1 

Strengthening Indian Country Through 

Tribal Youth Programs 

by Sarah S. Pearson 

2009 

American Youth Policy Forum 

with the 

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention 

U.S. Department of Justice 
2 

Contents 

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 3

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4

Findings ........................................................................................................................... 5

Overview of the Tribal Youth Program ........................................................................... 6

Case Studies .................................................................................................................... 7

Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde ................................................................... 7

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe................................................................................... 11

Old Harbor Village .............................................................................................. 14

Absentee Shawnee Tribe .................................................................................... 17

Mescalero Apache Tribe ..................................................................................... 21

Youth Views .................................................................................................................. 24

Findings and Themes of Success ................................................................................... 27

Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 38

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 41

Appendix 1–Termination .............................................................................................. 42

Appendix 2–Study Methodology ................................................................................... 44

Appendix 3–Research on Native Youth ......................................................................... 45

Appendix 4–Program Measures ................................................................................... 47

References .................................................................................................................... 48
3 

Acknowledgements 

he participation of the 

following members and 

youth from Tribal Youth 

Programs made this report 

possible: 

• Absentee Shawnee Tribe: 

George Blanchard, Sue 

Blanchard, Michelle Lopez, 

and Scott Miller. 

• The Confederated Tribes of 

Grand Ronde: Lisa Leno, 

David Fullerton, Tony 

Johnson, Travis Mercier, and 

Norma Lee. 

• Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe: 

Greg Davis, Kimberly 

Benjamin Rivers, Joyce 

Shingobe, and Doug Sam. 

• Old Harbor Village: Gwen 

Christiansen, Rolf 

Christiansen, Teacon 

Simeonoff, Mark Overbeek, 

Joyce Elvejhem, Sven 

Haakanson, and Stella 

Krumrey. 

• Mescalero Apache Tribe: 

Sonia Geronimo Hiles, Eloise 

Damon, and Ardena Orosco. 

This project was supported by 

grant number 2006-MU-FX-K001, 

awarded by the Office of Juvenile 

Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention (OJJDP), Office of 

Justice Programs, U.S. Department 

of Justice. Points of view or 

opinions in this document are 

those of the author and do not 

necessarily represent the official 

position or policies of the U.S. 

Department of Justice. 

The author and American Youth 

Policy Forum would also like to 

thank the following individuals 

and groups for their kind review of 

and participation in the production 

of this report. 

• Laura Ansera, Tribal Programs 

Coordinator, Office of Policy 

Development, OJJDP. 

• Janet Chiancone, Research 

Coordinator, Office of Policy 

Development, OJJDP. 

• Melodee Hanes, Special 

Advisor to the Administrator, 

OJJDP. 

• Catherine Doyle, Policy 

Advisor for Communications, 

OJJDP. 

• Patrick Dunckhorst, Program 

Manager, OJJDP. 

• Monica Robbers, Senior 

Research Associate, CSR, 

Incorporated. 

• Patricia San Antonio, Senior 

Evaluation Specialist, CSR, 

Incorporated. 

• Jennifer Tyson, Program 

Manager, OJJDP. 

About the Author 

Sarah S. Pearson serves as the 

Deputy Director for the Coalition 

for Community Schools, housed at 

the Institute for Educational 

Leadership (IEL) in Washington, 

D.C. She works to bring together 

leaders and networks in education, 

family support, youth 

development, community 

development, government, and 

philanthropy to support a shared 

vision of community schools. 

Before coming to the Coalition and 

IEL, Sarah worked at the 

American Youth Policy Forum, 

where she led national-level 

discussions, conducted site visits, 

and served as the principle 

investigator of research on 

education reform efforts, servicelearning, juvenile justice, tribal 

youth, youth with disability, and 

other youth policy issues. Sarah is 

a published author of numerous 

youth-focused policy briefs and 

reports. 

T
4 

Introduction 

n the late 1990s, a chronically 

under-funded justice system 

served approximately 1.9 

million1 Native Americans living 

on or near Indian lands. At that 

time, few youth crime prevention 

or intervention programs were 

available and staff, law 

enforcement, and justice personnel 

supporting existing programs had 

little access to training. They also 

did not have culturally sensitive, 

best practice strategies. In 1999, to 

address this, the Indian Country 

Law Enforcement Initiative and 

Office of Juvenile Justice and 

Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) 

created the Tribal Youth Program 

(TYP). 

Today, TYPs are operating in 

tribal communities, helping tribes 

help youth who are at higher risk 

of turning to alcohol, violating the 

law, and committing suicide than 

non-Native youth.2

 The Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention 

reported that among groups of 

youth, Native American teens have 

the highest rates of suicide.3

 The 

stressors that affect tribal youth in 

the 21st Century contribute to 

compounding risk factors that 

leave them vulnerable as they 

navigate between the worlds of 

mainstream America and their 

tribe.4

 

 

1

 The figure is from the Office of the 

Deputy Assistant Attorney General.

2

Based on a study of Native American 

adolescents in 2006, nearly one in five 

middle school students from a single 

reservation attempted suicide. This is 

double the rate for the general teenage 

population. See LaFromboise et al., p. 119.

3

http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/dvp/suicide/yo

uthsuicide.htm, as retrieved on June 9, 

2008.

4

LaFromboise et al., 2007.

The TYP grants support and 

enhance tribal efforts to prevent 

and control delinquency and 

improve the juvenile justice system 

for American Indian/Alaska Native 

(AI/AN) youth ages 17 and under. 

The mission of the OJJDP is to 

strengthen the juvenile justice 

system by providing training, 

technical assistance, and 

information on trends, new 

approaches, and innovative 

techniques to juvenile courts and 

court personnel; law enforcement; 

detention and corrections; youth 

service providers; and child 

advocacy organizations. The TYP 

has become a program that shows 

promise. 

This report, prepared by the 

American Youth Policy Forum 

(AYPF), in partnership with 

OJJDP, shares findings based on 

site visits, focus groups, and 

individual interviews conducted in 

2007 and 2008. The author 

investigated how Tribal Youth 

Programs are succeeding in 

improving the lives of youth and 

strengthening families in tribal 

communities. The AYPF held 

formal interviews with 137 

individuals, including program 

staff, community partners, tribal 

elders, tribal council members, 

parents, and youth at the following 

places: 

• The Confederated Tribes of 

Grand Ronde, Oregon 

• Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe, 

Minnesota 

• Old Harbor Village, Alaska 

• Absentee Shawnee Tribe, 

Oklahoma 

• Mescalero Apache Tribe, New 

Mexico 

The report includes a summary of 

the findings, overview of the TYP, 

case studies of TYPs in five tribes, 

followed by themes of success, 

more comprehensive findings, a 

section on youth voice, and 

recommendations to policymakers 

on ways to improve the program. 

The Appendix includes an 

overview of recent research on 

Native American youth and more 

information on a theme that 

impacts most of the tribes 

interviewed—termination. 

I
5 

Findings 

YPs featured in this report 

have found a way to 

empower youth to lead the 

community in activities that build 

connection to heritage. Often the 

only after school and weekend 

youth service provider on the 

reservation, the program is at the 

center of the community, reaching 

out to engage families and 

leveraging local resources where 

they exist, or building a network of 

local partnerships of support 

among tribal leaders, elders, and 

other tribal members. With its 

focus on Native culture and 

language, the program hits a chord 

with tribal members who see 

evidence of how it renews Native 

pride by applying almost lost ways 

to benefit the community. 

Tribal Youth Programs focus on 

prevention and intervention, 

concentrating on youth 

development and civic life skills, 

but they also provide exposure to 

leadership and career-related skills 

that allow at-risk youth the means 

to function and succeed on and off 

tribal lands. Some practitioners 

view the program as an incubator 

for emerging tribal leaders. Some 

TYPs are joining with other 

national programs such as the 

Boys & Girls Clubs of America 

and other mentorship efforts. Some 

TYPs interviewed plan to apply to 

the Corporation for National and 

Community Service for a VISTA 

(Volunteer in Service to America) 

volunteer grant to build program 

capacity. 

Details on findings and themes of 

success follow the case studies in 

the report. Briefly, findings show 

that the program: 

• Builds capacity and 

coordinates resources through 

partnerships. 

• Involves tribal leadership. 

• Creates a safe environment or 

community by assembling a 

safety net of caring adults, 

including law enforcement. 

• Maintains school to 

community connections. 

• Connects to, supports, and 

involves parents and families. 

• Integrates physical and mental 

healthcare. 

• Coordinates with state-level 

partnerships. 

• Diversifies funding for 

sustainability. 

• Elevates Native identity by 

honoring culture and traditions 

through cultural advisors who 

introduce youth to language 

and traditions. 

• Balances humor and respect in 

counseling and activities. 

• Has support of elders. 

• Addresses racism & 

discrimination. 

T
6 

Overview of the Tribal Youth Program

s a culturally-based, after 

school, prevention, and 

youth development 

program, the TYP has been 

designed and is operated by Native 

Americans for Native Americans 

with the support of guidelines from 

Congress and the OJJDP. Tribal 

Youth Programs serve youth ages 

17 and under who are involved or 

at risk of becoming involved with 

tribal, county, or state juvenile 

justice systems. TYPs engage 

youth and allow kids to be kids. 

They do this by providing services 

and running activities in a safe 

location with consistent and 

reliable hours of operation, usually 

3 to 9 p.m. weekly and later on 

weekends. 

Successful TYPs leverage 

resources and promote 

coordination among local 

programs within their community 

and are required, as part of their 

grant agreement, to assemble an 

advisory group of local 

stakeholders to guide the program. 

This facilitates communication and 

collaboration and reduces the 

duplication of services provided to 

youth in the community. 

The TYP provides activities that 

focus on mental health and build 

connections between youth, their 

family, and tribal members, 

including elders. The TYP uses 

Native language, culture, and 

traditions to offer a sense of 

connection and community. Adults 

working in the program model 

healthy behaviors, provide snacks, 

and run activities that open up a 

world of possibilities to youth, 

including connections to the past. 

Programs balance homework 

assistance with activities that will 

ensure that youth return regularly. 

For example, a TYP consultant 

suggests, “What does an at-risk 

youth want to come to tutoring 

for? He already hates school. It 

sounds good on paper, but making 

it work is something else. It would 

be hard to make the kid come after 

school to do homework unless I 

tricked him or her with fun 

activities.” 

The U.S. Departments of Justice 

and the Interior jointly manage the 

program. Tribes with 6,000 or 

fewer residents may apply for TYP 

grants of up to $300,000 for a 

period of up to 48 months.5

 Since 

1999, OJJDP has awarded over 

229 grant and cooperative 

agreements to develop and 

implement programs. TYP 

grantees must choose to report on 

one to two sets of program 

measures (see Appendix) that best 

fit their community for program 

evaluation. These measures 

include: 

• Direct service for prevention. 

• Direct service for intervention. 

• Juvenile justice system 

improvement. 

• Alcohol and drug abuse 

prevention. 

• Mental health prevention. 

OJJDP oversees professional 

development for program staff. 

Youth do not have to be 

considered at-risk to attend a TYP, 

but many are. Some come from 

unstable homes where one or both 

parents are suffering from 

 

5

Tribes with 6,001 or more residents on or 

near the reservation are eligible for awards 

of up to $400,000. There is discussion 

pending at OJJDP to extend the grant 

period to five years.

addiction, abuse, or dealing with a 

break-up or divorce. Some come to 

the program with an 

unconventional sense of family, 

where the two-parent partnership 

does not exist. Some are homeless, 

on the brink of homelessness, in 

foster care, or shuttled between 

family members where they may 

not have a sense of security or 

permanence. Some youth in the 

program are suffering quietly from 

neglect, malnutrition, incest, 

addiction, or fetal alcohol 

syndrome (FAS).6 The TYP 

provides them with a safe harbor—

a respite in a world of uncertainty 

and stress. 

TYP grants support culturally 

sensitive prevention and 

intervention services through 

direct service providers, tribal 

system improvement, alcohol and 

drug abuse prevention, and mental 

health program services. Youth 

leadership activities engage, 

educate, and motivate youth, 

providing an alternative to 

activities involving risky behaviors 

and reducing exposure to drugs, 

gangs, and unsupervised time. In 

tribes interviewed, the TYP is 

positively affecting the tribal 

community at large, healing youth, 

and in turn, healing the 

community. 

 

6

“FAS is characterized by abnormal facial 

features, growth deficiencies, and central 

nervous system (CNS) problems. People 

with FAS might have problems with 

learning, memory, attention span, 

communication, vision, hearing, or a 

combination of these, which can lead to 

difficulties in school and problems getting 

along with others.” Source: 

http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fas/fasask.htm 

A
7 

Case Studies 

he following section 

provides a glimpse into the 

worlds of TYPs in different 

regions across the United States. 

Each story provides details of how 

leading TYPs have developed, 

capturing their successes and 

noting challenges. Included in the 

case studies are details about 

community partnerships, tribal 

structures, tips for engaging youth, 

transformative stories about youth, 

and attributes of program 

leadership. The case studies also 

detail the programs’ innovative 

design that draws on tribal culture 

and their creative use of resources 

and funding streams. 

Tribes visited were in remote, rural 

locations as in Old Harbor Village, 

Kodiak Island, Alaska and the 

Mescalero Apache Tribe in central 

New Mexico. The Absentee 

Shawnee in Oklahoma are nested 

in a larger community of 

neighboring tribes. The Mille Lacs 

Band of Ojibwe in Minnesota and 

the Confederated Tribes of Grand 

Ronde along the Oregon coast are 

located in more populated areas 

surrounded by non-native 

communities. 

A striking feature of the visits was 

the consistent hospitality of tribal 

members and their enduring desire 

to seek ways to preserve (and in 

some cases resurrect) their Native 

identity. Tribes are moving quietly 

forward into the 21st Century while 

reaching into the past to rekindle 

distinctive tribal culture. 

Confederated Tribes 

of Grand Ronde 

“Success is when youth 

transform from socially 

disengaged to civically 

engaged.” –David Fullerton, 

Social Services Director, 

Confederated Tribes of Grand 

Ronde

The Confederated Tribes of Grand 

Ronde occupy land near the 

Oregon coast among a verdant 

inland valley at the base of Spirit 

Mountain. Grand Ronde has 4,900 

members, including 500 youth 

ages 10 to 17. 

The Grand Ronde consist of five 

unique tribes called the Umpqua, 

the Rogue River, the Molalla, the 

Kalapuya, the Chasta, and other 

bands whose connection to the 

land reaches back thousands of 

years. The Tribes formed when the 

Federal government forced 

members to cede their ancestral 

lands and created the then 60,000-

acre Grand Ronde Reservation. In 

the winter of 1857, in an event 

known as Oregon’s Trail of Tears, 

families were relocated to the 

reservation. By 1954, the year the 

tribes were terminated, their 

reservation was reduced to 7.5 

acres, including a small cemetery 

and maintenance shed. Many 

members seeking to improve their 

lives moved away to major cities. 

In 1983, after testimony by tribal 

members, including youth, 

Congress restored Federal 

recognition of the Tribes and in 

1988, a 9,811-acre reservation was 

reestablished. 

Grand Ronde youth and adults face 

social and economic challenges 

from the impact of having their 

tribes terminated. To heal their 

people and gain economic 

independence, tribal leaders have 

adopted policies that foster selfsufficiency. For example, in 

managing reservation timberland, 

they use the revenue generated to 

address community needs, setting 

aside a portion to provide capital 

for future economic development. 

The Tribes acquired additional 

land in the 1990s and built 

community, health, and tribal 

governance centers. Their 

economic development program 

includes Spirit Mountain Casino, 

which is a growing, vital part of 

the Tribes’ effort to achieve selfsufficiency.7

 

Most of the elders on the 

reservation grew up in boarding 

schools, and few have knowledge 

of their Native culture or language. 

Through the TYP, the Grand 

 

7

Source and for more information, visit 

http://www.spiritmountain.com/aboutus/tribes.aspx. 

Another source is a white paper produced 

by the Confederated Tribes of Grand 

Ronde called The Road to Self-Sufficiency. 

See references, Confederated Tribes of 

Grand Ronde, 2007.

T
8 

Ronde community is experiencing 

a revival of their Native traditions 

and language. Children under ten 

years old are the first generation in 

more than half a century to grow 

up in an environment that supports 

Native culture and language. 

Grand Ronde’s TYP 

The Grand Ronde youth program 

was awarded a TYP grant in 2003 

and formed the Youth Project 

Team (YPT), an advisory board of 

personnel from tribal departments 

in housing, youth education, 

recreation, Indian child welfare, 

health and wellness, and law 

enforcement. 

Working out of the Tribe’s Social 

Services Department, the TYP 

provides intensive after school and 

weekend service for 35 to 50 tribal 

and non-native youth on the 

reservation and surrounding 

communities who are at-risk of 

becoming court-involved or 

entering close custody. Up to 300 

youth engage in TYP-sponsored 

community events annually. 

Through a community assessment 

process, TYP staff acquired an 

understanding of the communitywide problem with drugs and 

alcohol and through a second TYP 

grant, in 2006, adjusted their 

prevention strategy to deal with a 

growing methamphetamines 

influence. 

The TYP screens youth by 

collecting data on five risk factors: 

poor school performance, low selfesteem, substance abuse, poor peer 

relations, and low family 

functioning. The program takes the 

risk factors and turns them into 

five protective factors to transform 

disengaged youth into 

contributing, leading members of 

the community. Youth entering the 

program often are experiencing 

some type of substance abuse. 

Some are suffering from exposure 

to sexual abuse or neglect and 

exhibit antisocial behavior. “Last 

year we had an incident where 

three of our tribal youth made a 

threat at the school. We intervened 

in that situation,” said Social 

Services Director, David Fullerton. 

Rather than engage in risky 

behaviors, Grand Ronde TYP 

youth actively participate in 

community meetings, lead their 

peers in activities, and learn the 

Chinook language and culture.

Through meaningful civic 

engagement and exploration of 

cultural traditions, activities 

increase self-esteem and improve 

peer relations. Each quarter, the 

TYP provides a girls’ night and 

boys’ night out. A girls’ night 

involves a field trip with 

prevention talks woven in, or 

board games followed by 

conversation on issues such as safe 

sex, drug use in the community, 

and personal hygiene. Girls receive 

gift bags containing personal 

products. A boys’ night out 

involves activities like paintball or 

basketball and a similar discussion 

on personal hygiene and healthy 

relationships. From these 

activities, youth develop a deeper 

sense of identity and according to 

Fullerton, start to mature. Staff 

believe success is not in handing 

youth a certificate of graduation, 

but nurturing the internal shift 

within a young person who was 

previously disengaged, 

empowering them to make wise 

personal choices and to be a 

responsible, contributing tribal 

member. 

The Youth Canoe Club 

The Youth Canoe Club is the heart 

of the Grand Ronde TYP and it 

uses a canoe called Stankiya (the 

coyote) as a catalyst for lessons in 

culture, language, and leadership. 

