iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 2000, field studies of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus

schauinslandi) were conducted at all of its main reproductive sites in the Northwestern

Hawaiian Islands. These studies provide information necessary to identify and mitigate

factors impeding the species recovery by evaluating (1) the status and trends of monk seal

subpopulations, (2) natural history traits such as survival, reproduction, growth, behavior,

and feeding habits, and (3) the success of various activities designed to facilitate

population growth. 

Results of these studies are best described on a site-by-site basis, and the

information presented in this document is organized accordingly. Site-specific data

pooled for all sites, however, provide useful indices of the status and trends of the species

as a whole, including the total number of pups at all main reproductive sites, the total of

the site-specific mean beach counts, and the size composition of the seals observed during

the counts (Fig. 1).

Since 1983, the number of pups born at the main reproductive sites (excluding

Midway Atoll) has been highly variable, and the variability has been largely determined

by the number born at French Frigate Shoals (Fig. 1a), the largest subpopulation. In

2000, 177 pups were counted at these sites, 67 of which were born at French Frigate

Shoals. Although a record number of pups were born at Midway Atoll, pupping was

lower than in 1999 at all the other sites; 25 fewer pups were born at French Frigate

Shoals, and 54 fewer pups were born overall. Mean beach counts, excluding pups, from

the main reproductive sites (again, excluding Midway Atoll) totaled 382 seals and have

remained essentially unchanged since 1993 (Fig. 1b). 

From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, adults and pups have comprised a growing

portion of the animals counted while juveniles and subadults declined (Fig. 1c) and, in

2000, the composition of the counts again was dominated by adults and pups. This shift

in composition bodes poorly for reproduction in the near future if older adult females are

not replaced by young females reaching reproductive age. The overall impact of this shift

in age composition will be determined by the magnitude of its change and the length of

time that it persists. The drop in number of births in 2000 may signal the beginning of

this trend toward reduced reproduction. High mortality of immature seals appears to

have led to the shift in age composition, particularly at French Frigate Shoals.

In 2000, four management activities were conducted by the Marine Mammal

Research Program (Honolulu Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service) and

cooperating scientists to enhance recovery of the species. First, debris capable of

entangling seals was removed from all study sites, and four seals were disentangled by

field biologists. Second, debris was removed from coral reefs at Lisianski Island, Pearl

and Hermes Reef, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll to reduce hazards to the seals and assess

the extent of reef debris fouling. Third, observers monitored beaches on Midway for

disturbance and sought to mitigate human impacts through education. And fourth, a
iv

Galapagos shark was removed after it exhibited predatory behavior toward monk seal

pups at French Frigate Shoals.

This document describes these and other field studies conducted during 2000 and

provides complete, standardized, and timely summaries of the research activities and

findings at each study site. The ready availability of such information is essential for

ongoing efforts to enhance the recovery of this species.
v

Fig. 1. Demographic trends of the Hawaiian monk seal, based on the main reproductive

sites (excluding Midway Atoll). A) Number of pups born (minimum). B) Total of mean

beach counts, excluding pups, with 1 standard deviation. C) Percentage of counts

comprised of adults, subadults, juveniles, and pups.
vi
vii

CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................. 1

MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................... 4

Censuses and Patrols ........................................ 4

Reproduction .............................................. 5

Factors Affecting Survival .................................... 5

Individual Identification ...................................... 6

Measurements of Seals ...................................... 7

Collection of Samples ....................................... 8

CHAPTER 2. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS, 2000 ....................................... 9

RESEARCH .................................................... 11

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 11

Individual Identification ..................................... 12

Collection of Samples ...................................... 12

Special Studies ............................................ 12

1999 Cohort First-Year Survival ........................ 12

Galapagos Shark Observations/Culling ................... 12

Tagging of Tiger and Galapagos Sharks .................. 13

Prey Availability .................................... 13

Marine Debris Accumulation Rates ...................... 13

RESULTS ..................................................... 13

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 13

Reproduction ............................................. 13

Interatoll Movement ........................................ 14

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 14

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 14

TABLES ....................................................... 15

CHAPTER 3. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

LAYSAN ISLAND, 2000 ............................................... 23

RESEARCH .................................................... 25

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 25

Individual Identification ..................................... 25

Collection of Samples ...................................... 26

Special Studies ............................................ 26

Health and Disease Study .............................. 26

RESULTS ..................................................... 26

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 26

Reproduction ............................................. 27

Interatoll Movement ........................................ 27

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 27

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 27

TABLES ....................................................... 29
(CONTENTS, continued)

Page

viii

CHAPTER 4. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON 

LISIANSKI ISLAND, 2000 .............................................. 37

RESEARCH .................................................... 39

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 39

Individual Identification ..................................... 39

Collection of Samples ...................................... 40

Special Studies ............................................ 40

Foraging Ecology, Health, and Disease ................... 40

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs ........... 40

RESULTS ..................................................... 41

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 41

Reproduction ............................................. 41

Interatoll Movement ........................................ 41

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 41

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 42

TABLES ....................................................... 43

CHAPTER 5. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

PEARL AND HERMES REEF, 2000 ...................................... 51

RESEARCH .................................................... 53

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 53

Individual Identification ..................................... 53

Collection of Samples ...................................... 53

Special Studies ............................................ 54

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs ........... 54

Noteworthy Events ......................................... 54

Grounding of the Swordman I .......................... 54

RESULTS ..................................................... 54

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 54

Reproduction ............................................. 54

Interatoll Movement ........................................ 55

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 55

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 55

TABLES ....................................................... 57

CHAPTER 6. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

MIDWAY ATOLL, 2000 ............................................... 65

RESEARCH .................................................... 67

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 68

Individual Identification ..................................... 68

Collection of Samples ....................................... 68

Special Studies ............................................ 68

Emergent Reef Surveys ............................... 68
(CONTENTS, continued)

Page

ix

Foraging Ecology, Health, and Disease ................... 68

Prey Availability .................................... 69

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs ........... 69

Noteworthy Events ......................................... 69

Beach Monitoring and Public Education .................. 69

RESULTS ..................................................... 69

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 69

Reproduction ............................................. 70

Interatoll Movement ........................................ 70

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 70

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 70

TABLES ....................................................... 71

CHAPTER 7. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

KURE ATOLL, 2000 ................................................... 79

RESEARCH .................................................... 81

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 81

Individual Identification ..................................... 82

Collection of Samples ...................................... 82

Special Studies ............................................ 82

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs ........... 82

Noteworthy Events ......................................... 82

Impacts of Paradise Queen II Grounding ................. 82

RESULTS ..................................................... 83

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 83

Reproduction ............................................. 83

Interatoll Movement ........................................ 83

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 84

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 84

TABLES ....................................................... 85

CHAPTER 8. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

NIHOA AND NECKER ISLANDS AND GARDNER PINNACLES, 2000 ........ 93

RESEARCH .................................................... 95

Censuses and Patrols ....................................... 95

Individual Identification ..................................... 95

Collection of Samples ...................................... 95

RESULTS ..................................................... 96

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition ..................... 96

Reproduction ............................................. 96

Interatoll Movement ......................................... 96

Factors Affecting Survival ................................... 96

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................... 96
(CONTENTS, continued)

Page

x

REFERENCES ....................................................... 97

APPENDIXES

Appendix A.--Reports summarizing annual field research on the Hawaiian

monk seal by the National Marine Fisheries Service and

collaborating scientists . .................................... A-1

Appendix B.--Hawaiian monk seal census form and 2000 census form

directions. ................................................ B-1
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

3

The endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) hauls out and

breeds in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI, Fig. 1.1). The National Marine

Fisheries Service (NMFS) is the lead agency for the recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal. 

Each year the NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Marine

Mammal Research Program conducts studies at the main breeding sites to provide

information necessary to evaluate (1) the status and trends of the monk seal

subpopulations; (2) natural history traits such as survival, reproduction, growth, behavior,

and feeding habits; and (3) the success of various activities designed to facilitate

population growth.

The Marine Mammal Research Program began research on Hawaiian monk seals

at most major reproductive sites in the NWHI during 1981 (Kure Atoll, Laysan Island,

and Lisianski Island), 1982 (French Frigate Shoals (FFS) and Pearl and Hermes Reef),

and 1983 (Midway Atoll). Nearly every year thereafter, field camps of several days to 9

months were established to monitor and enhance the recovery of this species. Limited

monitoring has also been conducted at Nihoa and Necker Islands, where subpopulations

may be limited to a small number of animals by availability of haulout area. Reports

summarizing past NMFS research are listed in Appendix A.

In 2000, Hawaiian monk seal research activities included (1) conducting beach

counts (censuses); (2) tagging weaned pups and other seals for permanent identification

and retagging animals to maintain identification; (3) identifying other seals by previously

applied tags and by natural or applied markings; (4) monitoring reproduction, survival,

injuries, entanglements, interatoll movements, disappearances, and deaths; (5) performing

necropsies; (6) collecting scat and spew samples for food habits analysis; (7) collecting

skin punches and shed molt samples for a DNA tissue bank; (8) collecting samples of

placentas found with or from “aborted fetuses” or with deceased perinatal pups for

histological and bacteriological examination; (9) applying satellite-linked dive recorders

to track animals at sea and to investigate diving behavior; (10) screening health and

collecting blubber biopsies for fatty acid analysis; (11) disentangling seals; and (12)

inventorying and removing debris capable of entangling seals. Location-specific

objectives and summaries of data collected during the 2000 field season are described in

the following chapters. Much of the information presented in this memorandum is

incorporated into larger data sets for additional analysis and publication elsewhere. 

Research was conducted under the authority of the following permits: Special Use

Permits 12521-01-00, 12521-07-00, 12521-00011, and Marine Mammal Permit 848-

1335.
4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Censuses and Patrols

The primary means of data collection were censuses and patrols. Censuses

consisted of timed, standardized beach counts during which an entire island or atoll was

surveyed for seals on foot. Although data were collected on all seals, animals that were in

the water or dead were excluded from the beach count totals. Identified individuals were

counted only once if they were resighted during the survey. The resulting counts did not

reflect total subpopulation size but provided an index of subpopulation size for

comparison among years and locations. Data collected on each seal observed during

censuses included size class (ranging from pup, juvenile, subadult, and adult size as

described in Stone, 1984 and Appendix B); sex; location on the island; beach position

(indicating whether the seal was in the water or on land); body condition (a subjective

estimate; e.g., fat, medium, or thin); identification information (permanent or temporary

identification numbers and tag numbers); molting status (an estimate of the percentage

completed); and disturbance index (the extent that the observer disturbed the seal). 

Further data were collected if any of the following events occurred: (1) factors affecting

survival (e.g., entanglements, mobbings, or shark injuries); (2) animal handling; (3)

photography; and (4) documentation of tag condition (e.g., good or broken). In addition,

behavioral data (seal associations and interactions) were collected on Laysan and

Lisianski Islands. A sample census form and guidelines for its completion are included in

Appendix B. Censuses were conducted once at Necker Island, Nihoa Island, and Gardner

Pinnacles, and every 4 to 7 days at all other locations, starting at 1300 Hawaii standard

time when possible, using census methods and criteria outlined in Johanos et al. (1987). 

Atoll-wide counts for locations with more than a single island (French Frigate Shoals,

Pearl and Hermes Reef, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll) were completed within 2 days. 

The perimeter of each study area was divided into sectors to facilitate the analysis of data

and detection of demographic trends in different geographic areas. Census methods

specific to each location are detailed in the following chapters.

Patrols consisted of untimed surveys of an entire island perimeter on foot. 

Information collected during patrols was similar to that collected during censuses. 

Because patrols were not timed, observers concentrated on documenting adult and

subadult behavior, identifying and marking individuals, and collecting scat and spew

samples. Island-specific standardized patrols were conducted at some locations and are

described in the following chapters. 

During all observation periods (i.e., censuses, patrols, and incidental sightings),

observers attempted to minimize seal disturbance by walking above the beach crest and

using vegetation as a visual barrier. On census days, activities that could disturb the

animals and bias the count were not conducted until after the count was completed. 
5

Additionally, the following were recorded whenever observed (1) births, pup exchanges,

and weanings; (2) mating activities, adult male aggression, and post-mobbing

aggregations (defined below); (3) entanglements in marine debris; (4) injuries; and (5)

deaths.

Reproduction

Parturient females were identified when possible, and birth and weaning

information were recorded. Because parturient females often nurse pups other than their

own (Boness, 1990; Boness et al., 1998), efforts were made to identify pups and

document changes in nursing relationships from birth to weaning. A pup exchange

occurred when the pups of two lactating females were switched or one nursing female

suckled multiple pups. Typically, such exchanges occur during an aggressive interaction

between the two females. On other occasions, a mother and pup may become separated,

and one or both seals will then actively seek and obtain another nursing relationship

(Boness, 1990).

The average nursing period was calculated for some or all pups at each location. 

The average lactation period of parturient females was also calculated at FFS because

higher subpopulation density and frequent pup exchanges (Boness, 1990; Boness et al.,

1998) made it difficult to track individual pups and determine their nursing period. 

Nursing or lactation periods were defined as the number of days from birth until the end

of the last nursing relationship. Temporary breaks (e.g., if a mother and pup became

separated and one or both seals subsequently obtained another nursing relationship) were

not subtracted from the total. When the exact birth or weaning date was not known, but

occurred within a range of 4 days or less, the midpoint of that range was used as the start

or end date for calculation of average nursing or lactation period. Nursing or lactation

data were not included if the birth or weaning date range exceeded 4 days or if the pup

died or disappeared before weaning.

Factors Affecting Survival

The origins of a wide range of injuries were distinguished based upon

characteristic wound patterns described in Hiruki et al. (1993). Injuries were documented

if they were related to mounting or entanglement or if they were considered severe

enough to possibly affect survival. Injuries were considered severe and were summarized

if they consisted of (1) three or more abscesses, each <8 cm in diameter, or one abscess

with a diameter >8 cm; (2) an amputation of at least half a flipper (either foreflipper or

hindflipper); (3) at least three punctures or gaping wounds, if largest dimension was <8

cm, or one gaping wound with a maximum diameter-largest dimension >8 cm; or (4)

densely spaced (overlapping) scratches, abrasions, or lacerations covering an area

equivalent to half the dorsum or evidence of extensive underlying tissue damage (e.g., an

uneven or darkened surface of the injured area, leaching fluids), or if they impaired seal
6

 

1Reference to trade names does not imply endorsement by the National Marine

Fisheries Service, NOAA.

movement. Major healed injuries incurred since the previous season were documented

but not included in summaries.

A seal was listed as dead if its death or carcass was observed. Deaths summarized

here include carcasses found at the beginning of the field season if the seal had clearly

died during the calendar year. A seal was listed as probably dead if it sustained severe

injuries or was emaciated (with skeletal structure clearly evident) and subsequently

disappeared. In addition, one of the following conditions must have been satisfied to

place a seal in the "probably dead" category: (1) the seal was lethargic, had difficulty

moving, or floated listlessly in the water, and disappeared more than a week before the

end of data collection or (2) the seal was in deteriorating condition (loss of weight,

enlargement of abscesses, sloughing of skin) and disappeared at least 10 surveys or 1

month before the end of data collection (whichever was longer). Nursing pups were

listed as probably dead if they disappeared within 3 weeks of birth.

Mobbing and other mating-related male aggressions were observed and recorded. 

By definition, mobbing occurred when multiple males attempted to mate with a single

seal, usually an adult female or immature seal of either sex, causing injury or death of that

seal (e.g., Alcorn, 1984). Mating-related aggression was defined as any incident where an

adult or subadult male repeatedly bit the dorsum, attempted to mount, and tried to prevent

the escape of another seal. These incidents were summarized in this report if they

simultaneously involved more than one male aggressor or resulted in at least one puncture

or gaping wound (missing skin or extending into the blubber layer) or > 15 scratches to

the dorsum or flanks. Post-mobbing aggregations were also summarized: these were

groups of males congregated on the beach, attending a seal with new mounting injuries as

described above.

