposure studies for the specific health outcomes reported and 

the sub-populations in which those health outcomes occur. For instance, although there is evidence 

for respiratory symptoms among asthmatic children in epidemiologic panel studies, the studies of 

hospital admissions and ED visits provide more evidence for effects from COPD and respiratory 

infections than for asthma. Additionally, controlled human exposure studies report greater effects in 

healthy adults when compared to asthmatics or those suffering from COPD. Finally, there is limited 

information which could explain the relationship between the clinical and subclinical respiratory 

outcomes observed and the magnitude of the PM2.5-respiratory mortality associations reported. 

Therefore, the evidence is sufficient to conclude that a causal relationship is likely to exist 

between short-term PM2.5 exposures and respiratory effects. 

6.3.10.2. PM10-2.5

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) presented the results from several 

epidemiologic studies of respiratory symptoms and PM10-2.5, which provided limited evidence for 

cough and effects on morning PEF. Toxicology data for PM10-2.5 were extremely limited, and there 

were no controlled human exposure studies presented in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) that evaluated the effect of PM10-2.5 on respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function, or 

inflammation. Epidemiologic studies of the effect of PM10-2.5 on hospitalizations or ED visits for 

respiratory diseases (i.e., pneumonia, COPD and respiratory diseases combined) reviewed in the 

2004 AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reported positive associations. Additionally, the few 

mortality studies that examined cause-specific mortality suggested somewhat larger risk estimates 

for respiratory mortality compared to all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality. 

Several new studies report associations between PM10-2.5 and respiratory hospitalizations with 

the most consistent evidence among children (Figure 6-10 through Figure 6-14), however, effect 

estimates are imprecise. Although a number of studies provide evidence of respiratory effects in 

older adults, a recent analysis of MCAPS data reports that weak associations of PM10-2.5 with 

respiratory hospitalizations are further diminished after adjustment for PM2.5. It is not clear that 

PM10-2.5 estimates across all populations and regions are confounded by PM2.5. An examination of 

PM10-2.5 mortality associations on a national scale found a strong association between PM10-2.5 and 

respiratory mortality, but this association varied when examining city-specific risk estimates 

(Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2009, 188462). The regional variability in PM10-2.5 mortality risk estimates 

is further confirmed by the negative associations reported in the single-city studies evaluated. 

However, there is greater spatial heterogeneity in PM10-2.5 compared to PM2.5 and consequently 

greater potential for exposure measurement error in epidemiologic studies relying on central site 

monitors. This exposure measurement error may bias effect estimates toward the null and could 

explain some of the regional variability in the observed associations between PM10-2.5 and respiratory 

morbidity and mortality. 

Mar et al. (2004, 057309) provide evidence for an association with increased respiratory 

symptoms in asthmatic children, but not asthmatic adults. Consistent with this, controlled human 

exposures to PM10-2.5 have not been observed to affect lung function or respiratory symptoms in 

healthy or asthmatic adults. However, increases in markers of pulmonary inflammation have been 

demonstrated in healthy volunteers. In these studies, an increase in neutrophils in BALF or induced 

sputum was observed, with additional evidence of alveolar macrophage activation associated with 

biological components of PM10-2.5 (i.e., endotoxin). Toxicological studies using inhalation exposures 

are still lacking, but pulmonary injury and inflammation have been observed in animals after IT 

instillation exposure and both rural and urban PM10-2.5 have induced these responses. In some cases, 

PM10-2.5 from urban air was more potent than PM2.5 (Section 6.3.3.3). PM10-2.5 respiratory effects may 

be due to components other than endotoxin (Wegesser and Last, 2008, 190506). 

Overall, the most compelling new evidence comes from a number of recent epidemiology 

studies conducted in Canada and France showing significant associations between respiratory ED 

visits or hospitalization and short-term exposure to PM10-2.5. Effects have been observed in areas 

where the mean 24-h avg PM10-2.5 concentrations ranged from 7.4 to 13.0 μg/m3

. The strongest 

relationships were observed among children, whereas studies of adults and older adults show less 

December 2009 6-152 
consistent evidence of an association. While controlled human exposure studies have not observed 

an effect on lung function or respiratory symptoms in healthy or asthmatic adults in response to 

exposure to PM10-2.5, healthy volunteers have exhibited increases in markers of pulmonary 

inflammation. Toxicological studies using inhalation exposures are still lacking, but pulmonary 

injury has been observed in animals after IT instillation exposure to both rural and urban PM10-2.5, 

which may not be entirely attributed to endotoxin. Overall, epidemiologic studies, along with the 

limited number of controlled human exposure and toxicological studies that examined PM10-2.5 and 

respiratory outcomes, provide evidence that is suggestive of a causal relationship between 

short-term PM10-2.5 exposures and respiratory effects. 

6.3.10.3. UFPs

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) included a few epidemiologic and controlled 

human exposure studies that examined the effect of UFPs on respiratory morbidity. Collectively 

these studies provided limited evidence of an association between UFPs and respiratory symptoms, 

medication use, inflammation, and decreased pulmonary function. Evidence from toxicological 

studies presented in the 2004 AQCD, although limited, suggested that exposure via inhalation to 

high concentrations of UF TiO2 may increase pulmonary inflammation in healthy rodents. Since the 

publication of the 2004 AQCD there has been an increased focus among the scientific community on 

gaining a better understanding of the potential health effects associated with exposure to UFPs 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). A number of recent controlled human exposure and toxicological studies 

have evaluated respiratory responses following exposures to UF CAPs, model particles, and fresh 

diesel or gasoline exhaust. While DE contains both PM2.5 and UFPs, the MMAD is typically 

≤ 100 nm, and therefore the results of these studies may be used to support findings from studies 

utilizing other sources of UFP. 

UFPs were associated with incident wheezing symptoms among infants (<1 yr) in a study 

conducted in Copenhagen, Denmark, where the mean UFP number concentration was 8,092 

particles/cm3

, though this association did not persist for children between ages 1-3 yr (Andersen et 

al., 2008, 096150). Recent epidemiologic studies conducted in Copenhagen, Denmark and Helsinki, 

Finland, reported associations between UFPs and hospital admissions or ED visits for respiratory 

diseases, including childhood asthma and pneumonia in adults (Andersen et al., 2008, 189651; 

Halonen et al., 2008, 189507). The median UFP number concentrations in Copenhagen and Helsinki 

were 6,243 particles/cm3

 and 8,203 particles/cm3, respectively. Associations between UFP and ED 

visits for respiratory diseases were not observed in the Atlanta-based SOPHIA study, where the mean 

UFP number concentration was 38,000 particles/cm3. 

A single recent epidemiologic study has examined associations between UFP and pulmonary 

function, and observed that asthmatic adults exhibited decreased lung function after exposure to 

diesel traffic pollution in London (McCreanor et al., 2007, 092841). Two new controlled human 

exposure studies have reported small decreases in pulmonary function among healthy adults 

approximately following exposure to Los Angeles UF CAPs or UF EC (Gong et al., 2008, 156483; 

Pietropaoli et al., 2004, 156025). Exposures to lower concentrations of UF CAPs from Chapel Hill, 

NC did not result in any changes in pulmonary function (Samet et al., 2009, 191913). However, 

while Gong et al. (2008, 156483) did not observe any effect of exposure to UF CAPs on markers of 

pulmonary inflammation, Samet et al. (2009, 191913) reported an UF CAPs-induced increase in IL8 in BALF at 18 hours post-exposure. A limited number of controlled human exposure studies have 

also demonstrated increases in the pulmonary inflammatory response following exposure to UF and 

PM2.5 from DE, which may be enhanced by exposure to O3 (Section 6.3.3.2). 

Altered pulmonary function and inflammation have also been observed in toxicological studies 

of DE and UF model particles (Sections 6.3.2.3 and 6.3.3.3). In one rat model, pulmonary 

inflammation was observed after exposure to UF CB at concentrations as low as 180 μg/m3 (Harder 

et al., 2005, 087371). However, inflammatory responses vary considerably depending on the animal 

model, dose, test material, and exposure duration. In cases where pulmonary inflammation was not 

observed, oxidative stress was often evident (Section 6.3.4.2). Oxidative stress is a major mechanism 

by which PM may exert effects (Chapter 5), and some toxicological studies suggest that UFPs are 

more potent than PM2.5, possibly due to a higher proportion of pro-oxidative OC and PAH content 

and greater surface area with which to deliver these components. 

The relationship between exposure to UFP and pulmonary injury has not been widely 

examined. No association with pulmonary injury biomarkers was found for UFP in a European 

December 2009 6-153 
multicity epidemiologic study (Timonen et al., 2004, 087915). In controlled human exposure studies, 

UFP from wood smoke resulted in significantly increased markers of injury in healthy adults, but 

this effect was not evident in COPD sufferers exposed to DE (Section 6.3.5.2). Exposure of neonatal 

rats to UF iron-soot particles resulted in a significantly reduced rate of cell proliferation in the 

proximal alveolar region, which suggests that postnatal lung development may be susceptible to air 

pollution, consistent with impaired lung function growth observed in children (Pinkerton et al., 2004, 

087465). In contrast, no histopathological responses were evident in adult mice exposed to UF 

iron-soot particles (Last et al., 2004, 097334). Some toxicological studies have reported pulmonary 

injury after inhalation of DE or gasoline exhaust (Section 6.3.5.3). In studies that evaluated ambient 

PM size fractions from a variety of European and U.S. cities for relative toxicity in rodents following 

IT instillation exposure, UFPs were generally less injurious than the larger size fractions. However, 

the UF fraction of Montana coal fly ash induced greater injury and inflammation than the PM10-2.5

fraction (Gilmour et al., 2004, 057420). 

In rodent studies, UF CAPs appeared to be more potent than PM2.5 CAPs in inducing and 

exacerbating allergic responses (Section 6.3.6.3). In addition to CAPs, UF CB or iron-soot particles, 

but not particles from fresh gasoline exhaust, have been shown to induce or exacerbate allergic 

responses in mice. Bacterial clearance appears unaffected by hardwood smoke or gasoline engine 

exhaust. However, host defenses are impaired by DE, which has been shown to reduce bacterial 

clearance, impair defenses against viral infection, and reduce thymus weight, indicating systemic 

immunosuppression. 

Several toxicological studies demonstrated oxidative, inflammatory, and allergic responses 

following exposure to a number of different UFP types, including model particles (i.e., CB, iron-soot 

particles), CAPs, and DE. Although the respiratory effects of controlled exposures to UFPs have not 

been extensively examined in humans, two controlled human exposure studies have observed small 

UFP-induced decreases in pulmonary function; however, no increases in respiratory symptoms have 

been reported. In a limited number of studies, markers of pulmonary inflammation were increased 

following controlled human exposures to UFP, which has been most consistently observed in studies 

using fresh DE. In both controlled human exposure and animal toxicological studies using fresh DE, 

the relative contributions of gaseous copollutants to the observed effects remain unresolved. 

However, similar effects are reported using resuspended DE particles, and although not UFPs, these 

particles can be assumed to have similar composition. A limited number of epidemiologic studies 

have provided some evidence of an association between short-term exposure to UFPs and respiratory 

symptoms, as well as asthma hospitalizations. However, the interpretation of these findings is 

difficult due to the spatial variability of UFPs. Thus, the current collective evidence is suggestive 

of a causal relationship between short-term UFP exposure and respiratory effects. 

6.4. Central Nervous System Effects 

While evidence of an effect of PM on the CNS was not presented in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), a limited number of recent epidemiologic, controlled human exposure 

and toxicological studies provide some evidence that exposure to PM may be associated with 

changes in neurological function. The majority of studies included in this section are of short-term 

exposure, however, there are also a few studies of long-term exposure. As CNS effects of PM are a 

newly emerging area, and since there are so few studies, all studies that evaluate CNS responses are 

included in this section. 

6.4.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Chen and Schwartz (2009, 179945) used extant data on CNS function from the Third National 

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) to characterize the association between 

cognitive function in adults (ages 20-59 yr) and exposure to ambient air pollution. Three 

computerized neurobehavioral tests were used: a simple reaction time test (SRTT), a basic measure 

of visuomotor speed; a symbol digit substitution test (SDST) on coding ability; and a serial digit 

learning test (SDLT) on attention and short-term memory. The authors used annual PM10

concentrations to approximate the long-term exposure to ambient air pollution prior to the 

December 2009 6-154 
NHANES-III examination. Increased PM10 levels were associated with reduced performance in all 

three neurobehavioral tests, and were particularly strong for SDST and SDLT scores in models 

adjusted for age and sex. However, after additional adjustment for race/ethnicity or SES, the 

magnitudes of these associations were greatly diminished and largely null. It is possible that the 

observed associations disappeared after adjustment for race/ethnicity and SES due to the potential 

confounding by residential segregation of ethnic minorities and poorer people in areas with high 

levels of ambient PM10 concentrations. 

Two additional epidemiologic studies evaluated the effect of ambient PM on the CNS 

(Calderón-Garcidueñas et al., 2008, 156317; Suglia et al., 2008, 157027). These studies examined 

long-term exposure to non-specific PM indicators and are detailed in Annex E. 

6.4.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

In a recent controlled human exposure study, Cruts et al. (2008, 156374) exposed 10 healthy 

males (18-39 yr) to filtered air and dilute DE (300 μg/m3

 PM) for 1 h using a randomized crossover 

study design. Changes in brain activity were measured during and following exposure using 

quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG). Exposure to DE was observed to significantly increase 

the median power frequency (MPF) in the frontal cortex during exposure, as well as in the hour 

following the completion of the exposure. While this study does provide some evidence of an acute 

cortical stress response to DE, it is important to note that the QEEG findings are very nonspecific, 

and could have been caused by factors other than diesel PM such as DE gases (e.g., CO, NO and 

NO2) or the odor of the DE. 

6.4.3. Toxicological Studies 

Evidence is mounting that the CNS may be a critical target of PM and that adverse health 

effects may result from PM exposure. Whether these health effects are a direct or indirect effect of 

PM has not yet been established. One hypothesis suggests that UFPs which deposit onto nasal 

olfactory epithelium enter the CNS by axonal olfactory transport to the olfactory bulb and lead to a 

cascade of effects involving inflammatory cytokines and ROS. An increased potential for 

neurodegenerative processes may ensue. Evidence for translocation of UFPs to the olfactory bulb via 

olfactory neurons is discussed in Chapter 4, but its relevance to CNS health effects is unknown. 

Another hypothesis suggests that brain inflammation occurs secondarily to PM-mediated systemic 

inflammation. Finally, it has been suggested that PM-stimulation of the ANS via respiratory tract 

receptors results in inflammatory or other effects in the CNS. This is an emerging field with many 

unknowns. 

6.4.3.1. Urban Air 

Calderon-Garciduenas et al. (2003, 156316) conducted a long-term observational study in 

mongrel dogs from Mexico City and Tlaxcala. DNA damage and inflammation in the brain and 

respiratory tract were evaluated in dogs living in Mexico City (exposed group) and dogs living in 

Tlaxcala (control group). These cities are similar in altitude but differ in air pollutant levels. 

Measurements of air pollutant levels were presented only for Mexico City, the more polluted city. 

Statistically significant greater levels of apurinic/apyrimidinic sites (an indicator of DNA damage) 

were observed in the olfactory bulbs and hippocampus of Mexico City dogs compared with controls. 

These differences were not seen in other brain regions examined or in nasal respiratory epithelium. 

In addition, Mexico City dogs demonstrated greater histopathological changes in the respiratory and 

olfactory epithelium of the nasal cavity compared with controls. Immunohistochemical staining of 

brain tissue from the Mexico City dogs demonstrated greater immunoreactivity for NF-κB, iNOS, 

cyclooxygenase-2, glial fibrillatory acidic protein (GFAP), ApoE, amyloid precursor product and 

β-amyloid compared with controls. These results are indicative of inflammation and stress protein 

responses. This study has several limitations given that the dogs were of mixed breeds and of 

variable ages and that there was no standardization of exposures or diets. However results suggest a 

possible relationship between air pollution and brain inflammation. 

December 2009 6-155 
6.4.3.2. CAPs

Several new inhalation studies have provided evidence of CNS effects due to ambient PM 

exposures. In one study, Campbell et al. (2005, 087217) exposed OVA-sensitized BALB/c mice to 

filtered air or near-highway Los Angeles CAPs (a 20-fold concentration of PM2.5+UFPs or UFPs 

only; mean exposure concentration UFPs 282.5 μg/m3 and PM2.5 441.7 μg/m3

) for 4 h/day and 5 

days/wk over a 2-wk period. The animals were subsequently challenged with OVA to elicit an 

allergic response in the lungs; brain tissue was obtained one day later. Exposure to CAPs, but not 

filtered air, resulted in activation of the immune-related transcription factor NF-κB and upregulation 

of the cytokines TNF-α, and IL-1α in the brain, demonstrating pro-inflammatory responses that 

could contribute to neurodegenerative disease. While this study demonstrates CAPs effects in an 

allergic animal model, it is not known whether these responses also occur in non-allergic animals. 

In a second study, control or OVA-sensitized and challenged Brown Norway rats were exposed 

for 8 h to filtered air or PM2.5 CAPs (500 μg/m3

) in Grand Rapids, MI (Sirivelu et al., 2006, 111151). 

Brain tissue was obtained 1 day later. CAPs exposure resulted in brain region-specific modulation of 

neurotransmitters. In animals which were not pretreated with OVA, statistically significant increases 

in norepinephrine were observed in the paraventricular nucleus and olfactory bulb of CAPs-exposed 

rats compared with filtered air controls. In animals which were pretreated with OVA, a statistically 

significant increase in dopamine was observed in the medial preoptic area in CAPs-exposed rats 

compared with controls. Furthermore, exposure to CAPs resulted in a statistically significant 

increase in serum corticosterone. These data suggest that the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis 

(i.e., stress axis) may be activated by PM exposure, causing aggravation of allergic airway disease. 

The authors discuss the possible role of the olfactory bulb in mediating neuroendocrine control of 

autonomic activities involved in respiratory and cardiovascular functions; however these 

relationships require clarification. 

Pro-inflammatory responses were examined in a subchronic CAPs study involving normal 

(C57BL/6J) and ApoE-/- mice (Kleinman et al., 2008, 190074). Mice were exposed to filtered air or 

to two concentrations of UF CAPs from a near-highway area of central Los Angeles (average of 30.4 

and 114.2 μg/m3

) for 5 h/day and 3 days/wk over a 6-wk period. Brain tissue was harvested one day 

after the last exposure and cortical samples prepared. CAPs exposure resulted in activation of 

transcription factors, with a dose-dependent increase observed for AP-1 and an increase in NF-κB 

observed at the higher concentration. Increased levels of GFAP (representing activation of 

astrocytes) and phosphorylated JNK (representing MAP kinase activation) were observed at the 

lower but not higher concentration of CAPs. No changes were observed in levels of or activation of 

the other MAP kinases p38 and ERK or of IκB. These findings provide evidence that inhalation of 

CAPs can lead to activation of cell signaling pathways involved in upregulation of pro-inflammatory 

cytokine genes in the cortical region of the mouse brain. 

In another study utilizing normal (C57BL/6) and ApoE-/- mice, brain histopathology was 

examined following a 4-month chronic exposure to PM2.5 CAPs from Tuxedo, NY (March, April or 

May through September 2003) (Veronesi et al., 2005, 087481). The average PM2.5 exposure 

concentration was 110 μg/m3

. CAPs exposure resulted in a statistically significant decrease in 

dopaminergic neurons, measured by tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity, in the substantia nigra 

of ApoE-/- mice but not in control mice. This population of neurons is targeted in neurodegenerative 

diseases such as Parkinson’s. Furthermore, a statistically significant increase in GFAP 

immunoreactivity, a marker for astrocytes, was observed in the nucleus compacta of CAPs-exposed 

ApoE-/- mice compared to air-exposed ApoE-/- mice. These results suggest that the ApoE-/- mice, a 

genetic model involving increased oxidative stress, are susceptible to PM-induced 

neurodegeneration. Evidence for brain oxidative stress has also been found in normal animals 

following IT instillation of high concentrations of PM2.5 from Taiyuan, China (Liu and Meng, 2005, 

088650) and of gasoline exhaust (Che et al., 2007, 096460) and following chronic exposure to ROFA 

by intranasal instillation (Zanchi et al., 2008, 157173). 

6.4.3.3. Diesel Exhaust 

A recent study tested the effects of DE inhalation on spatial learning and memory functionrelated gene expression in the hippocampus (Win-Shwe et al., 2008, 190146). Male BALB/c mice 

were exposed to DE (148.86 μg/m3 PM) for 5 h/day and 5 day/wk over a 4-wk period. Particle size 

was 26.21±1.50 nm and PNC was 1.92×106

 ± 6.18×104 particles/m3. Concentrations of gases were 

December 2009 6-156 
3.27 ppm CO, 0.01 ppm SO2, 0.53 ppm NO2, 0.98 ppm NO and 0.07 ppm CO2. Half of the animals 

were injected i.p. once per week with lipoteichoic acid (LTA), a bacterial cell wall component used 

to induce systemic inflammation. The ability of the mice to perform spatial learning tasks was 

examined the day after the final exposure to DE and on two subsequent days. Impaired acquisition of 

spatial learning was observed in DE-exposed mice on the first day and on all three days in DEexposed mice that had also been treated with LTA. LTA by itself had no effect. Since the NMDA (a 

type of neurotransmitter) receptors in the hippocampus play an important role in spatial learning 

ability, mice were sacrificed and total RNA from hippocampus was extracted and analyzed for 

expression of NMDA receptor subunits. DE exposure resulted in a statistically significant increase in 

the expression of one subunit while the combined exposure to DE and LTA resulted in statistically 

significant increases in the expression of three subunits compared with controls. The expression of 

pro-inflammatory cytokines was also examined in the hippocampus. DE exposure resulted in a 

statistically significant increase in TNF-α mRNA, while LTA exposure resulted in a statistically 

significant increase IL-1β mRNA compared with controls. Neither exposure altered the expression of 

HO-1. These results demonstrated that subchronic exposure to UF-rich DE resulted in impaired 

spatial learning and altered expression of hippocampal genes involved in memory function and 

inflammation. These responses were modulated by systemic inflammation. 

6.4.3.4. Summary of Toxicological Study Findings of CNS Effects 

In summary, PM may produce adverse effects in the CNS by direct or indirect mechanisms 

which are at present incompletely understood. Two recent short-term PM2.5 CAPs inhalation studies 

demonstrated pro-inflammatory responses in the brain and brain region-specific modulation of 

neurotransmitters and suggest the involvement of neuroimmunological pathways. One recent chronic 

PM2.5 CAPs inhalation study demonstrated loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and 

suggested that oxidative stress contributes to neurodegeneration. Veronesi et al. (2005, 087481) have 

noted that the brain is very vulnerable to the oxidative stress induced by PM due to the brain’s high 

energy demands, low levels of endogenous free radical scavengers, and high content of lipids and 

proteins. PM-mediated upregulation of inflammatory cytokines and mediators may also contribute to 

neurodegeneration. In fact, a recent subchronic study involving UF CAPs demonstrated the 

activation of cell signaling pathways associated with upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines in 

brain cortical regions. Furthermore, a subchronic study involving UF-rich DE demonstrated impaired 

spatial learning and altered expression of pro-inflammatory and neurotransmitter receptor genes in 

the hippocampus. Further investigations are required to delineate mechanisms involved in these 

responses. 

6.4.4. Summary and Causal Determination 

Recent animal toxicological studies involving acute or chronic CAPs exposure have 

demonstrated pro-inflammatory responses in the brain, brain region-specific modulation of 

neurotransmitters and loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (Campbell et al., 2005, 

087217; Kleinman et al., 2008, 190074; Sirivelu et al., 2006, 111151; Veronesi et al., 2005, 087481). 

However, the mechanisms underlying these effects need to be delineated. A single controlled human 

exposure study provides some evidence of an acute cortical stress response to DE, though these 

findings are nonspecific and could have been caused by DE gases rather than DE particles (Cruts et 

al., 2008, 156374). Similar consideration is warranted for the single animal toxicological study 

involving DE which demonstrated impaired spatial learning and altered expression of proinflammatory and neurotransmitter genes in the hippocampus following subchronic exposure (WinShwe et al., 2008, 190146). The single epidemiology study that examined CNS outcomes did not 

find associations between long-term exposure to PM10 and cognitive function in adults after 

adjustment for race/ethnicity or SES (Chen and Schwartz, 2009, 179945). Though the effect of 

ambient air pollution on CNS outcomes has recently begun to draw more attention, the evidence for 

a PM-induced CNS effect is limited. While most available studies have evaluated the effects of fine 

particle exposures, there is insufficient evidence to draw conclusions regarding effects of specific 

PM size fractions. Overall, the evidence is inadequate to determine if a causal relationship 

exists between short-term exposures to PM2.5, PM10-2.5, or UFPs and CNS effects.

December 2009 6-157 
6.5. Mortality 

The relationship between short-term exposure to PM and mortality has been extensively 

addressed in previous PM assessments (U.S. EPA, 1982, 017610; 1996, 079380; 2004, 056905). A 

positive association between PM concentration and mortality was consistently demonstrated across 

studies cited in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905); these results are summarized below 

in Section 6.5.1. Numerous studies have been published since the previous review, including a 

number of multicity analyses and many single-city studies. The current body of evidence examines 

the association between short-term exposure to PM of various size fractions (i.e., PM10, PM10-2.5, 

PM2.5, and UFPs) and mortality through the use of time-series and/or case-crossover studies. Both 

study designs aim to disentangle the PM-mortality effect through either complex modeling (i.e., 

time-series) or matching strategies (i.e., case-crossover). Overall, the results of the more recent 

studies build upon the conclusions from the previous review, showing consistent positive 

associations between mortality and short-term exposure to PM2.5 and PM10-2.5. Section 6.5.2 reviews and summarizes the results of recent studies that examined mortality 

associations with the four PM size classes listed above. Each section integrates the results of recent 

studies with those available in previous PM reviews. This assessment first focuses on multicity 

studies that examined mortality associations with PM10 because this is an important body of 

literature that provides information on potential effect modifiers, potential confounding by 

copollutants, evaluation of concentration-response relationships, and the influence of different 

modeling approaches on the PM-mortality relationship (Section 6.5.2.1). The PM10 studies have 

provided the most data among the PM indices thus far; therefore this evaluation begins with the 

consideration of those findings as they relate to the general association between PM and mortality. It 

is difficult to interpret the extent to which these studies inform an evaluation of the effects of PM2.5 

or PM10-2.5, since data are combined from multiple cities with different PM composition. 

Interpretations of the PM size fraction that contributes the most to the PM10 effects observed are 

provided when appropriate in the following review. The multicity studies that examine the 

association between PM10 and mortality also offer new evidence on regional and seasonal differences 

in effect estimates, building upon observations made in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905). 

Recent study findings on associations with PM2.5, PM10-2.5, and UFPs are evaluated in Sections 

6.5.2.2, 6.5.2.3, and 6.5.2.4, respectively. For PM2.5, the focus of the assessment remains on multicity 

study findings; however, for PM10-2.5 and UFPs, some additional emphasis is placed on single-city 

studies, due to the relative sparseness of peer-reviewed literature on these size fractions. Some 

studies have also evaluated relationships between mortality and specific components and sources of 

PM, and the results are summarized in Sections 6.5.2.4 and 6.5.2.5. Finally, Section 6.5.2.6 assesses 

evidence on the concentration-response relationship between short-term PM exposure and mortality. 

6.5.1. Summary of Findings from 2004 PM AQCD 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) found strong evidence that PM10 and PM2.5, or 

one or more PM2.5 components, acting alone and/or in combination with gaseous copollutants, are 

associated with total (nonaccidental) mortality and various cause-specific mortality outcomes. For 

PM10, several multicity studies in the U.S., Canada, and Europe provided strong support for this 

conclusion, reporting associations with total mortality highlighted by effect estimates ranging from 

~0.2 to 0.7% (per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10) (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Numerous studies also 

reported PM10 associations with cause-specific mortality, specifically cardiovascular- and 

respiratory-related mortality. For PM2.5, the strength of the evidence varied across categories of 

cause-specific mortality, with relatively stronger evidence for associations with cardiovascular 

compared to respiratory mortality. The resulting effect estimates reported from the U.S.- and 

Canadian-based studies (both multi- and single-city) analyzed for these two categories ranged from 

1.2 to 2.7% for cardiovascular-related mortality and 0.8 to 2.7% for respiratory-related mortality, per 

10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). In regards to PM10-2.5, the PM AQCD found a 

limited body of evidence that was suggestive of associations between short-term exposure to ambient 

PM10-2.5 and various mortality outcomes (e.g., 0.08-2.4% increase in total [nonaccidental] mortality 

per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10-2.5). The positive effect estimates obtained from studies that analyzed 

the association between PM10-2.5 and mortality resulted in the conclusion that PM10-2.5, or some 

December 2009 6-158 
constituent component(s) (including those on the surface) of PM10-2.5, may contribute, in certain 

circumstances, to increased human health risks. 

Some additional studies examined the association between specific PM2.5 chemical 

components and mortality. These studies observed associations for SO4

2–, NO3-

, and CoH, but not 

crustal particles. The strength of the association for each component varied from city to city 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Source-oriented analyses were also conducted to identify specific 

source-types associated with mortality. These studies implicate PM2.5 from anthropogenic origin, 

such as motor vehicle emissions, coal combustion, oil burning, and vegetative burning, as being 

important in contributing to increased mortality (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

6.5.2. Associations of Mortality and Short-Term Exposure to PM 

The recent literature examines the association between short-term exposure to various PM size 

fractions (i.e., PM10, PM10-2.5, PM2.5, UFPs, or species [e.g., OC, EC, transition metals, etc.]) and 

mortality. This ISA, similar to previous AQCDs, focuses more heavily on multicity studies, and 

especially those conducted in the U.S. and Canada (Table 6-15). By using this approach it is possible 

to: (1) obtain a more representative sample of or insight into the PM-mortality relationship observed 

across the U.S.; (2) analyze the association between mortality and short-term exposure to PM at or 

near ambient conditions observed in the U.S.; (3) examine the potential heterogeneity in effect 

estimates between cities and regions; and (4) analyze the confounders and/or effect modifiers that 

may explain the PM-mortality relationship in the U.S. Although this section focuses on mortality 

outcomes in response to short-term exposure to PM, it does not evaluate studies that examine the 

association between PM and infant mortality. These studies are evaluated in Section 7.5,,although it 

is possible that short- and long-term in utero exposures may contribute to infant mortality. In 

addition, the exposure windows of interest for this unique health outcome can be difficult to 

characterize and may span both short- and long-term exposure periods. 

Table 6-15. Overview of U.S. and Canadian multicity PM studies of mortality analyzed in the 2004 PM 

AQCD and the PM ISAb. 

Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

98th; 99th 

Percentiles (μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile: 

Concentrations (μg/m3)

PM10

 Dominici et al. (2003, 156407)

a 90 U.S. cities 15.3-53.2 --- NR 

 Burnett and Goldberg (2003, 042798)

a 8 Canadian cities 25.9 --- 95th: 54; Maximum: 121 

 Peng et al. (2005, 087463) 100 U.S. cities 13-49 --- 50th: 27.1; 75th: 32.0 

Maximum: 48.7 

 Dominici et al. (2007, 097361)

 f 100 U.S. cities 13-49 --- 50th: 27.1; 75th: 32.0 

Maximum: 48.7 

 Welty and Zeger (2005, 087484)

 f 100 U.S. cities 13-49 --- 50th: 27.1; 75th: 32.0 

Maximum: 48.7 

 Bell et al. (2009, 191007) 84 U.S. urban 

communities NR --- NR 

 Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) 12 Canadian cities NR --- NR 

 Samoli et al. (2008, 188455) 

12 Canadian cities 

90 U.S. citiese

22 European cities 

NR --- NR 

 Schwartz (2004, 078998) 14 U.S. cities 23-36d --- 75th: 31-57 

 Schwartz (2004, 053506) 14 U.S. cities 23-36d --- 75th: 31-57 

 Zeka et al. (2005, 088068) 20 U.S. cities 15-37.5 --- NR 

 Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) 20 U.S. cities 15.9-37.5 --- NR 

December 2009 6-159 
Study Location Mean Concentration 

(μg/m3) 

98th; 99th 

Percentiles (μg/m3) 

Upper Percentile: 

Concentrations (μg/m3)

PM2.5

 Burnett and Goldberg (2003, 042798)

a 8 Canadian cities 13.3 38.9; 45.4 95th: 32; Maximum: 86 

 Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) 96 U.S. cities NR --- NR 

 Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 112 U.S. cities 13.2 34.3; 38.6 Maximum: 57.4 

 Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) 27 U.S. cities 15.6 45.8; 54.7 Maximum: 239 

 Franklin et al. (2008, 097426)

g

 25 U.S. cities 14.8 43.0; 50.9 Maximum: 239.2 

 Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) 9 California counties 19.9 68.2; 82.0 95th: 61.3; Maximum: 160.0 

 Ostro et al. (2007, 091354) 6 California counties 18.4 61.2; 70.1 Maximum: 116.1 

 Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) 12 Canadian cities 12.8 38.0; 45.0 Maximum: 86.0 

PM10-2.5

 Burnett and Goldberg (2003, 042798)

a 8 Canadian cities 12.6 --- 95th: 30; Maximum: 99 

 Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 47 U.S. cities 11.8 40.2; 47.2 Maximum: 88.3 

 Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) 12 Canadian cities 11.4 --- Maximum: 151 

 Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Canada 6.1 --- 90th: 13.0; Maximum: 72.0 

 Klemm et al. (2004, 056585) Atlanta, Georgia 9.7 20.7 50th: 9.34; 75th: 11.94 

Maximum: 25.17 

 Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, Washington NR --- NR 

 Wilson et al. (2007, 157149) Phoenix, Arizona NR --- NR 

 Kettunen et al. (2007, 091242) Helsinki, Finland Cold season: 6.7d

Warm season: 8.4d --- 

Cold season: 50th: 6.7 

 75th: 12.5; Maximum: 101.4

Warm season: 50th: 8.4 

 75th: 11.8; Maximum: 42.0 

 Perez et al. (2008, 156020) 

 Barcelona, Spain 

Saharan Dust Days: 16.4 

Non-Saharan Dust Days: 

14.9 

--- 

Saharan Dust Days 

 50th: 14.8; 75th: 21.8 

 Maximum: 36.7 

Non-Saharan Dust Days 

 50th: 12.6; 75th: 18.9 

 Maximum: 93.1 

a

 Multicity studies examined in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) b

 Because only two multicity study was identified that examined PM10-2.5, single-city and international studies that examined PM10-2.5 were analyzed in this ISA and are included in this table. c

 The majority of multicity studies examined in the PM ISA provide the mean PM concentration of each individual city, not an overall PM concentration across all cities. As a result, the range of PM 

concentrations for a particular study are presented, which represents the lowest and highest mean PM concentrations reported across cities, if an overall mean is not provided within the study. d

 Median PM concentration. 

e The study included 90 U.S. cities in the 1-day lag analysis, but only 15 U.S. cities in the analysis of the average of lag days 0-1. f The concentrations reported for these studies were estimated from Peng et al. (2005, 087463) because they used the same number of cities and years of data from NMMAPS. g

 This study did not present an overall mean 24-h avg PM2.5 concentration across all cities for each season. The range of mean 24-h avg concentrations reported in this table for each season represents the 

lowest mean 24-h avg PM2.5 concentration and the highest 24-h avg PM2.5 concentration reported across all cities included in the study. 

6.5.

 

2.1. PM10

The majority of studies that examined the association between short-term exposure to PM and 

mortality focused on effects attributed to PM10. Although these studies do not characterize the 

compositional differences in PM10 across the cities examined in each of the studies evaluated, they 

can provide an underlying basis for the overall pattern of associations observed when examining the 

relationship between PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 and mortality. The studies evaluated in this review analyzed 

the PM10-mortality relationship through either a time-series or case-crossover design.1 

1

 Schwartz (1981, 078988) used a case-crossover study design, but also conducted a time-series analysis to validate the results obtained 

using the case-crossover approach. 

December 2009 6-160 
Time-Series Analyses 

Mortality associations with short-term exposure to PM10 in the U.S. have been examined in 

several updated time-series analyses of the NMMAPS. In the previous NMMAPS analysis 

(Dominici et al., 2003, 156407; Samet et al., 2000, 005809; Samet et al., 2000, 010269) of the 

1987-1994 data, which was reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), the 

strongest association was found for nonaccidental mortality for 1-day lag, with a combined estimate 

across 90 cities of 0.21% (95% PI: 0.09-0.33) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10. The association was 

found to be robust to the inclusion of other gaseous copollutants in the regression models, but the 

investigators found heterogeneity across regions, with the strongest associations in northeastern 

cities. In the new updated analyses, the investigators examined additional issues surrounding the 

association between PM and mortality including: seasonal effect modification; change in risk 

estimates over time; sensitivity of results to alternative weather models; and effect modification by 

air conditioning use. The NMMAPS data has also been used to examine the PM concentrationresponse relationship using PM10 data from 20 cities (Section 6.5.2.7). A few multicity studies 

conducted in Canada and Europe provide additional information, which further clarifies and supports 

the association between PM and mortality presented in the NMMAPS analyses. 

Seasonal Analyses of PM10-Mortality Associations 

Using the updated NMMAPS data, which consisted of 100 U.S. cities for the period 

1987-2000, Peng et al. (2005, 087463) examined the effect of season on PM10-mortality associations. 

In their first stage regression model, for each city, the PM10 effect was modeled to have a sinusoidal 

shape that completes a cycle in a year, but was constrained to be periodic across years using 

sine/cosine terms. The authors also considered a model that consisted of PM10-season interactions 

using season indicators. Both of these models also included covariates that were used in their earlier 

NMMAPS analyses. In the second stage model, the seasonal patterns of PM10 mortality coefficients 

were estimated for seven geographic regions and on average for the entire U.S. Peng et al. (2005, 

087463) found for 1-day lag, at the national level, season specific increases in nonaccidental 

mortality per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 of: 0.15% (95% PI: -0.08 to 0.39), 0.14% (95% PI: -0.14 to 

0.42), 0.36% (95% PI: 0.11-0.61), and 0.14% (95% PI: -0.06 to 0.34) for winter, spring, summer, and 

fall, respectively. The corresponding all-season estimate was 0.19% (95% PI: 0.10-0.28). After the 

inclusion of SO2, O3, or NO2 in the model with PM10 in a subset of cities (i.e., 45 cities) for which 

data existed, PM10 risk estimates remained fairly robust. An analysis by geographic region found a 

strong seasonal pattern in the Northeast. Figure 6-16 presents the estimated seasonal pattern of PM10

risk estimates by region from Peng et al. (2005, 087463), which includes a sensitivity analysis aimed 

to determine the appropriate number of degrees of freedom for temporal adjustment. It is clear from 

Figure 6-16 that the Northeast has the strongest association with PM10 and mortality, which peaks in 

the summer and is robust to the extent of temporal adjustment. The industrial Midwest also shows 

the summer peak, but with smaller risk estimates. Other regions have either no seasonal pattern 

(Southeast) or a suggestion of a spring peak that appears to be sensitive to the extent of temporal 

adjustment. On a nationwide basis, the PM10 risk estimates appear to peak between spring and 

summer. Overall, this study identified an effect modifier that may be useful in identifying the 

specific chemical component(s) of PM that are related to specific regions and times of the year. 

Change in PM10-Mortality Associations over Time 

Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) conducted an analysis of the extended NMMAPS data set (i.e., 

1987-2000) to examine if short-term PM10-mortality risk estimates changed during the course of the 

study period. The investigators estimated the average PM10 mortality risk coefficient for 1-day lag, 

using essentially the same model specification as in their 2003 analysis, separately for three time 

periods (i.e., 1987-1994, 1995-2000, and 1987-2000) the ‘‘eastern U.S.’’ (62 counties), the ‘‘western 

U.S.’’ (38 counties), and all 100 U.S. counties. To produce national and regional estimates, two-stage 

hierarchical models were used as in the previous NMMAPS studies. As shown in Table 6-16, the 

authors found a continuation of the PM10-mortality association in the nationwide data for the entire 

study period. A comparison of the relative risk estimates for 1987-1994 vs. 1995-2000 suggests weak 

evidence (not a statistically significant difference) that short-term effects declined. Most of the 

decline in the national estimate appears to be attributable to the eastern U.S. counties. However, the 

decline in the risk estimate for all-cause mortality in the eastern U.S. appears to be 

December 2009 6-161 
disproportionately influenced by the reduction in the risk estimate for the “other” mortality category 

(i.e., all-cause minus cardio-respiratory category, which may be 40-50% of all-cause deaths in U.S. 

cities). Likewise, the apparent increase in the risk estimate for all-cause mortality in the western U.S. 

appears to be affected by the increase in the risk estimate for the “other” mortality category. Because 

the study does not clearly identify the specific cause(s) in the “other” mortality category that are 

affected by PM, interpreting the reduction in risk estimates for all-cause mortality requires caution. 

In contrast, the apparent reductions (~23%) in PM10 risk estimates for cardio-respiratory deaths were 

more comparable between the two regions. 

 Source: Reprinted with Permission of Oxford University Press from Peng et al. (2005, 087463) 

Figure 6-16. National and regional estimates of smooth seasonal effects for PM10 at a 1-day 

lag and their sensitivity to the degrees of freedom assigned to the smooth 

function of time in the updated NMMAPS data 1987-2000. Note: The degrees of 

freedom chosen were 3 df (short-dashed line), 5 df (dotted line), 7 df (solid line), 9 

df (dotted-and-dashed line), and 11 df (long-dashed line) per year of data. 

In addition, the investigators estimated time-varying PM10 mortality risk as a linear function of 

calendar time for the period 1987-2000, producing the percentage rate change in the PM10 risk 

estimate with a change in time of 1 yr. The estimated rate of decline in slope for all-cause mortality 

and the combination of cardiovascular and respiratory mortality were -0.012 (95% PI: -0.037 to 

0.014) and -0.016 (95% PI: -0.058 to 0.027), respectively. The authors also estimated a PM2.5

mortality risk for the period 1999-2000 (discussed in Section 6.5.2.2.). 

December 2009 6-162 
Table 6-16. NMMAPS national and regional percentage increase in all-cause, cardio-respiratory, and 

other-cause mortality associated with a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 at lag 1 day for the 

periods 1987-1994, 1995-2000, and 1987-2000. 

1987-1994 95% PI 1996-2000 95% PI 1987-2000 95% PI 

ALL CAUSE 

East 0.29 0.12, 0.46 0.13 -0.19, 0.44 0.25 0.11, 0.39 

West 0.12 -0.07, 0.30 0.18 -0.07, 0.44 0.12 -0.02, 026 

National 0.21 0.10, 0.32 0.18 0.00, 0.35 0.19 0.10, 0.28 

CARDIORESPIRATORY 

East 0.39 0.16, 0.63 0.30 -0.13, 0.73 0.34 0.15, 0.54 

West 0.17 -0.07, 0.40 0.13 -0.23, 0.50 0.14 -0.05, 0.33 

National 0.28 0.14, 0.43 0.21 -0.03, 0.44 0.24 0.13, 0.36 

OTHER 

East 0.21 -0.03, 0.44 0.00 -0.49, 0.50 0.15 -0.09, 0.39 

 West 0.09 -0.21, 0.38 0.23 -0.15, 0.62 0.11 -0.10, 0.33 

National 0.15 -0.02, 0.32 0.17 -0.07, 0.41 0.15 0.00, 0.29 

Source: Reprinted with Permission of HEI from Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) 

The objective of the Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) study described above was motivated by 

accountability research, the idea of measuring the impact of policy interventions. However, unlike 

the intervention studies conducted in Hong Kong (Hedley et al., 2002, 040284) and Dublin, Ireland 

(Clancy et al., 2002, 035270) that were reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), 

this study was not designed to estimate a reduction in mortality in response to a sudden change in air 

pollution. In fact, the figure of observed trend in PM10 levels presented in the Dominici et al. (2007, 

097361) study indicates that the decline in PM10 levels during the study period was very gradual, 

with much of the decline appearing in the first few years (median values of ~33 μg/m3

 in 1987 to 

~25 μg/m3

 in 1992, then down to ~23 μg/m3 in 2000). A flaw in the use of the time-series study 

design for this type of analysis is that it adjusts for long-term trends, and, therefore, does not 

estimate the change in mortality in response to the gradual change in PM10. The apparent change, 

though weak, in the PM10 risk estimates may also reflect a potential change in the composition of 

PM10 (i.e., PM10-2.5 or PM2.5). The study listed a number of PM10-related air pollution control 

programs that were implemented between 1987 and 2000. Some of these programs, such as the Acid 

Rain Control Program, did result in major reductions in emissions, and, therefore, could have 

contributed to the results observed, but the analytic approach used in the study does not allow for a 

systematic analysis of the effect of air pollution policies on the risk of mortality. 

