Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series ONMS-08-06

U.S. Department of Commerce 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Ocean Service 

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management 

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries September 2008 

 Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of 

Management Strategies and Regulations of the 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary by 

Commercial Fishers, Dive Operators, and 

Environmental Group Members: A Baseline 

Characterization and 10-year Comparison
About the Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Ocean Service (NOS) 

administers the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS). Its mission is to identify, 

designate, protect and manage the ecological, recreational, research, educational, 

historical, and aesthetic resources and qualities of nationally significant coastal and 

marine areas. The existing marine sanctuaries differ widely in their natural and 

historical resources and include nearshore and open ocean areas ranging in size from 

less than one to over 5,000 square miles. Protected habitats include rocky coasts, kelp 

forests, coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuarine habitats, hard and soft bottom habitats, 

segments of whale migration routes, and shipwrecks. 

Because of considerable differences in settings, resources, and threats, each marine 

sanctuary has a tailored management plan. Conservation, education, research, 

monitoring and enforcement programs vary accordingly. The integration of these 

programs is fundamental to marine protected area management. The Marine 

Sanctuaries Conservation Series reflects and supports this integration by providing a 

forum for publication and discussion of the complex issues currently facing the sanctuary 

system. Topics of published reports vary substantially and may include descriptions of 

educational programs, discussions on resource management issues, and results of 

scientific research and monitoring projects. The series facilitates integration of natural 

sciences, socioeconomic and cultural sciences, education, and policy development to 

accomplish the diverse needs of NOAA’s resource protection mandate. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 

 Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of Management 

Strategies and Regulations of the Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary by Commercial Fishers, Dive Operators, 

and Environmental Group Members: A Baseline 

Characterization and 10-year Comparison 

 Manoj Shivlani1

Vernon R. Leeworthy2

Thomas J. Murray1

Daniel O. Suman3

Flavia Tonioli3

1. Thomas J. Murray & Associates, Inc. 

2. NOAA, National Ocean Service, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries 

3. University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science 

_____________________________________________________________________________ 

Silver Spring, Maryland 

September 2008 

 U.S. Department of Commerce 

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

VADM Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. (USN-ret.) 

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere 

National Ocean Service 

John H. Dunnigan, Assistant Administrator 

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries 

Daniel J. Basta, Director 
DISCLAIMER 

Report content does not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Office of 

National Marine Sanctuaries or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

nor does the mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or 

recommendation for use. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY 

Electronic copies of this report may be downloaded from the Office of National Marine 

Sanctuaries web site at www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov. Hard copies may be available 

from the following address: 

 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

 SSMC4, N/ORM62 

 1305 East-West Highway 

 Silver Spring, MD 20910 

COVER 

Paige Gill. Commercial lobster vessel and dive boat. 

Reef Relief. Reef Relief visitor booth. 

SUGGESTED CITATION

Shivlani, M., Leeworthy V.R., Murray, T.J., Suman, D.O., and F. Tonioli. 2008. 

Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of Management Strategies and Regulations of the 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuaries by Commercial Fishers, Dive Operators, and 

Environmental Group Members: A Baseline Characterization and 10-year Comparison. 

Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series ONMS-08-06. U.S. Department of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of National Marine 

Sanctuaries, Silver Spring, MD. 170 pp. 

CONTACT 

Dr. Vernon R. (Bob) Leeworthy 

Chief Economist 

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries 

1305 East West Highway, SSMC4, 11th floor 

Silver Spring, MD 20910 

Telephone: (301) 713-7261 

Fax: (301) 713-0404 

E-mail: Bob.Leeworthy@noaa.gov 
i 

ABSTRACT 

This research is part of the Socioeconomic Research & Monitoring Program for the 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), which was initiated in 1998. In 

1995-96, a baseline study on the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of proposed 

FKNMS management strategies and regulations of commercial fishers, dive operators 

and on selected environmental group members was conducted by researchers at the 

University of Florida and the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of Atmospheric 

and Marine Science (RSMAS). The baseline study was funded by the U.S. Man and the 

Biosphere Program, and components of the study were published by Florida Sea Grant 

and in several peer reviewed journals. The study was accepted into the Socioeconomic 

Research & Monitoring Program at a workshop to design the program in 1998, and 

workshop participants recommended that the study be replicated every ten years. The 10-

year replication was conducted in 2004-05 (commercial fishers) 2006 (dive operators) 

and 2007 (environmental group members) by the same researchers at RSMAS, while the 

University of Florida researchers were replaced by Thomas J. Murray & Associates, Inc., 

which conducted the commercial fishing panels in the FKNMS. The 10-year replication 

study was funded by NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program. 

The study not only makes 10-year comparisons in the knowledge, attitudes and 

perceptions of FKNMS management strategies and regulations, but it also establishes 

new baselines for future monitoring efforts. Things change, and following the principles 

of “adaptive management”, management has responded with changes in the management 

plan strategies and regulations. Some of the management strategies and regulations that 

were being proposed at the time of the baseline 1995-96 study were changed before the 

management plan and regulations went into effect in July 1997. This was especially true 

for the main focus of the study which was the various types of marine zones in the draft 

and final zoning action plan. Some of the zones proposed were changed significantly and 

subsequently new zones have been created. 

This study includes 10-year comparisons of socioeconomic/demographic profiles of each 

user group; sources and usefulness of information; knowledge of purposes of FKNMS 

zones; perceived beneficiaries of the FKNMS zones; views on FKNMS processes to 

develop management strategies and regulations; views on FKNMS zone outcomes; views 

on FKNMS performance; and general support for FKNMS. In addition to new baseline 

information on FKNMS zones, new baseline information was developed for spatial use, 

investment and costs-and-earnings for commercial fishers and dive operators, and views 

on resource conditions for all three user groups. Statistical tests were done to detect 

significant changes in both the distribution of responses to questions and changes in mean 

scores for items replicated over the 10-year period. 
ii 

Key findings: 

• Over the 10-year period, there was the hypothesized convergence in stakeholder 

attitudes, perceptions and beliefs about FKNMS outcomes and support for the 

FKNMS. 

• There exists greater support for FKNMS across a variety of aspects among the 

commercial fishing community, with a shift from a highly negative position to 

majority/plurality support or neutral position (approximately equal percentages of 

support and non-support). 

• There is a need for greater outreach and education efforts to members of local 

environmental groups. 

• There has been increased use of the FKNMS zones by dive operators, especially 

the Sanctuary Preservation Areas. 

• Either a majority or plurality of each of the three user groups support the FKNMS 

zones as currently established, except commercial fishers for the Ecological 

Reserves (ERs). There has been a significant shift by commercial fishers over the 

10-year period towards support for the FKNMS zones; however, a plurality still 

does not support the ERs. 

• A majority or plurality of dive operators and environmental group members 

support more FKNMS zones of all types. An overwhelming majority of 

commercial fishers is against any more FKNMS zones of any type. 

• Either a majority or plurality of all three user groups believes that the Florida 

Keys has benefited both the environment and economy of the Florida Keys. 

• A majority of dive operators believes that the Sanctuary Preservation Areas 

(SPAs) have reduced conflicts between user groups. This was a significant 

change from expectations in the baseline. 

• None of the user groups believe that the FKNMS zones have been effective in 

restoring coral reefs in the Florida Keys to what they use to be, but the user 

groups understand that the conditions of the coral reefs are driven by many factors 

outside the control of the FKNMS. 

• Across all three user groups, only two of eight items assessed were rated as 

having improved in condition since the establishment of the FKNMS (“Mooring 

buoys” and “Vessel groundings”). The avoidance of vessel groundings was one 

of the main impetuses of creating the FKNMS. 

• There was no resource condition rated as having gotten worse by any of the three 

user groups since establishment of the FKNMS. Most items received scores in 

the neutral or no change status. 

KEY WORDS 

Socioeconomic monitoring, knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, management strategies, 

regulations, commercial fishers, dive operators, environmental group members, marine 

zones, spatial use 
iii 

Table of Contents 

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1

2 Stakeholder groups in the FKNMS ............................................................................. 4

3 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 5

3.1 Commercial fisher survey methodology .............................................................. 7

3.2 Dive operator survey methodology ...................................................................... 8

3.3 Environmental group survey methodology ........................................................ 10

4 Results ....................................................................................................................... 11

4.1 Commercial fisher survey results ....................................................................... 11

4.1.1 Commercial fisher survey general information ....................................... 11

4.1.2. Commercial fisher survey economic information ................................... 14

4.1.3. Commercial fisher survey fishery information ....................................... 17

4.1.4. Commercial fisher survey attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs ................. 50

4.1.5. Commercial fisher survey views on enforcement ................................... 63

4.1.6. Commercial fisher survey discussion ...................................................... 64

4.2 Dive operations survey results ........................................................................... 67

4.2.1 Dive operations survey general information ........................................... 68

4.2.2 Dive operations survey economic information ....................................... 69

4.2.3 Dive operator survey trip information ..................................................... 72

4.2.5 Dive operator survey discussion ........................................................... 104

4.3 Environmental group survey results ................................................................. 107

4.3.1 Environmental group survey general information ................................ 107

4.3.2 Environmental group survey attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs ........... 111

4.3.3 Environmental group survey discussion ............................................... 124

5 References ............................................................................................................... 127

6 Appendices .............................................................................................................. 130

6.1 Appendix 1: Commercial fisher survey instrument ........................................ 131

6.2 Appendix 2: Dive operator survey instrument ................................................ 143

6.3 Appendix 3: Environmental group member survey instrument ...................... 153

6.4 Appendix 4: Environmental group member survey plan ................................ 159

6.5 Appendix 5: Comparison of Last Stand and Reef Relief members’ views on the 

FKNMS process and outcomes ................................................................................... 167
iv 

List of Tables 

Table 1: Commercial fisher population and sample ......................................................... 8

Table 2: Commercial fisher response rates ....................................................................... 8

Table 3: Dive operation population and sample ................................................................ 9

Table 4: Commercial fisher socio-demographic information .......................................... 14

Table 5: Commercial fisher vessel and gear costs ........................................................... 15

Table 6: Commercial fisher operating costs .................................................................... 16

Table 7: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 effort (trips) ................................................. 18

Table 8: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 landings ....................................................... 19

Table 9: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 average trip costs ......................................... 20

Table 10: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area ............................. 23

Table 11: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area - Upper Keys ....... 24

Table 12: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area - Middle Keys ..... 24

Table 13: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area - Lower Keys ...... 25

Table 14: Percentage of commercial fishers fishing around FKNMS zones – based on 

total sample ....................................................................................................................... 48

Table 15: Percentage of commercial fishers fishing around FKNMS zones – based on 

participants in each fishery ............................................................................................... 49

Table 16: Commercial fisher FKNMS sources of information ....................................... 51

Table 17: Commercial fisher views on the FKNMS process .......................................... 53

Table 18: Commercial fishers' views on FKNMS zone purpose and beneficiaries ......... 55

Table 19: Commercial fisher views on the outcomes of FKNMS zones ......................... 58

Table 20: Commercial fisher views on FKNMS performance ........................................ 62

Table 21: Commercial fisher views on resource conditions in the FKNMS ................... 63

Table 22: Commercial fisher views on fishery violations and enforcement ................... 64

Table 23: Dive operator demographic information ......................................................... 68

Table 24: Dive operator vessel costs and characteristics and employee information ...... 70

Table 25: Dive operator annual operating costs in 2005 ................................................. 71

Table 26: FKNMS dive survey trip costs ........................................................................ 72

Table 27: FKNMS dive survey total trips, average trips, and average divers per trip ..... 73

Table 28: FKNMS dive operations FKNMS zone trips and divers in 2005 .................... 74

Table 29: Dive operator survey sources of information .................................................. 90

Table 30: Dive operator survey perceptions on FKNMS processes ................................ 92

Table 31: Dive operators’ views on FKNMS zone purpose and beneficiaries ............... 94

Table 32: Dive operator views on FKNMS zone outcomes ............................................ 96

Table 33: Dive operator views on the effects of the FKNMS ....................................... 100

Table 34: Dive operators’ views on FKNMS resource conditions ................................ 103

Table 35: Dive operators' views on resource conditions inside FKNMS zones ............ 104

Table 36: Environmental group survey distribution by region ...................................... 108

Table 37: Environmental group survey member affiliation ........................................... 109

Table 38: Environmental group survey member activities ............................................ 110

Table 39: Environmental group survey sources of information .................................... 111

Table 40: Environmental group survey information source usefulness ......................... 112

Table 41: Environmental group survey perceptions on FKNMS processes .................. 114
v 

Table 42: Environmental group member views on FKNMS zone purpose and 

beneficiaries .................................................................................................................... 116

Table 43: Environmental group member views on FKNMS zone outcomes ................ 118

Table 44: Environmental group member views on the effects of the FKNMS ............. 121

Table 45: Environmental group members' views on FKNMS resource conditions ...... 123
vi 

List of Figures 

Figure 1: Draft Management Plan FKNMS zones ............................................................. 2

Figure 2: Final Management Plan FKNMS zones ............................................................. 3

Figure 3: Study area and regions ....................................................................................... 7

Figure 4: FKNMS fishing areas ....................................................................................... 22

Figure 5: Commercial fisher spiny lobster landings ........................................................ 26

Figure 6: Commercial fisher spiny lobster landings - Upper Keys ................................. 27

Figure 7: Commercial fisher lobster landings - Middle Keys .......................................... 28

Figure 8: Commercial fisher spiny lobster landings - Lower Keys ................................. 29

Figure 9: Commercial fisher stone crab landings ............................................................. 31

Figure 10: Commercial fisher stone crab landings - Upper Keys .................................... 32

Figure 11: Commercial fisher stone crab landings - Middle Keys .................................. 33

Figure 12: Commercial fisher stone crab landings - Lower Keys .................................. 34

Figure 13: Commercial fisher reef fish landings ............................................................. 36

Figure 14: Commercial fisher reef fish landings - Upper Keys ....................................... 37

Figure 15: Commercial fisher reef fish landings - Middle Keys ..................................... 38

Figure 16: Commercial fisher reef fish landings - Lower Keys ...................................... 39

Figure 17: Commercial fisher pelagics landings ............................................................. 41

Figure 18: Commercial fisher pelagics landings - Upper Keys ....................................... 42

Figure 19: Commercial fisher pelagics landings - Middle Keys ..................................... 43

Figure 20: Commercial fisher pelagics landings - Lower Keys ...................................... 44

Figure 21: Marine life collection in the Florida Keys ...................................................... 46

Figure 22: Upper Keys trips to FKNMS zones ................................................................ 75

Figure 23: Upper Keys divers to FKNMS zones ............................................................. 76

Figure 24: Upper Keys percent trips to FKNMS zones ................................................... 77

Figure 25: Upper Keys percent divers to FKNMS zones ................................................ 78

Figure 26: Middle Keys trips to FKNMS zones .............................................................. 80

Figure 27: Middle Keys divers to FKNMS zones ........................................................... 81

Figure 28: Middle Keys percent trips to FKNMS zones ................................................. 82

Figure 29: Middle Keys percent divers to FKNMS zones ............................................... 83

Figure 30: Lower Keys trips to FKNMS zones ............................................................... 85

Figure 31: Lower Keys divers to FKNMS zones............................................................. 86

Figure 32: Lower Keys percent trips to FKNMS zones .................................................. 87

Figure 33: Lower Keys percent divers to FKNMS zones ................................................ 88
1 

1 Introduction 

Designated through an act of the US Congress in 1990 (Public Law 101-605), the Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) underwent an often contentious designation 

process from 1995 to 1996 before the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) and the State of Florida jointly implemented the 2,800 nautical square mile 

sanctuary in 2007 (NAPA, 2000; Suman et al., 1999). In 2001, the FKNMS extended its 

western boundary to include parts of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve, thereby increasing 

its overall size to its present 2,900 square nautical miles (NOAA, 2000). 