Individual Identification

During censuses and patrols, individual seals were identified with tags, applied

bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. After weaning, pups were tagged on each hind

flipper with a colored plastic Temple Tag,®1 uniquely coded to indicate island or atoll

subpopulation, year of birth, and individual identification (Gilmartin et al., 1986). In

addition, a passive integrated transponder (PIT) tag was implanted subcutaneously in the

dorsum of most weaned pups (see Lombard et al., 1994, for detailed tagging procedures).

Colored plastic Temple Tags have been applied to nearly all weaned pups since

1981 at Kure Atoll, 1982 at Lisianski Island, 1983 at Laysan Island and Pearl and Hermes

Reef, 1984 at French Frigate Shoals, and 1995 at Midway Atoll. Pups at Midway Atoll,

Necker and Nihoa Islands, and the main Hawaiian Islands have been tagged
7

opportunistically since 1983. Since 1991, PIT tags have also been implanted

subcutaneously in the ankle (1991) or the dorsum (all subsequent years) of most weaned

pups. 

In 2000, untagged immature and adult seals were opportunistically tagged with

Temple Tags uniquely coded to indicate that their ages and birth locations were unknown.

These seals also received PIT tags. Seals with lost or broken tags were retagged to

maintain their identities.

Seals were bleach-marked for individual identification (Stone, 1984), using the

solution described in Johanos et al. (1987). Molting seals were re-marked with bleach to

maintain their identities until the next molt. At French Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island,

Lisianski Island, and Pearl and Hermes Reef, nursing pups were also bleach-marked prior

to the postnatal molt to facilitate identification during the nursing period.

Tags, scars, other natural markings, and any applied bleach marks were sketched

by hand on a scar card for each seal, and this card was revised throughout the field season

to maintain a current description of the identifying marks of each seal. Photographs of

scars and natural markings were added to individual identification files begun during

1981 or 1982.

Subpopulation size and composition were determined at locations where

observers no longer encountered unidentified seals. These statistics included all

individuals observed alive at the location from March through August and all known

parturient females and pups born during the year. 

The movement of seals between island or atoll subpopulations within and between

years complicates the estimation of subpopulation size and composition. This is

particularly true at Midway Atoll, where a number of the observed seals were tagged at

other locations (primarily Kure Atoll and Pearl and Hermes Reef). Therefore,

standardized rules for assigning each identified seal to just one subpopulation are applied

as follows: If a seal was observed at more than one location during March-August, it was

included in the subpopulation where it was sighted nearest to May 15, unless it pupped or

molted at another location. A parturient female was always included in the subpopulation

where she pupped, and a nonparturient seal was included in the subpopulation where it

molted. Pups were always included in the subpopulation where they were born.

Measurements of Seals

Pups were measured to provide information on condition and maternal

provisioning. Measurements were taken as soon after weaning as possible, and

measurements taken within 2 weeks after weaning were included in summaries. 

Measurements included straight dorsal length (Winchell, 1990) and axillary girth

(American Society of Mammalogists, 1967). Older animals captured for foraging

ecology, health, or disease studies were also measured. 
8

Collection of Samples

Samples were collected for a DNA tissue bank, pathology analysis, investigation

of food habits, and documentation of marine debris. Tissue punches for DNA were

collected during tagging efforts for all newly tagged or retagged seals and during

necropsies on seals that had died recently. Samples of placentas found with or from

“aborted fetuses” or deceased perinatal pups were also collected. 

For each dead seal recovered, an external examination was made, photographs

were taken, and external measurements and observations were recorded. For a recent

death, an internal examination was made, and samples of tissue, organs, parasites, and

stomach contents were collected. Necropsy procedures and sample collection methods

are adapted from Winchell (1990).

Scat and spew samples were collected opportunistically for analysis of food habits

(Alcorn, 1984). These samples were collected from seals of known sizes and sex classes,

when possible. 

Nets, lines, ropes, and other debris capable of entangling seals and turtles were

documented and inventoried. From 1982 to 1998, potentially entangling marine debris

was incinerated on site. Beginning in 1999, due to new Fish and Wildlife Service

regulations, marine debris was not handled in this manner at most sites. At Kure Atoll,

dangerous or entangling debris was destroyed by incineration, following the methods in

Johanos and Kam (1986). At all other locations, debris was cut into manageable-sized

pieces and placed in storage bins or secured piles at centralized locations for subsequent

removal by ship.
9

CHAPTER 2. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS, 2000

Brenda L. Becker, Albert L. Harting, Irene Kinan, Mitchell P. Craig, Melissa A. Shaw, 

and Scott F. Davis

11

The largest subpopulation of Hawaiian monk seals is located at French Frigate

Shoals (FFS, lat. 23°45'N, long. 166°10'W), ca. 830 km northwest of Oahu in the

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. This atoll is part of the Hawaiian Islands National

Wildlife Refuge (Fig. 1.1) and consists of nine permanent islets (Disappearing, East, Gin,

Little Gin, La Perouse Pinnacles, Round, Shark, Tern, and Trig), three semipermanent

islets (Bare, Mullet, and Whaleskate), and several transient sand spits (Fig. 2.1). 

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian

monk seals at FFS in 1982. In 2000, research was conducted by NMFS during January 1-

February 11, April 28-August 20, and October 17-29. Incidental observations were

recorded by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) personnel during the rest of the

year. The perimeters of the five larger islets (East, Gin, Little Gin, Tern, and Trig) were

divided into sectors using artificial or natural landmarks. Research activities specific to

this subpopulation in 2000 included (1) investigating health, condition, causes of

mortality, and habitat use of the 1999 cohort; (2) monitoring and removing Galapagos

sharks preying on monk seal pups; (3) tagging of Galapagos and tiger sharks to determine

movement patterns; (4) assessing nearshore reef fish abundance; (5) collecting reef

vertebrates and invertebrates for a Hawaiian monk seal prey fatty acid analysis; and (6)

assessing marine debris accumulation rates within the lagoon.

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll-wide censuses (n = 7) were conducted every 7 days, on average, from June

20 to August 2. Each atoll census required 2 days to complete, and data collection began

between 1013 and 1255 and ended between 1331 and 1730 Hawaii standard time. 

Whaleskate Islet was censused from boat only; Bare, Disappearing, and Mullet Islets

were surveyed either by boat or on foot; while the remaining islets (East, Gin, Little Gin,

Round, Shark, Tern, and Trig) were censused on foot by one or two persons. La Perouse

Pinnacles was not routinely surveyed as there are no seal haulout sites available. 

Individual islet censuses and patrols were scheduled to ensure the entire atoll was

monitored at least once each week during June 15 to August 21. Frequency of surveys

was higher at islets where most pups were born, or locations in close proximity to these

islets (i.e., Bare and Mullet): thus East, Gin, Little Gin, Mullet, Round, and Trig were

monitored on average every 2-4 days; Tern averaged every 4 or 5 days; Bare,

Disappearing, and Shark Islets averaged every 6 or 7 days; and Whaleskate averaged

every 8 or 9 days. Whaleskate, Bare, and Mullet were rarely above water during the

sampling season.
12

Incidental patrols were conducted in January and February to monitor 1999 cohort

survival and to document factors affecting survival. During October, patrols were

conducted at all sites, except Disappearing Islet, to locate and tag late-born pups, to

survey for nursing females, to document factors affecting survival, and to provide

preliminary information on condition and survival of immature seals through October.

Individual Identification

A total of 372 individuals (305 excluding pups) were identified by existing or

applied tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. Bleach marks were applied to 60

seals, including 26 nursing pups. Fifty-seven weaned pups and one yearling were newly

tagged with Temple Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. 

Collection of Samples

Sixteen scat and two spew samples were collected. Skin punches were collected

from 58 seals during tagging and from 2 during necropsies. Shed molt samples were

collected from three seals. Tissue and skeletal samples were collected from the two

necropsied seals. In addition, skeletal samples were collected from three other seal

carcasses. Various additional samples were collected from 33 yearlings during the firstyear survival study. In total, 135 items of potentially entangling debris were inventoried

and stored for later removal by ship.

Special Studies

1999 Cohort First-Year Survival

As part of a health, condition, habitat use, and survival study of the 1999 cohort,

33 yearlings were sampled (blood, fecal, blubber, and virology and bacterial swabs) and

measured (axillary girth, dorsal straight length, and mass) during January through midFebruary. Time-depth Recorders (TDRs) were recovered from six of these animals, and

four animals were newly instrumented with TDRs. Three of these newly instrumented

animals were later recaptured, re-measured, and TDRs were recovered; the fourth seal

was not resighted.

Galapagos Shark Observations/Culling

From May through July, Trig Islet was monitored 6 days a week to document the

presence of Galapagos sharks and their predatory behavior toward monk seal pups. One

shark which exhibited this predatory behavior was removed.
13

Tagging of Tiger and Galapagos Sharks

During June and July, one Galapagos and seven tiger sharks were captured,

measured, and instrumented with acoustic and highly visible identification tags to

monitor each shark’s movement within the atoll. The tagging was part of a study

conducted in collaboration with the National Geographic Society, California State

University Long Beach, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, and NMFS Narragansett

Laboratory.

Prey Availability

In August, the Honolulu Laboratory, NMFS, conducted diving transects at nine

stations around FFS to estimate densities of reef fishes. These surveys replicated those

conducted at FFS during 1980-83, 1992, and 1995-99 (see DeMartini et al., 1993). In

1998 through 2000 this study was expanded to assess fish abundance at deeper sites (50-

60 m). The results of this ongoing research will be reported elsewhere. In August,

researchers also collected reef vertebrates and invertebrates for analysis of fatty acids in

potential monk seal prey.

Marine Debris Accumulation Rates

In August, transect surveys were conducted to resurvey reef areas previously

cleaned of marine debris to estimate accumulation rates.

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The mean (±SD) of seven atoll censuses was 144.6 seals (±12.0) including pups,

and 106.1 seals (±9.7) excluding pups (Table 2.1). The total number of seals identified as

part of the spring-summer subpopulation was 342 individuals, 275 excluding pups (Table

2.2). This number is a subset of the total identified in the calendar year and is an

unknown proportion of the total subpopulation as many of the older, untagged seals could

not be uniquely identified. The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at FFS during

the period from 1984 to 1999, and resighted at any location in 2000, are summarized in

Table 2.3.

Reproduction

At least 67 pups were born at FFS in 2000: 58 were successfully weaned and 9

died or disappeared prior to weaning (Table 2.4a). Nursing periods and measurements of

weaned pups are summarized in Table 2.4b. The mean (±SD) lactation period for 27

females was 37.8 d (±4.4 days). Thirteen pup exchanges were documented between 13
14

adult females; two of these events were observed and another occurred when researchers

intervened to improve the survival of a prematurely weaned pup. 

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for nine seals that completed a total of 15

movements between FFS and either Necker, Laysan, or Lisianski Islands (Tables 2.5a

and b). One adult female, last sighted in 1994 as a pup, was seen twice, once at FFS and

subsequently at Necker Island in 2000. 

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, mounting attempts by male Hawaiian monk seals,

emaciation, and other/unknown factors resulted in 29 life-threatening conditions, which

led to the confirmed deaths of six animals and the probable death of 11 seals (seven of

which were nursing pups) (Table 2.6). No incidents of adult male aggression were

observed; however, one seal received injuries characteristic of male mounting, and two

weaned pups received seal-inflicted injuries possibly caused by adult males. No seals

were entangled in marine debris. In addition to incidents summarized in Table 2.6, one

yearling had received an entanglement scar since the previous season. Five immature

seals were found behind the deteriorating seawall at Tern Island. The seals were either

removed or guided out by researchers. No aborted fetuses were found.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff, particularly Brian Allen and Anthony Palermo at

Tern Island for their unfailing support and assistance with data collection, particularly

tagging weaned pups and monitoring and rescuing seals stranded behind the seawall. 

Special thanks to Suzanne Canja and Thea Johanos for their data collection and tagging

of weaned pups, Brad Ryon for the health assessment sampling, and Don Hawn for his

boat-handling skills and maintenance of boats and engines. Allison Veit is

acknowledged for her advice on navigation within the atoll. We thank USFWS

volunteer, Helen Resoup, for assisting with a seal necropsy. In addition, we thank

Vanessa Pepi and Aaron Dietrich for documenting pupping on East Islet during turtle

nesting studies. We thank the captain, officers, and crew of the NOAA ship

Townsend Cromwell and the pilots of Pearl Pacific Enterprises for logistical assistance.
15

TABLES

for French Frigate Shoals
16
17

Table 2.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 7) of Hawaiian monk seals at

 French Frigate Shoals from June 20 to August 2, 2000.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 85.0 6.3

Male 24.4 4.8

Female 55.3 4.4

Unknown 5.3 2.5

Subadults 8.3 3.7

Male 3.0 1.4

Female 4.6 2.4

Unknown 0.7 1.0

Juveniles 12.9 3.8

Male 5.0 2.4

Female 7.0 2.6

Unknown 0.9 1.5

Pups 38.4 3.1

Male 15.9 3.2

Female 14.4 2.7

Unknown 8.1 3.4

Non-pup total 106.1 9.7

Grand total 144.6 12.0
18

Table 2.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal subpopulation at French Frigate

 Shoals during the spring and summer of 2000. These numbers are an

 unknown proportion of the entire subpopulation as many untagged adults

 could not be uniquely identified. All known parturient females and pups born

 during the calendar year are included. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 80a

123a

0 203 0.7:1

Subadults 10 15 0 25 0.7:1

Juveniles 21 26 0 47 0.8:1

Pups 30 32 5

b

67 0.9:1

Non-pup Total 111 164 0 275 0.7:1

Grand Total 141 196 5

b

342 0.7:1

a

 These numbers are an unknown proportion of the entire adult subpopulation.

b

 Includes one perinatal pup death.
19

Table 2.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at French Frigate Shoals and

 resighted at any location in 2000.

Cohort year

Age

(years) Sex

Number

originally

tagged

Number

resighted

 in 2000

1984 16 Male

Female

49

43

9

a

13b

1985 15 Male

Female

48

38

 5a,c

10b

1986 14 Male

Female

52

48

 8a

18a,b

1987 13 Male

Female

55

51

10

8

1988 12 Male

Female

52

62

4

5

1989 11 Male

Female

51

50

6

6

b

1990 10 Male

Female

38

41

1

8

b

1991 9 Male

Female

24

44

0

4

b

1992 8 Male

Female

36

55

2

10b

1993 7 Male

Female

40

39

3

2

1994 6 Male

Female

47

48

1

7

b

1995 5 Male

Female

29

26

2

13b

1996 4 Male

Female

39

30

4

3

1997 3 Male

Female

32

19

1

1

1998 2 Male

Female

49

39

13

12

1999 1 Male

Female

30

30

21

22

a

 Cohort survivors include seals removed from French Frigate Shoals for rehabilitation

that remain in permanent captivity (n = 14).

b

 Cohort survivors include seals removed from French Frigate Shoals for rehabilitation or

direct translocation. These seals were released at Kure or Midway Atoll (n = 19).

c

 Survivors include a seal with broken tags that could be identified by cohort but could not

be matched with its original identity.
20

Table 2.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at French Frigate Shoals in 2000.

 Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 30 32 5 67

Died/probably died 

prior to weaning

3 1 5 9

Weaned 27 31a0 58

Tagged 27 30 0 57 

a

 One pup was born prior to December 8, weaned in January 2001, and was not tagged.

Table 2.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at French

 Frigate Shoals in 2000. Nursing periods were calculated where birth and

 weaning dates were both known or occurred within a range of 4 days or less.

 All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period

 (days) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal

length (cm)

Mean 37.2 108.7 125.2

Standard deviation 5.6 9.1 6.3

n 6 40 40
21

Table 2.5a.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals to French Frigate Shoals

 from other locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two

 locations. One seal made more than one trip.

Original location Number of trips, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 4 adult female

1 subadult male

2 subadult female

Lisianski Island 1 subadult male 

Table 2.5b.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals from French Frigate Shoals

 to other locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two

 locations. One seal made more than one trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

Necker Island 1 adult female

Laysan Island 1 adult male

4 adult female 

1 subadult female
22

Table 2.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at French Frigate Shoals in

 2000. 

