178° 180° 176° 12 168° yee? 60° 158° 152° 14g? nad? 40" 138 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
T T T T T T T ij i} ar V Vv

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE

OF TOTAL SAMPLES
se) avs 2
sel a] 3 5
gr] 3] 2 =
weet 7

& 8 8

FREQUENCY

Ser eT cee eae oe
avenge gegegrece

AMOUNT, IN PERCENT

ie saa
~~ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
ae . so
Poh a oue 2%
rd Harbor f jl “S iL? \
L L L L I I I it \

0 300 600 KILOMETERS
) 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 9.—Calcium content of surficial materials.

oT

VUSVTV JO STIVIUALVW TVIOIMUNS NI SNOILVULNGONOO LNAWETa



128° 124° 120° 116°

43

40)

Tv

190° 178° 172° 168° 164°__160°_158° we ae ue wr 136°

T T qT T

FREQUENCY

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES

a
Po
7

AMOUNT, IN PERCENT

T
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS.

i | i

at Bw 2 2 WA. ade
LEP, * * se OF
L L

L L L I I

0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicurE 30.—Sodium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAY

LE


199° 176° 172° 168° 164° 1eo°__156°_152°___14g°_144?___140 136° a 128° 124° 120° 116°
T 7 T T T T T i \ \

‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES

TTA 2
g

B|N/9) =

{Ore ey =

FREQUENCY

180°
i 1 zl
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS Sie" 4
ak = ee °
se Butch ‘ a2 Ar 2 9 Hd
Harbor j f “~~ ran \
L L L L I I I at \ =
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicurE 26.—Phosphorus content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAU

8&


176° 180° 176° 164° t60°_—n56°__—n52”_—n4e?— 4a? 40? 136° 132° 128° 1242 120° 116°
om T T T T T T T i \
‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
Sel OF TOTAL SAMPLES.
a [2 e
Pats &
8/5 a
\ cH =
\ 150}
| 100(- giegaen
“ 3
Z 80)
Fd
\ 3
i z 9
aT . se, 28 Fan
420] 2 © Fairbanks
20)
Cre arn or anoog
& AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
\
59°|
‘5g°|
°
Sg a8 100
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS ae
ak 52° Ew oo FAP
itch cS a
.o es LP, f | ss i? \
a L L ! I I I 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FiGurE 85.—Uranium content of surficial materials.

oF

VUSVTV JO STVIUSLVW TVIOIMUNS NI SNOILVULNAONOO LNGWATS


‘TABLE 3.—Summary statistics for elements in samples of surficial materials from Alaska and the conterminous United States, and in samples of stream and lake sediments from Alaska So

{Ratio, number of samples in which the element was found in measurable concentrations to number of samples analyzed. Means are reported in parts per million (ug/g) dry-weight base; and means and deviations are geometric, except as
indicated. Range, observed range of concentrations. Leaders (--), no data available)

Soils and other surficial materials

Alaska Conterminous United states! Stream and lake sediments from Alaska®
Element,
ash, or Detection Detect ion Detection
pH ratio cus got am Range ratio om3 got aw Range ratio Mean®  Median® ~—Range®
Al, percent 416:416 6.2 1.38 6.5 1.2 - 10 1091:1247 4472.87.25 => 61643:61923 5.8 6.2 - 82
Steveeseee 15: 6.7 2331 916 <0” 750 1249:1257 6.22123 712-97 17:3 12.0 - 1796 ist
: 595 1.67 678 39 = 3100 1319:1319 440 214 580 10° - 5000 54272:61923 811 707 = 65000 8
Bev eeeeeeee 15 149 135 ad - 7 H 2632.38 92-5 10963:15660 2 2 - 12 =
Ca, percent 13 261 2.0 204-10 192 4.00 2.4 WOL- 32 55637:61923 2.6 1.5 - 41 8
Corsseeeeee 4270437 28 1,84 33 + 180 63 1.78 75 <150 - 300 57691:61923 68 61 - 14 2
436243713, ile7 14 2 - 55 6.7 2:19 91 <3 - 70 58535:61923 18 16 = 1000 8
437:437 50 2.00 64 5 - 390 37 2.37 54 1 = 2000 57532:61923 115 92 = 15000 2
437:437 24 181 29 3. = 810 v7 2144 25 <= 700 56227:61923 37 32 = 14000 fel
322:437 2.5 212 6.8 4-22 ot = - 57437:61923 5 5 - 8
Fe, percent 416:416 3.5 1.52 3.8 235-10 2.6 +01 = >10 61331:61923 3.7 3.5 05 - 49 2
Gar seeeeeee 430:437 15 1.4416 <a 32 v7 6 = 70 -- -- ~ --
K, percent 416:416 1200 157143 109-41 1.5 05 - 6.3 1384:61923 5.1 1307 = 1a
Lassesseeee 438243719) 1,68 21 <2 - 120 37, «30 = 200 49039:61923 36 32 1 - 900 8
un 2 436:437 (26 174 30 <2 = (130 24 <= 180 15554:15660 29 5 1 - 260 4
Ng, percent 1981.84 1.2 “3-74 >10 §5963:61923 1.3 Ll 04 = 46 z
Ma, percent $051 2:07 1067, <t02- 004 0.7 61884261923 208 tos fo008 - 10 a
Mor seseeees 1862.48 1300 = 15 -- = - g
Na, percent 27a 15 <.07- 3.6 5 61966:61923 1.2 1.2 007 - 16 g
Nv eeeeeeee 80 1164 9.0 ch 100 - -- = - 3
: 23 1.73 27 <4 = 120 40 1.68 46 <70  - 300 -- -- - -- ES
Hq 24 27 33 <3 + 320 13 2.31 19 <  - 700 47426:61923 37 32 9 = 1800 &
: 1078 1.55 086 <,02 - 0434 026 2.69 04 <02- 07 == oa = - z
417:437 12 17414 <4 = 310 16 1186 19° <0’ - 700 34138:61923 12, 9 4 = 10000 >
43143713, 1.67 14 <2 - 39° 7.5 182 89 & - 50 61603:61923 14 14 10-129 a
416:416 28 1.20 28 10-43 -eL 7-45 - - -- 2
111:437 2.6 181: 32 <a = 41 289° 2.36 13 <i - 10 964:61923 57 15 9 = 29000 2
437:437 159 1.93 198 21 = 760 120 3.30 240 <6 = 3000 3598:52251 489 455 40 - $500 a
418:437 6.1 1195 7.6 <1.6 - 76 8.6 1153 94 022 - BL 56133:61923 9.1 7.9 30 = 318 °
416:416 148 (1.48152, 109-15. leq a9 129 09 - 2.0 §7402:61923 245 M44 0014-10 5
>
+ 436:437 2.3 1.86 2.8 <.22- 45 2.3 1.73 27 22- 61909:61923 3.5 2.8 02 = 335
2 437:437 112 1169 129 iu = 490 58 2125 80 <= 500 60750:61923 120 9 210 = 2000
2 434:437 14 1:55 15 <4 = 100 21 1.78 25 <10 = 200 - = -
2 362:437 14 160 16 <1 - 6 26 1179 31 <= 50 37692:61923 4.3, 40 2 - 90 i
2 427:437 70 1.6479 <20 - 2700 48 1.95 60 <6 = 2500 28739:61923 157, 40°14 = 4700
437:437 85 1.33 88 6.6 - 99.7 -- oF - -- - - -- --
24372437 5.5 1.20 5.6 3.7 - 9.0 - ao - -- -- - - -

lata from Shacklette and Boerngen, 1984.

Data from Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1983.

Geometric mean.

Geometric deviation.

Sarithmetic mean, calculated by method of Sichel, 1952.

Data for uncensored values only; mean is presumed to be arithmetic; many values have been rounded; parts per million converted to percentage when appropriate for
comparisons with other data given.

Percentage of dry weight.

Standard units.


52 ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFICIAL MATERIALS OF ALASKA

not meant to be interpreted as stable geochemical maps.
Any so-called trends that we have discussed, or others
that the reader may suspect after examining the figures,
are to be interpreted with caution. The degree of con-
fidence in patterns of element abundance is expected
to be in direct proportion to the number of samples in-
cluded in the area. As the patterns become ever smaller,
the probability increases that the patterns are not
reproducible.

REFERENCES CITED

Berrow, M. L., and Reaves, G. A., 1984, Background levels of trace
elements in soils, in Environmental contamination, Proceedings
of the International Conference on Environmental Contamination,
London, England, July 1984: Edinburgh, UK, CEP Consultants
Ltd., Publisher, p. 333-340.

Brooks, R. R., 1983, Biological methods of prospecting for minerals:
New York, John Wiley and Sons, 322 p.

Cohen, A. C., Jr., 1959, Simplified estimators for the normal distribu-
tion when samples are singly censored or truncated: Techno-
metrics, v. 1, no. 3, p. 217-237.

Crock, J. G., Lichte, F. E., and Briggs, P. H., 1983, Determination
of elements in National Bureau of Standards’ Geological Reference
Materials SRM 278 obsidian and SRM 688 basalt by inductively
coupled argon plasma-atomic emission spectrometry: Geostand-
ards Newsletter, v. 7, no. 2, p. 335-340.

Crock, J. G., and Severson, R. C., 1980, Four reference soil and rock
samples for measuring element availability in the Western Energy
Region: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 841, 16 p.

Ebens, R. J., Erdman, J. A., Feder, G. L., Case, A. A., and Selby, L. A.,
1973, Geochemical anomalies of a clay pit area, Callaway Coun-
ty, Missouri, and related metabolic imbalance in beef cattle: U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 807, 24 p.

Foster, H. L., Albert, N. R. D., Barnes, D. F., Curtin, G. C., Griscom,
A., Singer, D. A., and Smith, J. G., 1976, The Alaskan mineral
resources program—Background information to accompany folio
of geologic and mineral resource maps of the Tanacross quad-
rangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 734, 23 p.

Gough, L. P., Shacklette, H. T., and Case, A. A., 1979, Element con-
centrations toxic to plants, animals, and man: U.S. Geological
Survey Bulletin 1466, 80 p.

Gough, L. P., Peard, J. L., Severson, R. C., Shacklette, H. T., Tomp-
kins, M. L., Stewart, K. C., and Briggs, P. H., 1984, Chemical
analyses of soils and other surficial materials, Alaska: U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-423, 77 p.

Hopkins, D. M., 1959, Some characteristics of the climate in forest
and tundra regions in Alaska: Arctic, v. 12, p. 215-220.