An integral part of the FKNMS management strategy consisted of a zoning action plan, 

part of ten action plans developed to protect and manage FKNMS resources (NOAA, 

1996; NOAA, 1995). In 1995, the FKNMS released its draft zoning action plan, as part 

of the Draft Management Plan (DMP), which called for the designation of five different 

zone types in the FKNMS: Existing management areas (EMAs); Replenishment 

Reserves (RRs); Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs); Special-use Areas (SUAs); and 

Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). The 21 EMAs included zones now subsumed 

under the FKNMS boundaries but which existed prior to the Sanctuary’s designation and 

which would continue to be managed by parent agencies. Similarly, 20 of the 27 WMAs 

the FKNMS identified in its DMP were already managed by the US Fish and Wildlife 

Service; however, the FKNMS did designate seven new WMAs which would employ 

seasonal and/or use-specific restrictions to protect sensitive wildlife. The other three 

zone types, while espousing different purposes, restricted all extractive activities and 

were thus no-take (or no-fishing zones). 

The DMP defined RRs as large areas created to provide spawning, nursery, and habitats 

for coral reef ecosystem dependent species and to foster ecosystem function in 

contiguous habitats. Due to the purpose of this zone type, the DMP designated three 

large RRs: the 38,000 ha Dry Tortugas RR in the western FKNMS; the 8,000 ha Key 

Largo RR in the northeastern FKNMS; and the 3,000 ha Sambos RR in the Lower Florida 

Keys section of the FKNMS (see Figure 1). Together, the RRs comprised over 3% of the 

FKNMS. The DMP also designated 19 smaller SPAs to protect heavily used, shallowwater coral reefs and reduce use conflicts (see Figure 1). These zones, whose area totaled 

less than 1% of the FKNMS, nevertheless attracted between 80-85% of all dive and 

snorkel use in the Florida Keys (NOAA, 1996). Finally, the DMP designated four, small 

SUAs as research-only areas, where use would be allowed for education, scientific, and 

monitoring purposes and only by permit. These zones comprised less than 0.1% of the 

FKNMS (see Figure 1). 
2 

Figure 1: Draft Management Plan FKNMS zones 

The Final Management Plan (FMP), published in 1996 following a highly charged public 

hearing session (Suman et al., 1999), revised the Sanctuary’s zoning action plan. The 

FMP eliminated two of the three RRs, retaining only the Western Sambos reserve (see 

Figure 2); however, while the FMP argued that existing management areas could provide 

the benefits of a reserve in the Upper Florida Keys, the Sanctuary would nevertheless 

undertake a separate process in the future to best develop boundaries and regulations for a 

reserve in the Dry Tortugas (NOAA, 1996). The FMP also changed the term 

“Replenishment Reserve to “Ecological Reserve”, to better reflect the primary purpose of 

the zones – that of setting aside diverse areas comprising a cross-section of the region’s 

habitats so that the areas may provide natural spawning and nursery habitats with 

minimal human disturbance. The FMP also modified the SPAs identified in the DMP, 

subsuming Western Sambos SPA within Western Sambos ER and enlarging the Carysfort 

SPA in the Upper Florida Keys (see Figure 2). Furthermore, all SPAs would now permit 

limit bait fishing for ballyhoo, and four SPAs would allow catch-and-release fishing. The 

FMP did not change the total number of SUAs but did replace Pelican Shoal SUA with 

Eastern Sambos SUA (see Figure 2). The Federal Register published the final FKNMS 

regulations on June 12, 1997, which were implemented on July 1, 1997 (Federal Register, 

1997). 
3 

Figure 2: Final Management Plan FKNMS zones 

The FKNMS commenced its Dry Tortugas Ecological Reserve designation process in 

1998. Titled Tortugas 2000, the planning process included three phases: Design, 

solicitation of comments, and refinement and implementation (NOAA, 2000). Unlike the 

previous zoning action plan process where boundaries and regulations were developed 

prior to the public comment period, the FKNMS used the early phases of Tortugas 2000 

to characterize the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions in the so-called Tortugas 

Ecological Reserve Study Area (TERSA) (Delaney, 2003; Cowie-Haskell and Delaney, 

2002; NOAA, 2000). 

Also, the process involved the creation of a Tortugas 2000 working group, comprised of 

stakeholder group’ and governmental agencies’ representatives, whose purpose it was to 

reach consensus on a preferred alternative for a Tortugas Ecological Reserve (TER), 

including its boundaries and regulations. Following a series of meetings that commenced 

in April 1998, the working group reached consensus on a preferred alternative on May 

22, 1999, which it recommended to NOAA (NOAA, 2000). The working group agreed 

on a reserve that included two, discontinuous sections: TER North and TER South. The 

TER, as recommended by the working group, covered 151 square nautical miles. TER 

North encompassed 91 square nautical miles, a third larger than the 60 square nautical 

mile TER South. Over half of the reserve in state waters, and 22.2 square nautical miles 
4 

were in state waters outside of FKNMS jurisdiction. Another 73.8 square nautical miles 

were located in federal waters under the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, 

requiring an FKNMS boundary expansion of 96 square nautical miles. In a collaborative 

process that required agreements from the aforementioned agencies, NOAA published 

the final management plan/final supplemental environmental impact statement for the 

TER in November 2000, and the reserve came into effect in July 2001 (Federal Register, 

2001). The boundary expansion increased the size of the FKNMS to its current area of 

2,900 square nautical miles, of which no-take zones comprise more than 5%. 

2 Stakeholder groups in the FKNMS 

The FKNMS was the first national marine sanctuary to embrace ecosystem management 

(NOAA, 1996) and to implement a network of no-take zones. While these achievements 

were embraced by several stakeholder groups, others believed that the Sanctuary was part 

of a federal takeover, foisted on the Florida Keys’ communities via governmental fiat 

(Suman, 1997). Part of the latter attitude is explained by the common view that Florida 

Keys’ residents (the so-called “Conchs”) are a fiercely independent group of 

individualists who, in a mock but yet telling gesture, had once even proclaimed their 

independence from the federal government, when Key West declared itself the “Conch 

Republic” (Williams, 1991). However, the opposition to the FKNMS can also be 

understood as the culmination of a longer, local struggle against marine protected area 

management, where several previous governmental attempts at implementing effective 

coastal and marine protection failed until the 1990 act of Congress that designated the 

FKNMS (NAPA, 2000; Suman, 1997). 

By mid-1995, several groups had formed in the Florida Keys to protest against the 

FKNMS in general and the DMP and its various action plans (especially the zoning 

action plan) in particular. Members of the “Conch Coalition” and “Victims of NOAA” 

led protests at public hearings and other Sanctuary fora (Suman et al., 1999). 

Alternatively, conservation groups sided with and occasionally promoted the FKNMS 

and its management strategies. The Nature Conservancy, the Center for Marine 

Conservation, and the Izaak Walton League were among various national conservation 

groups that were in favor of the FKNMS. Other, local groups that also showed support 

were Reef Relief, Last Stand, and the Sanctuary Friends of the Florida Keys; the latter 

group formed specifically to promote support for the FKNMS. In a 1996 county-wide, 

non-binding referendum, 55% of the voters cast a ballot against the implementation of the 

FKNMS. While the result had no bearing on the implementation, and the FKNMS was 

implemented in 1997, it did reveal widespread disapproval of the Sanctuary. It was in 

part due to the acrimonious public hearing period and referendum that the FKNMS 

adopted a more open process that incorporated human dimensions in designating the TER 

(Delaney, 2003; NOAA, 1996). 

As part of the initial socioeconomic baseline characterization conducted on stakeholder 

groups in the FKNMS in 1995-96, the research team headed by Dr. Daniel Suman of the 

University of Miami surveyed members of the commercial fishing industry, dive 
5 

operations, and local environmental groups (Shivlani and Suman, 2000; Suman et al., 

1999; Suman and Shivlani, 1998; Milon et al., 1997). Each study evaluated stakeholder 

use patterns, sources of information on FKNMS regulations, views on the Sanctuary 

designation process, and perceptions on the expected effects of the FKNMS and its notake zones. These stakeholder studies, conducted during the stages of DMP and FMP 

publication, provided an appropriate baseline against which future changes in stakeholder 

knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions could be measured (Bohnsack, 1993). 

In comparing stakeholder views on the FKNMS, Suman et al. (1999) determined that 

commercial fishers displayed the highest levels of discontentment over the FKNMS 

process and its expected outcomes, and that their largely negative views may have been 

compounded by unrelated fishery regulatory effects on their activities. By contrast, 

environmental group members mostly supported the FKNMS process and its 

establishment. Dive operators were less sanguine than their environmental group 

counterparts in their support for the FKNMS but were nevertheless more optimistic than 

commercial fishers in the Sanctuary’s expected outcome; the authors argued that this 

middle position was due to the dive operators’ uncertainty over the outcome of the zoning 

action plan and its effects on their economic livelihoods. 

A follow-up, monitoring study conducted with commercial fishing panels that operated in 

the FKNMS from 1998 to 2006 found that use patterns among commercial fishers 

concentrated mainly within the FKNMS and that the no-take zones had not resulted in 

significant economic impacts to the region’s commercial fishing industry (Thomas J. 

Murray & Associates, 2007). However, a related study on the short-term impacts of the 

TER on the commercial fishing industry reported considerable impacts on commercial 

fishers in specific fishery sectors (especially reef fish fisheries), manifested mainly as 

displacement into other areas (Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 2005). While these and 

other studies (Shivlani et al., 2004; Shivlani et al., 1997) have considered the secondary 

effects of FKNMS no-take zones on stakeholder groups, no research until the present one 

has focused on the re-establishment of a socio-economic baseline for the FKNMS. 

This project replicates the 1995-96 stakeholder group study to establish a ten-year 

baseline following the release of the DMP. By reassessing the same stakeholders’ use 

patterns and knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions, it is expected that the findings can 

determine whether (a) stakeholder opinions have shifted in support of the FKNMS in the 

decade since its establishment, (b) stakeholder perceptions on FKNMS outcomes have 

converged over time, and (c) what areas of divergence concerning FKNMS performance 

have developed across stakeholders that may not have existed in the previous baseline. 

3 Methodology 

The project followed the 1995-96 stakeholder group study methodology, both in terms of 

the stakeholders selected for characterization and the approach used to survey the 

stakeholders. The previous methodology had proven effective in obtaining representative 
6 

samples of all three stakeholder groups, and a replication allowed for a direct comparison 

of baselines. 

The survey instruments developed for the stakeholder surveys were each based on the 

1995-96 questionnaires; however, the research team developed additional questions 

related to stakeholders’ knowledge of different zone types and their effects and 

stakeholders’ perceptions on FKNMS accomplishments and failures; thus, the questions 

were predicated on the stakeholders having a nuanced understanding of different FKNMS 

zones and familiarity with FKNMS activities. Please refer to appendices 1-3 for copies 

of the survey instruments. 

In September 2005, the research team finalized the stakeholder survey instruments and 

respective work plans, which were then sent for approval from the Office of Management 

and Budget (OMB). The commercial fisher and dive operator surveys would be 

conducted as in-person, field surveys, whereas the environmental group survey would be 

sent as a mail-back survey (as per the 1995-96 study methodology). OMB approved the 

commercial fisher and dive operator survey instruments and respective work plans in 

January 2006 and the environmental group survey instrument and work plan (following 

revisions) in July 2006. 

Also, the study area is described in regions that relate to historical distinctions within the 

Florida Keys. The Upper Keys run northeast from southern Miami-Dade County 

southwest to Long Key Bridge. The Middle Keys are located between Long Key Bridge 

and the Seven Mile Bridge and include the main island of Marathon. The Lower Keys 

commence on the western side of the Seven Mile Bridge and include all islands through 

the Dry Tortugas, with the main island being Key West. Please refer to Figure 3 for a 

map of the study area and the three regions. 
7 

Figure 3: Study area and regions 

3.1 Commercial fisher survey methodology 

The research team obtained the 2005 list of Florida Saltwater Products License (SPL) 

holders for Monroe County, which served as the commercial fisher population. While 

the research team did contact and survey randomly selected fishers from this list, the field 

surveyors also utilized a field intercept (or ‘snowball’) approach to interview fishers they 

met at fish houses, docks, etc. 

In April 2006, the research team mailed letters explaining the research project to all 1,268 

commercial fishers who held an SPL in Monroe County. Because 138 of the letters were 

undeliverable, the population was revised to 1,138 commercial fishers. 

The survey session commenced in May 2006 and ended in July 2006. The research team 

selected these months to conduct the commercial fisher surveys due to the fact that both 

the spiny lobster and stone crab fisheries are closed for most of those months. This 

allowed for surveyors to contact and interview trap fishers who would otherwise be 

fishing. 
8 

Table 1: Commercial fisher population and sample1

Region Number of fishers Surveys required Surveys completed 

1. Upper Keys 287 72 74 

2. Middle Keys 297 75 75 

3. Lower Keys 554 140 145 

TOTAL 1,138 287 294 

Table 2: Commercial fisher response rates 

Almost half (48.7%) of the fishers resided in the Lower Keys (from Big Pine Key to Key 

West), compared to 26.1% in the Middle Keys (Conch Key to Marathon), and 25.2% in 

the Upper Keys (Key Largo to Islamorada) (see Table 1). Based on a sample size of 287, 

the proportional total required per region were 140 surveys in the Lower Keys, 75 

surveys in the Middle Keys, and 72 surveys in the Upper Keys. 

In the Upper Keys, the research team contacted a total of 116 fishers, of whom 18 did not 

wish to participate and 23 who could not be reached (wrong number or disconnected 

phone) (see Table 2). In the Middle Keys, the research team contacted a total of 81 

fishers, but three refused to participate and three could not be reached (for the Middle 

Keys, the team relied mainly on field intercept surveys). In the Lower Keys, the research 

team contacted 227 fishers, of whom 28 refused to participate and 57 who could not be 

contacted. Finally, it should be noted that the 294 fisher sample size represented 25.2% 

of the entire population, considerably higher than the 13.9% sampled in 1995-96 (or 337 

out of 2,430 fishers). 

3.2 Dive operator survey methodology 

The research team used a variety of sources in determining the total population of dive, 

snorkel, glass-bottom, and kayak operators (in effect, all water operators) in the Florida 

Keys. The approach adopted was to first determine the population of all commercial 

 

1

 The sample size represented a 95% confidence level with a +/-5% confidence interval, based on a total 

population of 1,138 fishers. Regional sample sizes were determined for the proportion of total fishers per 

region. 