Sensitivity of PM-Mortality Associations to Alternative Weather Models 

To examine the sensitivity of PM10-mortality risk estimates to alternative weather models that 

consider longer lags, Welty and Zeger (2005, 087484) analyzed the updated NMMAPS 100 U.S. 

cities data. All of the previous NMMAPS analyses only considered temperature and dew point up to 

3-day lags. In this analysis, the authors considered various forms of a constrained distributed lag 

model: (1) containing a step function of temperature with steps at lag 0, 2, 7 and extended to 

14 days; (2) similar to (1) but with time-varying coefficients to change over season and study period; 

and, (3) containing a smooth function to account for non-linearity in the temperature-mortality 

relationship. With the combination of degrees of freedom for temporal trends and the number of 

distributed lags, more than 20 models were applied to each of the 3 lag days (0, 1, and 2) of PM10. 

These city-specific risk estimates were then combined across the 100 cities in the second stage 

Bayesian model. The combined PM10 risk estimates were generally consistent within the lag. In 

particular, the risk estimates for nonaccidental mortality for lag 1 day ranged between 0.15% and 

December 2009 6-163 
0.25% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10, and were always statistically significant regardless of the 

model used. In addition, the range of these point estimates across the models was found to be much 

narrower than the regression posterior intervals. Thus, the PM10 risk estimates at lag 1 day were 

robust to alternative temperature models that considered temperature effects lasting up to a 2-week 

period. 

In summary, the above three analyses of the updated NMMAPS data provided useful 

information on PM-mortality risks, resulting in the following conclusions: (1) estimated PM10

mortality risk is particularly high in the northeast and in the summer; (2) there remains an overall 

PM10-mortality association in the 1987-2000 time period as well as the 1995-2000 time period; (3) 

there is a weak indication that PM10-mortality risk estimates are declining; and (4) PM10-mortality 

risk estimates were not sensitive to alternative temperature models. 

Effect Modification of PM10-Mortality Associations by Air Conditioning Use 

 It has been hypothesized that air conditioning (AC) use reduces an individual’s exposure to 

PM and subsequently modifies the PM-mortality association. Bell et al. (2009, 191007) investigated 

the role of AC use on the relationship between PM10 and all-cause mortality using the NMMAPS 

PM10 risk estimates from 84 U.S. urban communities from 1987-2000.1

 Bayesian hierarchical 

modeling was used to examine if AC prevalence (i.e., fraction of households with central or any AC) 

explained city-to-city variation in PM10 risk estimates. The authors calculated yearly, summer-only, 

and winter-only effect estimates stratified by housing stock that had either central AC or any AC, 

which includes window units. Risk estimates for lag 1 (previous day) were used in the analysis 

because this lag showed the strongest association with mortality in the original NMMAPS analyses. 

Community-specific AC prevalence was calculated from national survey U.S. Census American 

Housing Survey (AHS) data, which is available every two years. The investigators computed percent 

change in PM10 effect estimates per an additional 20% of the population acquiring AC. 

 The AC variables were not strongly correlated with socio-economic variables (poverty rate, 

unemployment, and education) from the U.S. Census (correlation ranged from -0.27 to 0.29). Bell 

et al. (2009, 191007) found that communities with higher AC prevalence had lower PM10 mortality 

risk estimates for all-cause mortality (-30.4% [95% PI: -80.4 to 19.6] per an additional 20% of the 

population acquiring any AC; -39.0% [95% PI: -81.4 to 3.3] for central AC), but results were not 

statistically significant. When restricting the analysis to the summer months and focusing on the 45 

cities with summer-peaking PM10 concentrations, the authors reported positive, non-significant risk 

estimates (29.9% [95% PI: -84.0 to 144] per an additional 20% of the population acquiring any AC; -

2.0% [95% PI: -60.3 to 64.3] for central AC). A similar analysis was conducted for winter months 

using data from six cities with winter peaking PM10 concentrations, but the confidence bands were 

too wide (due to the small sample size) for meaningful interpretation. 

 Although the estimated reductions in PM10 all-cause mortality risks from AC use reported in 

the Bell et al. (2009, 191007) study were not statistically significant, their large magnitude suggests 

that AC use may reduce an individual’s exposure to PM. Given the expected additional increase in 

AC use in the future, and the results from recent multicity studies, which have reported stronger PMmortality associations during the warm season, AC use may play a larger role in determining an 

individuals exposure to PM. Studies that have examined the effect of AC use on the PM2.5-mortality 

association have reported similar results. For example, Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) (discussed in 

detail in Section 6.5.2.2) found that AC use non-significantly modified PM2.5 mortality risk 

estimates, but the result was suggestive of higher PM2.5 effects in cities with lower AC use, 

especially in cities with summer-peaking PM2.5 concentrations. Overall, further investigation is 

needed to fully understand the relationship between AC use and mortality attributed to short-term 

exposure to PM. 

PM10-Mortality Associations in Canada and Europe 

Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) examined the association between mortality and various air 

pollutants in 12 Canadian cities, and reported that the most consistent association was found for 

NO2. For this analysis, PM was measured every 6th day for the majority of the study period, and the 

PM10 concentrations used in the study represent the sum of the PM2.5 and PM10-2.5, which were 

directly measured by dichotomous samplers. The authors found that the simultaneous inclusion of 

 

1

 This study also examined risk estimates for cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions in older adults (≥ 65). 

December 2009 6-164 
NO2 and PM10 in a model, on those days with PM data, greatly reduced the PM10 association with 

nonaccidental mortality, from 0.47% (95% CI: 0.04-0.89) to 0.07% (95% CI: -0.44 to 0.58) per 

10 μg/m3

 increase. The previous Canadian multicity analysis (Burnett and Goldberg, 2003, 042798), 

a re-analysis of Burnett et al. (2000, 010273) reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905), did not consider gaseous pollutants. Thus, PM10 risk estimates in the Canadian data appear 

to be more sensitive to NO2 than those estimates reported in U.S. studies. 

The association between PM10 and mortality in Europe was also reviewed in the 2004 PM 

AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) through Katsouyanni et al. (2003, 042807), which presented 

results from the APHEA-2 study, a multicity study that examined PM10 effects on total mortality in 

29 European cities. Analitis et al. (2006, 088177) published a brief report on effect estimates for 

cardiovascular and respiratory deaths also based on the 29 European cities, within the APHEA2 

study. They reported for the average of 0- and 1-day lags, PM10 risk estimates per 10 μg/m3

 of 0.76% 

(95% CI: 0.47-1.05) for cardiovascular deaths and 0.71% (95% CI: 0.22-1.20) for respiratory deaths 

in random effects models. 

Comparison of PM-Mortality Associations in Europe, Canada, and the U.S. 

 The APHENA study (Samoli et al., 2008, 188455) was a collaborative effort by the APHEA, 

NMMAPS, and the Canadian multicity study investigators to evaluate the coherence of PM10

mortality risk estimates across locations and possible effect modifiers of the PM-mortality 

relationship using a common protocol. To adjust for temporal trends, Samoli et al. (2008, 188455) 

used 3, 8, and 12 degrees of freedom (df) with natural splines and penalized splines, as well as the 

minimization of the sum of the absolute values of the partial auto-correlation function (PACF). The 

investigators also included a smooth function of temperature on the same day of death and the day 

before death. The study reported risk estimates for a 1-day lag (from all three data sets), the average 

of lag day 0 and 1 (all but for the Canadian data because PM data was collected every 6th day), and 

an unconstrained distributed lag model using lags of 0, 1, and 2 days (all but for the Canadian data). 

The second-stage regression included: (a) the average pollution level and mix in each city; (b) air 

pollution exposure characterization (e.g., number of monitors, density of monitors); (c) the health 

status of the population (e.g., cardio-respiratory deaths as a percentage of total mortality, crude 

mortality rate, etc.); and (d) climatic conditions (e.g., mean and variance of temperature). In addition, 

unemployment rate was examined for 14 European cities and all U.S. cities. Effect modification 

patterns were examined only for cities with complete time-series data and using the average of lags 0 

and 1 day, resulting in the exclusion of the Canadian data. 

Generally, the risk estimates from Europe and the U.S. were similar, but those from Canada 

were substantially higher.1

 For example, the percent excess risks per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 for 

all ages using 8 df/yr and penalized splines were 0.84% (95% CI: 0.30-1.40), 0.33% (95% CI: 0.22-

0.44), and 0.29% (95% CI: 0.18-0.40) for the Canadian, European, and U.S. data, respectively. Note 

that the risk estimate for the 90 U.S. cities is slightly larger than that reported in the original 

NMMAPS study (0.21%, using natural splines, and more temperature variables). In the all ages 

model, the average of lag days 0 and 1, and the distributed lag model with lags 0, 1, and 2 did not 

result in larger risk estimates compared to those for a 1 day lag. In copollutant models, PM10 risk 

estimates did not change when controlling for O3. Figure 6-17 shows the risk estimates from the 

three data sets for alternative extent of temporal smoothing and smoothing methods. The Canadian 

data appear less sensitive to the extent of temporal smoothing or smoothing methods (Panel A of 

Figure 6-17). When stratifying by age the risk estimates for the older age group (≥ 75 yr) were 

consistently larger than those for the younger age group (<75 yr) (e.g., 0.47% vs. 0.12% for the U.S. 

data) for all the three data sets. Although the study did not quantitatively present the results from the 

effect modification analyses, some evidence of effect modification across the study regions was 

observed. The investigators reported that, in the European data, higher levels of NO2 and a larger 

NO2/PM10 ratio were associated with greater PM10 risk estimates, and that while this pattern was also 

present in the U.S. data, it was less pronounced. Additionally, in the U.S. data, smaller PM10 risk 

estimates were observed among older adults in cities with higher O3 levels. Effect modification by 

temperature was also observed, but only in the European data. 

 

1

 The risk estimate reported for the 12 Canadian cities examined in the APHENA study is higher than that reported by Burnett et al. (2004, 

086247). This is because the APHENA study did not use the 12 cities data from Burnett et al. (2004, 086247), but instead used a 

composite of the data from three previous studies conducted by the same group by the same group (Burnett and Goldberg, 2003, 042798; 

1998, 029505; Burnett et al., 2000, 010273). 

December 2009 6-165 
Source: Samoli et al. (2008, 188455) 

Figure 6-17. Percent increase in the daily number of deaths, for all ages, associated with a 

10-μg/m3 increase in PM10: lag 1 (A) and lags 0 and 1 (B) for all three centers. 

PACF indicates df based on minimization of PACF. 

In this study, the underlying basis for the larger PM10 risk estimates (by twofold) in the 

Canadian data compared to the European and U.S. data could not be identified, even when consistent 

statistical methods were applied across each of the data sets. Because the effect modification of PM10

risk estimates were not examined in the Canadian data, the potential influence of air pollution type or 

mixture could not be ruled out as a potential source of heterogeneity across the three data sets. It 

should be noted that both the original U.S. and European studies reported regional heterogeneity in 

PM risk estimates, and the U.S. data also demonstrated seasonal heterogeneity. In both of these cases 

the specific characteristics associated with the regions that contributed to the heterogeneity observed 

were not identified. Thus, further investigation is needed to identify factors that influence the 

heterogeneity in PM risk estimates observed between different countries and across regions. 

Case-Crossover Analyses 

Since the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) investigators have used the 

case-crossover study design more frequently as an alternative to time-series analyses to examine the 

association between short-term exposure to PM and mortality. This study design allows for the 

control of seasonal variation, time trends, and slow time varying confounders without the use of 

complex models. However, similar to any study design, biases can be introduced into the study 

depending on the control (i.e., referent) period selected (Janes et al., 2005, 087535). The multicity 

case-crossover analyses discussed below match cases (i.e., days in which a death occurred) to 

controls (i.e., days in which a death did not occur), to control for (1) seasonal patterns and gaseous 

pollutants; or (2) temperature. In addition, the studies attempted to examine the heterogeneity of 

effect estimates through the analysis of individual-level and city-specific effect modification. 

Controlling for Temperature 

Schwartz (2004, 078998) investigated the PM10-mortality association in 14 U.S. cities for the 

years 1986-1993 (some cities started in later years because of PM10 data availability) using a 

case-crossover study design. Note that in this analysis, four more cities (Boulder, CO; Cincinnati, 

OH; Columbus, OH; and Provo-Orem, UT) were added to the cities Schwartz (2003, 042800) 

previously analyzed using a time-series study design. These cities were chosen for this analysis 

because they collected daily PM10 data, unlike most U.S. cities, which only monitor PM10 every six 

days. Lag 1-day PM10 risk estimates were computed using several methods. Model 1 (i.e., the main 

model) and Model 2 were constructed from a case-crossover analysis with bidirectional control days 

December 2009 6-166 
(7-15 days before and after the case). Model 1 obtained city-specific estimates in the first stage 

analysis, followed by a second stage random-effects model to obtain a combined estimate. Model 2 

is the same as Model 1, but consisted of a single stage model, which included data from all 14 cities. 

Models 3 and 4 were also constructed from a case-crossover analysis, but used time-stratified control 

days (i.e., matched on season and temperature within the same degree in Celsius). Model 3 obtained 

single-city estimates in the first stage analysis, followed by a second stage random-effects model to 

obtain combined estimates. Model 4 used the same approach as Model 3, but consisted of a single 

stage model including data from all 14 cities. The final model, Model 5 consisted of a two-stage 

Poisson time-series model, which produced city-specific estimates in the first stage, and combined 

estimates across cities in the second stage. In the main model the estimated excess risk for 

nonaccidental mortality was 0.36% (95% CI: 0.22-0.50) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM10. The other 

models yielded a similar magnitude of effect estimates, ranging from 0.32% (Model 2) to 0.53% 

(Model 4). Thus, the methods used to select control days and adjust for weather in the case-crossover 

design did not result in major differences in effect estimates, and in addition, were comparable to the 

estimates obtained from the time-series analysis, 0.40% (Model 5). 

Controlling for Gaseous Pollutants 

In a subsequent analysis, Schwartz (2004, 053506) analyzed the same 14 cities data described 

above, using a case-crossover design, to investigate the potential confounding effects of gaseous 

pollutants. For each case day, control days were selected from all other days of the same month of 

the same year. In addition, control days were selected if they had gaseous pollutant concentrations 

within: 1 ppb, 1 ppb, 2 ppb, or 0.03 ppm for SO2, NO2, 1-h max O3, and CO, respectively, of the case 

day. Unlike the study described above (Schwartz, 2004, 078998) in this analysis, the excess risk was 

estimated for the average of 0- and 1-day lag PM10 (rather than 1-day lag). In addition, apparent 

temperature (a composite index of temperature and humidity) was used rather than temperature and 

humidity individually. The case-crossover analysis was conducted in each city, and a combined 

estimate was computed in a second-stage random effects model. The number of cities analyzed 

varied across pollutants depending on the availability of monitors. The study reported PM10 risk 

estimates for nonaccidental mortality of 0.81% (95% CI: 0.47-1.15), 0.78% (95% CI: 0.42-1.15), 

0.45% (95% CI: 0.12-0.78), and 0.53% (95% CI: 0.04-1.02) per 10 μg/m3

 increase, for the analysis 

matched by SO2 (10 cities), NO2 (8 cities), O3 (13 cities), and CO (13 cities), respectively. 

Schwartz (2004, 053506) only presented PM10 risk estimates matched by gaseous pollutants, 

therefore, it is unclear in this analysis how matching by gaseous pollutants affected (i.e., reduced or 

increased) unmatched PM10 risk estimates. The estimates reported were computed using the average 

of 0- and 1-day lagged PM10 and, therefore, cannot be directly compared to the 1-day lag PM10 risk 

estimates obtained in the Schwartz (2004, 078998) 14-city study described above. The estimates 

reported in the case-crossover analysis that controlled for gaseous pollutants (Schwartz, 2004, 

053506) are generally larger than those obtained in the analysis that controlled for temperature 

(Schwartz, 2004, 078998), which was expected since the Schwartz (2004, 053506) analysis used 

2-day avg PM10. However, the estimates reported in Schwartz (2004, 053506) are comparable to the 

average of 0- and 1-day lagged PM10 risk estimate for nonaccidental mortality (0.55% [95% CI: 

0.39-0.70]) per 10 μg/m3

 increase from the 10-city study (Schwartz, 2003, 042800), which was 

reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Overall, Schwartz (2004, 053506) 

provided an alternative method to assess the influence of gaseous copollutants. The results suggest 

that PM10 is significantly associated with all-cause mortality after controlling for each of the gaseous 

copollutants. 

City-Level Effect Modification 

Zeka et al. (2005, 088068) expanded the 14 cities analyses conducted by Schwartz (2004, 

078998; 2004, 053506) to 20 cities, added more years of data (1989-2000), and investigated PM10

effects on total and cause-specific mortality using a case-crossover design. Individual 0-, 1-, and 

2-day lags as well as an unconstrained distributed lag model with 0, 1, and 2 lag days were 

examined. For each case day, control days were defined as every third day in the same month of the 

same year, to eliminate serial correlation. The authors also investigated potential effect modifiers in 

the second stage regression using city-specific variables including percent using AC, population 

density, standardized mortality rates, the proportion of elderly in each city, daily minimum apparent 

December 2009 6-167 
temperature in summer, daily maximum apparent temperature in winter, and the estimated 

percentage of primary PM10 from traffic sources. 

Source: Reprinted with Permssion of BMJ Group from Zeka et al. (2005, 088068) 

Figure 6-18. Effect modification by city characteristics in 20 U.S. cities. Note: The two 

estimates and their CI for each of the modifying factors represent the percentage 

increase in mortality for a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10, for the 25th percentile, and 

75th percentile of the modifier distribution across the 20 cities. 

The investigators found that, for all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality, lag 1 day showed the 

largest risk estimate (0.35% [95% CI: 0.21-0.49] per 10 μg/m3

) among the individual lags. 

Respiratory mortality exhibited associations at lag 0, 1, and 2 days (0.34%, 0.52%, and 0.51%, 

respectively), whereas cardiovascular mortality was most strongly associated with PM10 at lag day 2 

(0.37%). The sum of the distributed lag risk estimates (e.g., 0.45% [95% CI: 0.25-0.65] for all-cause 

mortality) was generally larger than those for single-day lag estimates. The excess risk estimates for 

single-day lags for specific respiratory and cardiovascular causes had generally wider confidence 

intervals due to their smaller daily mortality counts, but some of the categories showed markedly 

larger estimates when included in the combined distributed lag model (e.g., pneumonia 1.24% [95% 

CI: 0.46-2.02]). As shown in Figure 6-18, Zeka et al. (2005, 088068) also found evidence indicative 

of several PM10 effect modifiers including higher population density and the estimated percentage of 

primary PM10 from traffic. When 25th versus 75th percentiles of these city-specific variables were 

evaluated, the estimated percent increase in mortality attributed to PM10 appears to contrast 

substantially (e.g., 0.09% vs. 0.52% for variance of summer time apparent temperature). 

The effect modifiers investigated by Zeka et al. (2005, 088068) consisted of city-specific 

variables. Some of these variables are ecological in nature, and therefore, interpreting the meaning of 

“effect modification” requires some caution. As the investigators pointed out, the population density 

and the estimated percentage of primary PM10 from traffic were correlated in this data set (r = 0.65)1

. 

These variables may also be a surrogate for another or composite aspects of “urban” characteristics. 

 

1

 The correlation coefficient was calculated based on the numbers provided in Table 1 of Zeka et al. (2005, 088068). 

December 2009 6-168 
Thus, the apparent effect modification by traffic-related PM10 needs further investigation. 

Interestingly, the percent of homes with central AC was not a significant effect modifier of PM10 risk 

estimates, which questions the impact of reduced building ventilation rates on PM exposure. Overall, 

this study presented PM10 risk estimates that are consistent with those found in other analyses, but 

also provided new information on the risk estimated for broad and specific respiratory and 

cardiovascular mortality designations, along with possible effect modifying city-specific 

characteristics. 

Individual-level Effect Modification 

In an additional analysis, Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) examined individual-level, instead of 

city-specific, effect modification of PM10-mortality associations in the 20 U.S. cities described above 

using the same case-crossover design. City-specific estimates were obtained in the first stage model, 

followed by a second stage model which estimated the overall effects across all cities. Figure 6-19

shows PM10 excess risks by four of the individual characteristics examined in the study (i.e., gender, 

race, age group, and education). It should be noted that the lag and averaging of days for the 

associations reported varied across the outcomes: all-cause and heart disease deaths used the average 

of lag 1 and 2 days; respiratory deaths used the average of lag 0 through 2 days; MI deaths used lag 

0 day; and stroke deaths used lag 1 day. PM10 risk estimates do not appear to differ by gender or by 

race. However, significant differences were found for the youngest vs. oldest age groups for 

all-cause and heart disease mortality. For all-cause mortality, the level of education appeared to be 

inversely related to the PM10 risk estimates (i.e., greater risk for lower education level), but this 

observation was not statistically significant. The study also examined effect modification by location 

of death (“out-of-hospital” versus “in-hospital”) and season (Figure 6-20). The “out-of-hospital” 

deaths showed larger PM10 risk estimates than were found for “in-hospital deaths” with a significant 

difference per 10 μg/m3

 for all-cause (0.71% versus 0.22%) and heart disease (0.93% versus 0.15%) 

deaths. Stroke deaths also showed a significant difference (0.87% vs. 0.06%, not shown in Figure 

6-20). 

December 2009 6-169 
 

Figure 6-19. Percent excess risk in mortality (all-cause [nonaccidental] and cause-specific) 

per 10 μg/m3increase in PM10by individual-level characteristics. The risk 

estimates and 95% confidence intervals were plotted using numerical results 

from tables in Zeka et al. (2006, 088749). The estimates with * next to them are 

significantly higher than the lowest estimate in the group. 

December 2009 6-170 
Figure 6-20. Percent excess risk in mortality (all-cause [nonaccidental] and cause-specific) 

per 10 μg/m3increase in PM10 by location of death and by season. The risk 

estimates and 95% confidence intervals were plotted using numerical results 

from tables in Zeka et al. (2006, 088749). The estimates with * next to them are 

significantly higher than the lowest estimate in the group. 

Overall, Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) showed a consistent pattern of effect modification by 

contributing causes of death (i.e., pneumonia, stroke, heart failure, and diabetes) on PM10 risk 

estimates for primary causes of death (Figure 6-21; not all results for contributing cause are shown). 

However, because the contributing causes of death counts were relatively small, as reflected by the 

wide confidence intervals in Figure 6-21, most of the differences observed did not achieve statistical 

significance. 

December 2009 6-171 
Source: Adatped with Permission of Oxford University Press from Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) 

Figure 6-21. Percent increase in mortality (all-cause [nonaccidental] and cause-specific) per 

10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 by contributing causes of death. The estimates with * 

(added to the original figure) indicates a significant difference. 

In addition, when examining the other effect modifiers, the results that show no difference in 

PM10 risk estimates between gender or race for all-cause and cardiovascular deaths are important, 

given the relatively narrow confidence bands of these estimates. The effect modification by the 

location of death has been reported previously in smaller studies, but the large contrast found for 

all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in this large multicity analysis is noteworthy. The elevated 

PM10 risks reported by Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) for all-cause, heart disease (and stroke) 

“out-of-hospital” deaths are also consistent with the hypothesis of acute PM10 effects on “sudden 

deaths” brought on by systemic inflammation or dysregulation of the ANS. The finding regarding the 

seasonal effect modification, though significant only for respiratory deaths, is somewhat in contrast 

with the Peng et al. (2005, 087463) analysis of the extended NMMAPS data, which observed the 

greatest effects during the summer season. The apparent inconsistency may be due to the difference 

in geographic coverage (i.e., 20 versus 100 cities) or methodology (i.e., case-crossover with referent 

days in the same month of the same year vs. time-series analysis with adjustment for temporal trend 

in the regression model). 

Summary of PM10 Risk Estimates 

Overall, the recent studies continue to show an association between short-term exposure to PM 

and mortality. Although these studies do not examine mortality effects attributed to PM size fractions 

that compose PM10, the regional, seasonal, and effect modification analyses conducted contribute to 

the evidence for the PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 associations presented in Sections 6.5.2.2and 6.5.2.3, respectively. Of the PM10 studies evaluated, depending on the lag/averaging time and the number of 

cities included, the estimates for all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality for all ages ranged from 0.12% 

(Dominici et al., 2007, 097361) to 0.84% (Samoli et al., 2008, 188455) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

PM10, regardless of the study design used (i.e., time-series vs. case crossover). Although this range of 

PM mortality risk estimates is smaller than those reported for PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 they do support the 

December 2009 6-172 
association between PM and mortality. The majority of studies examined present estimates for either 

a lag of 1 day or a 2-day avg (lag 0-1), both of which have been found to be strongly associated with 

the risk of death (Schwartz, 2004, 078998; 2004, 053506). The use of a distributed lag model (using 

lag 0, 1, and 2 days) was found to result in slightly larger (by ~30%) estimates compared to those for 

single-day lags in the 20 cities study (Zeka et al., 2005, 088068), but when using the 15 cities data 

from NMMAPS analyzed in the APHENA study (Samoli et al., 2008, 188455), the 1-day lag 

combined risk estimate was larger than the distributed lag (lag, 0, 1, and 2 days) estimate. Overall, an 

examination of the PM10 risk estimates stratified by cause-specific mortality and age, for all U.S.- 

and Canadian-based studies, further supports the findings of the multicity studies discussed in the 

2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) (i.e., consistent positive associations between short-term 

exposure to PM10 and mortality) and this ISA, however, it must be noted that a large degree of 

variability exists between cities when examining city-specific risk estimates. 

The variability in PM10 mortality risk estimates reported within and between multicity studies 

may be due to the difference in the cities analyzed and the potential regional differences in PM 

composition. The NMMAPS studies have found that geographic regions and seasons are the two 

most important factors that determine the variability in risk estimates, with estimates being larger in 

the eastern U.S. and during the summer. These findings were fairly consistent across studies, but 

Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) observed the strongest association during the transition period (spring and 

fall); however, this may be due to the difference in geographic coverage or the difference in the 

model specification used compared to Peng et al. (2005, 087463). 

Finally, examination of potential confounders showed that the size of PM10 risk estimates are 

fairly robust to the inclusion of gaseous copollutants in models (Peng et al., 2005, 087463) or by 

matching days with similar gaseous pollutant concentrations (Schwartz, 2004, 053506). These 

findings further confirmed that PM10 risk estimates are not, at least in a straightforward manner, 

confounded by gaseous copollutants. 

December 2009 6-173 
Study Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

All seasons 

Winter 

Spring 

Summer 

Peng et al. (2005, 087463), NMMAPS, Lag 1 

Fall 

Nationwide, 1987-1994 

 1995-2000 

 1987-2000 

East, 1987-1994 

 1995-2000 

 1987-2000 

West, 1987-1994 

 1995-2000 

Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) NMMAPS, Lag 1 

 1987-2000 

Welty and Zeger (2005, 087484) NMMAPS, Lag 1 

Bidirectional, 2-stage 

Bidirectional, 1-stage 

Matched by temperature, 2-stage 

Matched by temperature, 1-stage 

Schwartz (2004, 078998) 14 U.S. cities, Lag 1 

Time-series 

Matched by CO (13 cities) 

Matched by O3 (13 cities) 

Matched by NO2 (8 cities) 

Schwartz (2004, 053506) 14 U.S. cities, Lag 0-1 

Matched by SO2 (10 cities) 

Zeka et al. (2005, 088068) 20 U.S. cities 

Lag 0 

Lag 1 

Lag 2 

Sum of distributed lag 0-2 

Winter 

Summer 

Spring/Fall 

In-hospital 

Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) 20 U.S. cities, Lag 1-2 

Out-of-hospital 

Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) 12 Canadian cities, Lag 1 

Canada (12 cities) 

Samoli et al. (2008, 188455) APHENA, Lag 1 

U.S. (90 cities) 

 % Increase 

Figure 6-22. Summary of percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality from recent 

multicity studies per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10. The number after the study 

location indicates lag/average used for PM10 (e.g., “01” indicates the average of 

lag 0 and 1 days). For Welty and Zeger (2005, 087484), the vertical lines represent 

point estimates for 23 different weather models, and the horizontal band spans 

the 95% posterior intervals of these point estimates. 

6.5.

 

2.2. PM2.5 

A nationwide monitoring system for PM2.5 was not established until 1999. This in conjunction 

with the unavailability of nationwide mortality data from the National Center of Health Statistics 

(NCHS) starting in 20011

, has contributed to the relatively small literature base that has examined 

1

 In 2008 the EPA facilitated the availability of the mortality data for EPA-funded researchers, which should eventually increase the 

literature base of studies that examine the association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and mortality. 

December 2009 6-174 
the association between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and mortality. To date, the studies that have 

been conducted examined national (i.e., in multiple cities across the country) or regional (i.e., in one 

location of the country) PM2.5 associations with mortality. 

PM2.5 – Mortality Associations on a National Scale 

The NMMAPS study conducted by Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) (described in 

Section 6.5.2.1), also conducted a national analysis of PM2.5-mortality associations using the same 

methodology and data for 1999-2000. The PM2.5 risk estimates at lag 1 day were 0.29% (95%PI: 

0.01-0.57) and 0.38% (95%PI: -0.07 to 0.82) per 10 μg/m3

 increase for all-cause and 

cardio-respiratory mortality, respectively. The authors also conducted a sensitivity analysis of the 

risk estimates based on the extent of adjustment for temporal trends in the model, changing the 

degrees of freedom (df) of temporal adjustment from 1 to 20/yr (the main result used 7 df/yr). In 

comparison to the PM10 results, the PM2.5 risk estimates appeared more sensitive to the extent of 

temporal adjustment between 5 and 10 df/yr, but this may be in part due to the much smaller sample 

size used for the PM2.5 analysis (i.e., mortality counts from 1999-2000) compared to the PM10

analysis (i.e., mortality counts from 1987-2000). 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) analyzed 27 cities across the U.S. that had PM2.5 monitoring and 

daily mortality data for at least two years of a 6-yr period, 1997-2002. The mortality data up to year 

2000 were obtained from the NCHS, while the 2001-2002 data were obtained from six states (CA, 

MI, MN, PA, TX, and WA), resulting in 12 out of the 27 cities having data up to 2002. The start year 

for each city included in the study was set at 1999, except for Milwaukee, WI (1997) and Boston, 

MA (1998), which is due to PM2.5 data availability in these two cities. In the case-crossover analysis 

in each city, control days for each death were chosen to be every 3rd-day within the same month and 

year that death occurred in order to reduce autocorrelation. The first stage regression examined the 

interaction of effects with age and gender, while the second stage random effects model combined 

city-specific PM2.5 risk estimates and examined possible effect modifiers using city-specific 

characteristics (e.g., prevalence of central AC and geographic region). For all of the mortality 

categories, the estimates for lag 1 day showed the largest estimates. The combined estimates at lag 1 

day were: 1.2% (95%CI: 0.29-2.1), 0.94% (95%CI: -0.14 to 2.0), 1.8% (95%CI: 0.20-3.4), and 1.0% 

(95%CI: 0.02-2.0) for all-cause, cardiovascular, respiratory, and stroke deaths, respectively, per 

10 μg/m3

. When examining the city-specific risk estimates most of the cities with negative estimates 

were also those with a high prevalence of central AC (Dallas, 89%; Houston, 84%; Las Vegas, 93%; 

Birmingham, 77%). It is unclear why these cities exhibit negative (and significant) risk estimates 

rather than null effects. 

In the analysis of effect modifiers, Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) found that individuals 

≥ 75 yr showed significantly higher PM2.5 risk estimates than those individuals < 75 yr. The 

estimated effects were also found to vary by geographic location with larger estimates in the East 

than in the West, which are consistent with the regional pattern found in the NMMAPS PM10 risk 

estimates. In addition, a higher prevalence of central AC was associated with decreased PM2.5 risk 

estimates when comparing the lower (25th percentile) versus the higher (75th percentile) AC use rates, 

especially in the cities where PM2.5 concentrations peak in the summer. Finally, the risk estimates 

were not found to be different between communities with PM2.5 concentrations ≤ 15 vs. >15 μg/m3

. 

The risk estimates for each effect modifier are presented in Figure 6-25. Note the wide confidence 

intervals associated with each of the risk estimates, specifically for Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) 

and Ostro et al. (2006, 087991), which suggests low statistical power for testing the differences 

between effect modifiers. 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) analyzed 25 cities that had PM2.5 monitoring and daily mortality 

data between the years 2000-2005 (with the study period varying from city to city). The choice of the 

25 communities was based on the availability of PM2.5 mass concentrations and daily mortality 

records for at least four years, along with PM2.5 speciation data for at least 2 years between 2000 and 

2005. Similar to Franklin et al. (2007, 091257), all-cause, cardiovascular, respiratory, and stroke 

deaths were examined; however, of the 25 cities included in the study, only 15 overlap with the 27 

cities analyzed in Franklin et al. (2007, 091257). The authors obtained mortality data from the 

NCHS and various state health departments (CA, MA, MI, MN, MO, OH, PA, TX, and WA). 

Although the main objective of the study was to examine the role of PM2.5 chemical species in the 

second stage analysis (Section 6.5.2.5), the first stage analysis conducted a time-series regression of 

December 2009 6-175 
mortality on PM2.5. In addition, the first stage regression performed a seasonal analysis in order to 

take advantage of seasonal variation in PM2.5 chemical species across cities and to possibly explain 

the city-to-city variation in PM2.5 mortality risk estimates. From this analysis a strong seasonal 

pattern was observed with the greatest effects occurring in the spring and summer seasons (Figure 

6-25). 

Overall, the risk estimates for all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory deaths reported by 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) are comparable to those presented in the 27 cities study (2007, 

091257), as shown in Figure 6-26. When comparing the 2007 and 2008 studies conducted by 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257; 2008, 097426), although only 15 cities overlap between the two 

studies and each study was designed differently (i.e., time-series vs. case-crossover), the magnitude 

of the PM2.5 risk estimates reported were similar for the same averaging time, and both studies 

reported a regional pattern (East > West) similar to that found in the NMMAPS studies previously 

discussed. 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) conducted a multicity time-series study to examine 

associations between PM2.5 and mortality in 112 U.S. cities. The cities included in this analysis 

encompass the majority of cities included in the Franklin et al. (2007, 091257; 2008, 097426) 

analyses. In this analysis a city represents a single county; however, 14 of the cities represent a 

composite of multiple counties. In addition to examining PM2.5, the investigators also analyzed 

PM10-2.5; these results are discussed in Section 6.5.2.3. Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 

analyzed PM2.5 associations with all-cause, cardiovascular disease (CVD), MI, stroke, and 

respiratory mortality for the years 1999-2005. To be included in the analysis, each of the cities 

selected had to have at least 265 days of PM2.5 data per year and at least 300 days of mortality data 

per year. The authors conducted a city- and season-specific Poisson regression to estimate excess 

risk for PM2.5 lagged 0- and 1-days, adjusting for smooth functions (natural cubic splines) of days 

(1.5 df per season), the same-day and previous day temperature (3 df each), and day-of-week. The 

city specific estimates were then combined using a random effects model. Based on the assumption 

that climate affects PM exposures (e.g., ventilation and particle characteristics), the investigators 

combined city-specific estimates into six regions based on the Köppen climate classification scheme 

(e.g., “Mediterranean climates” for CA, OR, WA, etc.). 

The overall combined excess risk estimates were: 0.98 % (95% CI: 0.75, 1.22) for all-cause; 

0.85 % (95% CI: 0.46-1.24) for CVD, 1.18 % (95% CI: 0.48-1.89) for MI; 1.78 % (95% CI: 0.96-

2.62) for stroke, and 1.68 % (95% CI: 1.04-2.33) for respiratory mortality for a 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

PM2.5 at lag 0-1. When the risk estimates were combined by season, the spring estimates were the 

largest for all-cause and for all of the cause-specific mortality outcomes examined. For example, the 

risk estimate for all-cause mortality for the spring was 2.57% (95% CI: 1.96-3.19) with the estimates 

for the other seasons ranging from 0.25% to 0.95%. When examining cities that had both PM2.5 and 

PM10-2.5 data (i.e., 47 cities), the addition of PM10-2.5 in the model did not alter the PM2.5 estimates 

substantially, only decreasing slightly from 0.94% in a single pollutant model to 0.77% in a 

copollutant model with PM10-2.5. When the risk estimates were combined by climatic regions, the 

estimated PM2.5 risk for all-cause mortality were similar (all above 1% per 10 μg/m3

 increase) for all 

the regions except for the “Mediterranean” region (0.5%) which includes cities in CA, OR and WA, 

though the estimates in that region were significantly heterogeneous (Figure 6-24). 

December 2009 6-176 
Climatic Region All-cause CVD Respiratory 

Humid subtropical and maritime 

Warm summer continental 

Hot summer continental 

Dry 

Dry, continental 

Mediterranean 

% Increase % Increase % Increase 

Source: Data from Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462). 

Figure 6-23. Percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) and cause-specific mortality per 

10 μg/m3 increase in the average of 0- and 1-day lagged PM2.5, combined by 

climatic regions. 

December 2009 6-177 
 The PM2.5 risk estimate for all-cause mortality reported by Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 

188462) for 112 cities (0.98% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in the average of 0- and 1-day lags) is generally 

consistent with that reported by Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) for 27 cities (0.82% [0.02-1.63]) and 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) for 25 cities (0.74% [95% CI: 0.41-1.07]) using the same 0- and 1-

day avg exposure time. The seasonal pattern (i.e., higher risk estimates in the spring) found in this 

study is also consistent with the result from Franklin et al. (2008, 097426). Figure 6-23 highlights the 

risk estimates for all-cause, CVD, and respiratory morality combined by region. The regional 

division based on climatic types used in this study makes it difficult to directly compare the regional 

pattern of results from previous studies. However, an examination of empirical Bayes-adjusted effect 

estimates for each of the cities included in the analysis further confirms the heterogeneity observed 

between some cities and regions of the country (Figure 6-24). It is noteworthy that, unlike 

NMMAPS, which focused on PM10 and indicated larger risk estimates in the northeast, Zanobetti 

and Schwartz (2009, 188462) found that the all-cause mortality risk estimates were fairly uniform 

across the climatic regions, except for the “Mediterranean” region. 

% Increase in Total Mortality % Increase in Cardiovascular Mortality % Increase in Respiratory Mortality 

Figure 6-24. Empirical Bayes-adjusted city-specific percent increase in total (nonaccidental), 

cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality per 10 μg/m3 increase in the average of 

0- and 1-day lagged PM2.5 by decreasing mean 24-h avg PM2.5 concentrations. 

Based on estimates calculated from Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) using 

the approach specified in Le Tertre et al. (2005, 087560). 

December 2009 6-178 
Key to Figure 6-24 

City Mean 98th City Mean 98th City Mean 98th City Mean 98th

Rubidoux, CA 24.7 68.0 Taylors, SC 15.0 32.2 Waukesha, WI 13.4 35.3 Phoenix, AZ 11.4 30.7 

Bakersfield, CA 21.7 80.3 Toledo, OH 14.9 36.6 Baton Rouge, LA 13.4 30.1 Tacoma, WA 11.4 38.1 

Los Angeles, CA 19.7 51.1 Anaheim, CA 14.9 44.1 Memphis, TN 13.3 32.4 Port Arthur, TX 11.1 25.7 

Fresno, CA 18.7 64.9 New York, NY 14.7 38.1 Erie, PA 12.9 36.1 Cedar Rapids, IA 11.0 31.0 

Atlanta, GA 17.6 38.2 Washington, PA 14.7 37.0 Dallas, TX 12.8 28.7 Dodge, WI 10.9 32.9 

Steubenville, OH 17.1 41.4 Winston, NC 14.7 34.1 Houston, TX 12.8 27.5 Oklahoma, OK 10.8 26.1 

Cincinnati, OH 17.1 39.9 Elizabeth, NJ 14.6 38.2 Chesapeake, VA 12.8 29.8 Des Moines, IA 10.5 27.9 

Birmingham, AL 16.5 38.8 Philadelphia, PA 14.6 36.6 Wilkes-Barre, PA 12.8 32.5 Jacksonville, FL 10.5 25.3 

Middletown, OH 16.5 38.4 St. Louis, MO 14.5 33.7 Norfolk, VA 12.7 29.6 Omaha, NE 10.5 28.0 

Indianapolis, IN 16.4 38.2 Allentown, PA 14.4 38.9 Sacramento, CA 12.6 45.0 Denver, CO 10.5 26.4 

Cleveland, OH 16.3 40.5 Richmond, VA 14.3 33.0 Springfield, MA 12.5 35.1 Pinellas, FL 10.4 23.1 

Dayton, OH 16.3 38.3 Spartanburg, SC 14.2 31.4 New Orleans, LA 12.5 29.0 Austin, TX 10.4 24.5 

Columbus, OH 16.2 38.3 Durham, NC 14.2 32.9 Ft. Worth, TX 12.4 27.7 Orlando, FL 10.3 24.3 

Detroit, MI 16.2 41.0 Little Rock, AR 14.2 31.8 Pensacola, FL 12.3 31.2 Klamath, OR 10.2 40.7 

Akron, OH 16.0 39.0 Easton, PA 14.2 39.7 Davenport, IA 12.3 32.1 Seattle, WA 10.1 27.9 

Louisville, KY 15.9 38.0 Raleigh, NC 14.1 31.8 Avondale, LA 12.3 28.6 Medford, OR 10.0 37.3 

Chicago, IL 15.8 39.1 Greensboro, NC 14.1 31.0 Boston, MA 12.3 30.2 Bath, NY 9.6 29.3 

Pittsburgh, PA 15.7 43.1 Mercer, PA 14.1 36.4 Holland, MI 12.1 35.0 Provo, UT 9.5 38.5 

Harrisburg, PA 15.6 40.2 Annandale, VA 14.0 34.6 Charleston, SC 12.1 27.9 Miami, FL 9.4 20.5 

Baltimore, MD 15.6 38.8 Nashville, TN 13.9 31.0 Tampa, FL 12.1 25.8 El Paso, TX 9.0 24.4 

Youngstown, OH 15.6 38.1 Dumbarton, VA 13.8 31.9 Tulsa, OK 12.1 32.3 Spokane, WA 8.9 30.6 

Knoxville, TN 15.5 32.9 Columbia, SC 13.7 30.7 Kansas, MO 12.0 28.6 San Antonio, TX 8.9 21.9 

Gary, IN 15.5 37.5 Milwaukee, WI 13.7 36.3 Scranton, PA 11.9 33.0 Portland, OR 8.9 25.4 

Charlotte, NC 15.3 32.7 New Haven, CT 13.6 36.8 Hartford, CT 11.8 33.5 Davie, FL 8.4 19.1 

Warren, OH 15.2 37.4 Grand Rapids, MI 13.6 36.4 Minneapolis, MN 11.6 31.6 Eugene, OR 8.1 29.9 

Washington, DC 15.2 37.2 El Cajon, CA 13.5 34.9 Worcester, MA 11.5 30.2 Palm Beach, FL 7.8 18.4 

Wilmington, DE 15.1 37.6 Gettysburg, PA 13.4 36.5 Salt Lake, UT 11.5 52.4 Bend, OR 7.7 23.5 

Carlisle, PA 15.1 40.0 State College, PA 13.4 38.5 Providence, RI 11.5 30.5 Albuquerque, NM 6.6 17.9 

Note: The top effect estimate in the figures represents the overall effect estimate for that mortality outcome across all cities. The remaining effect estimates are ordered by the highest (i.e., Rubidoux, CA) to lowest (i.e., 

Albuquerque, NM) mean 24-h PM2.5 concentrations across the cities examined. In the key the cities are reported in this order, which represents the policy relevant concentrations for the annual standard, but the policy 

relevant PM2.5 concentrations for the daily standard (i.e., 98th percentile of the 24-h average) are also listed for each city (from Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462)) 

PM2.5-Mortality Associations on a Regional Scale: California 

Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) examined associations between PM2.5 and daily mortality in nine 

heavily populated California counties (Contra Costa, Fresno, Kern, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, 

Sacramento, San Diego, and Santa Clara) using data from 1999 through 2002. The authors used a 

two-stage model to examine all-cause, respiratory, cardiovascular, ischemic heart disease, and 

diabetes mortality individually and by potential effect modifier (i.e., age, gender, race, ethnicity, and 

education level). The a priori exposure periods examined included the average of 0- and 1-day lags 

(lag 0-1) and the 2-day lag (lag 2). The authors selected these non-overlapping lags (i.e., rather than 

selecting lag 1 as the single-day lag) because previous studies have reported stronger associations at 

lags of 1 or 2 days or with cumulative exposure over three days. It is unclear why the investigators 

chose these non-overlapping lags (i.e., single-day lag of 2 instead of 1) even though they state they 

based the selection of their lag days on results presented in previous studies, which found the 

strongest association for PM lagged 1 or 2 days. Using the average of 0- and 1-day lags Ostro et al. 