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Male

Female

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Juvenile Male 2 2 0 0

Weaned pup Male

Female

3

1

3

1

0

0

0

0

Nursing pup Male 1 0 1 0

Mounting by Males

Subadult Female 1 0 0 1

Entanglement

(none observed)

Emaciation

Adult Female 2 0 1

a

1

Juvenile Male

Female 

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

Other/Unknown

Subadult Male 1 0 1 0

Juvenile Female 1 0 1 0

Weaned pup Male

Female

3

1

3

b

1

0

0

0

0

Nursing pup Male

Female

Unknown

2

1

5

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

1

4

Pup Unknown 1 0 1

c

0

a

 Seal was observed prior to death in poor condition, with opacities in both eyes. A fresh

 large shark bite was present on the carcass when the seal was found dead.

b

 Two weaned pups had seal-inflicted dorsal injuries.

c

 Bones found in October, unknown if the pup was nursing or weaned at time of death.
23

CHAPTER 3. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

LAYSAN ISLAND, 2000

Dorothy M. Dick, Jacqueline M. Pearson, 

Alexander S. Wegmann, and Brenda L. Becker

25

Laysan Island (lat. 25°42'N, long. 171°44'W) is located ca. 1,300 km northwest of

Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1). This island lies within the

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and is one of the six primary haulout and

pupping locations of the Hawaiian monk seal.

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian

monk seals at Laysan Island in 1981. In 2000, research was conducted by NMFS during

March 2-July 28, and incidental observations were recorded by U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service (USFWS) personnel during the remainder of the year. The perimeter of the

island (ca. 11 km) was divided into 20 sectors using artificial or natural landmarks (Fig.

3.1). Research objectives specific to this subpopulation in 2000 included (1) assessment

of maternity and pup exchanges and (2) documentation of male behavioral patterns and

aggression, including incidence of mobbing. Due to concerns about premature births that

occurred in January and February 2000, additional research objectives included

epidemiological sampling for health and disease assessment studies.

 

Censuses and Patrols

Censuses, patrols, and incidentals were scheduled to ensure that the entire island

perimeter was monitored at least once daily during March 4-July 14. Censuses (n = 24)

were conducted by two observers every fourth day from April 22 to July 25. Each census

began at 1300 Hawaii standard time and continued for 2.3 to 3.2 h.

Standardized behavior patrols were conducted on 21 noncensus days from March

24 to July 14 to assess activity patterns of adults and large subadults, document male

aggression, and detect mobbing incidents. During behavior patrols, observer attention

was directed out to sea as much as possible, as mobbings have been observed most

frequently in the water. 

Full-island standardized incidental surveys (n = 77) were conducted on noncensus

and nonbehavior patrol days from March 4 to July 13 to record females with pups,

weaned pups, injured seals, and molting animals. If observed, major behavioral

interactions (i.e., male mobbing/harassment) were also recorded. Additional partial

island incidental surveys were conducted as needed.

Individual Identification

A total of 327 individuals (284 excluding pups) were identified by existing or

applied tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. Bleach marks were applied to 263
26

seals, including 37 nursing pups. Most weaned pups (n = 32) were tagged with Temple

Tags and a single passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. The four pups still nursing

when the NMFS staff left Laysan, received only post-molt bleaches as applied by USFWS

personnel. Two of these pups were tagged in April 2001. An additional 11 adult seals

(10 male, 1 female) were retagged with temple tags and/or received pit tags during the

epidemiological sampling. 

Collection of Samples

One hundred and six scat and eight spew samples were collected. Skin punches

were collected from 32 weaned pups during tagging, from 6 adult seals during retagging,

and from 3 seals during necropsies. Shed molt samples were collected from 12 seals. 

Five placentas were also sampled. Three necropsies were performed and tissue samples

were collected from each of the seal carcasses. Various additional samples were collected

from 17 seals during the epidemiological study. In total, 793 pieces of potentially

entangling debris were inventoried and left at a secure site on the island to be removed

later.

Special Studies

Health and Disease Study

During January and February 2000, USFWS personnel stationed on Laysan

reported the perinatal deaths of the first four pups, all born within a 4-week period. 

Measurements indicated that these pups were probably premature, and concern over these

unexplained deaths led to the early March deployment of a research team for a 26-day

field camp to collect epidemiological samples and prepare for on-site response if further

mortalities occurred. During this time 16 seals (10 adult males, 2 adult females, 2

juvenile males, and 2 juvenile females) were restrained specifically to collect blood, fecal

samples, virological and bacteriological swabs, and blubber biopsies. In addition, vaginal

swabs were obtained without restraint from an adult female thought to have been the

mother of one of the dead pups. Virological and bacteriological swabs were also

collected from five placentas after five live births. Tagging and retagging of sampled

seals occurred opportunistically. Although no further perinatal pup deaths occurred

during this study, a single subsequent abortion/perinatal death occurred at the end of

April. 

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The mean (±SD) of 24 censuses was 103.3 seals (±10.9) including pups, and 82.0

seals (±9.0) excluding pups (Table 3.1). The total spring-summer subpopulation was 315
27

individuals, 272 excluding pups (Table 3.2). This number is a subset of the total

identified in the calendar year. The sex ratio for older (>17 years of age) and unknown

aged adults was 1.0:1 (28 males: 28 females), whereas the ratio for younger adults (<17

years of age) was ca. 0.8:1 (46 males: 57 females). The numbers of tagged known-age

seals born at Laysan Island during the period from 1983 to 1999, and resighted at any

location in 2000, are summarized in Table 3.3. 

Reproduction

At least 43 pups were born at Laysan Island in 2000: 36 were successfully

weaned, 5 died and 2 disappeared prior to weaning (Table 3.4a). Nursing periods and

measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table 3.4b. The birth rate measured as

the number of pups divided by the number of adult-sized females in the subpopulation x

100 was 50.6% ((43/85) x 100). At least 15 pup exchanges occurred, involving 17

nursing females. 

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 25 seals that completed a total of 55

movements between Laysan Island and either Molokai, French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski

Island, or Midway Atoll (Tables 3.5a and b). An adult female made the first ever

documented movement from Laysan Island to Molokai.

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, mounting attempts by male Hawaiian monk seals,

entanglement in marine debris, emaciation, and other/unknown factors led to 25 lifethreatening conditions, which resulted in the confirmed deaths of eight animals and the

disappearance of two other seals (Table 3.6). Although no incidents of prolonged adult

male aggression were observed, one adult female suffered moderate dorsal injuries

indicative of male mounting. One seal was entangled and escaped independently without

obvious injury. In addition to the incidents presented in Table 3.6, two adult females and

two weaned pups suffered minor dorsal scratches. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff and thank the captain and crew members of the SS

Midway and the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell. Special thanks are extended to Chris

Eggleston, Holly Gellerman, Dr. Marty Haulena, and Brad Ryon for their assistance

during the epidemiological sampling. Thanks also to Chris Depkin, Jennifer Hale,

Marvin Friel, and Eric Lund for their data collection and seal bleaching assistance. 

29

TABLES

for Laysan Island

31

Table 3.1.--Summary statistics for censuses (n = 24) of Hawaiian monk seals at Laysan

 Island from April 22 to July 25, 2000.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 48.6 4.5

Male 17.3 4.5

Female 30.0 3.3

Unknown 1.3 1.4

Subadults 18.4 7.8

Male 7.8 3.9

Female 9.8 4.6

Unknown 0.8 0.8

Juveniles 15.0 5.3

Male 5.0 2.3

Female 9.7 4.1

Unknown 0.3 0.5

Pups 21.3 5.7

Male 8.9 2.9

Female 12.3 3.2

Unknown 0.0 0.2

Non-pup total 82.0 9.0

Grand total 103.3 10.9
32

Table 3.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal subpopulation at Laysan Island

 during the spring and summer of 2000. All known parturient females and

 pups born during the calendar year are included. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 74 85 0 159 0.9:1

Subadults 26 30 0 56 0.9:1

Juveniles 20 37 0 57 0.5:1

Pups 18 22 3 43 0.8:1

Non-pup total 120 152 0 272 0.8:1

Grand total 138 174 3 315 0.8:1
33

Table 3.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Laysan Island and resighted at

 any location in 2000.

Cohort year

Age

(years) Sex

Numb er originally

tagged

Number resighted 

in 2000

1983 17 Male

Female

10

10

1

6

1984 16 Male

Female

16

13

3

5

1985 15 Male

Female

16

14

1

4

1986 14 Male

Female

15

17

2

2

1987 13 Male

Female

13

15

3

6

1988 12 Male

Female

23

17

4

3

1989 11 Male

Female

16

13

2

2

1990 10 Male

Female

7

9

2

3

1991 9 Male

Female

18

13

7

6

1992 8 Male

Female

18

14

2

4

1993 7 Male

Female

23

14

4

5

1994 6 Male

Female

18

29

8

8

1995 5 Male

Female

16

21

7

9

1996 4 Male

Female

23

21

11

12

1997 3 Male

Female

19

16

8

8

1998 2 Male

Female

Unknown

24

20

1

15

15

0

1999 1 Male

Female

20

34

11

30
34

Table 3.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Laysan Island in 2000.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 18 22 3 43

Died/probably died

prior to weaning

3

a

1

a 3b

7

Weaned 15 21 0 36c

Tagged 14 20 0 34c 

a

 All cases involve the perinatal death of premature pup(s). 

b

 The perinatal death of one premature pup and the disappearance of two pups <12 days

 after birth.

c

 Includes four pups (one male and three females) weaned after NMFS staff left Laysan. 

 Post-molt bleaches were applied by USFWS personnel. Two of these pups (both

 female) were tagged in April 2001.

Table 3.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Laysan

 Island in 2000. Nursing periods were calculated where birth and weaning

 dates were both known or occurred within a range of 4 days or less. All

 measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period

 (days) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal

length (cm)

Mean 37.4 107.2 126.1

Standard deviation 6.7 11.5 6.2

n 32 32 32
35

Table 3.5a.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Laysan Island from other

locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. Six

seals made more than one observed trip.

Original location Number of trips, size, and sex class

French Frigate Shoals 1 adult male

4 adult female

1 subadult female

Lisianski Island 1 adult male

8 adult female,

4 subadult male

4 subadult female

1 juvenile female

Table 3.5b.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Laysan Island to other

locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. Eight

seals made more than one observed trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

Molokai 1 adult female

French Frigate Shoals 4 adult female

1 subadult male

2 subadult female

Lisianski Island 1 adult male

9 adult female

5 subadult male

7 subadult female

Midway Atoll 1 adult female
36

Table 3.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Laysan Island in 2000.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Male

Female

3

3

3

a

3

0

0

0

0

Juvenile Female 2 2 0 0

Mounting by Males

Adult Female 1 1 0 0

Entanglement

Adult Female 1

b

0 0 0

Emaciation

Adult Female 1 0 1

c

0

Other/Unknown

Adult Female 2 2 0 0

Subadult Male 1 1 0 0

Juvenile Male

Female

1

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

Weaned pup Male

Female

1

1

1

0

0

1

d

0

0

Nursing pup Male

Female

Unknown

3

1

3

0

0

0

3

e

1

e

1

e

0

0

2

f

a

 One injured seal was also emaciated.

b

 Seal freed itself and had no obvious injury.

c

 Seal was considered emaciated since 1997. Seal was sighted alive February 23 and

 found dead March 2. A full necropsy was performed.

d

 Carcass had shark bite, but this did not appear to be the cause of death.

e

 Perinatal death of premature pup(s).

f

 Pups disappeared and were never sighted again; 1 #12 days old, 1 #7 days old.
37

CHAPTER 4. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON 

LISIANSKI ISLAND, 2000

Petra Bertilsson-Friedman, Tishy-Linda M. Bunk, 

Erin E. Moreland, and Dorothy M. Dick

39

Lisianski Island (lat. 26°02'N, long. 174°00'W) is one of the primary haulout and

pupping locations of the Hawaiian monk seal. The island is located ca. 1,760 km

northwest of Oahu (Fig. 1.1), and is part of Neva Shoal, a shallow reef bank within the

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge.

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian

monk seals at Lisianski Island in 1981. In 2000, research was conducted by NMFS

during March 29-July 27 and October 11-30. The perimeter of the island was divided

into 20 sectors using artificial or natural landmarks (Fig. 4.1). Research objectives

specific to this subpopulation in 2000 included (1) assessment of maternity and pup

exchanges; (2) documentation of adult male behavioral patterns and aggression, including

incidence of mobbing; (3) deployment of satellite-linked dive recorders (SLDRs), health

and disease assessment and retagging; and (4) large-scale marine debris removal from

reefs around the island.

Censuses and Patrols

Censuses and patrols were scheduled to ensure that the entire island was

monitored at least once daily during April 5-July 27. Censuses (n = 24) were conducted

by two observers every fourth day from April 18 to July 23, beginning at 1300 Hawaii

standard time and continuing from 1.6 to 2.7 h. 

Standardized behavior patrols were conducted on 21 noncensus days from April

20 to July 17 to assess activity patterns of adults and large subadults, document male

aggression, and detect mobbing incidents. During behavior patrols, attention was

directed out to sea as much as possible as mobbing has been observed most frequently in

the water. 

Full-island standardized incidental surveys (n = 73) were conducted on noncensus

and nonbehavior patrol days during March 29-July 27 and October 13-25 to record

females with pups, weaned pups, injured seals, and molting animals. If observed, major

behavioral interactions (i.e., male mobbing/harassments) were also recorded. Additional

partial island incidental surveys were conducted as needed. 

 

Individual Identification

A total of 212 individuals (192 excluding pups) were identified by existing or

applied tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 18) were
40

tagged with Temple Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. One weaned pup

was retagged to replace a broken tag. During the October camp, 29 seals were retagged

with Temple Tags and/or PIT tags, and 8 seals (including an untagged prematurely

weaned pup) were newly tagged with Temple Tags and PIT tags.

Collection of Samples

One hundred-eight scat and six spew samples were collected. Skin punches were

collected from 18 weaned pups during tagging, 31 adults seals during tagging or

retagging, and 2 seals during necropsies. Necropsies were performed and tissue samples

were collected from two dead male seals (an adult and a pup) and an aborted fetus. 

Skeletal samples were collected from both dead seals. Shed molt samples were collected

from 14 seals. Various additional samples were collected from 29 seals during the

epidemiological study. In total, 638 pieces of potentially entangling debris were collected

and removed from Lisianski Island. 

Special Studies

Foraging Ecology, Health, and Disease

During October 2000, a field camp was deployed to (1) attach satellite-linked dive

recorders (SLDRs) in order to characterize at-sea habitat use, (2) collect epidemiological

samples (blood, swabs, blubber, etc.) for health and disease assessment, and (3) retag or

newly tag seals to facilitate individual identification in the subpopulation. A total of 52

seals were handled. Twenty-eight seals were fully sampled for the health and disease

assessment: 13 received SLDRs and Temple and/or PIT tags, 13 received SLDRs only, 1

received new identification tags only, and 1 seal was not retagged. In addition, 23 seals

received Temple and/or PIT tags, and vaginal swabs were obtained without restraint from

an adult female located less than 2 feet from (and the possible mother of) an aborted

fetus.

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs

A cooperative multiagency coral reef cleanup was conducted at Lisianski Island in

October 2000 supported by the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell and the USCG cutter

Kukui. Personnel from 17 agencies removed debris to reduce entanglement hazards to

monk seals and other marine life and document the extent of reef debris fouling. Debris

collected and stored on the beaches during 2000 were also removed. In total, 2,035 kg of

debris was recovered: 80 kg from the reef and 1,955 kg from the beaches.
41

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The mean (±SD) of 24 censuses was 69.4 seals (±9.3) including pups, and 57.3

seals (±8.2) excluding pups (Table 4.1). The total spring-summer subpopulation was 204

individuals, 184 excluding pups (Table 4.2). This number is a subset of the total

identified during the calendar year. The sex ratio for older adults (>18 years of age) was

strongly skewed toward males at 2.9:1 (41 males:14 females), whereas the ratio for

younger adults (#18 years of age) was at unity at 1:1 (33 males:33 females). The

numbers of tagged known-age seals born at Lisianski Island from 1982 to 1999, and

resighted at any location in 2000, are summarized in Table 4.3.

