Prepared in cooperation with the Lake St. Clair Regional Monitoring Project , Michigan 

Department of Environmental Quality, and Macomb, Oakland, St. Clair, and Wayne Counties 

Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in 

the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan 

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2007-1083
Bacteria and Emerging Chemical 

Contaminants in the St. Clair River/

Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan

By Lisa R. Fogarty

Prepared in cooperation with the Lake St. Clair Regional Monitoring Project , 

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, and Macomb, Oakland, St. Clair, 

and Wayne Counties 

Open-File Report 2007-1083 

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark D. Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2007

For more information about the USGS and its products:

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Fogarty, L.R., 2007, Bacteria and emerging chemical contaminants in the St. Clair River/

Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1083, 10 p.

Cover photographs. Photograph of seagulls on Metropolitan Beach near Mt. Clemens, Michigan by Lisa R. 

Fogarty. Photograph of Anchor Bay near New Baltimore, Michigan taken by Stantonz. 
Contents

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Why Should We Care About Microorganisms In Surface Water? .......................................................1

Microbiological Water-Quality Standards In Michigan ..........................................................................1

Why Are We Concerned About Emerging Chemical Contaminants In Surface Waters? .................3

Where Do Bacteria And Emerging Contaminants Come From? ............................................................3

Where Do Bacteria Impair The Waters Of The St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin? ........................3

What Were the Results Of E. coli Monitoring In The Streams? ............................................................3

Were There Seasonal And Spatial Patterns In E. coli Concentrations In Stream Waters?..............4

Have Pathogens Been Found In The Basin?.............................................................................................4

What Emerging Chemical Contaminants Have Been Detected In The St. Clair River/Lake St.

Clair Basin?........................................................................................................................................6

What Is Being Done To Protect The Beaches Of Lake St. Clair?...........................................................9

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................10

Figures

1-2. Maps showing—

1. Lake St. Clair, Michigan, with United States tributary drainage basins..................................2

2. Location of Clinton River sites sampled as part of the Macomb County Surface Water

Monitoring Program. ....................................................................................................................5

3-6. Graphs showing—

3. Median E. coli concentrations decreased from greater than the Michigan

recreational water-quality single sample geometric mean standard of 300 CFU/100

ml (solid red line) in 2000 and 2001 to less than 300 CFU/100 ml in 2002 and 2003 .............6

4. Sites along the Clinton River often did not meet Michigan’s recreational water-quality

standard (300 CFU/100 ml) and partial body contact standard (1000 CFU/100 ml) for

E. coli...............................................................................................................................................6

5. E. coli concentrations at sites located on Red Run just prior to discharge to the

Clinton River and the Clinton River upstream and downstream of the Red Run................7

6. Seasonal variations in E. coli concentrations for samples collected from the 

Clinton River 2000-2005 as part of the Macomb County Surface Water 

Monitoring Program. ....................................................................................................................7

7. Map showing that E. coli concentrations may vary upstream and downstream along 

the river and throughout the county..........................................................................................8

8. Graph showing that beach closures have been a problem for four public beaches on 

Lake St. Clair..................................................................................................................................9

Table

1. The most common wastewater chemicals detected in the Clinton River watershed in

2002 and 2003 ................................................................................................................................9

iii
Conversion Factors and Abbreviated Water-Quality Units

Multiply By To obtain

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2)

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L)

ounce, fluid (fl.oz) 29.57 milliliter (mL)

microliter (μL) 0.001 milliliter (mL)

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

milligram per liter (mg/L)

 28.35

 1000

gram (g) 

micrograms per microliter (μg/μL)

Concentration of bacteria in water is given in colony forming units per 100 milliliters 

(CFU/100 mL).

iv
Introduction

Since the enactment of the Clean Water Act in 1972, 

awareness of the quality of the Nation’s water has continued 

to improve. Despite improvements to wastewater-treatment 

systems and increased regulation on waste discharge, bacterial and chemical contamination is still a problem for many 

rivers and lakes throughout the United States. Pathogenic 

microorganism and newly recognized chemical contaminants 

have been found in waters that are used for drinking water and 

recreation (Rose and Grimes, 2001; Kolpin and others, 2002).

This summary of bacteria and emerging-chemical-contaminant monitoring in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin 

(fig. 1) was initiated by the Lake St. Clair Regional Monitoring Project (LSCRMP) in 2003, in cooperation with the 

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ), the 

Counties of Macomb, Oakland, St. Clair, and Wayne, and the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

Why Should We Care About 

Microorganisms In Surface Water? 