December 2009 6-179 
(2006, 087991) reported combined estimates of: 0.6% (95% CI: 0.2-1.0), 0.6% (95% CI: 0.0-1.1), 

0.3% (95% CI: -0.5 to 1.0), 2.2% (95% CI: 0.6-3.9), and 2.4% (95% CI: 0.6-4.2) for all-cause, 

cardiovascular, ischemic heart disease, respiratory, and diabetes deaths, respectively, per 10 μg/m3

. The authors also conducted a sensitivity analysis of risk estimates based on the extent of temporal 

adjustment, which showed monotonic reductions for all of the death categories examined when 4, 8, 

and 12 degrees of freedom per year were used. 

Five of the nine counties examined in the Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) analysis contain cities 

that are among the 27 cities examined in the Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) analysis for the same 

period, 1999-2002. While the lags used were different between these two studies, both presented 

PM2.5 risk estimates in individual cities or counties (graphically in the Franklin et al. study (2007, 

091257); in a table in the Ostro et al. study (2006, 087991)), which allowed for a cursory evaluation 

of consistency between the two analyses. In Franklin et al. (2007, 091257), PM2.5 risk estimates at 

lag 1 day for the cities Los Angeles and Riverside were slightly negative, whereas Fresno, 

Sacramento, and San Diego showed positive values above 1% per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5. The 

2-day lag result presented in Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) is qualitatively consistent, with Los Angeles 

and Riverside, both of which show slightly negative estimates, while the other 3 locations all show 

positive, but somewhat smaller estimates, than those reported by Franklin et al. (2007, 091257). The 

estimates for the average of 0- and 1-day lags for these five counties in Ostro et al. (2006, 087991), 

which contain cities examined in Franklin et al. (2007, 091257), were all positive. Thus, these two 

PM2.5 studies showed some consistencies in risk estimates even though they used different lag 

periods and a different definition for the study areas of interest (i.e., counties vs. cities). The risk 

estimates for Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) and Ostro et al. (2006, 087991), stratified by various 

effect modifiers (e.g., gender, race, etc.), are summarized in Figure 6-25. Of note is the contrast in 

the results presented for the effect modification analysis for “in-hospital” versus “out-of-hospital” 

deaths for Ostro et al. (2006, 087991), which differs from the results presented in the PM10 study 

conducted by Zeka et al. (2006, 088749). Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) observed comparable risk 

estimates for “in-hospital” vs. “out-of-hospital” deaths, whereas Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) observed 

a large difference between the two in the 20 cities study discussed earlier. This difference in effects 

observed between the two studies is more than likely due to the compositional differences in PM10 in 

the cities examined in Zeka et al. (2006, 088749) (i.e., PM10 more or less dominated by PM2.5 and the 

subsequent composition of PM2.5). 

December 2009 6-180 
Study Effect Modifier Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Ostro et al. (2006, 087991), 9 CA counties, Lag 0-1 

All-cause 

Age > 65 

 

Male 

Female 

 

White 

Black 

Hispanic 

 

In-hospital 

Out-of-hospital 

 

≥ High School 

< High School 

 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257), 27 U.S. cities, Lag 1 

All-cause 

 

Age ≥ 75 

Age < 75 

 

 Male 

 Female 

 

East 

West 

 

PM2.5 > 15μg/m3

PM2.5 ≤ 15μg/m3

 

25th percentile air conditioning 

75th percentile air conditioning 

 Summer peaking PM2.5 cities: 25th percentile air conditioning 

75th percentile air conditioning 

 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426), 25 U.S. cities, Lag 0-1 

All-cause 

 

Winter 

Spring 

Summer 

Fall 

 

West 

East & Central 

 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462), 112 U.S. cities, Lag 0-1 

All-cause 

 

Winter 

Spring 

Summer 

Autumn 

 

 % Increase 

Figure 6-25. Summary of percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality per 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5 by various effect modifiers. 

December 2009 6-181 
PM2.5-Mortality Associations in Canada 

An analysis of multiple pollutants, including PM2.5, in 12 Canadian cities found the most 

consistent associations for NO2 (Burnett et al., 2004, 086247). In this analysis, PM2.5 was only 

measured every 6th day in much of the study period, and the simultaneous inclusion of NO2 and 

PM2.5 in a model on the days when PM2.5 data were available eliminated the PM2.5 association (from 

0.60% to -0.10% per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5). However, the investigators noted that during the 

later study period of 1998-2000 when daily TEOM PM2.5 data were available for 11 of the 12 cities, 

a simultaneous inclusion of NO2 and PM2.5 resulted in considerable reduction of the NO2 risk 

estimate, while the PM2.5 risk estimate was only slightly reduced from 1.1% to 0.98% (95% CI: -0.16 

to 2.14). Thus, the relative importance of NO2 and PM2.5 on mortality effect estimates has not been 

resolved when using the Canadian data sets. 

Summary of PM2.5 Risk Estimates 

The risk estimates for all-cause mortality for all ages ranged from 0.29% Dominici et al. 

(2007, 097361) to 1.21% Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 (Figure 

6-26). An examination of cause-specific risk estimates found that PM2.5 risk estimates for 

cardiovascular deaths are similar to those for all-cause deaths (0.30-1.03%), while the effect 

estimates for respiratory deaths were consistently larger (1.01-2.2%), albeit with larger confidence 

intervals, than those for all-cause or cardiovascular deaths using the same lag/averaging indices. 

Figure 6-27 summarizes the PM2.5 risk estimates for all U.S.- and Canadian-based studies by 

cause-specific mortality. 

An examination of lag structure observed results similar to those reported for PM10 with most 

studies reporting either single day lags or two-day avg lags with the strongest effects observed on lag 

1 or lag 0-1. In addition, seasonal patterns of PM2.5 risk estimates were found to be similar to those 

reported for PM10, with the warmer season showing the strongest association. An evaluation of 

regional associations found that in most cases the eastern U.S. had the highest PM2.5 mortality risk 

estimates, but this was dependent on the geographic designations made in the study. When grouping 

cities by climatic regions, similar PM2.5 mortality risk estimates were observed across the country 

except in the Mediterranean region, which included CA, OR, and WA. 

Of the studies evaluated, only Burnett et al. (2004, 086247), a Canadian multicity study, 

analyzed gaseous pollutants and found mixed results, with possible confounding of PM2.5 risk 

estimates by NO2. Although the recently evaluated U.S.-based multicity studies did not analyze 

potential confounding of PM2.5 risk estimates by gaseous pollutants, evidence from single-city 

studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) suggest that gaseous 

copollutants do not confound the PM2.5-mortality association, which is further supported by studies 

that examined the PM10-mortality relationship. 

December 2009 6-182 
Study Cause-Specific Mortality Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Dominici et al. (2007, 099135), NMMAPS 

All-cause, lag 1 

Cardio-respiratory, lag 1 

 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257), 27 U.S. cities 

All-cause, lag 1 

Cardiovascular, lag 1 

Respiratory, lag 1 

All-cause, lag 0-1 

Cardiovascular, lag 0-1 

Respiratory, lag 0-1 

 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426), 25 U.S. cities 

All-cause, lag 0-1 

Cardiovascular, lag 0-1 

Respiratory, lag 1-2 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462), 112 U.S. cities 

All-cause, lag 0-1 

Cardiovascular, lag 0-1 

Respiratory, lag 0-1 

Ostro et al. (2006, 087991), 9 CA counties 

All-cause, lag 0-1 

Cardiovascular, lag 0-1 

Respiratory, lag 0-1 

 

 % Increase 

Figure 6-26. Summary of percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) and cause-specific 

mortality per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 from recent multicity studies. 

December 2009 6-183 
Study Location Lag Age Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Burnett and Goldberg (2003, 042798)* 8 Cities, Canada 1 Nonaccidental

Klemm and Mason (2003, 042801)* 6 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316)* Los Angeles, CA 1 

Ito (2003, 042856)* Detroit, MI 3 

Fairley (2003, 042850)* Santa Clara County, CA 0 

Newark, NJ 0 

Elizabeth, NJ 0 

Tsai et al. (2000, 006251)* 

Camden, NJ 0 

Chock et al. (2000, 010407)* Pittsburgh, PA 0 < 75 

0 75+ 

Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) 100 Cities, U.S. 1 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 112 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) 27 Cities, U.S. 1 

25 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) 12 Cities, Canada 1 

Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) 9 Counties, CA 0-1 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) Spokane, WA 1 

Klemm et al. (2004, 056585) Atlanta, GA 0-1 65+ 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Canada 0-2 65+ 

Newark, NJ 0 Cardio-respiratory

Elizabeth, NJ 0 

Tsai et al. (2000, 006251)* 

Camden, NJ 0 

Dominici et al. (2007, 097361) 100 Cities, U.S. 1 

Klemm and Mason (2003, 042801)* 6 Cities, U.S. 0-1 Cardiovascular

Ostro et al. (1995, 079197)* Southern CA 0 

Lipfert et al. (2000, 004088)* Philadelphia, PA 1 

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316)* Los Angeles, CA 1 

Ito (2003, 042856)* Detroit, MI 1 

Mar et al. (2003, 042841)* Phoenix, AZ 1 

Fairley (2003, 042850)* Santa Clara County, CA 0 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 112 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) 27 Cities, U.S. 1 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) 25 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Ostro et al. (2007, 091354) 9 Counties, CA 3 

Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) 9 Counties, CA 0-1 

Holloman et al. (2004, 087375) 7 Counties, NC 0 > 16 

Wilson et al. (2007, 157149) Phoenix, AZ 0-5 > 25 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Canada 1 65+ 

Klemm and Mason (2003, 042801)* 6 Cities, U.S. 0-1 Respiratory

Ostro et al. (1995, 079197)* Southern California 0 

Moolgavkar (2003, 051316)* Los Angeles, CA 1 

Ito (2003, 042856)* Detroit, MI 0 

Fairley (2003, 042850)* Santa Clara County, CA 0 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 112 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Franklin et al. (2007, 091257) 27 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) 25 Cities, U.S. 1-2 

Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) 9 Counties, CA 0-1 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Canada 0 65+ 

*Studies represent the collective 

evidence from the 2004 PM AQCD (2004, 056905). % Increase 

Figure 6-27. Summary of percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) and cause-specific 

mortality per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 for all U.S.- and Canadian-based studies. 

The three vertical lines for the Wilson et al. (2007, 157149) estimate represent the 

central, middle, and outer Phoenix estimates. 

6.5.2.3. Thoracic Coarse Particles (PM10-2.5) 

In the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), a limited number of studies, mostly singlecity analyses, were evaluated that examined thoracic coarse (PM10-2.5) PM for its association with 

mortality. Of these studies a small number examined both PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 effects, and found some 

evidence for PM10-2.5 effects of the same magnitude as PM2.5. However, multiple limitations in these 

studies were identified including measurement and exposure issues for PM10-2.5 and the correlation 

between PM2.5 and PM10-2.5. These limitations increased the uncertainty surrounding the 

concentrations at which PM10-2.5-mortality associations are observed. 

December 2009 6-184 
A thorough analysis of PM10-2.5 mortality associations requires information on the speciation of 

PM10-2.5. This is because, while a large percent of the composition of coarse particles may consist of 

crustal materials by mass, depending on available sources, the surface chemical characteristics of 

PM10-2.5 may also vary from city to city. Thus, without information on the chemical speciation of 

PM10-2.5, the apparent variability in observed associations between PM10-2.5 and mortality across cities 

is difficult to characterize. Although this type of information is not available in the current literature, 

the relative importance of the associations observed between PM10-2.5 and mortality in the following 

studies is of interest. 

PM10-2.5 Concentrations Estimated Using the Difference Method 

The Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) multicity analysis, described for PM2.5 

section (Section 6.5.2.2), also examined the association between computed PM10-2.5 and all-causes, 

cardiovascular disease (CVD), MI, stroke, and respiratory mortality for the years 1999-2005. Of the 

112 cities included in the PM2.5 analysis only 47 cities had both PM2.5 and PM10 data available.

PM10-2.5 was estimated in these cities by differencing the countywide averages of PM10 and PM2.5. In 

addition to examining the association between PM10-2.5 and mortality for the average of lags 0 and 

1 day, the investigators also considered a distributed lag of 0-3 days. The risk estimates for PM10-2.5

were presented for both a single pollutant model and a copollutant model with PM2.5, and were also 

combined by season and climatic regions as was done in the PM2.5 analysis. 

The study found a significant association between the computed PM10-2.5 and all-cause, CVD, 

stroke, and respiratory mortality. The combined estimate for the 47 cities using the average of 0- and 

1-day lag PM10-2.5 for all-cause mortality was 0.46% (95% CI: 0.21-0.71) per 10 μg/m3

 increase. The 

estimate obtained using the distributed lag model was smaller (0.31% [95% CI: 0.00-0.63]). The 

seasonal analysis showed larger risk estimates in the spring for all-cause (1.01%) and respiratory 

mortality (2.56%) (i.e., the same pattern observed in the PM2.5 analysis); however, for CVD 

mortality, the estimates for spring (0.95%) and summer (1.00%) were comparable. When the risk 

estimates were combined by climatic region (Figure 6-28), for all-cause mortality, the “dry, 

continental” region (which included Salt Lake City, Provo, and Denver, all of which had relatively 

high estimated PM10-2.5 concentrations) showed the largest risk estimate (1.11% [95% CI: 

0.11-2.11]), but the “dry” region (which included Phoenix and Albuquerque, the two cities with high 

PM10-2.5 concentrations) and the “Mediterranean” region (which included cities in CA, OR, and WA) 

did not show positive associations. The other three regions (i.e., “hot summer, continental,” “warm 

summer, continental,” and “humid, subtropical and maritime”), which included cities that correspond 

to the mid-west, southeast, and northeast geographic regions as defined in previous NMMAPS 

analyses, all showed significantly positive associations. Similar regional patterns of associations 

were found for CVD and respiratory mortality, which are further confirmed when examining the 

empirical Bayes-adjusted city-specific estimates in Figure 6-29. The regional pattern of associations 

for MI and stroke are less clear, because of the wider confidence intervals due to the smaller number 

of deaths in these specific categories. The lack of a PM10-2.5-mortality association in the “dry” region 

reported in this study is in contrast to the results from three studies that analyzed Phoenix data and 

found associations, as reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), and Wilson et al. 

(2007, 157149) (discussed below). 

Although the results from this analysis are informative because it is the first multicity U.S.-

based study that examined the association between short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and mortality on a 

large scale, some limitations do exist. Specifically, it is not clear how the computed PM10-2.5

measurements used by Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) compare with the PM10-2.5

concentrations obtained by directly measuring PM10-2.5 using a dichotomous sampler, or the PM10-2.5

concentrations computed using the difference of PM10 and PM2.5 measured at co-located samplers. 

Additional studies evaluated the association between short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and 

mortality using PM10-2.5 concentrations estimated by subtracting PM10 from PM2.5 concentrations at 

co-located monitors. Although PM10-2.5 concentrations estimated using this approach are not ideal, 

the results from these studies are informative in evaluating the PM10-2.5 mortality association. 

December 2009 6-185 
Climatic Region All-cause CVD Respiratory 

 

Humid subtropical and maritime 

Warm summer continental 

Hot summer continental 

Dry 

Dry continental 

Mediterranean 

 

 

 

 

% Increase % Increase % Increase 

Source: Data from Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462). 

Figure 6-28. Percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) and cause-specific mortality per 

10 μg/m3 increase in the average of 0- and 1-day lagged PM10-2.5, combined by 

climatic regions. 

December 2009 6-186 
 

% Increase in Total Mortality % Increase in Cardiovascular Mortality % Increase in Respiratory Mortality 

Figure 6-29. Empirical Bayes-adjusted city-specific percent increase in total (nonaccidental), 

cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality per 10 μg/m3 increase in the average of 

0- and 1-day lagged PM10-2.5 by decreasing 98th percentile of mean 24-h avg 

PM10-2.5 concentrations. Based on estimates calculated from Zanobetti and 

Schwartz (2009, 188462) using the approach specified in Le Tertre et al. (2005, 

087560). 

December 2009 6-187 
Key for Figure 6-29

City 98th Mean City 98th Mean City 98th Mean City 98th Mean 

El Paso, TX 105.1 25.4 Cleveland, OH 51.2 15.2 Sacramento, CA 31.5 10.2 Louisville, KY 23.3 8.3 

St. Louis, MO 81.9 15.2 Davenport, IA 49.9 15.3 Tampa, FL 29.1 12.9 Wilkes-Barre, PA 22.2 6.2 

Phoenix, AZ 80.1 33.3 Birmingham, AL 49.6 14.2 Toledo, OH 28.8 7.6 New York, NY 22.0 6.4 

Detroit, MI 77.5 17.3 Provo, UT 49.3 18.2 Washington, PA 27.8 6.5 Wilmington, DE 21.8 7.0 

Gary, IN 71.3 6.9 Chicago, IL 46.1 12.4 Allentown, PA 27.8 4.5 Raleigh, NC 20.9 6.9 

Omaha, NE 65.6 24.7 Easton, PA 43.9 12.0 Atlanta, GA 27.4 8.6 Scranton, PA 19.2 6.1 

Albuquerque, NM 64.3 22.9 Steubenville, OH 43.5 12.1 Davie, FL 25.5 9.4 Harrisburg, PA 18.6 5.4 

New Haven, CT 58.4 11.9 Columbia, SC 42.9 8.4 Taylors, SC 25.4 8.0 Akron, OH 17.7 5.3 

Bakersfield, CA 55.9 16.1 Los Angeles, CA 42.5 13.5 Memphis, TN 24.3 9.3 Charleston, SC 17.6 6.6 

Des Moines, IA 55.0 16.2 Spokane, WA 41.8 13.8 Seattle, WA 23.7 9.0 Winston, NC 16.5 7.4 

Denver, CO 53.8 18.1 Columbus, OH 40.0 11.2 Baltimore, MD 23.5 8.9 Erie, PA 14.9 3.1 

Salt Lake, UT 52.6 19.2 Pittsburgh, PA 32.0 9.4 Cincinnati, OH 23.3 7.8 

Note: The top effect estimate in the figures represents the overall effect estimate for that mortality outcome across all cities. The remaining effect estimates are ordered by the highest (i.e., El Paso, TX) to 

lowest (i.e., Erie, PA) 98th percentile of the mean 24-h PM10-2.5 concentrations across the cities examined, which is the policy relevant concentration for the daily standard [from Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 

188462)]. 

Slaughter et al. (2005, 073854) examined the association of various PM size fractions (PM1, 

PM2.5, PM10, PM10-2.5) and CO with ED visits, HAs, and mortality in Spokane, WA for the period 

1995-2001. Although the authors did not report mortality risk estimates for PM10-2.5, they did not find 

an association between any PM size fraction (or CO) and mortality or cardiac HAs at lags of 

0-3 days. 

Wilson et al. (2007, 157149) examined the association between size-fractionated PM (PM2.5

and PM10-2.5) and cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix for the study period 1995-1997, using 

mortality data aggregated for three geographic regions: “Central Phoenix,” “Middle Ring,” and 

“Outer Phoenix,” which were constructed as a composite of zip codes of residence in order to 

compare population size among the three areas. The authors reported apparently different patterns of 

associations between PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 in terms of the size of the risk estimate across the three areas 

and temporal patterns of associations. In the “Middle Ring” where PM10-2.5 showed the strongest 

association, the estimated risk per 10 μg/m3

 increase for a 1 day lag was 3.4% (95% CI: 1.0-5.8). 

The estimated risk for PM2.5 found for “Central Phoenix” was 6.6% (95% CI: 1.1-12.5) for lag 1. 

The authors speculated that the apparent difference in estimated risks across the areas might be due 

to the lower SES in “Central Phoenix” or the lower exposure error, but the relatively wide 

confidence bands of these estimates make it difficult to establish such relationships (Section 8.1.7 for 

a detailed discussion on SES and susceptibility to PM exposure). 

Kettunen et al. (2007, 091242) analyzed UFPs, PM2.5, PM10, PM10-2.5, and gaseous pollutants 

for their associations with stroke mortality in Helsinki during the study period of 1998-2004. The 

authors did not observe an association between air pollution and mortality for the whole year or cold 

season, but they did find associations for PM2.5 (13.3% [95% CI: 2.3-25.5] per 10 μg/m3

), PM10, and 

CO during the warm season, most strongly at lag 1 day. An association was also observed for 

PM10-2.5 during the warm season (7.8% [95% CI: -7.4 to 25.5] per 10 μg/m3

 at lag 1 day); however, it 

was weaker than PM2.5. 

The Perez et al. (2008, 156020) analysis tested the hypothesis that outbreaks of Saharan dust 

exacerbate the effects of PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 on daily mortality. Changes of effects between Saharan 

and non-Saharan dust days were assessed using a time-stratified case-crossover design involving 

24,850 deaths between March 2003 and December 2004 in Barcelona, Spain. Saharan dust days 

were identified from back-trajectory and satellite images. Chemical speciation, but not an analysis 

for microbes or fungi, was conducted approximately once a week during the study period. On 

Saharan dust days, mean concentrations were 1.2 times higher for PM2.5 (29.9 μg/m3

) and 1.1 times 

higher for PM10-2.5 (16.4 μg/m3

) than on non-Saharan dust days. During Saharan dust days (90 days 

out of 602), the PM10-2.5 risk estimate was 8.4% (95% CI: 1.5-15.8) per 10 μg/m3

 increase at lag 1 

day, compared with 1.4% (95% CI: -0.8 to 3.4) during non-Saharan dust days. In contrast, there was 

not an additional increased risk of daily mortality for PM2.5 during Saharan dust days (5.0% 

December 2009 6-188 
[95% CI: 0.5-9.7]) compared with non-Saharan dust days (3.5% [95% CI: 1.6-5.5]). However, 

differences in chemical composition (i.e., PM2.5 was primarily composed of nonmineral carbon and 

secondary aerosols; whereas PM10-2.5 was dominated by crustal elements) did not explain these 

observations. Note also when examining all days combined, both size fractions were associated with 

mortality, but the PM2.5 association was found to be stronger. 

PM10-2.5 Concentrations Directly Measured 

In Burnett et al. (2004, 086247), which analyzed the association of multiple pollutants with 

mortality in 12 Canadian cities, described previously; the authors also examined PM10-2.5. In this 

study the authors collected PM10-2.5 using dichotomous samplers with an every-6th-day schedule. 

When both NO2 and PM10-2.5 were included in the regression model, the PM10-2.5 effect estimate was 

reduced from 0.65% (95% CI: -0.10 to 1.4) to 0.31% (95% CI: -0.49 to 1.1) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

1-day lag PM10-2.5. These risk estimates are similar to those reported for PM2.5, which were also 

reduced upon the inclusion of NO2 in the two-pollutant model, but to a greater extent, from 0.60% 

(95% CI: -0.03 to 1.2) to -0.1% (95% CI: -0.86 to 0.67). 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) analyzed the association between PM2.5, PM10-2.5, TSP, PM10, SO4

2–, and gaseous copollutants in Vancouver, Canada, using a cohort of approximately 550,000 

whose vital status was ascertained between 1986 and 1999. In this study PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 were 

directly measured using dichotomous samplers. The authors examined the association of each air 

pollutant with all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality, but only observed significant 

results for cardiovascular mortality at lag 0 for both PM10-2.5 and PM2.5. They found that PM10-2.5

(5.4% [95% CI: 1.1-9.8] per 10 μg/m3), was more strongly associated with cardiovascular mortality 

than PM2.5 (4.8% [95% CI: -1.9 to 12.0] per 10 μg/m3). 

Klemm et al. (2004, 056585) analyzed various components of PM and gaseous pollutants for 

their associations with mortality in Fulton and DeKalb Counties, Georgia for the 2-yr period, 

1998-2000. PM10-2.5 concentrations were obtained from the ARIES database, which directly 

measured PM10-2.5 using dichotomous samplers. In this analysis the authors adjusted for temporal 

trend using quarterly, monthly, and biweekly knots, and reported estimates for all-cause, circulatory, 

respiratory, cancer, and other causes mortality for each scenario. Overall, PM2.5 was, more strongly 

associated with mortality than PM10-2.5. For example, using the average of 0- and 1-day lags, the risk 

estimates for PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 in the monthly knots model for all-cause mortality, ages ≥ 65 yr 

were 5.6% (95% CI: 1.9-9.5) and 6.4% (95% CI: -0.5 to 14.1) per 10 μg/m3 increase, respectively.1 

Summary of PM10-2.5 Risk Estimates 

The results from newly available studies that examined the association between short-term 

exposure to PM10-2.5 primarily consisted of single-city studies. Collectively these studies found 

consistent, positive associations, with the precision of each association varying by study location. 

The evidence from those single-city studies conducted in the U.S. and Canada in combination with 

the multicity studies evaluated (i.e., in the U.S. and Canada), provide evidence for PM10-2.5 effects. 

However, the various methods used to estimate exposure to PM10-2.5 (e.g., direct measurement of 

PM10-2.5 using dichotomous samplers, calculating the difference between PM10 and PM2.5

concentrations) in the studies evaluated add uncertainty to the associations observed. Specifically, a 

new U.S. multicity study (Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2009, 188462) estimated PM10-2.5 by calculating 

the difference between the county-average PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations. Although there are 

limitations in the method used by Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) associations between 

PM10-2.5 and mortality were observed throughout multiple regions of the country. However, some of 

the findings of this new multicity study (e.g., no associations in “dry” region where PM10-2.5 levels 

are high) are not consistent with the findings of the PM10-2.5 studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD 

(U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), and suggest that the coarse fraction is associated with mortality in areas 

of the U.S. where PM10-2.5 levels are not high. Limitations also exist in the PM10-2.5 associations 

reported due to the small number of PM10-2.5 studies that have investigated confounding by gaseous 

 

1

 The monthly knot model was selected for comparison because, overall, PM2.5 showed the strongest association with all-cause mortality 

among the 15 air pollution indices examined when using this model. 

December 2009 6-189 
copollutants or the influence of model specification on PM10-2.5 risk estimates. Additionally, more 

data is needed to characterize the chemical and biological components that may modify the potential 

toxicity of PM10-2.5. Figure 6-30 summarizes the PM10-2.5 risk estimates for all U.S.-, Canadian-, and 

international-based studies by cause-specific mortality. 

Study Location Lag Age** Effect Estimate (95% CI) 

Klemm et al. (2003, 042801)* 6 Cities, U.S. 0-1 Nonaccidental

Burnett and Goldberg (2003, 042798)* 8 Cities, Canada 1 

Ito (2003, 042856)* Detroit, MI 1 

Fairley (2003, 042850)* Santa Clara County, CA 0 

Chock et al. (2000, 010407)* Pittsburgh, PA 0 <75 

0 75+ 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 47 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Burnett et al. (2004, 086247) 12 Cities, Canada 1 

Klemm et al. (2004, 056585) Atlanta, GA 0-1 65+ 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Can 0 

Lipfert et al. (2000, 004088)* Philadelphia, PA 1 Cardiovascular

Ito (2003, 042856)* Detroit, MI 1 

Mar et al. (2003, 042841) * Phoenix, AZ 0 

Fairley (2003, 042850)* Santa Clara County, CA 0 

Ostro et al. (2003, 042824)* Coachella Valley, CA 0 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 47 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Wilson et al. (2007, 157149) Phoenix, AZ 0-5 >25 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Can 0 65+ 

Ito (2003, 042856)* Detroit, MI 2 Respiratory

Fairley (2003, 042850)* Santa Clara County, CA 0 

Zanobetti and Schwartz (2009, 188462) 47 Cities, U.S. 0-1 

Villeneuve et al. (2003, 055051) Vancouver, Canada 0 65+ 

* Studies represent the collective evidence from the 2004 PM AQCD (2004, 056905).

**If age not specified, study included all ages. % Increase 

Figure 6-30. Summary of percent increase in total (nonaccidental) and cause-specific 

mortality per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10-2.5 for all U.S.-, Canadian-, and 

international-based studies. The three vertical lines for the Wilson et al. (2007, 

157149) estimate represent the central, middle, and outer Phoenix estimates. 

6.5.2.4. Ultrafine Particles 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) reviewed Wichmann et al.’s (reanalyzed by 

Stolzel et al., 2003, 042842; 2000, 013912) study of fine and ultrafine particles (UFPs) (diameter: 

0.01-0.1 μm) in Erfurt, Germany, for the study period 1995-1998. Stölzel et al. (2007, 091374) 

extended the study period to include the years 1995-2001 and updated the analysis. Number 

concentrations (NC) for four size ranges of UFPs (0.01-0.1, 0.01-0.03, 0.03-0.05, and 0.05-0.1 μm) 

as well as mass concentration (MC) for three size ranges (0.01-2.5, 0.1-0.5, and 10 μm) were 

analyzed. The authors found associations with UFP NC and all-cause as well as cardio-respiratory 

mortality, each for a 4 day lag. The risk estimates associated with a 9,748/cm3

 increase in UFP NC 

was 2.9% (95% CI: 0.3-5.5) for all-cause mortality and 3.1% (95% CI: 0.3-6.0) for 

cardio-respiratory mortality. The UFP-mortality association, and the lag structure of association, is 

consistent with the results from their earlier analysis, but the PM2.5 association found in the previous 

study was not observed in the updated analysis. Both UFP and PM2.5 concentrations were higher 

during the cold season in this locale. 

Breitner et al. (2009, 188439) analyzed UFP data from Erfurt, Germany, over a 10.5-yr period 

(October 1991-March 2002) after the German unification, when air quality improved. In this analysis 

associations between all-cause mortality and UFPs and PM2.5 were analyzed from September 1995 to 

March 2002, while PM10, NO2 and CO was analyzed for the whole study duration. The exposure 

time window / averages used in this study were different from those used by Stölzel (2003, 042842) 

and Stölzel et al. (2007, 091374). Breitner et al. (2009, 188439) investigated the cumulative effect of 

air pollution on mortality at lags 0-5 and 0-14, using (a) a semiparametric Poisson regression model; 

and (b) a third degree polynomial distributed lag (PDL) model. The authors estimated the mortality 

risk for the entire study period as well as specific time periods to examine the effect of declining air 

pollution levels on the air pollution-mortality association. Of the air pollutants examined, UFPs were 

December 2009 6-190 
found to be most consistently associated with mortality. NO2 and CO were also found to be 

significantly associated with mortality using the 15-day PDL and 15-day avg models, respectively. 

PM2.5 and PM10 also showed positive, but much weaker associations with mortality. In this data set, 

UFPs were only moderately correlated with PM2.5 (r = 0.48) and PM10 (r = 0.57). Of the pollutants 

examined, NO2 showed the strongest (but overall a moderate) correlation with UFPs (r = 0.62). 

When the risk estimates were compared between the two latter time periods of the study (September 

1995-February 1998; and March 1998-March 2002), the estimates obtained using the 6-day avg for 

these pollutants generally declined. For example, the all-cause mortality risk estimates associated 

with a 8,439/cm3

 increase in UFP NC was 5.5% (95% CI: 1.1-10.5) for the earlier period and -1.1% 

(95% CI: -6.8 to 4.9) for the later period. However, such patterns were less clear when using 15-

day avg pollutant concentrations. In summary, UFPs appear to be the pollutant most consistently 

associated with mortality in Erfurt, Germany, but combined with the results for NO2 and CO, these 

associations may implicate the role of local combustion sources on the mortality association 

observed. 

Kettunen et al.’s (2007, 091242) study in Helsinki also examined the relationship between 

UFPs and stroke mortality. As described earlier, PM2.5, PM10, and CO was associated with stroke 

mortality only during the warm season. The association with UFPs was borderline non-significant 

(8.5% [95% CI: -1.2 to19.1] per 4,979/cm3

 increase in UFPs at lag 1 day), but its lag structure of 

association and the magnitude of the effect estimate per interquartile-range are similar to those for 

PM2.5. Note that the UFP NC levels in Helsinki (median equals 8,986/cm3

 during the cold season and 

7,587/cm3

 during the warm season) are lower than those in Erfurt (mean = 13,549/cm3), but clearly 

higher in the cold season. 

Summary of UFP Risk Estimates 

Only a few new studies, all of them conducted in Europe, examined and reported associations 

between UFPs and mortality. In Erfurt, UFPs showed the strongest associations with mortality 

among all of the PM indices, but its lag structure of association is either unique with the strongest 

association at lag 4 days in Stölzel et al. (2007, 091374), not consistent with the lag structure of 

associations found in other mortality studies, or the time-windows examined are longer (0-5 and 

0-14 days) ((Breitner et al., 2009, 188439), making it difficult to compare whether the associations 

observed are consistent with those reported in other studies. In Helsinki, the association between 

UFPs and stroke mortality was weaker than that for PM2.5, but its lag structure of association was 

similar to that for PM2.5 (strongest at lag 1 day). However, Kettunen et al. (2007, 091242) only 

examined lags 0-3 days. Overall, the results of these studies should be viewed with caution because 

UFPs were consistently found to be correlated with gaseous pollutants derived from local 

combustion sources, and one or more of the gaseous pollutants were also found to be associated with 

mortality. Clearly, more research is needed to further investigate the role of UFPs on PM-mortality 

associations. 

6.5.2.5. Chemical Components of PM 

A few recent studies have examined the association between mortality and components of 

PM2.5. This endeavor has been undertaken by some investigators through the use of the newly 

available PM2.5 chemical speciation network data. The PM2.5 chemical speciation network consists of 

more than 250 monitors that have been collecting over 40 chemical species since 2000; however, 

most sites started collecting data in 2001. One caveat to the new network is that because the 

sampling frequencies of the monitors are either every third day or every sixth day, there have not 

been, generally, a sufficient number of days to examine associations with mortality in single cities. 

To circumvent this issue, some investigators (Bell et al., 2009, 191997; Dominici et al., 2007, 

099135; Franklin et al., 2008, 097426; Lippmann et al., 2006, 091165) have used the PM2.5 chemical 

species data in a second stage regression to explain the heterogeneity in PM10 or PM2.5 mortality risk 

estimates across cities. However, it should be noted these studies assume that the relative 

contributions of PM2.5 have remained the same over time. There have also been some studies that 

directly analyzed speciated PM2.5 data (e.g., Klemm et al., 2004, 056585; Ostro et al., 2007, 091354). 

December 2009 6-191 
Explaining the Heterogeneity of PM10 Risk Estimates Using PM2.5 Chemical 

Speciation Data 

Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165), in addition to their primary analysis1, investigated the 

consistency of the associations between specific elements and health outcomes by examining the 

heterogeneity of published 1-day lagged NMMAPS PM10 mortality risk estimates for 1987-1994 

across cities as a function of the average PM2.5 chemical components across cities. They matched 

PM2.5 chemical species in 60 out of 90 cities. Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165) noted that the 

concentrations of the 16 chemical species examined averaged over the years 2000-2003 were highly 

skewed across cities. They therefore regressed PM10 risk estimates on each of the PM2.5 components, 

raw and log-transformed, with weights based on the standard error of the PM10 risk estimates. The 

log-transformed values yielded better predictive power, and the authors subsequently presented the 

results with log-transformed values. As shown in Figure 6-31, the 16 PM2.5 species showed varying 

extent of predictive power in explaining the PM10 risk estimates across 60 cities, with Ni and V 

being the best predictors. 

Source: Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165) 

Figure 6-31. Percent increase in PM10 risk estimates (point estimates and 95% CIs) associated 

with a 5th-95th percentile increase in PM2.5 and PM2.5 chemical components. The 

PM2.5 chemical components were log-transformed in the regression. The PM10

risk estimates were for 60 NMMAP cities for 1987-1994. 

Dominici et al. (2007, 099135) examined the influence of Ni and V on the updated NMMAPS 

PM10 mortality risk estimates for 1987-2000, using 72 counties in which Ni and V data were 

collected. A Bayesian hierarchical model was used to estimate the role of Ni and V on the 

heterogeneity of PM10 risk estimates. While they found both Ni and V to be significant predictors of 

variation in PM10 mortality risk estimates across cities, they also noted that this result was sensitive 

to the inclusion of the New York City data. Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165) and Dominici et al. 

(2007, 099135) both reported that the Ni levels in New York City are particularly high (~10 times the 

national average). Figure 6-32 shows the result of the sensitivity analysis for Ni. Note that the Ni in 

this result was not log-transformed, as clearly reflected in the change in the width of confidence 

bands when the New York data were removed (i.e., a skewed distribution produces narrow bands). 

 

1

 The main focus of the study was to examine the role of PM2.5 chemical components in a mouse model of atherosclerosis (ApoE–/–) 

exposed to concentrated fine PM (CAPs) in Tuxedo, NY. 

December 2009 6-192 
Dominici et al. (2007, 099135) further noted that they reached “the same conclusion” when 

log-transformed data were used in the analysis, but the results were not presented. 

Source: Reprinted with Permission of Oxford University Press from Dominici et al. (2007, 099135) 

Figure 6-32. Sensitivity of the percent increase in PM10 risk estimates (point estimates and 

95% CIs) associated with an interquartile increase in Ni. The Ni concentration 

was not log-transformed in this regression model. The PM10 risk estimates were 

for 72 NMMAP cities for 1987-2000. The top estimate is achieved by including 

data for all the 69 communities. The other estimates are calculated by excluding 

one of the 69 communities at a time. 

Bell et al. (2009, 191997) presented a supplemental analysis similar to both Lippmann et al. 

(2006, 091165) and Dominici et al. (2007, 099135) in their examination of whether the variation in 

PM2.5 risks for cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions is due to differences in PM2.5

chemical composition. The authors used the 100 U.S. cities included in the Peng et al. (2005, 

087463) analysis and PM10 data for the years 1987-2000 along with PM2.5 chemical component data 

for 2000-2005. Using a Bayesian hierarchical model, Bell et al. (2009, 191997) found that PM10

relative risks for total mortality were greater in counties and during seasons with higher PM2.5 Ni 

concentrations. However, in a sensitivity analysis when selectively removing cities from the overall 

estimate, the significant association between the PM10 mortality risk estimate and the PM2.5 Ni 

fraction was diminished upon removing New York city from the analysis, which is consistent with 

the results presented by Dominici et al. (2007, 099135). 

Explaining the Heterogeneity of PM2.5 Risk Estimates Using PM2.5 Chemical 

Speciation Data 

The first stage of the Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) 25 cities study, described previously, 

focused on a time-series regression of mortality on PM2.5 by season. In the second stage random 

effects meta regression, the PM2.5 mortality risk estimates (25 cities×4 seasons = 100 estimates) were 

regressed on the ratio of mean seasonal PM2.5 species to the total PM2.5 mass. The authors included 

those species that had at least 25% of the reported concentrations above the minimum detection 

limit, which resulted in 18 species being included in the analysis. Their rationale for using species 

proportions as effect modifiers, according to the investigators, was that “in the first stage of the 

analysis the mortality risk was estimated per unit of the total PM2.5 mass, which encompassed all 

December 2009 6-193 
measured species, and therefore it would not be meaningful to use the species concentrations directly 

as the effect modifier” (Franklin et al., 2008, 097426). In the second stage regression model, 

Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) also included a quadratic function of seasonally averaged temperature 

to capture the inverted U-shape relationship between PM2.5 penetration and temperature. They found 

that the fitted relationship between PM2.5 risk estimates across cities and seasonally averaged 

temperature substantiates the use of temperature as a surrogate for ventilation (Franklin et al., 2008, 

097426). Table 6-17 shows the resulting effect modification by PM2.5 species. Al, As, Ni, Si, and 

SO4

2– were found to be significant effect modifiers of PM2.5 risk estimates, and simultaneously 

including Al, Ni, and SO4

2– together, or Al, Ni, and As together further increased explanatory power. 

Of all the species examined, Al and Ni explained the most residual heterogeneity. Franklin et al. 

(2008, 097426) also examined the effect of demographic variables on PM2.5 risk estimates and found 

that only median household income was significantly associated with mortality. 

Table 6-17. Effect modification of composition on the estimated percent increase in mortality with a 

10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5. 

Cause Species 

p-value for effect 

modification by species to 

PM2.5 mass proportion 

% increase in nonaccidental mortality per 10 μg/m3

increase in PM2.5 for an interquartile increase in 

species to PM2.5 mass proportion* 

Heterogeneity 

explained (%)†

Nonaccidental 

Univariate 

Al 

As 

Br 

Cr 

EC 

Fe 

K 

Mn 

Na+ 

Ni 

NO3

NH4

+

OC 

Pb 

Si 

SO4

2–

V 

Zn 

<0.001 

0.02 

0.11 

0.12 

0.79 

0.43 

0.10 

0.42 

0.22 

0.01 

0.07 

0.84 

0.59 

0.31 

0.03 

0.01 

0.28 

0.19 

0.58 

0.55 

0.38 

0.33 

0.06 

0.12 

0.41 

0.14 

0.20 

0.37 

-0.49 

0.04 

-0.02 

0.17 

0.41 

0.51 

0.30 

0.23 

45 

35 

5 

16 

0 

3 

28 

10 

14 

41 

28 

3 

4 

11 

25 

33 

3 

15 

Nonaccidental 

Multivariate 

(1) 

Al 

Ni 

SO4

2–

<0.001 

0.01 

<0.001 

0.79 

0.34 

0.75 

100 

Nonaccidental 

Multivariate 

(2) 

Al 

Ni 

As 

<0.001 

0.01 

<0.001 

0.61 

0.35 

0.58 

100 

*Adjusted for temperature 

†

Includes heterogeneity explained by temperature 

Source: Reprinted with Permission of Lippincott Williams & Wilkins from Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) 

Although Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165) used NMMAPS PM10 risk estimates and Franklin 

et al. (2008, 097426) used PM2.5 risk estimates to examine effect modification due to various PM 

December 2009 6-194 
species, 14 out of the 18 species analyzed in these two studies overlap (Figure 6-31 and Table 6-17). 

Both studies found that Ni explained the heterogeneity in PM risk estimates. Note that New York 

City was not included in the 25 cities examined in Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) and, thus, could not 

influence the result. Sulfate positively, but not significantly, explained the PM10 risk estimates in the 

Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165) analysis. However, SO4

2– was a significant predictor of PM2.5 risk 

estimates in the Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) analysis. Al and Si were negative (i.e., less than the 

average PM10 risk estimates across cities), though not significant predictors in the Lippmann et al. 

(2006, 091165) analysis. Unlike the Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) analysis, arsenic (As) showed no 

association with mortality in the Lippmann et al. (2006, 091165) analysis. The source of these 

differences may be due to the difference in geographic coverage, PM size (PM2.5 may represent more 

secondary aerosols than PM10), or the difference in the analytical methods used in each study. 

Specifically, the analytical approach used by Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) does have an advantage 

of delineating seasonal variations in PM components and the associated potential seasonal mortality 

effects. 

In light of the results presented in speciation studies it must be noted that second stage 

analyses that use PM chemical species as effect modifiers have some limitations. Unlike analyses 

that directly examine the associations between chemical species and mortality, if an effect 

modification is observed it may be confounded if the variations of the mean levels of the chemical 

species examined are correlated with other demographic factors that vary across cities. Thus, more 

concrete conclusions could be formulated if direct associations are found between mortality and PM 

chemical components in time-series analyses. 