Reproduction

At least 20 pups were born at Lisianski Island in 2000; 18 were successfully

weaned, and 2 died or disappeared prior to weaning. No pups were still nursing at the end

of this study (Table 4.4a). One fetus was found in October 2000. Nursing periods and

measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table 4.4b. The birth rate measured as

the number of pups born divided by the number of adult-sized females in the

subpopulation x 100 was 42.6% ((20/47) x 100). At least 10 pup exchanges occurred,

involving 8 nursing females.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 21 seals that completed a total of 48

movements between Lisianski Island and either French Frigate Shoals, Laysan, Pearl and

Hermes Reef, or Midway Atoll (Tables 4.5a and b).

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, mounting attempts by male Hawaiian monk seals,

emaciation, and unknown factors led to 15 life-threatening conditions, which resulted in

the confirmed deaths of two animals and the probable death of one other seal (Table 4.6). 

No entanglements were observed. In addition to incidents summarized in Table 4.6, five

yearlings were considered emaciated, five seals were noted with eye opacities, and an

aborted fetus was found in October 2000. Male harassment of weaned pups/juveniles

was observed on 11 different occasions; no fatalities occurred and only one incident

resulted in obvious injury. At least 13 weaned pups were noted with minor dorsal

scratches from unobserved intraspecies activity. 
42

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff. We thank the captain, officers, and crew of the

NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell, and the SS Midway for logistical assistance. Special

thanks are extended to Brenda Becker for her support in establishing the field camp. We

also thank Brent Stewart and Pam Yochem, DVM of Hubbs Sea World Research Institute

and Lizabeth Kashinsky and Jason Baker for their efforts during the October foraging

ecology, health, and disease studies.
43

TABLES

for Lisianski Island
44
45

Table 4.1.--Summary statistics for censuses (n = 24) of Hawaiian monk seals at Lisianski

 Island from April 18 to July 23, 2000.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 39.4 7.8

Male 20.6 5.8

Female 17.1 3.8

Unknown 1.7 2.6

Subadults 10.0 3.2

Male 5.5 2.6

Female 4.1 1.8

Unknown 0.3 0.8

Juveniles 7.9 3.3

Male 4.4 2.4

Female 3.5 1.6

Unknown 0.0 0.2

Pups 12.1 3.0

Male 6.3 1.3

Female 5.8 2.1

Unknown 0.0 0.0

Non-pup total 57.3 8.2

Grand total 69.4 9.3
46

Table 4.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal subpopulation at Lisianski Island

 during the spring and summer of 2000. All known parturient females and

 all pups born during the calendar year are included. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 74 47 0 121 1.6:1

Subadults 18 12 0 30 1.5:1

Juveniles 18 15 0 33 1.2:1

Pups 10 9 1 20 1.1:1

Non-pup total 110 74 0 184 1.5:1

Grand total 120 83 1 204 1.4:1
47

Table 4.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Lisianski Island and resighted

 at any location in 2000.

Cohort year

Age

(years) Sex

Number originally

tagged

Number resighted

in 2000

1982 18 Male

Female

7

6

2

1

1983 17 Male

Female

6

18

2

7

1984 16 Male

Female

10

5

4

2

1985 15 Male

Female

5

9

2

1

1986 14 Male

Female

11

9

6

3

1987 13 Male

Female

12

6

1

1

1988 12 Male

Female

10

8

 5

6

1989 11 Male

Female

–

--

–

--

1990 10 Male

Female

8

9

4

3

1991 9 Male

Female

9

6

5

2

1992 8 Male

Female

13

8

6

4

1993 7 Male

Female

4

9

1

2

1994 6 Male

Female

 4

5

1

1

1995 5 Male

Female

 7

10

2

2

1996 4 Male

Female

 9

13

3

1

1997 3 Male

Female

 10

9

5

4

1998 2 Male

Female

 10

11

5

6

1999 1 Male

Female

 16

11

12

6
48

Table 4.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Lisianski Island in 2000.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 10 9 1 20

Died /probably died prior to

weaning

1 0 1 2

Weaned 9 9 0 18

Tagged 9 9

a

0 18

a

 Includes one pup that was tagged in October 2000.

Table 4.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Lisianski

 Island in 2000. Nursing periods were calculated where birth and weaning

 weaning dates were both known or occurred within a range of 4 days or less.

 All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period

 (days) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal

length (cm)

Mean 35.8 103.5 123.7

Standard deviation 6.2 12.8 6.0

n 13 15 14
49

Table 4.5a.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Lisianski Island from

 other locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. 

 Seven seals made more than one observed trip.

Original location Number of trips, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 1 adult male

9 adult female

5 subadult male

7 subadult female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 adult male

1 adult female

1 subadult male

Midway Atoll 1 adult female

Table 4.5b.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Lisianski Island to

 other locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. 

 Five seals made more than one observed trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

French Frigate Shoals 1 subadult male

Laysan Island 1 adult male

8 adult female

4 subadult male

4 subadult female

1 juvenile female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 2 adult male

1 subadult female
50

Table 4.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Lisianski Island in 2000.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Female 2 2 0 0

Subadult Female 1 1 0 0

Juvenile Male 1 1 0 0

Mounting by Males

Adult Female 3 3 0 0

Subadult Female 1 1 0 0

Entanglement

(none observed)

Emaciation

Adult Male 1 0 1

a

0

Unknown

Adult Male

Female

2

1

2

1

0

0

0

0

Weaned pup Female 1

b

1 0 0

Nursing pup Male

Unknown

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

a

 This seal was thin and then bitten by a shark. The injuries healed, but the seal became

 emaciated and died. Shark injury not considered primary cause of death.

b

 This seal was prematurely weaned after nursing 25 days and suffered a severe eye injury

 which probably led to loss of one eye.
51

CHAPTER 5. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

PEARL AND HERMES REEF, 2000

Michelle Wainstein and Stephani Holzwarth

53

Pearl and Hermes Reef (lat. 27°55'N, long. 175°45'W) is one of the primary

haulout and pupping locations of the Hawaiian monk seal. This atoll is located ca.

1,900 km northwest of Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and is part of the

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge (Fig. 1.1). Pearl and Hermes is composed of

four vegetated and three nonvegetated sand islets enclosed in a fringing reef (Fig. 5.1).

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian

monk seals at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1982. In 2000, research was conducted by

NMFS May 18-July 25. The perimeters of the four larger vegetated islets were divided

into sectors using natural landmarks. Research objectives specific to the subpopulation

in 2000 included large-scale marine debris removal from the fringing reef.

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 10) were conducted every sixth day, on average, from May 27

to July 22. Each atoll census began between 0730 and 1730 and ended between 0812 and

1812 Hawaii standard time. All islets were censused on foot by one or two persons. In

addition, incidental patrols were conducted opportunistically to resight seals tagged in

previous years. 

Individual Identification

A total of 247 individuals (216 excluding pups) were identified by existing or

applied tags, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 22) were tagged with

Temple Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. 

Collection of Samples

One hundred-six scat and four spew samples were collected. Skin punches were

collected from 21 seals during tagging. One skeletal sample was collected. In total, 665

items of potentially entangling debris were collected, inventoried, and stored for future

removal. In addition, the GPS positions of 13 large, unretrievable debris items were

recorded for relocation during future removal efforts.
54

Special Studies

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs

A cooperative multiagency coral reef cleanup was conducted at Pearl and Hermes

Reef in October 2000 supported by the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell and the USCG

cutter Kukui. Personnel from 17 agencies removed debris from reefs to reduce these

entanglement hazards to monk seals and other marine life and document the extent of reef

debris fouling. Debris collected and stored on the beaches during the main 2000 field

season were also removed. In total, 9,866 kg of debris were recovered: 7,875 kg from the

reef and 1,991 kg from the beaches.

Noteworthy Events

Grounding of the Swordman I

On the morning of June 6, 2000, the 77-ft longliner Swordman I ran aground on

the perimeter reef of Pearl and Hermes Reef, approximately 4 miles northeast of

Southeast Island. The crew was rescued by the NMFS field personnel. There were

81,200 gallons of fuel on board; 79,000 gallons were recovered and the remainder spilled. 

A majority of the swordfish carcasses were contained within the fish hold of the vessel.

An oil spill response team evaluated the scene 1 week after the incident and determined

that the impact to the atoll’s wildlife and coral reefs were minimal. The authors found no

evidence of oiling or other direct impacts to Hawaiian monk seals. Salvage crews spent

approximately 2 weeks cleaning the vessel and preparing it for removal from the reef. On

July 27, 2000, the American Salvor, a salvage tug, removed the Swordman I from the

perimeter reef and sank it in 6,000 ft of water en route to Midway Atoll.

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The mean (±SD) of 10 atoll censuses was 100.1 seals (±14.6) including pups and

84.9 seals (±12.7) excluding pups (Table 5.1). The total spring-summer subpopulation

was 239 individuals, 208 excluding pups (Table 5.2). This number is a subset of the total

identified during the calendar year. The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at Pearl

and Hermes Reef during the period from 1983 to 1999 and resighted at any location in

2000 are summarized in Table 5.3.

Reproduction

At least 31 pups were born at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 2000: 22 were

successfully weaned, 1 died prior to weaning, and 8 were still nursing upon completion of

the study period (Table 5.4). The birth rate measured as the number of pups born divided
55

by the number of adult-sized females in the subpopulation x 100 was 46.3% ((31/67) x

100). Measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table 5.4.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 23 seals that completed a total of 32

movements between Pearl and Hermes Reef and either Lisianski Island, Midway Atoll, or

Kure Atoll (Tables 5.5a and b). 

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, entanglement in marine debris, and other/unknown

factors resulted in six life-threatening conditions which lead to the confirmed death of

one seal (Table 5.6). The partially mummified carcass of a pup was found on North

Island. In addition to the incidents presented in Table 5.6, a female weaned pup was

observed with fleshy tumors growing from her eye, eyebrow, and lip. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the captain, officers, and crew of the NOAA Ship Townsend Cromwell

for their logistical support. We also acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service, Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff and thank Brad Ryon

for participation in the oil spill response.
56
57

TABLES

for Pearl and Hermes Reef
58
59

Table 5.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 10) of the Hawaiian monk seal at

 Pearl and Hermes Reef from May 27 to July 22, 2000.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 53.5 7.9

Male 21.2 3.0

Female 26.6 6.0

Unknown 5.7 1.7

Subadults 16.1 6.1

Male 6.6 2.8

Female 7.8 3.7

Unknown 1.7 1.3

Juveniles 15.2 2.5

Male 5.1 1.4

Female 8.9 1.7

Unknown 1.2 0.6

Pups 15.2 3.5

Male 7.9 2.5

Female 6.2 1.7

Unknown 1.1 0.7

Non-pup total 84.9 12.7

Grand total 100.1 14.6
60

Table 5.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal subpopulation at Pearl and Hermes

 Reef during the summer of 2000. All known parturient females and pups

 born during the calendar year are included. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 64 67 0 131 1.0:1

Subadults 18 20 0 38 0.9:1

Juveniles 15 24 0 39 0.6:1

Pups 15 13 3 31 1.2:1

Non-pup total 97 111 0 208 0.9:1

Grand total 112 124 3 239 0.9:1
61

Table 5.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Pearl and Hermes Reef and

 resighted at any location in 2000.

Cohort year

Age

(years) Sex

Number

originally tagged

Number

resighted 

in 2000

1983 17 Male

Female

8

2

2

1

1984 16 Male

Female

5

8

3

3

1985 15 Male

Female

9

6

3

4

1986 14 Male

Female

Unknown

10

7

1

2

2

0

1987 13 Male

Female

14

7

6

3

1988 12 Male

Female

12

6

9

4

1989 11 Male

Female

8

6

5

3

1990 10 Male

Female

5

1

3

0

1991 9 Male

Female

10

11

7

5

1992 8 Male

Female

13

10

9

8

1993 7 Male

Female

14

7

5

4

1994 6 Male

Female

--

--

–

--

1995 5 Male

Female

15

12

8

6

1996 4 Male

Female

11

12

2

5

1997 3 Male

Female

16

11

10

7

1998 2 Male

Female

8

21

4

16

1999 1 Male

Female

11

15

8

9
62

Table 5.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 2000.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 15 13 3 31

Died prior to weaning 0 0 1 1

Still nursing 3 3 2 8

Weaned 12 10 0 22

Tagged 12 10 0 22

Table 5.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Pearl and

Hermes Reef in 2000. All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after

weaning. 

Nursing

period (days) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal length

(cm)

Mean 40 103.9 122.8

Standard deviation - 8.0 7.1

n 1 12 12
63

Table 5.5a.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Pearl and Hermes Reef

 from other locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two

 locations. No seals made more than one observed trip.

Original location Number of trips, size, and sex class

Lisianski Island 2 adult male

1 subadult female

Midway Atoll 5 adult male

3 adult female

2 subadult female

Kure Atoll 1 adult male

1 adult female

Table 5.5b.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Pearl and Hermes

 Reef to other locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two

 locations. No seals made more than one observed trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

Lisianski Island 1 adult male

1 adult female

1 subadult male

Midway Atoll 2 adult male

7 adult female

2 subadult female

Kure Atoll 2 adult male

1 adult female
64

Table 5.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Pearl and Hermes Reef in

 2000.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Male 1

 1 0 0

Mounting by Males

(none observed)

Entanglement

Subadult Female 1

a 0 0 0

Weaned pup Female 1

a 1 0 0

Other/Unknown

Subadult Female 1

b 1 0 0

Weaned pup Female 1

c 1 0 0

Nursing pup Unknown 1

d 0 1 0

aSeal released by observers.

bCookie cutter shark bite.

cApproximately 15 cm diameter abscess on back.

dPartially mummified carcass found.
65

CHAPTER 6. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL AT

MIDWAY ATOLL, 2000

Suzanne Canja, Bruce Casler, Wayne Sentman, and Cynthia Vanderlip

67

Midway Atoll (lat. 28°14'N, long. 177°22'W) is one of the primary haulout and

pupping locations of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal. This atoll is located 2,100 km

northwest of Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1) and comprises a

circular atoll reef approximately 9 km in diameter, enclosing a lagoon and three

permanent islets inside the southern part of the reef (Fig. 6.1). Eastern and Spit are

uninhabited. Sand Island was the site of a U.S. Naval Air base from ca. 1939 until 1993. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) had maintained an overlay refuge (Midway

Atoll National Wildlife Refuge) at the site since 1988 until full authority was transferred

to the USFWS in October 1996. In 1996 USFWS joined Midway Phoenix Corporation

(MPC) in a cooperative agreement. Through this agreement MPC maintains the

infrastructure and operates the airport and harbor. Additionally, this agreement enables

MPC to operate ecotourism and recreational ventures. 

Beach counts of the Hawaiian monk seal at Midway Atoll averaged 56 animals in

the late 1950s (Kenyon, 1972) but declined severely by the late 1960s; a single seal was

observed during an aerial survey in 1968 (Kenyon, 1972). Currently, recovery is

underway because of immigration from nearby Kure Atoll and Pearl and Hermes Reef

and an increasing number of seals born on Midway Atoll. Recovery of this subpopulation

remains an important management goal (Gilmartin and Antonelis, 1998).