Cultural advisors engage youth 

after school in a yearlong 

curriculum where they assume 

responsibility and take the lead on 

activities that prepare them for a 

two-and-a-half-week canoe 

journey. The club is linked to the 

school through grade requirements 

and much of the club experience is 

not in the water. 

Preparation for the journey occurs 

from January to late July, requiring 

youth to hammer out cedar strips 

and weave them into a workable 

rope, sew shawls, practice dancing, 

sing, drum, plan meals, create a 

schedule for paddlers, and 

determine seat assignments for the 

canoe journey. To attract adults 

and families to the program, the 

TYP periodically sponsors a 

family night (with a meal and 
9 

cultural activities) to demonstrate 

progress on canoe journey 

preparations. 

Gangs use peer pressure and so 

does the club, but in a positive 

way. The club’s family-like 

environment is filled with 

responsibility, respect, and team 

work. Experiential learning 

methods establish a safe and 

healthy lifestyle for youth who 

have had little guidance growing 

up. Youth respect the ideals and 

people in the club and see the 

results of the investment of their 

time. TYP staff use this reverence 

to establish a relationship where 

they speak candidly and guide 

youth to stay with the program and 

out of trouble. “We tell them, ‘You 

cannot paddle our canoe or come 

to meetings if you are under the 

influence. You cannot be the face 

of the club during the week and on 

weekends be someone different,’ ” 

said Lisa Leno, TYP program 

manager. 

Tony Johnson who leads Canoe 

Club activities, predicts that the 

Tribes will find emerging leaders 

among club participants. The 

advisor states, “Never have we 

seen such success in reaching 

youth as with the canoe 

experiences. There is positive peer 

pressure generated that extends to 

families. Youth take their work in 

the club seriously.” Staff described 

a young man whose older brother 

is choosing to portray the gang 

lifestyle. The older brother came to 

a club activity dressed in gang 

colors, and his younger sibling 

said, “You can’t be around here. 

We are trying to do things 

differently, and we don’t want 

people to see us that way.” 

According to staff, it is unusual for 

a sibling to stand up to an older 

brother. Youth return to the 

program year after year and help 

run some of the activities. “It is not 

a start treatment, finish treatment, 

and then you are clean program. 

It’s an approach similar to diets 

that slowly change a person’s 

beliefs and behaviors rather than 

prescribing a quick fix,” said 

Fullerton. 

The Grand Ronde TYP receives 

Oregon State funding and targets it 

to the needs of at-risk youth, 

focusing mainly on “universal and 

selective indicators.” The term 

universal assumes that everyone is 

at-risk due to the environment; so 

those dollars are targeted to the 

whole community. Selective means 

that the funding is targeted 

specifically to a higher-risk 

population, for example, those 

from a specific neighborhood may 

have a higher concentration of 

crime or drug and alcohol use. The 

tribes report their data to the state. 

When the state reviews the report, 

they look for a balance of six 

prevention strategies as follows: 

1) Information dissemination.

Programs disseminate news 

through a newsletter, poster, or 

public service announcement. 

2) Prevention education. 

Information is disseminated 

and supported by dialogue. 

3) Alcohol and tobacco-free 

activities. Program 

activities are announced as 

being alcohol and tobaccofree. 

4) Community-based. The 

program brings the 

community into the activity 

in some manner, for 

example, by including 

community volunteers in 

planning an event or 

activity. 

5) Social policies and 

environmental changes.

Posters share a message to 

change norms (i.e. “Thank 

you for not drinking.” or 

“Gangs are a dead end.”) 

6) Early identification and 

referral. Program staff 

identifies a youth exhibiting 

adverse behavior that 

affects the youth’s ability to 

function at school and 

quickly identifies and refers 

the youth to appropriate care. 

In Oregon, funding has a 

requirement for outcome data, 

including measured risk indicators 

and protective indicators. State 

evaluators look for decreases in 

risk indicators and an increase in 

protective indicators. The 

aggregate data for Oregon tribes is 

published and shared with the 

tribes, and the state agency takes 

this information to the legislature 

to justify funding. 
10 

Future Plans 

Grand Ronde TYP leaders plan to 

expand the program to meet the 

needs of older youth and provide 

more opportunities for them to 

learn about their Native culture 

and traditions. “There is at least 

one person who was raised through 

our program even before we 

received TYP funds. He is an adult 

now and is working with us, giving 

back,” said Fullerton. 

Tony Johnson, lead cultural 

advisor, and his team want more 

support from the tribal government 

to allow them to take youth to visit 

historical locations and build an 

experiential learning curriculum 

around language and place. “We 

have individual youth who will run 

with many of the things that we 

have offered in the program. One 

young woman in college now 

started with us at 14. She is an 

exceptional speaker and is getting 

her degree in education and will be 

coming back to work with us in the 

language immersion program,” 

said Johnson. 

Through the Cultural Resources 

Department, a course in Chinuk 

wawa, a derivative of the Chinook 

language, is offered year-round for 

all ages and as an immersion 

program at the Tribe’s preschool. 

Local high schools and some 

colleges in Oregon accept the 

course as a credit for the language 

requirement for graduation. 
11 

Mille Lacs Band of 

Ojibwe 

“In the Anishinabe culture, 

you are part of the 

community when you are 

born and part of the 

community until you die.” 

– Greg Davis, former director, 

Community Youth Services 

On forest, lake, and stream-filled 

lands of East Central Minnesota, 

the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe 

Reservation serves as home to 

3,660 members, including 500 

youth. A treaty with the U.S. 

government established the 

reservation in 1855. Like the 

Confederated Tribes of Grand 

Ronde in Oregon, reservation 

lands appear as a checkerboard 

pattern spread across a number of 

districts in the state. The Band is a 

leader in culture restoration among 

the larger Ojibwe Tribe whose 

people now live in reservations 

across Michigan, Wisconsin, and 

Minnesota. 

In the 1980s, as a sovereign nation, 

the band set up a separation-ofpowers form of government with 

three branches—executive, 

legislative, and judicial. Their 

judicial system consists of a 

District Court and Court of 

Appeals. The Band’s chief 

executive and the four members of 

the legislative branch, known as 

the Band Assembly, serve fouryear terms.8

 Members of the 

Ojibwe Tribe are descendents of 

the Anishinabe, original people, 

and are related to the Algonquian 

Family and Midwestern tribes like 

Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, and 

Shawnee.9

 

8 Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe Visitors 

Guide, 2007. 

9 Peacock and Wisuri, 2006. 

The Ojibwe strive to maintain their 

connection with Mother Earth by 

hunting, fishing, making nets, 

gathering local wild rice and 

berries, producing practical objects 

from birch bark, and harvesting 

sugar from maple trees, a process 

called sugar bush. The Mille Lacs 

Band’s Cultural Workforce 

Program, supported by Temporary 

Assistance for Needy Families 

(TANF),10 provides funding for 

200 people to work 20 hours per 

week harvesting and processing 

the bounty of the land. This allows 

some tribal members to balance 

their job responsibilities with 

traditional seasonal work to 

 

10 Temporary Assistance for Needy 

Families (TANF) is located in the United 

States Department of Health and Human 

Services, Administration for Children and 

Families. 

support the continuation of cultural 

traditions. “It is a completely 

different world on the reservation. 

When it is time to harvest, there 

are jobs that people do that are not 

connected to their office work,” 

said Tribal Commissioner of 

Education Joyce Shingobe. The 

2000 U.S. Census Bureau revealed 

that 30 percent of the band’s adults 

have less than a high school 

diploma, and the unemployment 

rate is triple the national average. 

A single parent heads one third of 

households, nearly half have 

incomes below $25,000, and 42 

percent of pregnant women in the 

Band claim addictions or addictive 

traits such as smoking.11

 

The Band operates two casinos and 

several businesses, providing 

employment for members and nonNatives. Funds are generated to 

provide for and improve services 

to Band members and surrounding 

communities, including support for 

hospitals, law enforcement, 

preschool programs, youth 

services, the scholarship program, 

the Workforce Education and 

Development Center, the tribal 

health insurance program, assisted 

living units, services for elders, 

and ceremonial buildings.12

 

 

11 The Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council’s 

Mille Lacs Community, Health Profile 

2002.

12 Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe Visitors 

Guide, 2007.
12 

Mille Lacs Band of 

Ojibwe TYP 

Program director Greg Davis 

spends much of his time reaching 

out to youth and adults in the 

community, recruiting and inviting 

youth to Community Youth 

Services (CYS) activities. “We 

know that just beyond our borders 

lurk meth[amphetamine], alcohol, 

drugs, and gang activity. We are at 

the front lines all the time, not just 

the police, but us. We recognize 

what gang activity looks like and 

have had training from law 

enforcement about gangs, 

prevention, and chemical 

dependency. If we see something, 

we are mandated to report it.” 

With 36,000 service times 

provided to 72 households 

annually, the CYS is a leader 

among tribal programs in 

providing services to youth. “We 

are the center of the community. 

Our service times are high because 

we work on weekends. It used to 

be a weekday program, 8 a.m. to 7 

p.m. Now, we keep the centers 

open until 9:00 or 9:30 p.m.” On 

weekends if there is a special 

event, staff keeps the center open 

until midnight. Fridays and 

Saturdays, Davis says, are difficult 

times for youth. “We do 

prevention activities for all the 

kids, not just Native American 

kids, and integrate youth to break 

down some of the cultural 

barriers,” said Davis. 

Using TYP funding, the CYS 

center is applying prevention 

services to reduce risk factors for 

delinquency, alcohol, and drug 

abuse. It serves 125 youth, some 

adjudicated, and some in foster 

care. The program has already 

shown measurable results. Data 

collected from a demographic 

survey shows that juvenile 

delinquency cases have dropped 

significantly from 270 in 2004 to 

44 in 2007. 

Tribal Commissioner Joyce 

Shingobe believes that CYS center 

youth have greater awareness of 

their identity and connection to the 

community, and that this is a 

contributing factor to the reduction 

of juvenile delinquency on the 

reservation and surrounding 

communities. 

The CYS program is the only after 

school and weekend youth service 

provider on the reservation and 

works in partnership with other 

tribal programs such as family 

services and law enforcement. 

Part of the success of the 

partnerships is Commissioner 

Shingobe’s close working 

relationships with other 

Commissioners in the Mille Lacs 

Band. The program provides a 

blend of instruction and activity 

with a focus on culture and 

language. Experiential learning 

methods at the sacred 

campgrounds build leadership 

skills, self-esteem, and cultural 

awareness. “We are looking at 

what we can do to educate [youth] 

to be leaders,” said Shingobe. At 

the CYS center, activities include 

karate, swimming, softball, 

powwows, basketball, rollerskating, and pool. Formal 

leadership training is provided for 

youth and adults. Youth engage in 

activities at the CYS centers and 

Four Season Camps with elders 

and adult mentors after school and 

on the weekends year-round. 

Seen as a change agent in the 

community, the CYS offers 

activities and services to youth and 

families, including: 

• Cultural language institutes. 

• Cultural counselors at CYS 

centers (located in a school or 

tribal college). 

• Dance and drum groups. 

• The cultural grounds at the 

Four Season Camps (under 

construction). 

• Tutoring and mentorship with 

community members. 

Family gatherings are organized to 

allow members to bond as they 

enjoy bingo or watch a play that 

exhibits Ojibwe culture and 

language. 

Because reservation living can be 

insular, the CYS arranges offreservation activities. “We want 

our youth to feel comfortable 

outside the community, wherever 
13 

they are. They have the same 

dreams, goals, and aspirations as 

those who live outside of the 

reservation. If there is an 

interesting activity off the 

reservation, we try to take youth to 

see it,” said Shingobe. 

The program hires staff who hail 

from backgrounds similar to the 

youth they serve—those who have 

had experiences with family 

trauma. Shingobe believes that to 

gain respect from youth who are 

experiencing a rocky home life, 

staff must have a personal story 

that relates to those they serve. 

Davis, an accomplished fancydancer,13 is a respected and visible 

member of the tribe deeply 

involved in the revival of cultural 

traditions. 

Future Plans 

CYS is transitioning to what Davis 

calls the Path to Identity (PTI), a 

life-skills program for youth who 

are in and out of school that builds 

their knowledge, skills, and 

identity as an individual and as a 

Native American. The PTI’s 

activities focus on the Four 

Seasons Camps run by elder and 

lead cultural advisor Doug Sam. 

Funding to break ground on the 

camps came from the Minnesota 

Department of Natural Resources. 

Tribal members and youth are 

building roads and trails around 

200 acres that surround the sacred 

campground, joining Sam yearround to develop the camps as they 

learn the Ojibwe language, basket 

making, medicine, spiritual 

awareness, cultural awareness, 

 

13 Fancy-dance is a 20th century dancing 

style that requires skill and stamina to 

maintain quick movement and steps to 

rapid drumming and singing. In parts of 

Oklahoma, these dances are sometimes 

called “stomp dances.”

survival, and other skills. 

According to Davis, youth who 

take part in these cultural activities 

are more resistant to negative 

influences in the community. An 

upcoming evaluation will inform 

staff of areas to improve before 

moving into full implementation. 

In phase II, Davis plans to invite 

more tribal elders to provide 

services. He may forge an 

affiliation with the Boys & Girls 

Clubs of America to increase 

access to grant funding and 

services. He plans to bring in the 

youth mentorship program, Kettle 

Kinship, to identify, match, and 

provide background screening for 

adult mentors. To launch the 

mentoring program, he will enlist 

the assistance of a Federal 

program, Learn and Serve 

America, from the Corporation for 

National and Community Service. 

“We will use a Vista (Volunteer in 

Service to America) worker 

through Learn and Serve America 

to put together the foundation of 

something that, three years from 

now when the VISTA grant is 

over, will be self-sustainable. Part 

of our responsibility is to pay for 

line items such as travel costs for 

the position. The VISTA grant 

pays for the salary,” said Davis.

In the future, Davis plans to inspire 

youth to become the future leaders 

for PTI through a youth council, 

allowing him to step into an 

advisory role. Through youth 

councils, teens learn leadership 

skills while learning how to 

organize and conduct meetings, 

explore parliamentary procedure, 

plan events, coordinate community 

service projects, and work with 

tribal leaders. “Youth will be 

responsible for planning activities 

for the year and we will advise 

them on the Four Season 

teachings. The youth council will 

develop a budget and activities 

each month, and the advisory 

board will determine if their plan is 

feasible. We will be turning the 

wheel over to them,” said Davis. 
14 

Old Harbor Village 

“We try to keep a caring adult 

in their lives.” – Gwen 

Christiansen, former program 

director 

Old Harbor Village, located on 

Kodiak Island, Alaska, 220 air 

miles southeast of Anchorage, 

resides on the far end of the Island, 

30 minutes by plane from the City 

of Kodiak. There is no direct road 

access to Old Harbor, and the local 

airport consists of a simple gravel 

landing strip, groupings of bald 

eagles, and the occasional magpie. 

A small commercial barge delivers 

groceries, fuel, building supplies, 

and other necessities to the 230 

residents, including 59 children 

and youth. Old Harbor residents 

are mainly of Sukpiak and Alutiiq 

heritage, and elders are 

significantly influenced by the 

Russian Orthodox Church. 

Old Harbor operates under a 

complex system of tribal, local, 

regional, and state government. 

The City of Old Harbor, 

incorporated in 1966 under the 

State of Alaska, has a sevenmember City Council responsible 

for the village’s water, sewer, 

dock, airport, public buildings, and 

a small harbor that serves as a 

home to seals, sea lions, and a 

variety of fish. 

The Native Village of Old Harbor, 

a federally recognized tribe led by 

an elected, seven-member tribal 

council serves the Native 

community at-large. The tribal 

government administers social and 

cultural programs and provides 

funding to maintain the village’s 

small road system, spanning four 

miles. The Kodiak Island Borough 

operates similarly to a county, and 

residents of the Island are served 

by health and social services 

provided by Kodiak Area Native 

Association, a regional non-profit. 

Under the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA)14 of 

1971, Alaska Natives have 

organized into corporations in 

order to receive settlements of land 

and money allocated under the 

Act. 

Old Harbor’s economy, as with her 

sister villages, is depressed and 

losing population annually. Youth 

that remain face the challenge of 

ongoing Federal and state 

 

14 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANCSA) divides the state into 

regions, each served by a regional health 

non-profit corporation that provides 

medical and behavior health care services.

regulation of their fishing rights, 

resulting in the loss of tribal 

knowledge and tradition, and 

restricted economic development. 

Kodiak Island residents struggle 

with the meddling restrictions of 

fishing permits, the residual impact 

of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, 

decreasing wages, and a stagnant 

local economy. Families suffer 

from negative behaviors, and 

mounting indicators point toward a 

rising suicide rate among village 

youth. Evidence of excessive drug 

and alcohol abuse revealed by a 

survey prompted community 

members to address cultural 

identity, environment, economic 

development, governance, and 

education in a community plan. 

Old Harbor’s TYP program staff 

support the community plan by 

serving youth, preserving Native 

traditions, providing healthy, drug 

and alcohol-free environments, and 

serving as role models for youth 

and families. 

Old Harbor’s TYP 

Old Harbor was awarded a TYP 

grant in 2003 to serve all youth in the 

village. Foregoing the 

implementation of a mainstream, 

best practice, the program director 

chose to design a program focused 

on family values, Alaskan Native 

cultural traditions, subsistence skills 

(hunting, processing game, fishing, 

gathering), and youth development. 

Staff used TYP funding to transform 

an existing, underutilized youth 

program into a thriving cultural 

center for youth. The program also 

supports a developing, year-round 

campground called Nuniaq Camp 

where subsistence activities occur. A 

subsequent TYP grant provides for 

development of a care team of adults 

and service providers in the village 

and daily youth programming. 
15 

The TYP is the only youth-based 

programming in the village. The 

program incorporates Alutiiq 

cultural values and traditions to 

reduce the prevalence of juvenile 

delinquency and to increase and 

improve mental health and 

substance abuse counseling 

services in the village. Staff have 

recruited a diverse group of people 

to share their cultural knowledge 

and skills with youth through 

seminars and classes. 

Through word-of-mouth and a 

newsletter distributed village wide, 

the program reaches youth. “We 

get one kid hooked on the program 

and then encourage them to invite 

their friends. We see them every 

day at the store, at the post office, 

at the school, walking down the 

road. I go up to the school once or 

twice a week,” said Gwen 

Christiansen, TYP director. Food 

is used to attract youth to the 

program and includes Subway TM

sandwiches or pizzas that are 

flown in, or tasty subsistence foods 

such as clams. 

Within six years, the Old Harbor 

TYP has transformed youth 

behavior in the village. The TYP 

activities engage youth positively 

in their rustic, natural environment, 

teaching them to identify 

poisonous from edible plants, and 

if they get lost, to live off the land 

until they are found. On Kodiak 

Island, where bears are common, 

TYP youth know how to track and 

respect these great beasts. Program 

staff look to museums, elders, and 

experts outside the village to build 

on efforts to recapture traditional 

ways. As staff and youth reach 

back to reclaim the language and 

traditions, they learn together to 

carve historical Alutiiq masks, 

preserve meat, hunt, and fish. 