Association between PM2.5 Chemical Components and Mortality 

Ostro et al. (2007, 091354) examined associations between PM2.5 chemical components and 

mortality in six California counties (Fresno, Kern, Riverside, Sacramento, San Diego, and Santa 

Clara), which had at least 180 days of speciation data for the years 2000-2003. The study examined 

all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality for individual lags of 19 specific PM2.5 chemical 

components. The second stage random-effects model combined risk estimates at each lag across 

cities. The number of available days for chemical species data ranged from 243 (San Diego County) 

to 395 (Sacramento County). The authors found an association between mortality, especially 

cardiovascular mortality, and several chemical components. For example, cardiovascular mortality 

was associated with EC, OC, nitrate, Fe, K, and Ti at various lags. 

Even though this was a multicity study, the relatively small number of available days and the 

every-third-day (or every-sixth-day) sampling frequency for PM2.5 chemical species made it difficult 

to interpret the results of the lag structure of associations observed for the chemical species. To 

evaluate the impact of non-daily sampling frequency, Ostro et al. (2007, 091354) examined both the 

PM2.5 series that coincides with the speciation sampling days (for the initial six counties 

[i.e., PM2.5c]) and PM2.5 data that was available on all days for an extended set of counties (the initial 

six counties plus Contra Costa, Los Angeles, and Orange Counties [i.e., PM2.5ext]). Figure 6-33 shows 

the association between all-cause mortality and selected PM2.5 chemical species as well as for PM2.5c

and PM2.5ext. Note the wide confidence bands for the risk estimates for each PM2.5 chemical species 

and PM2.5c, apparently reflecting the low statistical power of the data. The lag structure of 

associations is more clearly defined for PM2.5ext, and appears to be different from that for PM2.5. 

December 2009 6-195 
Source: Ostro et al. (2007, 091354) 

Figure 6-33. Percent excess risk (CI) of total (nonaccidental) mortality per IQR of 

concentrations. Note: PM2.5 has the same sampling days as chemical species. 

PM2.5 has all available PM2.5ext data for nine counties. * p < 0.10; ** p < 0.05 

Ostro et al. (2008, 097971) used the speciation data from the six counties analyzed in their 

2007 analysis, described above, in an additional analysis to examine effect modification of 

cardiovascular mortality effects, which showed the strongest association in the 2007 analysis, 

attributed to PM2.5 and 13 chemical components by socio-economic and demographic factors. The 

results of the analysis were combined using random effects meta-analysis. The investigators tested 

statistical differences in risk estimates between strata using a t-test, and reported that, for many of the 

PM2.5 chemical species; there were significantly higher effect estimates among those with lower 

educational attainment and Hispanics. While these patterns were apparent in their results table, 

interpretation of the results is not straightforward because the table only presented the most 

significant (and positive) lags, and they were often different between the strata (e.g., the most 

frequent significant lag for the Hispanic group was 1 day, while it was 2 or 3 days for the White 

group). As the investigators pointed out, the every-third-day sampling frequency of the speciation 

data also complicates the interpretation of the results for different lags. 

Overall, the two studies by Ostro et al. (2007, 091354) were the first attempt to directly 

analyze associations between the newly available chemical speciation data and mortality. While 

suggestive associations between several chemical species and mortality were reported, a longer 

length of observations is needed to more clearly determine the associations. 

6.5.2.6. Source-Apportioned PM Analyses 

Chemically speciated PM data allow for the source apportionment of PM. The idea of using 

source-apportioned PM for health effects analyses is appealing because, if such 

source-apportionment could be reliably conducted, it would allow for an evaluation of PM2.5 mass 

concentrations by source types. However, the uncertainties associated with source-apportionment 

methods have not been well characterized. 

To address this issue, in 2003, several groups of EPA-funded researchers organized a 

workshop and independently conducted source apportionment on two sets of data: Phoenix, AZ, and 

Washington, DC, compared the results (Hopke et al., 2006, 088390), and then conducted time-series 

December 2009 6-196 
mortality regression analyses using each group’s source-apportioned data (Ito et al., 2006, 088391; 

Mar et al., 2006, 086143; Thurston et al., 2005, 097949). The various research groups generally 

identified the same major source types, each with similar elemental compositions. Inter-group 

correlation analyses indicated that soil-, SO4

2–-, residual oil-, and salt-associated mass concentrations 

were most unambiguously identified by various methods, whereas vegetative burning and traffic 

were less consistent. Aggregate source-specific mortality relative risk (RR) estimate confidence 

intervals overlapped each other, but the SO4

2–-related PM2.5 component was most consistently 

significant across analyses in these cities. 

The results from the source-apportionment workshop quantitatively characterized the 

uncertainties associated with the factor analysis-based methods, but they also raised new issues. The 

mortality analyses conducted in Phoenix, AZ, and Washington, DC, both found that different 

source-types showed varying lag structure of associations with mortality. For example, Figure 6-34

shows cardiovascular mortality risk estimates for three of the PM2.5 sources from the Phoenix, AZ, 

analysis (Mar et al., 2006, 086143). The strongest associations for “traffic” PM2.5 was found for lag 

1-day, while for “secondary SO4

2–” PM2.5, it was lag 0, with a monotonic decline towards longer 

lags. These results are consistent with those in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), in 

which associations were reported with combustion-related PM2.5, but not crustal source PM2.5. It is 

conceivable that PM from different source types produces different lagged effects, but it is also 

likely that different PM species have varying lagged correlations with the covariates in the health 

effects regression models (e.g., temperature, day-of-week) resulting in apparent differences in lagged 

associations with mortality. Thus, interpretation of these source-apportioned PM health effect 

estimates remains challenging. 

Source: Reprinted with Permission of Nature Publishing Group from Mar et al. (2006, 086143) 

Figure 6-34. Relative risk and CI of cardiovascular mortality associated with estimated PM2.5

source contributions. Y-axis: relative risk per 5th-to-95th percentile increment of 

estimated PM2.5 source contribution. X-axis: the alphabet denotes investigator/ 

method; lagged PM2.5 source contribution for lag 0 through 5 days, left to right, 

are shown for each investigator/method. 

6.5.2.7. Investigation of Concentration-Response Relationship 

The results from large multicity studies reviewed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) suggested that strong evidence did not exist for a clear threshold for PM mortality effects. 

However, as discussed in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), there are several 

challenges in determining and interpreting the shape of PM-mortality concentration-response 

functions and the presence of a threshold, including: (1) limited range of available concentration 

levels (i.e., sparse data at the low and high end); (2) heterogeneity of susceptible populations; and (3) 

December 2009 6-197 
the influence of measurement error. Regardless of these limitations, studies have continued to 

investigate the PM-mortality concentration-response relationship. 

Daniels et al. (2004, 087343) evaluated three concentration-response models: (1) log-linear 

models (i.e., the most commonly used approach, from which the majority of risk estimates are 

derived); (2) spline models that allow data to fit possibly non-linear relationship; and (3) threshold 

models, using PM10 data in 20 cities from the 1987-1994 NMMAPS data. They reported that the 

spline model, combined across the cities, showed a linear relation without indicating a threshold for 

the relative risks of death for all-causes and for cardiovascular-respiratory causes in relation to PM10, 

but “the other cause” deaths (i.e., all cause minus cardiovascular-respiratory) showed an apparent 

threshold at around 50 μg/m3

 PM10, as shown in Figure 6-35. For all-cause and cardio-respiratory 

deaths, based on the Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC), a log-linear model without threshold was 

preferred to the threshold model and to the spline model. 

The HEI review committee commented that interpretation of these results required caution, 

because (1) the measurement error could obscure any threshold; (2) the city-specific concentrationresponse curves exhibited a variety of shapes; and (3) the use of AIC to choose among the models 

might not be appropriate due to the fact it was not designed to assess scientific theories of etiology. 

Note, however, that there has been no etiologically credible reason suggested thus far to choose one 

model over others for aggregate outcomes. Thus, at least statistically, the result of Daniels et al. 

(2004, 087343) suggests that the log-linear model is appropriate in describing the relationship 

between PM10 and mortality. 

 

Source: Reprinted with Permission of HEI from Daniels et al. (2004, 087343) 

Figure 6-35. Concentration-response curves (spline model) for all-cause, cardiovascular, 

respiratory and other cause mortality from the 20 NMMAPS cities. Estimates are 

posterior means under Bayesian random effects model. Solid line is mean lag, 

triangles are lag 0 (current day), and squares are lag 1 (previous day). 

The Schwartz (2004, 078998) analysis of PM10 and mortality in 14 U.S. cities, described in 

Section 6.5.2.1, also examined the shape of the concentration-response relationship by including 

indicator variables for days when concentrations were between 15 and 25 μg/m3

, between 25 and 

34 μg/m3

, between 35 and 44 μg/m3, and 45 μg/m3 and above. In the model, days with 

concentrations below 15 μg/m3

 served as the reference level. This model was fit using the single 

stage method, combining strata across all cities in the case-crossover design. Figure 6-36 shows the 

resulting relationship, which does not provide sufficient evidence to suggest that a threshold exists. 

The authors did not examine city-to-city variation in the concentration-response relationship in this 

study. 

December 2009 6-198 
 

Source: Reprinted with Permission of BMJ Group from Schwartz (2004, 078998) 

Figure 6-36. Percent increase in the risk of death on days with PM10 concentrations in the 

ranges of 15-24, 25-34, 35-44, and 45 μg/m3 and greater, compared to a reference 

of days when concentrations were below 15 μg/m3. Risk is plotted against the 

mean PM10 concentration within each category. 

Samoli et al. (2005, 087436) investigated the concentration-response relationship between 

PM10 and mortality in 22 European cities (and BS in 15 of the cities) participating in the APHEA 

project. In nine of the 22 cities, PM10 levels were estimated using a regression model relating colocated PM10 to BS or TSP. They used regression spline models with two knots (30 and 50 μg/m3

) 

and then combined the individual city estimates of the splines across cities. The investigators 

concluded that the association between PM and mortality in these cities could be adequately 

estimated using the log-linear model. However, in an ancillary analysis of the concentration-response 

curves for the largest cities in each of the three distinct geographic areas (western, southern, and 

eastern European cities): London, England; Athens, Greece; and Cracow, Poland, Samoli et al. 

(2005, 087436) observed a difference in the shape of the concentration-response curve across cities. 

Thus, while the combined curves (Figure 6-37) appear to support no-threshold relationships between 

PM10 and mortality, the heterogeneity of the shapes across cities makes it difficult to interpret the 

biological relevance of the shape of the combined curves. 

December 2009 6-199 
 

Source: Samoli et al. (2005, 087436) 

Figure 6-37. Combined concentration-response curves (spline model) for all-cause, 

cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality from the 22 APHEA cities. 

The results from the three multicity studies discussed above support no-threshold log-linear 

models, but issues such as the possible influence of exposure error and heterogeneity of shapes 

across cities remain to be resolved. Also, given the pattern of seasonal and regional differences in 

PM risk estimates depicted in recent multicity study results (e.g., Peng et al., 2005, 087463), the very 

concept of a concentration-response relationship estimated across cities and for all-year data may not 

be very informative. 

6.5.3. Summary and Causal Determinations 

6.5.3.1. PM2.5 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) found that the strength of evidence from U.S.- 

and Canadian-based studies (both multi- and single-city) for PM2.5 mortality associations varied 

across outcomes, with relatively stronger evidence for associations with cardiovascular compared to 

respiratory causes. The resulting effect estimates reported for these two endpoints ranged from 1.2 to 

2.7% for cardiovascular-related mortality and 0.8 to 2.7% for respiratory-related mortality, per 

10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5 (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). 

In the current review, PM2.5 risk estimates were found to be consistently positive, and slightly 

larger than those reported for PM10 for all-cause, and respiratory- and cardiovascular-related 

mortality. The risk estimates for all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality ranged from 0.29% (Dominici et 

al., 2007, 097361) to 1.21% (Franklin et al., 2007, 091257) per 10 μg/m3

 increase in PM2.5. These 

associations were consistently observed at lag 1 and lag 0-1, which have been confirmed through 

extensive analyses in PM10-mortality studies. Cardiovascular-related mortality risk estimates were 

found to be similar to those for all-cause mortality; whereas, the risk estimates for respiratory-related 

mortality were consistently larger: 1.01% (Franklin et al., 2007, 091257) to 2.2% (Ostro et al., 2006, 

087991) using the same lag (i.e., lag 1 and lag 0-1) and averaging indices. The studies evaluated that 

examined the relationship between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and cardiovascular effects (section 

December 2009 6-200 
6.2) provide coherence and biological plausibility for PM2.5-induced cardiovascular mortality, which 

represents the largest component of total (nonaccidental) mortality (~ 35%) 

(American Heart Association, 2009, 198920). However, as noted in section 6.3, there is limited 

coherence between some of the respiratory morbidity findings from epidemiologic and controlled 

human exposure studies for the specific health outcomes reported and the subpopulations in which 

those health outcomes occur, complicating the interpretation of the PM2.5 respiratory mortality 

effects observed. 

Regional and seasonal patterns in PM2.5 risk estimates were observed with results similar to 

those presented for PM10 (Dominici et al., 2007, 097361; Peng et al., 2005, 087463; Zeka et al., 

2006, 088749), with the greatest effects occurring in the eastern U.S. (Franklin et al., 2007, 091257; 

Franklin et al., 2008, 097426) and during the spring (Franklin et al., 2007, 091257; Zanobetti and 

Schwartz, 2009, 188462). Of the studies evaluated only Burnett et al. (2004, 086247), a Canadian 

multicity study, analyzed gaseous pollutants and found mixed results, with possible confounding of 

PM2.5 risk estimates by NO2. Although the recently evaluated U.S.-based multicity studies did not 

analyze potential confounding of PM2.5 risk estimates by gaseous pollutants, evidence from singlecity studies evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) suggest that gaseous 

copollutants do not confound the PM2.5-mortality association, which is further supported by studies 

that examined the PM10-mortality relationship. An examination of effect modifiers (e.g., 

demographic and socioeconomic factors), specifically AC use which is sometimes used as a 

surrogate for decreased pollutant penetration indoors, has suggested that PM2.5 risk estimates 

increase as the percent of the population with access to AC decreases (Franklin et al., 2007, 091257; 

2008, 097426). Collectively, the epidemiologic evidence is sufficient to conclude that a causal 

relationship exists between short-term exposure to PM2.5 and mortality.

6.5.3.2. PM10-2.5 

The 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905) found a limited body of evidence that was 

suggestive of associations between short-term exposure to ambient PM10-2.5 and various mortality 

outcomes (e.g., 0.08 to 2.4% increase in total [nonaccidental] mortality per 10 μg/m3

 increase in 

PM10-2.5). As a result, the AQCD concluded that PM10-2.5, or some constituent component(s) 

(including those on the surface) of PM10-2.5, may contribute, in certain circumstances, to increased 

human health risks. 

The majority of studies evaluated in this review that examined the relationship between 

PM10-2.5 and mortality reported consistent positive associations in areas with mean 24-h avg 

concentrations ranging from 6.1-16.4 μg/m3

. However, uncertainty surrounds the PM10-2.5 

associations reported due to the different methods used to estimate PM10-2.5 concentrations across 

studies (e.g., direct measurement of PM10-2.5 using dichotomous samplers, calculating the difference 

between PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations). 

A new study of 47 U.S. cities (Zanobetti and Schwartz, 2009, 188462), which estimated 

PM10-2.5 by calculating the difference between the county-average PM10 and PM2.5, found 

associations between PM10-2.5 and mortality across the U.S., including regions where PM10-2.5 levels 

are not high. In addition, one well conducted multicity Canadian study (Burnett et al., 2004, 086247) 

provided evidence for an association between short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and mortality. 

However, unlike PM2.5 very few of the PM10-2.5 studies have investigated confounding by gaseous 

copollutants or the influence of model specification on PM10-2.5 risk estimates. Zanobetti and 

Schwartz (2009, 188462) did provide preliminary evidence for greater effects occurring during the 

warmer months (i.e., spring and summer), which is consistent with the results from PM10-mortality 

studies (Peng et al., 2005, 087463; Zeka et al., 2006, 088749). Overall, although more data is needed 

to: adequately characterize the chemical and biological components that may modify the potential 

toxicity of PM10-2.5 and compare the different methods used to estimate exposure, consistent positive 

associations between short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and mortality were observed in the U.S. and 

Canadian-based multicity studies evaluated, as well as the single-city studies conducted in these 

locations. Therefore, the epidemiologic evidence is suggestive of a causal relationship 

between short-term exposure to PM10-2.5 and mortality.

December 2009 6-201 
6.5.3.3. UFPs 

Limited evidence was available during the review of the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 

056905) regarding the potential association between UFPs and mortality. The lone study evaluated 

was conducted in Germany and provided some evidence for an association, but this association was 

reduced upon the inclusion of gaseous pollutants in a two-pollutant model. 

Only a few new studies, all of them from Europe, were identified during this review, which 

examined the association between short-term exposure to UFPs and mortality. Inconsistencies were 

observed in the lag structure of association reported by each study in terms of both the lag day with 

the greatest association and the number of lag days considered in the study. Overall the studies 

consistently found that UFPs were correlated with gaseous pollutants derived from local combustion 

sources and that one or more of the gaseous pollutants were also associated with mortality. The 

limited number of studies available and the discrepancy in results between studies further confirms 

the need for additional data to examine the UFP-mortality relationship. In conclusion, the 

epidemiologic evidence is inadequate to infer a causal association between short-term 

exposure to UFPs and mortality. 

6.6. Attribution of Ambient PM Health Effects to Specific 

Constituents or Sources 

From a mechanistic perspective, it is highly plausible that the chemical composition of PM 

would be a better predictor of health effects than particle size. The observed geographical gradients 

in a number of PM2.5 constituents (e.g., EC, OC, nitrate, and SO4

2–) and regional heterogeneity in 

PM-related health effects reported in epidemiologic studies are consistent with this hypothesis. 

Recent studies in epidemiology, controlled human exposure, and toxicology have begun using 

information on ambient PM composition, and apportionment of constituents into sources, in an 

attempt to identify those with links to health outcomes and endpoints. 

This section focuses on short-term exposure studies that (1) assessed health effects for ambient 

PM sources or components; and (2) used quantitative methods to relate those sources and 

components to health effects. Epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and toxicological studies 

that took into consideration a large set of PM constituents (typically minerals, metals, EC, OC, and 

ions such as SO4

2–) and aimed to segregate which constituents or groups of constituents may be 

responsible for the PM-related health effects observed are included. Most of these studies were 

reviewed earlier in this chapter and evaluated the relationship between specific chemical constituents 

derived from ambient PM and health effects. However, there were many studies presented earlier, as 

well as others only included in the Annexes, which only selected one or a small number of PM 

constituents a priori. Several controlled human exposure and toxicological studies likewise used a 

single compound found in PM rather than ambient PM. Additionally, studies that presented ambient 

PM composition and health data without systematically and explicitly investigating relationships are 

not included in this section. The few epidemiologic studies of long-term exposure that examined 

potential relationships between composition and sources of PM with mortality are discussed in 

Section 7.6.2. 

Prior to the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), only a handful of epidemiologic 

studies had attempted to relate specific constituents or sources of ambient PM to health outcomes 

without selecting constituents a priori. In this review, approximately 40 new epidemiologic, 

controlled human exposure, and toxicological studies explore the health effects attributed to 

chemical constituents and sources of ambient PM. The following summary (Section 6.6.3) provides 

a synthesis of the findings, including discussions on the coherence and consistency of the results. 

6.6.1. Evaluation Approach 

Relating a large number of ambient PM constituents with a large number of health outcomes 

presents difficulties that are related to both the nature of PM and methods of quantitative analysis. 

First, the number of constituents that comprise PM is not only large, but the correlations between 

them can be high. Reducing the correlation between constituents has been accomplished in most of 

December 2009 6-202 
the recent studies through various forms of factor analysis, which limits the correlations between 

constituents by grouping the most highly correlated ambient PM constituents into less correlated 

groups or factors. Some studies identify the resulting groups or factors with named sources of 

ambient PM, but many do not draw explicit links between factors and actual sources. The methods 

used in estimating source contributions to ambient PM are reviewed in Section 3.6.1. 

Most studies reviewed herein, regardless of discipline, were based on data for between 7 and 

20 ambient PM constituents, with EC, OC, SO4, and NO3 most commonly measured. Most studies 

first reduced the number of ambient PM constituents by grouping them with various factorization or 

source apportionment techniques and the majority labeled the constituent groupings according to 

their presumed source. A separate analysis was then used to examine the relationship between the 

grouped PM constituents and various health effects. A few performed these two steps simultaneously 

using Partial Least Squares (PLS) procedures or Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). A small 

number of controlled human exposure and toxicological studies did not apply any kind of grouping 

to the ambient PM speciation data. 

There are some differences in the type of PM constituent data used in epidemiologic, 

controlled human exposure and toxicological studies. In epidemiologic studies, ambient PM 

speciation data is obtained from atmospheric monitors; for controlled human exposure and 

toxicological studies, the technique used in the experimental exposure determines the type of PM 

data. Thus, all epidemiologic studies relied on monitor data, while all of the controlled human 

exposure and the majority of the toxicological studies used CAPs (and analyzed the concentrations 

of constituents therein). The remaining toxicological studies used ambient PM samples collected on 

filters at various U.S. sites. Further details on the studies included can be found in Appendix F. 

Some important limitations in interpreting these studies together is that few, if any of the 

results are easily comparable, due to: (1) differences in the sets of ambient PM constituents that 

make up each of the factors; (2) the subjectivity involved in labeling factors as sources; (3) the 

numerous potential health effects examined in these studies, including definitive outcomes (e.g., 

HAs) as well as physiological alterations (e.g., increased inflammatory response); and (4) the various 

statistical methods and analytical approaches used in the studies. There are no well-established, 

objective methods for conducting the various forms of factor analysis and source apportionment, 

leaving much of the model operation and factor assignment open to judgment by the individual 

investigator. For example, the Al/Si factor identified in one study may differ from the Al/Ca/Fe/Si 

factor from another study, and the “Resuspended Soil” factor from a third study. After factorization 

or apportionment of the ambient PM data, the methods used for analyzing the potential association 

between ambient PM constituents or sources and health effects also varied. Except for the studies 

that used PLS or SEM, controlled human exposure and toxicological studies all used univariate 

mixed model regression for every identified PM factor or source. A number of toxicological studies 

followed the univariate step with multivariate regression for all factors. Epidemiologic studies 

generally related short-term exposure to sources with health outcomes through various forms of 

Poisson regression. 

6.6.2. Findings 

The results that follow are organized by discipline, with epidemiologic studies followed by 

controlled human exposure and toxicological studies. This section ends with a summary table, Table 

6-18. Table 6-18 is broken out by PM2.5 sources, and includes those epidemiologic, controlled human 

exposure, and in vivo toxicological studies that either grouped ambient PM2.5 constituents or used 

tracers for each source. The table does not include all factors or sources examined in the studies 

listed: those factors or sources for which no association with effects was found not included. 

6.6.2.1. Epidemiologic Studies 

Results from the 2004 PM AQCD 

Three epidemiologic studies that examined the association between PM constituents or sources 

and specific health effects were evaluated in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905). Of 

December 2009 6-203 
these studies, one study associated daily mortality with a mobile sources PM factor in Knoxville, TN 

and St. Louis, MO and coal in Boston, MA, while the crustal factor was not found to be significant 

for any of the six cities studied (Laden et al., 2000, 012102; Schwartz, 2003, 042811). Another study 

demonstrated an association between a regional SO4

2– factor and total mortality at lag 0 in Phoenix 

and factors for regional SO4

2–, motor vehicles, and vegetative burning with cardiovascular mortality 

at lags of 0, 1, and 3, respectively (Mar et al., 2000, 001760; 2003, 042841). Negative associations 

were observed between total mortality and regional SO4

2– at lag 3, along with local SO2 and soil 

factors (Mar et al., 2000, 001760; 2003, 042841). Finally, Tsai et al. (2000, 006251) identified 

significant associations between PM15-derived industrial sources and total daily deaths in Newark 

and Camden, NJ; SO4

2– was also linked to cardiopulmonary deaths in both locations. Total mortality 

and cardiopulmonary deaths were also significantly associated with PM from oil burning in Camden 

(2000, 006251). 

Comparative Analyses of Source Apportionment Methods 

Hopke et al. (2006, 088390) conducted a comparative analysis of source apportionment 

techniques used by investigators at multiple institutions, and subsequently used in epidemiologic 

analyses (Ito et al., 2006, 088391; Mar et al., 2006, 086143). An overarching conclusion of this set of 

analyses, reported in Thurston et al. (2005, 097949), is that variation in the source apportionment 

methods was not a major source of uncertainty in the epidemiologic effect estimates. In the primary 

analyses, mortality was associated with secondary SO4

2– in both Phoenix and Washington D.C., 

although lag times differed (0 and 3, respectively). The SO4

2– effect was stronger for total mortality 

in Washington D.C. and for cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix (Ito et al., 2006, 088391; Mar et al., 

2006, 086143). In addition, Ito et al. (2006, 088391) found some evidence for associations with 

primary coal and traffic with total mortality in Washington D.C. (Ito et al., 2006, 088391) while 

copper smelter, traffic, and sea salt were associated with cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix at 

various lag times (Mar et al., 2006, 086143). In contrast to Phoenix, sea salt and traffic were not 

associated with mortality in Washington D.C. (Ito et al., 2006, 088391), but in both locations no 

associations were observed between biomass/wood combustion and mortality (Ito et al., 2006, 

088391; Mar et al., 2006, 086143). In an additional study that compared three source apportionment 

methods in Atlanta–PMF, modified CMB, and a single-species tracer approach–found that the 

epidemiologic results were robust to the choice of analytic method (Sarnat et al., 2008, 097972). 

There were consistent associations between ED visits for cardiovascular diseases with PM2.5 from 

mobile sources (gasoline and diesel) and biomass combustion (primarily prescribed forest burning 

and residential wood combustion), whereas PM2.5 from secondary SO4

2– was associated with 

respiratory disease ED visits (Sarnat et al., 2008, 097972). Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) also found 

that the primary power plant PM2.5 source identified by the CMB approach was negatively associated 

with respiratory ED visits while no association was found for PM2.5 from soil and secondary 

nitrates/ammonium nitrate. In these studies, effect estimates based on the different source 

apportionment methods were generally in close agreement. 

Source Apportionment Studies 

A study that examined associations with mortality in Santiago, Chile, identified a motor 

vehicle source of PM2.5 as having the greatest association with total and cardiac mortality at lag 1 

(Cakmak et al., 2009, 191995). There was effect modification by age, with the total mortality relative 

risks associated with PM2.5 from motor vehicles being greatest for those >85 yr. Soil and combustion 

sources were also associated with cardiac mortality. Risk estimates for respiratory mortality were the 

greatest for the motor vehicle source, with combustion and soil source factors also demonstrating 

positive associations for lag 1 (Cakmak et al., 2009, 191995). 

An epidemiologic study that evaluated respiratory ED visits was conducted in Spokane, WA 

and used tracers as indicators of ambient PM2.5 sources (Schreuder et al., 2006, 097959). In this 

study, only PM2.5 from vegetative burning (total carbon) was associated with increased respiratory 

ED visits for lag 1, while PM2.5 indicators for motor vehicles (Zn) and soil (Si) were not associated 

with cardiac hospital or respiratory ED visits. Andersen et al. (2007, 093201) conducted a source 

apportionment analysis to identify the sources of ambient PM10 associated with cardiovascular and 

December 2009 6-204 
respiratory hospital admissions in older adults and children (ages 5-18) in Copenhagen, including 

two-pollutant models with various sources of PM10. Andersen et al. (2007, 093201) found that 

secondary and crustal sources of PM10 were associated with cardiovascular hospital admissions; 

biomass sources were associated with respiratory hospital admissions; and vehicle sources were 

associated with asthma hospital admissions. 

Several panel epidemiologic studies have examined the association between PM sources and 

physiological alterations in cardiovascular function. Lanki et al. (2006, 089788) reported positive 

associations between PM2.5 from local traffic (measured as absorbance, which is correlated with EC 

content) and long-range transported PM2.5 with ST-segment depression in elderly adults in a study 

conducted in Helsinki, Finland. Positive associations with ST-segment depression were also reported 

with PM2.5 from crustal and salt sources, but these associations were not statistically significant. In 

an additional study, Yue et al. (2007, 097968) found that adult males with coronary artery disease in 

Erfurt, Germany, demonstrated changes in repolarization parameters associated with traffic-related 

PM2.5, with increased vWF linked to traffic and combustion-generated particles, although the source 

apportionment was based solely on particle size distribution. In addition, elevated CRP levels were 

associated with all sources of PM2.5 (soil, local traffic, secondary aerosols from local fuel 

combustion, diesel, and secondary aerosols from multiple sources) (Yue et al., 2007, 097968). 

Reidiker et al. (2004, 056992), in a study of young male highway patrol officers, found that the most 

significant effects (HRV, supraventricular ectopic beats, hematological markers, vWF) were 

associated with a speed-change factor for PM2.5 (2004, 056992). In addition, the authors observed an 

association between crustal factor and cardiovascular effects, but no health-related associations with 

steel wear or gasoline PM2.5 source factors. 

Two recent studies have examined the associations between ambient PM2.5 sources and 

respiratory symptoms and lung function. Positive associations with PM2.5 motor vehicle and road 

dust sources were reported for respiratory symptoms and inhaler use in asthmatic children in New 

Haven, CT, and negative associations with wheeze or inhaler use for biomass burning at lag 0-2 

(Gent et al., 2009, 180399). These positive effects for motor vehicle and road dust sources were 

robust to the inclusion of a gaseous copollutant (NO2, CO, SO2, or O3) in the regression model. 

Penttinen et al. (2006, 087988) in a study consisting of asthmatic adults living in Helsinki, Finland, 

found that decrements in PEF were associated with ambient PM2.5 soil, long-range transport, and 

local combustion sources at lags from 0-5 days. In addition, negative associations with asthma 

symptoms and medication use were reported for PM2.5 from sea salt and long-range transport sources 

(Penttinen et al., 2006, 087988). 

PM Constituent Studies 

Some studies considered large sets of ambient PM constituents and attempted to identify 

which were associated with various health effects, but without grouping them into factors, or 

identifying sources. The majority of these studies focused on health effects associated with shortterm exposure to PM2.5. Peng et al. (2009, 191998) examined the association between PM2.5

constituents (i.e., EC, OC, SO4

2-, NO3-

, Si, Na, NH4

+

) and cardiovascular and respiratory hospital 

admissions in 119 U.S. cities. When including each constituent in a multipollutant model, they found 

that EC and OC were robust to the inclusion of the other constituents at lag 0 for cardiovascular and 

respiratory hospital admissions, respectively. Although this study did not include analyses to identify 

sources of the constituents examined, EC and OC are often attributed to motor vehicle emissions, 

particularly diesel engines, and wood burning (Peng et al., 2009, 191998). Ostro et al. (2007, 

091354; 2008, 097971) conducted two studies in six California counties to examine the association 

between ambient PM constituents and mortality. In the 2007 analysis, Ostro et al. (2006, 087991) 

found associations between Cu and all-cause mortality; EC, K, and Zn and CVD mortality; and Cu 

and Ti and respiratory mortality at lags ranging from 0 to 3 days. Associations during the summer 

were only observed between K for both CVD and respiratory mortality; and Al, Cl, Cu, Pb, Ti, and 

Zn and respiratory mortality. Overall, the most consistent associations were observed during the cool 

season. In a subsequent analysis, Ostro et al. (2008, 097971) examined the association between 

ambient PM constituents and cardiovascular mortality in potentially susceptible subpopulations. The 

authors found positive associations between EC, OC, NO3

-

, SO4

2-, K, Cu, Fe, and Zn and 

cardiovascular mortality. These associations were higher in individuals with lower educational 

December 2009 6-205 
attainment and of Hispanic ethnicity. In addition, similar to the 2007 analysis, associations were 

observed at lags ranging from 0 to 3 days. 

Evaluation of Effect Modification by PM Constituents 

Several studies have conducted secondary analyses to examine whether the variation in 

associations between PM2.5 and morbidity and mortality or PM10 and mortality reflects differences in 

PM2.5 constituents. An assumption in these types of analyses, especially when examining the effects 

on PM10 mortality risk estimates, is that the relative contributions of PM2.5 have remained the same 

over time; these studies used PM10 data for years prior to 2000, while PM2.5 speciation data has only 

been routinely collected since about 2000. Bell et al. (2009, 191997) found statistically significant 

associations between the county average concentrations of V, Ni, and EC (106 counties) and effect 

estimates for both cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions with short-term exposure to 

PM2.5. In this analysis the ambient PM2.5 constituents that comprised the majority of PM2.5 total mass 

in the study locations were NH4

+

, EC, OC, NO3

-

, and SO4

2-. Bell et al. (2009, 191997) also 

conducted a similar analysis for PM10-mortality risk estimates and found that only Ni increased the 

risk estimate. However, in a sensitivity analysis, when selectively dropping out the communities 

examined one at a time, removing New York City diminished the Ni association. Both Lippmann 

et al. (2006, 091165) and Dominici et al. (2007, 099135) conducted similar analyses, albeit using a 

smaller subset of cities and/or different years of PM10 data. In both studies, Ni and V were found to 

modify the PM10-mortality risk estimates. Similar to Bell et al. (2009, 191997), Dominici et al. 

(2007, 099135) also found that excluding New York City as part of a sensitivity analysis resulted in a 

diminished association with Ni and V. In an additional study, Franklin et al. (2008, 097426) 

examined the potential modification of the PM2.5-mortality relationship by PM constituents in 25 

U.S. cities. In a second-stage analysis using the species-to-PM2.5 mass proportion of multiple 

constituents, the authors found that Al, As, Ni, Si, and SO4

2- significantly modified the association 

between PM2.5 and nonaccidental mortality. 

6.6.2.2. Controlled Human Exposure Studies 

A few controlled human exposure studies employed PCA, although not all linked groupings of 

PM constituents to the measured physiological parameters. Huang et al. (2003, 087377) 

demonstrated associations between increased fibrinogen and Cu/Zn/V and increased BALF 

neutrophils and Fe/Se/SO4 in young, healthy adults exposed to RTP, NC CAPs; however, only watersoluble constituents were analyzed. In the other study that examined physiological cardiovascular 

effects, Fe and EC were associated with changes in ST-segment, while SO4

2– was associated with 

decreased SBP in asthmatic and healthy human volunteers exposed to Los Angeles CAPs (2003, 

087377). In Gong et al. (2003, 087365) the majority of the PM was in the thoracic coarse fraction. In 

the other study that used Los Angeles CAPs, the only observed association was between SO4

2–

content and decreased lung function (FEV1 and FVC) in elderly volunteers with and without COPD 

(Gong et al., 2005, 087921). Two additional controlled human exposure studies that did not perform 

grouping and employed Toronto CAPs plus O3 demonstrated increased DBP and increased brachial 

artery vasoconstriction associated with carbon content (Urch et al., 2004, 055629; 2005, 081080). 

6.6.2.3. Toxicological Studies 

The only toxicological in vivo study that characterized PM sources corresponding to identified 

sources was conducted in Tuxedo, NY, over a 5-mo period. This study reported that all sources 

(regional SO4

2–, resuspended soil, residual oil, traffic and other unknown sources) were linked to HR 

or HRV changes in mice at one time or another during or after daily exposure (Lippmann et al., 

2005, 087453). In a simultaneous in vitro study using CAPs from the same location, NF-κB in 

BEAS-2B cells were correlated with the oil combustion factor (r = 0.289 and 0.302 for V and Ni, 

respectively) (Maciejczyk and Chen, 2005, 087456). The other in vitro toxicological study (Duvall et 

al., 2008, 097969) that named sources employed samples from 5 U.S. cities and found a good fit for 

the regression model with increased IL-8 release in primary human airway epithelium cells and coal 

combustion (R2 = 0.79), secondary nitrate (R2 = 0.63), and mobile sources (R2 = 0.39). In addition, 

soil (R2 = 0.48), residual oil combustion (R2 = 0.38), and wood combustion (R2 = 0.33) were 

December 2009 6-206 
associated with COX-2 effects; whereas, secondary SO4

2– (R2 = 0.51) was correlated with HO-1. 

Wood combustion and soil were negatively associated with HO-1. 

Several toxicological studies employed Boston CAPs and identified at least four groupings of 

ambient PM2.5 constituents (V/Ni, S, Al/Si, and Br/Pb), but they named sources only partially and 

tentatively (Batalha et al., 2002, 088109; Clarke et al., 2000, 011806; Godleski et al., 2002, 156478; 

Nikolov et al., 2008, 156808; Saldiva et al., 2002, 025988; Wellenius et al., 2003, 055691). When 

examining cardiovascular effects these studies reported that Si was associated with changes in the 

ST-segment of dogs (Wellenius et al., 2003, 055691) and decreased L/W ratio in rat pulmonary 

arteries (Batalha et al., 2002, 088109) in multivariate analyses. In addition, blood hematological 

results were associated with V/Ni, Al/Si, Na/Cl, and S in dogs (Clarke et al., 2000, 011806). An 

examination of respiratory effects in the latter study found that V/Ni and Br/Pb were associated with 

increased inflammation in BALF for only the third day of exposure (Clarke et al., 2000, 011806). 

Decreased respiratory rate and increased airway irritation (Penh) in dogs were associated with road 

dust (Al) and motor vehicles (OC), respectively (Nikolov et al., 2008, 156808). Individual PM2.5

constituents associated with elevated neutrophils in BALF were Br, EC, OC, Pb, and SO4

2–

(Godleski et al., 2002, 156478), which is consistent with the findings (Br, EC, OC, Pb, V, and Cl) of 

Saldiva et al. (2002, 025988). 

The two toxicological studies that used PLS methodologies identified PM2.5 constituents 

linked to respiratory parameters. Seagrave et al. (2006, 091291) demonstrated associations between 

cytotoxic responses and a gasoline plus nitrates source factor (OC, Pb, hopanes/steranes, nitrate, and 

As) along with inflammatory responses and a gasoline plus diesel source factor (including major 

metal oxides) in rats exposed via IT instillation. In the other study, Veranth et al. (2006, 087479) 

collected loose surface soil from 28 sites in the Western U.S. and exposed BEAS-2B cells to PM2.5. 

OC1, OC3, OC2, EC2, Br, EC1, and Ni correlated with IL-8 release, decreased IL-6 release, and 

decreased viability at low and high doses (10 and 80 μg/cm2, respectively). 

Table 6-18. Study-specific PM2.5 factor/source categories associated with health effects. 

Source Category Location Health Effects Time Species Reference Type of 

Study1

CRUSTAL/SOIL/ROAD DUST 

 Al, Si, Fe Phoenix, AZ negative association with 

total mortality Lag 2 E Human Mar et al. (2000, 001760) 

 Not provided Washington, 

D.C. ↑CV mortality Lag 4 E Human Ito et al.(2006, 088391) 

 Al, Ca, Fe, Si Santiago, Chile ↑CV mortality 

↑ respiratory mortality Lag 1 E Human Cakmak et al. (2009, 191995) 

 Al, Si, Ca, K, Fe Helsinki, Finland ST-segment depression Lag 3 E Human Lanki et al. (2006, 089788) 

 Al, Si, Ca, K, Fe Los Angeles, CA ↓ ST-segment voltage 2 days post-exposure H Human Gong et al. (2003, 042106) 

 Al, Si Boston, MA ST-segment change Following exposure T Dog Wellenius et al. (2003, 055691) 

 Al, Si, Ca Boston, MA ↓ lumen/wall ratio 24 h post-exposure T Rat Batalha et al. (2002, 088109) 

 Al, Si, Ti, Fe Wake County, 

NC 

↑ uric acid 

↑ mean cycle length Lag 15 h E Human Riediker et al. (2004, 056992) 

 Al, Si, Ca, Fe Tuxedo, NY 

↓ HR 

↑ HR 

↑ SDNN, ↑ RMSSD 

During exposure 

Afternoon post-exposur

e. Night post-exposure 

T Mouse Lippmann et al. (2005, 087453) 

 Al, Si Boston, MA 

↑ blood PMN % 

↓ blood lymphocytes % 

↑ WBC 

Following exposure T Dog Clarke et al.(2000, 011806) 

 Si, Fe, Al, Ca, Ba, Ti New Haven, CT ↑ respiratory symptoms and 

inhaler use Lag 0-2 E Human Gent et al. (2009, 180399) 

December 2009 6-207 
Source Category Location Health Effects Time Type of 

Study1 Species Reference 

 Si, Al, Ca, Fe, Mn Helsinki, Finland ↓ mean PEF Lag 3 E Human Penttinen et al. (2006, 087988) 

 Al Boston, MA ↓ airway irritation (penh) During exposure T Dog Nikolov et al. (2008, 156808) 

SALT 

 Not provided Phoenix, AZ 

↑CV mortality 

↑total mortality 

negative association with 

total mortality 

Lag 5 

Lag 0 

E Human Mar et al. (2006, 086143) 

 Na, Cl Helsinki, Finland ST-segment depression Lag 3 E Human Lanki et al. (2006, 089788) 

 Na, Cl Boston, MA ↑ blood lymphocyte % Following exposure T Dog Clarke et al.(2000, 011806) 

 Na, Cl Helsinki, Finland 

Negatively associated with 

bronchodilator use and 

corticosteroid use 

Lag 0-5 avg E Human Penttinen et al. (2006, 087988) 

 Na, Cl Boston, MA ↑ lung PMN density 24 h post-exposure T Rat Saldiva et al. (2002, 025988) 

SECONDARY SO4

2- / LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT 

 S Phoenix, AZ 

↑ total mortality 

negative association with 

total mortality 

Lag 0 

Lag 5 

E Human Mar et al. (2000, 001760) 

 Not provided Washington, 

D.C. ↑ total mortality Lag 3 E Human Ito et al. (2006, 088391) 

 Not provided Phoenix, AZ ↑CV mortality Lag 0 E Human Mar et al. (2006, 086143) 

 S, K, Zn, Pb Helsinki, Finland ST-segment depression Lag 2 E Human Lanki et al. (2006, 089788) 

 SO4

2– Los Angeles, CA ↓ SBP 4 h post-exposure H Human Gong et al. (2003, 042106) 

 S, Si, OC Tuxedo, NY ↓ HR 

↓ SDNN, ↓ RMSSD 

Afternoon postexposure 

Night post-exposure 

T 

Mouse 

Lippmann et al. (2005, 087453) 

 S Boston, MA ↓ RBC 

↑ hemoglobin Following exposure T Dog Clarke et al. (2000, 011806) 

 SO4

2–, NH4+

, OC Atlanta, GA ↑ respiratory ED visits Lag 0 E Human Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) 

 S, K, Zn, PM mass Helsinki, Finland 

↓ mean PEF. Negative 

association with asthma 

symptom prevalence 

Lag 1 

Lag 3 

E Human Penttinen et al. (2006, 087988) 

 SO4

2– (+NO2) Los Angeles, CA ↓ FEV1

↓ FVC Following exposure H Human Gong et al. (2005, 087921) 

TRAFFIC 

 Pb, Br, Cu Harvard Six 

Cities ↑ total mortality Lag 0-1 E Human Laden et al. (2000, 012102) 

 Not provided Phoenix, AZ ↑CV mortality Lag 1 E Human Mar et al. (2006, 086143) 

 Mn, Fe, Zn, Pb, OC, 

EC, CO, NO2 Phoenix, AZ ↑ CV mortality Lag 1 E Human Mar et al. (2000, 001760) 

 CO, NO2, EC, OC Santiago, Chile ↑CV mortality 

↑ respiratory mortality Lag 1 E Human Cakmak et al. (2009, 191995) 

 Gasoline (OC, NO3

-

, 

NH4

+

) Atlanta, GA ↑ CVD ED visits Lag 0 E Human Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) 

 Diesel (EC, OC, NO3

-

) Atlanta, GA ↑ CVD ED visits Lag 0 E Human Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) 

 NOX, EC, ultrafine 

count Helsinki, Finland ST-segment depression Lag 2 E Human Lanki et al. (2006, 089788) 

December 2009 6-208 
Source Category Location Health Effects Time Type of 

Study1 Species Reference 

Speed-change factor 

(Cu, S, aldehydes) 

Wake County, 

NC 

↑ blood urea nitrogen 

↑ mean red cell volume 

↑ blood PMN % 

↓ blood lymphocytes % 

↑ von Willebrand factor 

(vWF) 

↓ protein C 

↑ mean cycle length 

↑ SDNN 

↑ PNN50 

↑ supraventricular ectopic 

beats 

Lag 15 h E Human Riediker et al. (2004, 056992) 

 Motor vehicle/other 

(Br, Pb, Se, Zn, NO3-) Tuxedo, NY ↓ RMSSD Afternoon postexposure T Mouse Lippmann et al. (2005, 087453) 

 EC, Zn, Pb, Cu, Se New Haven, CT ↑ respiratory symptoms Lag 0-2 E Human Gent et al. (2009, 180399) 

 Local combustion 

(NOX, ultrafine PM, Cu, 

Zn, Mn, Fe) 

Helsinki, Finland ↓ mean PEF Lag 0-5 avg E Human Penttinen et al. (2006, 087988) 

 Gasoline+secondary 

 nitrate* 

Birmingham, AL; 

Atlanta, GA; 

Pensacola, FL; 

Centreville, AL 

cytotoxic responses 

(potency) 24 h post-exposure T Rat Seagrave et al. (2006, 091291) 

 Gasoline+diesel* 

Birmingham, AL; 

Atlanta, GA; 

Pensacola, FL; 

Centreville, AL 

inflammatory responses 

(potency) 24 h post-exposure T Rat Seagrave et al. (2006, 091291) 

OIL COMBUSTION 

 V, Ni Boston, MA 

↑ blood PMN % 

↓ blood lymphocytes % 

↑ BALF AM % 

Following exposure 

Following exposure 

24 h post-exposure 

T Dog Clarke et al. (2000, 011806) 

 V, Ni, Se Tuxedo, NY ↓ SDNN 

↓ RMSSD 

Afternoon postexposure T Mouse Lippmann et al. (2005, 087453) 

 Ni Boston, MA ↓ respiratory rate During exposure T Dog Nikolov et al. (2008, 156808) 

 V, Ni Boston, MA ↑ lung PMN density 24 h post-exposure T Rat Saldiva et al. (2002, 025988) 

COAL COMBUSTION 

 Se, SO4

2– Harvard Six 

Cities ↑ total mortality Lag 0-1 E Human Laden et al. (2000, 012102) 

 Not provided Washington, 

D.C. ↑ total mortality Lag 3 E Human Ito et al. (2006, 088391) 

OTHER METALS 

 Cu smelter (not 

provided) Phoenix, AZ ↑CV mortality 

↑total mortality Lag 0 E Human Mar et al. (2006, 086143) 

 Incinerator Washington, 

D.C. 