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium found in the 

intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and is used as an 

indicator of fecal contamination. Most strains of E. coli are not 

harmful and typically do not cause disease; however, certain 

types of E. coli are pathogens (have the potential to cause disease) and pose a significant threat to human health. Pathogenic 

E. coli and other disease-causing microorganisms (pathogenic 

bacteria, viruses, and protozoa) have been identified as the 

causative agent for several waterborne E. coli outbreaks across 

the country. These organisms are commonly found in fecal 

waste. E. coli may not be a risk to human health itself but the 

presence of E. coli is used to indicate fecal contamination 

and the possible presence of bacterial, viral, and protozoan 

pathogens.

Several techniques are being developed to identify harmful pathogenic bacteria in the environment. Although these 

tools are helpful in assessing the health risk associated with 

drinking and recreational waters, methods to detect pathogens 

are still in their infancy and are often impractical because of 

cost and time. Therefore, the U.S Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA) recommends using E. coli and enterococci 

as indictor bacteria for disease-causing fecal waste (U.S 

Environmental Protection Agency, 1986). Microbial waterquality standards have been established on the basis of early 

studies showing increased risk of human illness with higher 

concentrations of these indicator organisms (Dufour, 1984). 

E. coli and enterococci are not necessarily reliable indicators 

of viruses and protozoa.

Microbiological Water-Quality 

Standards In Michigan

From May 1 to October 31 of each year, all surface 

waters in the State of Michigan are designated as total body 

contact recreational waters and shall be protected as such 

(Michigan’s water-quality standard R323.1062 Rule 62). Total 

body contact recreation includes all activities that involve 

direct contact with water to the point of complete body submergence.

•	 No site should exceed 130 E. coli colony forming units 

(CFU) per 100 milliliters (mL) of water, as a geometric 

mean of all samples collected over a 30-day period. 

•	 In a single sampling event, waters should not exceed 

300 E. coli CFU per 100 mL of water, as a geometric 

mean based on three or more samples collected during 

that sampling event. 

•	 If beach waters exceed these standards, an advisory or 

closure is implemented until standards are met. 

Partial body contact waters (November 1 to April 30 of 

each year) are waters used for activities that involve some 

direct contact with the water but normally involve minimal 

submergence. These types of waters are not used for swimming, but rather are used for boating, fishing, or wading. 

•	 The standard for partial body contact waters in the 

Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the 

St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan

By Lisa R. Fogarty
Figure 1. Lake St. Clair, Michigan, with United States tributary drainage basins.

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LAKE

ST. CLAIR

LAKE

HURON

LAKE

ERIE

LAPEER

COUNTY

TUSCOLA

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SANILAC

COUNTY

OAKLAND

COUNTY

WAYNE

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ST. CLAIR

COUNTY

MACOMB

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Sydenham

River

Basin

Thames River

Basin

Detroit

River

St. Clair

River

ONTARIO PROVINCE

(CANADA)

Saginaw

Bay

Black River

Basin

Pine River

Basin

Belle River

Basin

Clinton River

Basin

Belle

Island

Detroit

St. Clair

Delta

MICHIGAN

(UNITED STATES)

!(

83°30' 83° 82°30' 82°

42°

42°30'

43°

43°30'

LAKE MICHIGAN

LAKE SUPERIOR

MICHIGAN

Study

area

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Digital Line Graphics, 1:2,000,000, 1998

0 5 10 15 MILES

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

!(Deckerville

!(

Carsonville

!(

Sandusky

!(

Applegate

!(Croswell

!(

Brown

City

!(

Capac !(Abbottsford

!(Emmett !( Port Huron

!( Marysville

!( St. Clair

!( Marine City

!( Roberts Landing

!( Memphis

!( Richmond

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!(

New Baltimore

!(Algonac !(

Mt.

Clemens

!(

Sterling

Heights

!( St. Clair

Shores !(Warren

!(Grosse

Pointe

!(

Rochester

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Imlay

City

!( Dryden Belle River

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Swan Cr.

Salt

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Clinton R.

Black

River

St. Clair County

International Airport

Sydenham

River

Thames River

 Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan
State of Michigan is 1,000 E. coli colony forming units 

per 100 mL of water based on the geometric mean of at 

least three samples collected during a single sampling 

event.