Hopps, H. C., and Cannon, H. L., eds., 1972, Geochemical en-
vironments in relation to health and disease: Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, v. 199, 353 p.

Hultén, Eric, 1981, Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories: Stan-
ford, Stanford University Press, 997 p.

Jones, R. L., and Hanson, H. C., 1985, Mineral licks, geophagy, and
biogeochemistry of North American ungulates: Ames, The Iowa
University Press, 301 p.

Kabata-Pendias, Alina, and Pendias, Henryk, 1984, Trace elements
in soils and plants: Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press, 315 p.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1960, Surficial deposits of Alaska, in Short papers
in the geological sciences 1960: U.S. Geological Survey Profes-
sional Paper 400-B, p. B333-335.

Kichler, A. W., 1967, Potential natural vegetation, Alaska and Hawaii,
sheet 89 of National Atlas of the United States of America: U.S.
Geological Survey, 2 sheets.

Laughlin, W. M., Smith, G. R., and Peters, M. A., 1983, Influence of
a complete fertilizer on soil pH and available NO,-N, P, and K
in Kachemak silt loam: Agroborealis, v. 15, p. 32-34.

Levinson, A. A., 1980, Introduction to exploration geochemistry:
Wilmette, Illinois, Applied Publishing Limited, 924 p.

Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1983, The geochemical atlas of
Alaska: Los Alamos, Los Alamos National Laboratory Publica-
tion GJBX 32(83), La-9897-MS, UC-51, 57 p.

Marsh, S. P., and Cathrall, J. B., 1981, Geochemical evidence for a
Brooks Range mineral belt: Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
v. 15, p. 367-380.

Miesch, A. T., 1967, Methods of computation for estimating geo-
chemical abundance: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
574-B, 15 p.

____1976, Geochemical survey of Missouri—Methods of sampling,
laboratory analysis, and statistical reduction of data in a
geochemical survey of Missouri, with sections on Laboratory
methods: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 954-A, 39 p.

Millard, H. T., Jr., 1975, Determination of uranium and thorium in
rocks and soils by the delayed neutron technique, in U.S.
Geological Survey, Geochemical survey of the western coal region,
2d annual progress report, July 1975: U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report 75-436, p. 79-81.

1976, Determination of uranium and thorium in U.S.G.S. stand-
ard rocks by the delayed neutron technique, in Flanagan, F. J.,
ed. and comp., Description and analyses of eight new U.S.G.S.
rock standards: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 840,
p. 61-65.

Neiman, H. G., 1976, Analysis of rocks, soils, and plant ashes by emis-
sion spectroscopy, in Miesch, A. T., Geochemical survey of
Missouri—Methods of sampling, laboratory analysis, and
statistical reduction of data: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 594-A, p. Al4-Al5.

Orth, D. J., 1967, Dictionary of Alaska place names: U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 567, 1084 p.

Péwé, T. L., 1975, Quaternary geology of Alaska: U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 835, 145 p.

Rieger, Samuel, 1983, The genesis and classification of cold soils: New
York, Academic Press, 230 p.

Reiser, H. N., Brosgé, W. P., DeYoung, J. H., Jr., Marsh, S. P.,
Hamilton, T. D., Cady, J. W., and Albert, N. R. D., 1979, The
Alaskan mineral resources program—Guide to information con-
tained in the folio of geologic and mineral resource maps of the
Chandalar quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Circular
758, 28 p.

Shacklette, H. T., 1969, Vegetation of Amchitka Island, Aleutian
Islands, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 648,
66 p.

Shacklette, H. T., and Boerngen, J. G., 1984, Element concentrations
in soils and other surficial materials of the conterminous United
States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1270, 105 p.

Shacklette, H. T., Boerngen, J. G., Cahill, J. P., and Rahill, R. L., 1973,
Lithium in surficial materials of the conterminous United States
and partial data on cadmium: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 673,
8p.

Shacklette, H. T., Boerngen, J. G., and Keith, J. R., 1974, Selenium,
fluorine, and arsenic in surficial materials of the conterminous
United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 692, 14 p.

Shacklette, H. T., Boerngen, J. G., and Turner, R. L., 1971a, Mercury
in the environment—Surficial materials of the conterminous
United States: U.S, Geological Survey Circular 644, 5 p.



50 ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFICIAL MATERIALS OF ALASKA

components in excess of 50 percent are considered ex-
cessive, and interpretation of the data for these
elements must be made with caution. For example, the
variance for replicate analytical splits in the dysprosium
data (table 2) is 93 percent; therefore, the definition of
geochemical differences between samples cannot be
made until a more precise analytical method is used.

The data in table 2 are useful because they show that
for most elements (84 percent) more than 50 percent of
the total variability in the data occurs at the “between
locations” level and that generally less than 30 percent
of the variability is found at the “between replicate
samples at each site” level (samples collected about
100 m apart). We see this difference as an indication
that our samples are indeed diverse, and it supports our
opinion that this suite of 437 surficial materials is highly
heterogeneous. We have no example of variability
within a location that exceeds 50 percent of the total
variability. It follows, therefore, that the sites within
locations contain relatively homogeneous surficial
materials which probably reflect uniform soil-
development processes.

COMPARISONS OF GEOCHEMICAL DATA

The analytical data of this study are summarized in
table 3, along with data on surficial materials from the
conterminous United States (Shacklette and Boerngen,
1984) and concentrations of elements in stream and lake
sediments from Alaska (Los Alamos National Labora-
tory, 1983). The first two geochemical data sets are fair-
ly similar because of the type of materials sampled, use
of the same laboratories, and utilization of comparable
statistical methods and data-presentation formats. Ex-
cept for the determination of thorium and uranium (by
neutron activation) and of calcium, iron, potassium, and
titanium (by X-ray fluorescence), the analytical meth-
odology for these two data sets differs (table 1); our
discussion reflects the caution dictated by this dif-
ference. The Alaska samples were analyzed using the
quantitative ICP-OES method (table 1), whereas the
conterminous United States samples were analyzed us-
ing a semiquantitative emission spectrographic method
(Neiman, 1976). Comparisons of the two surficial-
materials data sets with those of the stream and lake
sediments are more difficult to make because of the dif-
ference in the sample media. In addition, the sediment
geochemical data include two types of materials; and
the analytical methods, limits of determination, and
statistical procedures used were very different from
those used in the studies of surficial materials.

Despite these constraints, a comparison of the
geometric means of analytical values in the samples of

surficial materials from Alaska and from the conter-
minous United States shows a close correspondence for
most elements. Means for only six elements—beryllium,
cerium, magnesium, phosphorus, tin, and titanium—
show as much as a twofold, but less than a threefold,
difference. In an unreported test of stability of the
grand mean values for surficial materials (H. T.
Shacklette, unpub. data, 1982) from the conterminous
United States listed in Shacklette and Boerngen (1984),
the means of element values for the first 400 samples
collected were essentially the same as those calculated
for the entire data set of approximately 1,300 samples.
This result indicated that samples collected from the
first 400 sites (randomly selected geographically) were
adequate for establishing grand means, although the
900 additional samples gave a more precise representa-
tion of the variation and the regional geochemical
patterns. From this result and from the close cor-
respondence of these mean values with those of the
Alaskan study, it is reasonable to expect that the means
for the elements reported in approximately 437 Alaskan
samples are relatively stable for the state as a whole;
however, as with the conterminous United States data,
a greater density of sampling sites in Alaska, with a
larger number of samples, would give a better estima-
tion of the natural variation and of regional geochemical
patterns.

The differences in geometric deviations in studies of
the mean values of the conterminous United States and
Alaskan surficial materials are believed to be, in part,
caused by differences in the number of samples of the
two sets, the study having the greater number of
samples showing the greater deviations for many
elements. Another cause is the difference in analytical
methods as reflected by their lower or upper detection
limits. A third cause is that the conterminous United
States sample set represents a broader region, and we
suspect that greater geochemical diversity is present
than is found in the smaller area of Alaska. This greater
geochemical diversity is not shown in the summary
statistics, however, except as may be suggested by the
extremes in range.

The calculated arithmetic means of the surficial
materials should be used in comparing these means with
those given for the sediments which we will presume
are also arithmetic. By not transforming their element
data for sediments to logarithms before calculating the
means, Los Alamos National Laboratory (1983) esti-
mates of central tendency could be biased: in a frequen-
cy distribution with positive skewness, the arithmetic
mean overestimates the median.

In calculating element means for the sediment
samples, the investigators (Los Alamos National Labo-
ratory, 1983) chose to reject all censored values. This


178° 180° 178° V2 168° 164° 460° 456° 52°? 14a?” 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
bd T T T T T T T T \ \ \
4 SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
e
8
/ +
/ 140;-
& ; 3B 120/-
ae z
oot. 60}
Se Be 3
a ‘Nome @ 4ot
a tc
| ‘\ 20k.
8° \ a
4 ol wBOwWOW OM
i SSELLISIES
»\ AMOUNT, IN PERCENT
>| Cc,
Z\
\ 5
8g
ae
a>
$e ge
‘$0
°
)
180° ‘
b4e| ;
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. ee
» SB Oith . a Av 8 3 Wd
rs Harbor j jl se i? 1
ae L ! L L I 1 1 i \
0 300 {600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 41.—Ash content of surficial materials.

cid

VUSVTV AO STVIUALVW TVIOIMUNS NI SNOILVULNGONOO LNAWATS


642

176° 180° 178° 172° 168° 164° 160° 186° s2°__ ngs? ng? 140? 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
T T T I T T 1 J \ V
‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
q a
ny 3
i. =
B 6o--
Fd
D> 40--
col
$
a, 88 € 20}
‘© Fairbanks
Se Sa \
\ AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
5 al
a:
& 3
a
8
on
180° 176°
T i}
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
ok . . sr gw ° x,
uich = o
vow AP, ; ; ~F :
L L L 1 i I T 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
re
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicuRe 13.—Copper content of surficial materials.

0Z

VUSVTV JO STIVIUALVW TVIOIAUNS NI SNOILVULNAONOO LNAWATS


8e

178° 180° 178° 2 see teat 160° igs 152° ue 14 ie" 136° ie 128° 124° 120° 116°

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES

2 9] 3
ey) 3s
100] i

FREQUENCY

Vsesggsas s8geg eee
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION

178° sat ve
ee ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
a ee,
uich SS ane
Harbor Se °

2a tt
L L L L Ly Ly z t \

VUSVTV JO SIVIUALVW TVIOIZUNS NI SNOILVULNGONOO LNAWATS

a 300 600 KILOMETERS:
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicurE 31.—Strontium content of surficial materials.


ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SOILS AND OTHER SURFICIAL
MATERIALS OF ALASKA

By L. P. GOUGH, R. C. SEVERSON, and H. T. SHACKLETTE

ABSTRACT

Mean concentrations of 35 elements, ash yields, and pH have been
estimated for samples of soils and other unconsolidated surficial
materials from 266 collection locations throughout Alaska. These
background values can be applied to studies of environmental
geochemistry and health, wildlife management, and soil-forming pro-
cesses in cold climates and to computation of element abundances on
a regional or worldwide scale. Limited data for an additional eight
elements are also presented.

Materials were collected using a one-way, three-level, analysis-of-
variance sampling design in which collecting procedures were
simplified for the convenience of the many volunteer field workers.
The sample collectors were asked to avoid locations of known mineral
deposits and obvious contamination, to take samples at a depth of
about 20 cm where possible, and to take a replicate sample about 100
m distant from the first sample collected. With more than 60 percent
of the samples replicated and 14 percent of the samples split for
duplicate laboratory analyses, reliable estimates were made of the
variability in element concentrations at two geographic scales and of
the error associated with sample handling and laboratory procedures.

Mean concentrations of most elements in surficial materials from
the state of Alaska correspond well with those reported in similar
materials from the conterminous United States. Most element con-
centrations and ranges in samples of stream and lake sediments from
Alaska, however, as reported in the literature, do not correspond well
with those found in surficial materials of this study. This lack of cor-
respondence is attributed to (1) a merger of two kinds of sediments
(stream and lake) for calculating means; (2) elimination from the sedi-
ment mean calculations of values below the limit of quantitative deter-
mination; (3) analytical methods different from those of the
surficial-materials study; and (4) most importantly, the inherent dif-
ferences in chemistry of the materials.

The distribution of variability in element concentrations of Alaskan
surficial-material samples was, for most elements, largely among
sampling locations, with only a small part of the variability occurr-
ing between replicate samples at a location. The geochemical unifor-
mity within sampling locations in Alaska is an expression of uniform
geochemical cycling processes within small geographic areas.

‘The concentration values for 35 elements in 266 samples were plotted
on maps by symbols representing classes of concentration frequency
distributions. These plotted symbols form patterns that may or may
not be possible to interpret but nevertheless show differences that
are observable at several geographical scales. The largest pattern is
one of generally low concentrations of many elements in materials from
arctic and oceanic tundra regions, as contrasted to their often high
concentrations in samples from interior and southeastern Alaska. The
pattern for sodium is especially pronounced. Intermediate-sized pat-
terns are shown, for example, by the generally high values for

magnesium and low values for silicon in the coastal forest region of
southeastern Alaska. Many elements occur at low concentrations in
samples from the Alaskan peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. The
degree of confidence in patterns of element abundance is expected to
be in direct proportion to the number of samples included in the area.
As the patterns become smaller, the probability increases that the
patterns are not reproducible.

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES, AND
LITERATURE REVIEW

Favorable response to reports on the geochemistry
of unconsolidated surficial materials of the conter-
minous United States (informally called the ‘‘50-mile
geochemical survey” because of the approximate
distance between sampling sites) (Shacklette ‘and Boer-
ngen, 1984, updated and expanded from Shacklette,
Hamilton, and others, 1971; Shacklette, Boerngen, and
Turner, 1971; Shacklette and others, 1973; and
Shacklette and others, 1974) led us, in 1975, to initiate
a companion survey of Alaska. The principal objectives
of this study were to (1) establish estimates of central
tendency and of typical ranges in the concentration of
chemical elements in soils and other surficial materials,
and (2) present element concentration maps which
display broad patterns that may or may not be inter-
pretable at various geographical scales.

A single geochemical study cannot be expected to pro-
vide support for all aspects of the chemistry of natural
materials, but most geochemical studies can contribute
useful data to more than one scientific discipline.
Baseline-type studies establish present geochemical
conditions with which future conditions can be com-
pared. They also help to define large-scale geochemical.
patterns and suggest relationships between rock
weathering and soil development. In addition, baseline
data can be applied to environmental assessments. For
example, data from such studies have been applied in

1



176° 180° 176° 472° 168°

wae 140? 136°
i} iy \

a 7 T v
Go SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
= aah 2
& [eat a
atest $
100] H H
a ee
8 :e
5 60)
g
oc 40
E
420] 20]
Pees SES SLSBRS
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
60°
ed
bed
$40| e T e)
ion ALEUTIAN ISLANDS a
ok « i L we 8 7)
ich sal as 2
cos EP, j f “ j
ai L L ! ! I r 1 1 \
0 300 800 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 24.—Nickel content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSaY

Té


176°

172°

ae 124° 120° 6°

eo]

520]

oot

po 176°

ok
2 eB Duich
Harbor

168°
T

164° ie i 2° ue. ain “wo 138°

132°
\

FREQUENCY

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE

OF TOTAL SAMPLES,
Par e
& [sis a
waar +

120-7 +

CSRSIBSRBSSBS

AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION

T
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS

ou oe 2 od
\ | “SO?

I I I it

0 300 600 KILOMETERS

0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 10.—Cerium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSaY

LI


178° 176° VW? 168° 164° 180° 158° 152° 148° 144° 140° 138° 132°, 128° 124° 120° 118°
| T T T q T T T T iy \
%e|
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
° Siz @
2 RS) a 2
ire tate 7
&4°| 20| H
yet 3 60} i
>
oe 3 40}
oe: — = 20
" Ss \
\ Ser HAM OMT NMNOONDAOT
\ 32 as Bos 2
4 AMOUNT, IN PERCENT
a,
0°! fon
* Z\
\ 2,
ey
at
35
58 hU- -
59°
4)
gol sea" a
He, a ALEUTIAN ISLANDS |
as a 52°-— . A 2 0 FA,
itch iS a
os AO, j fl ss L? L
ee L L ! ! I I 1 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Figure 16.—Iron content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAU

8%


16°

176° 172°

im. 168° 164° 160°__156°__152°_ 48144? 140° 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
Go| T T T T T T T i) iy Ay V
& ‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
= Niele g
2 ale S
a aeret +
| > :
rs]
Fe
3
- = uo . . Fa
> fn ° ef8o 88 \ =
40] ae ag 8 ‘© Fairbanks
e . s \
s)
2 |
oa | AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
oh
“ ny a
Be
Ar
Ze
592| fleet
59°
° a
4 ‘odiak
77 Boe o
a + OR i. - 4
4, we ALEUTIAN ISLANDS,
of . ” st gw © 3.
itch ‘< 3 &
fot Ah f an i? ‘
ai L L L ! I 1 1 1 \
0 300 800 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 12.—Cobalt content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC ANV SLTNSaY

61


59°

549

176° 180° 178° 2 168° 184° 160° 156° 052° 148? 144? 40” 138° 132° 128° 424° 120° 116°
T T T T T T 1 i} \ \
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
5
o

sol
&
a 60)
5
g 40}
&

20

Gwresons eens se
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
a
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS || _fear”
Ar o 6 Hd
oe “es i? \
T 1 \

0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 25.—Niobium content of surficial materials.

os

VUSVTV dO SIVIMALVW TVIOIMUNS NI SNOLLVULNAONOO LNAWA1a


176°

128° 124° 120° 116°

%)

40|

9°]

§g|

54s|

20]

180° 176° 172° 168° ea" Aga. ss er ue i uo" ae

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE

OF TOTAL SAMPLES
= eI 5
5 |gls a
140 fe tore —
120}- |
100
fe]
a fc)
H 3
\ z
= 4 i *
cote 88
‘0 Fairbanks 20
Soa te \
. . \ s
m4 R88 8R82 E8888
2 pi eszeeggas
Wy AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
180°
T T @
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 7
as J se °
2 a Boulch ‘ 52° Are 2 0 HA.
fos Harbor f f SF
L L L L i T T \
o 300 600 KILOMETERS
re rr
i) 100-200-300 MILES

Ficure 7.—Barium content of surficial materials.

Las

VUSVTV AO STVIUALVW TVIOIMUNS NI SNOLLVULNSONOO LNAWA'TA


66°

64?

ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFICIAL MATERIALS OF ALASKA

176° 172°

168°

164° 160°

14q°__ 140°

136°

132°___ 128°

156° 152°___148°

ue
t 300 600 KILOMETERS:
a 100 200 300 MILES
1 Dixon Entrance 23 Unalaska 45 Skagway 67 McCarthy 89 Medfra 111 Teller 133 Killik River
2 Prince Rupert 24 Unimak 46 Yakutat 68 Valdez 90 Ophir 112 Shishmaref 134 Chandler Lake
3 Ketchikan 25 False Pass 47 Icy Bay 69 Anchorage 91 Unalakleet 113 Kotzebue —-135_ Philip Smith Mts.
4 Craig 26 Simeonof Island 48 Middleton Island 70 Tyonek 92 St. Micheal 114 Selawik 136 Arctic
5 Port Alexander 27 Stepovak Bay 49 Blying Sound 71. Lime Hills 93 St. Lawrence 115 Shungnak 137 Table Mtn.
6 Petersburg 28 Port Moller 50 Seldovia 72 Sleetmute 94 Nome 116 Hughes 138 Demarcation Point
7 Bradfield Canal 29 Cold Bay 51 Iliamna 73 Russian Mission95 Solomon 117 Bettles 139 Mt. Michelson
8 Sumdum 30. Chignik 52 Dillingham 74 Marshall 96 Norton Bay 118 Beaver 140 Sagavanirktok
9 Sitka 31. Sutwik Island 53 Goodnews 78 Hooper Bay 97 Nulato 119 Fort Yukon 141 Umit
10 Mt. Fairweather 32 Trinity Islands 54 Kuskokwim Bay 76 Black 98 120 Black River 142 Ikpikpuk River
11 Juneau 33 Kaguyak 55 Cape Mendenhall77 Kwiguk 99 ina River121 Coleen 143 Lookout Ridge
12 Taku River 34 Kodiak 56 St Matthew 78 HolyCross 100 Fairbanks 122 Christian 144 Utukok River
13 Attu 35 Karluk 87 Nunivak Island 79 Iditarod 101 Big Delta 123 Chandalar 145. Point Lay
14 Kiska 36 Ugashik 58 Baird Inlet 80 McGrath 102 Eagle 124 Wiseman 146 Wainwright
15 Ratlslands 37 Bristol Bay 59 Bethel 81 Talkeetna 103 Charley River 125 Survey Pass 147 Meade River
16 Gareloi Island 38 Pribilof Islands © 60 Taylor Mts. 82 Talkeetna Mts. 104 Circle 126 Ambler River 148 Teshekpuk
17 Adak 39 Hagemeister Island 61 Lake Clark 83 Gulkana 105 Livengood = 127 Baird Mts. 149 Harrison Bay
18 Atka 40 Nushagak Bay 62. Kenai 84 Nabesna 106 Tanana 128 Noatak 150 Beechey Point
19 Seguam 41. Naknek 63 Seward 85 Tanacross 107 Melozitna 129 Point Hope 151. Flaxman Island
20 Amukta 42 Mt. Katmai 64 Cordova 86 Mt. Hayes 108 Katee! River 130 Delong Mts. 152 Barter Island
21 Samalga Island 43 Afognak 65 Bering Glacier 87 Healy 109 Candle 131 Misheguk Mts.153 Barrow
22 Umnak 44 Atlin 66 Mt. St. Elias 88 Mt. McKinley 110 Bendeleben 132 Howard Pass From Orth, 1967

FicurE 3.—Location of 1:250,000-scale topographic maps.