Negative association with 

total and CV mortality Lag 0 E Human Ito et al. (2006, 088391) 

 Metal processing 

(SO4

2–, Fe, NH4+

, EC, 

OC) 

Atlanta, GA ↑ CVD ED visits Lag 0 E Human Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) 

December 2009 6-209 
Source Category Location Health Effects Time Type of 

Study1 Species Reference 

 Combustion (Cr, Cu, 

Fe, Mn, Zn) Santiago, Chile ↑CV mortality 

↑ respiratory mortality Lag 1 E Human Cakmak et al. (2009, 191995) 

WOODSMOKE / VEGETATIVE BURNING 

 OC, K Phoenix, AZ ↑ CV mortality Lag 3 E Human Mar et al. (2000, 001760) 

 OC, EC, K, NH4

+ Atlanta, GA ↑ CVD ED visits Lag 0 E Human Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) 

 Total C Spokane, WA ↑ respiratory ED visits Lag 1 E Human Schreuder et al. (2006, 097959) 

UNNAMED FACTORS 

 Zn-Cu-V Chapel Hill, NC ↑ blood fibrinogen 18 h post-exposure H Human Huang et al. (2003, 087377) 

 Fe-Se-SO4

2– Chapel Hill, NC ↑ BALF PMN 18 h post-exposure H Human Huang et al. (2003, 087377) 

 Br, Cl, Pb Santiago, Chile ↑CV mortality 

↑ respiratory mortality Lag 1 E Human Cakmak et al. (2009, 191995) 

 Br, Pb Boston, MA ↑ BALF PMN % 24 h post-exposure T Dog Clarke et al.(2000, 011806) 

 Br, Pb Boston, MA ↑ lung PMN density 24 h post-exposure T Rat Saldiva et al. (2002, 025988) 

*Constituents not provided. 

1

 E = Epidemiologic study; H = Controlled human exposure study; T = Toxicological study 

An in vitro toxicological study that employed Chapel Hill PM10 used PCA but did not name 

specific PM sources (Becker et al., 2005, 088590). In this study, the release of IL-6 from human 

alveolar macrophages and IL-8 from normal human bronchial epithelial cells was associated with a 

PM10 factor comprised of Cr, Al, Si, Ti, Fe, and Cu. No statistically significant effects were observed 

for a second PM10 factor (Zn, As, V, Ni, Pb, and Se). 

Those toxicological studies that did not apply groupings to the ambient PM2.5 speciation data 

demonstrated a variety of results. Two Boston CAPs studies demonstrated lung oxidative stress 

correlated with a number of individual PM2.5 constituents including, Mn, Zn, Fe, Cu, and Ca 

(Gurgueira et al., 2002, 036535) and Al, Si, Fe, K, Pb, and Cu (Rhoden et al., 2004, 087969) in rats 

using univariate regression. 

 The remaining toxicological study that did not use ambient PM constituent groupings reported 

a correlation between Zn and plasma fibrinogen in SH rats when constituents were normalized per 

unit mass of CAPs (Kodavanti et al., 2002, 035344). 

6.6.3. Summary by Health Effects 

Recent epidemiologic, toxicological, and controlled human exposure studies have evaluated 

the health effects associated with ambient PM constituents and sources, using a variety of 

quantitative methods applied to a broad set of PM constituents, rather than selecting a few 

constituents a priori. As shown in Table 6-18, numerous ambient PM2.5 source categories have been 

associated with health effects, including factors for PM from crustal and soil, traffic, secondary 

SO4

2–, power plants, and oil combustion sources. There is some evidence for trends and patterns that 

link particular ambient PM constituents or sources with specific health outcomes, but there is 

insufficient evidence to determine whether these patterns are consistent or robust. 

For cardiovascular effects, multiple outcomes have been linked to a PM crustal/soil/road dust 

source, including cardiovascular mortality in Washington D.C. (Ito et al., 2006, 088391)and 

Santiago, Chile, (Cakmak et al., 2009, 191995) and ST-segment changes in Helsinki (Lanki et al., 

2006, 089788), Los Angeles (Gong et al., 2003, 042106), and Boston (Wellenius et al., 2003, 

055691). Interestingly, the ST-segment changes have been observed in an epidemiologic panel study, 

a controlled human exposure study, and a toxicological study, although the majority of the CAPs in 

the controlled human exposure study was PM10-2.5. Further support for a crustal/soil/road dust source 

associated with cardiovascular health effects comes from a PM10 source apportionment study in 

Copenhagen that reported increased cardiovascular hospital admissions (Andersen et al., 2007, 

093201). 

December 2009 6-210 
PM2.5 traffic and wood smoke/vegetative burning sources have also been linked to 

cardiovascular effects. Cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix (Mar et al., 2000, 001760; 2006, 

086143) and Santiago, Chile, (Cakmak et al., 2009, 191995) was associated with traffic at lag 1. 

Gasoline and diesel sources were associated with ED visits in Atlanta for cardiovascular disease at 

lag 0 (Sarnat et al., 2008, 097972). Cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix (Mar et al., 2000, 001760) 

and ED visits in Atlanta (Sarnat et al., 2008, 097972) were associated with wood smoke/vegetative 

burning. 

Studies that only examined the effects of individual PM2.5 constituents linked EC to 

cardiovascular hospital admissions in a multicity analysis (Peng et al., 2009, 191998) and 

cardiovascular mortality in California (Ostro et al., 2007, 091354; 2008, 097971). 

These studies suggest that cardiovascular effects may be associated with PM2.5 from motor 

vehicle emissions, wood or biomass burning, and PM (both PM2.5 and PM10-2.5) from crustal or road 

dust sources. In addition, there are many studies that observed associations between other sources 

(i.e., salt, secondary SO4

2–/long-range transport, other metals) and cardiovascular effects, but at this 

time, there does not appear to be a consistent trend or pattern of effects for those factors. 

There is less consistency in observed associations between PM sources and respiratory health 

effects, which may be partially due to the fact that fewer studies have been conducted that evaluated 

respiratory-related outcomes and measures. However, there is some evidence for associations with 

secondary SO4

2– PM2.5. Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) found an increase in respiratory ED visits in 

Atlanta that was associated with a PM2.5 secondary SO4

2– factor. Decrements in lung function in 

Helsinki (Lanki et al., 2006, 089788) and Los Angeles (Gong et al., 2005, 087921) in asthmatic and 

healthy adults, respectively, were also linked to this factor. Health effects relating to the 

crustal/soil/road dust and traffic sources of PM included increased respiratory symptoms in 

asthmatic children (Gent et al., 2009, 180399) and decreased PEF in asthmatic adults (Penttinen et 

al., 2006, 087988). Inconsistent results were also observed in those PM2.5 studies that use individual 

constituents to examine associations with respiratory morbidity and mortality, although Cu, Pb, OC, 

and Zn were related to respiratory health effects in two or more studies. 

A few studies have identified PM2.5 sources associated with total mortality. These studies 

found an association between mortality and a PM2.5 coal combustion factor (Laden et al., 2000, 

012102), while others linked mortality to a secondary SO4

2–/long-range transport PM2.5 source (Ito et 

al., 2006, 088391; Mar et al., 2006, 086143). 

Recent studies have evaluated whether the variation in associations between PM2.5 and 

morbidity and mortality or PM10 and mortality reflects differences in PM2.5 constituents (Bell et al., 

2009, 191997; Dominici et al., 2007, 099135; Lippmann et al., 2006, 091165). In three studies (Bell 

et al., 2009, 191997; Dominici et al., 2007, 099135; Lippmann et al., 2006, 091165) PM10-mortality 

effect estimates were greater in areas with a higher proportion of Ni in PM2.5, but the overall PM10-

mortality association was diminished when New York City was excluded in a sensitivity analysis in 

two of the studies. V was also found to modify PM10-mortality effect estimates as well as those for 

PM2.5 with respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions (Bell et al., 2009, 191997). When 

examining the effect of species-to-PM2.5 mass proportion on PM2.5-mortality effect estimates Ni was 

found to modify the association along with Al, As, Si, and SO4

2-, but not V (Franklin et al., 2008, 

097426). 

6.6.4. Conclusion 

Recent studies show that source apportionment methods have the potential to add useful 

insights into which sources and/or PM constituents may contribute to different health effects. Of 

particular interest are several epidemiologic studies that compared source apportionment methods 

and the associated results. One set of studies compared epidemiologic associations with PM2.5 source 

factors using several methods - PCA, PMF, and UNMIX - independently analyzed by separate 

research groups (Hopke et al., 2006, 088390; Ito et al., 2006, 088391; Mar et al., 2006, 086143; 

Thurston et al., 2005, 097949). Schreuder et al. (2006, 097959) compared UPM and two versions of 

UNMIX to derive tracers and Sarnat et al. (2008, 097972) compared PMF, modified CMB, and a 

single-species tracer approach. In all analyses, epidemiologic results based on the different methods 

were generally in close agreement. The variation in risk estimates for daily mortality between source 

categories was significantly larger than the variation between research groups (Ito et al., 2006, 

088391; Mar et al., 2006, 086143; Thurston et al., 2005, 097949). Additionally, the variation in risk 

estimates based on the source apportionment model used had a much smaller effect than the 

December 2009 6-211 
variation caused by the different source constituents. Further, the most strongly associated source 

types were consistent across all groups. This supports the general validity of such approaches, 

though greater integration of results would be possible if the methods employed for grouping PM 

constituents were more consistent across studies and disciplines. Further research would aid 

understanding of the contribution of different factors, sources, or source tracers of PM to health 

effects by increasing the number of locations where similar health endpoints or outcomes are 

examined. 

Overall, the results displayed in Table 6-18 indicate that many constituents of PM can be 

linked with differing health effects and the evidence is not yet sufficient to allow differentiation of 

those constituents or sources that are more closely related to specific health outcomes. These 

findings are consistent with the conclusions of the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), that a 

number of source types, including motor vehicle emissions, coal combustion, oil burning, and 

vegetative burning, are associated with health effects. Although the crustal factor of fine particles 

was not associated with mortality in the 2004 PM AQCD (U.S. EPA, 2004, 056905), recent studies 

have suggested that PM (both PM2.5 and PM10-2.5) from crustal, soil or road dust sources or PM 

tracers linked to these sources are associated with cardiovascular effects. In addition, secondary 

SO4

2– PM2.5 has been associated with both cardiovascular and respiratory effects. 

December 2009 6-212 
Chapter 6 References 

Adamkiewicz G; Ebelt S; Syring M; Slater J; Speizer FE; Schwartz J; Suh H; Gold DR (2004). Association between air 

pollution exposure and exhaled nitric oxide in an elderly population. Thorax, 59: 204-209. 087925

Adar SD; Adamkiewicz G; Gold DR; Schwartz J; Coull BA; Suh H (2007). Ambient and microenvironmental particles and 

exhaled nitric oxide before and after a group bus trip. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 507-512. 098635

Adar SD; Gold DR; Coull BA; Schwartz J; Stone PH; Suh H (2007). Focused exposures to airborne traffic particles and 

heart rate variability in the elderly. Epidemiology, 18: 95-103. 001458

Aekplakorn W; Loomis D; Vichit-Vadakan N; Shy C; Plungchuchon S (2003). Acute effects of SO2 and particles from a 

power plant on respiratory symptoms of children, Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 34: 906-

914. 089908

Alarie Y (1973). Sensory irritation by airborne chemicals. Crit Rev Toxicol, 2: 299-363. 070967

Albert CM; Rosenthal L; Calkins H; Steinberg JS; Ruskin JN; Wang P; Muller JE; Mittleman MA (2007). Driving and 

Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Shocks for Ventricular Arrhythmias: Results From the TOVA Study. J Am 

Coll Cardiol, 50: 2233-2240. 156201

Alexis NE; Lay JC; Zeman K; Bennett WE; Peden DB; Soukup JM; Devlin RB; Becker S (2006). Biological material on 

inhaled coarse fraction particulate matter activates airway phagocytes in vivo in healthy volunteers. J Allergy Clin 

Immunol, 117: 1396-1403. 154323

Allen RW; Mar T; Koenig J; Liu LJ; Gould T; Simpson C; Larson T (2008). Changes in lung function and airway 

inflammation among asthmatic children residing in a woodsmoke-impacted urban area. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 423-433. 

156208

American Heart Association (2009). Cardiovascular disease statistics. Retrieved 17-NOV-09, from 

http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4478. 198920

Analitis A; Katsouyanni K; Dimakopoulou K; Samoli E; Nikoloulopoulos AK; Petasakis Y; Touloumi G; Schwartz J; 

Anderson HR; Cambra K; Forastiere F; Zmirou D; Vonk JM; Clancy L; Kriz B; Bobvos J; Pekkanen J (2006). 

Short-term effects of ambient particles on cardiovascular and respiratory mortality. Epidemiology, 17: 230-233. 

088177

Andersen ZJ; Loft S; Ketzel M; Stage M; Scheike T; Mette MN; Bisgaard H (2008). Ambient Air Pollution Triggers 

Wheezing Symptoms in Infants. Thorax, 63: 710-716. 096150

Andersen ZJ; Wahlin P; Raaschou-Nielsen O; Ketzel M; Scheike T; Loft S (2008). Size distribution and total number 

concentration of ultrafine and accumulation mode particles and hospital admissions in children and the elderly in 

Copenhagen, Denmark. Occup Environ Med, 65: 458-66. 189651

Andersen ZJ; Wahlin P; Raaschou-Nielsen O; Scheike T; Loft S (2007). Ambient particle source apportionment and daily 

hospital admissions among children and elderly in Copenhagen. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 17: 625-636. 

093201

Anderson HR; Bremner SA; Atkinson RW; Harrison RM; Walters S (2001). Particulate matter and daily mortality and 

hospital admissions in the west midlands conurbation of the United Kingdom: associations with fine and coarse 

particles, black smoke and sulphate. Occup Environ Med, 58: 504-510. 017033

Anselme F; Loriot S; Henry J-P; Dionnet F; Napoleoni J-G; Thnillez C; Morin J-P (2007). Inhalation of diluted diesel 

engine emission impacts heart rate variability and arrhythmia occurrence in a rat model of chronic ischemic heart 

failure. Arch Toxicol, 81: 299-307. 097084

Antonini JM; Roberts JR; Jernigan MR; Yang H-M; Ma JYC; Clarke RW (2002). Residual oil fly ash increases the 

susceptibility to infection and severely damages the lungs after pulmonary challenge with a bacterial pathogen. 

Toxicol Sci, 70: 110-119. 035342

 

Note: Hyperlinks to the reference citations throughout this document will take you to the NCEA HERO database (Health and 

Environmental Research Online) at http://epa.gov/hero. HERO is a database of scientific literature used by U.S. EPA in the process of 

developing science assessments such as the Integrated Science Assessments (ISA) and the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). 

December 2009 6-213 
Antonini JM; Taylor MD; Leonard SS; Lawryk NJ; Shi X; Clarke RW; Roberts JR (2004). Metal composition and 

solubility determine lung toxicity induced by residual oil fly ash collected from different sites within a power plant. 

Mol Cell Biochem, 255: 257-265. 097199

Arantes-Costa F; Lopes F; Toledo A; Magliarelli-Filho P; Moriya H; Carvalho-Oliveira R; Mauad T; Saldiva P; Martins M 

(2008). Effects of residual oil fly ash (ROFA) in mice with chronic allergic pulmonary inflammation. Toxicol 

Pathol, 36: 680-686. 187137

Arbex MA; Martins LC; De Oliveira RC; Pereira LA; Arbex FF; Cancado JE; Saldiva PH; Braga AL (2007). Air pollution 

from biomass burning and asthma hospital admissions in a sugar cane plantation area in Brazil. J Epidemiol 

Community Health, 61: 395-400. 091637

Arena VC; Mazumdar S; Zborowski JV; Talbott EO; He S; Chuang YH; Schwerha JJ (2006). A retrospective investigation 

of PM10 in ambient air and cardiopulmonary hospital admissions in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania: 1995-2000. J 

Occup Environ Med, 48: 38-47. 088631

Atiga WL; Calkins H; Lawrence JH; Tomaselli GF; Smith JM; Berger RD (1998). Beat-to-beat repolarization lability 

identifies patients at risk for sudden cardiac death. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 9: 899-908. 156231

Atkinson RW; Anderson HR; Sunyer J; Ayres J; Baccini M; Vonk JM; Boumghar A; Forastiere F; Forsberg B; Touloumi G; 

Schwartz J; Katsouyanni K (2001). Acute effects of particulate air pollution on respiratory admissions: results from 

APHEA 2 project. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 164: 1860-1866. 021959

Atkinson RW; Anderson HR; Sunyer J; Ayres J; Baccini M; Vonk JM; Boumghar A; Forastiere F; Forsberg B; Touloumi G; 

Schwartz J; Katsouyanni K (2003). Acute effects of particulate air pollution on respiratory admissions. Health 

Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 042797

Atkinson RW; Bremner SA; Anderson HR; Strachan DP; Bland JM; Ponce de Leon A (1999). Short-term associations 

between emergency hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular disease and outdoor air pollution in 

London. Arch Environ Occup Health, 54: 398-411. 007882

ATSDR (2006). A study of ambient air contaminants and asthma in New York City: Part A and B. Agency for Toxic 

Substances and Disease Registry; Public Health Service; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Atlanta, 

GA.http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps88357/ASTHMA_BRONX_FINAL_REPORT.pdf. 090132

Baccarelli A; Cassano P; Litonjua A; Park S; Suh H; Sparrow D; Vokonas P; Schwartz J (2008). Cardiac autonomic 

dysfunction: effects from particulate air pollution and protection by dietary methyl nutrients and metabolic 

polymorphisms. Circulation, 117: 1802. 191959

Baccarelli A; Zanobetti A; Martinelli I; Grillo P; Hou L; Giacomini S; Bonzini M; Lanzani G; Mannucci PM; Bertazzi PA; 

Schwartz J (2007). Effects of exposure to air pollution on blood coagulation. J Thromb Haemost, 5: 252-260. 

090733

Baccarelli A; Zanobetti A; Martinelli I; Grillo P; Hou L; Lanzani G; Mannucci PM; Bertazzi PA; Schwartz J (2007). Air 

pollution, smoking, and plasma homocysteine. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 176-181. 091310

Bagate K; Meiring JJ; Gerlofs-Nijland ME; Vincent R; Cassee FR; Borm PJA (2004). Vascular effects of ambient 

particulate matter instillation in spontaneous hypertensive rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 197: 29-39. 087945

Ballester F; Rodriguez P; Iniguez C; Saez M; Daponte A; Galan I; Taracido M; Arribas F; Bellido J; Cirarda FB; Canada A; 

Guillen JJ; Guillen-Grima F; Lopez E; Perez-Hoyos S; Lertxundi A; Toro S (2006). Air pollution and 

cardiovascular admisisons association in Spain: results within the EMECAS project. J Epidemiol Community 

Health, 60: 328-336. 088746

Barclay JL; Miller BG; Dick S; Dennekamp M; Ford I; Hillis GS; Ayres JG; Seaton A (2009). A panel study of air pollution 

in subjects with heart failure: negative results in treated patients. Occup Environ Med, 66: 325-334. 179935

Barnett AG; Williams GM; Schwartz J; Best TL; Neller AH; Petroeschevsky AL; Simpson RW (2006). The effects of air 

pollution on hospitalizations for cardiovascular disease in elderly people in Australian and New Zealand cities. 

Environ Health Perspect, 114: 1018-1023. 089770

Barnett AG; Williams GM; Schwartz J; Neller AH; Best TL; Petroeschevsky AL; Simpson RW (2005). Air pollution and 

child respiratory health: a case-crossover study in Australia and New Zealand. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 171: 

1272-1278. 087394

December 2009 6-214 
Barraza-Villarreal A; Sunyer J; Hernandez-Cadena L; Escamilla-Nunez MC; Sienra-Monge JJ; Ramirez-Aguilar M; 

Cortez-Lugo M; Holguin F; Diaz-Sanchez D; Olin AC; Romieu I (2008). Air pollution, airway inflammation, and 

lung function in a cohort study of Mexico City schoolchildren. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 832-838. 156254

Barregard L; Sallsten G; Andersson L; Almstrand AC; Gustafson P; Andersson M; Olin AC (2008). Experimental exposure 

to wood smoke: effects on airway inflammation and oxidative stress. Occup Environ Med, 65: 319-324. 155675

Barregard L; Sallsten G; Gustafson P; Andersson L; Johansson L; Basu S; Stigendal L (2006). Experimental exposure to 

wood-smoke particles in health humans: effects on markers of inflammation, coagulation, and lipid peroxidation. 

Inhal Toxicol, 18: 845-853. 091381

Barrett EG; Henson RD; Seilkop SK; McDonald JD; Reed MD (2006). Effects of hardwood smoke exposure on allergic 

airway inflammation in mice. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 33-43. 155677

Bartoli CR; Wellenius GA; Coull BA; Akiyama I; Diaz EA; Lawrence J; Okabe K; Verrier RL; Godleski JJ (2009). 

Concentrated ambient particles alter myocardial blood flow during acute ischemia in conscious canines. Environ 

Health Perspect, 117: 333-337. 179904

Bartoli CR; Wellenius GA; Diaz EA; Lawrence J; Coull BA; Akiyama I; Lee LM; Okabe K; Verrier RL; Godleski JJ 

(2009). Mechanisms of Inhaled Fine Particulate Air Pollution-Induced Arterial Blood Pressure Changes. Environ 

Health Perspect, 117: 361-366. 156256

Bartzokas A; Kassomenos P; Petrakis M; Celessides C (2004). The effect of meteorological and pollution parameters on 

the frequency of hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory problems in Athens. Indoor Built Environ, 

13: 271-275. 093252

Bastain TM; Gilliland FD; Li Y-F; Saxon A; Diaz-Sanchez D (2003). Intraindividual reproducibility of nasal allergic 

responses to diesel exhaust particles indicates a susceptible phenotype. Clin Immunol, 109: 130-136. 098690

Batalha JR; Saldiva P H; Clarke RW; Coull BA; Stearns RC; Lawrence J; Murthy GG; Koutrakis P; Godleski JJ (2002). 

Concentrated ambient air particles induce vasoconstriction of small pulmonary arteries in rats. Environ Health 

Perspect, 110: 1191-1197. 088109

Becker S; Mundandhara S; Devlin RB; Madden M (2005). Regulation of cytokine production in human alveolar 

macrophages and airway epithelial cells in response to ambient air pollution particles: further mechanistic studies. 

Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 207: 269-275. 088590

Beckett WS; Chalupa DF; Pauly-Brown A; Speers DM; Stewart JC; Frampton MW; Utell MJ; Huang LS; Cox C; Zareba 

W; Oberdorster G (2005). Comparing inhaled ultrafine versus fine zinc oxide particles in healthy adults - A human 

inhalation study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 171: 1129-1135. 156261

Bedeschi E; Campari C; Candela S; Collini G; Caranci N; Frasca G; Galassi C; Francesca G; Vigotti MA (2007). Urban air 

pollution and respiratory emergency visits at pediatric unit, Reggio Emilia, Italy. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr 

Iss, 70: 261-265. 090712

Behndig AF; Mudway IS; Brown JL; Stenfors N Helleday R Duggan ST; Wilson SJ; Boman C Cassee FR; Frew AJ; Kelly 

FJ; Sandstrom T Blomberg A (2006). Airway antioxidant and inflammatory responses to diesel exhaust exposure in 

healthy humans. Eur Respir J, 27: 359-365. 088286

Bell M; Ebisu K; Peng R; Samet J; Dominici F (2009). Hospital Admissions and Chemical Composition of Fine Particle 

Air Pollution. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 179: 1115-1120. 191997

Bell ML; Dominici F; Ebisu K; Zeger SL; Samet JM (2007). Spatial and Temporal Variation in PM2. 5 Chemical 

Composition in the United States for Health Effects Studies. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 989-995. 155683

Bell ML; Ebisu K; Peng RD; Dominici F (2009). Adverse health effects of particulate air pollution: modification by air 

conditioning. Epidemiology, 20: 682-686. 191007

Bell ML; Ebisu K; Peng RD; Walker J; Samet JM; Zeger SL; Dominic F (2008). Seasonal and regional short-term effects 

of fine particles on hospital admissions in 202 U.S. counties, 1999-2005. Am J Epidemiol, 168: 1301-1310. 156266

Bell ML; Levy JK; Lin Z (2008). The effect of sandstorms and air pollution on cause-specific hospital admissions in 

Taipei, Taiwan. Occup Environ Med, 65: 104-111. 091268

Bennett CM; McKendry IG; Kelly S; Denike K; Koch T (2006). Impact of the 1998 Gobi dust event on hospital admissions 

in the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia. Sci Total Environ, 366: 918-925. 088061

December 2009 6-215 
Berger A; Zareba W; Schneider A; Ruckerl R; Ibald-Mulli A; Cyrys J; Wichmann HE; Peters A (2006). Runs of ventricular 

and supraventricular tachycardia triggered by air pollution in patients with coronary heart disease. J Occup Environ 

Med, 48: 1149-58. 098702

Berger RD; Kasper EK; Baughman KL; Marban E; Calkins H; Tomaselli GF (1997). Beat-to-beat QT interval variability: 

novel evidence for repolarization lability in ischemic and nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation, 96: 

1557-1565. 155688

Bernardi L; Passino C; Wilmerding V; Dallam GM; Parker DL; Robergs RA; Appenzeller O (2001). Breathing patterns and 

cardiovascular autonomic modulation during hypoxia induced by simulated altitude. J Hypertens, 19: 947-958. 

019040

Blomberg A; Sainsbury C; Rudell B; Frew AJ; Holgate ST; Sandstrom T; Kelly FJ (1998). Nasal cavity lining fluid 

ascorbic acid concentration increases in healthy human volunteers following short term exposure to diesel exhaust. 

Free Radic Res, 28: 59-67. 051246

Blomberg A; Tornqvist H; Desmyter L; Deneys V; Hermans C (2005). Exposure to diesel exhaust nanoparticles does not 

induce blood hypercoagulability in an at-risk population. J Thromb Haemost, 3: 2103-2105. 191991

Boezen HM; Vonk JM; Van Der Zee SC; Gerritsen J; Hoek G; Brunekreef B; Schouten JP; Postma DS (2005). 

Susceptibility to air pollution in elderly males and females. Eur Respir J, 25: 1018-1024. 087396

Bosson J; Barath S; Pourazar J; Behndig AF; Sandstrom T; Blomberg A; Adelroth E (2008). Diesel exhaust exposure 

enhances the ozone-induced airway inflammation in healthy humans. Eur Respir J, 31: 1234-40. 196659

Bosson J; Pourazar J; Forsberg B; Adelroth E; Sandstrom T; Blomberg A (2007). Ozone enhances the airway inflammation 

initiated by diesel exhaust. Respir Med, 101: 1140-1146. 156286

Bourotte C; Curi-Amarante A-P; Forti M-C; APereira LA; Braga AL; Lotufo PA (2007). Association between ionic 

composition of fine and coarse aerosol soluble fraction and peak expiratory flow of asthmatic patients in Sao Paulo 

city (Brazil). Atmos Environ, 41: 2036-2048. 150040

Bouthillier L; Vincent R; Goegan P; Adamson IYR; Bjarnason S; Stewart M; Guenette J; Potvin M; Kumarathasan P 

(1998). Acute effects of inhaled urban particles and ozone: lung morphology, macrophage activity, and plasma 

endothelin-1. Am J Pathol, 153: 1873-1884. 087110

Brauner EV; Forchhammer L; Moller P; Simonsen J; Glasius M; Wahlin P; Raaschou-Nielsen O; Loft S (2007). Exposure 

to ultrafine particles from ambient air and oxidative stress-induced DNA damage. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 

1177-82. 091152

Brauner EV; Mortensen J; Moller P; Bernard A; Vinzents P; Wahlin P; Glasius M; Loft S (2009). Effects of ambient air 

particulate exposure on blood-gas barrier permeability and lung function. Inhal Toxicol, 21: 38-47. 190244

Bräuner EV; Møller P; Barregard L; Dragsted LO; Glasius M; Wåhlin P; Vinzents P; Raaschou-Nielsen O; Loft S (2008). 

Exposure to ambient concentrations of particulate air pollution does not influence vascular function or 

inflammatory pathways in young healthy individuals. Part Fibre Toxicol, 5: 13. 191966

Breitner S; Stölzel M; Cyrys J; Pitz M; Wölke G; Kreyling W; Küchenhoff H; Heinrich J; Wichmann H; Peters A (2009). 

Short-Term Mortality Rates during a Decade of Improved Air Quality in Erfurt, Germany. Environ Health Perspect, 

117: 448-454. 188439

Briet M; Collin C; Laurent S; Tan A; Azizi M; Agharazii M; Jeunemaitre X; Alhenc-Gelas F; Boutouyrie P (2007). 

Endothelial function and chronic exposure to air pollution in normal male subjects. Hypertension, 50: 970-976. 

093049

Brook RD; Brook JR; Urch B; Vincent R; Rajagopalan S; Silverman F (2002). Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution 

and ozone causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults. Circulation, 105: 1534-1536. 024987

Brown TP; Rushton L; Mugglestone MA; Meechan DF (2003). Health effects of a sulphur dioxide air pollution episode. J 

Publ Health Med, 25: 369-371. 089909

Burnett RT; Brook J; Dann T; Delocla C; Philips O; Cakmak S; Vincent R; Goldberg MS; Krewski D (2000). Association 

between particulate- and gas-phase components of urban air pollution and daily mortality in eight Canadian cities. 

Inhal Toxicol, 12: 15-39. 010273

Burnett RT; Cakmak S; Brook JR (1998). The effect of the urban ambient air pollution mix on daily mortality rates in 11 

Canadian cities. Can J Public Health, 89: 152-156. 029505

December 2009 6-216 
Burnett RT; Cakmak S; Brook JR; Krewski D (1997). The role of particulate size and chemistry in the association between 

summertime ambient air pollution and hospitalization for cardiorespiratory diseases. Environ Health Perspect, 105: 

614-620. 084194

Burnett RT; Dales R; Krewski D; Vincent R; Dann T; Brook JR (1995). Associations between ambient particulate sulfate 

and admissions to Ontario hospitals for cardiac and respiratory diseases. Am J Epidemiol, 142: 15-22. 077226

Burnett RT; Goldberg MS (2003). Size-fractionated particulate mass and daily mortality in eight Canadian cities. Health 

Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 042798

Burnett RT; Smith-Doiron M; Stieb D; Cakmak S; Brook JR (1999). Effects of particulate and gaseous air pollution on 

cardiorespiratory hospitalizations. Arch Environ Occup Health, 54: 130-139. 017269

Burnett RT; Stieb D; Brook JR; Cakmak S; Dales R; Raizenne M; Vincent R; Dann T (2004). Associations between shortterm changes in nitrogen dioxide and mortality in Canadian cities. Arch Environ Occup Health, 59: 228-236. 

086247

Burtscher H (2005). Physical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: a review. J Aerosol Sci, 36: 

896-932. 155710

Cakmak S; Dales RE; Vida CB (2009). Components of particulate air pollution and mortality in Chile. Int J Occup Environ 

Health, 15: 152-158. 191995

Calderón-Garcidueñas L; Maronpot RR; Torres-Jardon R; Henriquez-Roldan C; Schoonhoven R; Acuna-Ayala H; 

Villarreal-Calderon A; Nakamura J; Fernando R; Reed W; Azzarelli B; Swenberg JA (2003). DNA damage in nasal 

and brain tissues of canines exposed to air pollutants is associated with evidence of chronic brain inflammation and 

neurodegeneration. Toxicol Pathol, 31: 524-538. 156316

Calderón-Garcidueñas L; Mora-Tiscareno A; Ontiveros E; Gomez-Garza G; Barragan-Mejia G; Broadway J; Chapman S; 

Valencia-Salazar G; Jewells V; Maronpot RR; Henriquez-Roldan C; Perez-Guille B; Torres-Jardon R; Herrit L; 

Brooks D; Osnaya-Brizuela N; Monroy M (2008). Air pollution, cognitive deficits and brain abnormalities: A pilot 

study with children and dogs. Brain Cognit, 68: 117-127. 156317

Caligiuri G;Levy B;Pernow J;Thoren P;Hansson GK (1999). Myocardial infarction mediated by endothelin receptor 

signaling in hypercholesterolemic mice. PNAS, 96: 6920-4. 157365

Campbell A; Oldham M; Becaria A; Bondy SC; Meacher D; Sioutas C; Misra C; Mendez LB; Kleinman M (2005). 

Particulate matter in polluted air may increase biomarkers of inflammation in mouse brain. Neurotoxicology, 26: 

133-140. 087217

Campen MJ; Babu NS; Helms GA; Pett S; Wernly J; Mehran R; McDonald JD (2005). Nonparticulate components of 

diesel exhaust promote constriction in coronary arteries from ApoE -/- mice. Toxicol Sci, 88: 95-102. 083977

Campen MJ; McDonald JD; Reed MD; Seagrave J (2006). Fresh gasoline emissions, not paved road dust, alter cardiac 

repolarization in ApoE-/- mice. Cardiovasc Toxicol, 6: 199-210. 096879

Cárdenas M; Vallejo M; Romano-Riquer P; Ruiz-Velasco S; Ferreira-Vidal AD; Hermosillo AG (2008). Personal exposure 

to PM2.5 air pollution and heart rate variability in subjects with positive or negative head-up tilt test. Environ Res, 

108: 1-6. 191900

Carlsten C; Kaufman JD; Trenga CA; Allen J; Peretz A; Sullivan JH (2008). Thrombotic markers in metabolic syndrome 

subjects exposed to diesel exhaust. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 917-921. 156323

Carlsten C; Kaufman Joel D; Peretz A; Trenga Carol A; Sheppard L; Sullivan Jeffrey H (2007). Coagulation markers in 

healthy human subjects exposed to diesel exhaust. Thromb Res Suppl, 120: 849-855. 155714

Cassee FR; Boere AJF; Fokkens PHB; Leseman DLAC; Sioutas C; Kooter IM; Dormans JAMA (2005). Inhalation of 

concentrated particulate matter produces pulmonary inflammation and systemic biological effects in compromised 

rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 68: 773-796. 087962

Chahine T; Baccarelli A; Litonjua A; Wright RO; Suh H; Gold DR; Sparrow D; Vokonas P; Schwartz J (2007). Particulate 

air pollution, oxidative stress genes, and heart rate variability in an elderly cohort. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 

1617-1622. 156327

Chan C-C; Chuang K-J; Chien L-C; Chen W-J; Chang W-T (2006). Urban air pollution and emergency admissions for 

cerebrovascular diseases in Taipei, Taiwan. Eur Heart J, 27: 1238-1244. 090193

December 2009 6-217 
Chan CC; Chuang KJ; Chen WJ; Chang WT; Lee CT; Peng CM (2008). Increasing cardiopulmonary emergency visits by 

long-range transported Asian dust storms in Taiwan. Environ Res, 106: 393-400. 093297

Chan CC; Chuang KJ; Shiao GM; Lin LY (2004). Personal exposure to submicrometer particles and heart rate variability in 

human subjects. Environ Health Perspect, 112: 1063-1067. 087398

Chang C-C; Hwang J-S; Chan C-C; Wang P-Y; Cheng T-J (2007). Effects of concentrated ambient particles on heart rate, 

blood pressure, and cardiac contractility in spontaneously hypertensive rats during a dust storm event. Inhal 

Toxicol, 19: 973-978. 155719

Chang C-C; Hwang J-S; Chan C-C; Wang P-Y; Hu T-H; Cheng T-J (2004). Effects of concentrated ambient particles on 

heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac contractility in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 421-429. 

055637

Chang C-C; Tsai S-S; Ho S-C; Yang C-Y (2005). Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Taipei, 

Taiwan. Environ Res, 98: 114-119. 080086

Chang CC; Hwang JS; Chan CC; Wang PY; Hu TH; Cheng TJ (2005). Effects of concentrated ambient particles on heart 

rate variability in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Occup Health, 47: 471-480. 088662

Chardon B; Lefranc A; Granados D; Gremy I (2007). Air pollution and doctors' house calls for respiratory diseases in the 

greater Paris area (2000-3). Occup Environ Med, 64: 320-324. 091308

Che W; Zhang Z; Zhang H; Wu M; Liang Y; Liu F; Shu Y; Li N (2007). Compositions and oxidative damage of 

condensate, particulate and semivolatile organic compounds from gasoline exhausts. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol, 

24: 11-18. 096460

Checkoway H; Levy D; Sheppard L; Kaufman J; Koenig J; Siscovick D (2000). A case-crossover analysis of fine 

particulate matter air pollution and out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest. Health Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 

015527

Chen C-H; Xirasagar S; Lin H-C (2006). Seasonality in adult asthma admissions, air pollutant levels, and climate: a 

population-based study. J Asthma, 43: 287-292. 087947

Chen J-C; Schwartz J (2009). Neurobehavioral effects of ambient air pollution on cognitive performance in US adults. 

Neurotoxicology, 30: 231-239. 179945

Chen LC; Hwang JS (2005). Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in mice IV 

Characterization of acute and chronic effects of ambient air fine particulate matter exposures on heart-rate 

variability. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 209-216. 087218

Chen PS; Tan AY (2007). Autonomic nerve activity and atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 4: S61-S64. 197461

Chen Y; Yang Q; Krewski D; Burnett RT; Shi Y; McGrail KM (2005). The effect of coarse ambient particulate matter on 

first, second, and overall hospital admissions for respiratory disease among the elderly. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 649-655. 

087555

Chen Y; Yang Q; Krewski D; Shi Y; Burnett RT; McGrail K (2004). Influence of relatively low level of particulate air 

pollution on hospitalization for COPD in elderly people. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 21-25. 087262

Cheng M-F; Tsai S-S; Wu T-N; Chen P-S; Yang C-Y (2007). Air pollution and hospital admissions for pneumonia in a 

tropical city: Kaohsiung, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 70: 2021-2026. 093034

Chevalier P; Burri H; Adeleine P; Kirkorian G; Lopez M; Leizorovicz A; Andre-Fouet X; Chapon P; Rubel P; Touboul P 

(2003). QT dynamicity and sudden death after myocardial infarction: results of a long-term follow-up study. J 

Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 14: 227-233. 156338

Chimonas MA; Gessner BD (2007). Airborne particulate matter from primarily geologic, non-industrial sources at levels 

below National Ambient Air Quality Standards is associated with outpatient visits for asthma and quick-relief 

medication prescriptions among children less than 20 years old enrolled in Medicaid in Anchorage, Alaska. Environ 

Res, 103: 397-404. 093261

Chiu H; Tiao M; Ho S; Kuo H; Wu T; Yang C (2008). Effects of Asian Dust Storm events on hospital admissions for 

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Taipei, Taiwan. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 777-781. 191989

Chock DP; Winkler SL; Chen C (2000). A study of the association between daily mortality and ambient air pollutant 

concentrations in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 50: 1481-1500. 010407

December 2009 6-218 
Choi JH; Xu QS; Park SY; Kim JH; Hwang SS; Lee KH; Lee HJ; Hong YC (2007). Seasonal variation of effect of air 

pollution on blood pressure. J Epidemiol Community Health, 61: 314-318. 093196

Chuang K-J; Chan C-C; Chen N-T; Su T-C; Lin L-Y (2005). Effects of particle size fractions on reducing heart rate 

variability in cardiac and hypertensive patients. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 1693-1697. 087989

Chuang K-J; Chan C-C; Su T-C; Lee C-T; Tang C-S (2007). The effect of urban air pollution on inflammation, oxidative 

stress, coagulation, and autonomic dysfunction in young adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 176: 370-376. 091063

Chuang KJ; Chan CC; Shiao GM; Su TC (2005). Associations between submicrometer particles exposures and blood 

pressure and heart rate in patients with lung function impairments. J Occup Environ Med, 47: 1093-1098. 156356

Chuang KJ; Coull BA; Zanobetti A; Suh H; Schwartz J; Stone PH; Litonjua A; Speizer FE; Gold DR (2008). Particulate 

Air Pollution as a Risk Factor for ST-Segment Depression in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease. Circulation, 

118: 1314-1320. 155731

Ciencewicki J; Gowdy K; Krantz QT; Linak WP; Brighton L; Gilmour MI; Jaspers I (2007). Diesel exhaust enhanced 

susceptibility to influenza infection is associated with decreased surfactant protein expression. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 

1121-1133. 096557

Clancy L; Goodman P; Sinclair H; Dockery DW (2002). Effect of air pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: an 

intervention study. Lancet, 360: 1210-1214. 035270

Clarke RW; Catalano P; Coull B; Koutrakis P; Krishna Murthy GG; Rice T; Godleski JJ (2000). Age-related responses in 

rats to concentrated urban air particles (CAPs). Presented at In: Phalen, R. F., ed. Inhalation toxicology: 

proceedings of the third colloquium on particulate air pollution and human health (first special issue); June, 1999; 

Durham, NC. Inhalation Toxicol. 12(suppl. 1): 73-84. 011806

Coleridge HM; Coleridge JCG (1994). Pulmonary Reflexes: Neural Mechanisms of Pulmonary Defense. Annu Rev 

Physiol, 56: 69-91. 156362

Courtois A; Andujar P; Ladeiro Y; Baudrimont I; Delannoy E; Leblais V; Begueret H; Galland MAB; Brochard P; Marano 

F (2008). Impairment of NO-Dependent Relaxation in Intralobar Pulmonary Arteries: Comparison of Urban 

Particulate Matter and Manufactured Nanoparticles. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 1294-1299. 156369

Cozzi E; Hazarika S; Stallings HW; Cascio WE; Devlin RB; Lust RM; Wingard CJ; Van Scott MR (2006). Ultrafine 

particulate matter exposure augments ischemia-reperfusion injury in mice. Am J Physiol, 291: H894-H903. 091380

Cruts B; van Etten L; Tornqvist H; Blomberg A; Sandstrom T; Mills NL; Borm PJ (2008). Exposure to diesel exhaust 

induces changes in EEG in human volunteers. Part Fibre Toxicol, 5: 4. 156374

D'Ippoliti D; Forastiere F; Ancona C; Agabiti N; Fusco D; Michelozzi P; Perucci CA (2003). Air pollution and myocardial 

infarction in Rome: a case-crossover analysis. Epidemiology, 14: 528-535. 074311

Dales R (2004). Ambient carbon monoxide may influence heart rate variability in subjects with coronary artery disease. J 

Occup Environ Med, 46: 1217-1221. 099036

Dales R; Liu L; Szyszkowicz M; Dalipaj M; Willey J; Kulka R; Ruddy TD (2007). Particulate air pollution and vascular 

reactivity: the bus stop study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 81: 159-164. 155743

Daniels MJ; Dominici F; Zeger SL; Samet JM (2004). The national morbidity, mortality, and air pollution study Part III: 

PM10 concentration-response curves and thresholds for the 20 largest US cities. Health Effects Institute. 