For the protection of the public health, the Macomb 

County Health Department does not recommend contact with 

waters containing E. coli concentrations greater than 300 CFU 

per 100 mL regardless of the time of year.

Why Are We Concerned About 

Emerging Chemical Contaminants In 

Surface Waters? 

“Emerging chemical contaminants” are chemicals that 

have not historically been considered environmental contaminants. Some of these chemicals are pharmaceuticals, 

antibiotics, pesticides, and other wastewater-derived chemicals. Emerging chemical contaminants have been detected in 

surface water throughout the Nation (Kolpin and others, 2002; 

Boyd and others, 2004; Metcalf and others, 2003, Gilliom and 

others, 2006). Although some of these chemicals may be new, 

hence the recent detections, others may have been released 

into the environment for several years but have only recently 

been discovered as new, more sensitive methods for detection 

have been developed. 

Although concentrations of many emerging chemical 

contaminants detected in the environment are usually very 

low (typically parts per trillion), the effects of these chemicals 

at low levels on human and ecosystem health are not fully 

understood. Potential effects include disruption or changes 

in physiological processes, reproduction impairment, and 

increased bacterial resistances to antibiotics. These chemicals 

are commonly found in company with several other emerging contaminants. These chemical mixtures may have an even 

greater affect on human and ecosystem health (Matthiessen, 

1998). 

Where Do Bacteria And Emerging 

Contaminants Come From?

Different sources contribute different types of bacteria 

and emerging chemical contaminants that pose different risks 

to human health. Bacteria and emerging chemical contaminants can come from human and nonhuman sources. 

“Human sources” are associated with wastewater 

effluents, septic system failures, industrial-waste discharges, 

combined-sewer overflows, sanitary-sewer overflows, biosolids, or runoff from urban landscapes. Human fecal sources 

often carry viruses that could cause mild to severe illnesses, 

especially in children or immune- compromised individuals. 

Glassmeyer and others (2005) identified a suite of chemicals 

typically found in wastewater effluents. 

“Nonhuman sources” of contamination are those that 

originate from livestock and other domestic or wild animals; 

associated contaminants enter streams and lakes through runoff or direct inputs from grazing animals, wildlife (commonly 

waterfowl), or domestic animals standing in or near the water. 

E. coli O157:H7, commonly associated with fecal material 

from cattle, can cause severe disease in humans. Chemicals 

and antibiotics used in agriculture may seep into ground water 

or directly enter streams and lakes from surface runoff. 

Where Do Bacteria Impair The Waters 

Of The St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair 

Basin? 

The St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair (fig. 1) are an 

important waterway to Michigan, the United States, and Canada. These waters are the primary source of drinking water for 

millions of residents and serve as a recreational and economic 

resource to the surrounding communities. However, as of 

2006, eight water bodies in Lake St. Clair area and nine water 

bodies in the St. Clair River Basin are listed as impaired under 

the USEPA 303d list. Seven Lake St. Clair areas, including 

four beaches, have been listed as impaired due to pathogens 

or E. coli. Of the nine impaired water bodies listed for the St. 

Clair River Basin, pathogens are listed as a cause for five.

The St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair are also affected by 

the quality of the major rivers and streams that discharge into 

them, such as the Bell, Black, Clinton, and Pine Rivers (fig. 1). 

In the Clinton River Basin, 20 water bodies have been 

listed as concern areas; pathogens are the cause of impairment in five of them. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 

mercury are also listed as causes of impairment for waters in 

this area. 

What Were the Results Of E. coli

Monitoring In The Streams? 

Water-quality monitoring is essential for managing the St. 

Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin. Monitoring helps to identify 

problems and tracks the success of remediation efforts. 

Macomb County has been monitoring streams and 

beaches in the county for indicator bacteria since 1947. Currently (2007), 57 stream sites, 4 Lake St. Clair beaches, and 

2 inland lake beaches are routinely monitored by Macomb 

County Health Department for E. coli. Data that are summarized in the following paragraphs have been published online 

by the Macomb County Health Department (2007). 

The Clinton River discharges directly into Lake St. Clair 

(fig. 1) and has potential to affect water quality of beaches 

What Were the Results Of E. coli Monitoring In The Streams? 
along the shoreline. Although there are no public bathing 

beaches along the Clinton River, it is considered a recreational 

water body from May through October each year and can be 

used for total body contact recreation. Water-quality monitoring has identified several sites on the Clinton River and 

its tributaries where E. coli concentrations frequently were 

greater than water-quality standards.