176° 1pm. 178° 164° 1e0°__156°__—12°_148°__ 144? 140° 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
pe] 7 T T I is i} 1 \ AY
&| SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES

43

&

2

3

g

=
499

\
\ °0 2 481216
wt AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
eo 4
89
5g
’
180° 178° 172°
Ses) T i ol
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS ae 7
ak yo} . Bo
2 Buch a oy 2 2 oe
oot Harbor L i “ 1? i
at L ! I 1 1 1 \
ao 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FiGurE 22.—Molybdenum content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSaY

6%


178° 172° 188° 184° 160156? 152° n4a? 4a 140? 138° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
7 T T T T T T i i} \ V

‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE

OF TOTAL SAMPLES
i el
oe ———

FREQUENCY

Ceoceses see sEsssae

AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION

180°

T T T V
&
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS as
Bx 2 9 A
3

ss
L L L L Ly 4, t \

0 300 600 KILOMETERS:

a 100 200 300 MILES
Ficure 19.—Lithium content of surficial materials.

9%

VUSVIV JO STIVIUSTLVW TVIOIUNS NI SNOILVULNAONOD LNAWA1a



SOILS, CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND GEOCHEMICAL CYCLING

170°

160°

150° 140° 130° 120°

7
anctie

62°

orgs,
Island

iN
*ERINg s
e4

© Pribilof
islands

T 1

o.
CEAN EXPLANATION

Chula herdsmen

with heavily glaciated alpine moun-

a
Pleistocene proglacial lakes

Undifferentiated deposits associated

with generally unglaciated uplands

and lowlands of the Interior and
North Slope

Fluvial deposits

Eolian deposits

Coastal deposits of interbedded
‘marine and terrestrial sediments

Deposits associated with volcanic
peaksand flows of Tertiary and
Quaternary age

PACIFIC OCEAN

54°

Umnak

EB

a

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS Aa”
a: e wae
“| .

0

C) 100

300 600 KILOMETERS

200 300 MILES

Ficure 1.—Major regional groups of surficial deposits in Alaska. From Péwé (1975), modified from Karlstrom (1960).

skies, are responsible (Shacklette, 1969). The temperate
maritime climatic belt of southern and southeastern
Alaska is characterized by luxuriant sitka spruce-
western hemlock forests and has a dense understory of
shrubs (Viereck and Little, 1972). A highly organic
mineral soil is formed, and an abbreviated geochemical
cycle predominates, in which many elements are held
in, or tightly bound to, the organic material.

A cold and dry continental climate, with great ex-
tremes in temperature, is prevalent in a large part of
Alaska. This region is characterized by white spruce-
birch forests and well-developed bogs and muskegs (Van
Cleve and others, 1983). A podzolized soil layer (typical
of Spodosols) is often found here. Tundra vegetation is

prevalent over much of the North Slope where the
temperatures are low at all seasons, with even the
warmest months having a mean temperature lower than
10°C. This area is largely without trees, but has an
abundant ground cover of vegetation. The high north-
ern mountains are cold, very dry, and windy; and the
mean temperature is lower than 3°C. This area is
designated high arctic or polar desert, has sparse low-
growing vegetation, and has little or no soil develop-
ment (Histosols and Inceptisols).

There has been a very limited data base of “typical”
element concentrations that could be used to charac-
terize even small areas of natural soils and other sur-
ficial materials and to compare the element content



2 ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFICIAL MATERIALS OF ALASKA

health-related investigations (Shacklette and others,
1970; Hopps and Cannon, 1972; Ebens and others,
1973; Gough and others, 1979; Berrow and Reaves,
1984) and recently have contributed significantly to a
better understanding of nutritional problems in wild-
life management (Jones and Hanson, 1985). Baseline
values in element compositions of natural materials,
values derived from many specific regional studies, are
the only means of establishing reliable worldwide norms
of element concentrations in natural materials (Kabata-
Pendias and Pendias, 1984). Moreover, in geochemical
exploration for mineral deposits, the “normal” element
concentrations in a sampling medium must be under-
stood in order to identify abnormal concentrations
(Levinson, 1980).

In general, studies of the chemical composition of
the soils and unconsolidated surficial materials of
Alaska have been related to the increasing importance
of agriculture in the state. These investigations have
emphasized physical and chemical characteristics of
soil, as this type of information is necessary for the
proper management of pasture and small grain produc-
tion. When chemical element information is included,
these studies have generally focused on the macro-
nutrient elements. The intent is usually to identify
characteristics of soil types on a very local scale; and
it is not possible, therefore, to make generalizations
of element concentrations in soils for the state as a
whole, or even for major geographic regions within the
state.

For a number of years very intensive geochemical
surveys have been an integral part of the regional
approach to “Level III” studies by the Alaska Mineral
Resources Appraisal Program (AMRAP) (U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey, 1984). The objectives, sampling design,
sample media, and sample handling procedures of these
studies, however, preclude their use as a data base for
characterizing the geochemistry of surficial materials
for Alaska (see, for example, Foster and others, 1976;
Reiser and others, 1979). Most of the material sampled
thus far in the AMRAP studies has been either rocks,
stream sediments, or heavy-mineral panned concen-
trates of stream-sediment samples (Marsh and Cathrall,
1981).

In this study we examine the concentration of 35
chemical elements, ash yields, and pH for soils and
other unconsolidated surficial materials from through-
out the state. The methodology used to collect, store,
and prepare the samples was uniform; however, prob-
ably of similar importance, the samples were analyzed
at one time in a randomized order, making it possible
to look for element distribution patterns on a broad
regional scale.

SOILS, CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND
GEOCHEMICAL CYCLING

The major regional groups of surficial deposits in
Alaska are given in figure 1 (Péwé, 1975); these deposits
represent the parent materials from which the soils that
we collected have developed or that are still develop-
ing. Although the general types of parent materials
available for soil formation are the same as those pres-
ent in more temperate (mid-latitude) regions, the proc-
esses that control soil development at high latitudes can
be quite different. A cold climate reduces the rate of
chemical weathering and, at the same time, also reduces
the loss by leaching and surface runoff of elements in
solution. The action of the freeze-thaw cycle not only
increases the rate of physical weathering but may also
cause mixing of soil horizons, thereby bringing parent
materials to the surface where chemical weathering is
more intense. Although the growth of vegetation in
high-latitude regions is generally slow, the rate of
decomposition is even slower, resulting in large deposits
of organic materials in which many chemical elements
may be immobilized. Ground permanently frozen at
depth (permafrost) is present in much of northern
Alaska and occurs intermittently in central Alaska
(fig. 2); this ground thaws in summer from a few cen-
timeters to tens of centimeters from the surface. In
many of these areas, downward percolation of surface
water is prevented or severely restricted and the soil
is permanently moist or saturated.

Within the large area of Alaska, great differences in
climate are found. The climates of cold regions were
described by Rieger (1983, p. 1) as follows: “Two major
climatic types, the maritime type and the continental
type, can be recognized, but each of these has varying
degrees of expression, and climates intermediate be-
tween the two types are common. In maritime climates
precipitation is high and fairly uniformly distributed
over the year, and temperature differences between
winter and summer months generally are not great.
Cold continental climates have relatively low annual
precipitation, most of which occurs in a short warm
summer, and have long cold winters.”

The cold maritime climate is characterized in the
northwestern coastal areas of Alaska below the Bering
Strait by the tundra vegetation of low shrubs, mosses,
and lichens and the scarcity or absence of trees
(Kichler, 1966; Hultén, 1981) (fig. 2). Parts of the
Alaskan Peninsula and all of the Aleutian Islands are
also without trees, but have well-developed tundra
vegetation; the reason for the absence of trees here is
unknown, but probably factors other than low temper-
ature, such as severe winds and prevalent overcast


176° 180° 176° 172° 168° 164° 180° 156° _152°_ 148° 144? 140° 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
Me T T T T T T i} i) \ \ V
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
| OF TOTAL SAMPLES
gel 8
200fU Fr *
gol z 189
& 100
3
= 60)
40)
40
20)
% 12345678
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
605
89:
560
176° 190°
S| T T
Ae ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
Ax oo yim
Los a
fed i I, i
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 8.—Beryllium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSaU

ST


COLLECTION OF DATA SAMPLES AND ANALYSIS OF GEOCHEMICAL DATA 5

Gross, R. F. Hadley, J. W. Hawke, D. B. Hawkins, D.
Helm, T. D. Hessin, J. K. Hoare, J. D. Hoffman, L. Hot-
chkiss, T. Hudson, B. Huecker, B. R. Johnson, K. J. Kai-
ja, T. A. Kent, H. D. King, V. Komarkova, J. W. Larson,
W. D. Loggy, S. P. Marsh, J. L. Martin, C. Mayfield,
J. D. McKendrick, A. T. Miesch, M. L. Miller, T. P.
Miller, C. M. Molenaar, B. P. Minn, A. T. Ovenshine,
I, Palmer, W. W. Patton, G. W. Peterings, D. Pollocks,
A. A. Roberts, M. Robus, R. G. Schaff, H. R. Schmoll,
D. Scholl, V. D. Severns, R. Sheldon, T. N. Smith, B.
Stapleton, C. W. Strickland, J. V. Tileston, R. B. Tripp,
T.L, Vallier, D. J. Van Patten, D. Walker, H. J. Walker,
P. J. Webber, F. Weber, G. Weiner, S. H. Wood, L. A.
Yehle, and B. Yount.