The culture center is the home base 

for TYP activities and is open each 

day after school and in the 

evening. It allows youth to engage 

in supervised activities, or to 

simply visit with friends. The 

center provides a safe, warm place 

with healthy snacks and a caring 

adult ready with activities. Youth 

and families participate in the 

program by walking in and signing 

up. Youth register for camp and 

hunting excursions, and parents 

sign release packets for trips 

outside of the village. 

Before the introduction of the 

TYP, there was little for youth to 

do besides finish their homework, 

watch TV, play video games, and 

stand on the dock to watch boats 

pass by. “When we started the 

culture center, it was a place for 

kids to go in the evening,” said 

Teacon Simeonoff, a TYP staff 

member. “In the winter months, 

kids about 6 to 10 years old are 

dropped off at the school or 

playground, while parents go out 

to enjoy bingo until about 10:30 

p.m. Youth were wandering 

around, some without coats on,” 

said another staff member. 

Nuniaq Camp serves as a center 

for outdoor experiential learning. 

Youth learn about subsistence and 

survival skills as they build camp 

and hunt, fish, and clean their kill, 

preparing it for consumption and 

making pelts. In the wintertime, a 

smaller camp is maintained, and 

deer and mountain goat hunting 

continues. Youth come to the camp 

during colder months to engage in 

discussion with staff and 

sometimes enjoy the steam heat of 

the banyan, an Alaskan sweat 

lodge. 

Many youth served by the program 

have been damaged by abusive 

behavior, and this has weakened 

their trust in adults. Time at the 

camp allows staff to listen to 

youth, initiating a deeper level of 

conversation that builds trust and 

promotes learning and healing. 

Tribal Youth Program staff also 

use individual and group 

discussion to teach youth values or 

correct social behavior, discussing 

substance abuse and mental health 

issues on a regular basis. Positive 

attitudes are emerging from those 

deemed most at-risk, and among 

many youth, personal appearance 

and self-esteem have improved. 

“Their communication is 

improving. I’ve seen social 

behavioral changes. They now say 

‘Hi!’ back to you and can take a 

compliment,” said Christiansen. 

While there is no policy on what 

constitutes successful completion 

of the program, staff consider a 

youth who is drug and alcoholfree, in school, planning to attend 

college, and who possesses a 

positive sense of self, a success.
16 

Building Relationships 

with Youth

Trust developed through 

relationships allows staff to 

monitor the lives of at-risk youth 

and to intervene when necessary. 

Mark Overbeek teaches at the Old 

Harbor school, a K-12 for the 

entire Village, and occasionally 

teaches a small engines class at the 

TYP center. “The cool thing about 

the class was I wasn’t an employee 

of the school, so my objectives 

were completely different. [The 

students] learned something about 

small engines, but my goal was to 

build a relationship with them. We 

have had two suicides in the 

village, two boys, and one of them 

was last year. It was really a class 

about teaching interpersonal 

relationships.” 

Tribal Youth Program staff 

provide a safe harbor and quality 

of life standard for youth to 

emulate. Sometimes youth are 

home alone, and on occasion, staff 

members will open their homes to 

them. “We had an eighth grader 

over to our home just last week. 

My wife was at the airport and 

called to tell me that the boy’s 

family was also at the airport. She 

suggested I give him a call because 

he was going to be home alone,” 

said one staff member. 

Thirteen is a trigger year, a time 

when early use of tobacco, alcohol, 

and sex happens. “We try to keep a 

caring adult in their lives. A girl 

was coming to see us, and she was 

doing well, but as she hit 13, she 

stopped coming and got into some 

tobacco use and more. She is 

coming back around, and that 

initial trust we built with her is 

helping. We feel like we can say, 

‘This is not right; it is harmful to 

you,’” said Christiansen. 

In exploring Alutiiq culture, adults 

and youth are reclaiming Native 

language and traditions of 

subsistence, carving, storytelling, 

dancing, and mask making. Those 

who have seen the changes in 

youth in the program describe that 

it builds motivation and character, 

helping them to reclaim an identity 

and strength to overcome 

hardships. “When I see youth out 

here tromping through the mud 

and snow to get to the program, it 

shows me that it’s a pretty 

important thing in their lives. 

Those adults are offering 

something that the kids really 

want,” said Joyce Elvejhem, health 

services provider for the village 

clinic. If the TYP program was no 

longer available to youth, 

Elvejhern believes vandalism 

would go up. “More kids would 

find the time to get involved in 

alcohol and marijuana. I think 

those are the biggest problems 

here. They would have more 

opportunities to get involved in 

poor behaviors or get caught up in 

the cycle of addictions that can 

lead to teenage pregnancy.”

Future Plans

Plans to increase the quality and 

quantity of life in Old Harbor 

include a tribal wellness court that 

would support the TYPs efforts to 

improve the lives of youth and to 

serve families that are in crisis, 

near crisis, or coming out of crisis. 

The TYP will seek an 

accountability piece as part of the 

wellness court that includes a 

system for dealing with parents 

who are drinking excessively and 

allowing their children to attend 

school unprepared. “We need to be 

able to say to parents that [they] 

have ten days to meet with the care 

team and start on the path to a safe 

home. We do not want them to 

lose their child, but we need [a 

policy] with teeth,” said 

Christiansen. She believes that 

when families, not just youth, go to 

the camp to experience intensive 

counseling, deeper healing will 

occur. One week of therapy at the 

camp can make a lasting 

difference. In the meantime, TYP 

staff are attending weekly care 

team meetings and keep an eye out 

for future funding opportunities. 

They have a hunting-gathering 

mentality regarding sustainability, 

and seek new grants to support 

future growth. 
17 

Absentee Shawnee 

Tribe 

“Treatment is prevention; 

prevention is treatment.” – 

Kim Kannady, former program 

coordinator

Up until the 1800s, Shawnee 

Indians lived in areas now known 

as Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 

Kentucky, Tennessee, and 

Pennsylvania. At that time, 

according to the Tribe, the U.S. 

Government removed the Shawnee 

to Kansas. The term Absentee 

Shawnee comes from Federal 

officials after a portion of the Tribe 

absented itself from their 

appointed reservation in Kansas, 

relocating instead to Indian 

Territory—now the State of 

Oklahoma. 

Today, the Oklahoma-based 

Absentee Shawnee consist of two 

Bands: The White Turkey Band 

and the Big Jim Band. The 

Absentee Shawnee tribal 

government is composed of a 

judicial branch and a combined 

legislative and executive branch 

(that includes the Governor, 

Lieutenant Governor, Secretary, 

Treasurer, Representative, and an 

election commission that runs 

tribal elections annually). 

The Tribe has approximately 2,500 

tribal members and is located west 

of Oklahoma City in Pottawatomie 

County. Approximately 10,000 

youth live on or near tribal lands, 

including youth from neighboring 

tribes: the Citizen Band of 

Pottawatomie, Sac-Fox Nation, 

Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma, and 

Kickapoo Tribe. The poverty rate 

among youth in Oklahoma is 20 

percent and higher among Native 

American youth at 30 percent.15 In 

Pottawatomie County, there are 

between 35 and 40 intakes 

monthly at the juvenile detention 

center, as reported by Juvenile 

Services for the county. According 

to the Oklahoma State Report on 

Educational Indicators, dropout 

rates for Native American males 

and females combined are rising: 

43 percent in 2004, 46 percent in 

2005; and 47 percent in 2006. 

Financially, the Tribe relies on 

annual funding from the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs and Indian Health 

Services, U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services. Tribal 

tax revenues from the Absentee 

Shawnee casino and businesses 

support the Tribe’s general fund, 

which in turn supports programs 

like the TYP. According to 

Governor Scott Miller, there is 

little economic development for 

the Tribe apart from the casino. 

Pumping new life into the casino is 

 

15 Kids Count Factbook, 2003. 

a concern for tribal leaders as they 

obtain new gaming vendors and a 

casino management group they 

hope will produce greater 

economic revenue. 

Absentee Shawnee TYP 

The Two Stars program uses TYP 

funding to address the mental 

health needs of 200 youth16and 

their families by providing 

comprehensive delinquency 

prevention and intervention 

services. These services include 

intensive treatment such as 

substance abuse and anger 

management counseling. It is the 

only year-round prevention 

program serving Native youth in 

the county, working directly in 

school, after school, and in homes 

as needed. For the most intensive 

mental health needs, the program 

collaborates with a psychiatrist 

who sees youth monthly. The local 

family clinic’s managing physician 

sends referrals to the Two Stars 

program. 

Two Stars has an office within the 

Tribe’s social services building. 

Staff network with leaders in the 

community, Indian Child Welfare, 

and Tribal social services to stay in 

touch with the needs of at-risk 

youth. They are on call 24 hours a 

day, seven days a week. The 

program team includes a program 

director, university-level intern, 

and a part-time administrative 

assistant. 

Because the community is rural, staff 

provides transportation for youth 

who cannot get to counseling on 

their own, and in some cases, bring 

the counseling directly to them. For 

example, the program’s 

methodologies work with youth who 

have anger issues by allowing them 

 

16 Youth are ages 12 to 17. 
18 

to talk about problems privately in 

consultation, using group meetings, 

and supervised activities to redirect 

negative energy. 

 

Counseling service is provided by 

the TYP directly in schools, where 

staff teach skills such as dealing 

with confrontation, anger 

management, respect, goal setting, 

maintaining good grades, and 

staying in school. Staff discuss 

addiction, the stages of alcoholism, 

what a father or mother may be 

going through while they are 

addicted, co-dependency, and steps 

to stop the destructive cycle. The 

program’s summer leadership 

camp provides life skills as a 

prevention service, and older 

youth, at least 16 years of age, may 

serve as camp counselors, 

receiving a stipend paid by the 

Tribe. 

During camp, staff administer an 

instrument called the SASSI 

(Substance Abuse Subtle 

Screening Inventory) to all youth 

referred to the program to assess 

the need for mental health 

intervention. The program’s goal is 

to reach youth and make a positive 

impact, breaking the cycle of abuse 

in their lives. “One of our 

successes is teaching them that sex 

abuse is not normal,” said Kim 

Kannady, Two Stars Director. 

Youths’ emotional disorders and 

skewed sense of loving and caring 

are treated with exposure to 

healthy adults who exhibit 

responsible and engaged behavior. 

“We are not using shame-based 

teachings. We listen to and respect 

them first. At about the fourth 

meeting with us, they start to come 

out of their shell,” said Kannady. 

Outside of the school, Two Stars 

staff initiate mental health 

interventions for up to 50 courtinvolved youth through a voluntary 

ten-week juvenile intervention 

program open only to Native 

American youth. Staff make drug, 

alcohol, and mental health 

assessments and begin treatment 

through one-on-one and group 

counseling. Many of the youth 

who receive services are at-risk or 

are suffering from substance abuse 

problems, behavioral disorders, 

depression, Fetal Alcohol 

Syndrome, attention deficit 

hyperactivity disorder, alcohol or 

illicit drug use. They also may 

have spent time in foster care. 

Treatment plans for one-on-one 

counseling sessions are updated 

weekly and include goals. A 

depression index is used to assess 

youth involved in a crisis, and as 

needed, youth are referred to St. 

Anthony’s hospital for suicide 

prevention treatment. Staff would 

like to reduce recidivism to below 

25 percent of youth who complete 

the program, as measured by a sixand twelve-month follow up. 

Two Stars sponsors a monthly 

after school youth council and 

engages adult volunteers to help 

youth develop leadership skills 

through community event 

planning. Alicia, a parent 

volunteer, guides youth on how to 

hold meetings. She invests time 

with the program believing that 

youth who are placed in a role of 

responsibility will start to see 

themselves in a different light, no 

longer the source of trouble, but a 

positive force within the 

community. The youth council 

sponsors a New Year’s Eve dance, 

promoting it with flyers advising 

other youth to remain drug free, 

gang free, and to maintain 

abstinence. The program is the 

only venue the parent can identify 

that works with youth to help them 

develop goals, stay in school, plan 

for college, and stay away from 

gangs. 

Making a Difference 

Through Crisis 

Intervention 

Home life is dysfunctional for 

many Shawnee youth. One boy in 

foster care started in the program 

when he was in the 4th grade. 

During the summer, program staff 

stepped into a parenting role with 

the boy and encouraged him to 

stay in school. Their guidance 

contributed to the boy’s positive 

development. He has stayed in 

school and is now in the 8th grade. 

Any Indian person who asks for 

help takes a big step. “Native 

Americans are private people and 

stay within their own family. You 

don’t go outside the family or go 

to someone else and ‘nose around.’ 

However, for some, they do not 

plan for themselves or their kids 

and this causes problems,” said 

Kannady. One parent interviewed 

said, “When I was growing up as a 

child, my parents were divorced, 
19 

and it was hard to talk to my 

mother. My father spoke with me, 

but it was hard to open up to him 

because he is male. Now I see this 

situation with my daughter. It’s 

hard for her to open up to me.” 

This private nature serves as a 

protective shell to guard 

uncomfortable secrets and keep 

outsiders at bay. 

School staff say that troubled 

Native youth have stopped 

dreaming about the future and the 

program addresses this because it 

helps youth rise to greater 

potential. “Youth tell Two Stars 

staff things they would never tell 

other counselors,” said Debra 

Watson, Director of the Jim 

Thorpe Academy. Two Stars has 

initiated family intervention that 

other counselors would not be able 

to do because their agencies would 

not allow them. 

Dysfunctional family dynamics are 

common according to school 

faculty. Juvenile behavior is often 

a result of dynamics in a youth’s 

neighborhood or home. “We just 

referred a situation to Two Stars 

when a mother came in with her 

daughter, showing us where the 

daughter’s boyfriend battered her 

over Christmas break. When 

students start earning money, some 

ask us to lock it up for them 

because they are afraid to leave it 

at home,” said Watson. 

According to Kannady, the 

closeness in an Indian family is 

without boundaries. “They rely on 

and feed off of each other and 

survive off of one another. If there 

is a person missing that they are 

used to having there, it upsets the 

dysfunctional system.” The Jim 

Thorpe Academy counselor 

recalls, “I was working with one 

girl who was interested in the 

medical field. She called early this 

year wanting to take her [college 

exam]. I set up an appointment and 

she did not go. She called and said 

her mom knew when her 

appointment was and left with the 

car knowing that she had to be 

there. We set up another 

appointment and this was missed 

too. She had a chance to go to 

college.” 

Two Stars intervenes whenever 

possible to serve youth in crisis. 

Lisa, a 19 year-old graduate 

seeking admission to vocational 

college to study child development 

experienced traumatic abuse by her 

estranged father that nearly 

destroyed her family. Two Stars 

received a desperate call from the 

teen, did a crisis assessment, 

brought Lisa to the hospital for 

immediate treatment, and followed 

up with intense, weekly 

counseling. Describing her 

experience, Lisa says, “It’s helped 

me work through a few of my 

issues and saved my life. I came to 

[Two Stars] because at the end of 

November everything in my family 

fell apart. I had to talk to someone 

about my feelings about killing 

myself.” Through counseling, Lisa 

has gained greater self-confidence 

and self-esteem and has been able 

to initiate discussions with her 

mother. She feels more youth 

could benefit from Two Stars 

counseling. 

“[Youth] know about the program, 

but I’m sure they push it to the 

side, not thinking it’s going to 

help,” she says. To reach other 

youth, she suggests inviting them 

to peer-to-peer discussions, or 

hosting a discussion run by an 

older youth who has experienced 

similar trauma. 

A Story of 

Transformation 

A youth whose father committed 

felonies in Oklahoma went into 

foster care and was served by the 

Two Stars program. His survival 

skills impressed staff—

memorizing the names and phone 

numbers of everyone he met. “He 

needed to know this information 

because his mother would drop 

him at a mental health unit or 

shelter and disappear. [This is] a 

common experience for Native 

Americans, being an inpatient 

somewhere, being warehoused. 

They may not have a substance 

abuse problem, but they are in a 

substance abuse treatment unit 

because they are being 

warehoused,” said a Two Stars 

consultant. 

The youth’s story was shared by a 

program consultant who taught the 

youth how to drive a car, get his 

license, and enrolled him in junior 

college. “Then he went out of my 

life. One day, he walked into my 

office, looked at me and said, ‘I’m 

on paid vacation.’ It went totally 

over my head. This kid had a 

horrible history and he’s telling 

me, ‘I’m on paid vacation.’ 

Slowly, it came to me, ‘Oh, you’ve 

had a job for a year...you’re a 

miracle! Let’s go out and 

celebrate.’ He said, ‘No, no, you 

told me that if I ever got out of 

school, got a job, and kept a job, 

you would buy me a Pendleton 
20 

jacket.’ He was there to collect! 

We went down to buy him a 

Pendleton jacket. He told the 

woman at the shop the story, and 

they gave the jacket to him. He got 

a certification as a nursing 

assistant and works at a nursing 

home. He will always have a job 

because there is a nursing home in 

every town in the state.” 

Future Plans 

Kannady is fundraising to build a 

mentor connection for Two Stars. 

While there may be a perception 

that few adults are willing to 

donate time as mentors, ten 

volunteers have already signed up 

to receive training. “The kids lack 

a caring adult in their lives, 

someone to keep in touch with 

weekly, for wisdom on life. 

Parents are tired, lack time, gas, 

and 50 percent of my families do 

not have transportation, so I go out 

on a Saturday or Sunday to drive 

out to see them,” said Kannady. 

With more funding, the school 

would enlist the Two Stars 

services daily to work with youth. 

For instance, one young man has 

brothers who are involved in a 

gang, and one of them is up on 

murder charges. The young man is 

walking a fine line between the 

gang life and school and needs 

help. 

More resources would allow the 

program to provide conflict 

management tools to help youth 

deal with what it means to be a 

Native American in a community 

filled with racism and 

discrimination. Youth are 

requesting more field trips during 

the year, an improved summer 

camp with more supplies, and 

access to a campground that 

features Native culture and crafts. 

The local Boys & Girls Club is 

available to youth in the 

community, but Kannady suggests 

that the same program be provided 

just for Native youth. 

A youth center would provide 

private space for youth to explore 

Native culture and to be 

themselves. Professional 

development would help Two 

Stars staff provide new strategies 

for dealing with anger issues, and 

offer activities that develop selfidentity through Native traditions 

and history. More staff would free 

up Kannady’s time to build 

stronger partnerships within the 

community (such as with the local 

law enforcement and elders, who 

are a disappearing resource on 

tribal history and culture). 
21 

Mescalero 

Apache Tribe 

“We understand that 

prevention programming is 

evenings, weekends, and 

holidays. You become a part 

of the youths’ lives.”

– Sonya Geronimo Hiles, director

The Mescalero Apache Indian 

Reservation is located in the 

forests of Otero County, South 

Central New Mexico. The 

reservation is surrounded by 

mountains revered as sacred by the 

tribe. The name Mescalero comes 

from Spaniards who remarked on 

the abundant use of the Mescal 

plant in the preparation of a staple 

Apache food. 