E. coli sampling sites on the Clinton River are shown 

in figure 2. The median daily geometric mean for all samples collected May through October (2000-2005) from the 

Clinton River was as high as 601 colony forming units per 

100 milliliters (CFU/100 mL) in 2000 and as low as 216 CFU 

per 100 mL in 2002. The median geometric mean concentration was greater than the single-sampling total body contact 

standard of less than 300 CFU/100 mL in 2000, 2001, and 

2004 (fig. 3) and was always greater than the 30-day criterion 

of 130 CFU per 100 mL. 

Of the Clinton River samples collected for the Macomb 

County Surface-Water-Quality Monitoring Program from 2000 

to 2005, 46 percent had concentrations greater than the singlesampling total body contact standard and 23 percent had 

concentrations greater than the partial body contact standard of 

less than 1,000 CFU/100 mL. Concentrations in samples from 

individual site locations along the Clinton River were greater 

than total and partial body contact standards as frequently as 

73 (site no. 75) and 36 (site no. 75) percent of time, respectively (fig. 4). 

Identified as a major source of contamination to the 

Clinton River, the Red Run subbasin drains mainly urban and 

industrial land. Of the samples collected along Red Run, as 

part of the Macomb County Surface Water Quality Monitoring 

Program (2000 to 2005), 86 percent had concentrations greater 

than the single-sampling total body contact standard and 

50 percent were greater than the partial body contact standard. 

E. coli concentrations as high as 240,000 CFU per 100 mL 

water were recorded.

An example of the effects of Red Run on the Clinton 

River can be seen in figure 5, in which E. coli concentrations 

on the Clinton River appear to increase downstream from the 

Red Run confluence. The percentage of samples in which 

concentrations were greater than microbial water-quality 

standards tends to be higher at sites downstream from Red 

Run (fig. 2, site 75) than upstream (fig. 2, site 62). Red Run is 

not the only site responsible for the high E. coli concentrations 

in the Clinton River Basin. E. coli concentrations have been 

greater than water-quality standards even upstream from Red 

Run, with more than 3 percent of samples upstream of Red 

Run being greater than the single-sampling total body contact 

standard and more than 10 percent greater than the partial 

body contact standard (fig. 4). 

Because the Clinton River drains into Lake St. Clair, 

it has potential to influence the water-quality of the lake 

and shoreline beaches. Near the mouth of the Clinton River 

(site 95 in figure 2), E. coli concentrations were greater than 

1,000 CFU per 100 mL in 16 percent of the samples collected 

from 2000 to 2005. Hydrodynamic and particle-tracking 

models show that particles coming out of the Clinton River 

do not flow far from the western shoreline of Lake St. Clair 

(Holtschlag and Koschik, 2004); therefore, the water quality 

along shoreline areas of Lake St. Clair may be affected by 

water draining out of the Clinton River. 

Were There Seasonal And Spatial 

Patterns In E. coli Concentrations In 

Stream Waters?

The sample-collection efforts of the Macomb County 

Surface Water Quality Monitoring Program have resulted 

in more than 18,000 E. coli samples representing nearly the 

entire county from 2000 to 2005. The highest concentrations 

of E. coli typically occur in the recreational months of May 

through October (fig. 6). The reason for this increase in the 

summer months has not been fully investigated, but several 

factors may contribute to this seasonal pattern. Changes in 

human and animal activities may influence the amount of fecal 

pollution entering the basin. Weather may also influence the 

input of fecal waste into the environment. In addition, bacteria 

survival may differ between the summer and winter. 

Spatial analyses may help identify potential source 

areas of high E. coli concentration. The Macomb County 

Health Department frequently collects several samples on the 

same sampling date. This type of data can then be visualized 

geographically where changes in concentrations along the 

river can be identified. The variability in E. coli concentrations across the county on two sampling dates in June 2005 

is shown in figure 7. Some of this variation may be a result 

of changes in weather patterns or rainfall. For example, on 

average, samples collected on June 14 were influenced by 

greater rainfall than those collected on June 7 (average daily 

rainfall June 5–7, 0.19 inch; June12–14, 0.52 inch). A more 

thorough evaluation of the data is needed to better understand 

the effects rainfall has on E. coli concentrations in this area. 