Cambridge, MA. 087343

Danielsen PH; Brauner EV; Barregard L; Sallsten G; Wallin M; Olinski R; Rozalski R; Moller P; Loft S (2008). 

Oxidatively damaged DNA and its repair after experimental exposure to wood smoke in healthy humans. Mutat Res 

Fund Mol Mech Mutagen, 642: 37-42. 156382

Day KC; Reed MD; McDonald JD; Keilkop SK; Barrett EG (2008). Effects of gasoline engine emissions on preexisting 

allergic airway responses in mice. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 1145-1155. 190204

Delfino R; Brummel S; Wu J; Stern H; Ostro B; Lipsett M; Winer A; Street D; Zhang L; Tjoa T (2009). The relationship of 

respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions to the southern California wildfires of 2003. Occup Environ 

Med, 66: 189. 191994

December 2009 6-219 
Delfino RJ; Chang J; Wu J; Ren C; Tjoa T; Nickerson B; Cooper D; Gillen DL (2009). Repeated hospital encounters for 

asthma in children and exposure to traffic-related air pollution near the home. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol, 102: 

138-44. 190254

Delfino RJ; Coate BD; Zeiger RS; Seltzer JM; Street DH; Koutrakis P (1996). Daily asthma severity in relation to personal 

ozone exposure and outdoor fungal spores. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 154: 633-641. 080788

Delfino RJ; Gone H; Linn WS; Pellizzari ED; Hu Y (2003). Asthma symptoms in Hispanic children and daily ambient 

exposures to toxic and criteria air pollutants. Environ Health Perspect, 111: 647-656. 050460

Delfino RJ; Gong H; Linn WS; Hu Y; Pellizzari ED (2003). Respiratory symptoms and peak expiratory flow in children 

with asthma in relation to volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath and ambient air. J Expo Sci Environ 

Epidemiol, 13: 348-363. 090941

Delfino RJ; Murphy-Moulton AM; Becklake MR (1998). Emergency room visits for respiratory illnesses among the elderly 

in Montreal: association with low level ozone exposure. Environ Res, 76: 67-77. 093624

Delfino RJ; Quintana PJE; Floro J; Gastanaga VM; Samimi BS; Kleinman MT; Liu L-JS; Bufalino C; Wu C-F; McLaren 

CE (2004). Association of FEV1 in asthmatic children with personal and microenvironmental exposure to airborne 

particulate matter. Environ Health Perspect, 112: 932-941. 056897

Delfino RJ; Staimer N; Gillen D; Tjoa T; Sioutas C; Fung K; George SC; Kleinman MT (2006). Personal and ambient air 

pollution is associated with increased exhaled nitric oxide in children with asthma. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 

1736-1743. 090745

Delfino RJ; Staimer N; Tjoa T; Polidori A; Arhami M; Gillen DL; Kleinman MT; Vaziri ND; Longhurst J; Zaldivar F; 

Sioutas C (2008). Circulating biomarkers of inflammation, antioxidant activity, and platelet activation are 

associated with primary combustion aerosols in subjects with coronary artery disease. Environ Health Perspect, 

116: 898-906. 156390

Delfino RJ; Zeiger RS; Seltzer JM; Street DH (1998). Symptoms in pediatric asthmatics and air pollution: differences in 

effects by symptom severity, anti-inflammatory medication use and particulate averaging time. Environ Health 

Perspect, 106: 751-761. 051406

Delfino RJ; Zeiger RS; Seltzer JM; Street DH; McLaren CE (2002). Association of asthma symptoms with peak particulate 

air pollution and effect modification by anti-inflammatory medication use. Environ Health Perspect, 110: A607-

A617. 093740

DeMeo DL; Zanobetti A; Litonjua AA; Coull BA; Schwartz J; Gold DR (2004). Ambient air pollution and oxygen 

saturation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 170: 383-387. 087346

Desqueyroux H; Pujet J-C; Prosper M; Squinazi F; Momas I (2002). Short-term effects of low-level air pollution on 

respiratory health of adults suffering from moderate to severe asthma. Environ Res, 89: 29-37. 026052

Deurloo DT; van Esch BC; Hofstra CL; Nijkamp FP; van Oosterhout AJ (2001). CTLA4-IgG reverses asthma 

manifestations in a mild but not in a more "severe" ongoing murine model. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 25: 751-

760. 156396

Devlin RB; Ghio AJ; Kehrl H; Sanders G; Cascio W (2003). Elderly humans exposed to concentrated air pollution particles 

have decreased heart rate variability. Eur Respir J, 40: 76S-80S. 087348

De Bruin ML; van Hemel NM; Leufkens HG; Hoes AW (2005). Hospital discharge diagnoses of ventricular arrhythmias 

and cardiac arrest were useful for epidemiologic research. J Clin Epidemiol, 58: 1325-1329. 155746

de Haar C; Hassing I; Bol M; Bleumink R; Pieters R (2005). Ultrafine carbon black particles cause early airway 

inflammation and have adjuvant activity in a mouse allergic airway disease model. Toxicol Sci, 87: 409-418. 

097872

de Haar C; Hassing I; Bol M; Bleumink R; Pieters R (2006). Ultrafine but not fine particulate matter causes airway 

inflammation and allergic airway sensitization to co-administered antigen in mice. Clin Exp Allergy, 36: 1469-

1479. 144746

De Hartog JJ; Hoek G; Peters A; Timonen KL; Ibald-Mulli A; Brunekreef B; Heinrich J; Tiittanen P; Van Wijnen JH; 

Kreyling W; Kulmala M; Pekkanen J (2003). Effects of fine and ultrafine particles on cardiorespiratory symptoms 

in elderly subjects with coronary heart disease: the ULTRA study. Am J Epidemiol, 157: 613-623. 001061

December 2009 6-220 
de Hartog JJ; Lanki T; Timonen KL; Hoek G; Janssen NA; Ibald-Mulli A; Peters A; Heinrich J; Tarkiainen TH; van 

Grieken R; van Wijnen JH; Brunekreef B; Pekkanen J (2009). Associations between PM2.5 and heart rate 

variability are modified by particle composition and beta-blocker use in patients with coronary heart disease. 

Environ Health Perspect, 117: 105-111. 191904

Diaz-Sanchez D; Garcia MP; Wang M; Jyrala M; Saxon A (1999). Nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles can induce 

sensitization to a neoallergen in the human mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 104: 1183-1188. 011346

Diaz-Sanchez D; Tsien A; Fleming J; Saxon A (1997). Combined diesel exhaust particulate and ragweed allergen challenge 

markedly enhances human in vivo nasal ragweed-specific IgE and skews cytokine production to a T helper cell 2-

type pattern. J Immunol, 158: 2406-2413. 051247

Dick CA; Singh P; Daniels M; Evansky P; Becker S; Gilmour MI (2003). Murine pulmonary inflammatory responses 

following instillation of size-fractionated ambient particulate matter. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 66: 2193-

2207. 088776

Diez Roux AV; Auchincloss AH; Astor B; Barr RG; Cushman M; Dvonch T; Jacobs DR Jr; Kaufman J; Lin X; Samson Px 

(2006). Recent exposure to particulate matter and C-reactive protein concentration in the multi-ethnic study of 

atherosclerosis x. Am J Epidemiol, 164: 437-448. 156400

Dockery DW; Luttmann-Gibson H; Rich DQ; Link MS; Mittleman MA; Gold DR; Koutrakis P; Schwartz JD; Verrier RL 

(2005). Association of air pollution with increased incidence of ventricular tachyarrhythmias recorded by implanted 

cardioverter defibrillators. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 670-674. 078995

Dockery DW; Luttmann-Gibson H; Rich DQ; Link MS; Schwartz JD; Gold DR; Koutrakis P; Verrier RL; Mittleman MA 

(2005). Particulate air pollution and nonfatal cardiac events Part II Association of air pollution with confirmed 

arrhythmias recorded by implanted defibrillators. Health Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 090743

Dominici F; McDermott A; Daniels M; Zeger SL; Samet J (2003). Revised Analyses of Time-Series Studies of Air 

Pollution and Health: Mortality Among Residents of 90 Cities. Health Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 156407

Dominici F; McDermott A; Zeger SL; Samet JM (2002). On the use of generalized additive models in time-series studies 

of air pollution and health. Am J Epidemiol, 156: 193-203. 030458

Dominici F; Peng RD; Bell ML; Pham L; McDermott A; Zeger SL; Samet JL (2006). Fine particulate air pollution and 

hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. JAMA, 295: 1127-1134. 088398

Dominici F; Peng RD; Ebisu K; Zeger SL; Samet JM; Bell ML (2007). Does the effect of PM10 on mortality depend on 

PM nickel and vanadium content? A reanalysis of the NMMAPS data. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 1701-1703. 

099135

Dominici F; Peng RD; Zeger SL; White RH; Samet JM (2007). Particulate air pollution and mortality in the United States: 

did the risks change from 1987 to 2000? Am J Epidemiol, 166: 880-888. 097361

Dubowsky SD; Suh H; Schwartz J; Coull BA; Gold DR (2006). Diabetes, obesity, and hypertension may enhance 

associations between air pollution and markers of systemic inflammation. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 992-998. 

088750

Dusek R; Frank GP; Hildebrandt L; Curtius J; Schneider J; Walter S; Chand D; Drewnick F; Hings S; Jung D; Borrmann S; 

Andreae MO (2006). Size matters more than chemistry for cloud-nucleating ability of aerosol particles. Science, 

312: 1375-1378. 155756

Duvall RM; Norris GA; Dailey LA; Burke JM; McGee JK; Gilmour MI; Gordon T; Devlin RB (2008). Source 

apportionment of particulate matter in the US and associations with lung inflammatory markers. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 

671-683. 097969

Dvonch JT; Brook RD; Keeler GJ; Rajagopalan S; D'Alecy LG; Marsik FJ; Morishita M; Yip FY; Brook JR; Timm EJ; 

Wagner JG; Harkema JR (2004). Effects of concentrated fine ambient particles on rat plasma levels of asymmetric 

dimethylarginine. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 473-480. 055741

Ebelt ST; Wilson WE; Brauer M (2005). Exposure to ambient and nonambient components of particulate matter: a 

comparison of health effects. Epidemiology, 16: 396-405. 056907

Elder A; Gelein R; Finkelstein J; Phipps R; Frampton M; Utell M; Kittelson DB; Watts WF; Hopke P; Jeong CH; Kim E; 

Liu W; Zhao W; Zhuo L; Vincent R; Kumarathasan P; Oberdorster G (2004). On-road exposure to highway 

aerosols. 2. Exposures of aged, compromised rats. Inhal Toxicol, 16 Suppl 1: 41-53. 087354

December 2009 6-221 
Elder ACP; Gelein R; Azadniv M; Frampton M; Finkelstein J; Oberdorster G (2004). Systemic effects of inhaled ultrafine 

particles in two compromised, aged rat strains. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 461-471. 055642

Erbas B; Kelly A-M; Physick B; Code C; Edwards M (2005). Air pollution and childhood asthma emergency hospital 

admissions: estimating intra-city regional variations. Int J Environ Health Res, 15: 11-20. 073849

Fairley D (2003). Mortality and air pollution for Santa Clara County, California, 1989-1996, In: Revised analyses of timeseries studies of air pollution and health. Special report. Health Effects Institute. Boston, 

MA.http://www.healtheffects.org/Pubs/TimeSeries.pdf . 042850

Fakhri AA; Ilic LM; Wellenius GA; Urch B; Silverman F; Gold DR; Mittleman MA (2009). Autonomic effects of 

controlled fine particulate exposure in young healthy adults: Effect modification by ozone. Environ Health 

Perspect, 117: 1287-1292. 191914

Fan Z; Meng Q; Weisel C; Laumbach R; Ohman-Strickland P; Shalat S; Hernandez M; Black K (2008). Acute exposure to 

elevated PM (2.5) generated by traffic and cardiopulmonary health effects in healthy older adults. J Expo Sci 

Environ Epidemiol, 19: 525–533. 191979

Farraj AK; Haykal-Coates N; Ledbetter AD; Evansky PA; Gavett SH (2006). Inhibition of pan neurotrophin receptor p75 

attenuates diesel particulate-induced enhancement of allergic airway responses in C57/B16J mice. Inhal Toxicol, 

18: 483-491. 088469

Farraj AK; Haykal-Coates N; Ledbetter AD; Evansky PA; Gavett SH (2006). Neurotrophin mediation of allergic airways 

responses to inhaled diesel particles in mice. Toxicol Sci, 94: 183-192. 141730

Fedulov AV; Leme A; Yang Z; Dahl M; Lim R; Mariani TJ; Kobzik L (2008). Pulmonary exposure to particles during 

pregnancy causes increased neonatal asthma susceptibility. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 38: 57-67. 097482

Ferdinands JM; Crawford CA; Greenwald R; Van Sickle D; Hunter E; Teague WG (2008). Breath acidification in 

adolescent runners exposed to atmospheric pollution: a prospective, repeated measures observational study. Environ 

Health Global Access Sci Source, 7: 10. 156433

Finnerty K; Choi J-E; Lau A; Davis-Gorman G; Diven C; Seaver N; Linak William P; Witten M; McDonagh Paul F (2007). 

Instillation of coarse ash particulate matter and lipopolysaccharide produces a systemic inflammatory response in 

mice. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 70: 1957-1966. 156434

Fischer PH; Steerenberg PA; Snelder JD; Van Loveren H; Van Amsterdam JGC (2002). Association between exhaled nitric 

oxide, ambient air pollution and respiratory health in school children. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 75: 348-353. 

025731

Fischer SL; Koshland CP (2007). Daily and peak 1 h indoor air pollution and driving factors in a rural Chinese village. 

Environ Sci Technol, 41: 3121-3126. 156435

Folino AF; Scapellato ML; Canova C; Maestrelli P; Bertorelli G; Simonato L; Iliceto S; Lotti M (2009). Individual 

exposure to particulate matter and the short-term arrhythmic and autonomic profiles in patients with myocardial 

infarction. Eur Heart J, 30: 1614-1620. 191902

Forastiere F; Stafoggia M; Berti G; Bisanti L; Cernigliaro A; Chiusolo M; Mallone S; Miglio R; Pandolfi P; Rognoni M; 

Serinelli M; Tessari R; Vigotti M; Perucci C (2008). Particulate Matter and Daily Mortality: A Case-Crossover 

Analysis of Individual Effect Modifiers. Epidemiology, 19: 571-580. 186937

Forastiere F; Stafoggia M; Picciotto S; Bellander T; D'Ippoliti D; Lanki T; Von Klot S; Nyberg F; Paatero P; Peters A; 

Pekkanen J; Sunyer J; Perucci CA (2005). A case-crossover analysis of out-of-hospital coronary deaths and air 

pollution in Rome, Italy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 172: 1549-1555. 086323

Frampton MW (2001). Systemic and cardiovascular effects of airway injury and inflammation: ultrafine particle exposure 

in humans. Environ Health Perspect, 109: 529-532. 019051

Frampton MW; Stewart JC; Oberdorster G; Morrow PE; Chalupa D; Pietropaoli AP; Frasier LM; Speers DM; Cox C; 

Huang LS; Utell MJ (2006). Inhalation of ultrafine particles alters blood leukocyte expression of adhesion 

molecules in humans. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 51-58. 088665

Franklin M; Koutrakis P; Schwartz J (2008). The role of particle composition on the association between PM2.5 and 

mortality. Epidemiology, 19: 680-689. 097426

Franklin M; Zeka A; Schwartz J (2007). Association between PM2.5 and all-cause and specific-cause mortality in 27 US 

communities. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 17: 279-287. 091257

December 2009 6-222 
Fung KY; Khan S; Krewski D; Chen Y (2006). Association between air pollution and multiple respiratory hospitalizations 

among the elderly in Vancouver, Canada. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 1005-1011. 089789

Fung KY; Luginaah IKMG; Webster G (2005). Air pollution and daily hospitalization rates for cardiovascular and 

respiratory diseases in London, Ontario. Int J Environ Stud, 62: 677-685. 093262

Galan I; Tobias A; Banegas JR; Aranguez E (2003). Short-term effects of air pollution on daily asthma emergency room 

admissions. Eur Respir J, 22: 802-808. 087408

Gavett SH; Haykal-Coates N; Copeland L B; Heinrich J; Gilmour MI (2003). Metal composition of ambient PM2.5 

influences severity of allergic airways disease in mice. Environ Health Perspect, 111: 1471-1477. 053153

Gehlbach BK; Geppert E (2004). The pulmonary manifestations of left heart failure. Chest, 125: 669-682. 155784

Gent JF; Koutrakis P; Belanger K; Triche E; Holford TR; Bracken MB; Leaderer BP (2009). Symptoms and medication use 

in children with asthma and traffic-related sources of fine particle pollution. Environ Health Perspect, 117: 1168-

1174. 180399

Gent JF; Triche EW; Holford TR; Belanger K; Bracken MB; Beckett WS; Leaderer BP (2003). Association of low-level 

ozone and fine particles with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. JAMA, 290: 1859-1867. 052885

Gerlofs-Nijland ME; Rummelhard M; Boere AJF; Leseman DLAC; Duffin R; Schins RPF; Borm PJA; Sillanpaa M; 

Salonen RO; Cassee FR (2009). Particle induced toxicity in relation to transition metal and polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbon contents . Environ Sci Technol, 43: 4729-4736. 190353

Gerlofs-Nijland ME; Dormans JA; Bloemen HJ; Leseman DL; John A; Boere F; Kelly FJ; Mudway IS; Jimenez AA; 

Donaldson K; Guastadisegni C; Janssen NA; Brunekreef B; Sandstrom T; van Bree L; Cassee FR (2007). Toxicity 

of coarse and fine particulate matter from sites with contrasting traffic profiles. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 1055-1069. 

097840

Ghelfi E; Rhoden CR; Wellenius GA; Lawrence J; Gonzalez-Flecha B (2008). Cardiac oxidative stress and 

electrophysiological changes in rats exposed to concentrated air particles are mediated by TRP-dependent 

pulmonary reflexes. Toxicol Sci, 102: 328-336. 156468

Ghio AJ; Devlin RB (2001). Inflammatory lung injury after bronchial instillation of air pollution particles. Am J Respir Crit 

Care Med, 164: 704-708. 017122

Ghio AJ; Hall A; Bassett MA; Cascio WE; Devlin RB (2003). Exposure to concentrated ambient air particles alters 

hematologic indices in humans. Inhal Toxicol, 15: 1465-1478. 087363

Ghio AJ; Kim C; Devlin RB (2000). Concentrated ambient air particles induce mild pulmonary inflammation in healthy 

human volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 162: 981-988. 012140

Gilliland FD; Li YF; Saxon A; Diaz-Sanchez D (2004). Effect of glutathione-S-transferase M1 and P1 genotypes on 

xenobiotic enhancement of allergic responses: randomised, placebo-controlled crossover study. Lancet, 363: 119-

125. 156471

Gilmour MI; McGee J; Duvall Rachelle M; Dailey L; Daniels M; Boykin E; Cho S-H; Doerfler D; Gordon T; Devlin 

Robert B (2007). Comparative toxicity of size-fractionated airborne particulate matter obtained from different cities 

in the United States. Inhal Toxicol, 19 Suppl 1: 7-16. 096433

Gilmour MI; O'Connor S; Dick CAJ; Miller CA; Linak WP (2004). Differential pulmonary inflammation and in vitro 

cytotoxicity of size-fractionated fly ash particles from pulverized coal combustion. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 54: 

286-295. 057420

Gilmour PS; Ziesenis A; Morrison ER; Vickers MA; Drost EM; Ford I; Karg E; Mossa C; Schroeppel A; Ferron GA; 

Heyder J; Greaves M; MacNee W; Donaldson K (2004). Pulmonary and systemic effects of short-term inhalation 

exposure to ultrafine carbon black particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 195: 35-44. 054175

Girardot SP; Ryan PB; Smith SM; Davis WT; Hamilton CB; Obenour RA; Renfro JR; Tromatore KA; Reed GD (2006). 

Ozone and PM25 exposure and acute pulmonary health effects: a study of hikers in the Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 612-617. 088271

Godleski JJ; Clarke RW; Coull BA; Saldiva PHN; Jiang NF; Lawrence J; Koutrakis P (2002). Composition of inhaled 

urban air particles determines acute pulmonary responses. Ann Occup Hyg, 46: 419-424. 156478

December 2009 6-223 
Godleski JJ; Verrier RL; Koutrakis P; Catalano P; Coull B; Reinisch U; Lovett EG; Lawrence J; Murthy GG; Wolfson JM; 

Clarke RW; Nearing BD; Killingsworth C (2000). Mechanisms of morbidity and mortality from exposure to 

ambient air particles. Res Rep Health Eff Inst, 91: 5-88; discussion 89-103. 000738

Gold DR; Litonjua AA; Zanobetti A; Coull BA; Schwartz J; MacCallum G; Verrier RL; Nearing BD; Canner MJ; Suh H; 

Stone PH (2005). Air pollution and ST-segment depression in elderly subjects. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 883-

887. 087558

Goldberg MS; Giannetti N; Burnett RT; Mayo NE; Valois MF; Brophy JM (2008). A panel study in congestive heart failure 

to estimate the short-term effects from personal factors and environmental conditions on oxygen saturation and 

pulse rate. Occup Environ Med, 65: 659-666. 180380

Gong H Jr; Sioutas C; Linn WS (2003). Controlled exposures of healthy and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient 

particles in metropolitan Los Angeles. Health Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 087365

Gong H; Sioutas C; Linn WS; Clark KW; Terrell SL; Terrell LL; Anderson KR; Kim S; Chang MC (2000). Controlled 

human exposures to concentarted ambient fine particles in metropolitan Los Angeles: Methodology and preliminary 

health-effect findings. Inhal Toxicol, 12: 107-119. 155799

Gong H Jr; Linn WS; Clark KW; Anderson KR; Geller MD; Sioutas C (2005). Respiratory responses to exposures with 

fine particulates and nitrogen dioxide in the elderly with and without COPD. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 123-132. 087921

Gong H Jr; Linn WS; Clark KW; Anderson KR; Sioutas C; Alexis NE; Cascio WE; Devlin RB (2008). Exposures of 

healthy and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient ultrafine particles in Los Angeles. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 533-

545. 156483

Gong H Jr; Linn WS; Sioutas C; Terrell SL; Clark KW; Anderson KR; Terrell LL (2003). Controlled exposures of healthy 

and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient fine particles in Los Angeles. Inhal Toxicol, 15: 305-325. 042106

Gong H Jr; Linn WS; Terrell SL; Anderson KR; Clark KW; Sioutas C; Cascio WE; Alexis N; Devlin RB (2004). Exposures 

of elderly volunteers with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) to concentrated ambient fine 

particulate pollution. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 731-744. 087964

Gong H Jr; Linn WS; Terrell SL; Clark KW; Geller MD; Anderson KR; Cascio WE; Sioutas C (2004). Altered heart-rate 

variability in asthmatic and healthy volunteers exposed to concentrated ambient coarse particles. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 

335-343. 055628

Gordian ME; Choudhury AH (2003). PM10 and asthma medication in schoolchildren. Arch Environ Occup Health, 58: 42-

47. 054842

Gowdy K; Krantz QT; Daniels M; Linak WP; Jaspers I; Gilmour MI (2008). Modulation of pulmonary inflammatory 

responses and antimicrobial defenses in mice exposed to diesel exhaust. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 229: 310-319. 

097226

Graff D; Cascio W; Rappold A; Zhou H; Huang Y; Devlin R (2009). Exposure to concentrated coarse air pollution particles 

causes mild cardiopulmonary effects in healthy young adults . Environ Health Perspect, 117: 1089-1094. 191981

Gurgueira SA; Lawrence J; Coull B; Murthy GGK; Gonzalez-Flecha B (2002). Rapid increases in the steady-state 

concentration of reactive oxygen species in the lungs and heart after particulate air pollution inhalation. Environ 

Health Perspect, 110: 749-755. 036535

Hajat S; Haines A; Atkinson RW; Bremner SA; Anderson HR; Emberlin J (2001). Association between air pollution and 

daily consultations with general practitioners for allergic rhinitis in London, United Kingdom. Am J Epidemiol, 

153: 704-714. 016693

Halonen JI; Lanki T; Yli-Tuomi T; Kulmala M; Tiittanen P; Pekkanen J (2008). Urban air pollution, and asthma and COPD 

hospital emergency room visits. Thorax, 63: 635-641. 189507

Halonen JI; Lanki T; Yli-Tuomi T; Tiittanen P; Kulmala M; Pekkanen (2009). Particulate air pollution and acute 

cardiorespiratory hospital admissions and mortality among the elderly. Epidemiology, 20: 143-153. 180379

Hamada K; Suzaki Y; Leme A; Ito T; Miyamoto K; Kobzik L; Kimura H (2007). Exposure of pregnant mice to an air 

pollutant aerosol increases asthma susceptibility in offspring. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 70: 688-695. 

091235

Hamade AK; Rabold R; Tankersley CG (2008). Adverse cardiovascular effects with acute particulate matter and ozone 

exposures: interstrain variation in mice. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 1033-1039. 156515

December 2009 6-224 
Hanigan IC; Johnston FH; Morgan GG (2008). Vegetation fire smoke, indigenous status and cardio respiratory hospital 

admissions in Darwin, Australia, 1996-2005: a time-series study. Environ Health, 7: 42. 156518

Hao M; Comier S; Wang M; Lee James J; Nel A (2003). Diesel exhaust particles exert acute effects on airway 

inflammation and function in murine allergen provocation models. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 112: 905-914. 096565

Hapcioglu B; Issever H; Kocyigit E; Disci R; Vatansever S; Ozdilli K (2006). The effect of air pollution and meteorological 

parameters on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at an Istanbul hospital. Indoor Built Environ, 15: 147-153. 

093263

Happo MS; Salonen RO; Halinen AI; Jalava PI; Pennanen AS; Kosma VM; Sillanpaa M; Hillamo R; Brunekreef B; 

Katsouyanni K; Sunyer J; Hirvonen MR (2007). Dose and time dependency of inflammatory responses in the 

mouse lung to urban air coarse, fine, and ultrafine particles from six European cities. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 227-246. 

096630

Harder V; Gilmour P; Lentner B; Karg E; Takenaka S; Ziesenis A; Stampfl A; Kodavanti U; Heyder J; Schulz H (2005). 

Cardiovascular responses in unrestrained WKY rats to inhaled ultrafine carbon particles. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 29-42. 

087371

Harkema JR; Keeler G; Wagner J; Morishita M; Timm E; Hotchkiss J; Marsik F; Dvonch T; Kaminski N; Barr E (2004). 

Effects of concentrated ambient particles on normal and hypersecretory airways in rats. Health Effects Institute. 

Boston, MA. 056842

Harrod KS; Jaramillo RJ; Berger JA; Gigliotti AP; Seilkop SK; Reed MD (2005). Inhaled diesel engine emissions reduce 

bacterial clearance and exacerbate lung disease to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in vivo. Toxicol Sci, 83: 155-

165. 088144

Harrod KS; Jaramillo RJ; Rosenberger CL; Wang S-Z; Berger JA; McDonald JD; Reed MD (2003). Increased 

susceptibility to RSV infection by exposure to inhaled diesel engine emissions. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 28: 451-

463. 097046

Hayek T; Oiknine J; Brook JG; Aviram M (1994). Increased plasma and lipoprotein lipid peroxidation in apo E-deficient 

mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 201: 1567-1574. 156527

Hedley AJ; Wong C-M; Thach TQ; Ma S; Lam T-H; Anderson HR (2002). Cardiorespiratory and all-cause mortality after 

restrictions on sulphur content of fuel in Hong Kong: an intervention study. Lancet, 360: 1646-1652. 040284

Heidenfelder BL; Reif DM; Harkema JR; Cohen Hubal EA; Hudgens EE; Bramble LA; Wagner JG; Morishita M; Keeler 

GJ; Edwards SW; Gallagher JE (2009). Comparative microarray analysis and pulmonary changes in brown Norway 

rats exposed to ovalbumin and concentrated air particulates. Toxicol Sci, 108: 207-221. 190026

Henneberger A; Zareba W; Ibald-Mulli A; Ruckerl R; Cyrys J; Couderc J-P; Mykins B; Woelke G; Wichmann H-E; Peters 

A (2005). Repolarization changes induced by air pollution in ischemic heart disease patients. Environ Health 

Perspect, 113: 440-446. 087960

Henrotin JB; Besancenot JP; Bejot Y; Giroud M (2007). Short-term effects of ozone air pollution on ischaemic stroke 

occurrence: A case-crossover analysis from a 10-year population-based study in Dijon, France. Occup Environ 

Med, 64: 439-445. 093270

Hinwood AL; De Klerk N; Rodriguez C; Jacoby P; Runnion T; Rye P; Landau L; Murray F; Feldwick M; Spickett J 

(2006). The relationship between changes in daily air pollution and hospitalizations in Perth, Australia 1992-1998: 

A case-crossover study. Int J Environ Health Res, 16: 27-46. 088976

Hirshon JM; Shardell M; Alles S; Powell JL; Squibb K; Ondov J; Blaisdell CJ (2008). Elevated ambient air zinc increases 

pediatric asthma morbidity. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 826-831. 180375

Hogervorst JG; de Kok TM; Briede JJ; Wesseling G; Kleinjans JC; van Schayck CP (2006). Relationship between radical 

generation by urban ambient particulate matter and pulmonary function of school children. J Toxicol Environ 

Health A Curr Iss, 69: 245-262. 156559

Holguin F; Flores S; Ross Z; Cortez M; Molina M; Molina L; Rincon C; Jerrett M; Berhane K; Granados A; Romieu I 

(2007). Traffic-related exposures, airway function, inflammation, and respiratory symptoms in children. Am J 

Respir Crit Care Med, 176: 1236-1242. 099000

Holguin F; Tellez-Rojo MM; Hernandez M; Cortez M; Chow JC; Watson JG; Mannino D; Romieu I (2003). Air pollution 

and heart rate variability among the elderly in Mexico City. Epidemiology, 14: 521-527. 057326

December 2009 6-225 
Holloman CH; Bortnick SM; Morara M; Strauss WJ; Calder CA (2004). A Bayesian hierarchical approach for relating 

PM2.5 exposure to cardiovascular mortliaty in North Carolina. Environ Health Perspect, 112: 1282-1288. 087375

Hong Y-C; Hwang S-S; Kim JH; Lee K-H; Lee H-J; Lee K-H; Yu S-D; Kim D-S (2007). Metals in particulate pollutants 

affect peak expiratory flow of schoolchildren. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 430-434. 091347

Hopke PK; Ito K; Mar T; Christensen WF; Eatough DJ; Henry RC; Kim E; Laden F; Lall R; Larson TV; Liu H; Neas L; 

Pinto J; Stolzel M; Suh H; Paatero P; Thurston GD (2006). PM source apportionment and health effects: 1 

Intercomparison of source apportionment results. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 16: 275-286. 088390

Host S; Larrieu S; Pascal L; Blanchard M; Declercq C; Fabre P; Jusot JF; Chardon B; Le Tertre A; Wagner V; Prouvost H; 

Lefranc A (2007). Short-term Associations between Fine and Coarse Particles and Cardiorespiratory 

Hospitalizations in Six French Cities. Occup Environ Med, 18: S107-S108. 155851

Host S; Larrieu S; Pascal L; Blanchard M; Declercq C; Fabre P; Jusot JF; Chardon B; Le Tertre A; Wagner V; Prouvost H; 

Lefranc A (2008). Short-term associations between fine and coarse particles and hospital admissions for 

cardiorespiratory diseases in six French cities. Occup Environ Med, 65: 544-551. 155852

Huang Y-CT; Ghio AJ; Stonehuerner J; McGee J; Carter JD; Grambow SC; Devlin RB (2003). The role of soluble 

components in ambient fine particles-induced changes in human lungs and blood. Inhal Toxicol, 15: 327-342. 

087377

Huber SA; Sakkinen P; Conze D; Hardin N; Tracy R (1999). Interleukin-6 exacerbates early atherosclerosis in mice. 

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19: 2364-2367. 156575

Hwang J-S; Chan C-C (2002). Effects of air pollution on daily clinic visits for lower respiratory tract illness. Am J 

Epidemiol, 155: 1-10. 023222

Hwang J-S; Nadziejko C; Chen LC (2005). Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in 

mice: III Acute and chronic effects of CAPs on heart rate, heart-rate fluctuation, and body temperature. Inhal 

Toxicol, 17: 199-207. 087957

Ibald-Mulli A; Timonen KL; Peters A; Heinrich J; Wolke G; Lanki T; Buzorius G; Kreyling WG; De Hartog J; Hoek G; 

Ten Brink HM; Pekkanen J (2004). Effects of particulate air pollution on blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 

with cardiovascular disease: a multicenter approach. Environ Health Perspect, 112: 369-377. 087415

Inoue K; Takano H; Yanagisawa R; Sakurai M; Ichinose T; Sadakane K; Yoshikawa T (2005). Effects of nano particles on 

antigen-related airway inflammation in mice. Respir Res, 6: 106. 088625

Ito K (2003). Associations of particulate matter components with daily mortality and morbidity in Detroit, Michigan, In: 

Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health. Special report. Health Effects Institute. Boston, 

MA. R828112. http: //www.healtheffects.org/Pubs/TimeSeries.pdf . 042856

Ito K; Christensen WF; Eatough DJ; Henry RC; Kim E; Laden F; Lall R; Larson TV; Neas L; Hopke PK; Thurston GD 

(2006). PM source apportionment and health effects: 2 An investigation of intermethod variability in associations 

between source-apportioned fine particle mass and daily mortality in Washington, DC. J Expo Sci Environ 

Epidemiol, 16: 300-310. 088391

Ito K; Thurston GD; Silverman RA (2007). Characterization of PM2.5, gaseous pollutants, and meteorological interactions 

in the context of time-series health effects models. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 17 Suppl 2: S45-S60. 156594

Ito K; Thurston GD; Silverman RA; (2007). Association between coarse particles and asthma emergency department (ED) 

visits in New York City. Presented at American Thoracic Society international conference 2007, San Francisco, CA. 

091262

Ito T; Okumura H; Tsukue N; Kobayashi T; Honda K; Sekizawa K (2006). Effect of diesel exhaust particles on mRNA 

expression of viral and bacterial receptors in rat lung epithelial L2 cells. Toxicol Lett, 165: 66-70. 096648

Ito T; Suzuki T; Tamura K; Nezu T; Honda K; Kobayashi T (2008). Examination of mRNA expression in rat hearts and 

lungs for analysis of effects of exposure to concentrated ambient particles on cardiovascular function. Toxicol Sci, 

243: 271-283. 096823

Jaffe DH; Singer ME; Rimm AA (2003). Air pollution and emergency department visits for asthma among Ohio Medicaid 

recipients, 1991-1996. Environ Res, 91: 21-28. 041957

December 2009 6-226 
Jalaludin B; Morgan G; Lincoln D; Sheppeard V; Simpson R; Corbett S (2006). Associations between ambient air pollution 

and daily emergency department attendances for cardiovascular disease in the elderly (65+ years), Sydney, 

Australia. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 16: 225-237. 189416

Jalaludin BB; O'Toole BI; Leeder SR (2004). Acute effects of urban ambient air pollution on respiratory symptoms, asthma 

medication use, and doctor visits for asthma in a cohort of Australian children. Environ Res, 95: 32-42. 056595

Jalava PI; Salonen RO; Halinen AI; Penttinen P; Pennanen AS; Sillanpaa M; Sandell E; Hillamo R; Hirvonen M-R (2006). 

In vitro inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of size-segregated particulate samples collected during long-range 

transport of wildfire smoke to Helsinki. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 215: 341-353. 155872

Jalava PI; Salonen RO; Pennanen AS; Happo MS; Penttinen P; Halinen AI; Sillanpaa M; Hillamo R; Hirvonen MR (2008). 

Effects of solubility of urban air fine and coarse particles on cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 

macrophage cell line. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 229: 146-60. 098968

Janes H; Sheppard L; Lumley T (2005). Case-crossover analyses of air pollution exposure data: referent selection strategies 

and their implications for bias. Epidemiology, 16: 717-726. 087535

Jansen KL; Larson TV; Koenig JQ; Mar TF; Fields C; Stewart J; Lippmann M (2005). Associations between health effects 

and particulate matter and black carbon in subjects with respiratory disease. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 1741-

1746. 082236

Janssen NAH; Schwartz J; Zanobetti A; Suh HH (2002). Air conditioning and source-specific particles as modifiers of the 

effect of PM10 on hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. Environ Health Perspect, 110: 43-49. 016743

Johnston FH; Bailie RS; Pilotto LS; Hanigan IC (2007). Ambient biomass smoke and cardio-respiratory hospital 

admissions in Darwin, Australia. BMC Public Health, 7: 240. 155882

Johnston FH; Webby RJ; Pilotto LS; Bailie RS; Parry DL; Halpin SJ (2006). Vegetation fires, particulate air pollution and 

asthma: a panel study in the Australian monsoon tropics. Int J Environ Health Res, 16: 391-404. 091386

Just J; Segala C; Sahraoui F; Priol G; Grimfeld A; Neukirch F (2002). Short-term health effects of particulate and 

photochemical air pollution in asthmatic children. Eur Respir J, 20: 899-906. 035429

Kannel WB; Abbott RD; Savage DD; McNamara PM (1983). Coronary heart disease and atrial fibrillation: the 

Framingham Study. Am Heart J, 106: 389-396. 156623

Katsouyanni K; Touloumi G; Samoli E; Petasakis Y; Analitis A; Le Tertre A; Rossi G; Zmirou D; Ballester F; Boumghar A; 

Anderson HR; Wojtyniak B; Paldy A; Braunstein R; Pekkanen J; Schindler C; Schwartz J (2003). Sensitivity 

analysis of various models of short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality in 29 cities in APHEA2. 

042807

Kelishadi R; Mirghaffari N; Poursafa P; Gidding S (2009). Lifestyle and environmental factors associated with 

inflammation, oxidative stress and insulin resistance in children. Atherosclerosis, 203: 311-319. 191960

Kettunen J; Lanki T; Tiittanen P; Aalto PP; Koskentalo T; Kulmala M; Salomaa V; Pekkanen J (2007). Associations of fine 

and ultrafine particulate air pollution with stroke mortality in an area of low air pollution levels. Stroke, 38: 918-

922. 091242

Kim SY; O'Neill MS; Lee JT; Cho Y; Kim J; Kim H (2007). Air pollution, socioeconomic position, and emergency hospital 

visits for asthma in Seoul, Korea. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 80: 701-710. 092837

Klein-Patel ME; Diamond G; Boniotto M; Saad S; Ryan LK (2006). Inhibition of beta-defensin gene expression in airway 

epithelial cells by low doses of residual oil fly ash is mediated by vanadium. Toxicol Sci, 92: 115-125. 097092

Kleinman M; Sioutas C; Stram D; Froines J; Cho A; Chakrabarti B; Hamade A; Meacher D; Oldham M (2005). Inhalation 

of concentrated ambient particulate matter near a heavily trafficked road stimulates antigen-induced airway 

responses in mice. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 55: 1277-1288. 087880

Kleinman MT; Araujo JA; Nel A; Sioutas C; Campbell A; Cong PQ; Li H; Bondy SC (2008). Inhaled ultrafine particulate 

matter affects CNS inflammatory processes and may act via MAP kinase signaling pathways. Toxicol Lett, 178: 

127-130. 190074

Kleinman MT; Sioutas C; Froines JR; Fanning E; Hamade A; Mendez L; Meacher D; Oldham M (2007). Inhalation of 

concentrated ambient particulate matter near a heavily trafficked road stimulates antigen-induced airway responses 

in mice. Inhal Toxicol, 19 Suppl 1: 117-126. 097082

December 2009 6-227 
Klemm RJ; Lipfert FW; Wyzga RE; Gust C (2004). Daily mortality and air pollution in Atlanta: two years of data from 

ARIES. Inhal Toxicol, 16 Suppl 1: 131-141. 056585

Klemm RJ; Mason R (2003). Replication of reanalysis of Harvard Six-City mortality study. In HEI Special Report: Revised 

Analyses of Time-Series Studies of Air Pollution and Health, Part II (pp. 165-172). Boston, MA: Health Effects 

Institute. 042801

Knuckles TL; Lund AK; Lucas SN; Campen MJ (2008). Diesel exhaust exposure enhances venoconstriction via uncoupling 

of eNOS. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 230: 346-351. 191987

Ko FWS; Tam W; Wong TW; Chan DPS (2007). Temporal relationship between air pollutants and hospital admissions for 

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Hong Kong. Thorax, 62: 780-785. 091639

Ko FWS; Tam W; Wong TW; Lai CKW; (2007). Effects of air pollution on asthma hospitalization rates in different age 

groups in Hong Kong. Clin Exp Allergy, 37: 1312-1319. 092844

Kodavanti UP; Schladweiler MC; Ledbetter AD; Hauser R; Christiani DC; McGee J; Richards JR; Costa DL (2002). 

Temporal association between pulmonary and systemic effects of particulate matter in healthy and cardiovascular 

compromised rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 65: 1545-1569. 025236

Kodavanti UP; Schladweiler MC; Ledbetter AD; McGee JK; Walsh L; Gilmour PS; Highfill JW; Davies D; Pinkerton KE; 

Richards JH; Crissman K; Andrews D; Costa DL (2005). Consistent pulmonary and systemic responses from 

inhalation of fine concentrated ambient particles: roles of rat strains used and physicochemical properties. Environ 

Health Perspect, 113: 1561-1568. 087946

Kodavanti UP; Schladweiler MCJ; Ledbetter AD; Hauser R; Christiani DC; Samet JM; McGee J; Richards JH; Costa DL 

(2002). Pulmonary and systemic effects of zinc-containing emission particles in three rat strains: multiple exposure 

scenarios. Toxicol Sci, 70: 73-85. 035344

Koenig J; Allen R; Larson T; Liu S (2005). Response to "Indoor- and Outdoor-Generated Particles and Children with 

asthma" [letter]. Environ Health Perspect, 113: A581. 088999

Koenig JQ; Jansen K; Mar TF; Lumley T; Kaufman J; Trenga CA; Sullivan J; Liu LJ; Shapiro GG; Larson TV (2003). 