In 1873, Ulysses S. Grant 

established the reservation for the 

approximately 400 Mescalero 

Apache who survived 

confrontations with the U.S. Army. 

In 1903, members of the Lipan 

Apache Band, and in 1913, 200 

members of the Chiricahua band of 

Apache were relocated to the 

Mescalero Reservation. Over the 

years, the three Bands have 

intermarried and under the Indian 

Reorganization Act all became 

members of the Mescalero Apache 

Tribe as formalized by Congress in 

1936. Today, the reservation 

population has reached 

approximately 4,440. 

Apaches are part of the 

Athapaskan peoples that migrated 

from Alaska and Canada to the 

American Southwest and parts of 

Mexico. Traditional teepees and 

buckskin clothing are no longer 

visible except for the period in 

early July when the Tribe observes 

the ancient coming of age 

ceremony for maidens. The 

celebration, also called The Fourth 

of July Ceremonial, lasts for no 

less than eight days. During the 

celebration, girls are prepared and 

then transform into the White 

Painted Woman, a model of heroic 

and virtuous womanhood. This is a 

serious, solemn, and joyous time 

of gathering for families and the 

larger Apache community. 

The Mescalero Apache 

government rules under a 

constitution and has been a 

Federally Chartered Corporation 

since 1936. The Tribal Council has 

10 members elected annually by 

popular vote. The Tribe’s economy 

consists of a casino and resort, 

telecom firm, cattle operation, 

timber mills, and a ski resort. 

Revenue generated from these 

businesses is applied to assets that 

serve the community, such as a 

new K-12 school and senior 

healthcare facility. Approximately 

65 percent of tribal members have 

graduated high school, and under 2 

percent have completed a 

bachelor’s degree or higher. 

Members of the Tribe do not 

receive an annuity from the 

Federal government. For those 

who are eligible for aid, assistance 

comes from the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs, Social Security, and 

Veterans Benefits.17

 

Mescalero Apache TYP 

The Mescalero Prevention 

Program has received OJJDP 

funding since 2003, using it to 

provide a bi-weekly Life Skills 

class, a graduation requirement for 

students at Mescalero Apache 

High School, and an after school 

program serving 35 middle and 

high school youth, ages 12 to 17. 

In the after school program, youth 

meet from 4 to 7 p.m. daily in a 

community center shared with the 

local Boys & Girls Club that serve 

younger youth. Ninth grade 

students make up the largest cohort 

of youth reached. Educational field 

trips and supervised recreation 

time is also scheduled on most 

weekends. 

The prevention program tracks 

progress and individual youth 

behavior changes using a stateapproved instrument. Evaluation of 

the data revealed that the 

Mescalero Apache youth, unlike 

youth from other TYPs in this 

report, show much lower levels of 

risk factors (perception of harm, 

non-parent adult support, drug 

availability in the community, etc.) 

and higher scores on resiliency 

factors. 

 

17 “Traditional Apache Life” as retrieved 

on March 27, 2008, 

http://southwestcrossroads.org/record.php?

num=521 and Mescalero Apache, Our 

Culture, a brochure provided by the Inn of 

the Mountain Gods Resort and Casino, a 

Mescalero Apache Enterprise.
22 

Three women, led by Sonia 

Geronimo Hiles, a descendent of 

the famous warrior, lead the 

Mescalero Prevention Program. 

The team successfully reaches out 

to school staff and community 

members, amassing, in five years, 

over 60 partner programs and 

school districts in a coalition to 

serve tribal youth. The women 

bring a variety of talents to the 

program such as knowledge of 

youth interests, networking skills, 

prevention skills, life skills, 

parenting education, civic 

engagement, and the ability to lead 

youth on field trips across the state 

and beyond. Program staff has 

made a serious commitment to 

youth, providing not only lifeskills education and activities, but 

serving hours that they would 

otherwise be spending with their 

family. “We serve kids from wellto-do families and others from 

greatly disadvantaged homes 

daily,” said Sonya Hiles, Director, 

Mescalero Apache Prevention 

Program. 

Youth interviewed say that they 

bring respect and an open mind to 

the prevention program, because it 

provides experiences their families 

cannot provide, such as field trips 

to the Grand Canyon, SeaworldTM, 

Carlsbad Caverns, and the 

Albuquerque Balloon Festival. 

Under the watchful eye of program 

staff, youth make friends, play, and 

engage in tutoring other youth. 

“Tutoring him helped me get my 

math grades up,” said one youth. 

Another said, “It makes me feel 

good to be here.” 

The Prevention Program has 

adopted a portion of Route 70 that 

runs through the reservation, 

removing litter with scheduled 

pick-up days. Youth collect 

roadside debris, separating out 

alcohol and tobacco related trash. 

“We picked up 18 bags of trash, 

and 11 bags were filled with 

alcohol and tobacco packaging and 

cans, compared to 7 bags of other 

types of trash, said Orosoco.” 

“We have the youth analyze the 

trash. What does it tell us? We 

have learned that Budweiser is the 

drink preferred in Mescalero, and 

McDonalds was the number one 

fast food. We’ll be sharing this 

with tribal council,” said Eloise 

Damon, project facilitator. 

Through this project, youth earn 

credit towards their 80 hours of 

community service needed to 

graduate high school. Program 

staff says this exercise is surprising 

for youth who admit they cannot 

believe there is so much alcohol 

consumed on the road. “After the 

project, one young man said to us 

that he didn’t know how people 

could drive down the road and not 

want to pick trash up,” said 

Orosoco. 

A summer program called Youth 

Impacting Youth (YIY) partnered 

with the TYP to train youth in one 

week to produce a professional 

video on a crime prevention topic. 

Youth Impacting Youth engaged 

youth in teambuilding exercises 

and then divided them into 

production companies. Each team 

developed a mission statement, 

company logo, a script, a 

storyboard, and they received 

instruction in acting and filming. 

Youth Impacting Youth staff 

handled final editing. The TYP and 

its partners covered the cost of 

$300 per student and provided 

meals and snacks. Staff and youth 

say the YIY project provided 

career skills with experience that 

can be viewed on the web by 

potential employers. 

Some parents of participating 

youth enroll in the prevention 

program’s Dare to Be You, a 10-

week parenting class that helps 

adults develop decision-making 

skills, assertiveness, responsibility, 

and self-esteem. TYP staff work 

with parents to develop skills for 

talking with their children and 

expressing themselves well. A 

$100 incentive goes to parents who 

complete the class. Through 

coaching, parents develop an 

understanding that they are in 

control of their lives and 

responsible for the decisions they 

make. They are trained to use 

phrases like, “I choose not to do 

the dishes, I choose not to visit my 

mom.” Parents begin to see that 

they are in control of decisions that 

affect their lives, not other people. 
23 

The TYP is supported by the local 

Head Start program, whose staff 

promotes the parenting classes 

with flyers and announcements to 

parents. According to TYP staff, 

the prevention program is the only 

resource for parenting on the 

reservation. It’s hard to get parents 

to commit to coming and if the 

prevention program wasn’t 

available, they would have to go 

off reservation.” 

Head Start staff say the TYP has 

changed youths’ lives by letting 

them experience life in and outside 

of the reservation. “We’re reaching 

the kids who are in between, the 

ones who have not found their 

group or niche,” said Orosoco. 

“Staff is providing skills that youth 

are not getting at home. Youth that 

you wouldn’t think would join a 

panel for a community project are 

getting involved,” said a Head 

Start staff member. 

Funding for the Mescalero Apache 

TYP comes mainly from the TYP 

grant and fundraisers conducted by 

staff and youth participants. The 

program shares space with and 

receives occasional staff assistance 

from the Boys & Girls Clubs. 

Fundraising efforts include 

involving youth in creating 

Valentine’s Day baskets and 

delivering them and other holidaythemed treats throughout the year. 

For the Fourth of July ceremonies, 

TYP youth host a booth that 

provides food like fry bread and 

tacos. 

Future Plans 

Hiles and her team would like to 

be able to serve more youth and 

are looking at the SAMHSA DrugFree Community grant and 

considering collaboration with the 

local Workforce Investment Act to 

expand the program. The team 

wants to start a teen court and 

establish a hotline for youth to 

report crime. Also, a drug court 

may be started, which will help 

keep youth from using drugs. 

According to the high school 

counselor who partners with the 

TYP, the school district does not 

have the infrastructure or system 

for dealing with truancy. “Parents 

need to be held accountable, but 

the tribal judicial system has no 

means of enforcement, and 

detention doesn’t work,” said the 

counselor. The tribe’s law 

enforcement officers are from the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs, and they 

do not have operational computers 

and other equipment to do their 

jobs properly. 

Future plans include starting a 

mentoring program for youth who 

need extra guidance. Hiles and her 

staff say that one of the roadblocks 

to bringing something new to the 

reservation is that some tribal 

leaders are sensitive to the issue of 

sovereignty, some to the point of 

rejecting programs, policies, or 

partnerships from those outside of 

tribal land boundaries. New people 

and programs are often viewed as 

“suspect” and will not be easily 

accepted by tribal leaders, 

regardless of merit. “It is taking 

some time to gather the support we 

need. It has taken 3 to 4 years for 

us to get this far,” said Orosoco. 
24 

Youth Views 

YPs can be transformative 

for youth. In the program, 

youth change from passive 

consumers of services to 

citizens who contribute to the 

community, growing stronger in 

their ability to communicate, and 

more wise in their ability to 

navigate through the angst of their 

teenage years. In a world where 

peers are using alcohol and drugs, 

TYP youth have a fighting chance 

to rise above the challenges of 

their environment. 

Accounts from youth demonstrate 

that the program helps them 

develop a sense of attachment and 

belonging to their tribe. It also 

helps them find resilience in the 

face of abuse at the hands of adults 

and other youth, and helps them 

refrain from using alcohol and 

illegal substances. Through the 

program, youth engage in 

conversations and activities that 

describe projects that build skills. 

When interviewed, youth said that 

if they were not in the program, 

they would be spending time alone 

watching TV or playing video 

games. Some admit they would be 

drinking or engaging in risky 

behaviors. When describing what 

they enjoyed most about the 

program, youth reported that it 

exposed them to opportunities to 

learn about their Native heritage 

and language, and to go beyond 

the tribe to explore the world. 

Grand Ronde 

Youth 

Youth Canoe Club participants 

offered advice on being part of a 

team, getting along with others, 

and practicing the concepts of 

respect, cooperation, and pride. 

“It’s good to show that 

youth are still into their 

culture. We see a lot of 

people stop and look at the 

canoes.” —Santiago, 15-

year-old 

“While we were dancing, a 

lady came up to me and 

asked me how old I was and 

what grade I was in. I told 

her I was 14 and in the 8th

grade. Later she came up 

and asked me if I would go 

to the preschool and show 

the little kids the dances and 

if I would work in a youth 

employment job this 

summer.” —Mary 

Respect 

“Do not call the paddle an 

oar and know the name of 

your canoe.”—Santiago 

“If you lose the paddle, it’s 

like losing a part of you 

because you’re not going 

anywhere without it.” 

—Santiago

Cooperation, 

Communication and 

Teamwork are 

Important 

“You’ve got to talk to the 

rest of the pullers. If you 

want to take a break, say it.” 

—Jeff, 16-year- old 

“If you want to switch your 

seat, make sure to let 

somebody know, because 

we do not want to be 

flipped. In the canoe, it is all 

about balance. If you do not 

do exactly as the skipper 

says, it is easy to flip and 

conditions can get bad. Last 

year, the weather got bad 

and some people fell out. I 

am sure they were doing as 

the skipper said all the way 

up to when they fell out of 

the canoe.” 

—Santiago 

“It’s always good to follow 

the person in front of you, 

because nobody likes eating 

others’ paddles.”—Michael, 

17-year-old

T
25 

Humility and Pride 

The canoe has a “princess 

seat” up front. “This is 

where royalty sat. When the 

Tribes wanted to show off, 

they put royalty up front. 

Royalty did not have to do 

anything, they just sit there, 

so we call it the princess 

seat.”—Riley, 10-year-old

Mille Lacs Youth 

Mille Lacs’ CYS youth have 

confidence and know how to 

express themselves, something that 

can be a great challenge for Native 

youth who have found a way to 

survive by being silent and 

invisible. The CYS uses a sweat 

lodge session as a counseling 

session to relax youth, build trust, 

and provide time for healing. 

Youth describing the program said: 

“The program helps me 

learn about my culture 

and spend more time 

with my grandparents. I 

have been dancing at 

powwows and I just 

made my first dancing 

shawl...” —Anonymous

“In the heat of the sweat 

lodge, troubles melt 

away. It clears your 

mind. I think the 

program should get 

more kids into it and 

they will stop their bad 

habits. I try to tell my 

friends, but older kids 

may not come because 

they may have other 

priorities.” —Female, 

14-year-old 

“I would be drinking if I 

were not in this 

program. I had a longterm drinking problem. I 

was locked up for two 

years. Through the 

program, I have learned 

patience, and during 

sweats, I pray for taking 

pain away from other 

people. During the 

breaks, in between the 

doors,18 the elders talk 

and we listen. If 

someone has something 

to pray about, we pray. 

In there, everyone is 

brother and sister. In the 

past, I was lost, but I’ve 

learned a lot of culture 

and I want to start an 

AA club in the area for 

kids my age.” —Male, 

14-year-old 

“The program is very 

helpful to people, not 

just youth, for the 

healing process and for 

learning your own 

culture. It helps me 

 

18 Sweat lodge ceremonies have four 

breaks, called doors, which are 

openings to the lodge.

personally. People come 

there for healing who 

may have had problems 

with their families, in 

addition to drugs or 

alcohol. 

The drum and outfit 

making is part of 

healing. There is not a 

time when we are not 

laughing. Maybe that is 

why it is such a good 

feeling. It might come 

from a negative thing 

that has happened to 

you recently...”—

Anonymous

“The program puts you 

on the right track—to 

respect people, forgive, 

pray for, and try to help 

others. In the sweat 

lodge, we all contribute. 

We all teach the little 

ones different songs. I 

invite others to a sweat 

lodge. It is their decision 

to come or not. It is like 

asking someone to go to 

church.” —Male, 16-

year-old 

Mescalero Apache 

Youth 

Mescalero Apache TYP youth are 

venturing out and gaining 

experiences that strengthen their 

knowledge and skills. Youth 

describe their excitement over the 

field trips they have enjoyed. 

These trips take them beyond the 

borders of the reservation, and 

provide a more diverse experience 

in addition to the exercise and 

homework guidance they receive. 

“We learn about drugs 

and ways to prevent 
26 

people from using. We 

have fundraisers to go 

on trips. I learn things I 

never thought of.” —

Masae, 14-year-old 

“They feed us healthy 

food and drinks. They 

also talk to us about our 

grades and behavior. 

Since I started [the 

TYP], my grades started 

to go up.”—Wesley

“We exercise every 

week. We talk about 

drugs, everyday things, 

and college. I will go to 

college when I graduate 

from high school.”—

Jacoby, 15-year-old 

“We do one hour of 

homework every day. 

After that, we do a fun 

activity and arts and 

crafts. Even exercise is 

fun. We do a lot of 

fundraisers to earn 

money to buy things the 

program needs, like 

exercise equipment, 

fishing poles, and tents 

for camping.” —Taylor, 

13-year-old 

Absentee Shawnee 

Youth 

At the Little Axe Middle School, 

the Absentee Shawnee Tribe’s 

Two Stars program runs a class 

that students describe as a place 

where they are respected, not 

admonished. It is a place where 

they can talk about themselves and 

discuss the drawings they create. 

Two Stars staff also works after 

school across town with North 

Rock Creek Middle School 

students. In the program, youth 

enjoy a snack as they describe their 

trouble with teachers and listen 

attentively to the advice they get. 

Like the youth from Little Axe, 

these students want more time 

outdoors and want to attend 

ceremonial dances. They are 

excited about an upcoming visit to 

a local juvenile detention center, 

something the program organizes 

annually. “We’ll get to see what 

it’s like on the inside,” said one 

youth. 

North Rock Creek Middle School 

students admit to having anger 

issues and appreciate the safe 

venue provided by the program to 

vent their frustration. One student 

described gang members they 

know, “They’re all wannabes right 

now. They say they’re going to be 

like your family, then they just go 

and blow up...they just die.” Two 

Stars staff counsels students on the 

ambiguous anger that comes from 

a perceived disrespect from others. 

One girl broke her silence to 

describe how she expresses anger. 

She said, “I was just raised like 

that. If someone talks about me, 

I’ll go up and punch them in the 

face. I’m not quiet about that, I’ll 

confront them about it.” A boy 

responded to her story saying that 

in the Two Stars program, “I’ve 

learned how to deal with 

confrontation.” 

Youth suggest that their TYP is 

something that belongs to them, 

something they can rely on, and a 

place they want to be. The TYP 

provides a safe place to visit with 

friends, vent concerns to a caring 

adult, receive help with 

schoolwork, and learn about 

Native culture and language. In a 

tumultuous world, the program’s 

ability to provide a stable 

environment cannot be 

underestimated. This impact is 

profound for the development of a 

young person. 
27 

 Findings and Themes of Success

ribal Youth Programs are 

adept at identifying diverse 

funding streams, building 

connections between youth and 

their families, and serving as a 

catalyst for community gatherings. 

They are reaching at-risk youth 

and fostering youth empowerment 

through Native language and 

culture and building Native pride 

and a sense of place and 

belonging. The program makes 

youth stronger and more resistant 

to negative and risky behaviors, 

helping deflect discrimination still 

found today in and around Indian 

Country. 

Major themes of success are: 

Building Capacity and 

Coordinating 

Resources Through 

Partnerships 

Successful TYPs have found a way 

to serve at-risk youth by building 

support through local partnerships, 

and connecting to tribal, state, and 

regional networks. TYPs are 

plugged into the community. Their 

leaders are not shy about seeking 

opportunities to build capacity by 

reaching out to others. TYP staff 

serve as ambassadors and 

advocates for youth, procuring 

venues to collaborate on 

community projects, finding 

supplies and resources for 

activities, and providing political 

support for funding and 

meaningful opportunities for youth 

to serve the community. 

Grant requirements dictate that 

programs must develop a tribal 

advisory board to develop and 

coordinate a plan for reducing 

juvenile crime. This policy 

leverages the Federal investment 

and propels TYPs to develop 

partnerships that sustain the 

program. The tribal advisory board 

usually includes members 

representing the tribe from the 

following areas: law enforcement; 

the prosecutor’s office; probation 

services; the tribal council; mental 

health services; the juvenile court; 

schools; local businesses; faithbased, fraternal, nonprofit, and/or 

social service organizations 

involved in crime prevention; 

tribal council-elected or duly 

appointed representative(s); and 

behavioral/mental health services. 

Involving Tribal 

Leadership 

Depending on the tribe, tribal 

council leaders may get involved 

with the TYP at the ground level 

or stay on the periphery of the 

program. Some tribal council 

members support the TYP by 

attending activities, speaking at 

prevention and leadership 

conferences, and interacting with 

youth during visits to the program. 

Some tribal leaders have children 

or relatives in the TYP. 