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began limited monitoring of

Hawaiian monk seals at Midway Atoll in 1983. This effort was increased to year-round

monitoring in 1997 in collaboration with researchers from Oceanic Society (OS) and

Hawaii Wildlife Fund (HWF). HWF concluded its monitoring program January 31,

2000, and research was conducted through an agreement between the USFWS and NMFS

during February 20-September 30 and on December 31. Incidental observations were

recorded by USFWS and OS personnel during the rest of the year. The perimeters of the

three permanent islands were divided into sectors using artificial or natural landmarks. In

2000, research activities specific to Midway Atoll included (1) emergent reef surveys to

determine haulout patterns on these areas; (2) deployment of satellite-linked dive

recorders (SLDRs), health and disease assessment, and retagging; (3) assessment of

nearshore reef fish abundance; (4) survey for and removal of marine debris from

emergent reef areas; and (5) monitoring human impacts on seals to quantify occurrence

and potential effects on monk seal habitat usage.
68

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 27) were conducted every 7 days, on average, from January 5

to September 19. Each atoll census began between 0833 and 1640, and ended between

0922 and 1942 Hawaii standard time. All islands were censused on foot by one or two

persons. Patrols of Sand Island (n = 55), Eastern Island (n = 56), or Spit Island (n = 50)

were conducted on nonatoll census days during January 2-December 30 to identify and

resight seals. 

Individual Identification

A total of 89 individuals (75 excluding pups) were identified by existing or

applied tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 14) born at

Midway were tagged with Temple tags, and 13 of these were also tagged with passive

integrated transponder (PIT) tags. One prematurely weaned pup was not PIT tagged.

Collection of Samples

Eight scats and one placenta were collected. Tissue punches were collected from

14 weaned pups during tagging, and shed molt samples were collected from 13 seals. A

total of 597 items of potentially entangling marine debris totaling approximately 3,005 kg

were also collected, inventoried, and either destroyed or placed at Midway’s inner harbor

area to await transport to Honolulu. 

Special Studies

Emergent Reef Surveys

Patrols were conducted once per week on average, when weather allowed, along

the emergent reef areas of the North Reef (n = 25), the East Reef (n = 25) from January

16 to September 9, and only occasionally along the Southwest Reef (n = 4) from June 30

to July 21. Two people using kayaks and a motorboat surveyed the reefs for seals and

turtles. On 16 occasions, the North and East reef areas were surveyed within 1 day of atoll

counts to provide an estimate of atoll-wide beach/emergent reef counts. 

Foraging Ecology, Health, and Disease

During December 31, 2000 to January 6, 2001, a field camp was deployed to (1)

attach satellite-linked dive recorders (SLDRs) to characterize at sea habitat use, (2)

collect epidemiological samples (blood, swabs, blubber, etc.) for health and disease

assessment, and (3) retag or newly tag seals to facilitate individual identification in the

subpopulation. A total of 16 seals were handled (3 during the 2000 calendar year). All

three seals handled on December 31 were fully sampled for the health and disease

assessment and received SLDRs.
69

Prey Availability

In August, the Honolulu Laboratory, NMFS, conducted diving transects around

Midway Atoll to estimate densities of reef fishes. These surveys replicated those surveys

conducted at Midway Atoll during 1980-83, 1992, 1995-99 (see DeMartini et al., 1993). 

From 1998 through 2000 this study was expanded to assess fish abundance at deeper sites

(50-60 m). The results of this ongoing research will be reported elsewhere.

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs

From May to September, a total of 6,455 kg of marine debris were removed from

the emergent reef, primarily by USFWS with the collaboration of NMFS. A cooperative

multiagency coral reef cleanup effort in October 2000, supported by the NOAA ship

Townsend Cromwell and the USCG cutter Kukui, removed this debris as well as 7,457 kg

of other debris previously recovered by USFWS and NMFS personnel from reefs and

beaches and debris stored on Sand Island, Midway Atoll.

Noteworthy Events

Beach Monitoring and Public Education

During 2000, Sand Island beaches and trails were monitored for potential monk

seal disturbance and refuge violations. Most of the disturbance monitoring took place in

public use areas, but information about potential disturbance was also collected during

standard monk seal surveys of Sand Island’s closed beaches. Incidental surveys usually

took place 1-3 times each day, depending on the presence and location of a seal in public

areas. In all, from March 1 through September 30, 413 incidental surveys and 69

standard monk seal censuses of Sand Island were conducted. 

Other actions taken to help mitigate disturbance to seals at Midway in cooperation

with USFWS included creating a “red seal” sign system to alert residents and guests of a

seal’s presence in public-use areas on Sand Island, setting up a “no stopping zone” along

a stretch of shoreline where seals often haul up in vegetation within 3 m of a road and

creating a data sheet for use by USFWS on the MPC’s snorkel boat at the East emergent

reef mooring site to help assess whether this activity impacts seals in that area. 

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The mean (+SD) of 27 atoll censuses was 27.4 seals (+6.7) including pups and

21.9 seals (+6.5) excluding pups (Table 6.1). The total spring-summer subpopulation

was 71 seals, 57 excluding pups (Table 6.2). This number is a subset of the total

identified in the calendar year. The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at Midway
70

Islands during the period from 1988 to 1999 and resighted at any location in 2000 are

summarized in Table 6.3.

Reproduction

A minimum of 14 pups were born at Midway Atoll in 2000, a record number for

Midway, and all successfully weaned (Table 6.4a). The birth rate, measured as the

number of pups born divided by the number of adult females in the subpopulation x 100

was 58.3% ((14/24) x 100). At least three pup exchanges occurred between nursing

females. Nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table

6.4b.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 40 seals that completed a total of 68

movements between Midway Atoll and either Pearl and Hermes Reef or Kure Atoll

(Tables 6.5a and b). 

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, entanglement in marine debris, and emaciation led to

nine life-threatening conditions, which resulted in the probable death of one prematurely

weaned pup who disappeared after becoming emaciated (Table 6.6). Two seals were

entangled; one seal was released, the other seal was observed with a fresh entanglement

wound after apparently freeing itself. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Oceanic

Society, and Midway Phoenix Corporation. Special thanks are extended to Robert

Shallenberger, Refuge Manager; Ron Anglin, Refuge Manager; Nancy Hoffman, Refuge

Biologist; and Jennifer Schramm and Steve Dryden, Refuge Rangers. We also thank the

officers and crew of the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell for logistical assistance. 
71

TABLES

for Midway Atoll
72
73

Table 6.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 27) of Hawaiian monk seals at

 Midway Atoll from January 5 to September 19, 2000.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 10.4 3.8

Male 2.9 1.6

Female 7.3 3.0

Unknown 0.3 0.5

Subadults 4.6 2.2

Male 1.4 1.0

Female 3.0 1.5

Unknown 0.1 0.4

Juveniles 7.0 2.4

Male 4.0 1.3

Female 2.9 1.6

Unknown 0.1 0.3

Pups 5.4 3.8

Male 2.0 1.7

Female 3.3 2.5

Unknown 0.2 0.6

Non-pup total 21.9 6.5

Grand total 27.4 6.7
74

Table 6.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal subpopulation at Midway Atoll

 during the spring and summer of 2000. All known parturient females and

 pups born during the calendar year are included. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 10 24 34 0.4:1

Subadults 3 7 10 0.4:1

Juveniles 6 7 13 0.9:1

Pups 5 9 14 0.6:1

Non-pup total 19 38 57 0.5:1

Grand total 24 47 71 0.5:1
75

Table 6.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Midway Atoll and resighted at

 any location in 2000.

Cohort year

Age

(years) Sex

Number

originally

tagged

Number

resighted 

in 2000

1988 12 Male

Female

0

1

NA

1

1989 11 Male

Female

0

0

NA

NA

1990 10 Male

Female

0

0

NA

NA

1991 9 Male

Female

1

1

1

1

1992 8 Male

Female

0

1

NA

1

1993 7 Male

Female

1

0

0

NA

1994 6 Male

Female

0

0

NA

NA

1995 5 Male

Female

Unknown

1

6

1

0

1

0

1996 4 Male

Female

1

4

0

1

1997 3 Male

Female

3

6

2

5

1998 2 Male

Female

8

2

3

2

1999 1 Male

Female

7

4

4

4
76

Table 6.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Midway Atoll in 2000.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Total

Born 5 9 14

Died prior to weaning 0 0 0

Weaned 5 9 14

Tagged 5 9 14

Table 6.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Midway

 Atoll in 2000. Nursing periods were calculated where birth and weaning

 dates were both known or occurred within a range of 4 days or less. All

 measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period

 (days) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal

length (cm)

Mean 37.3 107.2 125.3

Standard deviation 5.3 13.0 7.8

n 13 12 12
77

Table 6.5a.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Midway Atoll from other

locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. Three

seals made more than one observed trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 1 adult female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 2 adult male

 7 adult female

 2 subadult female

Kure Atoll 9 adult male

 7 adult female

 1 subadult male

 1 subadult female

 1 juvenile male

Table 6.5b.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Midway Atoll to other

locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. Two

seals made more than one observed trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

Lisianski Island 1 adult female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 5 adult male

3 adult female

2 subadult female

Kure Atoll 10 adult male

10 adult female

 4 subadult male

1 juvenile female

 1 juvenile male
78

Table 6.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Midway Atoll in 2000.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Female 5 5 0 0

Subadult Male 1 1 0 0

Mounting by Males

(none observed)

Entanglement

Juvenile Male 1

a

0 0 0

Weaned pup Female 1

b

1 0 0

Emaciation

Weaned pup Female 1

c

0 0 1

a

 Seal was released by observers.

b

 Seal was sighted with a new entanglement wound around its neck after apparently

 freeing itself.

c

 Prematurely weaned pup disappeared after becoming emaciated.
79

CHAPTER 7. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL AT

KURE ATOLL, 2000

Irene T. Kinan and Lizabeth S. Kashinsky

81

Kure Atoll (lat. 28°25'N, long. 178°10'W) is one of the primary haulout and

pupping locations of the Hawaiian monk seal. The atoll is located ca. 2,300 km northwest

of Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1) and is a seabird sanctuary of the

State of Hawaii. The atoll consists of a circular fringing reef approximately 9 km in

diameter, an enclosed lagoon, one permanent vegetated islet (Green Island), two sand

islets (Sand and Shark Islets), and an ephemerally emergent area known as Stark Reef

(Fig. 7.1). From 1960 to 1992, Green Island was the site of a U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)

LORAN station, staffed by 20-30 USCG personnel. In July 1992, the station was closed

and vacated by the USCG, leaving the atoll uninhabited. In 1993, the USCG completed

removal of most infrastructure on Green Island. 

The Kure Atoll subpopulation of Hawaiian monk seals has been increasing in

recent years due, apparently in part, to a reduction of human disturbance and to two

capture and release programs designed to increase recruitment of females. The Head

Start Project (1981-91) involved the capture and protection of weaned female pups from

Kure Atoll during the transition phase from weaning to independent feeding. The

Rehabilitation Project (1984-91, 1993-95) involved the capture of undersized weaned

female pups from French Frigate Shoals, their rehabilitation on Oahu, and subsequent

transport of these seals to Kure Atoll for release. 

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on the Hawaiian

monk seal at Kure Atoll in 1981. In 2000, research was conducted by NMFS from May

15 to July 26. The perimeter of Green Island was divided into eight sectors, using

artificial or natural landmarks. Research objectives specific to this subpopulation in 2000

included (1) evaluating the success of past management efforts, (2) large-scale debris

removal from the fringing reef, and (3) assessing entanglement risks and other remaining

negative impacts following the Paradise Queen II grounding at Kure Atoll which

occurred on October 16, 1998.

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 13) were conducted every fourth day, on average, from May

26 to July 22. Each census began between 12:50 and 13:10 and ended between 14:20 and

14:50 Hawaii standard time. All islands were censused on foot by one or two persons. 

Shark islet and Stark Reef were not emergent and thus not surveyed during the 2000 field

season. Patrols were conducted on nonatoll census days to identify seals and monitor

locations used by parturient females.
82

Individual Identification

A total of 139 individuals (123, excluding pups) were identified by existing or

applied tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. Most weaned pups (n = 13) were

tagged with Temple Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. Two weaned

female pups (one large and the other prematurely weaned) were not captured for tagging. 

Collection of Samples

Fifty-five scat and four spew samples were collected. Skin punches were

collected from 13 weaned pups during tagging. Shed molt samples were collected from

20 seals. A necropsy was performed and tissue samples collected from a recently dead

pup. In total, 456 pieces of potentially entangling debris were inventoried. Of this debris,

one eel trap ring was removed and collected from a weaned pup’s snout, and three large

net aggregates (each > 200 kg) remain partially buried on Green Island in sector 4. The

remainder of inventoried debris items were either destroyed before the end of the field

season or left at a secure site to be removed later. 

Special Studies

Large-Scale Marine Debris Removal from Reefs

A cooperative multiagency coral reef cleanup was conducted at Kure Atoll in

October 2000 supported by the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell and the USCG cutter

Kukui. Personnel from 17 agencies removed debris to reduce these entanglement hazards

to monk seals and other marine life and document the extent of reef debris fouling. Debris

collected and stored on the beaches during the 2000 field season was also removed. In

total, 3,069 kg of debris were recovered: 1,664 kg from the reef and 1,405 kg from the

beaches.

Noteworthy Events

Impacts of Paradise Queen II Grounding

On October 16, 1998 the Paradise Queen II, a lobster fishing vessel, ran aground

on the eastern edge of Kure Atoll. In 2000, a large portion of the hull remained in the

water on the reef, but remnants of the wheel house and one other structural piece had

washed ashore on the eastern side of Green Island. The large portion of main deck which

originally migrated around the islet (in 1999) to sector 1 (west side) had come to rest in

2000 on the southwest point in sector 6. On occasion, monk seals utilized and hauled out

on wreck debris. East beaches of Green Island, which were littered with

nonbiodegradable insulating foam (from the interior of the hull) in 1999, were washed

clean or debris was washed up into the vegetation by winter storms in 2000. 
83

A cleanup effort was undertaken soon after Paradise Queen II ran aground to

remove hazardous material and collect lobster traps and other debris from the marine

environment. More lobster traps were removed in 1999, and over 200 remaining traps

were stacked on Green Island to await removal. Less than 15 traps were found on shore

during 2000. These were collected, and virtually all remaining traps (229) were removed

from Green Island during the multiagency cleanup effort in October. Some of the lead

(used to weigh traps) remains on the islet. It is unknown whether any lobster traps remain

in the waters of Kure Atoll. A large line conglomerate (> 500 lbs) left onshore in 1999

was not present in 2000. 

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The mean (±SD) of 13 atoll censuses was 59.3 seals (±10.0) including pups, and

51.6 seals (±9.3) excluding pups (Table 7.1). The total spring-summer subpopulation was

129 individuals, 113 excluding pups (Table 7.2). This number is a subset of the total

identified in the calendar year. Of the 42 adult females identified at Kure Atoll in 2000,

25 (60%) were involved in past management efforts (13 from the Head Start program, 9

rehabilitated from FFS, 2 translocated from FFS, and 1 translocated from Oahu). These

seals comprise roughly 20% of the total subpopulation. The numbers of tagged knownage seals born at Kure Atoll during the period from 1981 to 1999 and resighted at any

location in 2000 are summarized in Table 7.3.

Reproduction

At least 16 pups were born at Kure Atoll in 2000: 14 weaned successfully, 1

weaned prematurely and subsequently disappeared, and 1 died prior to weaning (Table

7.4a). Nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table 7.4b. 

The birth rate, measured as the number of pups born divided by the number of adult-sized

females in the subpopulation x 100 was 38.1% ((16/42) x 100). Eight of nine identified

parturient females were involved in past management efforts; four had been temporarily

maintained as pups in the Kure Atoll Head Start enclosure (one each in 1985 and 1991,

and two in 1988), and four were rehabilitated seals from FFS introduced to Kure as

yearlings via the Head Start enclosure (two in 1984 and two in 1989). 