Measurement of offline exhaled nitric oxide in a study of community exposure to air pollution. Environ Health 

Perspect, 111: 1625-1629. 156653

Koenig JQ; Mar TF; Allen RW; Jansen K; Lumley T; Sullivan JH; Trenga CA; Larson T; Liu LJ (2005). Pulmonary effects 

of indoor- and outdoor-generated particles in children with asthma. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 499-503. 087384

Koken PJM; Piver WT; Ye F; Elixhauser A; Olsen LM; Portier CJ (2003). Temperature, air pollution, and hospitalization 

for cardiovascular diseases among elderly people in Denver. Environ Health Perspect, 111: 1312-1317. 049466

Kongerud J; Madden MC; Hazucha M; Peden D (2006). Nasal responses in asthmatic and nonasthmatic subjects following 

exposure to diesel exhaust particles. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 589-594. 156656

Kooter IM; Boere AJ; Fokkens PH; Leseman DL; Dormans JA; Cassee FR (2006). Response of spontaneously 

hypertensive rats to inhalation of fine and ultrafine particles from traffic: experimental controlled study. Part Fibre 

Toxicol, 15: 3-7. 097547

Kuo HW; Lai JS; Lee MC; Tai RC; Lee MC (2002). Respiratory effects of air pollutants among asthmatics in central 

Taiwan. Arch Environ Occup Health, 57: 194-200. 036310

Laden F; Neas LM; Dockery DW; Schwartz J (2000). Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with 

daily mortality in six US cities. Environ Health Perspect, 108: 941-947. 012102

Lagorio S; Forastiere F; Pistelli R; Iavarone I; Michelozzi P; Fano V; Marconi A; Ziemacki G; Ostro BD (2006). Air 

pollution and lung function among susceptible adult subjects: a panel study. Environ Health, 5: 11. 089800

Lai LW; Cheng WL (2008). The impact of air quality on respiratory admissions during Asian dust storm periods. Int J 

Environ Health Res, 18: 429-450. 180301

Lanki T; De Hartog JJ; Heinrich J; Hoek G; Janssen NAH; Peters A; Stolzel M; Timonen KL; Vallius M; Vanninen E; 

Pekkanen J (2006). Can we identify sources of fine particles responsible for exercise-induced ischemia on days 

with elevated air pollution? The ULTRA study. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 655-660. 088412

Lanki T; Hoek G; Timonen K; Peters A; Tiittanen P; Vanninen E; Pekkanen J (2008). Hourly variation in fine particle 

exposure is associated with transiently increased risk of ST segment depression. Br Med J, 65: 782-786. 191984

December 2009 6-228 
Lanki T; Pekkanen J; Aalto P; Elosua R; Berglind N; D'Ippoliti D; Kulmala M; Nyberg F; Peters A; Picciotto S; Salomaa V; 

Sunyer J; Tiittanen P; Von Klot S; Forastiere F; for the HEAPSS Study Group (2006). Associations of traffic-related 

air pollutants with hospitalisation for first acute myocardial infarction: the HEAPSS study. Occup Environ Med, 63: 

844-851. 089788

Larrieu S; Jusot J-F; Blanchard M; Prouvost H; Declercq C; Fabre P; Pascal L; Le Tertre A; Wagner V; Riviere S; Chardon 

B; Borelli D; Cassadou S; Eilstein D; Lefranc A (2007). Short term effects of air pollution on hospitalizations for 

cardiovascular diseases in eight French cities: The PSAS program. Sci Total Environ, 387: 105-112. 093031

Larrieu S; Lefranc A; Gault G; Chatignoux E; Couvy F; Jouves B; Filleul L (2009). Are the Short-term Effects of Air 

Pollution Restricted to Cardiorespiratory Diseases? Am J Epidemiol, 169: 1-8. 180294

Larsson B-M; Sehistedt M; Grunewald J; Skold CM; Lundin A; Blomberg A; Sandstrom T; Eklund A; Svartengren M 

(2007). Road tunnel air pollution induces bronchoalveolar inflammation in healthy subjects. Eur Respir J, 29: 699-

705. 091375

Last JA; Ward R; Temple L; Pinkerton KE; Kenyon NJ (2004). Ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation and fibrosis in 

mice also exposed to ultrafine particles. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 93-102. 097334

Laupacis A; Boysen G; Connolly S (1994). Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial 

fibrillation: Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med, 154: 1449-1457. 

190901

Laurent O; Pedrono G; Filleul L; Segala C; Lefranc A; Schillinger C; Riviere E; Bard D (2009). Influence of 

socioeconomic deprivation on the relation between air pollution and beta-agonist sales for asthma. Chest, 135: 717-

723. 192129

Laurent O; Pedrono G; Segala C; Filleul L; Havard S; Deguen S; Schillinger C; Riviere E; Bard D (2008). Air pollution, 

asthma attacks, and socioeconomic deprivation: a small-area case-crossover study. Am J Epidemiol, 168: 58-65. 

156672

Lay JC; Bennett WD; Kim CS; Devlin RB; Bromberg PA (1998). Retention and intracellular distribution of instilled iron 

oxide particles in human alveolar macrophages. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 18: 687-695. 007683

Lay JC; Zeman KL; Ghio AJ; Bennett WD (2001). Effects of inhaled iron oxide particles on alveolar epithelial 

permeability in normal subjects. Inhal Toxicol, 13: 1065-1078. 020613

Le Tertre A; Schwartz J; Touloumi G (2005). Empirical Bayes and adjusted estimates approach to estimating the relation of 

mortality to eposure of PM10. Risk Anal, 25: 711-718. 087560

Lee IM; Tsai SS; Ho CK; Chiu HF; Yang CY (2007). Air pollution and hospital admissions for congestive heart failure in a 

tropical city: Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 899-904. 196613

Lee J-T; Kim H; Song H; Hong Y-C; Cho Y-S; Shin S-Y; Hyun Y-J; Kim Y-S (2002). Air pollution and asthma among 

children in Seoul, Korea. Epidemiology, 13: 481-484. 034826

Lee J-T; Son J-Y; Cho Y-S (2007). A comparison of mortality related to urban air particles between periods with Asian dust 

days and without Asian dust days in Seoul, Korea, 2000-2004. Environ Res, 105: 409-13. 093042

Lee JT; Kim H; Cho YS; Hong YC; Ha EH; Park H (2003). Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic heart 

diseases among individuals 64+ years of age residing in Seoul, Korea. Arch Environ Health, 58: 617-623. 095552

Lee SL; Wong WHS; Lau YL (2006). Association between air pollution and asthma admission among children in Hong 

Kong. Clin Exp Allergy, 36: 1138-1146. 090176

Lei Y-C; Chan C-C; Wang P-Y; Lee C-T; Cheng T-J (2004). Effects of Asian dust event particles on inflammation markers 

in peripheral blood and bronchoalveolar lavage in pulmonary hypertensive rats. Environ Res, 95: 71-76. 087884

Lei YC; Chen MC; Chan CC; Wang PY; Lee CT; Cheng TJ (2004). Effects of concentrated ambient particles on airway 

responsiveness and pulmonary inflammation in pulmonary hypertensive rats. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 785-792. 087999

Levine AM; Gwozdz J; Stark J; Bruno M; Whitsett J; Korfhagen T (1999). Surfactant protein-A enhances respiratory 

syncytial virus clearance in vivo. J Clin Invest, 103: 1015-1021. 156687

LeVine AM; Whitsett JA (2001). Pulmonary collectins and innate host defense of the lung. Microb Infect, 3: 161-166. 

155928

December 2009 6-229 
Levy D; Sheppard L; Checkoway H; Kaufman J; Lumley T; Koenig J; Siscovick D (2001). A case-crossover analysis of 

particulate matter air pollution and out-of-hospital primary cardiac arrest. Epidemiology, 12: 193-199. 017171

Lewis CW; Klouda GA; Ellenson WD (2004). Radiocarbon measurement of the biogenic contribution to summertime PM2.5 ambient aerosol in Nashville, TN. Atmos Environ, 38: 6053-6061. 097498

Lewis CW; Norris GA; Conner TL; Henry RC (2003). Source apportionment of Phoenix PM2.5 aerosol with the Unmix 

Receptor model. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 53: 325-338. 088413

Lewis TC; Robins TG; Dvonch JT; Keeler GJ; Yip FY; Mentz GB; Lin X; Parker EA; Israel BA; Gonzalez L; Hill Y 

(2005). Air pollution-associated changes in lung function among asthmatic children in Detroit. Environ Health 

Perspect, 113: 1068-1075. 081079

Le Tertre A; Medina S; Samoli E; Forsberg B; Michelozzi P; Boumghar A; Vonk JM; Bellini A; Atkinson R; Ayres JG; 

Sunyer J; Schwartz J; Katsouyanni K (2002). Short term effects of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular 

diseases in eight European cities. J Epidemiol Community Health, 56: 773-779. 023746

Le Tertre A; Medina S; Samoli E; Forsberg B; Michelozzi P; Boumghar A; Vonk JM; Bellini A; Atkinson R; Ayres JG; 

Sunyer J; Schwartz J; Katsouyanni K (2003). Short-term effects of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular 

diseases in eight European cities. In HEI Special Report: Revised Analyses of Time-Series Studies of Air Pollution 

and Health, Part II (pp. 173-176). Boston: HEI. 042820

Li N; Wang M; Bramble LA; Schmitz DA; Schauer JJ; Sioutas C; Harkema JR; Nel AE (2009). The adjuvant effect of 

ambient particulate matter is closely reflected by the particulate oxidant potential . Environ Health Perspect, 117: 

1116-1123. 190457

Li Y-J; Kawada T; Matsumoto A; Azuma A; Kudoh S; Takizawa H; Sugawara I (2007). Airway inflammatory responses to 

oxidative stress induced by low-dose diesel exhaust particle exposure differ between mouse strains. Exp Lung Res, 

33: 227-244. 155929

Liao D; Duan Y; Whitsel EA; Zheng Z-J; Heiss G; Chinchilli VM; Lin H-M (2004). Association of higher levels of ambient 

criteria pollutants with impaired cardiac autonomic control: a population-based study. Am J Epidemiol, 159: 768-

777. 056590

Liao D; Heiss G; Chinchilli VM; Duan Y; Folsom AR; Lin HM; Salomaa V (2005). Association of criteria pollutants with 

plasma hemostatic/inflammatory markers: a population-based study. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 15: 319-328. 

088677

Liao D; Whitsel EA; Duan Y; Lin HM; Quibrera PM; Smith R; Peuquet DJ; Prineas RJ; Zhang ZM; Anderson G (2009). 

Ambient particulate air pollution and ectopy-the environmental epidemiology of arrhythmogenesis in Women's 

Health Initiative Study, 1999-2004. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 72: 30-38. 199519

Lin M; Chen Y; Burnett RT; Villeneuve PJ; Krewski D (2002). The influence of ambient coarse particulate matter on 

asthma hospitalization in children: case-crossover and time-series analyses. Environ Health Perspect, 110: 575-581. 

026067

Lin M; Stieb DM; Chen Y (2005). Coarse particulate matter and hospitalization for respiratory infections in children 

younger than 15 years in Toronto: a case-crossover analysis. Pediatrics, 116: 235-240. 087828

Linn WS; Szlachcic Y; Gong H Jr; Kinney PL; Berhane KT (2000). Air pollution and daily hospital admissions in 

metropolitan Los Angeles. Environ Health Perspect, 108: 427-434. 002839

Lipfert FW; Morris SC; Wyzga RE (2000). Daily mortality in the Philadelphia metropolitan area and size-classified 

particulate matter. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 50: 1501-1513. 004088

Lippmann M (2000). Environmental toxicants: human exposures and their health effects. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 

024579

Lippmann M; Hwang J; Maclejczyk P; Chen L (2005). PM source apportionment for short-term cardiac function changes 

in ApoE-/- mice. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 1575-1579. 087453

Lippmann M; Ito K; Hwang JS; Maciejczyk P; Chen LC (2006). Cardiovascular effects of nickel in ambient air. Environ 

Health Perspect, 114: 1662-1669. 091165

Lippmann M; Ito K; Nadas A; Burnett RT (2000). Association of particulate matter components with daily mortality and 

morbidity in urban populations. Health Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 011938

December 2009 6-230 
Lipsett MJ; Tsai FC; Roger L; Woo M; Ostro BD (2006). Coarse particles and heart rate variability among older adults with 

coronary artery disease in the Coachella Valley, California. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 1215-1220. 088753

Lisabeth LD; Escobar JD; Dvonch JT; Sanchez BN; Majersik JJ; Brown DL; Smith MA; Morgenstern LB (2008). Ambient 

air pollution and risk for ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack. Ann Neurol, 64: 53-59. 155939

Liu J; Ballaney M; Al-Alem U; Quan C; Jin X; Perera F; Chen LC; Miller RL (2008). Combined Inhaled Diesel Exhaust 

Particles and Allergen Exposure Alter Methylation of T Helper Genes and IgE Production In Vivo. Toxicol Sci, 102: 

76-81. 156709

Liu L; Poon R; Chen L; Frescura AM; Montuschi P; Ciabattoni G; Wheeler A; Dales R (2009). Acute effects of air 

pollution on pulmonary function, airway inflammation, and oxidative stress in asthmatic children. Environ Health 

Perspect, 117: 668-674. 192003

Liu L; Ruddy TD; Dalipaj M; Szyszkowicz M; You H; Poon R; Wheeler A; Dales R (2007). Influence of personal exposure 

to particulate air pollution on cardiovascular physiology and biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress in 

subjects with diabetes. J Occup Environ Med, 49: 258-265. 156705

Liu SX; Hou FF; Guo ZJ; Nagai R; Zhang WR; Liu ZQ; Zhou ZM; Zhou M; Xie D; Wang GB; Zhang X (2006). Advanced 

oxidation protein products accelerate atherosclerosis through promoting oxidative stress and inflammation. 

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 26: 1156-1162. 192002

Liu X; Meng Z (2005). Effects of airborne fine particulate matter on antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in multiple 

organs of rats. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 467-473. 088650

Ljungman P; Bellander T; Schneider A; Breitner S; Forastiere F; Hampel R; Illig T; Jacquemin B; Katsouyanni K; von Klot 

S (2009). Modification of the interleukin-6 response to air pollution by interleukin-6 and fibrinogen 

polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect, 117: 1373-1379. 191983

Ljungman PLS; Berglind N; Holmgren C; Gadler F; Edvardsson N; Pershagen G; Rosenqvist M; Sjögren B; Bellander T 

(2008). Rapid effects of air pollution on ventricular arrhythmias. Eur Heart J, 29: 2894-2901. 180266

Llorca J; Salas A; Prieto-Salceda D; Chinchon-Bengoechea V; Delgado-Rodriguez M (2005). Nitrogen dioxide increases 

cardiorespiratory admissions in Torrelavega (Spain). J Environ Health, 68: 30-35. 087825

Lokken PR; Wellenius GA; Coull BA; Burger MR; Schlaug G; Suh HH; Mittleman MA (2009). Air Pollution and Risk of 

Stroke: Underestimation of Effect Due to Misclassification of Time of Event Onset. Epidemiology, 20: 137-142. 

186774

Low RB; Bielory L; Qureshi AI; Dunn V; Stuhlmiller DF; Dickey DA (2006). The relation of stroke admissions to recent 

weather, airborne allergens, air pollution, seasons, upper respiratory infections, and asthma incidence, September 

11, 2001, and day of the week. Stroke, 37: 951-957. 090441

Lucking A; Lundback M; Mills N; Faratian D; Barath S; Pourazar J; Cassee F; Donaldson K; Boon N; Badimon J; 

Sandstorm T; Blomberg A; Newby D (2008). Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man. Eur 

Heart J, 29: 3043-3051. 191993

Luginaah IN; Fung KY; Gorey KM; Webster G; Wills C (2005). Association of ambient air pollution with respiratory 

hospitalization in a government designated "area of concern": the case of Windsor, Ontario. Environ Health 

Perspect, 113: 290-296. 057327

Lund AK; Lucero J; Lucas S; Madden MC; McDonald JD; Seagrave JC; Knuckles TL; Campen MJ (2009). Vehicular 

emissions induce vascular MMP-9 expression and activity associated with endothelin-1 mediated pathways. 

Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 29: 511-517. 180257

Lundbäck M; Mills NL; Lucking A; Barath S; Donaldson K; Newby DE; Sandström T; Blomberg A (2009). Experimental 

exposure to diesel exhaust increases arterial stiffness in man. Part Fibre Toxicol, 6: 7. 191967

Luttmann-Gibson H; Suh HH; Coull BA; Dockery DW; Sarnet SE; Schwartz J; Stone PH; Gold DR (2006). Short-term 

effects of air pollution on heart rate variability in senior adults in Steubenville, Ohio. J Occup Environ Med, 48: 

780-788. 089794

Maciejczyk P; Chen LC (2005). Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in mice: VIII 

source-related daily variations in in vitro responses to CAPs. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 243-253. 087456

December 2009 6-231 
Mar TF; Ito K; Koenig JQ; Larson TV; Eatough DJ; Henry RC; Kim E; Laden F; Lall R; Neas L; Stolzel M; Paatero P; 

Hopke PK; Thurston GD (2006). PM source apportionment and health effects: 3 Investigation of inter-method 

variations in associations between estimated source contributions of PM25 and daily mortality in Phoenix, AZ. J 

Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 16: 311-320. 086143

Mar TF; Jansen K; Shepherd K; Lumley T; Larson TV; Koenig JQ (2005). Exhaled nitric oxide in children with asthma and 

short-term PM25 exposure in Seattle. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 1791-1794. 088759

Mar TF; Koenig JQ; Jansen K; Sullivan J; Kaufman J; Trenga CA; Siahpush SH; Liu L-JS; Neas L (2005). Fine particulate 

air pollution and cardiorespiratory effects in the elderly. Epidemiology, 16: 681-687. 087566

Mar TF; Larson TV; Stier RA; Claiborn C; Koenig JQ (2004). An analysis of the association between respiratory symptoms 

in subjects with asthma and daily air pollution in Spokane, Washington. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 809-815. 057309

Mar TF; Norris GA; Koenig JQ; Larson TV (2000). Associations between air pollution and mortality in Phoenix, 1995-

1997. Environ Health Perspect, 108: 347-353. 001760

Mar TF; Norris GA; Larson TV; Wilson WE; Koenig JQ (2003). Air pollution and cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix, 

1995-1997. Health Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 042841

Martins LC; Latorre MRDO; Saldiva PHN; Braga ALF (2002). Air pollution and emergency room visits due to chronic 

lower respiratory diseases in the elderly: An ecological time-series study in Sao Paulo, Brazil. J Occup Environ 

Med, 44: 622-627. 035059

Masjedi MR; Jamaati HR; Dokouhaki P; Ahmadzadeh Z; Taheri SA; Bigdeli M; Izadi S; Rostamian A; Aagin K; Ghavam 

SM (2003). The effects of air pollution on acute respiratory conditions. Respirology, 8: 213-230. 052100

Matsumoto A; Hiramatsu K; Li Y; Azuma A; Kudoh S; Takizawa H; Sugawara I (2006). Repeated exposure to low-dose 

diesel exhaust after allergen challenge exaggerates asthmatic responses in mice. Clin Immunol, 121: 227-235. 

098017

McCreanor J; Cullinan P; Nieuwenhuijsen MJ; Stewart-Evans J; Malliarou E; Jarup L; Harrington R; Svartengren M; Han 

I-K; Ohman-Strickland P; Chung KF; Zhang J (2007). Respiratory effects of exposure to diesel traffic in persons 

with asthma. N Engl J Med, 357: 2348-2358. 092841

McDonald J; Barr E; White R; Kracko D; Chow J; Zielinska B; Grosjean E (2008). Generation and characterization of 

gasoline engine exhaust inhalation exposure atmospheres. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 1157-1168. 191978

McDonald JD; Barr EB; White RK; Chow JC; Schauer JJ; Zielinska B; Grosjean E (2004). Generation and characterization 

of four dilutions of diesel engine exhaust for a subchronic inhalation study. Environ Sci Technol, 38: 2513-2522. 

055644

McQueen DS; Donaldson K; Bond SM; McNeilly JD; Newman S; Barton NJ; Duffin R (2007). Bilateral vagotomy or 

atropine pre-treatment reduces experimental diesel-soot induced lung inflammation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 219: 

62-71. 096266

Medina-Ramon M; Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2006). The effect of ozone and PM10 on hospital admissions for pneumonia 

and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a national multicity study. Am J Epidemiol, 163: 579-588. 087721

Ménache MG; Miller FJ; Raabe OG (1995). Particle inhalability curves for humans and small laboratory animals. Ann 

Occup Hyg, 39: 317-328. 006533

Metzger KB; Klein M; Flanders WD; Peel JL; Mulholland JA; Langberg JJ; Tolbert PE (2007). Ambient air pollution and 

cardiac arrhythmias in patients with implantable defibrillators. Epidemiology, 18: 585-592. 092856

Metzger KB; Tolbert PE; Klein M; Peel JL; Flanders WD; Todd KH; Mulholland JA; Ryan PB; Frumkin H (2004). 

Ambient air pollution and cardiovascular emergency department visits. Epidemiology, 15: 46-56. 044222

Michaud JP; Grove JS; Krupitsky DCEH (2004). Emergency department visits and "vog"-related air quality in Hilo, 

Hawai'i. Environ Res, 95: 11-9. 188530

Middleton N; Yiallouros P; Kleanthous S; Kolokotroni O; Schwartz J; Dockery DW; Demokritou P; Koutrakis P (2008). A 

10-year time-series analysis of respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity in Nicosia, Cyprus: the effect of short-term 

changes in air pollution and dust storms. Environ Health, 7: 39. 156760

Migliaretti G; Cadum E; Migliore E; Cavallo F (2005). Traffic air pollution and hospital admission for asthma: a casecontrol approach in a Turin (Italy) population. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 78: 164-169. 088689

December 2009 6-232 
Migliaretti G; Cavallo F (2004). Urban air pollution and asthma in children. Pediatr Pulmonol, 38: 198-203. 087425

Mills NL; Robinson SD; Fokkens PH; Leseman DL; Miller MR; Anderson D; Freney EJ; Heal MR; Donovan RJ; 

Blomberg A; Sandstrom T; MacNee W; Boon NA; Donaldson K; Newby DE; Cassee FR (2008). Exposure to 

concentrated ambient particles does not affect vascular function in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ 

Health Perspect, 116: 709-715. 156766

Mills NL; Törnqvist H; Gonzalez MC; Vink E; Robinson SD; Soderberg S; Boon NA; Donaldson K; Sandstrom T; 

Blomberg A; Newby DE (2007). Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute diesel-exhaust inhalation in men with 

coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med, 357: 1075-1082. 091206

Mills NL; Tornqvist H; Robinson SD; Gonzalez M; Darnley K; MacNee W; Boon NA; Donaldson K; Blomberg A; 

Sandstrom T; Newby DE (2005). Diesel exhaust inhalation causes vascular dysfunction and impaired endogenous 

fibrinolysis. Circulation, 112: 3930-3936. 095757

Min KB; Min JY; Cho SI; Paek D (2008). The relationship between air pollutants and heart-rate variability among 

community residents in Korea. Inhal Toxicol, 4: 435-444. 191901

Mohr LB; Luo S; Mathias E; Tobing R; Homan S; Sterling D (2008). Influence of season and temperature on the 

relationship of elemental carbon air pollution to pediatric asthma emergency room visits. J Asthma, 45: 936-943. 

180215

Moolgavkar SH (2003). Air pollution and daily deaths and hospital admissions in Los Angeles and Cook counties. Health 

Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 042864

Moolgavkar SH (2003). Air pollution and daily mortality in two US counties: season-specific analyses and exposureresponse relationships. Inhal Toxicol, 15: 877-907. 051316

Moore KJ; Kunjathoor VV; Koehn SL; Manning JJ; Tseng AA; Silver JM; McKee M; Freeman MW (2005). Loss of 

receptor-mediated lipid uptake via scavenger receptor A or CD36 pathways does not ameliorate atherosclerosis in 

hyperlipidemic mice. J Clin Invest, 115: 2192-2201. 156780

Morishita M; Keeler G; Wagner J; Marsik F; Timm E; Dvonch J; Harkema J (2004). Pulmonary retention of particulate 

matter is associated with airway inflammation in allergic rats exposed to air pollution in urban Detroit. Inhal 

Toxicol, 16: 663-674. 087979

Morris RD; Naumova EN (1998). Carbon monoxide and hospital admissions for congestive heart failure: evidence of an 

increased effect at low temperatures. Environ Health Perspect, 106: 649-653. 086857

Morrison D; Skwarski D; Millar AM; Adams W; MacNee W (1998). A comparison of three methods of measuring 99mTcDTPA lung clearance and their repeatability. Eur Respir J, 11: 1141-1146. 024924

Mortimer KM; Neas LM; Dockery DW; Redline S; Tager IB (2002). The effect of air pollution on inner-city children with 

asthma. Eur Respir J, 19: 699-705. 030281

Moshammer H; Hutter H-P; Hauck H; Neuberger M (2006). Low levels of air pollution induce changes of lung function in 

a panel of schoolchildren. Eur Respir J, 27: 1138-1143. 090771

Moshammer H; Neuberger M (2003). The active surface of suspended particles as a predictor of lung function and 

pulmonary symptoms in Austrian school children. Atmos Environ, 37: 1737-1744. 041956

Mudway IS; Stenfors N; Duggan ST; Roxborough H; Zielinski H; Marklund SL; Blomberg A; Frew AJ; Sandstrom T; 

Kelly FJ (2004). An in vitro and in vivo investigation of the effects of diesel exhaust on human airway lining fluid 

antioxidants. Arch Biochem Biophys, 423: 200-212. 180208

Muggenburg BA; Barr EB; Cheng YS; Seagrave JC; Tilley LP; Mauderly JL (2000). Effect of inhaled residual oil fly ash 

on the electrocardiogram of dogs. Presented at In: Grant, L. D., ed. PM2000: particulate matter and health. 

Inhalation Toxicol. 12(suppl. 4): 189-208. 010279

Murata A; Kida K; Hasunuma H; Kanegae H; Ishimaru Y; Motegi T; Yamada K; Yoshioka H; Yamamoto K; Kudoh S 

(2007). Environmental influence on the measurement of exhaled nitric oxide concentration in school children: 

special reference to methodology. J Nippon Med Sch, 74: 30-6. 189159

Mutlu GM; Green D; Bellmeyer A; Baker CM; Burgess Z; Rajamannan N; Christman JW; Foiles N; Kamp DW; Ghio AJ; 

Chandel NS; Dean DA; Sznajder JI; Budinger GR (2007). Ambient particulate matter accelerates coagulation via an 

IL-6-dependent pathway. J Clin Invest, 117: 2952-2961. 121441

December 2009 6-233 
Nadziejko C; Fang K; Chen LC; Cohen B; Karpatkin M; Nadas A (2002). Effect of concentrated ambient particulate matter 

on blood coagulation parameters in rats. 050587

Nadziejko C; Fang K; Nadziejko E; Narciso SP; Zhong M; Chen LC (2002). Immediate effects of particulate air pollutants 

on heart rate and respiratory rate in hypertensive rats. Cardiovasc Toxicol, 2: 245-252. 087460

Nadziejko C; Fang K; Narciso S; Zhong M; Su WC; Gordon T; Nadas A; Chen LC (2004). Effect of particulate and 

gaseous pollutants on spontaneous arrhythmias in aged rats. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 373-380. 055632

Nascimento LF; Pereira LA; Braga AL; Modolo MC; Carvalho JA Jr (2006). Effects of air pollution on children's health in 

a city in southeastern Brazil. Rev Saude Publica, 40: 77-82. 093247

NCHS (2007). Classification of Diseases, Functioning, and Disability...Monitoring the Nation's Health. Retrieved 10-DEC09, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd9.htm. 157194

Neuberger M; Schimek MG; Horak F Jr; Moshammer H; Kundi M; Frischer T; Gomiscek B; Puxbaum H; Hauck H; 

AUPHEP-Team (2004). Acute effects of particulate matter on respiratory diseases, symptoms and functions: 

epidemiological results of the Austrian Projects on Health Effects of Particulate Matter (AUPHEP). Atmos Environ, 

38: 3971-3981. 093249

Nightingale JA; Maggs R; Cullinan P; Donnelly LE; Rogers DF; Kinnersley R; Chung KF; Barnes PJ; Ashmore M; 

Newman-Taylor A (2000). Airway inflammation after controlled exposure to diesel exhaust particulates. Am J 

Respir Crit Care Med, 162: 161-166. 011659

Nikolov MC; Coull BA; Catalano PJ; Diaz E; Godleski JJ (2008). Statistical methods to evaluate health effects associated 

with major sources of air pollution: a case-study of breathing patterns during exposure to concentrated Boston air 

particles. J Roy Stat Soc C Appl Stat, 57: 357-378. 156808

Nordenhall C; Pourazar J; Ledin M-C; Levin J-O; Sandstrom T; Adelroth E (2001). Diesel exhaust enhances airway 

responsiveness in asthmatic subjects. Eur Respir J, 17: 909-915. 025185

Nurkiewicz TR; Porter DW; Barger M; Castranova V; Boegehold MA (2004). Particulate matter exposure impairs systemic 

microvascular endothelium-dependent dilation. Environ Health Perspect, 112: 1299-1306. 087968

Nurkiewicz TR; Porter DW; Barger M; Millecchia L; Rao KMK; Marvar PJ; Hubbs AF; Castranova V; Boegehold MA 

(2006). Systemic microvascular dysfunction and inflammation after pulmonary particulate matter exposure. 

Environ Health Perspect, 114: 412-419. 088611

Nurkiewicz TR; Porter DW; Hubbs AF; Cumpston JL; Chen BT; Frazer DG; Castranova V (2008). Nanoparticle inhalation 

augments particle-dependent systemic microvascular dysfunction. Part Fibre Toxicol, 5: 1. 156816

Nurkiewicz TR; Porter DW; Hubbs AF; Stone S; Chen BT; Frazer DG; Boegehold MA; Castranova V (2009). Pulmonary 

nanoparticle exposure disrupts systemic microvascular nitric oxide signaling. Toxicol Sci, 110: 191-203. 191961

Nygaard UC; Samuelsen M; Aase A; Lovik M (2004). The capacity of particles to increase allergic sensitization is 

predicted by particle number and surface area, not by particle mass. Toxicol Sci, 82: 515-524. 058558

O'Connor GT; Neas L; Vaughn B; Kattan M; Mitchell H; Crain EF; Evans R 3rd; Gruchalla R; Morgan W; Stout J; Adams 

GK; Lippmann M (2008). Acute respiratory health effects of air pollution on children with asthma in US inner 

cities. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 121: 1133-1139. 156818

O'Neill MS; Veves A; Sarnat JA; Zanobetti A; Gold DR; Economides PA; Horton ES; Schwartz J (2007). Air pollution and 

inflammation in type 2 diabetes: a mechanism for susceptibility. Occup Environ Med, 64: 373-379. 091362

O'Neill MS; Veves A; Zanobetti A; Sarnat JA; Gold DR; Economides PA; Horton ES; Schwartz J (2005). Diabetes 

enhances vulnerability to particulate air pollution-associated impairment in vascular reactivity and endothelial 

function. Circulation, 111: 2913-2920. 088423

Odajima H; Yamazaki S; Nitta H (2008). Decline in peak expiratory flow according to hourly short-term concentration of 

particulate matter in asthmatic children. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 1263-1272. 192005

Oftedal B; Nafstad P; Magnus P; Bjorkly S; Skrondal A (2003). Traffic related air pollution and acute hospital admission 

for respiratory diseases in Drammen, Norway 1995-2000. Eur J Epidemiol, 18: 671-675. 055623

Okin PM; Devereux RB; Howard BV; Fabsitz RR; Lee ET; Welty TK (2000). Assessment of QT interval and QT 

dispersion for prediction of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in American Indians: The Strong Heart Study. 

Circulation, 101: 61-66. 156002

December 2009 6-234 
Ostro B (1995). Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in two Southern California counties. Environ Res, 70: 98-104. 

079197

Ostro B; Broadwin R; Green S; Feng W-Y; Lipsett M (2006). Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in nine California 

counties: results from CALFINE. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 29-33. 087991

Ostro B; Feng W-Y; Broadwin R; Green S; Lipsett M (2007). The effects of components of fine particulate air pollution on 

mortality in California: results from CALFINE. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 13-19. 091354

Ostro B; Roth L; Malig B; Marty M (2009). The effects of fine particle components on respiratory hospital admissions in 

children. Environ Health Perspect, 117: 475–480. 191971

Ostro BD; Broadwin R; Lipsett MJ (2003). Coarse particles and daily mortality in Coachella Valley, California. Health 

Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 042824

Ostro BD; Feng WY; Broadwin R; Malig BJ; Green RS; Lipsett MJ (2008). The impact of components of fine particulate 

matter on cardiovascular mortality in susceptible subpopulations. Occup Environ Med, 65: 750-756. 097971

Park SK; O'Neill MS; Vokonas PS; Sparrow D; Schwartz J (2005). Effects of air pollution on heart rate variability: The VA 

normative aging study. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 304-309. 057331

Park SK; O'Neill MS; Vokonas PS; Sparrow D; Spiro A 3rd; Tucker KL; Suh H; Hu H; Schwartz J (2008). Traffic-related 

particles are associated with elevated homocysteine: the VA normative aging study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 

178: 283-289. 156845

Park SK; O'Neill MS; Vokonas PS; Sparrow D; Wright RO; Coull B; Nie H; Hu H; Schwartz J (2008). Air pollution and 

heart rate variability: effect modification by chronic lead exposure. Epidemiology, 19: 111-120. 093027

Park SK; O'Neill MS; Wright RO; Hu H; Vokonas PS; Sparrow D; Suh H; Schwartz J (2006). HFE genotype, particulate air 

pollution, and heart rate variability; a gene-environmental interaction. Circulation, 114: 2798-2805. 091245

Peacock JL; Symonds P; Jackson P; Bremner SA; Scarlett JF; Strachan DP; Anderson HR (2003). Acute effects of winter 

air pollution on respiratory function in schoolchildren in southern England. Occup Environ Med, 60: 82-89. 042026

Peel JL; Metzger KB; Klein M; Flanders WD; Mulholland JA; Tolbert PE (2007). Ambient air pollution and cardiovascular 

emergency department visits in potentially sensitive groups. Am J Epidemiol, 165: 625-633. 090442

Peel JL; Tolbert PE; Klein M; Metzger KB; Flanders WD; Knox T; Mulholland JA; Ryan PB; Frumkin H (2005). Ambient 

air pollution and respiratory emergency department visits. Epidemiology, 16: 164-174. 056305

Pekkanen J; Peters A; Hoek G; Tiittanen P; Brunekreef B; de Hartog J; Heinrich J; Ibald-Mulli A; Kreyling WG; Lanki T; 

Timonen KL; Vanninen E (2002). Particulate air pollution and risk of ST-segment depression during repeated 

submaximal exercise tests among subjects with coronary heart disease: the exposure and risk assessment for fine 

and ultrafine particles in ambient air (ULTRA) study. Circulation, 106: 933-938. 035050

Peled R; Friger M; Bolotin A; Bibi H; Epstein L; Pilpel D; Scharf S (2005). Fine particles and meteorological conditions 

are associated with lung function in children with asthma living near two power plants. Public Health, 119: 418-

425. 156015

Peng R; Bell M; Geyh A; McDermott A; Zeger S; Samet J; Dominici F (2009). Emergency admissions for cardiovascular 

and respiratory diseases and the chemical composition of fine particle air pollution. Environ Health Perspect, 117: 

957-963. 191998

Peng RD; Chang HH; Bell ML; McDermott A; Zeger SL; Samet JM; Dominici F (2008). Coarse particulate matter air 

pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases among Medicare patients. JAMA, 

299: 2172-2179. 156850

Peng RD; Dominici F; Pastor-Barriuso R; Zeger SL; Samet JM (2005). Seasonal analyses of air pollution and mortality in 

100 US cities. Am J Epidemiol, 161: 585-594. 087463

Pennanen AS; Sillanpaa M; Hillamo R; Quass U; John AC; Branis M; Hunova I; Meliefste K; Janssen NA; Koskentalo T; 

Castano-Vinyals G; Bouso L; Chalbot MC; Kavouras IG; Salonen RO (2007). Performance of a high-volume 

cascade impactor in six European urban environments: mass measurement and chemical characterization of sizesegregated particulate samples. Sci Total Environ, 374: 297-310. 155357

Penttinen P; Vallius M; Tiittanen P; Ruuskanen J; Pekkanen J (2006). Source-specific fine particles in urban air and 

respiratory function among adult asthmatics. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 191-198. 087988

December 2009 6-235 
Pereira CEL; Heck TG; Saldiva PHN; Rhoden CR (2007). Ambient particulate air pollution from vehicles promotes lipid 

peroxidation and inflammatory responses in rat lung. Braz J Med Biol Res, 40: 1353-1359. 156019

Peretz A; Kaufman JD; Trenga CA; Allen J; Carlsten C; Aulet MR; Adar SD; Sullivan JH (2008). Effects of diesel exhaust 

inhalation on heart rate variability in human volunteers. Environ Res, 107: 178-184. 156855

Peretz A; Peck EC; Bammler TK; Beyer RP; Sullivan JH; Trenga CA; Srinouanprachnah S; Farin FM; Kaufman JD (2007). 

Diesel exhaust inhalation and assessment of peripheral blood mononuclear cell gene transcription effects: an 

exploratory study of healthy human volunteers. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 1107-1119. 156853

Peretz A; Sullivan JH; Leotta DF; Trenga CA; Sands FN; Allen J; Carlsten C; Wilkinson CW; Gill EA; Kaufman JD 

(2008). Diesel exhaust inhalation elicits acute vasoconstriction in vivo. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 937-942. 

156854

Perez L; Tobias A; Querol X; Kunzli N; Pey J; Alastuey A; Viana M; Valero N; Gonzalez-Cabre M; Sunyer J (2008). 

Coarse particles from Saharan dust and daily mortality. Epidemiology, 19: 800-807. 156020

Peters A (2005). Particulate matter and heart disease: evidence from epidemiological studies. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 207: 

S477-S482. 087759

Peters A; Dockery DW; Muller JE; Mittleman MA (2001). Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of 

myocardial infarction. Circulation, 103: 2810-2815. 016546

Peters A; Greven S; Heid I; Baldari F; Breitner S; Bellander T; Chrysohoou C; Illig T; Jacquemin B; Koenig W (2009). 

Fibrinogen genes modify the fibrinogen response to ambient particulate matter. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 179: 

484-491. 191992

Peters A; Liu E; Verrier RL; Schwartz J; Gold DR; Mittleman M; Baliff J; Oh JA; Allen G; Monahan K; Dockery DW 

(2000). Air pollution and incidence of cardiac arrhythmia. Epidemiology, 11: 11-17. 011347

Peters A; Von Klot S; Heier M; Trentinaglia I; Hormann A; Wichmann HE; Lowel H (2004). Exposure to traffic and the 

onset of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med, 351: 1721-1730. 087464

Petrovic S; Urch B; Brook J; Datema J; Purdham J; Liu L; Lukic Z; Zimmerman B; Tofler G; Downar E; Corey P; Tarlo S; 

Broder I; Dales R; Silverman F (2000). Cardiorespiratory effects of concentrated ambient PM25: A pilot study 

using controlled human exposures. Inhal Toxicol, 1: 173-188. 004638

Piedrahita JA; Zhang SH; Hagaman JR; Oliver PM; Maeda N (1992). Generation of mice carrying a mutant apolipoprotein 

E gene inactivated by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells. Presented at Proceedings of the National Academy of 

Science, 5/15/1992. 156868

Pietropaoli AP; Frampton MW; Hyde RW; Morrow PE; Oberdorster G; Cox C; Speers DM; Frasier LM; Chalupa DC; 

Huang LS; Utell MJ (2004). Pulmonary function, diffusing capacity, and inflammation in healthy and asthmatic 

subjects exposed to ultrafine particles. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 59-72. 156025

Pinkerton KE; Zhou Y; Teague SV; Peake JL; Walther RC; Kennedy IM; Leppert VJ; Aust AE (2004). Reduced lung cell 

proliferation following short-term exposure to ultrafine soot and iron particles in neonatal rats: key to impaired lung 

growth? Inhal Toxicol, 1: 73-81. 087465

Pinkerton KE; Zhou Y; Zhong C; Smith KR; Teague SV; Kennedy IM; Ménache MG (2008). Mechanisms of particulate 

matter toxicity in neonatal and young adult rat lungs. Health Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 135. 190471

Pope C; Renlund D; Kfoury A; May H; Horne B (2008). Relation of heart failure hospitalization to exposure to fine 

particulate air pollution. Am J Cardiol, 102: 1230-1234. 191969

Pope CA; Hansen ML; Long RW; Nielsen KR; Eatough NL; Wilson WE; Eatough DJ (2004). Ambient particulate air 

pollution, heart rate variability, and blood markers of inflammation in a panel of elderly subjects. Environ Health 

Perspect, 112: 339-345. 055238

Pope CA III; Muhlestein JB; May HT; Renlund DG; Anderson JL; Horne BD (2006). Ischemic heart disease events 

triggered by short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Circulation, 114: 2443-2448. 091246

Pourazar J; Blomberg A; Kelly FJ; Davies DE; Wilson SJ; Holgate ST; Sandstrom T (2008). Diesel exhaust increases 

EGFR and phosphorylated C-terminal Tyr 1173 in the bronchial epithelium. Part Fibre Toxicol, 5: 8. 156884

December 2009 6-236 
Pourazar J; Mudway IS; Samet JM; Helleday R; Blomberg A; Wilson SJ; Frew AJ; Kelly FJ; Sandstrom T (2005). Diesel 

exhaust activates redox-sensitive transcription factors and kinases in human airways. Am J Physiol, 289: L724-

L730. 088305

Power K; Balmes J; Solomon C (2008). Controlled exposure to combined particles and ozone decreases heart rate 

variability. J Occup Environ Med, 50: 1253-1260. 191982

Preutthipan A; Udomsubpayakul U; Chaisupamongkollarp T; Pentamwa P (2004). Effect of PM10 pollution in Bangkok on 

children with and without asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol, 37: 187-192. 055598

Pritchett LC; Cooper JA (1985). Aerosol Characterization Study of Anchorage, Alaska: Chemical Analysis and Source 

Apportionment. 156886

Prystowsky EN; Benson DW Jr; Fuster V; Hart RG; Kay GN; Myerburg RJ; Naccarelli GV; Wyse DG (1996). Management 

of patients with atrial fibrillation. A Statement for Healthcare Professionals. From the Subcommittee on 

Electrocardiography and Electrophysiology, American Heart Association. Circulation, 93: 1262-1277. 156031

Raabe OG; Al-Bayati MA; Teague SV; Rasolt A (1988). Regional deposition of inhaled monodisperse, coarse, and fine 

aerosol particles in small laboratory animals. In Inhaled particles VI: Proceedings of an international symposium 

and workshop on lung dosimetry (pp. 53-63). Cambridge, U.K.: Pergamon Press. 001439

Rabinovitch N; Strand M; Gelfand EW (2006). Particulate levels are associated with early asthma worsening in children 

with persistent disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 173: 1098-1105. 088031

Rabinovitch N; Zhang LN; Murphy JR; Vedal S; Dutton SJ; Gelfand EW (2004). Effects of wintertime ambient air 

pollutants on asthma exacerbations in urban minority children with moderate to severe disease. J Allergy Clin 

Immunol, 114: 1131-1137. 096753

Ranzi A; Gambini M; Spattini A; Galassi C; Sesti D; Bedeschi M; Messori A; Baroni A; Cavagni G; Lauriola P (2004). Air 

pollution and respiratory status in asthmatic children: Hints for a locally based preventive strategy AIRE study. Eur 

J Epidemiol, 19: 567-576. 089500

Reed MD; Barrett EG; Campen MJ; Divine KK; Gigliotti AP; McDonald JD; Seagrave JC; Mauderly JL; Seilkop SK; 

Swenberg JA (2008). Health effects of subchronic inhalation exposure to gasoline engine exhaust. Inhal Toxicol, 

20: 1125-1143. 156903

Reed MD; Campen MJ; Gigliotti AP; Harrod KS; McDonald JD; Seagrave JC; Mauderly JL; Seilkop SK (2006). Health 

effects of subchronic exposure to environmental levels of hardwood smoke. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 523-539. 156043

Reed MD; Gigliotti AP; McDonald JD; Seagrave JC; Seilkop SK; Mauderly JL (2004). Health effects of subchronic 

exposure to environmental levels of diesel exhaust. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 177-193. 055625

Rhoden CR; Ghelfi E; González-Flecha B (2008). Pulmonary inflammation by ambient air particles is mediated by 

superoxide anion. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 11-15. 190475

Rhoden CR; Lawrence J; Godleski JJ; Gonzalez-Flecha B (2004). N-acetylcysteine prevents lung inflammation after shortterm inhalation exposure to concentrated ambient particles. Toxicol Sci, 79: 296-303. 087969

Rhoden CR; Wellenius GA; Ghelfi E; Lawrence J; Gonzalez-Flecha B (2005). PM-induced cardiac oxidative stress and 

dysfunction are mediated by autonomic stimulation. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1725: 305-313. 087878

Rich DQ; Freudenberger RS; Ohman-Strickland P; Cho Y; Kipen HM (2008). Right heart pressure increases after acute 

increases in ambient particulate concentration. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 1167-1171. 156910

Rich DQ; Kim MH; Turner JR; Mittleman MA; Schwartz J; Catalano PJ; Dockery DW (2006). Association of ventricular 

arrhythmias detected by implantable cardioverter defibrillator and ambient air pollutants in the St Louis, Missouri 

metropolitan area. Occup Environ Med, 63: 591-596. 089814

Rich DQ; Mittleman MA; Link MS; Schwartz J; Luttmann-Gibson H; Catalano PJ; Speizer FE; Gold DR; Dockery DW 

(2006). Increased risk of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation episodes associated with acute increases in ambient air 

pollution. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 120-123. 088427

Rich DQ; Schwartz J; Mittleman MA; Link M; Luttmann-Gibson H; Catalano PJ; Speizer FE; Dockery DW (2005). 