Region Fishers 

contacted 

Fishers 

refused 

Fishers 

unreachable 

Fishers 

eligible 

Surveys 

completed 

Response 

rate (%) 

1. Upper Keys 116 18 23 93 74 79.6 

2. Middle Keys 81 3 3 78 75 96.2 

3. Lower Keys 227 28 57 170 145 85.3 

TOTAL 424 49 83 341 294 86.2 
9 

operators that take out or rent gear to visitors and then to refine that list by contacting the 

operators to determine whether they conduct any in-water activities (namely snorkeling 

and diving trips). Then, as conducted with the commercial fishers, the final step was to 

send an introductory letter to each operation to explain the project and to quantify the 

total number of active operations. 

From a total of 105 water operators that was determined using the Keys Association of 

Dive Operators (KADO) internet list, other Florida Keys water operator internet lists, 

brochures, and the Florida Keys and Key West yellow pages, the research team identified 

a population of 89 active2 dive and snorkel operations. The survey session commenced 

in June 2006 and ended in October 2006. The length of the survey session was in part 

due the research team’s focus on the completion of commercial fisher surveys during the 

closed trap fishing months (see earlier in this section), after which the research team 

targeted dive operations. 

The research team conducted a census survey of the 89 operations instead of selecting a 

random sample, a methodology similar to that used in the 1995-96 study. Research team 

members contacted each operation over the survey session period and requested that the 

operations participate in the study at a time of their convenience. Of the 89 operations 

contacted, 21 operations (23.3%) refused to participate. Table 3 shows the frequency of 

participating operations by region in the Florida Keys. 

Table 3: Dive operation population and sample 

Region Number of 

operations 

Surveys completed Participation rate 

(in %) 

1. Upper Keys 45 39 86.7 

2. Middle Keys 11 10 90.9 

3. Lower Keys 33 20 60.6 

TOTAL 89 69 77.5 

As shown in Table 3, Upper and Middle Keys operators participated more frequently than 

their Lower Keys counterparts. Participation rates were highest among Middle Keys 

operators, of whom greater than 90% completed surveys. It should be noted that the 

population total of 89 may have been slightly higher than the actual functioning 

population of dive and snorkel operators, in that a few operators may have closed while 

the study was being conducted (ex. two operations in the Lower Keys could not be 

reached, either by telephone or in the field). Overall, over three-quarters of the diver 

operator population participated in the study; this was slightly lower than the 82.7% of 

the 75 operations that participated in the 1995-96 study, but the present effort led to the 

completion of 69 surveys, or 11.3% more than the 62 surveys completed in the previous 

study. 

 

2

 ‘Active’ refers to those operations that could be contacted (by telephone or email) and which offer 

scheduled trips (to be contrasted with those operations plan trips only when requested and which may 

specialize in other operations, ex. charter fishing). 
10 

3.3 Environmental group survey methodology 

The research team contacted representatives from two of the three environmental groups 

used in the 1995-96 study to request mailing lists to conduct the environmental group 

survey. Reef Relief is a Key West-based environmental group with 3,442 members 

spread across the Keys, Florida, and the United States. Concerned primarily with the 

health of the Florida Keys reef ecosystem, Reef Relief has long advocated and 

maintained a mooring buoy program in the Lower Keys. In the FKNMS Final 

Management Plan, it is listed as one of the partners in the Sanctuary's mooring buoy 

action plan. Last Stand is a grass-roots conservation group. Its primary objectives 

concern the welfare of the Florida Keys' natural environment. With a 330 member base 

mostly located in the Florida Keys, this Key West-based group has been very active in 

the Sanctuary process by having its representatives and members attend Sanctuary 

meetings and advocating the implementation of the Sanctuary. Last Stand and Reef 

Relief representatives agreed to have their membership base be contacted as part of this 

effort and provided their mailing lists. 

The research team developed a detailed work plan (see Appendix 4 for a copy of the 

work plan and related material) that it used to conduct environmental group surveys and 

which consisted of four steps (following Dillman, 1978): 

Step 1: Letter promoting the study 

Step 2: Survey questionnaire 

Step 3: Reminder postcard 

Step 4: Non-response bias postcard 

As part of Step 1, the research team mailed 3,442 and 330 copies of a letter promoting the 

study to Reef Relief and Last Stand members, respectively. The letter described the 

objectives of the research and requested that recipients please complete and return the 

survey questionnaire to be sent within two weeks. The research team mailed copies of 

the letter on the first week of January 2007. 

Step 2 involved the mailing of the eight-page survey questionnaire, including the 

introductory letter, to members of both environmental groups. In total, the research team 

mailed out 3,772 surveys over the third week of January 2007. 

Step 3 consisted of mailing a reminder postcard to all members of both groups to promote 

survey returns. The postcard provided recipients with a telephone number and email 

address via which to request replacement copies of the survey and to answer any 

questions concerning the survey. The research team mailed the postcards over the second 

week of February 2007. 

Finally, in Step 4, the research team sent out postcards containing two questions (the age 

group of the recipient and the level of support for the establishment of the Sanctuary) to 

all members to determine whether either factor affected participation rates, as had been 
11 

determined for the 1995-96 study. The research team mailed the postcards over the first 

week of March 2007. 

A total of 438 members returned completed or partially completed surveys, resulting in a 

gross response rate of 11.6%. Also, another 577 members, or 15.3%, returned the nonresponse bias postcard mailed out as part of Step 4. 

4 Results 

The results from the project are presented separately for each of the three groups 

surveyed. Also, previous and present results are compared throughout each stakeholder 

group section. Finally, the results mainly follow the order in which the questions appear 

in the survey instruments. 

4.1 Commercial fisher survey results 

The research team completed a total of 294 commercial fisher surveys, representing over 

a quarter (25.2%) of Monroe County’s Saltwater Products License (SPL) holder 

population. The survey results are divided into the following sections: General 

information; economic information; fishery information (including use patterns); sources 

of information and perceptions; and enforcement. 

4.1.1 Commercial fisher survey general information 

The sample provided general information on its socio-demographic characteristics, 

including the fishers’ age groups, ethnicity, affiliations, primary and secondary ports, and 

tenure in the fishery. 

A majority, or 79.3%, of the sample considered itself non-Hispanic (see Table 4). 

Among the 21.7% that was Hispanic, 88.5% was of Cuban origin. The percentage of 

Hispanic fishers increased from the Upper to the Lower Keys, consistent with the 

region’s general ethnic distribution (US Census, 2007). Also, 94.9% of the sample 

identified itself as White/Caucasian, the dominant racial group in the fishery. While the 

1995-96 sample did not provide information on both ethnicity and race, the percentage of 

respondents who identified themselves as Hispanic in the earlier study (or 18.2%) was 

consistent with the proportion of Hispanic fishers in the present sample (21.7%) 

 

Over three quarters (77.9%) of the sample was 41 years or older. Fishers younger than 

30 years old comprised less than 7% of the industry. The mean age of commercial 

fishers, on a scale from 1 to 5 (where 1 is 18-30 years old and 5 is over 60 years old), was 

significantly higher in the present sample than in the 1995-96 sample, suggesting both a 

graying of the fleet and decreased recruitment of younger fishers. In 1995-96, fishers 40 

years old or younger comprised 29.1% of the fishery; in 2004-05, those age groups 

decreased to 22.1% of the fishery. Similarly, the number of fishers older than 60 years 

old increased from 17.1% of the fleet in 1995-96 to 27.9% in 2004-05. This shift in age 
12 

groups was in part reinforced by the changes reported for experience in fishing. Exactly 

two thirds (66.7%) of the sample had been fishing for over 20 years; by contrast, only 

5.1% had been fishing for five years or less. In 1995-96, only 29.5% of the sample had 

fished for 20 or more years, and 17% had entered the fishery five or fewer years ago. 

The difference in fishing experience between the samples was statistically significant, 

suggesting a more experienced fleet in the present study3

. However, when the age group 

and fishing experience results are considered together, the findings indicate a declining 

trend in the industry, as suggested by the age, tenure, and number of participants. In 

1995-96, 2,430 Saltwater Products License (SPL) holders fished in Monroe County, a 

number that decreased by more than half (53.1%) in the ten years between the two 

studies4. Also, the results show that along with a decline in the total number of 

participants, there were changes in the age and experience distributions among 

commercial fishers such that younger entrants were no longer as common as they were a 

decade ago (Shivlani et al., 2004; Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 2005; Shivlani and 

Milon, 1998). 

In terms of family members, commercial fishers supported an average of 2.64 family 

members, including themselves. This represents a slight decline in family support from 

the 1995-96 sample, in which fishers supported an average of 2.74 family members, 

including themselves. 

Group affiliations showed that commercial fishers were mostly members of county 

(Monroe County Commercial Fishermen, Inc. (MCCF)) or state (Organized Fishermen of 

Florida (OFF)) commercial fishery organizations. Other organizations, such as Chambers 

of Commerce and environmental groups, attracted much lower rates of affiliation. Also, 

as had been found in the 1995-96 study, OFF affiliation was lowest in the Lower Keys. 

Interestingly, more respondents were members of MCCF and OFF than in the 1995-96 

sample. The percentage of fishers who were MCCF members increased from 24.2% in 

1995-96 to 34% in 2004-05. This increase is most likely a result of two factors: the first 

is that MCCF had only recently formed prior to the earlier study and thus may have 

increased its membership base over the next decade; the second is due to the increasing 

professionalization (i.e. exit of part-time fishers) in the industry and subsequent need for 

local representation (Shivlani et al., 2004). 

While fishery organization increased in between the two studies, fish house affiliation 

dropped. Over 72% of the respondents belonged to a fish house in 1995-96, compared to 

47.3% in 2004-05. Middle Keys fishers had the highest rates of fish house affiliation, 

contrasted with Upper Keys fishers, of whom less than a third belonged to a fish house. 

In the Lower Keys, fish house affiliation was reported by less than half the fishers 

interviewed (42.8%). In 1995-96, 74.6% of the 157 fishers interviewed in the Lower 

 

3

 Since 87.4% of the sample had been fishing for 11 or more years, a large majority of the fishers 

interviewed had directly experienced the FKNMS (1995-1997) and TER (1998-2001) designation 

processes. 

4

 By contrast, the total number of Saltwater Products Licenses declined by 38.4% in the State of Florida 

during the same time period, from 17,712 in 1996 to 11,535 in 2005 (Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 

2007). 
13 

Keys belonged to one of 13 fish houses in the region. Since then, fish houses have 

mostly closed down throughout the Lower Keys (and elsewhere), and important 

commercial fishing ports have witnessed an often rapid gentrification and loss of 

commercial waterfront. For example, the study identified only two fish houses in Stock 

Island (the principal commercial fishing port in the Lower Keys), down from 11 in 1995-

96. 

Finally, the sample reported considerable reliance on commercial fishing, as measured as 

a percentage of total personal (86.3%) and household (80.3%) income. Fishers on 

average now gained over 25% more of their personal income from commercial fishing 

than they had in 1995-96, a significant increase attesting to the growing 

professionalization in the industry. In the Middle Keys, the percentage of personal 

income from commercial fishing was almost 92%, up from 61% in 1995-96. 
14 

Table 4: Commercial fisher socio-demographic information 

Question 1995-96 

sample 

Total 

sample 

Upper 

Keys 

Middle 

Keys 

Lower 

Keys 

 

Age of fishers n = 333 

3.18 (1.22)* 

n = 290 

3.48 (1.24)* 

n = 74 

3.49 (1.25) 

n = 73 

3.41 (1.27) 

n = 143 

3.51 (1.22) 

1. 18-30 years 10.5 6.9 6.8 9.6 5.6 

2. 31-40 years 18.6 15.2 13.5 13.7 16.8 

3. 41-50 years 30.3 29.0 35.1 27.4 26.6 

4. 51-60 years 23.4 21.0 13.5 24.7 23.1 

5. Over 60 years 17.1 27.9 31.1 24.7 28.0 

 

Hispanic/Latino n = 336 

18.2 

n = 294 

21.7 

n = 74 

2.7 

n = 75 

25.3 

n = 145 

27.6 

 

Number of family members n = 329 n = 294 n = 74 n = 75 n = 145 

 2.72 (1.55) 2.64 (1.64) 2.59 (1.63) 2.96 (1.74) 2.67 (1.42) 

Affiliation in organizations n = 331 n = 294 n = 74 n = 75 n = 145 

1. MCCF 24.2 34.0 16.2 50.7 34.5 

2. OFF 19.0 24.2 24.3 42.7 14.5 

3. Chamber of Commerce 6.9 4.1 1.4 6.7 4.1 

4. Environmental group - 1.4 0.0 2.7 1.4 

 

Member of fish house n = 315 

72.4 

n = 294 

47.3 

n = 74 

32.4 

n = 75 

70.7 

n = 145 

42.8 

 

Years fishing n = 329 

2.73 (1.06)* 

n = 294 

3.49 (0.84)* 

n = 74 

3.31 (0.94) 

n = 75 

3.49 (0.89) 

n = 145 

3.58 (0.75) 

1. 1-5 years 17 5.1 8.1 6.7 2.8 

2. 6-10 years 22.5 7.5 8.1 6.7 7.6 

3. 11-20 years 31.0 20.7 28.4 17.3 18.6 

4. Over 20 years 29.5 66.7 55.4 69.3 71.0 

 

Percent of personal income 

from fishing 

n = 303 

61.0 (43.0)* 

n = 290 

86.3 (26.7)* 

n = 72 

77.3 (33.0) 

n = 74 

91.6 (17.9) 

n = 144 

88.1 (26.1) 

 

Percent of household 

income from fishing 

- n = 289 

80.3 (29.7) 

n = 71 

70.1 (34.3) 

n = 74 

86.5 (21.4) 

n = 144 

82.2 (29.9) 

 

* denotes responses that are statistically different at the 5% significance level. 

4.1.2. Commercial fisher survey economic information 

Respondents provided information on their economic activities for the 2004-05 (or 

2005)5 season, including capital investments such as vessel and gear costs and operating 

costs, including docking fees and repair and maintenance costs, among others. 