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 29 seals that completed a total of 50

movements between Kure Atoll and either Pearl and Hermes Reef or Midway Atoll

(Table 7.5a and b).
84

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, entanglement in eel trap debris, and other/unknown

factors led to five life-threatening conditions, which resulted in the confirmed death of a

newborn pup from unknown causes and the probable death of a prematurely weaned

female pup (Table 7.6). One female pup (approximately 3 days old) died. A female pup

weaned prematurely at approximately 2 weeks old. This pup disappeared 16 June 2000

and is presumed dead. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the State of Hawaii; Department of Land and

Natural Resources, Division of Forestry and Wildlife; Ethan Shiinoki; and the captain,

officers, and crew of the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell for logistical support and

transport to and from Kure Atoll. 
85

TABLES

for Kure Atoll
86
87

Table 7.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 13) of Hawaiian monk seals at Kure

 Atoll from May 26 to July 22, 2000.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 31.1 6.9

Male 9.0 3.1

Female 17.2 3.5

Unknown 4.9 4.4

Subadults 11.3 4.0

Male 6.8 2.0

Female 3.0 1.6

Unknown 1.5 1.5

Juveniles 9.2 3.6

Male 5.8 2.2

Female 3.2 1.8

Unknown 0.2 0.6

Pups 7.7 1.8

Male 2.2 1.0

Female 4.6 1.5

Unknown 0.8 1.3

Non-pup total 51.6 9.3

Grand total 59.3 10.0
88

Table 7.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal subpopulation at Kure Atoll during

 the spring and summer of 2000. All known parturient females and pups born

 during the calendar year are included. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 31 42a 73 0.7:1

Subadults 11 5 16 2.2:1

Juveniles 12 12 24 1.0:1

Pups 5 11b 16 0.5:1

Non-pup total 54 59 113 0.9:1

Grand total 59 70 129 0.8:1

a Number includes 25 individuals involved in management programs (Head Start,

 Rehabilitation, and Translocation).

b Number includes one perinatal pup death and one prematurely weaned pup.
89

Table 7.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Kure Atoll and resighted at any 

 location in 2000.

Cohort year

Age

(years) Sex

Numb er originally

tagged

Number resighted

in 2000

1981 19 Male

Female

3

5

2

1

1982 18 Male

Female

1

3

0

2

1983 17 Male

Female

4

0

3

NA

1984 16 Male

Female

4

2

0

2

1985 15 Male

Female

2

3

1

2

1986 14 Male

Female

1

0

0

NA

1987 13 Male

Female

1

3

1

3

a

1988 12 Male

Female

2

5

2

2

1989 11 Male

Female

5

4

1

1

1990 10 Male

Female

3

3

0

2

1991 9 Male

Female

7

6

4

3

a

1992 8 Male

Female

5

8

3

5

1993 7 Male

Female

9

4

6

2

1994 6 Male

Female

3

0

0

NA

1995 5 Male

Female

6

5

4

3

1996 4 Male

Female

10

6

4

0

1997 3 Male

Female

9

7

1

3

1998 2 Male

Female

16

6

8

4

1999 1 Male

Female

8

13

4

9

a Cohort survivors include se als removed from K ure Atoll for rehabilitation. These seals (n = 2) were

 released at K ure or M idway Atoll.
90

Table 7.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Kure Atoll in 2000.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Total

Born 5 11 16

Died prior to weaning 0 1 1

Weaned 5 10a 15

Tagged 5 8 13

a

 Number includes one pup that weaned prematurely (at approximately 2 weeks old), and

 subsequently disappeared and probably died.

Table 7.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Kure

 Atoll in 2000. Nursing periods were calculated where birth and weaning

 dates were both known or occurred within a range of 4 days or less. All

 measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period

(days)

Axillary girth (cm) Straight dorsal

length (cm)

Mean 33.5 108.5 133.6

Standard deviation 6.4 10.0 4.5

n 2 7 7
91

Table 7.5a.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Kure Atoll from other

 locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. Two

 seals made more than one observed trip.

Original location Number of trips, size, and sex class

Midway Atoll 10 adult male

10 adult female

4 subadult male

1 juvenile male

1 juvenile female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 2 adult male

1 adult female

Table 7.5b.–Documented movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Kure Atoll to other

 locations in 2000, summarized by movements between two locations. Three

 seals made more than one observed trip.

Destination Number of trips, size, and sex class

Midway Atoll 9 adult male

7 adult female

1 subadult male

1 subadult female

1 juvenile male

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 adult male

1 adult female
92

Table 7.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Kure Atoll in 2000.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Female 2 2 0 0

Mounting by Males

(none observed)

Entanglement

Weaned pup Female 1

a

0 0 0

Other/Unknown

Weaned pup Female 1

b

0 0 1

Nursing pup Female 1

c

0 1 0

a

 Seal was released by observers.

b

 Pup weaned prematurely, approximately 2 weeks old.

c

 Pup found dead, approximately 3 days old.
93

CHAPTER 8. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

NIHOA AND NECKER ISLANDS, AND GARDNER PINNACLES, 2000

Jason D. Baker, Dorothy M. Dick, Irene T. Kinan, 

Chad H. Yoshinaga, and Thea C. Johanos 

95

Nihoa Island (lat. 23°04'N, long. 161°55'W), Necker Island (lat. 23°36'N, long.

164°42'W), and Gardner Pinnacles (lat. 25°00N, long. 167°55W) are located ca. 450, 750,

and 850 km, respectively, northwest of Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig.

1.1). These islands lie within the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. 

RESEARCH

In 2000, the National Marine Fisheries Service collected data at Nihoa Island on

July 20, at Necker Island on July 21, and at Gardner Pinnacles on July 31. The

perimeters of Nihoa and Necker Islands were divided into 3 and 10 sectors, respectively,

using natural landmarks (Fig. 8.1). Gardner Pinnacles was considered 1 sector. In 2000,

research objectives specific to the Nihoa Island, Necker Island, and Gardner Pinnacles

included assessment of pup production and the extent of migration between main

subpopulations and these locations.

Censuses and Patrols

A mixed boat and land survey was conducted on Nihoa Island by two observers

on July 20, beginning at 1236 Hawaii standard time and continuing for 1.5 h. 

A beach count was conducted on Necker Island by two observers on July 21,

beginning at 0854 Hawaii standard time and continuing for 4.0 h. 

A boat survey was conducted at Gardner Pinnacles by two observers on July 31,

beginning at 1331 Hawaii standard time and continuing for 2.0 h.

Individual Identification

Tagged seals were not observed on Nihoa Island. On Necker Island, one 6-yr-old

female was identified by tags applied at French Frigate Shoals. A subadult male was also

observed with yellow tags applied at French Frigate Shoals, but was not identified. At

Gardner Pinnacles, two adult males were observed with yellow tags applied at French

Frigate Shoals, but these seals were also not identified.

Collection of Samples

No samples were collected at Nihoa Island, Necker Island, or Gardner Pinnacles

in 2000.
96

RESULTS

Subpopulation Abundance and Composition

The census total for one count conducted on Nihoa Island was 22 seals (20,

excluding pups). The primary haulout beach at Nihoa Island was counted from a small

boat as landing was precluded by heavy surf. As such, the total count for the island

almost certainly underestimated the total number of seals present. The total for one count

conducted on Necker Island was 18 seals (17, excluding pups). The total for one count

conducted at Gardner Pinnacles was one adult seal. Additionally, two, seven, and two

seals were sighted in the water at Nihoa, Necker, and Gardner Pinnacles but not included

in the census total. Because of limited effort, the composition of the spring-summer

subpopulation was not determined at any of these locations.

Reproduction

In 2000, at least two nursing pups were born at Nihoa Island (both of unknown

sex) and at least one weaned male pup was seen at Necker Island. No pups were

observed at Gardner Pinnacles.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for two seals. An adult male moved from

Nihoa Island to Oahu. This seal was translocated from Laysan Island to the Island of

Hawaii in July 1994, resighted at Nihoa Island in July 1996, and resighted again on Oahu

in January 2000. Additionally, an adult female moved from French Frigate Shoals to

Necker Island. This seal was identified at Necker in 2000 and had been previously seen

at French Frigate Shoals earlier in 2000. Prior to that, the seal had not been identified

since 1994 when it was a weaned pup. Interatoll movement was not documented for seals

observed at Gardner Pinnacles.

Factors Affecting Survival

Factors affecting survival were not observed on Nihoa, Necker, or Gardner

Pinnacles in 2000. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff, and the captain, officers, and crew of the NOAA

ship Townsend Cromwell for logistical assistance.
97

REFERENCES
98
99

Aguirre, A. A. And J.S. Reif.

1998. Hawaiian monk seal epidemiology plan: health assessment and disease

status studies. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFSSWFC-280.

Alcorn, D. J.

1984. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1982. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-42, 37 p.

American Society of Mammalogists, Committee on Marine Mammals.

1967. Standard Measurements of Seals. J. Mammal. 48:459-462.

Boness, D. J.

1990. Fostering behavior in Hawaiian monk seals: is there a reproductive cost? 

Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 27:113-122.

Boness, D. J., M. P. Craig, L. Honigman, and S. Austin.

1998. Fostering behavior and the effect of female density in Hawaiian monk

seals, Monachus schauinslandi. J. Mammal. 79(3):1060-1069.

DeMartini, E. E., F. A. Parrish, and J. D. Parrish.

1993. Temporal changes in reef prey populations at French Frigate Shoals,

NWHI: Implications for juvenile monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi)

predators. Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Sci. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv.,

NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396, Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-93-

06, 49 p. 

Gilmartin, W. G. and G. A. Antonelis.

1998. Recommended recovery actions for the Hawaiian monk seal population at

Midway Island. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-253, 14 p.

Gilmartin, W. G. and T. Gerrodette.

1986. Hawaiian monk seal status and recovery potential at Kure Atoll. Honolulu

Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI

96822-2396, Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-86-16, 26 p.

Hiruki, L. M., Gilmartin, W. G., Becker, B. L., and Stirling, I.

1993. Wounding in Hawaiian monk seals (Monachus schauinslandi). Can. J.

Zool. 71:458-468.

Johanos, T. C. and Kam, A. K. H.

1986. The Hawaiian monk seal on Lisianski Island: 1983. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-58, 37 p.

Johanos, T. C., A. K. H. Kam, and R. G. Forsyth.

1987. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1984. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-70, 38 p.

Kenyon, K. W.

1972. Man versus the monk seal. J. of Mammal. 53(4):687-696.

Lombard, K. B., B. L. Becker, M. P. Craig, G. C. Spencer, and K. Hague-Bechard.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1990. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-206, 16 p.

Stone, H. S.

1984. Hawaiian monk seal population research, Lisianski Island, 1982. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-47, 33 p.
100

Winchell, J. 

1990. Field manual for phocid necropsies (specifically Monachus schauinslandi). 

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55 p.
APPENDIXES

A-1

Appendix A.–Reports summarizing annual field research on the Hawaiian monk seal by

 the National Marine Fisheries Service and collaborating scientists.

All islands

Johanos, T. C., and J. D. Baker (Eds.).

2001. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1999. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-310, 130 p.

Johanos, T. C., and J. D. Baker (Eds.).

2000. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1998. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-292, 125 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1999. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1997. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-262, 131 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1999. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1996. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-259, 134 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1997. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1995. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-241, 121 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1996. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1993. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-227, 141 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1996. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1994. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-229, 111 p.

Johanos, T. C., L. M. Hiruki, and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1995. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1992. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-216, 128 p.

French Frigate Shoals

Craig, M. P., J. L. Megyesi, C. S. Hall, J. L. Glueck, L. P. Laniawe, E. A. Delaney, S. S.

Keefer, M. A. McDermond, M. S. Schulz, G. L. Nakai, B. L. Becker, L. M. Hiruki, and R.

J. Morrow.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal at French Frigate Shoals, 1990-91. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-210, 70 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

A-2

Craig, M. P., D. J. Alcorn, R. G. Forsyth, T. Gerrodette, M. A. Brown, B. K. Choy, L.

Dean, L. M. Dennlinger, L. E. Gill, S. S. Keefer, M. M. Lee, J. S. Lennox, C. R. Lorence,

G. L. Nakai, and K. R. Niethammer.

1992. The Hawaiian monk seal at French Frigate Shoals, 1988-89. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-178, 83 p.

Eliason, J. J., J. R. Henderson, and M. A. Webber.

1993. Hawaiian monk seal observations at French Frigate Shoals, 1985. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-187, 46 p.

Eliason, J. J., and J. R. Henderson.

1992. Hawaiian monk seal observations at French Frigate Shoals, 1984. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-177, 61 p.

Fairaizl, G. W.

1984. Intra-atoll resighting of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi,

at French Frigate Shoals, 1 January 1983-31 August 1983. Southwest Fish.

Cent. Honolulu Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396. 

Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-84-5C, 27 p.

Johnson, P. A., and B. W. Johnson.

1984. Hawaiian monk seal observations on French Frigate Shoals, 1980. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-50, 47 p.

Laysan Island

Alcorn, D.

1984. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1982. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-42, 37 p.

Alcorn, D. J., and E. K. Buelna.

1989. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1983. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-124, 46 p.

Alcorn, D. J., and R. L. Westlake.

1993. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1986. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-191, 25 p.

Becker, B. L., P. A. Ching, L. M. Hiruki, and S. A. Zur.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1987 and 1989. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-213, 20 p.

Becker, B. L., R. J. Morrow, and J. K. Leialoha.

1989. Censuses and interatoll movements of the Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan
Appendix A.--Continued.

A-3

Island, 1985. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-135,25 p.

Becker, B. L., K. E. O'Brien, K. B. Lombard, and L. P. Laniawe.

1995. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1991. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-214, 16 p.

Johanos, T. C., and S. L. Austin.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal population structure, reproduction, and survival on

Laysan Island, 1985. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-118, 38 p.

Johanos, T. C., B. L. Becker, M. A. Brown, B. K. Choy, L. M. Hiruki, R. E. Brainard, and

R. L. Westlake

1990. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1988. U.S.Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-151, 24 p.

Johanos, T. C., A. K. H. Kam, and R. G. Forsyth.

1987. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1984. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-70, 38 p.

Johnson, B. W., and P. A. Johnson.

1984. Observations of the Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island from 1977

through 1980. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-49, 65 p.

Lombard, K. B., B. L. Becker, M. P. Craig, G. C. Spencer, and K. Hague-Bechard.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1990. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-206, 16 p.

Lisianski Island

Alcorn, D. J., R. G. Forsyth, and R. L. Westlake.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal research on Lisianski Island, 1984 and 1985. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-120, 22 p. 

Johanos, T. C., and J. R. Henderson.

1986. Hawaiian monk seal reproduction and injuries on Lisianski Island, l982. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-64, 7 p.

Johanos, T. C., and A. K. H. Kam.

1986. The Hawaiian monk seal on Lisianski Island: 1983. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-58, 37 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

A-4

Johanos, T. C., and R. P. Withrow.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle research on Lisianski Island, 1987. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-121, 18

p.

Lee, M. M., L. K. Timme, R. Van Toorenburg, and B. L. Becker.

1993. The Hawaiian monk seal on Lisianski Island, 1988 and 1990. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-179, 33 p.

Stone, H. S.

1984. Hawaiian monk seal population research, Lisianski Island, 1982. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-47, 33 p. 

Westlake, R. L., and P. J. Siepmann.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle research on Lisianski Island, 1986. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-119, 18

p.

Pearl and Hermes Reef

Choy, B. K., and L. M. Hiruki.

1992. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle on Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1988. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-175, 18

p. 

Finn, M. A., J. R. Henderson, B. L. Becker, and T. J. Ragen.

1993. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle at Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1990

and 1991. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFSSWFSC-182, 29 p.

Forsyth, R. G., D. J. Alcorn, T. Gerrodette, and W. G. Gilmartin.

1988. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle on Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1986. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-107, 24

p.

Kure Atoll

Bowlby, C. E., P. Scoggins, R. Watson, and M. Reddy.

1991. The Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi, at Kure Atoll, 1982-83. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-155, 28

p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

A-5

Gilmartin, W. G., R. J. Morrow, and A. M. Houtman.

1986. Hawaiian monk seal observations and captive maintenance project at Kure

Atoll, l981. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-59, 9 p.

Henderson, J. R., and M. R. Finnegan

1990. Population monitoring of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus

schauinslandi, and captive maintenance project at Kure Atoll, 1988. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-150, 24 p.