Interestingly, samples collected near the mouth of the Clinton 

River appear to be much lower in E. coli concentrations than 

those from nearby upstream sites. These river-mouth sites 

may sometimes be affected by backwater from Lake St. Clair, 

thus diluting the E. coli concentrations for those samples. This 

dilution may result in total load calculations to Lake St. Clair 

that are artificially low.

Have Pathogens Been Found In The 

Basin?

E. coli is used as an indicator organism, but there is a 

small group of E. coli bacteria that has the potential to cause 

severe harm to humans. Identifying these organisms in the 

environment can be difficult, but several techniques are being 

 Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan
Figure 2. Location of Clinton River sites sampled as part of the Macomb County Surface Water 

Monitoring Program.

# #

#

#

#

# #

#

## #

#

#

Have Pathogens Been Found In The Basin? 
Figure 3. Median E. coli concentrations decreased from 

greater than the Michigan recreational water-quality single 

sample geometric mean standard of 300 CFU/100 ml (solid red 

line) in 2000 and 2001 to less than 300 CFU/100 ml in 2002 and 

2003. In 2004 and 2005 the median value increased again to 

greater than 300 CFU/100 ml. Median concentration exceeded 

the Michigan water-quality 30-day geometric mean standard 

of 130 CFU/100 ml (dotted red line) each year. Data source: 

Macomb County Surface Water Monitoring Program.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

MEDIAN

E. C

O

LI CONCENTRATION, IN 

C

OLO

N

Y

F

O

R

MIN

G

U

NIT

S

P

E

R 100 MILLILITER

Figure 4. Sites along the Clinton River often did 

not meet Michigan’s recreational water-quality 

standard (300 CFU/100 ml) and partial body contact 

standard (1000 CFU/100 ml) for E. coli. Data source: 

Macomb County Surface Water Monitoring Program. (See figure 2 for location of sites.)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

P

E

R

C

E

N

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A

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A

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PLE

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ALITY STANDARDS

Total body contact, 

single sampling

Partial body contact

SITE NUMBER

 53 54 62 75 68 96 66 83 90 40 95 41

DOWNSTREAM

used to detect toxin genes or surface proteins common to 

pathogenic E. coli. In a study in Oakland County, Mich., 

molecular and immunological assays detected markers for 

pathogenic E. coli in samples collected from the Clinton River 

(Fogarty and others, 2005). Molecular analyses have also 

detected genes associated with pathogenic E. coli in beach 

sand from Lake St. Clair beaches (Elizabeth Alm, Central 

Michigan University: oral commun., 2005).

What Emerging Chemical 

Contaminants Have Been Detected In 

The St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin?

The USGS has detected several emerging chemical contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, detergents, and antibiotics 

in surface waters across the Nation. Many of these emerging 

contaminants have been detected at sites in Michigan, including sites in the Clinton River Basin. 

Aichele and others (2005) reported detections of plasticizers, detergents and their metabolites, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, fire retardants, and detergents and musk fragrances 

(7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN), and 1,3,4,6,7,8-Hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-

hexamethylcyclopenta-2-benzopyran (HHCB)) at sites in the 

Clinton River Basin in Oakland County, Mich. Table 1 lists 

the most commonly detected wastewater chemicals in 2002 

and 2003 at five sites in the Clinton River Basin (Aichele and 

others, 2005). Studies are ongoing to evaluate the presence of 

antibiotics at several sites in the Clinton River Basin. 

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are an important class of brominated fire retardants that are added to 

plastics to reduce fire damage. They can be found in electronics, furniture padding, and appliances. PBDEs bioaccumulate 

in fish tissues and have also been found in elevated concentrations in human breast milk and in eggs from bald eagles. 

Studies have found an upward trend in PBDE concentrations 

in Great Lakes fish (Ling and Hites, 2004). Macomb County 

detected PBDEs in five nearshore water samples. The highest 

detected total PBDE concentration detected in aqueous samples was 23,210 picograms per liter (pg/L) at Irwin Drain. The 

total PBDE concentration detected from the Clinton River at 

the mouth was 450 pg/L and from the Clinton River Spillway 

was 4,230 pg/L (Macomb County Health Department, written 

commun., 2006).

 Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan
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Figure 5. E. coli concentrations at sites located on Red Run 

just prior to discharge to the Clinton River and the Clinton River 

upstream and downstream of the Red Run. E. coli data obtained 

from the Macomb County Surface Water Monitoring Program.