 

5

 Depending on the species targeted, the time period for which commercial fishers provided economic 

information varied. For fin fish, marine life, and shrimp, the information concerned the most recent 
15 

Table 5: Commercial fisher vessel and gear costs 

Item 1995-96 

sample 

Total Sample Upper Keys Middle Keys Lower Keys 

Vessel number - n = 223 

1.21 (0.51) 

n = 57 

1.24 (0.61) 

n = 55 

1.20 (0.52) 

n = 111 

1.20 (0.44) 

 

Vessel costs n = 304 

$124,722 

(383,993) 

n = 220 

$119,250 

(176,043) 

n = 57 

$125,893 

(268,004) 

n = 55 

$106.964 

(115,323) 

n = 108 

$122,000 

(137,908) 

Lobster traps - n = 139 

1,723.4 

(1,321.0) 

n = 28 

1,546.5 

(1,808.5) 

n = 48 

2,212.3 

(1,357.8) 

n = 63 

1,429.6 

(880.7) 

 

Lobster trap 

costs 

- n = 128 

$47,049 

(39,088) 

n = 26 

$47,154 

(49,805) 

n = 47 

$56,276 

(41,100) 

n = 55 

$39,117 

(29,457) 

 

Stone crab 

traps 

- n = 99 

2,179.5 

(2,,276.4) 

n = 17 

1,070.7 

(1,782.7) 

n = 38 

3,600.3 

(2,788.5) 

n = 44 

1,380.9 

(1,006.9) 

 

Stone crab trap 

costs 

- n = 94 

$39,506 

(47,894) 

n = 16 

$17,264 

(36,672) 

n = 36 

$65,643 

(61,450) 

n = 42 

$25,575 

(22,152) 

 

Total traps n = 166 

1,927.4* 

(2,178.3) 

n = 148 

3,076.6* 

(2,943.0) 

 

 

Total trap costs n = 168 

$46,044* 

(60,161) 

n = 138 

$70,550* 

(70,069) 

 

 

Nets costs n = 57 

$30,425 

(53,979) 

n = 24 

$38,785 

(96,235) 

n = 9 

$4,947.8 

(6,977.9) 

n = 5 

$47,840 

(49,238) 

n = 10 

$64,712 

(143,560) 

 

Other gear 

costs 

- n = 99 

$8,581.7 

(12,968) 

n = 35 

$8,713.2 

(9,814.6) 

n = 5 

$7,170.0 

(6,711.5) 

n = 59 

$8,728.8 

(14,940) 

 

 

As shown in Table 5, commercial fisher costs varied across the three regions, but traps 

dominated overall gear costs. Vessel values for the entire sample averaged $119,250, 

with the Upper Keys’ respondents reporting the highest average values ($125,893) and 

the Middle Keys’ respondents the lowest average values ($106,964). When compared to 

the 1995-96 sample, when the average cost of vessels was $97,325 (SD = 299,643; n = 

204), vessel costs had increased by an average of almost $20,000. 

 calendar year (or 2005), but for spiny lobster and stone crab trap fisheries, the information concerned the 

previous fishing year (or 2004-05, as the seasons for both trap fisheries straddle two years). 
16 

In terms of gear costs, Middle Keys fishers reported the highest average totals and costs 

for trap gear. On average, respondents from the Middle Keys held more than 2,200 spiny 

lobster traps and 3,600 stone crab traps. As might be expected, Middle Keys’ fishers 

generally did not participate in other fisheries, as shown by the few respondents reporting 

“other gear” costs. Other gear included handline equipment (for fin fish), dive gear, and 

long lines. Finally, the average cost of nets was highest among Lower Keys and Middle 

Keys fishers, both of whom used large gillnets to target king and Spanish mackerel. 

Upper Keys fishers reporting nets generally used the gear type for more shallow water 

activities (ex. cast and other bait-specific nets). 

Table 6: Commercial fisher operating costs 

Item 1995-96 

sample 

Total Sample Upper Keys Middle Keys Lower Keys 

Docking fees n = 128 

$4,592.1 

(4,176.3) 

n = 88 

$5,362.2 

(6,039.4) 

n = 33 

$4,806.1 

(3,861.5) 

n = 17 

$2,889.6 

(1,756.5) 

n = 28 

$8,441.3 

(8,965.9) 

 

P&I insurance - n = 63 

$8,696.7 

(16,973) 

n = 22 

$6,247.7 

(5,085.2) 

n = 13 

$12,073 

(28,080) 

n = 28 

$9,660.7 

(16,727) 

 

Vessel repair 

and maintenance 

n = 287 

$13,868 

(22,124) 

n = 209 

$14,953 

(19,431) 

n = 54 

$16,256 

(23,569) 

n = 50 

$12,905 

(15,962) 

n = 105 

$15,258 

(18,624) 

 

Spiny lobster 

trap repair and 

maintenance 

- n = 131 

$19,910 

(24,430) 

n = 25 

$17,808 

(21,914) 

n = 47 

$14,625 

(14,776) 

n = 59 

$25,011 

(30,426) 

 

Stone crab trap 

repair and 

maintenance 

- n = 89 

$11,427 

(14,331) 

n = 17 

$5,678.1 

(6,683.2) 

n = 35 

$15,720 

(18,624) 

n = 37 

$10,008 

(10,907) 

 

Net repair and 

maintenance 

- n = 17 

$3,620.6 

(3,311.5) 

n = 5 

$290.0 

(124.2) 

n = 4 

$4,250.0 

(2,986.1) 

n = 8 

$5,387.5 

(3,084.7) 

 

Other gear repair 

and maintenance 

- n = 59 

$2,956.8 

(4,386.5) 

n = 22 

$4,313.6 

(6,217.9) 

n = 8 

$2,275.0 

(2,319.3) 

n = 29 

$2,115.5 

(2,684.1) 

 

Total gear repair 

and maintenance 

n = 168 

$10,327* 

(13,757) 

n = 177 

$21,517* 

(28,865) 

 

As shown in Table 6, commercial fishers incurred high operating costs in 2005 compared 

to 1996, as related to total gear repair and maintenance costs. This was mostly likely due 

to consecutive active hurricane seasons (particularly for the trap fisheries), commencing 

with Hurricanes Charley and Ivan in 2004, followed by Hurricanes Dennis, Katrina, Rita, 

and Wilma in 2005. Trap fisheries were impacted considerably, with the spiny lobster 
17 

industry reporting damage to 300,000 traps (or 54% of all traps in the fishery) in 2005, 

leading to the lowest landings in the fishery in 30 years (Clark, 2006). The Lower Keys, 

from Key West to Big Pine Key, were especially affected due to several of the storms 

(Hurricanes Charley and Ivan in 2004 and Hurricanes Dennis, Katrina, and Wilma) 

brushing or going over the islands and adjacent waters. Consequently, Lower Keys 

fishers reported higher repair and maintenance costs for spiny lobster traps than Middle 

or Upper Keys fishers, even though this region reported the lowest average lobster trap 

total. 

Other operating costs reported by the sample included docking fees, property and 

indemnity insurance, and vessel repair and maintenance costs. Only 19% and 22.7% of 

the Lower Keys and Middle Keys fishers, respectively, reported paying docking fees, 

compared to 44.6% of Upper Keys fishers. This finding is consistent with other research 

conducted with Florida Keys fishers (see Shivlani et al., 2004) and is related to the higher 

percentage of Middle and Lower Keys fishers who belong to fish houses, where they 

have an arrangement (ex. fish house fees) that covers dockage. A minority of fishers in 

each region reported paying for property and indemnity insurance, and the main reason 

given was the prohibitive cost of the insurance premium. Finally, apart from gear costs, 

the most common and among the highest of all operating costs reported were vessel 

repair and maintenance costs. Only a few fishers claimed that the vessel costs were in 

part related to hurricane damage, while a majority stated that the costs were routine 

maintenance and repair expenses. Altogether, the operating costs demonstrate the 

impacts of tropical storms on the regions’ commercial fisheries and especially those 

fisheries that rely on fixed gear (i.e. traps) that are often in the water during the peak of 

the Atlantic hurricane season. The high costs in maintaining a commercial fishery 

operation may also explain in part why the participation in the fishery may have declined 

in the decade between studies6

. 

4.1.3. Commercial fisher survey fishery information 

Fishers provided their effort, landings, and costs (on a per trip) data on the species that 

they targeted and the areas that they fished. Landings were provided for two years (2004-

05 or 2005 and 2003-04 or 20047

, as the research team decided that landings may have 

been affected in the latter season/year due to the active hurricane season and may not be 

representative for the sample). Table 7 shows the effort by species in the three regions. 

 

6

 It is not suggested that the operating costs comprise the primary or sole reason for a decline in 

participation in the commercial fishing industry in the Florida Keys. Clearly, fishery management 

regulations have played a role in reducing effort and/or landings, gentrification has increased land values, 

and tourism has intensified competition for resources and waterfront. However, in a county that has the 

highest cost of living in the State of Florida, high operating costs have added to the combination of factors 

that made commercial fishing less economically sustainable in the Florida Keys. 

7

 The research team collected landings, effort, and cost information for the 2003-04 or 2004 season to 

compare landings from the 2004-05 or 2005 season to determine whether there were significant differences 

in fishing profiles. However, the report compares the 2004-05 or 2005 season with the 1995-96 season to 

discuss changes in fishing patterns, due to the fact that the 2004-05 or 2005 season represents the most 

current fishing season characterized is thus the most recent, complete data set collected. 
18 

Table 7: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 effort (trips) 

Species 1995-96 

sample 

Total 

sample 

Upper 

Keys 

Middle 

Keys 

Lower 

Keys 

 

1. Stone crab n = 99 

59.1* 

(45.9) 

n = 84 

88.8* 

(67.8) 

n = 16 

55.9 

(73.7) 

n = 31 

111.1 

(69.0) 

n = 37 

84.5 

(58.5) 

 

2. Spiny lobster n = 140 

102.5 

(123.4) 

n = 123 

108.3 

(68.9) 

n = 25 

105.8 

(70.7) 

n = 37 

140.5 

(78.6) 

n = 61 

90.5 

(54.9) 

 

3. Shrimp n = 17 

152.6* 

(104.6) 

n = 3 

241.5* 

(93.8) 

- - n = 3 

241.5 

(93.8) 

 

4. Reef fish n = 119 

62.4 

(58.5) 

n = 49 

88.7 

(85.6) 

n = 16 

92.7 

(83.9) 

n = 3 

98.7 

(68.1) 

n = 30 

85.8 

(90.2) 

 

5. King mackerel n = 66 

32.0* 

(46.9) 

n = 25 

66.9* 

(77.4) 

n = 9 

86.1 

(69.7) 

n = 3 

3.7 

(2.9) 

n = 13 

68.2 

(86.3) 

 

6. Spanish mackerel - n = 8 

36.5 

(76.5) 

n = 1 

20.0 

n = 4 

8.5 

(8.5) 

n = 3 

79.3 

(126.3) 

 

7. Bait fish - n = 14 

90.9 

(81.1) 

n = 8 

102.9 

(86.4) 

n = 3 

36.7 

(20.8) 

n = 3 

113.3 

(102.1) 

 

8. Pelagics - n = 33 

135.2 

(89.4) 

n = 13 

119.6 

(85.3) 

n = 2 

125.0 

(106.1) 

n = 18 

147.5 

(94.3) 

 

9. Marine life n = 6 

145.0 

(106.0) 

n = 9 

173.7 

(100.7) 

n = 5 

104.6 

(72.4) 

- n = 4 

260.0 

(43.7) 

As shown in Table 7, most fishers in the sample targeted spiny lobster or stone crab. 

Importantly, the effort data showed that unlike in the 1995-96 study, fishers now tended 

to focus more on trap fisheries, as determined by the number of trips reported for each 

fishery. The average number of stone crab trips increased by more than 30% from 1995-

96 to 2004-05; lobster trips increased by over 37% in the same time period. In fact, effort 

in all 2004-05 fisheries, compared to the 1995-96 sample, increased while participation in 

the fishers (as a percentage of the total sample) remained similar or decreased. 
19 

Table 8: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 landings 

Species 1995-96 

sample 

Total 

sample 

Upper 

Keys 

Middle 

Keys 

Lower 

Keys 

 

1. Stone crab n = 101 

6,263.2* 

(7,960.0) 

n = 86 

7,377.7* 

(8,793.2) 

n = 14 

3,777.5 

(7,733.2) 

n = 34 

11,081 

(10,110) 

n = 38 

5,468.7 

(6,630.1) 

 

2. Spiny lobster n = 141 

17,353* 

(17,981) 

n = 120 

19,616* 

(18,592) 

n = 24 

12,422 

(10,818) 

n = 41 

21,052 

(22,411) 

n = 55 

21,685 

(17,633) 

 

3. Shrimp n = 17 

67,012 

(83,788) 

n = 2 

44,000 

(22,627) 

- - n = 2 

44,000 

(22,627) 

 

4. Reef fish n = 119 

7,861.4* 

(12,551) 

n = 44 

18,065* 

(32,765) 

n = 14 

25,993 

(52,437) 

n = 3 

20,667 

(16,921) 

n = 27 

14,636 

17,940 

 

5. King mackerel n = 65 

8,764.6 

(14,501) 

n = 23 

16,490 

(22,615) 

n = 8 

5,832.8 

(7,465.2) 

n = 4 

20,500 

(17,059) 

n = 11 

22,782 

(29,292) 

 

6. Spanish mackerel - n = 9 

42,222 

(48,191) 

n = 1 

200.0 

n = 5 

44,560 

(46,169) 

n = 3 

52,333 

(63,058) 

 

7. Bait fish - n = 15 

22,144 

(29,908) 

n = 7 

7,380.0 

(8,631.0) 

n = 5 

27,100 

(41,392) 

n = 3 

48,333 

(27,538) 

 

8. Pelagics - n = 33 

13,094 

(22,879) 

n = 12 

16,267 

(33,333) 

n = 3 

4,333.3 

(4,932.9) 

n = 18 

12,439 

(15,569) 

Landings in the fishery varied across species for the 2004-05 sample (see Table 8). In the 

two trap fisheries, participants averaged over 7,400 of stone crab claw pounds and almost 

20,000 spiny lobster pounds. These totals were comparable to the amounts reported by 

the 1995-96 sample. In almost all fisheries, while the number of participants decreased, 

the average catch totals remained similar or increased. The effort and landings results 

support the earlier discussed view on the ‘professionalization’ of the fishery, where the 

part time and multi-species fishers have declined in the ten-year period in between 

studies. Highly capitalized, full-time (and mainly trap) participants have emerged as the 

new Florida Keys fishers. 
20 

Table 9: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 average trip costsSpecies Sample Fuel and 

oil 

Ice Bait Food and 

supplies 

Other costs Total costs (except crew 

costs) 

1. Stone crab 2004-05 

n = 86 

$237.0 

(269.4) 

$11.9 

(63.3) 

$184.2 

(255.4) 

$21.8 

(45.1) 

$1.14 

(10.2) 

$456.2* 

(437.5) 

 1995-96 

n = 101 

$74.0 

(63.3) 

$2.41 

(8.89) 

$129.4 

(130.8) 

$18.5 

(17.1) 

$0.48 

(2.29) 

$257.2* 

(189.4) 

2. Spiny lobster 2004-05 

n = 128 

$294.5 

(394.3) 

$29.4 

(84.5) 

$93.1 

(199.1) 

$69.9 

(199.9) 

$4.67 

(44.9) 

$487.0* 

(771.1) 

 1995-96 

n = 140 

$122.3 

(196.7) 

$20.3 

(61.2) 

$96.7 

(259.4) 

$45.5 

(92.3) 

$3.47 

(22.4) 

$288.3* 

(548.8) 

3. Shrimp 2004-05 

n = 3 

$4,033.3 

(1,738.8) 

$673.3 

(502.1) 

- $600.0 

(0.0) 

- $5,307 

(2,185) 

 1995-96 

n = 18 

$2,232 

(1,330) 

$451.4 

(441.6) 

- $1,043 

(2,009) 

$185.1 

(607.8) 

$3,912 

(2,951) 

4. Reef fish 2004-05 

n = 47 

$220.3 

(336.6) 

$42.8 

(100.1) 

$110.0 

(173.3) 