Reddy, M. L.

1989. Population monitoring of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus

schauinslandi, and captive maintenance project for female pups at Kure Atoll,

1987. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-123, 37 p.

Reddy, M. L., and C. A. Griffith.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal population monitoring, pup captive maintenance

program, and incidental observations of the green turtle at Kure Atoll, 1985. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-101, 35

p.

Van Toorenburg, R. A., W. G. Gilmartin, and J. R. Henderson.

1993. Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Kure Atoll, 1990. 

Pac. Sci. 47(3):211-214.

Nihoa and Necker Islands

Conant, S.

1985. Observations of Hawaiian monk seals on Necker Island, Northwestern

Hawaiian Islands. 'Elepaio. 6(2):11-12.

Finn, M. A. and M. A. Rice.

1994. Hawaiian monk seal observations at Necker Island, 1993. 'Elepaio. 

55(9):55-58.

Morrow, R. J., and E. K. Buelna.

1985. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle on Necker Island, 1983. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-55, 11 p.

B-1

Appendix B.--Hawaiian monk seal census form and 2000 census form directions.

(See following pages.)
B-2


B-5

 

2000

CENSUS FORM DIRECTIONS

(Unabridged - Laysan and Lisianski Islands)

This form is used to record all Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle sightings. Turtle sightings are recorded

only during census activities (not during patrols), unless noteworthy event occurs (turtle injured, tagged,

tumored, mating, etc.). On the census form, all data that can be recorded for seals can also be recorded for

turtles (although this data may no t be require d). At French Frigate Shoals, do not record a data line for

each turtle sighting; instead, write the total for each size/sex class at the bottom of the page.

All original data should be coded in pencil. Never erase data once you have left the recording site. Instead,

cross errors out with a single line. Field editing is editing before running the data entry and checking

program . All field editing by th e data colle ctor should be in blue, an d field editing b y others shou ld be in

red. As soon as you begin the entry and checking program, the computer will assign the computer page

number a nd display it o n the screen. A t this point, be sure to fill it in on your census form. All editing after

this point should be in orange. After completing the entry and checking program, check off and initial the

ENTERED box on the census form.

A separate data sheet should be filled out for each date, observer, data type, and island within an atoll. If no

seals are pre sent, you shou ld still fill out the informa tion at the top o f the census form and write "N o seals" in

the data area (only enter the header information). If the island itself is not present, indicate this by using 99

for the sector code, leaving the rest of the (first) line blank. To save paper, you should use a census form

with multiple headers if you only have a few seals to record (i.e., at some islands within an atoll, or when

recording incidental sighting s before or after census o r patrol). In esse nce, on a ce nsus form with m ultiple

headers, ea ch heade r and its assoc iated lines rep resents a sep arate data sh eet. 

If two peop le conduc t the census, they sh ould have the same we ather and the same beg in and end time (i.e.,

both begin at the same time and place, and proceed in opposite directions until they meet on the other side of

the island or islet) and combine pages into one set. Patrols may be conducted by more than one observer, but

page sets are not comb ined, and he ader inform ation may d iffer between p age sets. Patro l observers should

attempt to start at roughly the sam e time. The sum of all ob servers' patrol a ctivity for a day sho uld result in

one com plete island co unt.

Always record disturbance. You must be honest about this! Fill out a census form to document

disturbanc e if you disturb a seal when you are not othe rwise collecting data. On a census or ato ll count, it is

also assume d that cond ition and mo lt data will be take n. 

Do not make up additional codes. If the need for an additional code arises, contact Honolulu.
B-6

PAGE HEADER

DATA TYPE

C = Census: A complete, timed count on an island begun around 1300. Census is conducted

as quickly as possible (while gathering all information). Data collected on all seals and

turtles. 

A = Atoll-wide ce nsus (must be complete d within 2 co nsecutive da ys). Data co llected on all

seals and turtles.

B = Behavior patrol: A complete, untimed count where size, sex, ID and disturbance are

recorded. Associations are assumed to be coded for all seals (In 2000, collect only at

Laysan and Lisianski Islands, code behaviors for all Adult/S4 seals and their associated

seals, otherwise code behavior X (data not taken). Record turtles only if noteworthy

observation.

P = Patrol: A complete, untimed count where size, sex, ID and disturbance are recorded.

Behavior data is not taken. Record turtles only if noteworthy observation.

I = Incidental observation. In this data type, null fields are interpreted as "data not recorded",

so code data explicitly. If numbered, this indicates a full island incidental with yearspecific goals. At Laysan and Lisianski Islands in 2000, these surveys will record motherpup pairs, weaned pups, molters, survival factors, major behavioral events (i.e., severe

harassmen ts and mob bings) and other notew orthy obse rvations. 

T = Tag status entry for non-active tags (tags not currently on a seal). Record tag status (F or

R) in notes co lumns. 

COMPUTER PAGE NO. Leave this blank during data collection. It will be assigned and

displayed o n the screen w hen you ente r the data. At tha t time, be sure to

fill in the compu ter page num ber on you r census form , as this numbe r is

needed for data retriev al.

PAGE Page number within a census or patrol. For example, if the census (or patrol) requires three

pages, then mark the first page as "page 1 of 3" and so on. If more than 1 person conducts the

census, then combine p age numbers; perso n A has pages 1 and 2, while person B has p ages 3

and 4 of a four-page census day. The maximum number of pages in a set is 9. Header

information (time begin/e nd, date, num ber, and w eather) sho uld be the same for all pa ges within

a set.

ISLAND Name o f island and ato ll, e.g., East, FFS . 

OBSERVER Three initials. If no middle initial, use the first and last blo ck. 

TIME BEGIN and END On a 24-h clock, e.g., 6 p.m. = 1800, for the group of pages. Midway uses

Midway time, all other sites use Hawaii Standard time.

DATE The date that data are collected (in YYMMD D format).

NUMBER Censuses, A toll counts, Behavior pa trols, and P atrols must be numbere d. Each d ata type will

have its own 3 digit number series, starting with 001. For data types other than A, have a

separate number serie s for each islet within an atoll.

Weather information (except temperature) should be a summary of the entire day up until the end of the

census or patrol, not merely an instantaneous observation. Temperatures taken in the morning are not

representative for the period of data collection.

TEMP. Temp erature in de grees Celsius at beginning o f census or p atrol.

WIND Speed: 0 = no wind, calm (< 5 knots)

1 = light breeze (5-15 knots)

2 = strong wind (>1 5 knots)
B-7

Direction: NN,NE,EE,SE,SS,SW,WW,NW

Thus, 2 N N = strong wind from north 

CLOUD Cloud cover: 00 = no clouds

01-09 = 10 to 90% cover

10 = 100% cover

PREC. Precipitation: 0 = no precipitation or trace

1 = mist/driz zle

2 = rain

3 = intermitten t rain

LINES

CONTINUE If the same seal sighting is recorded on several lines for any reason (e.g., additional tag or

association, behavior at a later time, change of beach position), put the original line

number you are continuing from here. Lines may be contin ued only within the same pa ge. 

Fill in the original line as completely as possible. All fields from TIME through MOLT

will be copied from the original line if left blank on the continuation line. Several lines can

have the sam e continuatio n line numbe r. 

Make a new original line (i.e. do not use continuation lines) for a seal each time that you

come ab reast of it on cen sus or patro l. 

TIME The time should be recorded for each seal sighting, on a 24-h clock

SECTOR Location on island (e.g., 1-20 on Laysan)

Special codes as follow s:

00 = unknown sector

77 = pen

88 = offshore spit/emergent reef

99 = island not present

SIZE Size is estimate d using a classifica tion scheme from Stone (1984), using the followin g terminolo gy. 

Note that seals are "sized" by length, girth, appearance, and reproductive status, not by age (except

pups):

Pup Seals bor n within the calen dar year. N ewborn p ups are bla ck, and weig ht ca. 11 to

15 kg. Pups molt to a silver-gray pelage near weaning. Weaning weight is ca. 50

to 80 kg.

Juvenile Short, slight seals from the length of a weaned pup (about 138 cm) to 20-30 cm

longer; includes yearlings, and other young seals up to 3 years. Distinguished

from pups by thinness and yellowish color.

Subadu lts Seals perceptibly longer than juveniles up to breeding size; less robust than

adults, generally with lighter pelage. Immature seals ca. 3 to 5 or 6 years old.

Adult Reprod uctively active o r breeding size seals at least as lo ng as know n breede rs. 

Mature or probably mature seals. Adult females often have extensive back scars

or wounds; adult males usually dark, including ventrum, and extensively scarred.

Code size as follows:

Pups of the year

P0 = Fetus (aborted, clearly pre-term pup)
B-8

P = Nursing pup

P1 = Nursing pup, wrinkles

P2 = Nursing pup, no wrinkles

P3 = Nursing pup, blimp, black

P4 = Nursing pup, molting

P5 = Nursing pup, molted

PW = Prematurely weaned/undersized weaned pup (weaned < 2 wks ago and < 90cm

girth). Code as PW at time of weaning, and then can code as W for remainder of

season.

W = Weaned pup 

Immatures

I = Immature

J = Juvenile

J1 = Juvenile I

J2 = Juvenile II

S = Suba dult

S3 = Subadult III

S4 = Subadult IV

Adults

A = Adu lt

Unknowns

U = Seal of unknown size

Turtles

T = Turtle (lengths from anterior to posterior tip of carapace)

T1 = Turtle, juvenile (<65 cm straight carapace length)

T2 = Turtle, subadult (65 - 80 cm)

T3 = Turtle, adult (>80 cm)

Only code a seal’s sex as known if the ventral is seen, even if you "know" the sex because of the tag,

bleach, scars, or behavior. The only exception is that the mother in a mother/pup pair should be recorded

as a female. The sex of a turtle can only be distinguished externally if it is adult-sized.

SEX M =

Male

F =

Female

U =

Unknown

BEACH POS. Location of seal or turtle when observer co mes abreast of animal (e.g., if seal is seen in the

water from a distance and yet is on the bea ch when the o bserver co me abrea st, the seal is

recorded as being on the beach). When recording interactions (at Laysan and Lisianski
B-9

Islands in 2000), record behaviors as you see them ahead of you (within 30 m). When you

come abreast of the seal, record the beach position and time and make this your original

line. All previously recorded lines for this sighting will be reverse con tinuation lines.

0 = animal floating or swimming in water (not included in census tally but may be

used for behavioral data or other analysis).

1 = on the beach (or regularly surveyed areas on the fringing reef for Midway R eef

Surveys)

9 = on an offshore rock/reef with no connections to the island. Separated from shore

by a deep channel or substantial distance, and not regularly surveyed (not

included in census tally). For Midway Reef Surveys, use beach position 9 for

the back side of the reef and other areas that are not regularly surveyed.

X = data not taken

CONDITION Conditio n is recorde d for all seals (ex cept nursing p ups) on ce nsus or atoll co unt. Always

record the condition of the mom on her first sighting postpartum, and of the mom and pup

on their first sighting post-weaning, regardless of data type. Always note condition when

recording a survival factor.

Condition cod es:

M = medium 

P = pro bably preg nant 

F = fat 

T = thin, includes emaciated 

X = data not taken

Codes F and T ind icate extreme condition s, seals that are medium-fat, or m edium-thin

should be coded a s medium. Alwa ys code c ondition explicitly.
B-10

A seal is either identified or not during a sighting. If both the ID No. and Tag No. fields are empty, the

seal is unidentified. If either the ID No./Tag No. field is filled, the seal may be identified depending on

how the ? colum ns are filled. Q uestiona ble code s blank, 0 , or 4 indica te the seal is ide ntified with

certainty, whereas codes 1 or 5 indicate uncertainty. If a seal’s identity is confirmed by any method,

coding for the entire sighting (on the original line and all continuation lines) must ultimately show

certainty. For example, if the ID columns indicate the seal is identified with certainty but the Tag

columns indicate uncertainty, look up the correct tag number during data editing, enter it, and change

the Tag? code from uncertain (1 or 5) to certain (4)).

ID DATA These fields can be use d to record either a temp orary or permane nt ID number. U se

continuation lines to record both a temporary and permanent number, or two or more

temporary numb ers. If the seal is identified, it will not be counted twice on census. To link

two sightings of an unidentified seal during a survey (i.e. for a cruiser moving ahead of

you), assign it a temporary number in a series reserved for unidentified seals, and code a 6

in the temp ? field.

T/P Indicate whether the number in the subsequent field is a temporary or permanent ID number.

T = temporary ID number (or bleach numb er)

P = permanent ID number

TEMPORARY ID NO. Record the temporary ID number (or bleach number) of seal if known; right

justified. This field may be used for any temp orary numb er. Use sep arate

number se ries for bleac h and vario us types of temp orary numb ers. If a numbe r is

incomple tely read, use d ashes as plac e-holders w ithin the numb er to indicate

missing digits (e.g ., incomplete ly read bleac h 152 may be cod ed -52, 1-2 , or 15-). 

? column: 

0 = seal is definitely unmarked; can coexist with a temporary number, or with a

bleach num ber if bleach hasn't taken yet or the number h as molted o ff

1 = bleach is pre sent but the num ber is questio nable, and the seal is not ide ntifiable

from other information

4 = partially read b leach numb er comp leted from o ther data

5 = incomple tely read blea ch numbe r but partial da ta are certain, the seal is not

identifiable from other information

6 = temporary number valid for this survey only (for unident. cruisers moving ahead

of you on ce nsus, etc.)

blank = number is certain and complete if present

PERMANENT ID NO. Record the 4 digit permanent ID number of seal if known (put both the

island-specific prefix and next digit in the first box provided).

? column: 

1 = ID numb er is questiona ble, and the seal is not identifiable from other

information

blank= ID number is certain and complete if present. A Permanent ID is not visible, and

is always completed from o ther data. For certain ID num bers, always use ID? =

blank, not ID? =4.
B-11

TAG NO. The comp lete tag number if known; right justified. If a number is incomp letely read, use

dashes as p lace-holde rs within the number to indic ate missing digits. P ut the alpha p refix

of the temple tag (comb ined with tag ? column co de = 5) if you can determ ine the hole

drilling pattern, but can't decipher the number (e.g. A--RT5 for a right tan tag with a 1983

drill pattern). Explain how you came u p with the pre fix, and draw the hole drill pa ttern in

Notes.

Record all tag sightings explicitly (i.e., both left and right tag numbers) at least once during

your stay. During the first weeks of the field camp, note tag condition each time that a tag

is sighted. Once the majority of tags have been resighted, observers can carry a list of

tags/individua ls that haven't been seen, and o nly note tag co ndition if these tag s/individuals

are resighted. Also carry a list of broken or lost tags, and current tag conditions, so that

you will be aware, and can record, if a specific tag breaks or is lost, or a tag condition

changes during the field season. When a pup is tagged, record the animal handling event

on the censu s data sheet, an d record detailed information (suc h as all tag numb ers, all

tempora ry numbers, and the permanent num ber) on a T agging/Ha ndling card . If a seal is

identified via a tag, it is not necessary to determine and enter its ID number on the census

form. The ID numb er can be d etermined by comp uter later. 

L/R: Tag position 

L = tag on left flipper 

R = tag on right flipper

B = tags on both flippers (enter one tag number). This code can be used if the seal has

only 2 Temple tags (one on each flipper).

COL: Color code -see the Tag Sample Kit if unsure of the colors

Temple tags Other tag types

Y = yellow (FFS) M = metal, Mon el 

T = tan/brown (Laysan) C = clear, PIT tag

G = green (Lisianski) 

B = blue (Pe arl & Hermes)

K = silver/gray (Kure) 

R = red (M idway, Necker, Niho a, Main Islands)

? column:

0 = seal is definitely not tagged on either flipper. To indicate that a se al has lost a

tag, code a known missin g tag using tag? code 8. If the tag numbe r is

unknowable, write the information in N otes.