One council member credits his 

awareness of the infiltration of 

gangs into the community to a 

presentation provided by the TYP. 

He views cultural practices 

provided by the program as a 

positive alternative to gang 

influence. 

Former program director for the 

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe’s TYP, 

Greg Davis, credits the successful 

collaboration of social services 

programs and schools on the 

reservation to a mandate from 

Chief Executive Melanie 

Benjamin, stating that tribal 

department heads must work 

together. “Once we got tribal 

department leaders to our 

leadership training, things began to 

change,” said Davis. The tribe’s 

leadership also promotes the 

continuing education of tribal 

employees, which contributes to 

the professional development of 

TYP staff. 

Creating Community—

A Safety Net of Caring 

Adults 

Because TYPs operate with a 

small staff, collaboration with 

community partners is a necessity, 

not a luxury. 

“If we did not have partners, we 

would not be able to do what we 

are doing,” said Lisa Leno, Grand 

Ronde TYP. Collaborations allow 

TYPs to build program capacity 

for delivering services, attain 

youth referrals, increase visibility 

within the community, connect to 

funding streams, and tap into other 

resources.

In larger tribal communities, TYPs 

are joining with other national 

programs such as the Boys & Girls 

Clubs of America. TYPs maintain 

mentorship efforts to strengthen 

programming. At least one TYP 

interviewed plans to apply to the 

Corporation for National and 

Community Service, a Federal 

agency, for a Volunteer in Service 

to America (VISTA) program 

grant to build capacity that will 

T
28 

further develop the program’s 

ability to provide services. 

In Old Harbor, Kodiak Island, 

Alaska, the TYP care team, which 

includes TYP staff, law 

enforcement, school leaders, health 

providers, and tribal leadership, 

meets weekly. Working together, 

they monitor youth and bring a 

360-degree perspective to 

prevention. Through care team 

meetings, direct service providers 

speak confidentially and work 

through tough cases that may 

involve a youth abused at home or 

dealing with a friend’s suicide. 

“We deal with a lot of hard 

issues,” said a TYP program staff 

member. “Through the care team, 

we have a support system. We 

have a place to go to be heard,” 

said Gwen Christiansen, former 

Old Harbor TYP director. 

To help improve life for youth in 

Old Harbor, Christiansen became 

involved in a community action 

group to unite villages on Kodiak 

Island. The Kodiak Archipelago 

Rural Regional Leadership Forum 

met to bring issues like education, 

transportation, and the high cost of 

living on the Island to the attention 

of regional and state government. 

Part of the Forum’s strategy for 

building consensus was to reach 

out to professionals and industry 

specialists who work with local 

government and schools. They 

networked with them and 

introduced them to rural 

community issues. For example, a 

weak relationship with the Kodiak 

Island Borough School District led 

to misunderstandings of the 

educational needs of rural 

communities. Through the 

Forum’s outreach, relationships 

with leaders in the district have 

improved, and positive changes are 

happening. Village representatives 

expressed a desire for parity with 

town schools, specifically in 

services and quality. “From those 

meetings, we developed best 

practice policies that focused on 

relationships, process, policy, and 

accountability. These policies are 

now on the table,” said a Forum 

participant. 

In New Mexico, Mescalero 

Apache TYP staff reached out to a 

neighboring town to involve their 

youth in Alamogordo’s teen court 

program.19 TYP staff brought the 

tribe’s high school principal and a 

teacher to see how teen court 

operates to reduce truancy rates, a 

significant issue for the Mescalero 

Apache community. A volunteer 

tribal attorney from Alamogordo 

prepares youth for court, providing 

tips on presenting a case, speaking 

clearly, and wearing proper attire. 

“Darren is usually a t-shirt guy 

who dresses like a skater, but when 

we picked him up to go to teen 

court, he had a dress shirt on and 

 

19 Teen court, also known as youth court, 

is a sentencing hearing where youth serve 

in the roles of prosecutor, defense, bailiff, 

and juror. Youth are trained in these roles 

as they serve their peers and learn about 

the judicial system.

slacks, and his long hair was 

pulled neatly into a ponytail. We 

had initially planned to just let our 

youth observe, but they were asked 

to participate. Darren and another 

youth were asked if they would 

like to be defense attorneys. They 

prepared and took the proceeding 

very seriously and tried to get the 

lowest sentence for their client,” 

said a TYP staff member. 

School to Community 

Connections 

Tribal Youth Programs collaborate 

with schools and often share 

program space and staff. Grand 

Ronde’s Youth Education Program 

is part of the tribal school system. 

The TYP and Youth Education 

Program coordinate to conduct a 

leadership program for youth. 

Through the program, youth 

receive guidance and tools on how 

to lead cultural and youth 

development activities, live a 

healthy lifestyle, be socially 

responsible, fight diabetes, and 

prepare and cook food in healthy 

ways. Funding for the Youth 

Education Program comes from 

the tribe, the Department of Health 

and Human Services, and a 

Johnson O’Malley20 grant from the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). 

Community Youth Services works 

in conjunction with the Band’s 

schools and connects with a GED 

program through the Tribal 

College. The Nay Ah Shing 

Schools on the Mille Lacs 

reservation provide K-12 

curriculum, a childcare center, and 

a Head Start Program. The 

Community Youth Services 

operates in the school’s buildings 

after school and into the evening. 

Community Youth Services is 

 

20 This is Federal funding to provide 

supplementary financial assistance to meet 

the unique and specialized educational 

needs of Indian children.
29 

negotiating for more school space 

to provide after school homework 

assistance for more youth. 

Through a memorandum of 

agreement with the Kodiak Island 

Borough School District, the Old 

Harbor TYP supports the village 

school with after school prevention 

activities, coordinating with the 

school’s counseling department. 

School leadership and volunteers 

serve on the TYP’s community 

care team. During care team 

meetings, the TYP’s community 

partners discuss behavioral issues 

among at-risk youth that might 

require an intervention. For 

example, if a youth does not 

participate at school or in the TYP 

program, someone on the TYP 

care team takes notice. The team 

member alerts others, and enacts 

the care team safety net, a direct 

intervention. 

Some school policies created with 

the best of intentions have become 

manipulative. For example, 

compliance with the No Child Left 

Behind Act of 2001 preempts 

curriculum designed to focus on 

Native culture and language in 

charter schools on the Mille Lacs 

Band reservation. The Band’s 

cultural advisors see this as 

undermining the schools original 

cultural focus. “The school opened 

to be a cultural school. Now it 

must follow the mainstream, 

standardized curriculum. Our 

biggest problem at school is 

truancy. Where is the evidence that 

the standards-driven curriculum 

has been able to address this 

pressing issue?” asked a TYP staff 

member. 

Parents and Families

Tribal Youth Program staff serve 

as role models of a healthy family, 

demonstrating alternatives to 

negative behaviors that provide a 

breeding ground for substance 

abuse or gang-related activity. 

Some TYP staff interviewed 

expressed that some at-risk youth 

may not have experienced a 

healthy family environment, or 

understand how one operates. 

Through exposure to healthy 

family experiences and activities 

sponsored by the TYP, youth learn 

how to be healthy people and 

break the cycle of abuse and 

addiction in their lives.

Parenting classes are offered by 

some TYPs as a holistic approach 

to improving the lives of youth. 

They believe that the preventive 

work done while a child is at the 

TYP is undone when they go home 

to a dysfunctional home. Parenting 

classes provide activities and 

guidance that strengthens 

communication and parenting 

skills, providing tools that help 

parents relate to children and teens. 

The classes offer alternative 

strategies to punishment that build 

the dignity of the parent and child, 

rather than tearing it down. 

The parenting class in Grand 

Ronde is successful because 

parents do not see it as a sanction. 

To keep parents coming back to 

class, the TYP provides a meal, 

gas voucher, and complementary 

childcare services. “We’re thinking 

outside of the box, not just saying, 

‘You’re court ordered, you need to 

be here,’ but rather, ‘we are going 

to break down all the barriers that 

you have to attend this class. 

We’re going to invest in you,’” 

said Fullerton. As a result, 

attendance for the Grand Ronde 

parenting class has remained a 

steady 100 percent. The Mescalero 

Apache TYP presents participants 

with a $100 bonus, upon 

graduation, for attending all 10 

parenting classes. 

Some TYPs involve parents when 

developing program activities. 

“This is both empowering and 

motivating,” said Caroline Cruz, 

researcher, evaluator, and Oregon 

State liaison to tribes. Parent 

surveys for the Grand Ronde TYP 

are showing positive responses. “If 

you get them on the team and they 

see themselves as a vital part of 

that team, you are going to see 

results with family involvement,” 

said Christina Puentes, Oregon 

Youth Authority. Some parents, 

especially those disconnected from 

the community will shy away from 

this, but they, she warns, are the 

most in need of inclusion. 

The Mille Lacs Band’s TYP, 

reaches out year-round to parents 

and grandparents, inviting them to 

join in activities and to help during 

events. The Community Youth 

Services and their partners sponsor 

monthly sobriety feasts where 

youth and families participate in 

activities that address alcohol or 

substance abuse issues. At these 

feasts, families engage in regaliamaking for upcoming ceremonial 

dances and learn about their Native 

culture and language. 

Through coordinated outreach, 

“we started getting much more 

participation from both youth and 

families,” said Lloyd Keoke, 

cultural advisor. Others concur. 

“We have 30 to 40 parents and 

families who have made outfits 

during their time with the program. 

We have to build a bigger wigwam 

at the campground because we 

have outgrown the old one,” said 

Doug Sam, lead cultural advisor 

for the CYS program. 

Absentee Shawnee TYP staff will 

counsel an entire family in order to 

improve the lives of youth at risk. 

For example, a working 

grandmother reached out to Two 

Stars staff to help her 46-year old 

son after receiving custody of his 

two girls. He is on medication for 

depression, and one daughter is 

recovering from the trauma of 
30 

rape. Former Two Stars Program 

Coordinator Kim Kannady 

coached him, and colleagues 

suggested that she call Indian 

Child Welfare to terminate his 

childcare rights. 

Instead, Kannedy continued 

through the TYP program to 

counsel the family and channel 

them to resources. She connected 

the father with vocational 

rehabilitation services and 

continuing education classes. “If 

he wasn’t in the program, he might 

be institutionalized, and the girls 

might be in foster homes,” said the 

girls’ grandmother. 

Healthcare 

Healthcare is part of the continuum 

of TYP services. In Old Harbor 

Village, Angela Christiansen, a 

behavioral health aide from the 

local health clinic operated by 

Kodiak Area Native Association, 

serves on the TYP care team and 

helps to address mental health 

issues among youth in both the 

program and the school. She sees a 

benefit to programs working 

together because they are better 

able to monitor at-risk youth, and 

provide different perspectives. 

“Just the collaboration between the 

programs makes a difference. 

When I moved here ten years ago, 

there was nothing here for youth. 

Now, the community is stronger 

and safer,” said the health aide. 

At the care team meeting, 

members will design a plan to help 

youth who may be suffering from 

depression or other mental issues. 

A typical at-risk situation in the 

village occurs when one parent is a 

chronic alcoholic, and the student 

is frequently absent from school. 

Occasionally in school, the child 

will exhibit behavioral problems 

such as disrupting class or sleeping 

during class. 

Village clinic worker, Joyce 

Elvejhem, serves on the TYP care 

team, addressing questions on 

health-related issues as needed. 

Older teens sometimes have 

concerns about sexually 

transmitted diseases (STDs) and 

birth control. The TYP refers those 

to the clinic for further assistance. 

Elvejhem’s own children are 

consumers of the TYP program. 

She believes TYP activities build 

character and have prevented her 

son from becoming involved with 

criminal activities. “My son will 

say something like, Uncle Rolf 

showed us how to skin a seal, or 

Auntie Gwen showed me how to 

sew the seal skin into a pouch. 

When he was six-and-a-half, he 

helped me skin out a seal because 

he has seen Uncle Rolf do it. I 

think those are valuable lessons 

and it is important to him,” said 

Elvejhem. 

Elvejhem’s son has a hard time in 

school because “words dance on 

the page for him,” and this makes 

reading frustrating. The pressures 

of reading are relieved when he 

can go outside and experience the 

encouragement of a male role 

model, as he can do in the TYP 

program. That, his mother says, is 

a bright spot in his life. 

Law Enforcement 

Law enforcement officers make 

frequent referrals to the TYP, and 

they are often invited to program 

trainings and events to dissolve 

barriers among youth and adults 

who may perceive the police as 

cynical or hostile. “Often, a 

youth’s first interaction with a 

police officer is when a relative is 

taken out of the home,” said Mille 

Lacs Band’s Commissioner of 

Education Joyce Shingobe. 

To remedy this misconception 

about the police, a law 

enforcement officer serves on the 

care team in Old Harbor. In Grand 

Ronde, Patrol Sergeant Goldberg 

participates in TYP team meetings 

to listen to youth service providers 

and joins them in discussions on 

treatment for individual youth. The 

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe Police 

actively participate in youth 

activities and make presentations 

to staff and youth. 

State-Level 

Partnerships 

In 1996, Oregon’s governor 

mandated a government-togovernment relationship with 

tribes. The governor’s order, 

followed by Oregon Senate Bill 

770, established state agency 

liaisons to provide technical 

assistance to tribes for grant 

management, program evaluation, 

and funding identification. State 

liaisons build communication, 

trust, and understanding between 

agencies and tribes, educating 

agency staff, and sensitizing them 

to tribal culture. “We had to 

explain to state program officers 

why the tribes were not applying 

for grants. Even at the Federal 

level, concerning the drug-free 

community grants, tribes were 

having trouble finding matching 

funds. Agency staff said the tribes 

were not allowed to use Federal 

dollars as the match, but, the 

reality is, if you follow the trail of 

funding among tribes, it usually 

leads to a Federal source,” said 

Caroline Cruz, state liaison for the 
31 

Oregon Department of Human 

Services. 

No one appreciates the relationship 

with Oregon’s state liaisons more 

than Lisa Leno, TYP administrator 

who said, “We don’t know how to 

navigate the state system, and we 

do not have the infrastructure to 

keep up with it. We rely on them 

to help us.” Cruz explains, “As a 

liaison, I operate by [Native 

American] time. As long as I am 

kept up to date on barriers that 

arise, it is up to me to assist the 

tribe in overcoming those 

barriers.” Barriers include the extra 

cost involved in a program having 

to train new staff after a turnover, 

or the lack of program data about 

participants because no one on 

staff is available to process it. In 

some cases, the program has the 

data in paper form, but not in a 

web-based form required by the 

state to facilitate evaluation. 

The Oregon Youth Authority 

(OYA), the state’s juvenile justice 

agency, provides housing, 

supervision, and services to youth 

ages 12 to 25 who have been 

convicted in adult courts and 

placed under the jurisdiction of the 

State Department of Corrections. 

The OYA and the Grand Ronde 

TYP are partners in assisting youth 

in enrollment with the tribe, 

identifying out-of-home 

placement, coordinating 

transitional services from a closecustody facility, and retaining 

youth in a local facility to increase 

opportunities for the TYP to be 

involved in treatment and 

reformation. Youth under the care 

of OYA access the TYP for 

assistance with transition back into 

the community. “OYA staff call 

us, and we walk youth and parents 

through the process of going to 

court, or through a school 

expulsion, helping them come up 

with alternatives, or simply work 

through the process. When parents 

and youth find themselves in this 

situation it can be overwhelming,” 

said Lisa Leno of the Grand Ronde 

TYP. 

Christina Puentes, transition 

specialist for OYA, provides 

intensive wrap-around services21

for adjudicated youth coming out 

of the restrictive environment of a 

detention center. She works with 

parole officers and serves as a 

counselor and advocate for youth 

and families as youth re-enter the 

community. She helps youth make 

proactive decisions about their 

development as responsible adults, 

enrolls them in educational or 

vocational classes, and provides 

other monitoring. 

Puentes finds that Native youth 

entering the facilities have rarely 

experienced traditional Native 

American practices such as the 

sweat lodge. “When we get Native 

kids in, they do not want to come 

out and be proud of whom they 

are. They have learned to hide this 

part of themselves.” OYA 

correctional facilities provide a 

Native American sweat lodge, pipe 

ceremonies, and talking circles, 

because Puentes and others at 

OYA believe traditions ground 

youth and reconnect them to their 

people. “We try to link them up 

 

21 Wrap-around services are 

individualized, community-based services 

and supports for youth with serious 

emotional and/or behavioral disturbances. 

These services help them reunite and/or 

remain with their families and 

communities.

with those same services in their 

home community. The TYP is a 

natural match,” said Puentes. 

Jack Lawson, OYA’s Native 

American coordinator, and Steve 

Llanes, a member of the Apache 

Tribe and Native American youth 

coordinator at the MacLaren Youth 

Correctional Facility, focus on 

building relationships with youth 

and tribes. Lawson described a 

story about a girl who came 

through the OYA to transition to 

the TYP. “She did not know that 

she was Native or that she had 

connections to the Confederated 

Tribes of Grand Ronde,” said 

Lawson. 

The TYP found she was a Grand 

Ronde and enrolled her in the 

program. Combined efforts by the 

OYA and the TYP led her to a new 

life where she is a now a tribal 

member working within the 

community. 

Llanes and other OYA staff praise 

the TYP as one of the avenues that 

gets adolescents and older teens to 

reinvest in the community. The 

program helps youth to form an 

identity within the tribal structure, 

making them feel like stewards of 

the collective tribal culture. This is 

empowering to adolescents, 

especially as they struggle during 

these years to form a self-identity. 

Funding and 

Sustainability 

The TYP grant provides the base 

funding for TYP programs. Some 

programs do not receive a youth 

prevention budget from their tribe, 

although other in-kind support may 

be provided. According to TYPs 

interviewed, another significant 

source of Federal funding used to 

support their TYP is the Substance 

Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration (SAMHSA) grant. 

The SAMHSA investment 
32 

currently distributes $49.3 million 

to tribal organizations for mental 

illness and substance abuse 

prevention, treatment, and 

recovery support programs. These 

grants fund culturally appropriate 

programs, including suicide 

prevention programs in schools, 

programs for children and youth 

with severe emotional 

disturbances, and alcohol and 

methamphetamine abuse 

prevention programs.

22

 

The Grand Ronde staff has reached 

out to Federal funding sources for 

prevention such as the 

Administration for Native 

Americans within the U.S. 

Department of Health and Human 

Services. They have also sought 

grants that support social economic 

development; native language 

preservation; post-treatment 

services; and methamphetamine, 

drug, and alcohol prevention 

services. To support program 

activities, all TYPs interviewed are 

engaged in some form of local 

fundraising events such as car 

washes, taco sales, a talent contest, 

and craft and bake sales. 

State grants received by some 

TYPs are funds passed from 

Federal sources, including tobacco 

prevention and/or alcohol and drug 

prevention dollars. Some state 

grants cover only prevention 

activities and do not support 

funding for treatment, making 

them less flexible to use. Through 

state liaisons, Oregon’s agencies 

work with tribes and direct 

underage drinking dollars from the 

Federal level directly to those 

tribes in need of services instead of 

requiring them to compete with 

counties for the funds. 