We acknowledge the analytical support provided by
the following U.S. Geological Survey chemists: A. J.
Bartel, P. H. Briggs, T. F. Harms, M. J. Malcolm, G. R.
Mason, M. A. Mast, C. S. E. Papp, J. L. Peard, K. C.
Stewart, and R. B. Vaughn.

COLLECTION OF SAMPLES AND
ANALYSIS OF GEOCHEMICAL DATA

SAMPLING PLAN

This study progressed slowly on a nonfunded, time-
available basis for about 6 years. During fiscal years
1982 and 1983, however, some funds were made
available through the U.S. Geological Survey Energy
Lands Program and AMRAP to complete the field-work
phase of the study.

The design for the sampling phase of this study was
made simple because, as with the similar studies of the
conterminous United States, the acquisition of many
of the samples depended on the voluntary cooperation
of field personnel (only about 40 percent of the total
number of samples was obtained by the authors).

This study was organized on the basis of the 153
1:250,000-scale quadrangle areas that cover Alaska
(fig. 3). About 20 percent of the quadrangles have the
greater part of their areas covered either by water
(island and coastal areas), glaciers, or foreign territory
(Canada). If these latter quadrangles are deleted as
target areas, then two replicated sites from each of the
120 remaining quadrangles provide a coverage of the
state that we judged as adequate for the purposes of
this study. Figure 4 shows the coverage (along with
sampling location numbers) that was actually obtain-
ed. A comparison of figures 3 and 4 shows that, whereas
114 (of 120) quadrangles were visited and a total of 266
locations were sampled, some quadrangles were sam-
pled more intensively than others. We requested that

samplers collect a replicate soil sample at a location ap-
proximately 100 m distant from the point where the
first sample was collected because of the possibility of
large geochemical variability within locations. Samples
were replicated at 171 of the 266 locations; thus, a total
of 437 samples was obtained. Of this total, 50 samples
were randomly selected in the laboratory for duplicate
analysis, and a grand total of 487 analyses was
generated. With more than 60 percent of the samples
replicated (171 of 266) and 14 percent of the samples
split (50 of 437), reliable estimates could be made of the
variability in the concentration of elements at small
geographic scales (<100 m) and of the error associated
with sample handling and laboratory procedures.

A sampling plan was designed that required a
minimum of effort for the volunteer collectors, but
which provided an adequate level of geochemical infor-
mation. At each site we requested that a sample of soil
or other unconsolidated surficial material be collected
at a depth of about 20 cm (or until permafrost, bedrock,
or impenetrable consolidated material was reached). We
use the term “surficial material’’ for purposes of this
survey to avoid the technical problem of defining a

soil’’ and to include many types of unconsolidated
deposits. Most samples, by common definition, are
mineral soils; but unweathered loess, sand dune or shore
materials, and even highly organic deposits are included
in this study. We emphasize that unconsolidated river
or lake sediments were specifically excluded.

Sampling locations were selected to represent
“normal” surficial materials—that is, locations obvious-
ly affected by pollution or mines and spoil material, or
nearer than 100 m from roadways, were avoided, as were
locations of known mineral deposits. The samplers were
asked to make notes on the geology, pedology, physi-
ography, and vegetation at each location, also to give
a physical description, in general terms, of the material
that was sampled. This information, with the latitude
and longitude of each location and the chemical analyses
of the surficial material for each location, is presented
in detail in an open-file report by Gough and others
(1984)!, Plant samples were also obtained from most of
the 266 sampling locations. Whereas the analyses of a
soil sample provided a measure of the total concentra-
tion of each element at a location, analyses of the
associated plant material will permit an estimate to be
made of the concentrations of elements that exist in a
form available for plant uptake and biogeochemical cy-
cling. Chemical analyses of the plant santples have not.
yet been completed.

‘Openfile reports can be obtained from Open-File Services Section, U.S. Geological Survey,
M.S. 808, Box 25046, Denver, CO 80225.


178°

164° ne 56° 052° 14g? naa? 140? 138”

132°
\

128° 124° 120° 118°
ay

&-]

40)

176° 172° 168°
7 T

T T T i \ \

T
‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
a=
sje] 3
at +
3 200%
z
Fe
3
coi
g
Fd
E
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
130°
; 4 T = T T T al
. J oy he, | __ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS et 4
puch . se exo 3 Wd
.o 8 Harbor : f “ j
L L L L I I I 1 \
o 300 600 KILOMETERS.
[/R>-q 4
0 100 200 300 MILES

FiGuRE 14.—Dysprosium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAU

13


Element Concentrations in Soils and
Other Surficial Materials of Alaska

By L. P. GOUGH, R. C. SEVERSON, and H. T. SHACKLETTE

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1458

An account of the concentrations of 43
chemical elements, ash, and pH in soil and
other unconsolidated regolith samples

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1988


49

gl

56°]

54s|

176° 202 178° 172° 168° 164° 160° 156° 152° 14e? 44? 140° 138° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
T T T T T T T i} \ \
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
rey
F4
Fr
5
3
g
=
° 1234567
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
180°
T 1
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS | _LMger']
of . sz fw 2 6 ga
ich < na
one PO, i ee
L L L L I I I 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
rr Seer
0 100 200 300 MILES

Figure 37.—Ytterbium content of surficial materials.

wy

VUSVTV JO STVIUALVW TVIOIAUNS NI SNOILVULNGONOOD LNAWATA


8 ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFICIAL MATERIALS OF ALASKA

CHEMICAL-ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

In the laboratory the samples were dried at ambient
temperature, and the texture and color of the material
were noted. The material was then crushed in a
mechanical mortar and sieved through a 2-mm screen.
The minus-2-mm fraction was used for pH determina-
tions; the remaining material was pulverized to pass a
200-mesh sieve. A 5-g portion was dried at 105°C, then
ashed at 550°C to obtain an ash-yield value. Following
a randomization of all samples, chemical analyses were
performed on both the ashed and unashed
minus-200-mesh fractions by the methods given in table
1. The samples were scanned for concentrations of 47
elements, but concentrations for bismuth, cadmium, er-
bium, europium, gadolinium, praseodymium, samarium,
and silver were only rarely found above the lower limit
of analytical determination. Because so few values are
in the detectable range for these elements using the
methods given in table 1, the elements do not appear
in the summary tables but do appear in figure 40. Some
elements were looked for in all samples, but were not
found. These elements, analyzed by inductively coupled
argon-plasma optical emission spectrometry, and their
approximate lower limits of determination in parts per
million (in parentheses) are as follows: gold (8), holmium
(4), tantalum (40), and terbium (20).

DATA PRESENTATION

CLASSIFICATION OF
GEOCHEMICAL VARIABILITY

The distribution of the variability of element concen-
trations was determined by the use of a three-level
analysis-of-variance procedure similar to one described
in mathematical detail by Miesch (1976). The total
chemical variation within samples of surficial materials
has been viewed as the sum of three components: (1) the
spatial variability among sampling locations that are
separated by more than 100 m, (2) the spatial variabil-
ity between sites that are separated by 100 m or less
within a location, and (3) the procedural variability due
to all other causes that arise from sample preparation
and analysis. The results of this test are given in table 2.

PRESENTATION AND EXPLANATION
OF SUMMARY STATISTICS

Summary data for 35 elements, ash yield, and pH
values are reported in table 3, in which the element con-
centrations found in samples of soil and other surficial
materials from Alaska are compared with those
reported for similar samples from the conterminous

TABLE 1.—Analytical methodology and references for soil analyses

Parameter

Method

References and remarks

Concentrations of Al, Ca, Fe,
K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Si, and Ti.

Concentrations of Ag, As, Ba,
Be, Bi, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu,
Dy, Er, Eu, Ga, Gd, La, Li,
Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pm, Sc,
Sm, Sn, Sr, V, Y, Yb, and Zn.

Th and U----------------------

Xeray FS1-------

Argon-plasma OES?

Neutron activation

Gravimetric-+-----

Selective ion----~

Taggert and others, 1981,

Crock and others, 1983,

Millard, 1975, 1976,

Aliquots of dry soils
weighed and burned to ash,
and the ash weighed and
calculated as percentage
of dry weight.

Crock and Severson, 1980.

electrode.

lx-ray fluorescence spectrographic.

2 Inductively coupled argon-plasma optical emission spectrometry.


176° 180° 176° 172° __168° ie4°___ne0°_1s6°_ 52°? nag? 40? 138° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°

>)

G0]

89°]

S4e|

qT T T T T y iy \ \
001 \
Colville \
* one Cer ve
\
wee }
a8 155% 5p \
- 138 53,214:
a 129 Te ie
- \
ave 1 etn aie “ore “> Fairbanks 75 086
ee 01 ao ose #897 283 |
q
6° 100°
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS frag
as 52°} ar 2 ° que
2 LB Duich ~ 08
cot Harbor j f nN i? \
L L L i I I I 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
a rr
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 4.—Sampling sites and field identification numbers for soils and other surficial materials, Alaska. Site data are given in Gough and others (1984).

VLVd TVOINAHOOdD dO SISATIVNV CONV SH'TdWVS VLVC JO NOLLOATIOO


1

24° 120° 116°

176° 180° 176° 172° 168° tee? 160° 56°12” 04g? 140? 136° 132° 128°
Ge 7 T T T T T T i 1 \ \
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
%- ey *
qj 8
400} 7
300}
&°| 3 200%
Fr)
5
a
= 60}
40) 40]
20)
yeoeese
60° AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
59°
56°)
180°
54 ‘ T
<R ~ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
52} Ae 2 2 HA
. “OF
2o 8
al L L ! ! 5 L, : t \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicureE 33.—Tin content of surficial materials.

oF

VMSVTV JO STVIYGLVW TVIOIZUNS NI SNOILVULNGONOO LNAWATS


180° 178° 172° 168° 164° ___160°_156” ‘ga 148° 1 ar ve ig 126° 124° 120° 116°
T

‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES

= 2

= Jel 2

8 |e =
|

2
ei
[o

ey
a
co

a

8 8

FREQUENCY

’ 180°
Poy T i} i}
i ~ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS,
at |
Boi a a a
Harbor f f — L? \
L L L L I I i 1 \
° 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FIGuRE 21.—Manganese content of surficial materials.