$72.4 

(225.0) 

$0.63 

(4.38) 

$443.8 

(608.4) 

 1995-96 

n = 116 

$188.4 

(308.3) 

$47.4 

(87.5) 

$125.1 

(188.5) 

$78.5 

(113.1) 

$12.0 

(256.3) 

$451.5 

(622.3) 
21 

5. King mackerel 2004-05 

n = 24 

$351.0 

(375.9) 

$55.4 

(111.9) 

$70.0 

(185.6) 

$152.5 

(285.9) 

$4.38 

(12.5) 

$632.7* 

(551.3) 

 1995-96 

n = 65 

$197.3 

(300.0) 

$60.8 

(83.1) 

$55.4 

(93.3) 

$69.0 

(98.7) 

$8.54 

(24.1) 

$391.0* 

(464.5) 

6. Spanish mackerel 2004-05 

n = 9 

$337.2 

(368.7) 

$20.6 

(40.8) 

$11.7 

(23.2) 

$256.1 

(423.7) 

$16.7 

(5.56) 

- 

7. Bait fish 2004-05 

n = 13 

$191.1 

(187.2) 

$4.62 

(9.01) 

$8.15 

(16.1) 

$198.1 

(364.9) 

$2.31 

(8.32) 

- 

8. Pelagics 2005-05 

n = 31 

$217.6 

(222.6) 

$94.2 

(429.4) 

$123.4 

(314.6) 

$21.7 

(37.7) 

$1.06 

(5.40) 

- 

9. Marine life 2004-05 

n = 7 

$52.0 

(33.9) 

- - $14.3 

(13.7) 

- $66.3 

(44.2) 

 1995-96 

n = 6 

$42.7 

(19.7) 

$2.78 

(4.47) 

- $17.1 

(12.6) 

$20.9 

(23.1) 

$83.5 

(32.6) 
22 

The trip costs in Table 9 demonstrate the high costs of commercial fishing trips in the 

Florida Keys. Fuel costs generally dominated trip costs, with bait costs averaging as the 

second most expensive aspect of fishing for species such as stone crab, spiny lobster, and 

reef fish. Crew totals varied across fisheries, with species requiring additional labor for 

pulling traps and nets (i.e. the spiny lobster and stone crab trap fisheries and the shrimp 

and king mackerel net fisheries) reporting the highest average number of crew members. 

The survey instrument utilized two maps to determine areas fished. The first map used 

was similar to that used in the 1995-96 study and in subsequent efforts (Thomas J. 

Murray & Associates, 2007; Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 2005), except that it 

included an additional area, Area 7, denoting the Tortugas Ecological Reserve Study 

Area (see Figure 4). 

Figure 4: FKNMS fishing areas 

As shown in Figure 4, the survey instrument divided up the Florida Keys into fishing 

areas within and outside the FKNMS. Areas 2, 3, 5, and 7 are within the FKNMS, and 

Areas 1, 4, 5, and 6 are outside the FKNMS. Tables 9-12 show the landings by area for 

the entire region, Upper Keys, Middle Keys, and Lower Keys, respectively. 

Table 10 shows that landings varied considerably by area based on the species targeted. 

Fishers reported targeting stone crab mainly in areas 1, 2, and 3, in a triangle west of 

Florida Bay north to the Gulf of Mexico and west into the Marquesas Keys and east 

towards Key West. Spiny lobster was landed in many of the same areas as stone crab 

(namely areas 1, 2, and 3, which accounted for almost three quarters of the landings), but 

landings in areas 2 and 3 included catch from the South Atlantic side of those areas. 

Also, an important area for the spiny lobster fishery is the Dry Tortugas, included mostly 

in area 7, which accounted for 7.7% of the sample’s total landings. Reef fish was 

targeted mainly within FKNMS waters, with areas 2, 3, 5, and 7 comprising almost two-
23 

thirds of all landings. King and Spanish mackerel, important migratory coastal pelagics, 

were targeted by commercial fishers in the Lower Keys and the Gulf of Mexico, with 

areas 1 and 2 making up over 60% of king mackerel landings and 97.2% of Spanish 

mackerel catch (the latter being landed almost exclusively by nets). The other fin fish 

complex that was targeted by fishers across the region was that of pelagics (consisting 

primarily of cobia, dolphin, and wahoo), which were landed in offshore areas (areas 1, 4, 

and 6) and the western section of the FKNMS (area 2). 

Table 10: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area 

Species group Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 

Stone crab 

(n = 86) 

49.8 15.3 28.6 2.7 3.4 1.2 1.1 

Spiny lobster 

(n = 120) 

14.2 26.2 32.5 6.7 10.4 2.3 7.7 

Shrimp 

(n = 2) 

75.0 25.0 - - - - - 

Reef fish 

(n = 45) 

8.2 16.0 14.9 17.2 23.1 9.8 10.8 

King mackerel 

(n = 23) 

28.7 32.6 4.2 14.0 6.9 8.3 5.4 

Spanish mackerel 

(n = 9) 

41.9 55.3 - 2.6 - 0.1 0.1 

Baitfish 

(n = 15) 

6.0 66.7 9.9 3.0 11.4 3.0 - 

Pelagics 

(n = 33) 

19.7 23.2 5.3 25.5 4.4 20.7 1.1 

As shown in Table 11, Upper Keys fishers generally targeted species in areas 5 and 6, the 

former of which is located in the Upper Keys section of the FKNMS and latter of which 

is the Upper Keys’ South Atlantic offshore region. The only species that was mainly 

targeted outside those areas was stone crab, of which 62.2% was harvested from area 1 

(Gulf of Mexico). This is partly due to the favorable fishing grounds in that area, as well 

as the lack of adequate stone crab fishing grounds in the Upper Keys (especially in the 

mid and lower Upper Keys). Other species, including spiny lobster, reef fish, king 

mackerel, bait fish, and pelagics, were all largely targeted in the Upper Keys. Species 

such as spiny lobster, reef fish, and bait fish, which are either very coastal or are reefrelated, were landed within FKNMS waters (area 5), whereas more pelagic species were 

targeted in the offshore region of the Upper Keys. 

 
24 

Table 11: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area - Upper Keys

Species group Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 

Stone crab 

(n = 14) 

62.2 - 9.1 - 28.6 0.1 - 

Spiny lobster 

(n = 24) 

- - 19.0 1.8 67.0 12.2 - 

Reef fish 

(n = 15) 

1.6 11.3 3.5 18.0 41.7 17.8 6.1 

King mackerel 

(n = 8) 

16.1 18.0 - 6.4 22.3 37.0 0.2 

Spanish mackerel 

(n = 1) 

- - - - 20 80 - 

Baitfish 

(n = 7) 

- 7.7 - - 72.9 19.4 - 

Pelagics 

(n = 12) 

20.3 - 0.2 24.3 9.5 45.7 - 

Middle Keys fishers largely targeted areas 1 and 3 for the two main species, spiny lobster 

and stone crab, by the most of the region’s sample (see Table 12). Fishers placed stone 

crab traps mainly in area 1 (Gulf of Mexico), followed by area 3. Together, these two 

areas contributed almost 95% of the Middle Keys respondents’ total landings. Similarly, 

areas 1 and 3 provided over 81% of the regional sample’s spiny lobster production, with 

less being landed in the deeper south Atlantic (area 4) and western FKNMS (area 2). 

Table 12: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area - Middle Keys

Species group Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 

Stone crab 

(n = 34) 

59.6 0.6 35.0 3.1 1.6 - - 

Spiny lobster 

(n = 41) 

28.8 3.7 52.6 9.3 5.2 0.3 - 

Reef fish 

(n = 3) 

- 20.2 56.4 3.2 - - 20.2 

King mackerel 

(n = 4) 

54.9 43.9 - - - - 1.2 

Spanish mackerel 

(n = 5) 

32.7 51.1 - 16.0 - - 0.2 

Bait fish 

(n = 5) 

7.4 84.9 7.7 - - - - 

Pelagics 

(n = 3) 

- 76.9 15.4 3.8 3.8 - - 

Lower Keys’ fishers, like their counterparts in the Upper and Middle Keys, mostly fished 

in adjacent waters and targeted the two main trap fisheries; fewer targeted fin fish, 

including reef fish, pelagics, and king mackerel (see Table 13). Most of both trap 

fisheries were located in the western FKNMS (area 2), between Key West and Rebecca 

Shoal, and while an additional 14.7% of spiny lobster landings originated from the Dry 

Tortugas (area 7), the stone crab fishery did not extend further west beyond area 2. Reef 

fish was another fishery that had an important component in area 7, which comprised 

one-sixth of the sample’s regional fishery landings. King mackerel landings were 
25 

skewed towards areas 1 and 2, fishing grounds for the net fishery; however, the hook and 

line segment of the fishery targeted various areas, including areas 4 and 7. The net 

fishing fleet accounted for the entire Spanish mackerel landings distribution, which was 

concentrated in areas 1 and 2. The regional sample consisted of several fishers who 

targeted pelagics, and the Lower Keys’ pelagics fishing grounds consisted mainly of 

areas 1, 2, and 4; thus, pelagics fishers either fished north in the Gulf of Mexico (20.5%), 

south to the South Atlantic Ocean (27.8%), or west from Key West towards Rebecca 

Shoal (27.8%). Finally, it is important to discuss the declining shrimp fishery, which is 

located solely in Stock Island. In the 1995-96 study, the field research led to the 

identification of almost 20 shrimp fishers who docked in and fished out of Stock Island. 

In a recent study on the Tortugas Ecological Reserve, Thomas J. Murray & Associates 

(2005) determined that the Lower Keys shrimp fishery consisted of less than ten 

participants. The research team surveyed three of these remaining shrimp fishers. 

Table 13: Commercial fisher 2004-05/2005 season landings by area - Lower Keys

Species 

group 

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 

Stone crab 

(n = 38) 

28.9 45.5 21.8 2.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 

Spiny 

lobster 

(n = 55) 

6.7 48.6 21.4 5.8 1.6 1.2 14.7 

Shrimp 

(n = 2) 

75.0 25.0 - - - - - 

Reef fish 

(n = 27) 

18.7 22.0 24.8 18.3 0.1 - 16.1 

King 

mackerel 

(n = 11) 

22.4 31.6 6.4 19.9 6.2 5.7 7.7 

Spanish 

mackerel 

(n = 3) 

49.3 50.7 - - - - - 

Bait fish 

(n = 3) 

6.9 70.7 15.5 6.9 - - - 

Pelagics 

(n = 18) 

20.5 40.4 9.2 27.8 - - 2.1 
26 

Figure 5: Commercial fisher spiny lobster landings 
27 

Figure 6: Commercial fisher spiny lobster landings - Upper Keys 
28 

Figure 7: Commercial fisher lobster landings - Middle Keys 
29 

Figure 8: Commercial fisher spiny lobster landings - Lower Keys
30 

Figures 5 to 8 show spiny lobster landings in the FKNMS, as reported by 120 fishers 

from the 2004-05 sample. Figure 5 shows landings across the Florida Keys for all fishers 

who reported spiny lobster landings, demonstrating that the fishery is spread across the 

entire region; however, the map also identifies ‘hotspots’ in the fishery, areas where 

landings are highest. In the Upper Keys, the South Atlantic side off Key Largo extending 

towards Islamorada represented an area of high landings. Similarly, the southwestern 

section of the Marquesas Keys in the western FKNMS produced high landings. It should 

also be noted that spiny lobster landings for the season largely occurred in the nearshore 

waters off either side of the Florida Keys, and that while landings extended well north 

into the Gulf of Mexico and south in the western parts of the archipelago, most of the 

landings were concentrated in areas closer to the islands and within the FKNMS. 

The spiny lobster landings areas shown in Figure 6 were concentrated mainly along the 

Upper Keys reef tract, confirming the territorial nature of the region’s (mainly) trap 

fishery. Fewer fishers targeted spiny lobster in the Middle Keys and fewer still in the 

Lower Keys. The Upper Keys fishery also extended into Biscayne Bay, reaching areas 

adjacent to Miami-Dade County. 

Figure 7 shows that Middle Keys fishers took advantage of their geographical location by 

fishing both Lower and Upper Keys sections; however, the most concentrated landings 

originated from northern parts of the Middle Keys and northeast along the island chain. 

Few landings came from western parts of the Lower Keys, including the Dry Tortugas. 

Figure 8 shows that Lower Keys fishers targeted the Lower Keys regions east and west of 

Key West, with most landings originating from either around the islands (Key West to 

the Content Keys) and north and south of the Marquesas. Use west of Key West 

extended considerably into the Gulf of Mexico and the Dry Tortugas, with lobster 

landings being reported for areas adjacent to the two sections of the Tortugas Ecological 

Reserve. 
31 

Figure 9: Commercial fisher stone crab landings 
32 

Figure 10: Commercial fisher stone crab landings - Upper Keys 
33 

Figure 11: Commercial fisher stone crab landings - Middle Keys 
34 

Figure 12: Commercial fisher stone crab landings - Lower Keys 
35 

Figures 9-12 show stone crab landings in the Florida Keys, as reported by the sample for 

the 2004-05 season (n = 86). Landings in the region including the entire FKNMS, but as 

with other species, Figure 9 shows that there were hotspots in which more stone crab was 

harvested than across the region. Most of the more heavily fished areas of the fishery 

were located in the middle section of the Florida Keys (on both sides of the Middle 

Keys). 

As Figure 10 shows, the Upper Keys’ stone crab landings were concentrated mainly in 

the Upper Keys regions south of Everglades National Park (where commercial fishing is 

prohibited)) and in Barnes and Card Sounds in the northern Florida Keys. The region 

contained the fewest traps and had the lowest catch, due in part to the lack of suitable 

stone crab habitat. 

Figure 11 shows the Middle Keys’ stone crab landings, which were concentrated on both 

sides of the Middle and Lower Keys and which extended into the western Gulf of 

Mexico. Although several respondents fished a considerable distance from port, the 

figure shows that most landings were concentrated around the principal port of Marathon 

in the Middle Keys. 

Figure 12 shows that Lower Keys fishers separated much of their effort (and landings) 

from the adjacent Middle Keys fishers by concentrating in areas north and northeast of 

the Lower Keys and also in the western Florida Keys. Most overlap between fishers from 

the two regions (Lower and Middle Keys) occurred in the along the northern and 

northeastern sections of the Lower Keys. 
36 

Figure 13: Commercial fisher reef fish landings
37 

Figure 14: Commercial fisher reef fish landings - Upper Keys
38 

Figure 15: Commercial fisher reef fish landings - Middle Keys
39 

Figure 16: Commercial fisher reef fish landings - Lower Keys
40 

Figures 13-16 show reef fishing landings in the Florida Keys, as reported by 45 

respondents. Catch was prevalent all over the islands, both inside and out of the FKNMS 

(Figure 13. Landings were mostly concentrated in the Lower Keys, the western Gulf of 

Mexico and the South Atlantic. 

Upper Keys fishers’ landings (Figure 14) represented one of the few exceptions in all use 

profiles in that the landings were not restricted to the region in which the fishers resided. 

Instead, Upper Keys fishers targeted the entire Florida Keys and especially the South 

Atlantic section of the Lower Keys and areas north and west of the Dry Tortugas. 