For some TYPs, the tribal council 

contributes indirectly, providing 

program facilities and staff time. 

 

22 Meyers, L.,2007.

Grand Ronde’s tribal council has 

instituted a policy to reduce the 

administrative indirect costs for 

tribal programs to allow more 

dollars to come directly to youth 

services. This policy makes it 

possible for the TYP and partners 

to apply for private foundation 

grants that often restrict indirect 

costs to fewer than 15 percent of 

the total funds requested. “We 

have a high indirect cost out here 

because we are trying to build an 

infrastructure. We have agreed to 

either waive the indirect cost in its 

entirety or reduce it to a third of 

what it really is in order to make 

sure that those dollars go to direct 

services rather than paying for the 

lights,” said Councilwoman 

Angela Blackwell. 

The Mille Lac’s TYP has 

supplemented their TYP grant with 

two community service state block 

grants targeted at ending poverty. 

In addition, revenue generated by 

the Tribe’s casino and businesses 

provides extra support. 

Community partners for the Mille 

Lacs TYP, including the tribal 

school system, provide support 

that includes office or activity 

space. “The programs work 

together and we can access their 

services when needed. Funding is 

available to access aftercare,” said 

Greg Davis, CYS director. 

The Old Harbor TYP annual 

budget is supported by a 

complicated combination of 

Federal, state, tribal, and private 

grants and donations. The Tribe 

covers some of the program 

director’s salary with support from 

the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some 

program costs are covered by 

funding that comes from a Native 

American Housing and Self 

Determination Act grant awarded 

through the U.S. Department of 

Housing and Urban Development. 

Donations come from the regional 

non-profit association Kodiak Area 

Native Association and the 

regional for-profit association, 

Koniag Inc. A grant from the State 

of Alaska’s Department of Health 

and Human Services’ early 

intervention and prevention 

program provides professional 

development support. Alaska 

merged its mental health and 

substance abuse services, and their 

new prevention platform uses 

funding from the Substance Abuse 

and Mental Health Services 

Administration (SAMHSA). 

Funding is simpler at the 

Mescalero Apache Prevention 

Program. Staff and youth in the 

program work year-round to raise 

money to supplement their TYP 

grant. They do not receive a 

budget from the Tribe. Youth-led 

fundraising occurs during holidays, 

where youth create festive baskets 

to sell. The fundraising profits pay 

for field trips to a variety of 

locations in and out of state. 

Similarly, the Absentee Shawnee 

Two Stars program operates 

exclusively through TYP grant 

funding, but is supported by 

fundraising events held throughout 

the year by TYP participants. 

Restoring Native 

Identity by Honoring 

Culture and Traditions 

Fewer tribal youth can recall 

family connections that link them 

to their tribe, resulting in an 

ambiguous sense of commitment 

to their culture. Some elders feel 

that those deprived of culture and 

language do not have a solid sense 

of identity with which to sustain 

themselves in the world. Building 

Native identity is a prevention 

measure used by TYPs to reach 

youth, engage them in activities, 

and get them to return to the 

program regularly. “We are always 

going to attempt to add a cultural 

component to everything we do. 
33 

Being a restored tribe, I think we 

deal with many things. Culture is 

part of what makes us feel 

important and we have many who 

feel a lack of cultural identity,”

said David Fullerton, director of 

Social Services, Confederated 

Tribes of Grand Ronde.

Reaching youth through culture 

and tradition connects them to 

their family and community. 

“Cultural activities are prevention 

activities. Youth need to connect 

not only to their families, to their 

peers, and to the community, but 

they need to connect to their 

heritage. Youth are susceptible to 

[risky behaviors] when they have a 

hole in their spirit and they are 

looking for something to fill that 

hole. If we do not address that 

hole, I think we’re missing the 

boat,” said former Grand Ronde 

Tribal Councilwoman Angela 

Blackwell. 

The Tribe’s Child Welfare 

Supervisor Dana Ainam credits the 

TYP as one of the key resources 

for tribal culture. She says, “Now 

we have kids who have a sense of 

pride that helps rebuild pride 

among people in the Tribe. It is 

healing. We look at what our kids 

are doing and see that we are 

starting to become a community 

again.” She describes a scene 

where Grand Ronde youth opened 

an event with canoe songs. “To 

open a meeting, our kids sing 

songs in the Chinook language and 

it just moves you. You realize that 

there have been efforts to bring it 

back so youth can reconnect in a 

way that none of us have had. It is 

empowering.” 

Respect for the earth, elders, and 

traditions is a theme that flows 

through the TYP program as youth 

learn about their Native history 

and culture in addition to learning 

academic and workforce skills. 

Brenda Moose, elder and cultural 

assistant for the CYS provides an 

example, “We have a connection 

to Mother Earth in everything that 

we do. Through CYS, we teach 

how important it is to respect 

themselves and others. This has 

been one of the Anishinabe 

traditions. We do not abuse the 

earth and we have respect for 

everything that grows—an ant, a 

plant. They have just as much right 

to be here as we do. We try to 

change [the youths’] outlook away 

from just making money. It is 

important to be able to support 

yourself, but just as important is 

your connection to Mother Earth 

and to have respect for yourself, 

the earth, and others,” said Moose. 

Mille Lacs elders like Moose fear 

that without a cultural base, many 

children, whether Native 

American, white, or Black lose a 

sense of identity and as a result 

will run into problems later on in 

life. “Unfortunately, in Indian 

Country, there are many issues 

related to alcohol, drugs, poverty, 

and unemployment, and this has a 

profound impact on our kids. To 

me, this program is important. I 

see social problems that youth 

face, and I know the impact that 

these kinds of programs can have. 

Our youth have more trouble 

competing in today’s society. They 

need to learn [about their culture] 

in addition to reading, writing, and 

technology. It gives them a sense 

of belonging. Without an identity, 

what happens to you? You become 

susceptible to influences, for 

instance, pop culture or rap culture 

that do not necessarily connect to 

who you are,” said Moose. 

Cultural Advisors 

Introduce Youth to 

Language and 

Traditions 

Some TYPs use cultural advisors 

to serve as role models and 

resources for language and tribal 

traditions. The Old Harbor TYP 

provides a place for subsistence 

activities that teach youth how to 

live off the rugged Alaska land. 

Cultural activities occur onsite at 

the Community Youth Services 

Four Seasons Camps where youth 

learn the traditional process of 

tapping syrup from maple trees 

and learn how to build, prepare, 

and run a sweat lodge. 

On the campgrounds, at-risk youth 

rise above their troubles and focus 

on spirit- and team-building 

activities. “Time and again, when 

we get children in from foster care, 

when they learn about their 

culture, life makes sense to them,”

said a Family Services staff 

member. The Mille Lac band’s 

medicine man speaks at the 

campground to youth about having 

two different spirits inside. “One is 

always fighting for control. One 

wants the cigarettes or drugs. You 

have to know which spirit to 

nurture, and it will grow stronger.” 
34 

Grand Ronde’s cultural advisors 

get their information from 

historical collections of artifacts, 

as well as from elders. However, 

less than five individuals on the 

reservation have what lead cultural 

advisor Tony Johnson considers 

measurable knowledge of Chinook 

heritage. Termination and 

relocation, he asserts, destroyed 

the cultural base in Grand Ronde, 

making human resources for the 

Chinook culture and language rare. 

“How could you expect them to 

know anything about being a 

Grand Ronde Indian growing up in 

San Francisco, Oakland, or 

Denver? The culture has been 

there, it is just waiting to come 

back,” said cultural advisor Travis 

Mercier. 

To fill in gaps, advisors work with 

universities, including the 

Northwest Indian Language 

Institute at the University of 

Oregon and Portland State 

University. “We have by far the 

largest archive specific to this 

community anywhere in the world. 

We have a physical collection of 

hundreds of baskets and important 

materials from the community. 

When we teach a basket class, we 

don’t just teach from theory; we 

take youth into that environment,” 

said Mercier. 

In Grand Ronde, cultural advisors 

lead the Canoe Club with 

experiential learning activities that 

integrate cultural knowledge 

through lessons on basketry, 

carving, regalia making, language, 

and traditional songs. Tony 

Johnson is a trained artist, canoe 

carver, and skipper who work with 

club members. Describing his 

team, Johnson says, “We are 

demonstrating a genuine belief in 

the spiritual side of our religion or 

the taboos and sensibilities of our 

cultures. I cannot teach or ask 

somebody else to learn these 

things if I do not already have 

them in my heart. For example, we 

do not over promote ourselves 

because that is contrary to what we 

believe. We tell the kids, ‘Do not 

be an [I-I]. Be caring and carry 

knowledge.’” 

Absentee Shawnee elders admit 

that tribal members are not raising 

their children as traditionally as 

they used to. Elders George and 

Susan Blanchard serve as cultural 

resources for the Tribe. George 

Blanchard meets with youth who 

are coming of age to give them a 

Shawnee name and a history 

lesson on the Tribe. “Shawnee 

history is difficult to follow 

because you hear one thing from 

one member and something else 

from another. The Tribe used to 

have a clan system, but not today,” 

said Sue Blanchard.“We’ve had 

stomp dances and language classes 

for tribal members to keep our 

traditional language alive. TYP 

funding supports this,” said 

Governor Scott Miller. 

During the Absentee Shawnee 

Tribe’s travels, much of their 

history was lost, even to those who 

run the cultural heritage office. Sue 

Blanchard is working with the 

TYP to preserve the Shawnee 

coming of age ceremony for girls. 

“Few elders alive today have 

experienced the ceremony, or 

understand the reason for the 

restrictions of keeping men and 

women of a household apart 

during that time. Our tribal cultural 

preservation department had no 

idea how to do it. There are 

restrictions for the traditional 

ceremony of womanhood. We 

want to get a Woman’s Day 

program together so all women 

will know the traditional ceremony 

for reaching womanhood,” said 

Blanchard. 

The Blanchards are also trying to 

preserve a tradition called Indian 

football, a game that playfully pits 

men against women. The purpose 

of the game is to teach kinship, to 

identify your relatives, and to 

avoid intermarriage or sexual 

relationships among family 

members. “There are certain 

people you can catch and there are 

people you’re not allowed to catch. 

It’s not a tackle game. We all 

traveled back then, and people lost 

track of each other. We’re related 

and because of all the traveling, 

sometimes you’d have a sister go 

to another camp and not return,” 

said Blanchard. 

Old Harbor TYP staff serve as 

cultural advisors who coordinate 

activities with the Alutiiq 

Museum’s Executive Director 

Sven Haakanson, an Old Harbor 

native. Haakanson spends six 

weeks each school year visiting 

Kodiak Island’s schools. Through 

the museum’s Traveling Traditions 

program, he brings ancestral 

knowledge and traditions directly 

to students. In partnership with the 

Kodiak Island Borough School 

District, the Museum’s weeklong 

cultural education program sets up 

in a village school, combining art 

exhibits with workshops that teach 
35 

traditional art techniques. 

Professional artists travel with the 

exhibit to share their skills with 

students who complete art projects 

based on ancient Native designs. 

Annually since 2001, artifact 

studies become part of a 

curriculum that builds upon a 

cumulative collection of Alutiiq 

culture. Through experiential 

learning, youth are introduced to 

traditional basket weaving, mask 

carving, hunting tools, fish skin 

sewing, Alutiiq whale dart games, 

bent wood boxes, and kayaks. 

“Over the last seven years, I’ve 

been able to show results from 

what kids are carving to what is 

showing up in the villages. We 

have knowledge that is coming 

back home,” said Haakanson. 

This year’s exhibit consists of 34 

wood-carved masks recovered 

from European collectors. Each 

mask tells a story about the Alutiiq 

people and their beliefs. “The 

mask is telling a story so you do 

not forget. If you are out hunting, 

you remember as a child a story 

you were told about survival. 

These lessons help you live and 

thrive as an adult,” said 

Haakanson. 

A mask changes the identity of the 

wearer. When people put on 

masks, they transform and become 

a different person. Alutiiq artifacts 

were exhibited at the Corcoran 

Museum in Washington, D.C., the 

Peabody Museum at Harvard, and 

the Field Museum in Chicago, but 

youth and adults on Kodiak Island 

rarely have access to them. “The 

masks were collected from their 

ancestors and taken to France for 

over 130 years. If we don’t bring 

them back home, who will?” said 

Haakanson. 

Balancing the Use of 

Humor with Respect

Successful TYP leaders and staff 

occasionally use an 

unconventional tool to reach 

youth. “Native people incorporate 

a lot of humor into their lives 

because they have been through a 

great deal of trauma. Throughout 

the years, we have struggled, and 

there are many atrocities that have 

been committed against us. We try 

to be happy and try to laugh about 

things. We do look at things very 

seriously, but we also don’t like to 

appear overly serious. [...] It is 

good to be serious, but we also 

have to remember that the kids in 

our program are coming from 

troubled families. Their mom and 

dad might be out drinking or using 

drugs, or they might be abusive at 

home....” 

“Certainly, our kids are troubled or 

get into trouble and there are 

reasons for this. I call it the tree of 

multitude. It may be that the 

parents are just acting out, and the 

kids see this. Their parents might 

not be having a good relationship. 

Kids come home to that. Being 

here, at the program or school, 

may be the only comfortable 

environment for troubled youth. 

They are acting out because they 

are angry; they are young and they 

do not know how to deal with 

emotions like that. If there is a 

certain amount of acting out, we 

have our cultural advisor come in 

and do an activity on respect,” said 

Greg Davis, Mille Lacs TYP. 

Elders Support the TYP 

and a Return to Native 

Traditions 

Elders appreciate the TYP’s 

support for Native traditions and 

language. At the Mescalero 

Apache reservation, an elder asks, 

“How long do you think the 

Apache language will survive? I 

think I’ll live another 20 years, but 

I don’t know if the language will.

When Apache was spoken, youth 

would listen. It’s not like that 

anymore. Even our sacred coming 

of age ceremony is spoken in 

English so youth can understand it, 

and then it is translated back to 

Apache.” 

An elder in Grand Ronde, Oregon 

asks, “Once we cross over, who 

will take our place? Who are those 

kids who will do the sweats [sweat 

lodge]23 for the tribes?” Elders 

from the Mille Lacs Band visit 

youth at the program centers or 

camp to tell stories, teaching youth 

the rules to living wisely. The 

Ojibwe Adizookan or trickster 

stories provide lessons about 

survival, keeping one’s life 

straight, and staying focused and 

on the path. “Youth need to learn 

moral values, and CYS is teaching 

them,” said one Mille Lacs elder. 

 

23 A sweat lodge ceremony is an important 

Native tradition that provides time to 

reflect and talk with others in a safe 

environment. The experience is a reverent 

one that provides the participant with 

perspective and focus. Every detail in a 

sweat lodge is symbolic. The lodge itself 

represents the womb of Mother Earth, its 

darkness inside the lodge represents 

human ignorance, the hot stones placed in 

the center of the lodge are the emerging of 

life or in some cases are called 

grandfathers. The hissing steam of water 

poured over the stones is the creative force 

of the universe. The entrance faces the 

east, source of life and power, and the fire 

heating the rocks brought into the sweat 

lodge is the undying light of the world, 

eternity.
36 

Steve Llanes, an Apache elder who 

works with the Oregon Youth 

Authority, described his faithbased connection with youth that 

exemplifies the spiritual nature of 

cultural-based teaching. He 

explains the spiritual side of a TYP 

experience and why it cannot be 

tracked by the dominant culture’s 

evaluation instruments. 

“Everything I do has a spiritual 

strength to it. One of the cultural 

things that I do for my kids is that 

I’ve adopted them all as my 

grandchildren. They call me 

Grandpa. This concept flows 

through everything I do with them. 

However, the grandpa-grandson 

thing, that relationship of respect, 

is difficult to evaluate in 

paperwork. I can teach them how 

to be a good team player, I can 

teach them how to speak all the 

good words, but without 

connection to some belief—a sense 

of respect—what is going to stop 

them from [offending]? Imagine 

you are a straight-A student, but 

tonight you are going out with the 

guys, and you are going to do that 

thing, whatever it is that is going to 

get you into trouble, or bring you 

to prison, or hurt somebody, or 

yourself. If you do not have that 

connection, what is going to stop 

you? How do you measure being a 

human being? The evidence-based 

practice stuff—it’s good...but the 

connection to faith or spirit is 

missing.” 

Tribal Council Member Stella 

Krumrey is one of the youngest 

natural Alutiiq speakers in Old 

Harbor. She remembers the tidal 

wave that destroyed her village of 

Kaguyak and much of Old Harbor 

on March 27, 1964. Krumrey is 

aware of the challenges facing 

village families today, and 

supports the work of the TYP to 

create solutions. She applauds the 

reintroduction of subsistence and 

cultural activities and enjoys 

seeing youth practice Alutiiq dance 

and listen to storytelling by elders. 

“It is bringing back knowledge of 

tribal culture. They fish or catch a 

seal, prepare, and cook it. [The 

TYP is] trying to teach the kids to 

live off what we have here in Old 

Harbor. I think it would help if 

they could sell some of their 

carvings, and perhaps there could 

be a job-shadowing program year 

round,” said Krumrey. She would 

like to see more funding to assist 

TYP work.

According to Krumrey, elders did 

not speak of myths, culture, and 

Native traditions when they were 

growing up in the mid-20th

Century as they were attending the 

Russian Orthodox Church, a major 

presence in Old Harbor and other 

villages on the Island. She says, 

“We never really talked about 

masks or Native dancing. I am 

Orthodox, and I am a church 

reader. [Alutiiq culture and 

spirituality] is not bad, but it pulls 

away from our beliefs.” 

The church, a transplant from 

Russia, has an interior filled with 

gilded icons, candles, and the 

ancient scents of frankincense and 

myrrh. With its roof capped by 

three blue onion-shaped domes, 

the church glows like a gem in the 

rustic village environment. 

Helping Youth Deal 

with Racism and 

Discrimination 

Discrimination was a topic raised 

by TYPs that have more 

integration with mainstream or 

dominant culture communities, 

such as the Mille Lacs Band of 

Ojibwe and the Absentee Shawnee 

Tribe in Oklahoma. 

According to the Absentee 

Shawnee TYP, approximately 80 

juveniles a month are arrested in 

Pottawattamie County for 

shoplifting, knifing, and other 

crimes. Of this group, non-tribal 

youth are processed less harshly 

than Native youth. In a group of 

students picked up for skipping 

school to smoke, for example, a 

tribal youth has a higher chance of 

being expelled or suspended. 

The Absentee Shawnee 

community’s alternative high 

school, Jim Thorpe Academy, a 

partner with the TYP, is roughly 

50 percent Native and offers 

classes to students with slipping 

grades and behavioral problems. 

Students who raise their grades can 

transfer back into the traditional 

school, but according to the 

Academy’s director Debra Watson, 

the punishment mentality there is 

rejected by Native youth. 