83

VUSVTV JO STVIUALVW TVIOIZUNS NI SNOLLVULNAONOOD LNAWATA



176° 180° 176° 168° 1e4° eo? 56” 152°_ 4B? 44? 140 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 118°
tee 7 T 7 7 7 T T 1 V v
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
%e| @ [qo o
& las 2
aol & tat 7
64 >
ia]
2
rr
5
3
a
4
=
80
604 AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
5g
>|
176° 180°
fee T T
a, ~~ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
of set Ae oo HA
SBduid < as
plo Harbor j f “SS L? \
er L L ! L I I 1 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
i] 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 38.—Yttrium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC ANV SLINSAY

ay


176° 180° 178° 172° 168° sea" ‘ga get 1 st a saa" 196 sa 128° 124° 120° 116°

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES

e 3

g &

= ¥

cla7.4
aa26

FREQUENCY

AMOUNT, IN PERCENT

vis GBLINO,

Sats

180°
i

oon : ALEUTIAN ISLANDS © de"
SB se ore 3 w4
3

Harbor

x
L L L i L, = n t \

oot

NOISSNOSIC ANV SLTNSaa

0 300 600 KILOMETERS:
t) 100 200 300 MILES

FIGuRE 20,—Magnesium content of surficial materials.

Lo


ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFICIAL MATERIALS OF ALASKA

180° 170° ise ra 130° 120°
OCEAN
EXPLANATION
68° Unforested areas
4 Interior white spruce-birch forest
Coastal sitka spruce-hemlock forest
Continuous
permat iy
Sicontinuous Er

permafrost —

os oO Nom
\
B
FRING
Se, 4
56°
, 5 sat
“en pAcIFIC OCEAN
180°
ow ; 1 °
~- ALEUTIAN ISLANDS — fico
oe ase je 1
wos LF ; i?
1 1
a 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FIGURE 2.—Major forest types and unforested areas in Alaska. Modified from Péwé (1975) after Sigafoos (1958) and Hopkins (1959). Approx-
imate limits of permafrost modified from Péwé (1975).

of Alaskan soils with that of soils from other regions.
Land suitable for agriculture constitutes a very small
fraction of the total area of Alaska, and crops are grown
only at the most favorable locations. Soil analyses that
have been done for major nutritive elements in culti-
vated fields (Laughlin and others, 1983) are not useful
in determining large-scale geochemical tendencies.
Likewise, the many soil samples analyzed in geochemi-
cal prospecting for mineral deposits are intentionally
biased and are not necessarily representative of the
areas in which they were obtained.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the following persons who volunteered to
collect samples from their study areas in Alaska or who

assisted in making arrangements for samples to be col-
lected (affiliations include Boise State University, Loui-
siana State University, University of Alaska,
University of Colorado, Alaska Division of Geological
and Geophysical Surveys, U.S. Department of the Ar-
my (CRREL), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S.
Forest Service, U.S. National Park Service, U.S. Soil
Conservation Service, U.S. Bureau of Land Manage-
ment, and U.S. Geological Survey): L. Allen, J. C.
Barker, D. Barnes, R. F. Bartel, H. C. Berg, W. W.
Bockner, D. A. Brew, W. P. Brosgé, G. Brougham, J.
Brown, V. Byrd, L. D. Carter, R. M. Chapman, W. D.
Crim, B. Csejtey, K. Cunningham, G. @ Curtin, R. L.
Delaney, D. E. Detra, R. L. Detterman, J. Ebersole, R.
L. Elliott, K. Ehrhardt, O. J. Ferrians, J. Flock, J.
Frates, W. Gabriel, C. A. Gardner, R. L. Garrett, E. R.



178° 180° 176° 172° 168° seat 160° 18 ‘sf. ue we 140°_136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
T

8T

i} \ Ay

T

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES.

§ 3

FREQUENCY

8

Sate 28
(© Fairbanks
s 3
o "a

ORSIRBRBEIRSEERS

AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION

\
180°
T
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
_ Bbc oe? 3 WH
joo Harbor f f _ L? \ \

L L L i I I T 1

VUSVTV JO STIVIUSLVW TVIOIZUNS NI SNOLLVULNAONOO LNGWETS

0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FiGure 11.—Chromium content of surficial materials.


178° 176° 172° 168° 164° 190° __1s6°__—«52°_—n48? 144? 140° 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
on i rr rt es re rs a en |
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
%e| OF TOTAL SAMPLES
=e Ta4] 3S
Ets) &
o ae .
120/- H
640| 100+ H
i or
. go
aT ou Eo.
40 ‘© Fairbanks
Poa [eo 2 20h
ete a
. \ PoC CEEELEL ED
ao : AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
iS
5g:
5¢°|
54e| 10°
‘ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
& . 2
a sy, x 52°[- A oo yA.
owt LF Harbor : f ed ,
ai L L L ! I 1 " 1 \
0 300 (600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicureE 28.—Scandium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSA

ge


842

176° pr 176° 172° 168° 164° 160° 158° 52°_ 4a? 4g? 140° 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 6°
T T T T T T i \ \ Ay
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF, TOTAL SAMPLES,
a @ 2a) a
& 8 |alg| 2
7 a8 *
ao}
fey
& sor
5
if 40r
&
20--
SNPSERATLS SIS SSS TT
AMOUNT, IN PERCENT
180°
T ol
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 4
ok feo
butch Bs 8 2 WA
fos Harbor fl \ 1” \
L L L L i I r 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicurE 29.—Silicon content of surficial materials.

98

VYSVIV JO STVIUSLVW TVIOIGUNS NI SNOILVULNGDNOO LNAIWATS


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 51

procedure introduced a bias in the means that is
reported, the severity of which depends on the percent-
age of censored (‘‘less than”) values that were found,
and produced results in calculated means that are
higher than would be determined if actual values for the
omitted samples were known. In contrast, the mean
values calculated by using the technique of Cohen (1959)
for elements in samples of surficial materials included
all samples; therefore, these mean values are better
estimates of central tendency.

There are two additional causes of differences be-
tween surficial materials and sediment means reported
in table 3: the great difference in the number of samples,
and the actual differences in the chemistry of two dif-
ferent types of materials (surficial materials and
sediments). Those elements having very few censored
values (high detection ratios) in the two data sets show
close correspondence between their calculated means.
For example, scandium has identical mean concentra-
tions (14 ppm) in both surficial materials and sediments.
Correspondence of the means is also close for some other
elements having high detection ratios, such as
aluminum, beryllium, calcium, cobalt, iron, lithium, lead,
manganese, nickel, titanium, uranium, and vanadium.
The means for arsenic, tin, and ytterbium, which have
many censored values in both kinds of materials, do not
correspond well. The extremely high tin value (or values)
of 29,000 ppm, reported by Los Alamos National
Laboratory (1983), suggests a “nugget” effect inasmuch
as cassiterite (SnO,) is commonly found in stream
sediments in some parts of Alaska; this supposition,
however, cannot be supported by data given in the sedi-
ment report because the element values for lake
sediments and stream sediments were merged for
calculating mean concentrations. The difference in zinc
means between sediments and surficial materials (157
and 79 ppm, respectively) and the extreme range of con-
centration in the sediments also suggest that the high
values in some stream sediments may be due to par-
ticles of zinc minerals. Two elements, potassium and
strontium, have relatively high detection ratios in both
kinds of samples, but the mean concentrations in
sediments are much higher than are typically found in
soils. The reasons for these high sediment means are
not known.

THE INTERPRETATION OF
GEOCHEMICAL TRENDS

The data presented on maps in this report may in-
dicate regional variation in the abundance of certain
elements; single values or small clusters of values may
have little importance if considered alone. The follow-
ing are examples of areal geochemical patterns at three

scales. Samples from the area of continuous permafrost
(fig. 2), the tundra of the Arctic coastal plain, and the
Brooks Range have concentrations of sodium that are
mostly in the lowest frequency class (<0.1 to 0.6 per-
cent, fig. 30); all are lower than 1.2 percent, even though
the organic content (as indicated by ash percentage, fig.
41) and pH (fig. 42) vary throughout the entire range
of ash percentage and pH among the samples. Stron-
tium (fig. 31) and scandium (fig. 28) concentrations
follow the same general trend. Thorium (fig. 32) and
uranium (fig. 35) are generally low in samples from the
Aleutian Islands, Kodiak Island, the Alaskan peninsula,
and coastal sites south of the Yukon delta.

A distinctive small-scale geochemical pattern is il-
lustrated by the data for five adjacent sampling sites
at the mouth of the Colville River (sites 015, 131, 132,
188, and 143, fig. 4). Surficial materials from these sites
have concentrations of the following elements in the
lowest, or next to lowest, frequency class, as shown on
maps for the following elements: aluminum, arsenic,
beryllium, cerium, chromium, copper, dysprosium,
gallium, iron, magnesium, molybdenum, neodymium,
niobium, potassium, scandium, sodium, strontium,
thorium, tin, titanium, uranium, vanadium, ytterbium,
yttrium, and zinc. Yet samples from this suite ranged
from the lowest to the highest in ash yield and pH.
Thus, the samples ranged from moderately organic (ash
yield of 61.0 percent) to low organic (ash yield of 97.0
percent), and from acidic (pH 5.8) to slightly basic (pH
7.8)(Gough and others, 1984), and the content of the
elements mentioned above seems to be independent of
soil type or pH.

Apparent anomalies at the location level are shown
by samples from two sites, 020 in eastern Alaska near
the Yukon boundary and 134 in northern Alaska near
the south side of the Colville River (fig. 4). These
samples have high concentrations of elements not com-
monly found in surficial materials. Material sampled at
site 020 in the Tanacross quadrangle (number 85, fig.
3) was described (Gough and others, 1984, p. 15) as “col-
luvium from biotite gneiss and schist; dark brown
organic loam with mica-like fine sand”; the sample con-
tained erbium, europium, gadolinium, praseodymium,
and samarium in measurable concentrations. The
material sampled at site 134 in the Killik River
quadrangle (number 133, fig. 3) was described (Gough
and others, 1984, p. 20) as ‘‘terrace cut on bedrock of
Lisborne Limestone of Mississippian age; dark brown
silty material high in organic matter’; the sample was
found to contain cadmium, erbium, europium, and
gadolinium.