1 = seal is tagged but the number is questionable, and the seal is no t identifiab le

from other information

4 = partially read ta g comple ted from o ther data

5 = incomple tely read tag, bu t partial data ar e certain, the seal is no t identifiab le

from other information

8 = a specific tag is lost/unreadable. Fill out tag position (L/R) and the tag condition

event with co des L or U . Comple te the tag numb er and co lor from oth er data

before en try.

blank = tag information is certain if present. Partial data (either complete Tag #, position,

or color n ot filled) are O K and w ill be comp leted by computer if the sea l is

identified by ID , Temp orary #, or T ag #. The compute r will only fill blank fields,

so an incomplete Tag # must be completed by hand (use a "4" in the tag ?

column).
B-12

MOLT Percentage of old pelage lost, optional for pups. However, for weaned pups, record the %

molt at time of tag ging. Reco rd molt as 1 00% fo r at least 1 mo nth post-mo lt.

blank = no molting evident

0-9 = 1 to 99% molted. 0 = molting, but less than 10%; 1 = 10-19%; 2 = 20-

29%; ... 9 = 90-99%. The first signs of molt usually occur around the

eyes, nose, flipp ers, and scars. The first record of a > 2 molt is

considered the first day of true molt.

 10 = 100% molted, fresh ly molted, required for the first month a fter molt. 

Put both digits of the 10 in the single box provided.

? column: 

0 = seal is definitely not molting

1 = seal is molting, but % molt estimate is questionable. May or may not include an

estimate in the molt column

"End of season " editing codes that override molt estimates:

2 = seal in molt

3 = seal pre-mo lt

4 = seal post-mo lt

DISTURB The degree to which the seal may have been disturbed by observer. Record disturbance

every time a seal is disturbed, regardless of your activity. The only exception is that you do

not need to record a disturbance for a seal that you are handling (i.e., tagging,

disentangling).

0 = no disturbance, or seal merely raised its head or looked at observer - If column

blank, 0 is assumed

1 = seal vocalized, gestured, or moved <2 body lengths

2 = seal alerted to observer and moved >2 body lengths

3 = seal alerted to observer and fled into water
B-13

ASSOCIATION DATA Behavio r data is collec ted at Laysan and Lisiansk i Islands bec ause adult male

aggression h as been more commonly ob served at the se locations, re sulting in

injury and d eath of adult fem ale and imm ature seals. At Laysan, these d ata

were used to identify 37 males for removal in a successful management action

that reduced the adult sex ratio and increased female survival. Data are now

used to monitor the long term effects of sex ratio adjustment at Laysan, and

assess mana gement op tions at Lisianski Isla nd. 

Record detailed asso ciation data a t Laysan and Lisianski Island s in 2000 . 

Don't record associations involving turtles. If you wish to indicate that a seal

was alone, use the O (this code is alpha, not zero!) behavior code. If you are

unable to record association data on a census or behavior patrol at Laysan or

Lisianski Island for any reason, indicate this with an X for the beha vior code . 

Always explicitly record whether the seal is unassociated or association

data is not recorded. Use continuation lines to record more than one

association. 

An association should either be all blank or have the O, Z, or X behavior o nly

(with no line num ber or dista nce), or have a line number, a distance, and some

behavior code (other than O or X) all present. Don't code behaviors of an

animal after it has b een disturbe d by the ob server (but re cord the b ehaviors in

Notes).

All associations should be recorded in pairs, i.e., between animals on two

different lines. You should fill in the line numbers, distances, and behavior

codes for both animals involved in the each association. The association line

number sh ould refer d irectly to the line whe re the corre sponding behavior is

coded (i.e. if the corresponding code is on a continuation line, refer to that

particular line, not to the original line or a different continuation line).

Active associations 

1) interaction s are record ed for all seals e xcept beh aviors within mother-pup pairs. Only

record

 mother-pup interactions during p up exchanges, weanings, o r other noteworthy events.

2) must take place within 30 m of observer

3) subjects may be any distance apart

Spatial associations

1) noted as observer comes abreast of the subject

2) individual seals 

- mother-pup pair (N): any distance

- all others (L): distances <10 m away, record two nearest neighbors, can be on

opposite sides of a log, e tc. 

LINE NO. Identity of the other seal in the association. Put its line number here (note line number

refers to within same census page only).

DIST. Closest distance during behavior - both associated lines must have the same minimum

distance. 

0 = body contact

1 = <2 m

2 = 2-5 m

3 = >5 m (>5 m bu t <10 m in the case of L behavior code)

BEHAVIOR Up to fou r behaviors may be rec orded fo r each asso ciation, but L, N, X, and O should not

appear together with other b ehaviors. Behaviors B and M require distance = 0. Behavior J

requires dista nce of 0 or 1. With the exc eption of Bites, C hases, Jousts, and Mou nts,

only record repetitive, sequential behaviors once (for example, if an animal approaches
B-14

three times in a row, code one A). If vocalizations occur, only code V once (whether or

not they are sequential). If there is a lot of activity, it is not critical to record all the

behaviors. Focus on the major po ints, such as the seals involved, pairings before and

after the interaction, the contest winner/loser, and the most intense behaviors (joust, bite,

mount, cha se, displace). If a behavior is observed that does no t have a cod e, describe it in

Notes.

1) individua l seal 

 a) active behavior (directed towards another seal) recorded within 30m of observer

 A = approach/investigate/sniff/nudge

 B = bite (requires distance 0)

 B1 = b ite, nip

 B2 = bite, draws blood/breaks skin 

*C = chase 

*C1 = ch ase, <2 body lengths 

*C2 = chase, >2 body lengths

*D = seal displaces another (see CONTEST RULES)

 F = flee/move away

 F1 = flee/move away, <2 body lengths 

 F2 = flee/move away, >2 body lengths move away

*J = joust (requires distance of 0 or 1)

*J1 = jou st <30 s

*J2 = jou st >30 s spa r/fight 

 M = mo unt/attempted (requires d ist. 0) usually A/S4 male

 M1 = mount/attempted mo unt <30 s

 M2 = mount/attempted mount >30 s

*P = play (typically pup/immature behavior in the water)

 R = subm issive roll/prese nt ventral 

 V = vocalize

 Z = cruising. A/S4 male only behavior (actual sex may be

unknown). Does not require a line number reference to another seal, but

may have one)

b) spatial association

N =mother-pup pair (any distance), does not imply actual

nursing behavior. This is the only association recorded between

mother-pup pairs unless there is an unusual event (i.e., pup switch). If

other behaviors are recorded, the N association must be on the original line

for each pa ir membe r. 

L = association by location only (distance <10 m apart, for

all except mother-pup p airs)

c) additional codes (Laysan and Lisianski 1999)

*L1 = pair assoc. A/S4 male actively defends an adult female or immature of

either sex (actu al sex may be unknown), or establishes a pair relationsh ip

with a female or immature after displacing another male. Code the L1

relationship both before an d after the contest if a displacement occu rs.

*Q = loser (quitter) 

*W = winner

*Y = tie 

Note: codes Q, W, and Y are used for A/S4 male-male contests only, although the actual

sexes may be unknown (in which case record as though they were known to be males); see

the attached CONTEST RULES. 
B-15

* requires a corresponding code on the line of the associated seal

Code Corresponding code

C, C1, C2.............F, F1, or F2

D.....................F, F1, or F2

J, J1, J2.............J, J1, a nd J2 resp ectively

P.....................P

L1....................L1

Q.....................W

W.....................Q

Y.....................Y

2) nothing nearby

O = no behavior or association

3) no data

X = no association data recorded on Census or Atoll Count

NOTES--There is room to code 2 different notes. Always use the first column first. Code an H if you have

handwritten notes on the observation. Put handwritten notes on the bottom of the census form, labeled by

line numbe r. If more than tw o note co des app ly, use continuatio n lines. 

A = artwork (scars drawn) - attach drawing, labeled with date, island, observer, data type, page

number, and line number 

B = birth, 1st sighting postpartum (mom and pup)

G = seal is green with algae

H = handwritten notes

M = marked, indicate each time a seal is bleached (includes attempts to bleach)

W = weaning, 1st sighting post-weaning (pup)

X = pup exchange, 1st sighting after exchange (mom and pup)

Y = disturbance is to "bystander" seal during non-survey activity such as tagging, bleaching,

instrumenting, etc. This includes all "hands on" research, even if the attempt was

unsuccessful.

FOR DATA TYP E "T", STATUS OF NON -ACTIVE TAGS:

F = found 

R = recovered from seal in hand 
B-16

EVENT These columns are used to record a variety of data. The codes used will depend upon the type of

event that you wish to record. Left justify your coding:

TYPE CODES CONTENT

COLUMN

F = survival factor ONLY RECORD RESIGHT OF A SURVIVAL FACTOR AS AN

EVENT IF THERE ARE IMPORTANT CHANGES TO DOCUMENT,

SUCH AS A NEW WOUND, HEALING, DEATH, ETC., TRANSCRIBE

NOTES TO SURVIVAL FACTOR FORM. FOR TURTLES, USE A

DIFFEREN T SURV IVAL FACT OR NUM BER SER IES (I.E., BEGIN

AT 500), FILL OUT A SURVIVAL FACTOR FORM, BUT DO NOT

ENTER THE DATA INTO THE SEAL SURVIVAL FACTOR

DATABASE.

1-3 Survival Factor number 

 4 Factor Type. If seal dead, always record factor type

"D" on O RIGINA L LINE. Fo r mobbings/

harassments, always code a census entry with factor

type "M" for the victim at the beginning and end of

the incident. Otherwise, you only need to record the

most appropriate factor type if more than one

applies. 

D = death

W = wound

E = entanglement

V = very thin (emaciated)

I = illness/abnorm al (includes eye

disease)

M = mobbing/harassment/post-mobbing 

 aggregation

O = other

 5 Participan t type (for mo bbings/ hara ssments/po stmobbin g aggreg. on ly)

V = victim/subject

M = male aggressor

H = handling of wild seal FOR SEAL CAPTURES OR RELEASES, RECORD DETAILS ON EITHER

THE CAPTUR E OR RELEASE FORM . OTHERWISE, RECORD D ETAILS

ON THE TAGGING/HANDLING CARD. HANDLING DOES NOT

NECESSARILY INVOLVE REST RAINT OF SEAL.

 1 Handling type

T = tagging (w/ restra int)

M = measuring (includes weighing)

A = all (both tagging and measuring)

R = remote tagging

D = disentangle (even if not restrained)

I = instrument

B = bleeding

C = take into cap tivity

F = free from ca ptivity

O = other (includes instrument removal and

the translocation of seals within an

atoll) 
B-17

TYPE CODES CONTENT

COLUMN

P = photo SEAL OR TURTLE PHOTOS ARE THE ONLY PHOTOS CODED ON

THE CENSUS FORM. OTHER PHOTOS SHOULD BE RECORDED

IN NOTES, AND TRANSFERRED TO THE PHOTO COMMENT

FORM . 

 1 Type o f photo

S = slide

P = print

2-3 Roll number (pa d with zeros)

4-5 Frame numbe r (pad with zeros)

 6 Side

L = left lateral or flipper

R = right lateral or flipper

D = dorsal side

V = ventral side

B = both (used for rear flippe rs only)

X = other, describe in hand-written NOTES

 7 Part

H = head

A = anterior body (neck an d shoulders)

M = midbody (behind fore-flippers and before

posterior)

P = posterior body (behind midbody and before

rear flippers)

F = foreflipper; w rite whether d orsal/ventral in

comme nts

R = rearflipper; w rite whether d orsal/ventral in

comme nts

O = overall view of a particular side

X = other, desc ribe in comments

 8 Purpose

I = identification

F = survival factor (link with survival factor

EVEN T using continuation lines)

X = other, desc ribe in comments
B-18

TYPE CODES CONTENT

COLUMN

T = tag condition RECORD TAG CONDITION FOR BOTH SIDES OF EACH TAG AT

LEAST O NCE DU RING TH E SEASO N. IF TAG CO NDITIO N IS

RECORDED FOR AN INCOMPLETELY READ TAG, COMPLETE

THE TAG NUMBER (WITH APPROPRIATE TAG? CODE) PRIOR TO

COMPUTER ENTRY.

1 Web 

 A-D = from inner (medial) to outer web.

E = ankle

P = posterior

U =unknown

2 Side of tag, the dorsal tag side is on the dorsal flipper

surface unless the tag is reversed. For Temple Tags, the

dorsal side is the bigger side; for Metal (Monel) tags, the

dorsal side is the "male" side. For PIT tags, code the side as

B (both ). 

D = dorsal 

V = ventral 

B = both 

U = unknown

 3 Conditio n, code U (unreada ble) if canno t use tag to

ID seal (i.e. if broken so number gone). Also code

U for a PIT tag if you completely scan for it with a

reliable read er but get no reading. If read er is

unreliable, put attempt in Notes and only code PIT

tag as unread able after 3 se parate attem pts. 

Comb ine the L or U codes with the tag questiona ble

code of 8 . You can combine the tag questio nable

code of 8 with other condition codes to describe

why the tag is unre adable (i.e., w orn or bro ken). 

Unreadable tags can still be used as partial

information to help dete rmine a seal’s id entity. 

Code more than one condition using continuation

lines.

B = broken

F = faded color

G = good

L = tag lost 

N = no/partial resin

O = other 

P = pulling out

U = unreadab le

V = tag side reversed 

W = no. worn /abraded 
B-19

CONTEST RULES

1. Male-male contest definition (must conform to at least one condition below):

a. Distance between adult males = 0

b. Either adult male vocalizes (V) or performs a C, D, or J

c. If cruiser approaches to beach position $1, regardless of other behaviors

2. The contest outcome depends upon pair type (what size/sex seal the adult male is paired with) 

a. For contest rules, size S4 seals are considered to be adults (both sexes), seals size S3 or

smaller are considered to be immature 

b. Definition of pair type:

i. Pair type #1: adult male with adult female (L1)

ii. Pair type #2: adult male with immature seal of either sex (L1)

iii. Pair type #3: single adult male not pair type #1 or #2

3. Contest outcomes (definition of winner or loser adult male):

Case Winner (W) Loser (Q) Tie (Y)

Paired Male vs. Single Male:

(#1 or #2 vs. #3)

i) Original Single Male if has D

ii) Original Paired Male

otherwise

Has F No Ties

No Ties

Male P aired with Ad ult Female

vs. Male Paired with Immature

Seal:

(#1 vs. #2)

i) Original M ale Paired with

Immature Seal if has D

ii) Original M ale Paired with

Adult Female otherw ise

Has F No Ties

No Ties

Paired Male vs. Paired M ale

where both pairs are same type:

(#1 vs. #1 or

#2 vs. #2)

Has D Has F Tie if no D

Single Male vs. Single Male:

(#3 vs. #3)

Has D or C Has F Tie if no D or C

4. Generalizatio ns:

a. Unequal pair types

i. There are no ties 

ii. The male with the higher pair type (1>2>3) always wins unless he is displaced

iii. A seal can w in without being aware of the c ontest. For e xample, if the " winner" is

not aware that the other seal flees, but that seal fled in response to a vocalization, then

code the fleeing seal as the loser (Q) and the other seal as the winner (W))

b. Equal pair types

i. Males tie unless there is a clear winner/loser

ii. To win, a male must chase/displace the other male 
B-20

HAWA IIAN MONK SEAL TEMPL E TAGS:

NUMBERING SCH EME AND HO LE DRILLING PATTERN FOR TAGS APPLIED TO WEA NED

PUPS

Be sure to code the original tag color, no t the color that a tag has faded to. See the T ag Samp le Kit.

Original tag color: Faded tag may appear:

Temple Tags:

 Yellow...................................................White, Lt. Yellow

 Light Tan (A,T,K ,L series @ Laysan).............Gray, Lt. Yellow, W hite

 Dark Tan/Brown (later series @ Laysan)..........Red

 Dark Forest Green.....................................Dark Blue, Navy

 Kelly Gre en (C, P, an d Y coh orts)................. --

 Blue (light)...............................................--

 Red.......................................................Orange

 Gray (A,T,K,L,N,F,U,G series @ Kure).........Light Tan

 Silver Gray (600-900,0,Z and later @ Kure)......Metal