The Academy’s counselor 

identifies students who need extra 

help with behavioral problems and 

directs them to Two Stars staff, 

who visit the school weekly for 

individual and group counseling 

sessions. During interviews, 

students described anger brought 

on by discrimination and racism in 

the school and the community. 

When Two Stars staff visit the 

school to provide counseling, 

youth say they meet in what looks 

like an empty closet, a location 
37 

that students describe as 

inappropriate to confidential 

discussion. The older youth say 

they do not have computers at 

home and would like a community 

gathering space to call their own. 

They want to learn their Native 

language and participate in cultural 

activities. “I’d like to see all the 

money that they get in the casino 

come back to the tribes,” says one 

youth, “It would be good to have a 

class to learn Shawnee. My 

grandma speaks it, but she’s 

getting too old.” 

The youths’ collective frustration 

is barely contained by the 

formality of the interview for this 

report. Some examples of 

discrimination these Native 

American youth have faced follow. 

One youth says, “I have a story 

that didn’t happen at school, but it 

happened to my mom. At the 

Tecumseh laundry mat, some big 

white dude took her clothes out of 

the dryer and said, ‘We don’t want 

you here, you red n-----.’ She 

didn’t tell me or my brothers for 

about an hour after it happened. If 

we had known, we would have 

gone up and ‘regulated.’” 

Another student recounts, “This 

cop started harassing me. Every 

time he sees me driving, he pulls 

us over. He knows my car. He 

says, ‘You have no blinker,’ and 

fines me. He’s a non-Indian cop. 

They’ll pull you over, or while you 

are walking, they’ll confront and 

search you.” Another youth adds, 

“I feel safer driving around with 

somebody white.” When asked 

why they do not report this to 

tribal authorities, students said, 

“What difference can I make? 

We’re just Indian kids. They’re not 

even going to listen to us.” 

Native youth also face 

discrimination for the school 

supplies they receive. “A lot of our 

Indian children are catching flack 

from non-Indians in the schools. 

Even within the Johnson O’Malley 

Department, there is prejudice,” 

said an Absentee Shawnee Tribal 

Council member. Federal 

government officials agree that 

Native Americans receive undue 

prejudice. “I was one of eight kids 

in my family. I got my athletic 

shoes free, and everybody knew it. 

Kids would say, ‘Did you get your 

Indian shoes?’ There still is racism 

out here. Other kids will say, ‘You 

didn’t have to buy anything.’ What 

they don’t understand is, with that 

assistance comes other problems. 

When you graduate and you tell 

them the name of your school, 

some say to your face, ‘Oh, you 

got sent off,’” said Governor Scott 

Miller, who observes youth 

activities on the reservation. 

School mascot names and a newly 

proposed law to change them have 

been fueling racism in the 

community. Names such as the 

Tecumseh Savages and Seminole 

Chieftains provoke non-native 

teens to tease tribal youth, and this 

fosters greater interest among 

tribal youth in Indian gangs who 

offer youth the false hope of 

Native pride, belonging, and 

respect. “Our tribal police deal 

with this daily. There is one group 

in Shawnee called the Native 

Kings and one called the Warriors. 

It’s due to the racism,” said 

Governor Miller. “The tradition of 

the Tribe has been one of warriors 

and pride. [The tribe has] a 

magnificent history and Native 

youth need counselors who will 

help them learn their history and 

preserve their Native pride,” said 

Two Stars consultant Rick Short. 

Forces surrounding youth on the 

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe’s 

reservation tempt them to strive for 

affluence beyond their means. At 

the same time, racism lurks in 

communities surrounding the 

reservation. “It’s the IPods, the 

media, the public schools, and 

other pressures that are 

contributors to why I think our 

people have lost connection with 

their culture. For me, I even have 

conflict. I have been immersed in 

my culture because of the 

opportunities available to me, and 

as more programs [like 

Community Youth Services] get 

up and running, more opportunities 

will be available to tribal youth. 

We must get an education, so I am 

going to a state university, and I 

have found out that it is a racist 

college. I have experienced some 

negative things,” said one staff 

member. 

Describing her experiences as a 

young Native American, trying to 

live off the reservation, she says, “I 

have a non-Native friend who has 

the same credit card and credit 

history I do, but she does not have 

a 17 percent interest rate. There is 

discrimination and oppression 

everywhere. I wonder why I am 

exposed to it.” 
38 

Recommendations 

YP leaders and staff offered 

recommendations for 

Federal and state 

policymakers, agency staff, and 

practitioners operating or 

considering creating a tribal youth 

program. 

Training, Technical 

Assistance, and 

Technology 

Improve TYP training by 

providing knowledge of best 

practices and fresh ideas to 

attract youth, especially older 

youth, to activities. TYPs request 

training that will: 

• Demonstrate or describe what 

leading TYPs have 

accomplished. 

• Include more Native American 

beliefs. 

• Provide examples of 

experiential learning that is 

culture-driven. 

• Provide facilitation skills and 

tips on grant writing. 

• Provide public relation skills. 

• Provide practice working with 

the media.

Provide leadership training that 

serves both youth and adults.

Youth should be included in 

training workshop or conference 

planning committees. Exciting 

locations motivate attendees, 

including youth, to raise funding to 

attend. Provide a toolkit of 

fundraising suggestions from 

successful TYPs for others to 

employ. Seek out role models for 

youth and invite them to speak at 

regional trainings or TYP 

conferences. 

Federal agencies could provide 

free technology or computer 

upgrades to help programs 

improve communications and 

training. For example, TYPs could 

receive technical assistance or 

training through online meetings 

and through communications with 

other agencies and programs. TYP 

programs should have a system 

through which they can share best 

practices with one another. 

Cultivating Qualified 

Staff from Within

Establish a feeder system for 

preparing professionals to work 

in a TYP. Finding qualified, 

acculturated staff in rural areas is 

both time-consuming and 

challenging for programs. A 

certification process or degree 

program vetted through the Tribal 

Colleges24 would prepare Native 

Americans to work in the justice or 

prevention fields. Federal agencies 

should consider working with 

tribes to spearhead an initiative to 

reach out to Tribal College staff, 

inviting them to TYP trainings, 

and fostering field building 

between TYP and the Tribal 

Colleges. 

 

24 According to the 

Office of the White House Initiative on 

Tribal Colleges and Universities, 

Executive Order 13270, ensures that the 

nation's Tribal Colleges and Universities 

(TCU) are more fully recognized and have 

full access to federal programs benefiting 

other higher education institutions. 

There are 35 federally recognized Tribal 

Colleges and Universities in the United 

States. Tribal Colleges and Universities 

service approximately 30,000 full- and 

part-time students. They also offer 200 

vocational certificate programs. 

In rural areas, few qualified 

community professionals are 

passionate about helping youth, 

prepared to serve during out-ofschool hours and on the weekends 

and have a college-level degree 

(that some grants require). It would 

be beneficial to “grow” qualified 

staff from within the tribe by 

helping tribes invest in existing 

staff through incentives for 

certifications and cultural and 

continuing education that supports 

program goals. Also, sometimes 

elders who are interested in a 

position and want to offer their 

knowledge do not have the college 

degree or certification requirement. 

The Mille Lacs Band invests in the 

education of their social services 

staff by supporting their 

professional development, 

certification, and continuing 

education (when it leads to a 

college degree). In addition, the 

Tribe’s Education Commissioner 

initiated a policy to support staff in 

gaining professional certifications 

that help them in their careers. 

Before releasing staff to work with 

youth, they are introduced to the 

culture and tribal history. 

Provide Cultural 

Sensitivity Training for 

those in Public Service 

Working with Tribes 

State and local policymakers and 

administration staff should 

become familiar with Native 

American culture, history, and 

the landscape in which tribes 

live, particularly when creating 

or updating policy that involves 

tribes. A policy mandating 

cultural sensitivity and diversity 

training would help tribes in 

T
39 

Minnesota, where counties can 

take Native American youth and 

place them in a residential 

detention facility for up to two 

years without the tribe’s approval. 

Because tribal lands border nonnative lands, tribal youth services 

staff track as many as 10 or more 

surrounding county government 

systems. Occasionally these 

relationships are strained by 

political disputes over land 

ownership, how a child was taken 

out of the home, authority 

boundaries, and other 

disagreements. The Indian Child 

Welfare Act25 of 1978 has 

provided some protection, but the 

pressures and cost to build and 

maintain relationships rest on the 

tribes. This diverts their time from 

providing program services to 

youth. 

Improve Governmentto-Government 

Relations from State 

to Tribe 

Establish a government-togovernment relationship with 

tribes. States should help state 

agency staff better serve tribal 

programs that receive state grants 

or Federal pass-through dollars. 

State liaisons provide assistance 

with translation and interpretation 

of Federal and state funding and 

reporting requirements. 

This technical assistance helps 

tribes translate terminology 

featured in requests for proposals 

and program outcome reports. For 

 

25 ICWA is a Federal law that seeks to keep 

American Indian children with American 

Indian families. Congress passed ICWA in 

1978 in response to the alarmingly high 

number of Indian children being removed 

from their homes by both public and 

private agencies. (Source: National Indian 

Child Welfare Association, 2008).

example, a tribal talking circle may 

be interpreted as group therapy. 

In Oregon, because of a 

government-to-government policy, 

state liaisons report that they now 

coordinate program grants and 

operate more effectively to serve 

tribal programs. “This coordination 

should also be happening at the 

Federal level,” said Caroline Cruz. 

“I don’t know how many other 

states do that, but we meet 

faithfully with our tribal programs 

every quarter.” 

Work Across 

Departments and 

Agencies 

Federal and state program 

administrators should work 

across departments and agencies

to coordinate grant notices and 

professional development that 

can benefit regional and national 

tribal youth service providers.

Agencies should endeavor to 

coordinate the release of requests 

for proposals or grant 

announcements to help build 

program sustainability since 

Federal funding is currently the 

main resource for tribal programs. 

Develop a Universal 

Reporting System 

Improve the state and Federal 

reporting system for tracking 

data, strategies, and outcomes 

for TYPs and other youth 

programs. “We need to 

design a universal reporting format 

for all disciplines so we only have 

to learn one system. After entering 

data, I should be able to access 

reports on specific outcomes. 

When I need something just for 

alcohol, or just tobacco, the system 

should produce it,” said an Oregon 

state liaison. 

Maintain Flexible 

Program Measure 

Reporting 

Requirements 

Federal and state policymakers 

and agency staff should consider 

implementing and collecting 

data on programs that are 

culturally-based. Tribal members 

say that the evidence-based 

concept that is gaining popularity 

in dominant culture imposes a 

linear approach to program 

curriculum requirements and 

budgets that are incompatible with 

the circular worldview of Native 

culture. “You can’t say to [tribes], 

this is the best program; implement 

it. The community approach where 

all are involved is what is going to 

make a difference among tribes,” 

said an Oregon state liaison. 

Some tribes are inhibited from 

pursuing Federal grants because 

initiatives developed in the 

Indian way cannot be found in 

listings of best practice models 

approved by the Federal 

government. “Every community 

that receives grants has unique 

needs. Build flexibility into each 

grant to allow the community to 

find what those things are and how 

they are going to address them,” 

said Councilwoman Blackwell, 

Confederated Tribes of Grand 

Ronde. 

Modify best practice programs 

to include cultural standards and

allow tribes to validate the 

existence of programs that are 

not perceived to be evidencebased, as dominant [Anglo] 

culture would describe, but, 

rather, evidence-based according 

to Native American culture.

Tribes should have more time to 

design their own research and 

evaluation tools. These tools 
40 

should be developed after 

consultation with Native American 

researchers/evaluators on 

culturally appropriate methods. 

Federal and state agencies should 

work collaboratively with tribes 

regarding policies about 

prevention and treatment services 

in tribal communities.26 

Take a Long-Term 

Approach to Funding 

Extend the grant period to no 

less than five years or even up to 

a 10-year period that provides 

guidance for tracking data on 

program outcomes and 

professional development. Many 

grants are short-term and program 

leaders and staff spend a great deal 

of time seeking sources to sustain 

programs. Direct service providers 

remind us that it takes time to get 

tribal leaders and community 

members to buy into what a 

program promises. “It takes time 

for us to chip away at old beliefs 

and work with tribal people to get 

them to change—to convince tribal 

members and leadership that the 

program is good for youth. How 

people do things cannot always be 

put into the written word,” said 

Hiles and Orosco, Mescalero 

Apache Prevention Program. 

Consider Lowering the 

Indirect Cost Rate for 

Grant Awards 

Reduce grant requirements that 

impose restrictions on indirect 

cost. Requirements that impose 

restrictions on a tribe’s indirect 

cost rate hurt the tribe’s ability to 

compete for grants. According to 

Oregon’s state liaisons, even the 

larger tribes do not yet have the 

infrastructure for implementing 

some state-mandated policies. In 

 

26 Cruz and Spence, 2007.

some cases, tribal programs’ 

indirect rates (utilities, rent, 

administrative tasks, etc.) can 

reach up to 50 percent. Many 

tribes do not have an established 

tax base that provides an 

infrastructure of services and, as a 

result, cannot compete for grants 

with counties and universities 

whose established systems afford a 

far lower indirect cost. 

Support Program 

Transportation 

Fund transportation. Tribes often 

do not receive enough funding for 

reliable, fuel-efficient 

transportation for youth to and 

from TYP activities. Fuel-efficient 

buses or vans to transport youth 

would improve the lives of those 

who must negotiate rides or walk 

home at night. Youth in Alaska 

share their environment with 

Kodiak bears, and youth must 

travel great distances, sometimes 

over 70 miles, to TYP activities. 

The rising costs of transportation 

and fuel are barriers to providing 

services and getting the support of 

rural families to attend TYP 

activities. 

Expand TYP to a 

General Audience of 

Native American 

Youth 

Provide services to all youth 

instead of targeting a program 

mainly to at-risk youth. Tribes 

such as the Absentee Shawnee live 

adjacent to mainstream 

populations. “We could reduce the 

stigma that the program is for 

‘those kids.’ Native Americans are 

private and may not initially want 

the TYP service because they do 

not want others to know they have 

problems. Some children are not 

going to tell you their problems, 

and why would they, especially the 

kid who lives with parents who 

make good money. You don’t 

know that they have problems until 

you see it on TV, or something 

happens at school,” said former 

Absentee Shawnee Governor Scott 

Miller. 

Casinos—Be Aware of 

the Limitation of Their 

Support for Social 

Programs 

Be aware that a casino on the 

reservation does not assure 

greater funding for youth 

services. “Whether tribes have 

casinos or not, we know those 

dollars do not always trickle down 

to programs that need it. If you 

look at where we are housed, we 

are in the oldest buildings, so you 

cannot assume that gaming tribes 

are going to have the bestequipped youth programs. Most 

tribes do not provide direct 

funding to the TYP, but in-kind 

support from the tribal government 

will sometimes cover equipment, 

vehicles, staff support, and 

facilities. 

For the Mescalero Apache, 

Absentee Shawnee, and other 

programs interviewed, funding 

comes mainly from the TYP grant, 

and fundraisers organized by staff 

and youth. Little was mentioned 

about funding coming to programs 

as a result of casino profits. 
41 

Conclusion 

ften the only afterschool 

and weekend youth service 

provider on the 

reservation, the Tribal Youth 

Program is usually the center of 

the community. This perhaps is 

because TYPs reach out to engage 

families and build networks of 

local partnerships and support 

among tribal leaders, elders, and 

members. 

The program, with its focus on 

Native culture and language, 

appeals to tribal members who see 

the renewal of Native pride 

through the resurrection and 

application of cultural beliefs, 

values, and traditions, to the 

benefit of the community. 

TYPs have found a way to 

empower youth to lead the 

community in activities that build 

a sense of attachment to heritage, 

promote belonging, and support 

personal development. The TYP 

serves as a healthy alternative to 

negative activities and risky 

behaviors that provide a breeding 

ground for substance abuse and 

gang activity. 

Some practitioners view the 

program as an incubator for 

emerging tribal leaders. And in 

larger tribal communities, to 

strengthen programming and build 

leadership among youth, some 

TYPs are joining with other 

national programs such as the 

Boys & Girls Clubs of America 

and coordinating programming 

around mentorship, service, and 

youth leadership efforts. At least 

one TYP interviewed plans to 

apply to the Corporation for 

National and Community Service 

for a Volunteer in Service to 

America (VISTA) volunteer grant 

to build program capacity. 

Tribal Youth Programs focus on 

prevention and intervention, 

concentrate on youth development, 

and build civic and life skills. They 

also provide exposure to careerrelated skills that allow at-risk 

youth to function and succeed on 

and off tribal lands. More 

specifically, youth, families, and 

the tribal community enjoy a 

number of benefits: 

• Fewer youth engage in risky 

behaviors that require the 

attention and resources of the 

police, sheriff’s departments, 

schools, and courts. 

• Regularly scheduled activities 

are held in a safe environment. 

These activities engage youth 

and their families in Native 

culture and language and 

provide an alternative to 

unsupervised time that can 

lead to delinquency, underage 

drinking, unprotected sex, and 

other risky behaviors. 

• Life skills are learned as youth 

engage in and lead projects 

that make a difference in the 

community. 

• At-risk youth move from being 

helped to helping others. 

• Youth break the cycle of abuse 

in their lives as they spend 

time with and receive guidance 

from caring adults that help 

them make informed decisions 

and/or choices that help them 

plan for their future. 

• Greater trust, learning, and 

healing between youth and 

their families. 

• Opportunities for 

intergenerational 

collaboration. 

The author would like to 

recommend supporting the 

expansion of the TYP to serve as a 

growing, living network and 

resource for tribes in their efforts 

to reconnect youth to the 

community. Because the TYP 

touches many sectors of a youth’s 

life, the program serves as a 

natural center for tribal youth 

development, preventing criminal 

behavior by directing youth 

towards positive activities. It also 

strengthens academic and nonacademic skills, including 

leadership and career skills, and 

emphasizes Native history, culture, 

and intergenerational relationships. 

The TYP could expand further to 

serve youth and tribal 

communities,through coordinated 

efforts with other federal agencies 

that provide grants to tribes. 

O
42 

Appendix 1–Termination 

ermination of Federal 

recognition of tribes has 

affected economic 

development, education, and 

health across generations of 

individuals in tribal communities. 

Most tribes interviewed for this 

report are recovering from 

termination. 

Corrupt action and abuse toward 

Native Americans and their land 

rights, propagated by the Dawes 

Act of 1887, was documented in 

The Meriam Report of 1928, 

which led Congress to repeal 

Dawes and replace it with the 

Indian Reorganization Act of 

1934. A subsequent survey of 

“Indian conditions” conducted by 

the U.S. Senate in 194327 found 

living conditions in Indian Country 

to be extremely poor and the 

Federal bureaucracy governing 

reservations at fault for 

mismanagement. As a result, 

Congress decided that tribes no 

longer needed the Federal 

government’s protection and 

released them from much, but not 

all supervision, placing them under 

the jurisdiction of state 

governments. 