The data from this study are presented as estimates
of central tendency for concentrations of elements in
unconsolidated surficial materials, and the figures are


%e|

64°

56°]

S4o|

176° 190° 176° 172? 188° a le ss er 148° a va" ae sr 128° 124° 120° ue?
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES:
= ela 2
8 als &
ue tet :
3 60}- 1
we &
a8 2 4
- 3
aT = 20
S \ Soeove Sr giSsssssee
‘ AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
.
«|
at
gl
.S ai
io]
°
: 180°
ry > T T qh
~ A NDS 4
He, i | ALEUTIAN ISLA Aart
7 wt axe le
utcl ~ -
os Harbor fl f “ L? \
L L L 1 I T 1 \
0 300 800 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 17.—Lanthanum content of surficial materials.

14

VUSVTV JO STVIUELVW TVIOIZUNS NI SNOLLVULNGONOO LNAWATS


Iv CONTENTS

Page
FiGurRE 40. Map showing content of bismuth, cadmium, erbium, europium, gedolinium, Praseodyminm, samarium, and silver
in surficial materials from Alaska AT
41. Map showing ash content of surficial materials from Alaska 48
49

42, Map showing pH values for surficial materials from Alaska ..

TABLES

TABLE 1, Analytical methodology and references for soil analyses. . .
2. Estimates of logarithmic variance for surficial materials from a.
8. Summary statistics for elements in samples of surficial materials from Alaska and the conterminous United States, “and
in samples of stream and lake sediments from Alaska ............ 6.000000 0 eee eee e eee teeters 10



176° 180° 176° 172° 18. tear seo" se ise in se ee" 136° 132° 128°. 124° 120° 116°

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE

OF TOTAL SAMPLES,
5 en] @] =
8 ieitts =
eo ee =
fa H
Zz H
a i
3 40)
2
= 20
\ 0,

o =
>
=
i}
Cc
s
2
5
a
$
3
3
=
Ss
]

6°

56°]

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAY

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS

ask of ra 5
ei 2 ore te
ot Harbor | L sy L? \
L L L I I I L \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
re ee
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 36.—Vanadium content of surficial materials.

er


176° 180° 178° 172° sea ea sea 156° 12. ue as ue 1 se 126° 124° 120° 118°
%e
‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES.
&- = 132) e
[asl &
sao as *
120} :
840 100}- j
2 Zw
yee 2
oe S col
ao =
04 Oy “
\ 20
\ Orage eaenaaghnk
| ecsecoscodSOGeK ee
Fas} & Si AMOUNT, IN PERCENT
53°
5g°|
S4°| ’ 130°
ro T = T T e)
es He, “7, ALEUTIAN ISLANDS ae
ak ~ * see gw e oe)
itch + a
ow OPE, i cae
Be L L L L I I it it \
0 300 800 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicuRE 34.—Titanium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAY

Ww


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 11

geometric mean and D the geometric deviation. About
95 percent should fall between M/D? and MXD*, and
about 99.7 percent between M/D? and MXD3 (U.S.
Geological Survey, 1975).

The analytical data for some elements include values
that are below, or above, the limits of analytical deter-
mination; and these values are expressed as less than
(<) or greater than (>) a stated value?. These data are
said to be “censored,” and for these the mean was com-
puted by using a technique described by Cohen (1959)
and applied to geochemical studies by Miesch (1967,
1976). This procedure includes both the censored and
the noncensored values in the calculations of the ex-
pected mean and variance. The censoring may be so
severe in certain sets of data that a reliable adjustment
cannot be made; with the data sets used in this study,
however, only a few such circumstances occurred (fig.
40). In some cases the inclusion of censored data may
result in estimates of the mean that are lower than the
‘limit of determination. For example, in table 3 the
geometric mean for arsenic concentrations in soils from
Alaska is estimated to be 6.7 ppm, although the lower
limit of determination of the analytical method that was
used is 10 ppm. .

The detection ratios in table 3—that is, the ratio of
the number of samples in which the element was found
in measurable concentrations to the total number of
samples analyzed—identify the number of censored
values that were used in calculating the mean. This
number is found by subtracting the left value in the
ratio from the right.

MAPS OF GEOCHEMICAL VALUES

The distribution of the sampling locations for surficial
materials and the concentrations of elements deter-
mined in samples from those locations are presented on
maps of Alaska (figs. 5-40). Figure 40 identifies the loca-
tions where measurable amounts of one or more of eight
elements—bismuth, cadmium, erbium, europium,
gadolinium, praseodymium, samarium, and silver—were
found. Because of the large number of censored values,
reliable mean concentrations of these elements could not
be calculated. Each of the remaining maps (figs. 5-39)
gives the locations where samples were collected and
the concentration of the elements in samples at these
locations.

The map symbols represent a class of values deter-
mined from the frequency distributions using all
samples, usually 437 (266 sites plus 171 site replicates).

*The limite of determination for those elements with censored values are given in the
“observed range” column, table 3.

Eleven of the frequency distributions are based on a
total of 416 samples because 21 of them had an insuffi-
cient amount of material to perform x-ray fluorescence;
this is true for aluminum, calcium, cerium, iron, magne-
sium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, silicon,
sodium, and titanium. The untransformed element-
concentration values were used to calculate the distribu-
tions; if a location had a replicate sample, we chose to
plot only the value of the sample from the initial site.
The element maps, therefore, represent 266 sampling
sites. Using the histograms, we divided the ranges of
reported values for the elements into classes so that a
nearly equal percentage of the values fell into each class.
For most elements, we selected five classes; the limited
range in values for some elements, however, prohibited
the use of more than two or three classes to represent
the total distribution. For many other elements that
showed a high content in a few samples (positively
skewed frequency distribution), the class interval was
expanded at the high end of the range to accommodate
these samples on an arithmetic scale. Symbols repre-
senting the classes were drawn on the maps by an
automatic plotter that was guided by computer
classification of the data, including the latitude and
longitude of the sampling locations. A histogram on
each map gives the frequency distribution of the
analytical values and shows the symbol that represents
each class of values.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

DISTRIBUTION OF GEOCHEMICAL VARIABILITY

The results of the three-level analysis-of-variance
sampling design are given in table 2. An interpretation
of the partitioning of the variance components is il-
lustrated by the values for calcium. The total log,,
variance is equal to 0.17545; of this, 87 percent of the
total variance occurred among the 266 locations. We
have intentionally not reported tests of significance for
the analysis of variance; however, these data show that
differences in concentrations of calcium between loca-
tions are reproducible and are largely due to natural
causes. Only 11 percent of the variance is between
replicate samples at a location, thus indicating that
calcium concentrations within locations are uniform and
that sampling errors are small.

The variance attributed to analytical procedures in
determining calcium is only 2 percent; therefore, preci-
sion of the analytical method is good, and the error
associated with laboratory procedures does not obscure
natural geochemical trends. Analytical-error variance


REFERENCES CITED 53

Shacklette, H. T., Hamilton, J. C., Boerngen, J. G., and Bowles, J.
M., 1971b, Elemental composition of surficial materials in the con-
terminous United States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 574-D, 71 p.

Shacklette, H. T., Sauer, H. I., and Miesch, A. T., 1970, Geochemical
environments and cardiovascular mortality rates in Georgia: U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 574-C, 39 p.

Sichel, H. S., 1952, New methods in the statistical evaluation of mine
sampling data: Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions,
v. 61, p. 261-288.

Sigafoos, R. S., 1958, Vegetation of northwestern North America, as
an aid in interpretation of geologic data: U.S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 1061-E, p. 165-185.

Taggert, J. E., Jr., Lichte, F. E., and Wahlberg, J. S., 1981, Methods
of analysis of samples using x-ray fluorescence and induction

coupled plasma spectroscopy, in Lipman, P. W., and Mulli-
neaux, D. R., eds., The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens,
Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1280,
p. 683-687.

U.S, Geological Survey, 1975, Geochemical survey of the western coal
regions; 2d annual progress report, July 1975: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 75-486, 132 p.

1984, Annual report on Alaska’s mineral resources: U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 940, 54 p.

Van Cleve, K., Dyrness, C. T., Viereck, L. A., Fox, J., Chapin, F. S.,
and Oechel, W., 1983, Taiga ecosystems in interior Alaska: Bio-
Science, v. 33, p. 39-44.

Viereck, L. A., and Little, E. L., 1972, Alaska trees and shrubs: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agricultural Hand-
book 410, 265 p.

xf U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1988-573-047/66038


176° 180° 178°. 172° 168° 164° 160° 156° 152° 148° 144° 140° 136° 132° 128°, 124° 120° 116°
Gp) T qT T r T T i} T \ \
| ‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
O44
3 80}
5
a 3%
- ey oeu g
a0 “ ate ue Xo Fairbanks “40
i
." \ aa
u |
1 oO 1 some md
ew PRS 8883 883
ul
69°] AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
\
fed
See
fe ‘eo"
=e he, ALEUTIAN ISLANDS Pe
ak x ” 52 aw 2 yd.
ich < a
foe Dh I ~~ i? \
a Ll L ! i 1 1 1 1 \
0 300 600 KLOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FicurE 6.—Arsenic content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLTNSAX

8T


CONTENTS

Page Page

Abstract . 1 | Data presentation—Continued
Introduction . 1 Classification of geochemical variability ............. 8
Background, objectives, and literature review ........ 1 Presentation and explanation of summary statistics 8
Soils, climate, vegetation, and geochemical cycling 2 Maps of geochemical values .... . ll
Acknowledgments .................000222..005 4 | Results and discussion a8
Collection of samples and analysis of geochemical data. 5 Distribution of geochemical variability 11
Sampling plan . . 5 Comparisons of geochemical data .................. 50
Chemical-analysis procedures .. 8 The interpretation of geochemical trends 51
Data presentation g | References cited ..... 52

ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
FIGURE 1, Sketch map of major regional groups of surficial deposits in Alaska . . 3
2. Generalized map of major forest types and unforested areas in Alaska 4
3. Map showing the location of 1:250,000-scale topographic maps of Alaska . 6
4. Map showing sampling sites and field identification numbers for soils and other surficial materials, Alaska . 1
5-39. Maps showing element content of surficial materials in Alaska:

5. Aluminum .... 12
6. Arsenic . 13
7. Barium . 14
8. Beryllium 15
9. Calcium .... 16
10. Cerium . 17
11. Chromium 18
12. Cobalt 19
13. Copper 20
14. Dysprosium 21
15. Gallium : . : veseees 22
16. Iron ...... . . . 23
17. Lanthanum . 24
18. Lead ... 25
19. Lithium 26
20. Magnesium 27
21. Manganese ... 28
22, Molybdenum 29
23. Neodymium 30
24, Nickel ...... 31
25, Niobium 32
26. Phosphorus 33
27. Potassium 34
28, Scandium 35
29, Silicon ...... 36
30. Sodium .... 37
31. Strontium ... 38
32, Thorium ... 39
33. Tin ..... 40
34, Titanium 41
35. Uranium .. 42
36. Vanadium . 43,
37. Ytterbium . 44
38. Yttrium 45

39, Zinc ......... : : a sae see denen ee Deedee een ee 46


%o|

64°]

569]

176° 180° 176° 72° 168° 164° 160158? _——152°_—n4a?— nag? 140° 138° 132° 128° 424° 120° 116°
r T T T T T 1 i) \ \
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
= Tee 5
) gas &
o—orer 7
/

i 3

oot a

a4 Fy

a g op ee =

“ Ay se Mo Fairbanks
AMOUNT, IN PERCENT
AS a
gi, ae im ve 10"
e ?
wo ‘ ~~ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS,
ak ol we °
> puch bed Ae 2&2 WA
os Harbor _s ?
22 L | it \
L L L 1 I I T it \
0 300 800 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 27.—Potassium content of surficial materials.