Figure 6. Seasonal variations in E. coli concentrations for samples collected from the Clinton 

River 2000-2005 as part of the Macomb County Surface Water Monitoring Program. Gray areas 

indicate the May 1 through October 31 time period during which recreational standards apply.

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What Emerging Chemical Contaminants Have Been Detected In The St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin? 
Figure 7. E. coli concentrations may vary upstream and downstream along the river and throughout the county. 

Rainfall may also influence the amount of E. coli detected as shown on June 14, 2005, in which E. coli concentrations are higher after three days of rainfall. E. coli data obtained from the Macomb County Surface Water 

Monitoring Program.

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 Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan
What Is Being Done To Protect The 

Beaches Of Lake St. Clair?

Beaches along Lake St. Clair and at inland lakes are 

important recreational areas in southeastern Michigan. High 

E. coli concentrations have forced closures or advisories for 

many of these beaches (fig. 8). Lake St. Clair beaches were 

closed more than 100 days in both 2004 and 2005 because 

concentrations were considered too high for recreation. 

Effective management of these beaches along Lake St. Clair 

requires an understanding of how the hydrologic system influences the beach. For many beaches, including those on Lake 

St. Clair, sources of E. coli are numerous, and so are the pathways that may transport E. coli to the beach. Several possible 

sources of E. coli to beaches are rivers, boaters, swimmers, 

waterfowl, surface runoff, or resuspension of E. coli residing 

in the sediment. 

Beach monitoring programs help inform beachgoers 

when E. coli concentrations indicate a health risk. Methods 

currently used to measure E. coli concentrations take 12–24 

hours and are not predictive of current conditions. The USEPA 

and other research groups are currently working on rapid 

methods that will be more predictive of real-time conditions. 

Models that use environmental data are being developed to 

help predict when conditions are unsafe at several Great Lake 

beaches (Francy, 2002; Nevers and Whitman, 2005). These 

models require extensive data collection for accurate model 

predictions and are beach-specific. 

A particle-tracking model for Lake St. Clair is being used 

to help identify source areas of high E. coli at selected beaches 

under various wind directions. A hydrodynamic model of Lake 

St. Clair can map the path a particle may take once it enters 

the lake (Holtschlag and Koschik, 2004). This model can be 

used to improve understanding of where pollutants may come 

from and where they may end up. 

Efforts are being made to protect the waters of the 

Lake St. Clair/St. Clair River Basin with improvements to 

wastewater treatment and discharge, elimination of combined-sewer overflows, and identification and elimination 

of illicit discharges. Although median E. coli concentrations 

have decreased from 2000 to 2005, the median concentration 

for 2005 was still almost 300 CFU per 100 mL. There has 

been no apparent increase or decrease in E. coli concentrations in beach waters from year to year; median and mean 

concentrations for the year have ranged from 23 to 42 and 80 

to 145 CFU per 100 mL, respectively. Despite relatively low 

median and mean concentrations, the number of beach closures for Lake St. Clair beaches in Macomb County has fluctuated year to year from 2000 to 2005, with a low of 30 beach 

closures in 2001 to a high of 128 in 2004. Further studies and 

data evaluation would be necessary to fully understand the 

sources of E. coli in the Lake St. Clair/St. Clair River Basin.

Table 1. The most common wastewater chemicals detected in 

the Clinton River watershed in 2002 and 2003 (Aichele and others, 

2005).

Chemical name

Percentage of 

samples with 

detection (n=26)

Possible source 

(Zaugg and others, 

2001)

Benzophenone 70 % Fixative in perfumes and 

soaps

Caffeine 50 % Beverages and diuretic

Fluoranthene 40 % Coal tar and asphalt

HHCB1 40 % Musk fragrance

AHTN2 40 % Musk fragrance

Phenanthrene 70 % Disinfectant

Tributyl 

phosphate

 40 % Flame retardant

Figure 8. Beach closures have been a problem for four public 

beaches on Lake St. Clair. Data obtained from Macomb County 

Beach Monitoring Program.

0 50 100 150 200

NUMBER OF DAYS BEACH CLOSED

METROPOLITAN

NEW BALTIMORE

BLOSSOM HEATH

MEMORIAL

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

What Is Being Done To Protect The Beaches Of Lake St. Clair? 

1 HHCB, 1,3,4,6,7,8-Hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-2-benzopyran.

2 AHTN, 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene. 
References Cited

Aichele, S.S., Crowley, S.L., Taricska, C.K., and Stopar, J., 

2005, Water resources data, Oakland County, Michigan, 

2001–2004: U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 

2004–1417, 75 p.