Between 1953 and 1954, Public 

Law 280, the Termination Act, 

severed the trust relationship 

between the Federal government 

and tribes, allowed states to 

assume jurisdiction over 

reservation Indians, and mandated 

a transfer of Federal law 

enforcement authority among 

tribal nations living in the western 

part of the United States to states 

such as California, Minnesota, 

 

27

www.elderteach.com/files/3652/MeriamRe

port.doc 

Nebraska, Oregon, Wisconsin, and 

Alaska. Under the law, state, tribal, 

BIA, and FBI authority were 

intermingled, resulting in a 

complicated and confusing law 

enforcement system. 28 

Federal recognition of tribal 

sovereignty came in 1970 when 

President Richard Nixon 

announced support for an Indian 

self-determination policy.29 The 

Indian Self-Determination and 

Education Assistance Act of 1975 

promoted Indian participation in 

the government and compulsory 

education through a national 

Indian education program.30

 

In 1983, President Ronald Reagan 

restored the government-togovernment relationship with 

Indian tribes, issuing an American 

Indian policy statement that 

described the role of tribal 

governments in reservation affairs 

and called for development of 

reservation economies. This policy 

rejects and overrides the 

termination policy and expands 

Federal policy on Indian selfdetermination.31

Twenty-five years after 

“restoration,” tribes are still 

recovering from relocation, loss of 

homelands, assimilation into 

dominant culture, and other 

historical trauma. The termination 

policy affected over 100 tribes and 

 

28 Melton and Gardner, 2004. 

29 Environmental Protection Agency, 

1983.

30 For more information about this 

compulsory program, see, 

http://thomas.loc.gov/cgibin/bdquery/z?d093:SN01017:TOM:/bss/d

093query.html. 

31 Environmental Protection Agency, 

1983.

bands, including “13,263 Native 

Americans and 1,365,801 acres of 

trust land”32 and contributed to the 

loss of Native language, history, 

and traditions. 

Termination and assimilation 

undermined a sense of place and 

identity among Native peoples by 

removing their tribal roles, 

ultimately leading to a 

disintegration of the clan and of 

tribal law and structure. The loss 

of culture and language arguably 

has contributed greatly to the 

steady diminishment of 

functioning tribal communities and 

the deterioration of mental health 

among some individuals. Boarding 

schools were used to assimilate 

tribal youth into dominant culture. 

Remembering 

Termination 

In the early 1980s, Grand Ronde 

member Norma Lee took her 

teenage daughter to testify to 

Congress about the affects of 

termination. Her daughter said, 

“All of my life, all I’ve known is 

termination. When I go to 

powwows with other Indian kids, 

they ask me the name of my tribe. 

When I tell them, they say, I have 

never heard of you. How big is 

your [reservation]? I tell them, we 

do not have one, and they laugh.” 

In a visit to Washington, DC, 

Lee’s daughter asked Members of 

Congress to restore Federal 

recognition so she and others 

 

32 Ponca Tribe Of Nebraska: Community 

Environmental Profile, 

http://www.poncatribene.org/pdfs/Environment/Environmental%

20Profile%202007.pdf, 1996, p.4. 

T
43 

would have a sense of identity. 

Recalling her daughter’s 

testimony, Lee, who comes from a 

generation of Natives who grew up 

in boarding schools, remarks, “We 

didn’t realize the impact of what 

our kids were experiencing. Some 

of them were as old as 25 and 26, 

and they grew up without a sense 

of identity, or connection to a 

place, or to a people.” 

Lee also described her youth under 

termination, saying: “I went to 

boarding school where they said 

you could not speak your 

language, you have to cut your 

hair, and you have to dress like the 

rest of us.” She is saddened by the 

loss of Native traditions, language, 

and items to pass down to the next 

generation, saying that she and her 

peers were taught that it was 

wrong.

Lee says that much of the benefit 

in the TYP is that it exposes youth 

to the traditions and history of the 

Grand Ronde Tribes. “Going back 

and learning the songs now, old 

songs from different tribes and 

bands, and learning the history of 

each one with the kids, seeing 

them dancing and singing—that’s 

education. We are so rural. We 

need to have something right here 

that we can say is ours. We have 

the canoe dances now and you see 

such pride in those kids. It has 

affected the whole community.” 

He continued, “Our kids 

performed at the State Capitol on 

Indian Day and people were 

impressed—you could hear them 

say, ‘They are from Grand Ronde!’ 

They danced and it lifted 

everybody’s spirits. [The TYP] is 

the first program that has actually 

said, ‘C’mon kids, we can teach 

you how to do this. These are your 

songs.’” 

Another elder, Kathryn Harrison, 

spoke up in praise of the program. 

“I think [the TYP] is good for all 

of us. The youth are growing to be 

adults. We want some of them to 

be elders. Through the program 

they are learning the traditions and 

can pass them on. It is important.” 
44 

Appendix 2–Study Methodology 

he American Youth Policy 

Forum conducted site visits 

to TYPs selected by OJJDP 

program managers for their 

geographic diversity and program 

maturity. All programs included in 

the study have been working with 

TYP grants since 2003. No other 

special screenings or incentives 

were used when selecting tribes to 

visit. 

Site visits were scheduled 

according to the convenience of 

TYP staff and were used to 

discover each program’s successes 

and understand its’ unique 

dynamics. Tribes visited were Old 

Harbor Village on Kodiak Island, 

Alaska; The Confederated Tribes 

of Grand Ronde in Oregon; The 

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe in 

Minnesota; Absentee Shawnee 

Tribe in Oklahoma, and the 

Mescalero Apache Tribe in New 

Mexico. Each 3- to 4-day site visit 

included a tour of the reservation, 

interviews, and observations of 

TYP activities. 

The interview process was 

conducted with individuals and 

groups, using a formal qualitative 

method of inquiry and a prepared 

list of questions to acquire an 

“insider’s” perspective of the 

program. Interviews were 

conducted with TYP staff, youth 

participants, parents, tribal leaders, 

elders, program partners, and 

community members. The TYP 

program directors selected 

participants for interviews. 

Conversations were recorded and 

program materials were collected. 

The findings and recommendations 

are based on information gathered 

from program observation; 

program materials; and data 

collected through formal 

interviews with 137 individuals, 

including 55 youth, 16 elders, 42 

TYP staff and partners (including 

tribal council members), and 24 

parents and other adults. 

Observations included youth in 

discussion and engaging in 

activities. Signed consent and 

assent forms were collected from 

individuals participating in the 

interviews. 

Interview questions were prepared, 

adapted for each focus group, and 

sent to tribes in advance of each 

visit. Questions focused on: 

• A general overview of the 

program and program services. 

• Program capacity and 

infrastructure. 

• Use of volunteers. 

• Funding. 

• Youth participants. 

• The perceived impact of the 

program on youth and the 

community. 

Program staff and tribal leaders 

were also asked how the TYP has 

improved services for youth 

through: 

• Instituting or adjusting policies 

that affect the organization’s 

structure. 

• Leveraging resources, such as 

grants, volunteers, donations, 

and other funding streams. 

This study was an exploratory 

attempt to capture a snapshot of 

TYPs that have been operating for 

at least six years. The limitations 

of the research are that while a 

Native American supervised the 

study, the field research was 

conducted and written by a 

nonprofit operated by non-Natives. 

The number of representatives 

(five tribes) interviewed for the 

study is relatively low. For a more 

comprehensive view of the 

program, further research should 

be conducted with more tribes that 

receive TYP grant funding. 

The Hopi Tribe was originally 

included in the sites to be involved 

in the report; however, due to 

scheduling issues the assessment 

timeline could not be met. 

Tribe Elders Program 

Staff/Partners 

Parents/Guardians Youth Total 

Old Harbor 3 8 3 5 19 

Grand Ronde 2 15 10 4 31 

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe 3 5 3 13 24 

Absentee Shawnee 5 5 3 14 27 

Mescalero Apache 3 9 5 19 36 

Total 16 42 24 55 137 

T
45 

Appendix 3–Research on Native Youth 

Youth Development 

the Native Way 

According to some elders 

interviewed for this study, 

educational strategies that 

encourage youth development 

have existed within American 

Indian traditions for generations. 

An alternative delinquency 

prevention model33 for Native 

American communities suggests 

that an experiential-based program 

integrating Native American 

values and traditions is an effective 

base for prevention efforts in tribal 

communities. 

Researchers Bernal and Scharrondel-Rio argue that to advance 

knowledge of “what works” for 

Native American youth, 

researchers must “step beyond 

conventional research paradigms, 

focus on treatments that work with 

specific ethnic populations [rather 

than comparative approaches], and 

use discovery-oriented and 

qualitative designs....”34

Obstacles have impeded the 

development of effective, Native 

American designed, science-based 

prevention programming. Most 

research on intervention programs 

has been conducted with white, 

middle-class adolescents, and 

many prevention models are based 

on results from these populations. 

Programs developed for tribal 

youth are often adaptations of 

mainstream programs with the 

addition of a “cultural element,” 

 

33 See Circles of Courage, Reclaiming 

Youth At-Risk, 

http://www.reclaiming.com/.

34 Bernal, G.B. and Scharron-del-Rio, 

M.R. 2001.

which may be as minimal as the 

inclusion of beadwork classes and 

museum visits. Furthermore, many 

substance abuse prevention efforts 

developed with tribal youth do not 

reach publication, and research on 

Native American youth has not 

sought ‘science-based’ 

designation, provided through 

various Federal review processes 

such as the National Registry of 

Effective Programs, limiting their 

exposure to funding sources and 

replication possibilities.35

 

Carter, Straits, and Hall’s (2007)

evaluation of 48 prevention 

programs provides evidence that 

tribal and other minority youth 

participating in culturally specific 

substance abuse prevention 

programs were more satisfied with 

their programs and found them to 

be more personally meaningful 

than minority youth participating 

in non-cultural specific programs. 

Positive behaviors manifested 

through cultural activities, 

competencies, and communitymindedness were more predictive 

of psychosocial outcomes than 

problem behaviors such as drug 

and alcohol use. This research goes 

on to show that a program’s 

approach, when based on building 

strengths (e.g., youth development 

and life skills) among participating 

youth may be more successful than 

programs focused on a punitive 

approach that emphasizes 

eliminating undesirable behaviors. 

Risky Behaviors, 

Living Conditions, and 

Major Stressors

 

35 Ibid.

Youth in Indian Country are 

engaging in risky behaviors 

resulting in greater involvement 

with the law than with their nonNative counterparts. National 

statistics indicate that the age of 

first involvement with alcohol is 

lower among Native American 

youth than among white or 

African-American youth. Also, the 

amount consumed is higher, 

negative consequences are greater, 

and the number of alcohol-related 

arrests for those under age 18 is 

twice the national average.36 Based 

on a study of Native American 

middle school students in 2006, 

nearly one in five students from a 

single reservation attempted 

suicide, which is double the rate 

for the general teenage 

population.37 Researchers 

evaluated students from bands of 

the Ojibwa Tribe living in the 

Northern Plains and found that the 

two strongest predictors for 

thinking about suicide were 

depression and substance abuse. 

In 2006, One Sky Center, the 

American Indian/Alaska Native 

National Resource Center for 

Substance Abuse and Mental 

Health, produced a guide on 

dealing with youth suicide in 

Native communities. The Center 

suggests that youth are at greatest 

risk when they are experiencing 

difficulties, including: 

• Trouble with school 

authorities. 

• Trouble with law enforcement. 

 

36 According to the Centers for Disease 

Control, suicide is the second leading 

cause of death for Indian youth ages 15 to 

24. The first is unintentional injury and 

accident.

37 LaFromboise et al., 2007.
46 

• The death of an important 

person. 

• A divorce. 

• A break-up. 

• A recent suicide of a friend or 

relative. 

• Drug or alcohol abuse. 

• Exposure to violence, 

depression, incest, or rape.38 

The guide further describes the 

effects on family systems, “Each 

time a young person takes his or 

her life it dramatically affects the 

lives of at least six to eight other 

significant individuals—with 

sometimes permanent 

consequences to productivity, selfesteem, or physical or mental 

health.”39

 

Native teens and adolescents in 

even the most remote regions of 

Indian Country are familiar with 

the lives of their counterparts in 

more developed areas. From a 

2007 study on human 

development, researchers wrote: 

Many emulate what they see 

in the media, for better or 

worse. American Indian 

adolescents mature amidst 

complicated social 

conformity expectations and 

rapid cultural change. Many 

learn how to endure 

numerous chronic stressors, 

which are thought to 

contribute over time to 

cumulative vulnerability and 

disease.40

 

38 Ibid, p. 10.

39 Walker et al., 2006.

40 Ibid.

Multigenerational 

Trauma and Economic 

Challenges 

Interviews conducted in this study 

reveal that many at-risk Native 

youth grow up steeped in 

multigenerational trauma 

perpetuated in the present day by 

poor health care, limited social 

services, and lingering racism. 

Economic challenges affect efforts 

to retain Native culture and 

tradition as poverty continues to 

plague Native populations. 

According to a Bureau of Indian 

Affairs report of 1997, only 50 

percent of Native Americans 

available for the workforce on 

reservations are employed, and 

among those employed, 30 percent 

are earning wages below the 

poverty line. A decade later, there 

is little evidence to suggest that 

Native families have dropped their 

status as having the highest 

poverty rate of any ethnic group in 

the United States.41 

Connections with 

Family and Community 

In a study of high-risk minority 

youth programs sponsored by the 

Substance Abuse and Mental 

Health Services Administration 

(SAMHSA), researchers correlated 

program effectiveness with a list of 

characteristics: life skills focus, 

emphasis on building connections 

(i.e., youth to youth, youth to 

adult), coherent program design 

and implementation, introspective 

learning, intensive contact, and the 

after-school setting.42

 

 

41 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2004.

42 Individuals with co-occurring substance 

abuse disorders and mental disorders.

In a paper from 2007, Cheryl 

Boyce and Andrew Fuligni wrote 

“Feelings of belonging, 

acceptance, and connectedness 

within family and community are 

likely to affect youths’ 

developmental outcomes and risk 

or resilience for mental disorder.”43

Similarly, a study led by 

LaFromboise et. al. found that a 

sense of connection or belonging 

to their school community 

appeared to have a strong, 

protective effect against suicidal 

thoughts among Native American 

middle school students. 

 

43 Boyce and Fuligni, 2007.
47 

Appendix 4–Program Measures 

Tribal Youth Programs must choose one to two of the program measures below and report outcomes of these 

measures to OJJDP. 

Objective Performance Measures Data Grantee Provides 

1. Provide prevention services to 

impact risk factors for delinquency, 

including risk factor identification, antigang education, youth gun violence 

reduction programs, truancy prevention 

programs, school dropout prevention 

programs, afterschool programs, 

and/or parenting education programs.

Prevention (Direct Service Program) 

• Number of youth and/or families served by the program. 

• Number of service hours that youth in the program and/or 

families have completed. 

• Percentage of youth in the program who offend or re-offend 

(arrested/rearrested). 

• Percentage of youth and/or families in the program exhibiting 

desired change in targeted behaviors (i.e. substance use, 

antisocial behavior, truancy, gang involvement, etc.). 

Prevention (Direct Service Program) 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families served. 

• Number of service hours that youth in the program and/or 

families have completed. 

• Number of youth in the program who offend or re-offend, 

compared to total number of youth in the program. 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families exhibiting 

desired change in targeted behaviors, compared to total 

number of youth in the program and/or families involved.

2. Provide interventions for courtinvolved tribal youth, including 

graduated sanctions, restitution, 

diversion, home detention, foster and 

shelter care, and/or mentoring. 

Intervention (Direct Service Program) 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families served. 

• Number of service hours that youth in the program and/or 

families have completed. 

• Percentage of youth in the program who offend or re-offend 

(arrested/rearrested). 

• Percentage of youth in the program and/or families exhibiting 

desired change in targeted behaviors (i.e. substance use 

antisocial behavior, truancy, gang involvement, etc.) 

Intervention (Direct Service Program) 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families served. 

• Number of service hours that youth in the program and/or 

families have completed. 

• Number of youth in the program who offend or re-offend, 

compared to total number of youth in the program. 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families exhibiting 

desired change in targeted behaviors, compared to total 

number of youth in the program and/or families involved.

3. Improve the tribal juvenile justice 

system, including developing and 

implementing indigenous justice 

strategies, tribal juvenile codes, tribal 

youth courts, intake assessments, 

advocacy programs, and genderspecific programming and enhancing 

juvenile probation services and/or 

reentry programs. 

Tribal Juvenile Justice System Improvement 

• Percentage of program staff trained. 

• Percentage of program staff exhibiting increased knowledge 

of the program area. 

• Percentage of youth satisfied with the program. 

• Percentage of families satisfied with the program. 

• Percentage of staff satisfied with the program. 

Tribal Juvenile Justice System Improvement 

• Number of program staff trained compared to the total 

number of program staff. 

• Number of program staff exhibiting increased knowledge of 

the program area compared to total number of program staff. 

• Number of youth satisfied with program compared to total 

number of youth in the program. 

• Number of families satisfied with the program compared to 

total number of families in the program. 

• Number of staff satisfied with the program compared to the 

total number of program staff. 

4. Provide alcohol and drug abuse 

prevention programs, including drug 

and/or alcohol education, drug testing, 

and screening. 

Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention Programs 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families served. 

• Number of service hours that youth in the program and/or 

families have completed. 

• Percentage of youth who relapse. 

• Percentage of youth in the program and/or families exhibiting 

the desired change in targeted behaviors (i.e. alcohol and 

substance use, etc.) 

Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention Programs 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families served. 

• Number of service hours that youth in the program and/or 

families have completed. 

Number of youth in the program who relapse compared to 

total number of youth in the program. 

• Number of youth in the program and/or families exhibiting the 

desired change in targeted behaviors, compared to total 

number of youth in the program and/or families. 

5. Provide mental health program 

services, including development of 

comprehensive screening tools, crisis 

intervention, intake assessments, 

therapeutic services, counseling 

services for co-occurring mental health 

and substance abuse disorders, drug 

testing, referral services and placement 

services. 

Mental Health Program Services

• Number of mental health programs. 

• Youth and/or families served. 

• Number of service hours that mental health program and/or 

families have completed. 

• Average length of stay in the program. 

• Number of cases closed. 

• Number of mental health youth in the program and/or

families screened/evaluated . 

• Number of mental health youth in the program and/or

families with formal psychological/psychiatric evaluations. 

• Percentage of successful mental health program completion 

among program participants. 

• Number of juvenile delinquency incidents occurring among 

mental health program participants. 

Mental Health Program Services 

• Number of mental health youth in the program and/or

families served. 

• Number of service hours that mental health youth in the 

program and/or families have completed. 

• Total number of days between intake and program exit 

across all mental health youth in the program exiting 

program. 

• Number of cases closed. 

• Number of mental health youth in the program and/or

families screened/evaluated. 

• Number of mental health youth in the program and/or

families with formal psychological/ psychiatric evaluations. 

• Number of successful mental health program completion 

among program participants, compared to total number of 

program participants. 

• Number of juvenile delinquency incidents occurring among 

mental health program participants. 
48 

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