Association of short-term ambient air pollution concentrations and ventricular arrhythmias. Am J Epidemiol, 161: 

1123-1132. 079620

December 2009 6-237 
Rich KE; Petkau J; Vedal S; Brauer M (2004). A case-crossover analysis of particulate air pollution and cardiac arrhythmia 

in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 363-372. 055631

Riediker M; Cascio WE; Griggs TR; Herbst MC; Bromberg PA; Neas L; Williams RW; Devlin RB (2004). Particulate 

matter exposure in cars is associated with cardiovascular effects in healthy young men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 

169: 934-940. 056992

Riediker M; Devlin RB; Griggs TR; Herbst MC; Bromberg PA; Williams RW; Cascio WE (2004). Cardiovascular effects in 

patrol officers are associated with fine particulate matter from brake wear and engine emissions. Part Fibre Toxicol, 

1: 2. 091261

Riojas-Rodriguez H; Escamilla-Cejudo JA; Gonzalez-Hermosillo JA; Tellez-Rojo MM; Vallejo M; Santos-Burgoa C; 

Rojas-Bracho L (2006). Personal PM2.5 and CO exposures and heart rate variability in subjects with known 

ischemic heart disease in Mexico City. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 16: 131-137. 156913

Roberts JR; Taylor MD; Castranova V; Clarke RW; Antonini JM (2004). Soluble metals associated with residual oil fly ash 

increase morbidity and lung injury after bacterial infection in rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 67: 251-

263. 196994

Roberts JR; Young S-H; Castranova V; Antonini JM (2007). Soluble metals in residual oil fly ash alter innate and adaptive 

pulmonary immune responses to bacterial infection in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 221: 306-319. 097623

Rodriguez C; Tonkin R; Heyworth J; Kusel M; De Klerk N; Sly PD; Franklin P; Runnion T; Blockley A; Landau L; 

Hinwood AL (2007). The relationship between outdoor air quality and respiratory symptoms in young children. Int 

J Environ Health Res, 17: 351-360 . 092842

Romieu I; Garcia-Esteban R; Sunyer J; Rios C; Alcaraz-Zubeldia M; Velasco SR; Holguin F (2008). The effect of 

supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to 

PM(2.5). Environ Health Perspect, 116: 1237-1242. 156922

Romieu I; Tellez-Rojo MM; Lazo M; Manzano-Patino Cortez-Lugo M; Julien P; Belanger MC; Hernandez-Avila 

MHolguin F (2005). Omega-3 fatty acid prevents heart rate variability reductions associated with particulate matter. 

Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 172: 1534-1540. 086297

Rosenthal FS; Carney JP; Olinger ML (2008). Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and airborne fine particulate matter: a casecrossover analysis of emergency medical services data in Indianapolis, Indiana. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 631-

636. 156925

Routledge HC; Manney S; Harrison RM; Ayres JG; Townend JN (2006). Effect of inhaled sulphur dioxide and carbon 

particles on heart rate variability and markers of inflammation and coagulation in human subjects. Heart, 92: 220-

227. 088674

Rowan 3rd WH; Campen MJ; Wichers LB; Watkinson WP (2007). Heart rate variability in rodents: uses and caveats in 

toxicological studies. Cardiovasc Toxicol, 7: 28-51. 191911

Roy D; Talajic M; Dubuc M; Thibault B; Guerra P; Macle L; Khairy P (2009). Atrial fibrillation and congestive heart 

failure. Curr Opin Cardiol, 24: 29. 190902

Ruckerl R; Greven S; Ljungman P; Aalto P; Antoniades C; Bellander T; Berglind N; Chrysohoou C; Forastiere F; 

Jacquemin B; von Klot S; Koenig W; Kuchenhoff H; Lanki T; Pekkanen J; Perucci CA; Schneider A; Sunyer J; 

Peters A (2007). Air pollution and inflammation (interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen) in myocardial 

infarction survivors. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 1072-1080. 156931

Ruckerl R; Ibald-Mulli A; Koenig WSchneider A; Woelke G; Cyrys J; Heinrich J; Marder V; Frampton M; Wichmann HE; 

Peters A (2006). Air pollution and markers of inflammation and coagulation in patients with coronary heart disease. 

Environ Health Perspect, 173: 432-441. 088754

Rudell B; Blomberg A; Helleday R; Ledin M-C; Lundback B; Stjernberg N; Horstedt P; Sandstrom T (1999). 

Bronchoalveolar inflammation after exposure to diesel exhaust: Comparison between unfiltered and particle trap 

filtered exhaust. Occup Environ Med, 56: 527-534. 001964

Rudell B; Ledin M-C; Hammarstrom U; Stjernberg N; Lundback B; Sandstrom T (1996). Effects on symptoms and lung 

function in humans experimentally exposed to diesel exhaust. Occup Environ Med, 53: 658-662. 056577

Rundell KW; Caviston R (2008). Ultrafine and fine particulate matter inhalation decreases exercise performance in healthy 

subjects. J Strength Cond Res, 22: 2-5. 191986

December 2009 6-238 
Rundell KW; Hoffman JR; Caviston R; Bulbulian R; Hollenbach AM (2007). Inhalation of ultrafine and fine particulate 

matter disrupts systemic vascular function. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 133-140. 156060

Safar M; Chamiot-Clerc P; Dagher G; Renaud JF (2001). Pulse pressure, endothelium function, and arterial stiffness in 

spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension, 38: 1416-1421. 156068

Saldiva PHN; Clarke RW; Coull BA; Stearns RC; Lawrence J; Krishna-Murthy GG; Diaz E; Koutrakis P; Suh H; Tsuda A; 

Godleski JJ (2002). Lung inflammation induced by concentrated ambient air particles is related to particle 

composition. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 165: 1610-1617. 025988

Salvi S; Blomberg A; Rudell B; Kelly F; Sandstrom T; Holgate ST; Frew A (1999). Acute inflammatory responses in the 

airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. Am J Respir 

Crit Care Med, 159: 702-709. 058637

Samet JM; Dominici F; Zeger SL; Schwartz J; Dockery DW (2000). National morbidity, mortality, and air pollution study. 

Part I: Methods and methodologic issues. Health Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 005809

Samet JM; Rappold A; Graff D; Cascio WE; Berntsen JH; Huang YC; Herbst M; Bassett M; Montilla T; Hazucha MJ; 

Bromberg PA; Devlin RB (2009). Concentrated ambient ultrafine particle exposure induces cardiac changes in 

young healthy volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 179: 1034-1042. 191913

Samet JM; Zeger SL; Dominici F; Curriero F; Coursac I; Dockery DW; Schwartz J; Zanobetti A (2000). The national 

morbidity, mortality, and air pollution study Part II: morbidity, mortality, and air pollution in the United States. 

Health Effects Institute. Cambridge, MA. 010269

Samoli E; Analitis A; Touloumi G; Schwartz J; Anderson HR; Sunyer J; Bisanti L; Zmirou D; Vonk JM; Pekkanen J; 

Goodman P; Paldy A; Schindler C; Katsouyanni K (2005). Estimating the exposure-response relationships between 

particulate matter and mortality within the APHEA multicity project. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 88-95. 087436

Samoli E; Peng R; Ramsay T; Pipikou M; Touloumi G; Dominici F; Burnett R; Cohen A; Krewski D; Samet J (2008). 

Acute effects of ambient particulate matter on mortality in Europe and North America: results from the APHENA 

study. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 1480-1486. 188455

Sandercock GRH; Brodie DA (2006). The role of heart rate variability in prognosis for different modes of death in chronic 

heart failure. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol, 29: 892-904. 197465

Santos U; Terra-Filho M; Lin C; Pereira L; Vieira T; Saldiva P; Braga A (2008). Cardiac arrhythmia emergency room visits 

and environmental air pollution in Sao Paulo, Brazil. J Epidemiol Community Health, 62: 267-272. 192004

Sarin S; Undem B; Sanico A; Togias A (2006). The role of the nervous system in rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 118: 

999-1016. 191166

Sarnat JA; Marmur A; Klein M; Kim E; Russell AG; Sarnat SE; Mulholland JA; Hopke PK; Tolbert PE (2008). Fine 

particle sources and cardiorespiratory morbidity: An application of chemical mass balance and factor analytical 

source-apportionment methods. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 459-466. 097972

Sarnat SE; Suh HH; Coull BA; Schwartz J; Stone PH; Gold DR (2006). Ambient particulate air pollution and cardiac 

arrhythmia in a panel of older adults in Steubenville, Ohio. Occup Environ Med, 63: 700-706. 090489

Sauerzapf V; Jones AP; Cross J (2009). Environmental factors and hospitalisation for chronic obstructive pulmonary 

disease in a rural county of England. J Epidemiol Community Health, 63: 324-328. 180082

Schaumann F; Borm PJA; Herbrich A; Knoch J; Pitz M; Schins RPF; Luettig B; Hohlfeld JM; Heinrich J; Krug N (2004). 

Metal-rich ambient particles (particulate matter 2.5) cause airway inflammation in healthy subjects. Am J Respir 

Crit Care Med, 170: 898-903. 087966

Schildcrout JS; Sheppard L; Lumley T; Slaughter JC; Koenig JQ; Shapiro GG (2006). Ambient air pollution and asthma 

exacerbations in children: An eight-city analysis. Am J Epidemiol, 164: 505-517. 089812

Schins RPF; Lightbody JH; Borm PJA; Shi T; Donaldson K; Stone V (2004). Inflammatory effects of coarse and fine 

particulate matter in relation to chemical and biological constituents. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 195: 1-11. 054173

Schneider A; Neas L; Herbst M; Case M; Williams R; Cascio W; Hinderliter A; Holguin F; Buse J; Dungan K (2008). 

Endothelial dysfunction: associations with exposure to ambient fine particles in diabetic individuals. Environ 

Health Perspect, 116: 1666-1674. 191985

December 2009 6-239 
Schreuder AB; Larson TV; Sheppard L; Claiborn CS (2006). Ambient woodsmoke and associated respiratory emergency 

department visits in Spokane, Washington. Int J Occup Environ Health, 12: 147-153. 097959

Schwartz J (2003). Airborne particles and daily deaths in 10 US cities. 042800

Schwartz J (2003). Daily deaths associated with air pollution in six US cities and short-term mortality displacement in 

Boston. 042811

Schwartz J (2004). Is the association of airborne particles with daily deaths confounded by gaseous air pollutants? An 

approach to control by matching. Environ Health Perspect, 112: 557-561. 053506

Schwartz J (2004). The effects of particulate air pollution on daily deaths: a multi-city case crossover analysis. Occup 

Environ Med, 61: 956-961. 078998

Schwartz J; Coull B; Laden F; Ryan L (2008). The effect of dose and timing of dose on the association between airborne 

particles and survival. Environ Health Perspect, 116: 64-69. 156963

Schwartz J; Litonjua A; Suh H; Verrier M; Zanobetti A; Syring M; Nearing B; Verrier R; Stone P; MacCallum G; Speizer 

FE; Gold DR (2005). Traffic related pollution and heart rate variability in a panel of elderly subjects. Thorax, 60: 

455-461. 074317

Schwartz J; Morris R (1995). Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Detroit, Michigan. Am J 

Epidemiol, 142: 23-35. 046186

Schwartz J; Neas LM (2000). Fine particles are more strongly associated than coarse particles with acute respiratory health 

effects in schoolchildren. Epidemiology, 11: 6-10. 007625

Schwartz J; Park SK; O'Neill MS; Vokonas PS; Sparrow D; Weiss S; Kelsey K (2005). Glutathione-S-transferase M1, 

obesity, statins, and autonomic effects of particles: gene-by-drug-by-environment interaction. Am J Respir Crit Care 

Med, 172: 1529-1533. 086296

Seagrave J; Campen M; McDonald J; Mauderly J; Rohr A (2008). Oxidative stress, inflammation, and pulmonary function 

assessment in rats exposed to laboratory-generated pollutant mixtures. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 71: 

1352-1362. 191990

Seagrave JC; McDonald JD; Bedrick E; Edgerton ES; Gigliotti AP; Jansen JJ; Ke L; Naeher LP; Seilkop SK; Zheng M; 

Mauderley JL (2006). Lung toxicity of ambient particulate matter from southeastern US sites with different 

contributing sources: relationships between composition and effects. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 1387-93. 

091291

Segala C; Poizeau D; Neukirch F; Aubier M; Samson J; Gehanno P (2004). Air pollution, passive smoking, and respiratory 

symptoms in adults. Arch Environ Occup Health, 59: 669-676. 090449

Shah AP; Pietropaoli AP; Frasier LM; Speers DM; Chalupa DC; Delehanty JM; Huang LS; Utell MJ; Frampton MW 

(2008). Effect of inhaled carbon ultrafine particles on reactive hyperemia in healthy human subjects. Environ 

Health Perspect, 116: 375-380. 156970

Sheppard L; Levy D; Norris G; Larson TV; Koenig JQ (2003). Effects of ambient air pollution and nonelderly asthma 

hospital admissions in Seattle, Washington, 1987-1994. Epidemiology, 10: 23-30. 042826

Shi JP; Harrison RM; Evans D (2001). Comparison of ambient particle surface area measurement by epiphaniometer and 

SMPS/APS. Atmos Environ, 35: 6193-6200. 078292

Sillanpaa M; Frey A; Hillamo R; Pennanen AS; Salonen RO (2005). Organic, elemental and inorganic carbon in particulate 

matter of six urban environments in Europe. Atmos Chem Phys, 5: 2869-2879. 156980

Simpson R; Williams G; Petroeschevsky A; Best T; Morgan G; Denison L; Hinwood A; Neville G (2005). The short-term 

effects of air pollution on hospital admissions in four Australian cities. Aust N Z J Public Health, 29: 213-221. 

087438

Sinclair AH; Tolsma D (2004). Associations and lags between air pollution and acute respiratory visits in an ambulatory 

care setting: 25-month results from the aerosol research and inhalation epidemiological study. J Air Waste Manag 

Assoc, 54: 1212-1218. 088696

Sirivelu MP; MohanKumar SMJ; Wagner JG; Harkema JR; MohanKumar PS (2006). Activation of the stress axis and 

neurochemical alterations in specific brain areas by concentrated ambient particle exposure with concomitant 

allergic airway disease. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 870-874. 111151

December 2009 6-240 
Slaughter JC; Kim E; Sheppard L; Sullivan JH; Larson TV; Claiborn C (2005). Association between particulate matter and 

emergency room visits, hospital admissions and mortality in Spokane, Washington. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 

15: 153-159. 073854

Slaughter JC; Lumley T; Sheppard L; Koenig JQ; Shapiro GG (2003). Effects of ambient air pollution on symptom severity 

and medication use in children with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol, 91: 346-353. 086294

Smith AD; Taylor DR (2005). Is exhaled nitric oxide measurement a useful clinical test in asthma? Curr Opin Allergy Clin 

Immunol, 5: 49-56. 192176

Smith KR; Kim S; Recendez JJ; Teague SV; Menache MG; Grubbs DE; Sioutas C; Pinkerton KE (2003). Airborne particles 

of the California Central Valley alter the lungs of healthy adult rats. Environ Health Perspect, 111: 902-908. 042107

Smith KR; Veranth JM; Kodavanti UP; Aust AE; Pinkerton KE (2006). Acute pulmonary and systemic effects of inhaled 

coal fly ash in rats: comparison to ambient environmental particles. Toxicol Sci, 93: 390-399. 110864

Steerenberg PA; Van Amelsvoort L; Lovik M; Hetland RB; Alberg T; Halatek T; Bloemen HJT; Rydzynski K; Swaen G; 

Schwarze P; Dybing E; Cassee FR (2006). Relation between sources of particulate air pollution and biological 

effect parameters in samples from four European cities: an exploratory study. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 333-346. 088249

Steerenberg PA; Withagen CE; van Dalen WJ; Dormans JA; Heisterkamp SH; van Loveren H; Cassee FR (2005). Dose 

dependency of adjuvant activity of particulate matter from five European sites in three seasons in an ovalbuminmouse model. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 133-145. 088649

Steerenberg PA; Withagen CET; van Dalen WJ; Dormans JAMA; Cassee FR; Heisterkamp SH; van Loveren H (2004). 

Adjuvant activity of ambient particulate matter of different sites, sizes, and seasons in a respiratory allergy mouse 

model. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 200: 186-200. 096024

Steerenberg PA; Withagen CET; van Dalen WJ; Dormans JAMA; van Loveren H (2004). Adjuvant Activity of Ambient 

Particulate Matter in Macrophage Activity-Suppressed, N-Acetylcysteine-Treated, iNOS- and IL-4-Deficient Mice. 

Inhal Toxicol, 16: 835-843. 087981

Steinvil A; Kordova-Biezuner L; Shapira I; Berliner S; Rogowski O (2008). Short-term exposure to air pollution and 

inflammation-sensitive biomarkers. Environ Res, 106: 51-61. 188893

Stenfors N; Nordenhall C; Salvi SS; Mudway I; Soderberg M; Blomberg A; Helleday R; Levin JO; Holgate ST; Kelly FJ; 

Frew AJ; Sandstrom T (2004). Different airway inflammatory responses in asthmatic and healthy humans exposed 

to diesel. Eur Respir J, 23: 82-86. 157009

Stevens T; Krantz QT; Linak WP; Hester S; Gilmour MI (2008). Increased transcription of immune and metabolic 

pathways in naive and allergic mice exposed to diesel exhaust. Toxicol Sci, 102: 359-370. 157010

Stölzel M; Breitner S; Cyrys J; Pitz M; Wolke G; Kreyling W; Heinrich J; Wichmann H-E; Peters A (2007). Daily mortality 

and particulate matter in different size classes in Erfurt, Germany. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 17: 458-467. 

091374

Stolzel M; Peters A; Wichmann H-E (2003). Daily mortality and fine and ultrafine particles in Erfurt, Germany. 042842

Strand M; Vedal S; Rodes C; Dutton SJ; Gelfand EW; Rabinovitch N (2006). Estimating effects of ambient PM2.5 

exposure on health using PM2.5 component measurements and regression calibration. J Expo Sci Environ 

Epidemiol, 16: 30-38. 089203

Suglia SF; Gryparis A; Wright RO; Schwartz J; Wright RJ (2008). Association of black carbon with cognition among 

children in a prospective birth cohort study. Am J Epidemiol, 167: 280-286. 157027

Sullivan J; Ishikawa N; Sheppard L; Siscovick D; Checkoway H; Kaufman J (2003). Exposure to ambient fine particulate 

matter and primary cardiac arrest among persons with and without clinically recognized heart disease. Am J 

Epidemiol, 157: 501-509. 043156

Sullivan J; Sheppard L; Schreuder A; Ishikawa N; Siscovick D; Kaufman J (2005). Relation between short-term fineparticulate matter exposure and onset of myocardial infarction. Epidemiology, 16: 41-48. 050854

Sullivan JH; Hubbard R; Liu SL; Shepherd K; Trenga CA; Koenig JQ; Chandler WL; Kaufman JD (2007). A community 

study of the effect of particulate matter on blood measures of inflammation and thrombosis in an elderly population. 

Environ Health Perspect, 6: 3. 100083

December 2009 6-241 
Sullivan JH; Schreuder AB; Trenga CA; Liu SL; Larson TV; Koenig JQ; Kaufman JD (2005). Association between short 

term exposure to fine particulate matter and heart rate variability in older subjects with and without heart disease. 

Thorax, 60: 462-466. 109418

Sureshkumar V; Paul B; Uthirappan M; Pandey R; Sahu AP; Lal K; Prasad AK; Srivastava S; Saxena A; Mathur N; Gupta 

YK (2005). Proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine balance in gasoline exhaust induced pulmonary injury 

in mice. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 161-168. 088306

Symons JM; Wang L; Guallar E; Howell E; Dominici F; Schwab M; Ange BA; Samet J; Ondov J; Harrison D; Geyh A 

(2006). A case-crossover study of fine particulate matter air pollution and onset of congestive heart failure symptom 

exacerbation leading to hospitalization. Am J Epidemiol, 164: 421-433. 091258

Szyszkowicz M (2008). Ambient air pollution and daily emergency department visits for ischemic stroke in Edmonton, 

Canada. Int J Occup Med Environ Health, 21: 295-300. 192128

Szyszkowicz M (2009). Air pollution and ED visits for chest pain. Am J Emerg Med, 27: 165-168. 191996

Sørensen M; Daneshvar B; Hansen M; Dragsted LO; Hertel O; Knudsen L; Loft S (2003). Personal PM2.5 exposure and 

markers of oxidative stress in blood. Environ Health Perspect, 111: 161-166. 157000

Tamagawa E; Bai N; Morimoto K; Gray C; Mui T; Yatera K; Zhang X; Xing L; Li Y; Laher I (2008). Particulate matter 

exposure induces persistent lung inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 

295: L79-L85. 191988

Tan WC; Qiu D; Liam BL; Ng TP; Lee SH; Van Eeden SF; D'Yachkova Y; Hogg JC (2000). The human bone marrow 

response to acute air pollution caused by forest fires. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 161: 1213-1217. 002304

Tankersley CG; Bierman A; Rabold R (2007). Variation in heart rate regulation and the effects of particle exposure in 

inbred mice. Inhal Toxicol, 19: 621-629. 097910

Tankersley CG; Campen M; Bierman A; Flanders SE; Broman KW; Rabold R (2004). Particle effects on heart-rate 

regulation in senescent mice. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 381-390. 094378

Tankersley CG; Champion HC; Takimoto E; Gabrielson K; Bedja D; Misra V; El-Haddad H; Rabold R; Mitzner W (2008). 

Exposure to inhaled particulate matter impairs cardiac function in senescent mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp 

Physiol, 295: R252-R263. 157043

Tankersley CG; Irizarry R; Flanders SE; Rabold R; Frank R (2003). Unstable heart rate and temperature regulation predict 

mortality in AKR/J mice. Am J Physiol, 284: R742-R750. 053919

Tecer LH; Alagha O; Karaca F; Tuncel G; Eldes N (2008). Particulate Matter (PM2.5, PM10-2.5, and PM10) and 

Children’s Hospital Admissions for Asthma and Respiratory Diseases: A Bidirectional Case-Crossover Study. J 

Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 71: 512-520. 180030

TFESC (1996). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Task Force 

of the European Society of Cardiology. North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology . Eur Heart J, 17: 

354-381. 003061

Thackara JW (1981). An acute inhalation toxicity study of AC-7987-001 in rats with attachments and cover letter dated 

1/24/92. 078988

Thong T; Raitt MH (2007). Predicting imminent episodes of ventricular tachyarrhythmias using heart rate. Pacing Clin 

Electrophysiol, 30: 874-884. 197462

Thurston G; Ito K; Mar T; Christensen WF; Eatough DJ; Henry RC; Kim E; Laden F; Lall R; Larson TV; Liu H; Neas L; 

Pinto J; Stolzel M; Suh H; Hopke PK (2005). Results and implications of the workshop on the source 

apportionment of PM health effects. Epidemiology, 16: S134-S135. 097949

Thurston GD; Ito K; Hayes CG; Bates DV; Lippmann M (1994). Respiratory hospital admissions and summertime haze air 

pollution in Toronto, Ontario: consideration of the role of acid aerosols. Environ Res, 65: 271-290. 043921

Timonen KL; Hoek G; Heinrich J; Bernard A; Brunekreef B; De Hartog J; Hameri K; Ibald-Mulli A; Mirme A; Peters A; 

Tiittanen P; Kreyling WG; Pekkanen J (2004). Daily variation in fine and ultrafine particulate air pollution and 

urinary concentrations of lung Clara cell protein CC16. Occup Environ Med, 61: 908-914. 087915

December 2009 6-242 
Timonen KL; Vanninen E; De Hartog J; Ibald-Mulli A; Brunekreef B; Gold DR; Henrich J; Hoek G; Lanki T; Peters A; 

Tarkiainen T; Tiittanen P; Kreyling W; Pekkanen J (2006). Effects of ultrafine and fine particulate and gaseous air 

pollution on cardiac autonomic control in subjects with coronary artery disease: The ULTRA study. J Expo Sci 

Environ Epidemiol, 16: 332-341. 088747

Tolbert PE; Klein M; Metzger KB; Peel J; Flanders WD; Todd K; Mulholland JA; Ryan PB; Frumkin H (2000). Interim 

results of the study of particulates and health in Atlanta (SOPHIA). J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 10: 446-460. 

010320

Tolbert PE; Klein M; Peel JL; Sarnat SE; Sarnat JA (2007). Multipollutant modeling issues in a study of ambient air quality 

and emergency department visits in Atlanta. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 17: S29-S35. 090316

Tornqvist H; Mills NL; Gonzalez M; Miller MR; Robinson SD; Megson IL; MacNee W; Donaldson K; Soderberg S; 

Newby DE; Sandstrom T; Blomberg A (2007). Persistent endothelial dysfunction in humans after diesel exhaust 

inhalation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 176: 395-400. 091279

Trenga CA; Sullivan JH; Schildcrout JS; Shepherd KP; Shapiro GG; Liu LJ; Kaufman JD; Koenig JQ (2006). Effect of 

particulate air pollution on lung function in adult and pediatric subjects in a Seattle panel study. Chest, 129: 1614-

1622. 155209

Tsai FC; Apte MG; Daisey JM (2000). An exploratory analysis of the relationship between mortality and the chemical 

composition of airborne particulate matter. Inhal Toxicol, 12: 121-135. 006251

Tsai S-S; Cheng M-H; Chiu H-F; Wu T-N; Yang C-Y (2006). Air pollution and hospital admissions for asthma in a tropical 

city: Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 549-554. 089768

Tsai S-S; Goggins WB; Chiu H-F; Yang C-Y (2003). Evidence for an association between air pollution and daily stroke 

admissions in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Stroke, 34: 2612-2616. 080133

Tunnicliffe WS; Harrison RM; Kelly FJ; Dunster C; Ayres JG (2003). The effect of sulphurous air pollutant exposures on 

symptoms, lung function, exhaled nitric oxide, and nasal epithelial lining fluid antioxidant concentrations in normal 

and asthmatic adults. Occup Environ Med, 60: 1-7. 088744

U.S. EPA (1982). Air quality criteria for particulate matter and sulfur oxides, Vol 1, 2, 3. U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office. Washington, D.C.. EPA 600/8-82-029a; EPA 600/8-82-

029b; EPA 600/8-82-029c. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=3000188Z.txt; 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=300018EV.txt; 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=300053KV.txt. 017610

U.S. EPA (1996). Air quality criteria for particulate matter. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, 

NC. EPA/600/P-95/001aF-cF. 079380

U.S. EPA (2002). Health assessment document for diesel engine exhaust. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 

Washington, DC. 042866

U.S. EPA (2004). Air quality criteria for particulate matter. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, 

NC. EPA/600/P-99/002aF-bF. 056905

Ulirsch GV; Ball LM; Kaye W; Shy CM; Lee CV; Crawford-Brown D; Symons M; Holloway T (2007). Effect of 

particulate matter air pollution on hospital admissions and medical visits for lung and heart disease in two southeast 

Idaho cities. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 17: 478-487. 091332

Upadhyay D; Panduri V; Ghio A; Kamp DW (2003). Particulate matter induces alveolar epithelial cell DNA damage and 

apoptosis: role of free radicals and the mitochondria. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 29: 180-187. 097370

Upadhyay S; Stoeger T; Harder V; Thomas RF; Schladweiler MC; Semmler-Behnke M; Takenaka S; Karg E; Reitmeir P; 

Bader M; Stampfl A; Kodovanti U; Schulz H (2008). Exposure to ultrafine carbon particles at levels below 

detectable pulmonary inflammation affects cardiovascular performance in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Part 

Fibre Toxicol, 5: 19. 159345

Urch B; Brook JR; Wasserstein D; Brook RD; Rajagopalan S; Corey P; Silverman F (2004). Relative contributions of 

PM2.5 chemical constituents to acute arterial vasoconstriction in humans. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 345-352. 055629

Urch B; Silverman F; Corey P; Brook JR; Lukic KZ; Rajagopalan S; Brook RD (2005). Acute blood pressure responses in 

healthy adults during controlled air pollution exposures. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 1052-1055. 081080

December 2009 6-243 
Vedal S; Rich K; Brauer M; White R; Petkau J (2004). Air pollution and cardiac arrhythmias in patients with implantable 

cardiovascular defibrillators. Inhal Toxicol, 16: 353-362. 055630

Vegni FE; Ros O (2004). Hospital accident and emergency burden is unaffected by today's air pollution levels. Eur J Emerg 

Med, 11: 86-88. 087448

Veranth JM; Moss TA; Chow JC; Labban R; Nichols WK; Walton JC; Walton JG; Yost GS (2006). Correlation of in vitro 

cytokine responses with the chemical composition of soil-derived particulate matter. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 

341-349. 087479

Veronesi B; Makwana O; Pooler M; Chen LC (2005). Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles: 

VII. Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in Apo E-/- mice. Inhal Toxicol, 17: 235-241. 087481

Vigotti MA; Chiaverini F; Biagiola P; Rossi G (2007). Urban air pollution and emergency visits for respiratory complaints 

in Pisa, Italy. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 70: 266-269. 090711

Villeneuve PJ; Burnett RT; Shi Y; Krewski D; Goldberg MS; Hertzman C; Chen Y; Brook J (2003). A time-series study of 

air pollution, socioeconomic status, and mortality in Vancouver, Canada. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 13: 427-

435. 055051

Villeneuve PJ; Chen L; Stieb D; Rowe BH (2006). Associations between outdoor air pollution and emergency department 

visits for stroke in Edmonton, Canada. Eur J Epidemiol, 21: 689-700. 090191

Vincent R; Kumarathasan P; Goegan P; Bjarnason SG; Guenette J; Berube D; Adamson IY; Desjardins S; Burnett RT; 

Miller FJ; Battistini B (2001). Inhalation toxicology of urban ambient particulate matter: acute cardiovascular effect 

in rats. 021184

Von Klot S; Wolke G; Tuch T; Heinrich J; Dockery DW; Schwartz J; Kreyling WG; Wichmann HE; Peters A (2002). 

Increased asthma medication use in association with ambient fine and ultrafine particles. Eur Respir J, 20: 691-702. 

034706

Von Klot S; Peters A; Aalto P; Bellander T; Berglind N; D'Ippoliti D; Elosua R; Hormann A; Kulmala M; Lanki T; Lowel 

H; Pekkanen J; Picciotto S; Sunyer J; Forastiere F; Health Effects of Particles on Susceptible Subpopulations 

(HEAPSS) Study Group (2005). Ambient air pollution is associated with increased risk of hospital cardiac 

readmissions of myocardial infarction survivors in five European cities. Circulation, 112: 3073-3079. 088070

Ward DJ; Roberts KT; Jones N; Harrison RM; Ayres JG; Hussain S; Walters S (2002). Effects of daily variation in outdoor 

particulates and ambient acid species in normal and asthmatic children. Thorax, 57: 489-502. 025839

Ward PA (2003). Acute lung injury: how the lung inflammatory response works. Eur Respir J, 44: 22s-23s. 157111

Wegesser TC; Last JA (2008). Lung response to coarse PM: bioassay in mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 230: 159-166. 

190506

Welin L; Eriksson H; Larsson B; Svärdsudd K; Wilhelmsen L; Tibblin G (1993). Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease 

during 25 Years of Follow-Up. Cardiology, 82: 223-228. 156151

Wellenius GA; Batalha JRF; Diaz EA; Lawrence J; Coull BA; Katz T; Verrier RL; Godleski JJ (2004). Cardiac effects of 

carbon monoxide and ambient particles in a rat model of myocardial infarction. Toxicol Sci, 80: 367-376. 087874

Wellenius GA; Bateson TF; Mittleman MA; Schwartz J (2005). Particulate air pollution and the rate of hospitalization for 

congestive heart failure among medicare beneficiaries in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Am J Epidemiol, 161: 1030-

1036. 087483

Wellenius GA; Coull BA; Batalha JRF; Diaz EA; Lawrence J; Godleski JJ (2006). Effects of ambient particles and carbon 

monoxide on supraventricular arrhythmias in a rat model of myocardial infarction. Inhal Toxicol, 18: 1077-1082. 

156152

Wellenius GA; Coull BA; Godleski JJ; Koutrakis P; Okabe K; Savage ST (2003). Inhalation of concentrated ambient air 

particles exacerbates myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs. Environ Health Perspect, 111: 402-408. 055691

Wellenius GA; Saldiva PHN; Batalha JRF; Murthy GGK; Coull BA; Verrier RL; Godleski JJ (2002). Electrocardiographic 

changes during exposure to residual oil fly ash (ROFA) particles in a rat model of myocardial infarction. Toxicol 

Sci, 66: 327-335. 025405

Wellenius GA; Schwartz J; Mittleman MA (2005). Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic and hemorrhagic 

stroke among medicare beneficiaries. Stroke, 36: 2549-2553. 088685

December 2009 6-244 
Wellenius GA; Schwartz J; Mittleman MA (2006). Particulate air pollution and hospital admissions for congestive heart 

failure in seven United States cities. Am J Cardiol, 97: 404-408. 088748

Wellenius GA; Yeh GY; Coull BA; Suh HH; Phillips RS; Mittleman MA (2007). Effects of ambient air pollution on 

functional status in patients with chronic congestive heart failure: a repeated-measures study. Environ Health, 6: 1-

7. 092830

Welty LJ; Zeger SL (2005). Are the acute effects of particulate matter on mortality in the National Morbidity, Mortality, 

and Air Pollution study the result of inadequate control for weather and season? A sensitivity analysis using flexible 

distributed lag models. Am J Epidemiol, 162: 80-88. 087484

Wheeler A; Zanobetti A; Gold DR; Schwartz J; Stone P; Suh HH (2006). The relationship between ambient air pollution 

and heart rate variability differs for individuals with heart and pulmonary disease. Environ Health Perspect, 114: 

560-566. 088453

Whitekus MJ; Li N; Zhang M; Wang M; Horwitz MA; Nelson SK; Horwitz LD; Brechun N; Diaz-Sanchez D; Nel AE 

(2002). Thiol antioxidants inhibit the adjuvant effects of aerosolized diesel exhaust particles in a murine model for 

ovalbumin sensitization. J Immigr Minor Health, 168: 2560-2567. 157142

Whitsel E; Quibrera P; Christ S; Liao D; Prineas R; Anderson G; Heiss G (2009). Heart rate variability, ambient particulate 

matter air pollution, and glucose homeostasis: the environmental epidemiology of arrhythmogenesis in the Women's 

Health Initiative. Am J Epidemiol, 169: 693-703. 191980

Wichmann H-E; Spix C; Tuch T; Wolke G; Peters A; Heinrich J; Kreyling WG; Heyder J (2000). Daily mortality and fine 

and ultrafine particles in Erfurt, Germany Part I: role of particle number and particle mass. Health Effects Institute. 

Boston, MA. 013912

Widdicombe J (2006). Reflexes from the lungs and airways: historical perspective. J Appl Physiol, 101: 628-634. 155519

Widdicombe JG (2003). Overview of neural pathways in allergy and asthma. Pulm Pharmacol Ther, 16: 23-30. 157145

Wilson WE; Mar TF; Koenig JQ (2007). Influence of exposure error and effect modification by socioeconomic status on 

the association of acute cardiovascular mortality with particulate matter in Phoenix. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 

17: S11-S19. 157149

Win-Shwe TT; Yamamoto S; Fujitani Y; Hirano S; Fujimaki H (2008). Spatial learning and memory function-related gene 

expression in the hippocampus of mouse exposed to nanoparticle-rich diesel exhaust. Neurotoxicology, 29: 940-

947. 190146

Witten ML; Wong SS ; Sun NN; Keith I; Kweon C; Foster DE; Schauer JJ; Sherrill DL (2005). Neurogenic responses in rat 

lungs after nose-only exposure to diesel exhaust. Health Effects Institute. Boston, MA. 087485

Wong C-M; Atkinson RW; Anderson HR; Hedley AJ; Ma S; Chau PY-K; Lam T-H (2002). A tale of two cities: effects of 

air pollution on hospital admissions in Hong Kong and London compared. Environ Health Perspect, 110: 67-77. 

023232

Wong SS; Sun NN; Keith I; Kweon C-B; Foster DE; Schauer James J; Witten ML (2003). Tachykinin substance P signaling 

involved in diesel exhaust-induced bronchopulmonary neurogenic inflammation in rats. Arch Toxicol, 77: 638-650. 

097707

Wong TW; Lau TS; Yu TS; Neller A; Wong SL; Tam W; Pang SW (1999). Air pollution and hospital admissions for 

respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in Hong Kong. Occup Environ Med, 56: 679-683. 009172

Wordley J; Walters S; Ayres JG (1997). Short term variations in hospital admissions and mortality and particulate air 

pollution. Occup Environ Med, 54: 108-116. 082745

Wu J; M Winer A; J Delfino R (2006). Exposure assessment of particulate matter air pollution before, during, and after the 

2003 Southern California wildfires. Atmos Environ, 40: 3333-3348. 157156

Yan YH; Huang CH; Chen WJ; Wu MF; Cheng TJ (2008). Effects of diesel exhaust particles on left ventricular function in 

isoproterenol-induced myocardial injury and healthy rats. Inhal Toxicol, 20: 199-203. 098625

Yang C-Y; Chen Y-S; Yang C-H; Ho S-C (2004). Relationship between ambient air pollution and hospital admissions for 

cardiovascular diseases in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 67: 483-493. 094376

Yang CY (2008). Air pollution and hospital admissions for congestive heart failure in a subtropical city: Taipei, Taiwan. J 

Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 71: 1085-1090. 157160

December 2009 6-245 
Yang CY; Chen CC; Chen CY; Kuo HW (2007). Air pollution and hospital admissions for asthma in a subtropical city: 

Taipei, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 70: 111-117. 092848

Yang CY; Chen CJ (2007). Air pollution and hospital admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in a subtropical 

city: Taipei, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 70: 1214-1219. 092847

Yang CY; Cheng MH; Chen CC (2009). Effects of Asian Dust Storm Events on Hospital Admissions for Congestive Heart 

Failure in Taipei, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A Curr Iss, 72: 324-328. 190341

Yang Q; Chen Y; Krewski D; Shi Y; Burnett RT; McGrail KM (2004). Association between particulate air pollution and 

first hospital admission for childhood respiratory illness in Vancouver, Canada. Arch Environ Occup Health, 59: 14-

21. 087488

Yeatts K; Svendsen E; Creason J; Alexis N; Herbst M; Scott J; Kupper L; Williams R; Neas L; Cascio W; Devlin RB; 

Peden DB (2007). Coarse particulate matter (PM25-10) affects heart rate variability, blood lipids, and circulating 

eosinophils in adults with asthma. Environ Health Perspect, 115: 709-714. 091266

Yokota S; Seki T; Naito Y; Tachibana S; Hirabayashi N; Nakasaka T; Ohara N; Kobayashi H (2008). Tracheal instillation of 

diesel exhaust particles component causes blood and pulmonary neutrophilia and enhances myocardial oxidative 

stress in mice. J Toxicol Sci, 33: 609-620. 190109

Yu O; Sheppard L; Lumley T; Koenig JQ; S (2000). Effects of ambient air pollution on symptoms of asthma in Seattle-area 

children enrolled in the CAMP study. Environ Health Perspect, 108: 1209-1214. 013254

Yue W; Schneider A; Stolzel M; Ruckerl R; Cyrys J; Pan X; Zareba W; Koenig W; Wichmann HE; Peters A (2007). 

Ambient source-specific particles are associated with prolonged repolarization and increased levels of inflammation 

in male coronary artery disease patients. Mutat Res Fund Mol Mech Mutagen, 621: 50-60. 097968

Zabel M; Klingenheben T; Franz MR; Hohnloser SH (1998). Assessment of QT Dispersion for Prediction of Mortality or 

Arrhythmic Events After Myocardial Infarction : Results of a Prospective, Long-term Follow-up Study. Circulation, 

97: 2543-2550. 156176

Zanchi AC; Venturini CD; Saiki M; Nascimento Saldiva PH; Tannhauser Barros HM; Rhoden CR (2008). Chronic nasal 

instillation of residual-oil fly ash (ROFA) induces brain lipid peroxidation and behavioral changes in rats. Inhal 

Toxicol, 20: 795-800. 157173

Zanobetti A; Canner MJ; Stone PH; Schwartz J; Sher D; Eagan-Bengston E; Gates KA; Hartley LH; Suh H; Gold DR 

(2004). Ambient pollution and blood pressure in cardiac rehabilitation patients. Circulation, 110: 2184-2189. 

087489

Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2003). Airborne particles and hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. 043119

Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2003). Airborne particles and hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. In: Revised analyses 

of time-series studies of air pollution and health. Special Report. 157174

Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2005). The effect of particulate air pollution on emergency admissions for myocardial infarction: 

A multicity case-crossover analysis. Environ Health Perspect, 113: 978-982. 088069

Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2006). Air pollution and emergency admissions in Boston, MA. J Epidemiol Community Health, 

60: 890-895. 090195

Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2009). The effect of fine and coarse particulate air pollution on mortality: A national analysis. 

Environ Health Perspect, 117: 1-40. 188462

Zareba W; Couderc JP; Oberdörster G; Chalupa D; Cox C; Huang LS; Peters A; Utell MJ; Frampton MW (2009). ECG 

parameters and exposure to carbon ultrafine particles in young healthy subjects. Inhal Toxicol, 21: 223-233. 190101

Zeka A; Sullivan JR; Vokonas PS; Sparrow D; Schwartz J (2006). Inflammatory markers and particulate air pollution: 

characterizing the pathway to disease. Int J Epidemiol, 35: 1347-1354. 157177

Zeka A; Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2005). Short term effects of particulate matter on cause specific mortality: effects of lags 

and modification by city characteristics. Occup Environ Med, 62: 718-725. 088068

Zeka A; Zanobetti A; Schwartz J (2006). Individual-level modifiers of the effects of particulate matter on daily mortality. 

Am J Epidemiol, 163: 849-859. 088749

Zelikoff JT; Chen LC; Cohen MD; Fang K; Gordon T; Li Y; Nadziejko C; Schlesinger RB (2003). Effects of inhaled 

ambient particulate matter on pulmonary antimicrobial immune defense. Inhal Toxicol, 15: 131-150. 039009

December 2009 6-246 
December 2009 6-247 

Zhang SH; Reddick RL; Piedrahita JA; Maeda N (1992). Spontaneous hypercholesterolemia and arterial lesions in mice 

lacking apolipoprotein E. Science, 258: 468-471. 157180

Zhang Z; Whitsel E; Quibrera P; Smith R; Liao D; Anderson G; Prineas R (2009). Ambient fine particulate matter exposure 

and myocardial ischemia in the Environmental Epidemiology of Arrhythmogenesis in the Women's Health Initiative 

(EEAWHI) study. Environ Health Perspect, 117: 751-756. 191970