Middle Keys fishers’ reef fish landings were more concentrated around their main port 

than those of Upper Keys fishers, and most fished in between the Middle and Lower 

Keys (Figure 15). However, there were landings along the eastern Gulf of Mexico. 

As shown in Figure 16, Lower Keys fishers harvested reef fish only in the Lower Keys 

and Dry Tortugas, but where landings areas extended considerably north into the Gulf of 

Mexico and south into the South Atlantic Ocean. The most concentrated landings were 

in a swath inside the FKNMS, extending west from Big Pine Key to the Dry Tortugas. 
41 

Figure 17: Commercial fisher pelagics landings
42 

Figure 18: Commercial fisher pelagics landings - Upper Keys
43 

Figure 19: Commercial fisher pelagics landings - Middle Keys
44 

Figure 20: Commercial fisher pelagics landings - Lower Keys
45 

Figures 17-20 show the distribution of pelagic fin fish landing in the Florida Keys, as 

reported by 33 fishers in the 2004-05 sample. Fishers targeted cobia, dolphin, tuna, and 

wahoo (among other pelagics) mainly along the southern sections of the region, and a 

majority of the harvest originated from outside the FKNMS (Figure 17). This finding is 

to be expected, as the pelagics targeted are found further from shore (in deeper waters), 

generally outside of the FKNMS boundary. 

Figure 18 shows the Upper Keys fisher’s pelagics landings, which were concentrated 

almost exclusively in the deeper waters south and southwest of the Upper Keys. 

Landings were highest in the northern section, and some harvest spilled over into the 

Middle Keys. 

Due in part to the low participation rates in pelagics among Middle Keys fishers, the 

pelagics landings from that region were isolated in three areas, north and south of 

Marathon (Figure 19). Landings were concentrated in a region just south of the Middle 

Keys, and it extended towards the Upper Keys. 

Lower Keys fishers used a wide area (located mainly in and around the Lower Keys), 

from south of Big Pine Key to the east past the Dry Tortugas to the west, to target 

pelagics (Figure 20). Both the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic areas outside the 

FKNMS were fished extensively. Also, as noted in a recent study on Tortugas Ecological 

Reserve (Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 2005), landings within the Dry Tortugas 

region were limited to the eastern end of the region. 
46 

Figure 21: Marine life collection in the Florida Keys
47 

Figure 21 shows the effort8

 reported by the 13 marine life collectors in the 2004-05 

sample. The collectors took trips all over the Florida Keys, from the Upper Keys to the 

Marquesas Keys. Most of the effort was from within the FKNMS (and it is likely that 

those persons reporting trips from outside the FKNMS may have done so erroneously), 

with the most concentrated effort occurring south of the Lower Keys. 

 

8

 Unlike the other maps in this section which are based on landings, the marine life collector map is based 

on effort, or trips. This is because marine life collectors harvest a large variety of species whose value is 

often derived by numbers and not weight. Moreover, not all collectors harvest the same species or the 

same suite of species. 
48 

Table 14: Percentage of commercial fishers fishing around FKNMS zones – based on total sampleFKNMS zone Spiny lobster Stone crab Reef fish Pelagics Marine life Migratory 1. Dry Tortugas Ecological Reserve 8.5 3.4 8.2 2.4 - - 2. Sambos Ecological Reserve 17.0 6.5 2.7 0.7 2.0 0.7 3. Sand Key SPA 9.2 4.1 0.3 4.1 1.4 - 4. Rock Key SPA 9.5 3.1 0.3 3.1 1.4 - 5. Eastern Dry Rocks SPA 6.5 3.4 0.3 2.0 1.0 - 6. Looe Key SPA 1.0 5.8 3.7 0.3 2.0 0.7 7. Newfound Harbor Key SPA 0.7 7.5 1.4 - 1.4 0.3 8. Sombrero Key SPA 1.7 3.7 1.7 0.3 1.7 0.3 9. Coffins Patch SPA 2.4 3.4 0.7 0.3 1.4 - 10. Cheeca Rocks SPA 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.7 0.3 11. Alligator Reef SPA 3.7 1.7 1.7 1.4 2.0 0.3 12. Hen and Chickens SPA 2.7 1.7 1.0 1.4 1.7 0.3 13. Conch Reef SPA 5.4 0.7 1.4 1.4 2.0 0.3 14. Molasses Reef SPA 4.1 - 2.0 1.4 1.7 0.3 15. French Reef SPA 4.1 0.3 0.7 - 1.4 - 16. Grecian Rocks SPA 3.4 - 0.7 - 1.4 - 17. Dry Rocks SPA 2.7 - 0.3 - 1.4 - 18. The Elbow SPA 3.7 - 1.7 - 1.4 - 19. Carysfort/South Carysfort SPA 3.4 0.3 1.4 - 1.4 - 20. Eastern Sambos SUA - 0.3 - - 1.4 - 21. Looe Key SUA - 3.4 0.7 - 1.7 - 22. Tennessee Reef SUA 2.7 4.1 1.0 0.3 1.7 - 23. Conch Reef SUA 2.0 0.7 0.3 0.7 1.7 - 
49 

Table 15: Percentage of commercial fishers fishing around FKNMS zones – based on participants in each fishery FKNMS zone Spiny lobster Stone crab Reef fish Pelagics Marine life Migratory 1. Dry Tortugas Ecological Reserve 20.5 12.7 49.2 21.4 - - 2. Sambos Ecological Reserve 41.0 24.2 16.2 6.2 65.3 8.2 3. Sand Key SPA 22.2 15.3 1.8 36.5 45.7 - 4. Rock Key SPA 22.9 11.5 1.8 27.6 45.7 - 5. Eastern Dry Rocks SPA 15.7 12.7 1.8 17.8 32.7 - 6. Looe Key SPA 2.4 21.6 22.2 2.7 65.3 8.2 7. Newfound Harbor Key SPA 1.7 27.9 8.4 - 45.7 3.5 8. Sombrero Key SPA 4.1 13.8 10.2 2.7 55.5 3.5 9. Coffins Patch SPA 5.8 12.7 4.2 2.7 45.7 - 10. Cheeca Rocks SPA 2.4 3.7 8.4 8.9 55.5 3.5 11. Alligator Reef SPA 8.9 6.3 10.2 12.5 65.3 3.5 12. Hen and Chickens SPA 6.5 6.3 6.0 12.5 55.5 3.5 13. Conch Reef SPA 13.0 2.6 8.4 12.5 65.3 3.5 14. Molasses Reef SPA 9.9 - 12.0 12.5 55.5 3.5 15. French Reef SPA 9.9 1.1 4.2 - 45.7 - 16. Grecian Rocks SPA 8.2 - 4.2 - 45.7 - 17. Dry Rocks SPA 6.5 - 1.8 - 45.7 - 18. The Elbow SPA 8.9 - 10.2 - 45.7 - 19. Carysfort/South Carysfort SPA 8.2 1.1 8.4 - 45.7 - 20. Eastern Sambos SUA - 1.1 - - 45.7 - 21. Looe Key SUA - 12.7 4.2 - 55.5 - 22. Tennessee Reef SUA 6.5 15.3 6.0 2.7 55.5 - 23. Conch Reef SUA 4.8 2.6 1.8 6.2 55.5 - 
50 

Tables 14 and 15 present the percentage of commercial fishers in the sample and per 

fishery, respectively, that fished around the Ecological reserves (ERs), Sanctuary 

preservation areas (SPAs), and Special-use areas (SUAs). Fishers generally reported 

fishing spiny lobster and stone crab around most of the FKNMS zones, with the ERs 

attracting the most use. Over 40% of all spiny lobster fishers reported targeting area 

around Sambos Ecological Reserve for spiny lobster. The Tortugas Ecological Reserve 

region attracted almost half of all reef fish fishers. Areas around the smaller SPAs and 

SUAs did not attract as many fishers, suggesting that these zones do not provide much 

spillover benefit. However, a large percentage of the marine life collectors (a third or 

greater) targeted all zones except for the Tortugas Ecological Reserve. As might be 

expected, few zones offered benefits for those fishers targeting pelagics or migratory 

species (such as king mackerel), but Rock Key and Sand Key SPAs were important to 

over a quarter of pelagic fishers (in part as charter fishing trips). Similarly, although 

most areas around FKNMS zones were not important to bait fish fishers, the areas around 

Alligator Reef and Conch Reef SPAs were, attracting over half of all bait fish fishers in 

the sample. 

Catch totals around these areas had remained largely unchanged (average differences in 

catches of +/- 10% around most zones), suggesting that fishers did not perceive either 

measurable spillover effects or insurmountable displacement impacts. Even fishers who 

targeted the larger zones (TER = 1.2% change and SER = 2.6% change) did not perceive 

large shifts in resource abundance around the zones. It is also noted that experiences 

among fishers varied around zone and by species, and the average change in overall catch 

rates is at best a crude measure. However, the results corroborate the spatial data 

described earlier in this section, showing how certain areas (ex. TER for spiny lobster and 

reef fish) are important for particular species. The other important result from these 

tables relates to the aforementioned, disproportionate effort reported by marine life 

collectors around these zones. While the zones, with the exception of the TER, do not 

affect many users, marine life collectors are highly dependent on the areas around almost 

all of the zones. 

4.1.4. Commercial fisher survey attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs 

Fishers described their views on the information sources on the FKNMS and their 

perceptions concerning the FKNMS process and its outcomes, the FKNMS zones, and 

FKNMS performance. 

As shown in Table 16, commercial fishers used a variety of sources to learn about the 

FKNMS. Word of mouth represented the most common source of information, followed 

by FKNMS literature and FKNMS signage. Fewer fishers used media sources, among 

which newspapers were more often used than television or radio. Finally, few 

respondents identified direct contact with FKNMS staff or the Sanctuary Advisory 

Council as a source of information. There were several regional differences in which 

information source was utilized. Generally, Upper Keys fishers were better informed via 

most sources than their Middle and Lower Keys’ counterparts. 
51 

When compared to the 1995-96 sample, fewer members of the 2004-05 sample received 

information on the FKNMS9 from almost all similar sources. Newspapers and word of 

mouth served as the most important sources for fishers wanting to learn about the then 

FKNMS Draft Management Plan’s zoning strategy and its potential impacts on their 

activities. However, because the FKNMS was implemented in July 1997, including its 

zoning and nine other action plans, information sources probably became less important 

to commercial fishers (with the noted exception of Dry Tortugas fishers from 1998-2001 

period, during the Tortugas 2000 process). 

Table 16: Commercial fisher FKNMS sources of information 

Information source 1995-96 

sample 

(n = 336) 

Total 

sample 

(n = 294) 

Upper 

Keys 

(n = 74) 

Middle 

Keys 

(n = 75) 

Lower 

Keys 

(n = 145) 

1. FKNMS website - 9.2 9.5 14.7 6.2 

2. FKNMS staff 22.6 11.2 17.6 4.0 11.7 

3. Sanctuary Advisory 

Council 

- 9.2 13.5 17.3 2.8 

4. FKNMS literature 28.9 26.5 43.2 32.0 15.2 

5. FKNMS signage - 22.5 25.7 13.3 25.5 

6. Newspapers 75.0 19.1 41.9 22.7 5.5 

7. Radio 45.5 14.6 14.9 13.3 15.2 

8. TV 45.5 13.3 25.7 24.0 1.4 

9. Word of mouth 66.4 27.9 44.6 40.0 13.1 

Fishers ranked the usefulness of the information sources on the FKNMS, generally rating 

each source used as among the most important; the results suggest that fishers sought 

sources that they believed would be the most useful, a finding in direct contrast to that 

found in the earlier study, where more fishers used a larger variety of information sources 

and then identified the most useful of these sources. Also, because a majority of fishers 

in the present study did not utilize multiple FKNMS information sources, as did the 

1995-96 sample, their views on the usefulness of information sources were generally 

shaped by the fewer sources they referenced. 

The sample provided its views on the transparency and fairness of the 1995-97 FKNMS 

designation process and the efficacy (even presence) of feedback and adaptive 

mechanisms since the implementation of the FKNMS. The questions used in the present 

study were all modified (in the past tense) from the 1995-96 study, when the same 

questions were presented in the conditional or future tense. 

Table 17 shows that the overall views of commercial fishers on the FNKMS process had 

moderated since the 1995-96 study. The average response to the question (Question 1) 

concerning openness and fairness of the FKNMS zone designation process was 

significantly lower (i.e. more agreement) among 2004-05 study fishers than among 1995-

 

9

 The 1995-96 commercial fisher survey question on information sources requested that respondents 

identify sources they used on obtaining information on the then draft FKNMS zoning strategy; thus, the 

link between the earlier and 2004-05 sample is not direct and should be viewed as a general comparison, in 

how fishers received information in the two studies. 
52 

96 fishers. Similarly, the earlier study’s sample was significantly more in agreement with 

the questions (Questions 4 and 5) that NOAA had not paid attention to local government 

and individual citizen concerns than were 2004-05 study respondents. In Question 6, 

1995-96 study fishers were generally in agreement that there would be no way that the 

average person would be able to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of FKNMS 

regulations. While the average response among fishers in the present study also 

suggested that they agreed with this question, the level of agreement was significantly 

lower than in the earlier study. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the views held by 

the two samples in Question 7 elucidate the shift in fisher opinions on the FKNMS 

process. In 1996, fishers disagreed that the procedures that NOAA would adopt to 

address violation of FKNMS regulations would be fair and just. After a decade of 

FKNMS management, fishers changed that view, and the average response to the same 

question in the 2004-05 sample was slight agreement. 

While the changes in between the two studies show perhaps a greater acceptance of the 

FKNMS and its zoning strategy over time, it should be noted that fishers nevertheless 

remained wary of many aspects of the FKNMS. As shown in Table 14, over half of the 

2004-05 study sample disagreed that the processes that NOAA used to develop the 

FKNMS rules and regulations and the boundaries and regulations for the FKNMS zones 

were open and fair. Also, over 60% of the respondents agreed that participation did not 

matter in the process, and that the average person could not influence the final decisions. 

These results suggest a sense of inevitability within and isolation from the decisionmaking process, shared among both the 2004-05 and 1995-96 studies’ samples. 
53 

Table 17: Commercial fisher views on the FKNMS process 

Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongly disagree 

Dkn

1. The process that NOAA has used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS was open and fair to all groups. 

2004-05 (n = 294) 

10.9 17.0 11.2 15.3 35.7 8.

 1994-95 

(n = 317) 

8.5 16.1 6.6 12.0 34.7 22

2. The process has used by NOAA to develop boundaries and regulations for the FKNMS zones was open and fair to all groups. 

2004-05 (n = 294) 

10.2 17.4 15.3 14.3 37.1 4.

 1995-96 

(n = 315) 

3.2 5.7 6.0 14.0 47.6 23

3. It has not mattered whether the average person participated in the workshops and meeting on the FKNMS because the average person could not influence the final decisions. 

2004-05 (n = 293) 

49.5 13.3 5.1 13.3 11.6 6.

 1995-96 

(n = 318) 

53.8 13.8 4.4 9.4 8.8 9.

4. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of local and state governments in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

2004-05 (n = 292) 

25.7 11.6 14.4 16.4 13.4 18

 1995-96 

(n = 316) 

52.2 12.7 7.0 4.1 3.8 20

5. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of individual citizens in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

2004-05 (N = 293) 

46.1 12.0 10.6 13.7 10.6 7.

 1995-96 

(n = 316) 

62.3 13.3 2.53 3.8 3.5 14
54 

6. Once that the FKNMS regulations have been in effect, there has been no way that the average person to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of the regulations. 

2004-05 (n = 285) 

49.1 14.0 10.2 11.6 9.1 6.

 1995-96 

(n = 318) 

70.0 7.2 1.3 5.7 5.0 13

7. The procedures that NOAA has established to deal with violations of FKNMS regulations have been fair and just. 

2004-05 (n = 283) 

19.8 20.1 13.4 10.3 20.1 16

 1995-96 

(n = 315) 

2.5 5.7 4.8 6.7 50.2 30

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree 
55 

Next, fishers provided their views on the outcomes and/or performance of the FKNMS 

zones, as determined by the main purpose of the zones (i.e. the reason why the zones 

were designated), the groups that have most benefited from the zones, and fisher support 

for zones. Unlike in the earlier study when all FKNMS zone types were considered 

together (as ‘FKNMS’ zones), the present study divided the zones into their three main 

types that address access10 and use: Ecological reserves (ERs), Sanctuary preservation 

areas (SPAs), and Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs)11. 

Table 18: Commercial fishers' views on FKNMS zone purpose and beneficiaries 

As shown in Table 18, most commercial fishers believed that the main purpose of the 

FKNMS zones is to conserve and protect corals, fish, and other marine life. Related in 

part to that view, the second most frequent purpose listed was that of increasing stocks 

and biomass within the zones. However, fewer fishers believed that the main purpose of 

the FKNMS zones is to export stocks and biomass from the zones (i.e. the replenishment 

concept). It is important to note that fishers, even after a decade of FKNMS 

management, had not embraced replenishment as one of the purposes of the zoning 

strategy, a position that had in part led to the renaming of replenishment reserves to 

 

10 A fourth type of zone, Special-use Areas (SUAs), also affects access in the FKNMS (NOAA, 1996); 

however, the FKNMS contains only four, very small SUAs, and these zones prohibit all activities, 

including consumptive and nonconsumptive uses. As discussed in the FKNMS management plan and 

corroborated by regional user group studies (Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 2007; Shivlani and Suman, 

2000; Milon et al., 1997), very few stakeholders used and/or were negatively affected by the SUAs. 

11 The FKNMS includes a total of 27 Wildlife Management Areas, of which seven were created during the 

FKNMS designation process and are managed exclusively by the FKNMS. The remaining 20 WMAs 

existed prior to the implementation of the FKNMS, and these are co-managed by the FKNMS and the US 

Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Question 1995-96 

sample 

Ecological 

reserves 

Sanctuary 

preservation 

areas 

Wildlife 

management 

areas 

1. Which of the following represents 

the main purpose of the FKNMS 

zones? 

 

a. Increasing overall fish stocks and 

biomass inside the zones 

44.3 40.5 35.4 16.7 

b. Increasing overall fish stocks and 

biomass outside the zones 

23.1 22.5 26.2 15.0 

c. Conserving and protecting corals, 

fish, and other marine life 

39.0 42.9 51.4 25.5 

d. Resolving user group conflicts 8.2 12.9 8.8 

e. Supporting scientific research 22.8 25.5 15.0 

 

2. Which groups have benefited the 

most from FKNMS zones? 

 

a. Commercial fishers 5.4 16.3 16.3 8.8 

b. Recreational/sport fishers 32.1 25.5 33.7 19.1 

c. Commercial dive operators 36.4 46.9 23.5 

d. Recreational (local and tourist) 

divers 

67.9 44.6 59.5 27.6 

 
56 

ecological reserves (Suman et al., 1999; NOAA, 1996). Fewer fishers believed that the 

main purpose of the zones is to resolve user group conflicts. Also, most respondents 

perceived ERs and SPAs as having similar purposes, as determined by the similar 

percentages provided for each zone type. However, fishers differentiated ERs and SPAs 

from WMAs, the latter which only a quarter or less of the sample attributed with any 

purpose. The results suggest that the respondents were mostly unfamiliar with WMAs, 

especially in terms of their purpose. 

Also, Table 18 shows the sample’s view on FKNMS zone beneficiaries. A majority of 

fishers in both the 2004-05 and 1995-96 samples identified recreational divers as the 

primary beneficiaries of the FKNMS zones. Their own group, that of commercial fishers, 

was perceived as the group that has least benefited from the FKNMS zones, a perception 

that remained unchanged since the earlier study. However, more fishers (16.3%) listed 

their group as benefiting from ERs and SPAs than did the 5.4% of fishers in the 1995-96 

sample. 

Importantly, the results show that fishers were able to separate objectives and 

beneficiaries between zone types, especially as these related to ERs and SPAs. For 

instance, a higher percentage of respondents (40.5%) listed ERs for having the purpose of 

increasing stocks and biomass within the ERs than did fishers (35.4%) who listed SPAs. 

Conversely, more fishers (59.5%) identified recreational divers as the primary 

beneficiaries of SPAs than did fishers (44.6%) who listed ERs. These differences suggest 

that the respondents understood that the smaller SPAs were designed to attract 

recreational use whereas the larger ERs were set up to protect ecosystem function. The 

results also demonstrate that the fishers were largely unsure of the WMAs, both in terms 

of their purpose and beneficiaries. As most of these zones had already been in existence 

prior to the FKNMS and are mainly associated with access regulations around islands, it 

is likely that fishers do not usually use the areas (or the vicinity). 

Finally, fishers provided their opinions on the effectiveness of zones and their willingness 

to support present and future zones in the FKNMS. Table 19 demonstrates that 

respondents generally disagreed that FKNMS zones had either reduced conflicts or been 

effective in restoring coral reefs in the region. However, in terms of zone support and 

performance, fishers were more in favor of smaller zones such as the SPAs or WMAs but 

less so of ERs. Thus, the average responses provided for support for FKNMS zones in 

the Upper, Middle, and Lower Keys were generally more favorable for SPAs and WMAs 

than for ERs (although it should be noted from the response rates that many fishers opted 

not to provide opinions on WMAs, whose function and benefits were less clearly 

understood than those of the ERs and SPAs). Although fishers moderated their views on 

zones in particular regions (ex. a potential NIMBY response), they rejected the option of 

having more FKNMS zones. 

An important finding in comparing the 2004-05 and 1995-96 samples was that the results 

on FKNMS zones suggest that fishers now are less trenchant in their views concerning 

marine protected areas. The average response for all questions concerning FKNMS 

zones and their benefits in the 1995-96 sample was 4.00 or greater (on a scale from 1 to 
57 

5, where 1 means strongly agree and 5 means strongly disagree). These means were all 

significantly higher for means of the same questions in the 2004-05 sample on ERs and 

SPAs, which were 3.7 or lower (WMA means were not compared as these were not used 

as part of the 1995-96 study). While fishers from the present study did not agree that 

FKNMS zones have reduced conflicts or been effective in restoring coral reefs in the 

Florida Keys, their average responses to these questions were significantly less skewed 

towards disagreement than were average responses by the 1995-96 sample. Similarly, 

support for FKNMS zones as they are currently established or in parts of the Florida 

Keys was higher among the current sample than the previous one. Along with the views 

on the FKNMS process, these findings show that the commercial fishing industry may 

have shifted moderately towards less disagreement over FKNMS policies over the past 

decade. 
58 

Table 19: Commercial fisher views on the outcomes of FKNMS zones Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongly disagre

1. FKNMS zones have reduced conflicts between different user groups. 

ER (n = 192) SPA (n = 246) WMA (n = 152) 1996 (n = 318) 

5.2 9.8 9.9 3.8 

17.2 17.9 17.8 7.6 

20.3 23.2 21.1 4.7 

13.5 14.2 13.8 7.9 

43.8 34.2 34.2 66.9 

2. FKNMS zones have been effective in restoring coral reefs in the Florida Keys to what they used to be. 

ER (n = 207) SPA (n = 248) WMA (n = 139) 1996 (n = 316) 

13.5 15.7 13.0 7.9 

19.3 19.0 13.0 11.1 

14.0 16.1 18.0 5.4 

13.0 16.1 11.5 8.9 

36.7 30.6 36.7 60.4 

3. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones as they are established currently. 

ER (n = 207) SPA (n = 258) WMA (n = 170) 1996 (n = 318) 

22.7 24.4 27.1 1.9 

16.9 21.3 17.1 3.8 

10.6 9.3 14.1 3.8 

12.1 12.8 11.2 5.7 

36.2 30.6 25.9 80.5 

4. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Upper Keys. 

ER (n = 191) SPA (n = 248) WMA (n = 157) 

23.6 25.4 26.8 

14.7 18.2 14.7 

13.6 13.7 14.7 

10.5 8.5 10.8 

34.0 20.6 27.4 
59 

* all 1995-96 and ER and SPA means are statistically significant (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) **1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree

1996 (n = 315) 9.5 13.3 7.3 2.9 62.2 

5. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Middle Keys. 

ER (n = 199) SPA (n = 249) WMA (n = 158) 1996 (n = 314) 

20.6 23.7 24.1 7.3 

15.1 18.5 14.6 10.8 

15.1 15.3 16.5 5.4 

11.1 9.2 10.1 4.8 

34.7 30.1 29.1 66.6 

6. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Lower Keys. 

ER (n = 203) SPA (n = 249) WMA (n = 160) 1996 (n = 315) 

19.7 22.5 21.9 7.6 

16.3 18.9 16.2 13.6 

12.8 14.9 16.2 4.8 

9.8 8.8 10.0 2.9 

37.4 30.9 20.0 67.6 

7. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Dry Tortugas. 

ER (n = 213) SPA (n = 241) WMA (n = 153) 

22.5 25.3 22.2 

14.1 13.3 11.1 

10.8 14.9 15.0 

12.7 9.1 12.4 

36.6 31.9 32.0 

8. There should be more FKNMS zones in the Florida Keys. 

ER (n = 218) SPA (n = 266) WMA (n = 175) 

3.2 4.5 4.0 

6.0 6.4 5.7 

4.6 6.8 2.9 

10.1 14.3 13.7 

75.7 68.1 70.9 
60 

The respondents provided their views on the benefits of and support for FKNMS 

establishment, as well as their perceptions on the changes in resource conditions in the 

Florida Keys since the establishment of the FKNMS. Furthermore, the sample identified 

areas in which it believed that the FKNMS had succeeded and in those where it had 

failed. 

As shown in Table 20, the sample was split in its views on whether the FKNMS had 

made positive economic and environmental contributions to the Florida Keys and if the 

marine environment had benefited from NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program. 

Also, an equal percentage of fishers were in favor of and against the establishment of the 

FKNMS. While these findings suggest a tepid view towards FKNMS management, the 

fishers’ opinions represent a drastic and significant shift from the views held by the 1995-

96 sample. In November 1996, 55% of those who voted in the Florida Keys wide 

referendum on the FKNMS voted against the establishment of the FKNMS (Suman et al., 

1999). Over 78% of the fishers interviewed in the previous study stated that they were 

against the establishment of the FKNMS, while only 12.7% were in favor. In the present 

study, fisher support for the FKNMS increased to over 41%, almost equal to the 42% 

against FKNMS establishment. When viewed with other, similar findings in this section, 

it is clear that there has been a shift in fishers’ views of the FKNMS, a theme that will be 

addressed in the discussion. 

Table 21 shows the trends in resource conditions since the FKNMS implementation, as 

determined for the commercial fisher sample. The findings show that the fishers believe 

that almost all natural resources in the Florida Keys have shown a negative trend (mean > 

3, on a scale from 1-5, where 1 is better and 5 is worse), water quality leading all 

worsening resource conditions. Fishers believe that the use and maintenance of mooring 

buoys has improved since the implementation of the FKNMS, and that vessel groundings 

have decreased. However, the sample did not attribute the changes in the resource 

conditions to the FKNMS, remaining neutral on its view whether the FKNMS is largely 

responsible for the observed resource conditions (n = 252; mean = 3.19; SD = 1.52). 

Finally, as part of this section, commercial fishers identified areas in which the FKNMS 

had been a success and in others where it had failed. Just over half (52.2%) of the 187 

respondents that listed an area of success identified FKNMS zones, of which the Tortugas 

Ecological Reserve was singled out as a particularly successful FKNMS zone (13.9%). 

Another 12.3% and 10.7% stated that coral reef conditions and fisheries had improved 

under the FKNMS’ tenure, respectively, followed by resource protection (7.5%), 

education (5.4%), and the mooring buoy program (5.4%). Interestingly, among the 

failures that 149 fishers identified, many were similar to the successes. That is, a 

majority of the respondents, or 26.2%, believed that the FKNMS zones represented a 

failure (of which 3.4% listed the Tortugas Ecological Reserve as a failure). Over 14% 

identified deterioration in water quality as a failure, followed by a lack of enforcement 

(12.8%), boating impacts and insufficient mooring buoys (10.7%), decline in fisheries 

(10.1%) and coral reefs (8.1%), and a poor education program (4.0%). The findings 

clearly show that zoning remained the most important issue to commercial fishers in the 

FKNMS, dividing the group among proponents who believe that the FKNMS zones have 
61 

been the area in which the FKNMS has most succeeded and opponents who argue that 

the same zones represent the FKNMS’ greatest failure. 
62 

Table 20: Commercial fisher views on FKNMS performance * refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongly disagree 

1. NOAA has made a positive contribution to the marine environment via the National Marine Sanctuary Program. 

2006 (n = 293) 

17.1 29.4 11.9 12.6 17.1 

2. The Florida Keys have benefited environmentally from the FKNMS (n = 293). 

2006 (n = 293) 

18.1 31.4 9.6 16.4 16.7 

3. There has been a net economic benefit to the Florida Keys from the establishment of the FKNMS (n = 292). 

2006 (n = 292) 

16.8 22.6 7.2 21.9 22.6 

 1996 

(n = 317) 

6.0 10.4 8.5 8.5 61.2 

4. I generally support the establishment of the FKNMS (n = 293). 

2006 (n = 293) 

14.7 27.0 14.3 10.6 31.4 

 1996 

(n = 315) 

3.8 8.9 6.7 5.7 72.7 
63 

Table 21: Commercial fisher views on resource conditions in the FKNMS 

Better Å----Neutral------Æ Worse 

*1-5 scale, where 1 is better and 5 is worse; 3 is neutral or no change 

4.1.5. Commercial fisher survey views on enforcement 

Fishers answered a series of questions related to their views on enforcement, as related to 

the perceived frequency of violations, the efficacy of enforcement, and compliance 

within the FKNMS zones. 