Boyd, G.R, Palmeri, J.M., Zhang, S., and Grimm, D.A, 2004, 

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and 

endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in stormwater 

canals and Bayou St. John in New Orleans, Louisiana, 

USA: Science of the Total Environment, v. 333, p. 137–148.

Dufour, A.P., 1984, Health effects criteria for fresh recreational waters: Washington, D.C., EPA, EPA-600/1-84-004, 

U.S Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research 

and Development, 33 p.

Gilliom R.J., Barbash, J.E., Crawford, C.G., Hamilton, P.A., 

Martin, J.D., Nakagaki, N., Nowell, L.H., Scott, J.C., Stackelberg, P.E., Thelin, G.P., and Wolock, D.M., 2006, The 

quality of our Nation’s waters—Pesticides in the Nation’s 

streams and ground water, 1992–2001: U.S. Geological 

Survey Circular 1291, 172 p.

Glassmeyer, S.T., Furlong, E.T., Kolpin, D.W., Cahill, J.D., 

Zaugg, S.D., Werner, S.L., Meyer, M.T., and Kryak, D.D., 

2005, Transport of chemical and microbial contaminants 

from known wastewater discharges—Potential for use as 

indicators of human fecal contamination: Environmental 

Science & Technology, v. 39, p. 5157–5169.

Francy, D.S., Gifford, A.M., and Darner, R.A., 2003, Escherichia coli at Ohio bathing beaches—Distribution, sources, 

wastewater indicators, and predictive modeling: U.S. 

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

02–4285, 47 p.

Fogarty, L.R., Duris, J.W., and Aichele, S.S., 2005, Preliminary survey of antibiotic-resistant fecal bacteria and pathogenic Escherichia coli from river-water samples collected 

in Oakland County, Mich., 2003: U.S. Geological Survey 

Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5058, 34 p.

Holtschlag D.J., and Koschik, J.A, 2004, Hydrodynamic simulation and particle-tracking techniques for identification of 

source areas to public-water intakes on the St. Clair-Detroit 

River waterway in the Great Lakes Basin: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5072, 29 p.

Kolpin, D.W., Furlong, E.T., Meyer, M.T., Thurman, E.M., 

Zaugg, S.D., Barber, L.B., and Buxton, H.T., 2002, Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999–2000—A national reconnaissance: Environmental Science & Technology, v. 36, no. 6, p. 

1202–1211.

Ling Yan Zhu, and Hites, R.A., 2004, Temporal trends and 

spatial distribution of brominated flame retardants in 

archived fishes from the Great Lakes: Environmental Science & Technology, v. 38, p. 2779–2784.

Macomb County Health Department, 2007, Surface water 

quality monitoring: Accessed January 2007 at http://www.

macombcountymi.gov/publichealth/EH/SurfaceWaterMonitoring.htm

Metcalf, C.D., Xiu-Sheng Miao, Koenig, B.G., and Struger, 

John, 2003, Distribution of acidic and neutral drugs in surface waters near sewage treatment plants in the lower Great 

Lakes, Canada: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 

v. 22, no. 12, p. 2881–2889

Matthiessen, Peter, 1998, Aquatic risk assessment of chemicals: Is it working?: Environmental Science & Technology, 

v. 32, p. 2881–2889. 

Nevers, M.B., and Whitman, R.L., 2005, Nowcast modeling of Escherichia coli concentrations at multiple urban 

beaches of southern Lake Michigan: Water Research, v. 39, 

p. 5250–5260.

Rose, J.B, and Grimes, D.J., 2001, Reevaluation of microbial 

water quality—Powerful new tools for detection and risk 

assessment: American Academy of Microbiology, Critical 

Issues Colloquia Report, 18 p. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986, Ambient waterquality criteria for bacteria─1986: Washington D.C., U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and 

Development, EPA–440/5–84–002, 118 p.

Zaugg, S.D., Smith, S.G., Schroeder, M.P., Barber, L.B., and 

Burkhardt, M.R., 2001, Methods of analysis by the U.S. 

Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory— 

Determination of wastewater compounds by polystyrenedivinylbenzene solid-phase extraction and capillary-column 

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37 p.

10 Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan
Fogarty, L. R.—Bacteria and Emerging Chemical Contaminants in the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan—Open-File Report 2007-1083

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