13

VUSVTIV JO SIVIUALVW TVIOIMUNS NI SNOILV4LNAONOO LNGWNATS


64°]

429|

gel

178° 180° 176° 172° 168° tea? t60”_—186° 1524s 4a 140? 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 118°
T T T T T i] i) \ A
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
= ea) S
By BEE 8
ott
B
2
3
3
&
=
180°
i}
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS.
Ae 2 3 4
foe “sy? 1
T L \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 15.—Gallium content of surficial materials.

Kid

VUSV'TIV dO SIVIUALVW TVIOIUUNS NI SNOLLVULNGONOO INANE TS


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gough, L. P.
Element concentrations in soils and other surficial materials of Alaska.

(U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 1458)

Bibliography: p.

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:1458

1. Soils—Alaska—Composition. 2. Soil chemistry—Alaska. 3, Geochemistry—Alaska.

I, Severson, R. C. (Ronald Charles), 1945- . II. Shacklette, Hansford T. III. Title.

IV. Series: Geological Survey professional paper ; 1458.

$599.A44G68 1987 631.4'7'798 86-600335
For sale by the

Books and Open-File Reports Section
U.S. Geological Survey
Federal Center
Box 25425
Denver, CO 80225


128° 124° 120° 116°

178° 180° 176° 172° 168° 164° 60°58” 152° 14g? 44? 840" 138° 132°
4 7 T 7 T T T i v V
‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
%-
64°|
fey
a
5
3
rd
® ba
60°)
AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
594
5g°|
° ° ° me
gs us 100 18 4
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS Ass 4
SBS Bre 2 2 HA
ott Harbor f fl Se i? 1
fer L L L L i i T it \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 39.—Zinc content of surficial materials.

oF

VUSVTV JO STVIUALVW TVIOIGUNS NI SNOILVULNGONOO LNAWA1a


189° 176° 172° 168° 164° ___460°__—158°_ 52°14” 144? ug ge" ae ae 124° 120° 116°

SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE

OF TOTAL SAMPLES
a ae1e @
a (se, 2
a aetet 7

FREQUENCY

AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION

=
| ALEUTIAN ISLANDS Ber
1 SB Hutch . aa eve 3 yi
Harbor ! f ol ? \
L L L i I I I 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
b> or
o 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 23.—Neodymium content of surficial materials.

os

VUSVIV JO STVIUELVW TVIOIZUNS NI SNOLLVULNIONOO LNAWATS



64°]

420]

5g¢|

178° 199° 178° 172° Ja tee" sea" ise" ir set as vag 136° 1 128° 124° 120° 116°
7
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES
@ |o] EE +
z |slais Ps
a {aie 2
wtaratet 7
100)
! 5 8
- 2
wet 5 60
a 3
a ez 40]
2 &
\s °
\
\ Snronersseeeg
mI AMOUNT, IN PARTS PER MILLION
u gi
Z\
\ en
ag
a
io
SQ BE
BY .
>
’ 180°
tos T T @)
he, cae ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 4
ak | we FE
» Buch . a Axe 2 2 Hd
1s Harbor ! f = j ? \

L L i L i I I

0 300 600 KILOMETERS

0 100 200 300 MILES
Ficure 32.—Thorium content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC ANV SLTNSAY

68


128° 124° 120° 116°

180° 176° 12 ses

pe 1eo°___1s6°___ 52°48? naa? 140 438° 132°

4 T T T TT v v V
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
a OF TOTAL SAMPLES
9
By

a

3

a

3

g

rd

£
G20
603
54
59
S¢ol ue 1a 178°

a ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 2:
as = . ae
2 Bbuich ‘ ad os? 3 wd
plo Harbor f f ss i? \
el l L ! | I I 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

FIGURE 18.—Lead content of surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSTU

id


DATA PRESENTATION 9
TABLE 2.—Estimates of logarithmic variance for surficial materials from Alaska

Percentage of total variance hetween:

Percentage of total variance between:

Element, Total logig Replicate Replicate Element, Total logyp Replicate Replicate
ash, or pH variance — Locations samples at analytical ash, or pH variance Locations samples at analytical
each location splits each location splits
0.02034 85 4 1 0.05725 53 8 39
704913 48 31 21 211618 82 12 6
~04940 74 20 6 03825 80 19 1
03491 84 7 9 06212 46 13 4.
«17545, 87 ll 2 95067 69 16 15
207214 72 17 lL 00656 73 26 1
104893 73 13 4 202281 a7 27 26
+09316 76 16 2 108590 86 0 4
06598 67 22 iW 06858 74 6 20
104263 7 0 93 +0655 73 26 1
-03273 68 31 a 207744 n 24 5
02895 55 0 45 205256 n 19 10
03978 84 14 2 03770 62 31 7
+05269 7 22 7 208411 58 v7 25
.05810 79 13 8 +04877 39 20 41
407153 85 15 <1 01440 70 30 <1
«09896 69 29 1 00646 69 22 9
202711 39 26 35
05910 89 0 ll
105056 58 6 36

United States by Shacklette and Boerngen (1984) and
for the element concentration in stream and lake
sediments from Alaska by the National Uranium
Resource Evaluation program (NURE) (Los Alamos Na-
tional Laboratory, 1983). The surficial-materials data
are expressed on a dry-weight basis (forced air at am-
bient temperature) which, according to Brooks (1983,
p. 167-168), is the common method for reporting con-
centrations of elements in soils. The stream- and lake-
sediment data’are also expressed on a dry-weight basis,
but these samples were oven-dried at about 100°C. The
mean values expressed on a dry-weight basis (table 2)
can be converted to an ash-weight basis using the for-
mula: C,=(C,/A)X100, where C, equals the concentra-
tion in the ash, C, is the concentration in the dry
material, and A is the mean percent ash yield (ash
percentage of dry weight). Conversions, using the same
formula, of concentration values for individual samples
can be made by consulting the element-concentration
and ash-yield values given in Gough and others (1984).

In table 3, both arithmetic and geometric means are
given. Arithmetic means are provided to make these
data more readily comparable with data generally
reported in the literature. These arithmetic means for
samples of surficial materials were derived from the
estimated geometric means by using a technique
described by Miesch (1967), which is based on methods
devised by Cohen (1959) and Sichel (1952). The

arithmetic means in table 3 are best used as estimates
of geochemical abundance (Miesch, 1967, p. Bl).
Geometric means, however, are better “maximum
likelihood estimators” for most geochemical data
because of the tendency for concentrations of elements
in natural materials, particularly the trace elements, to
have positively skewed frequency distributions (Miesch,
1967, p. B2). Therefore, the analytical data for surficial
materials, as received from the laboratory, were trans-
formed to logarithms; and the geometric mean (an-
tilogarithm of the mean of logarithmic values) is
reported as our best estimator of central tendency. In
table 3 the data for samples of surficial materials include
detection ratios; geometric means and deviations; and
observed ranges for element concentrations, ash yields,
and pH values, whereas the sediment data provide
detection ratios, arithmetic means, and observed ranges
only.

In geochemical background studies, the magnitude
of scatter to be expected around the mean is as impor-
tant as the mean. In lognormal distributions, the
geometric deviation (antilogaritlm of the standard
deviation of the logarithmic data) measures this scat-
ter, and this deviation may be used to estimate the
range of variation expected for an element in the
material being studied. About 68 percent of the samples
in arandomly selected suite should fall within the limits
defined by M/D and MXD, where M represents the


116°

176° 180° 178° 172° 168° a a a a 136° 132° 128° 124° 120°
4 T T T T T i v V
%l
4°]
65
0°
59
562
Sige} uo “"
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS we
ak ao 3
ich &% 3 We
oat PPE, SO
coat L L f i r 1 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 40.—Content, in parts per million (ug/g), of bismuth, cadmium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, praseodymium, samarium, and silver in surficial materials

from Alaska. Boxes represent sampling sites.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSA

~
3


178° 180° 176° 172° 168° 164° 1e0°___1s6°_—t52°_ 14g? 14a? 140° 136° 132° 128° 124° 120° 116°
4 T T 7 7 T T y v \
‘SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL SAMPLES.
%o|
Ses 2 e
& |g/¢| S
1 uss .
3
&40| Fed i
5
3
id
=
&
600)
STANDARD UNITS
605
59:
56
ax 172° 176° 180° 178° 172°
444 t, 7 T T 1 el 4
; Sh ALEUTIAN ISLANDS Aes"
a
as ~ 52°} Ew yA,
ih : S
ae OPP, ae :
fee L L L i I I 1 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
— ree
0 100 200 300 MILES

Ficure 42.—pH values for surficial materials.

NOISSNOSIC GNV SLINSAY

6h


178° 180° 176° 172° 158° 14° 60°56 2°48? ag 140° 136° 132° 128° 124°, 120° 116°
M%el T T T \ \ \
SYMBOLS AND PERCENTAGE
%4 OF TOTAL SAMPLES
«= [ee] 2
3 elsial =
y20 7 iste; ©
So & H
z t
u i
S 3 i
a8 a
a &
& ay
012345678 91011
AMOUNT, IN PERCENT
0°}
59:
°
56
°
fee ty as T q
~ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS ee a|
as L we
x Se Puich =~ or Lal
os Harbor f ~ i? \
a L L L L r 1 1 \
0 300 600 KILOMETERS
0 100 200 300 MILES

Figure 5.—Aluminum content of surficial materials.

ras

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