As shown in Table 22, fishers believed that fishery violations are infrequent (Question 1), 

and many respondents qualified the answer, stating that such commercial fishery 

violations occur due to ignorance and are not indicators of industry misbehavior. Fishers 

also believed that the chances of being detected (Question 2) and caught and penalized 

(Question 3) are low. However, even with low rates of detection and apprehension, the 

average view on illegally fishing in the FKNMS zones was that a very small percentage 

of commercial fishers may take that risk but that most abide by the restrictions. Several 

respondents stated that it is not worth the risk to commercial fishers, who stand to face 

stiff penalties and may even lose their fishing licenses, and recreational anglers more 

often fish inside FKNMS zones. The views on violations and enforcement remained 

largely unchanged between the two studies. As in the present study, the fishers 

interviewed in the 1995-96 study perceived low rates of violations among commercial 

Resource Sample 1 2 3 4 5 Don’t 

know 

Sample 

mean** 

1. Water quality n = 291 5.8 6.9 32.0 18.6 33.0 3.8 n = 280 

3.69 

(1.19) 

2. Land-based pollution/sewage n = 291 7.2 11.0 26.1 14.1 32.0 9.6 n = 263 

3.58 

(1.30) 

3. Sea-based pollution/marine debris n = 291 10.0 17.9 30.9 12.0 23.7 5.5 n = 275 

3.23 

(1.30) 

4. Coral reefs n = 289 5.2 13.8 26.0 18.3 24.2 12.5 n = 253 

3.49 

(1.22) 

5. Sea grasses n = 291 8.3 16.1 29.9 16.1 17.9 11.7 n = 257 

3.21 

(1.23) 

6. Fisheries n = 291 6.9 15.5 38.1 17.9 20.3 1.4 n = 287 

3.30 

(1.16) 

7. Mooring buoys n = 291 30.6 27.8 19.2 7.6 4.5 10.3 n = 261 

2.19 

(1.44) 

8. Vessel groundings n = 280 14.3 21.1 35.0 10.0 12.1 7.5 n = 258 

2.83 

1.21 
64 

fishers and believed that while the chances of being detected and penalized were low, it 

was very unlikely that commercial fishers would enter and fish illegally in FKNMS 

zones. 

Table 22: Commercial fisher views on fishery violations and enforcement 

Question 1995-96 sample Total sample 

1. How often would you say that 

other commercial fishers violate 

fisheries regulations?** 

n = 290 

3.15 

(0.69) 

n = 282 

3.05 

(0.75) 

 

2. How often do you believe that 

a fisher who is violating fisheries 

regulations would be seen or 

detected by the authorities?* 

n = 303 

2.77/4.0 

(0.98) 

n = 281 

4.61/6.0 

(1.23) 

 

3. How often do you believe that 

a fisher who is violating fisheries 

regulations would be caught and 

penalized by the authorities?* 

n = 306 

2.42/4.0 

(1.06) 

n = 271 

4.41/6.0 

(1.39) 

 

4. How often do you believe that 

other fishers still fish inside the 

FKNMS no-take zones and take 

the risk of being caught?* 

n = 305 

2.62/4.0 

(1.17) 

n = 259 

4.98/6.0 

(1.09) 

* Responses for 1995-96 sample are calculated on a 1-4 scale, where 1 is extremely likely and 4 is not 

likely at all; responses for the current study (total) sample are calculated on a 1-6 scale, where 1 is always 

and 6 is never. 

** 1-4 scale, where 1 refers to almost all trips and 4 to never. 

4.1.6. Commercial fisher survey discussion 

The 2004-05 commercial fisher study established a new baseline for commercial fishing 

use in the FKNMS and commercial fisher knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions on the 

Sanctuary and its zoning action plan. Building on the 1995-96 effort, the present study 

determined that the commercial fishing community has changed considerably, both in 

terms of overall size and other socio-demographic characteristics, and its opposition 

towards the FKNMS has lessened, especially in the areas of FKNMS process and 

FKNMS outcomes. While the findings do favor earlier hypotheses (Crosby et al., 2000; 

Crosby, 1994; Bohnsack, 1993) that suggest that stakeholder views will become more 

favorable of marine protected areas over time, overall commercial fisher attitudes 

towards FKNMS management remain negative. Thus, while the new baseline established 

that a change towards FKNMS acceptance may have occurred over the previous decade, 

current perceptions may be part of a still shifting baseline. 

Crosby (1994) posited the following four hypotheses to evaluate the long-term 

socioeconomic impacts of alternative management strategies for marine protected areas: 

1. Attitudes and perceptions of the users of resources in and adjacent to marine 

protected areas will change over time; 
65 

2. User perceptions of resource abundance in marine protected areas correlate with 

scientifically derived assessments of resource abundance 

3. Increasing degrees of public participation will correlate to increasing levels of 

acceptance of marine protected areas, and; 

4. Education and enforcement influence public acceptance of marine protected areas. 

The 1995-96 study determined that commercial fishers strongly opposed the 

implementation of marine protected areas (i.e. the Sanctuary and its zoning strategy), and 

that most fishers did not agree that the zoning strategy would result in increased resource 

abundance or FKNMS-wide improvements in resource health. Moreover, the study also 

determined that while participation levels during the FKNMS designation process were 

high, the types of activities in which commercial fishers participated did not engender 

inter-group discussion or information exchange. The fishers argued that the process 

outcomes were pre-arranged and that participation in FKNMS organized fora had no 

influence on the final decisions. 

In the decade following the establishment of the 1995-96 baseline, the results suggest that 

commercial fisher attitudes and perceptions on the FKNMS and its zones have changed. 

However, the results also suggest that these changes have largely occurred in spite of 

perceptions that the FKNMS zones have not affected resource abundance and under 

conditions of lower public participation. There are two likely reasons why these 

divergent findings have nevertheless not influenced attitudes on the FKNMS process and 

outcomes. 

The first reason for the change in attitudes is the commercial fishers’ likely conclusion 

that the dire predictions that the 1995-96 sample had made on the FKNMS process (in 

particular) and outcomes have not occurred. For instance, the 1995-96 sample on 

average disagreed that the procedures NOAA would adopt to deal with violations with 

FKNMS regulations would be fair and just. The sample from the present study took the 

opposite view, agreeing on average that the procedures that NOAA had adopted to deal 

with FKNMS are fair and just. Similarly, although both samples’ opinions suggested 

frustration over the process used to develop FKNMS zone rules and regulations, the 

ability of individuals to influence final decisions, and NOAA’s consideration toward their 

concerns, the opinions among the present sample were more moderate than those 

determined for the previous sample. These findings suggest that commercial fishers 

remain wary of the process used in the FKNMS designation process (1995-97), but that 

their views are less trenchant than in the past. This may be in part due to the subsequent 

actions taken by the FKNMS in addressing resource management and protection, which 

have involved considerable transparency and have often used public participation and 

stakeholder involvement. A good example of such an action is the Tortugas 2000 process 

(1998-2001), used to develop boundaries and regulations for the Tortugas Ecological 

Reserve (Delaney, 2003; NOAA, 2000). This process commenced with ‘no lines on a 

map’, with the FKNMS instead delineating a study area in which it requested that a 

working group of stakeholders develop and recommend the boundaries and regulations 

for a no-take zone. The process involved considerable public and stakeholder input, 

including a Dry Tortugas commercial fisher characterization study (Leeworthy and 
66 

Wiley, 2001; Shivlani et al., 1999). Another example of the FKNMS utilizing 

transparency was when the Sanctuary Advisory Council took testimony from spongers 

and other interest groups in developing recommendations for continued sponging in the 

FKNMS (FKNMS, 2000). In that case, the FKNMS used broad stakeholder input to 

address (and resolve) a fishery and use conflict issue. As these and other examples have 

demonstrated to commercial fishers that the FKNMS would not use fiat-type decisions12, 

it is likely that fishers have tempered their views. 

A second reason to the fishers’ conclusions on the FKNMS process and outcome has 

been the relatively minor impact (with the exception of the Tortugas Ecological 

Reserve13) of the FKNMS on commercial fisheries in the Florida Keys. Thomas J. 

Murray & Associates (2007) monitored four commercial fishing panels (based on the 

proximity to the FKNMS zones where the panels operate, a marine life panel, and a 

control panel) and the commercial fishing industry in the Florida Keys from 1998 to 

2007, concluding that the FKNMS and the FKNMS zones had not resulted in significant 

impacts on commercial fishers. This does not mean that the FKNMS zones have had no

impacts, as fishers were displaced from fishing areas due to the zone restrictions (Milon 

et al., 1997), but the areas closed prior to the Tortugas Ecological Reserve encompassed 

less than 1% of the FKNMS (NOAA, 1996) and were thus minor enough to not have 

affected much of the commercial fishing industry14. These views are reflected in the 

present sample’s views on the FKNMS zones. The average response for fishers from the 

1995-96 sample on the establishment of FKNMS zones was 4.66 (or strong 

disagreement), contrasted by the average view held by the 2004-045 sample on SPAs 

(2.98, or neutral) and ERs (3.23, or between neutral and moderate disagreement). The 

earlier sample was clearly apprehensive over the zoning strategy, and the fear has been 

mostly allayed by the relatively few impacts (especially of the smaller SPAs). 

While the fishery has not been directly impacted by the FKNMS zoning strategy, the 

Florida Keys commercial fishery has declined considerably in the past decade. In the 

previous study, 2,430 Saltwater Products License (SPL) holders resided in Monroe 

County. That number declined by almost 48% to 1,268 SPL holders in 2006 (or by 

53.1% if only the active SPL holders are considered). Most of the fishers in the present 

sample were highly ‘professionalized’, in that they identified themselves as full-time 

operators that rely almost exclusively on commercial fishing as a primary occupation. 

The present sample was also highly capitalized in (mostly trap) gear, fishing two or fewer 

species for the entire year. When compared to the current sample, the 1995-96 sample 

 

12 The overreaching power of the FKNMS was a popular position staked by various opponents during the 

FKNMS designation process, especially as related to Appendix K in the FKNMS Draft Management Plan 

(Suman et al., 1999; NOAA, 1996; NOAA, 1995). 

13 A study conducted two years following the closure of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve in 2001 

determined that the fishery had contracted in the short-term and that commercial fishers had shifted effort 

away from the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (Thomas J. Murray & Associates, 2005). 14 Another reason apart from the total area closed to fishing under the FKNMS Final Management Plan that 

fishers suffered only minor displacement impacts was a result of attributes and existing use profiles of the 

areas themselves, which were largely hardbottom and core coral habitats. These were less commonly used 

by most fishers (and favored mainly by marine life collectors and bait fish fishers) and more frequently by 

divers and snorkelers. 
67 

consisted of fishers that held less gear on average and relied less on commercial fishing 

for total income. Programs such as the Spiny Lobster Trap Certificate Program (Florida 

Statutes 370.142) have been instrumental in reducing effort (and participation) in the 

region, and the exiting fishers have been mainly part-time and marginal participants 

(Shivlani et al., 2004). Other actions, including the 1994 Florida Net Ban, the 1995 stone 

crab license moratorium, and the 2000 Stone Crab Trap Certificate Program (Florida 

Statutes 370.13), among others, limited entry into the most lucrative commercial fisheries 

and increased operating costs (ex. trap certificate costs, license fees, etc.). Many of the 

fishers that managed to withstand the regulatory changes in the past decade increased 

their share of these various fisheries and thus emerged as the successful (and 

‘professionalized’) participants. It could be argued that the views determined from this 

study represent those of fishers who have withstood (even prospered, in some cases) in 

the decade of FKNMS management and their opinions may therefore be a reflection of 

that experience. 

Finally, it is important to consider the sample’s perceptions concerning FKNMS 

performance in more detail. Over 46% agreed that NOAA had made a positive 

contribution to the marine environment via the National Marine Sanctuary Program, and 

49.5% agreed that the Florida Keys had benefited environmentally from the FKNMS. 

Most importantly, 41.7% generally supported the establishment of the FKNMS. As 

stated previously, these changes in perception did not occur as other conditions (ex. 

perceptions on resource abundance, increased participation, or increased enforcement or 

education) were met. Eventually, in addition to the reasons related to the FKNMS 

adopting a participatory approach and fewer than expected fishery impacts, commercial 

fishers may have accepted the FKNMS a fixture in the region and thereby acquiesced to 

its existing management strategies. 

4.2 Dive operations survey results 

A total of 69 dive operators participated in the study, conducted from June 2006 to 

October 2006; this represents a net response rate of 77.5%. The 1996 dive operator 

sample consisted of 62 respondents, representing a net response rate of 82.7%. 

Initially developed as a stratified random sample, the research team conducted a census 

survey of the 89 operations identified in the region. A total of 39 surveys, or 56.5% of 

the sample, were conducted in the Upper Keys, which has 50.1% of the 89 dive operators 

in the Florida Keys. The Middle Keys, which accounts for 12.4% of the regional 

population, provided 14.5% of the sample. Finally, the study completed 20 surveys in the 

Lower Keys, representing 28.9% of the sample; the Lower Keys contains 37.1% of the 

population. Thus, the study over-sampled the Upper and Middle Keys and undersampled the Lower Keys. 

The results presented follow the survey instrument (see Appendix 2) and are divided into 

the following section: General information; economic information; trip information 

(including use patterns); and sources of information and perceptions. 
68 

4.2.1 Dive operations survey general information 

As part of this section, respondents provided information on their race, ethnicity, and 

family members supported, affiliation with other dive organizations and local groups, and 

years in operation in the Florida Keys. 

Table 23: Dive operator demographic information 

Question 2006 sample 

(std dev) 

1996 sample 

(std dev) 

 

Age of dive operators n = 69 

3.19 (1.23)* 

n = 59 

2.78 (0.95)* 

1. 18-30 years 13.0 8.5 

2. 31-40 years 13.0 27.1 

3. 41-50 years 30.4 47.5 

4. 51-60 years 29.0 11.9 

5. Over 60 years 14.5 5.1 

 

Number of family members n = 69 n = 57 

 1.94 (1.16) 2.18 (1.28) 

Group affiliation n = 69 n = 61 

1. NAUI 30.4 14.8 

2. PADI 81.2 70.5 

3. KADO 43.5 16.4 

4. FADO 30.4 40.1 

5. Environmental groups 26.1 13.1 

6. Chamber of Commerce 53.6 36.1 

7. Local organizations 41.6 24.6 

 

Years in the dive industry n = 69 

2.35 (1.02) 

n = 60 

1.98 (0.99) 

1. 1-5 years 26.1 40.0 

2. 6-10 years 27.5 30.0 

3. 11-20 years 31.9 21.7 

4. Over 20 years 14.5 8.3 

 

Years the dive operation has been in existence n = 69 

2.88 (1.01)* 

n = 47 

2.06 (1.03)* 

1. 1-5 years 11.6 34.0 

2. 6-10 years 21.7 40.4 

3. 11-20 years 33.3 10.6 

4. Over 20 years 33.3 14.9 

 

The average age of the respondents was just over 41-50 years old (n = 69; mean = 3.19; 

SD = 1.23), and 73.9% of the sample was 41 years or older (see Table 23). This was 

significantly older than the average age of dive operators from the 1996 sample, who 

averaged less than 41-50 years ago (n = 59; mean = 2.78; SD = 0.95) (Mann Whitney 

test: z-score = 2.22; p < 0.05). The difference in age is most likely the result of 
69 

participants from the earlier study who have since gotten older; in fact, 30 of the 69 dive 

operations (43.5%) interviewed were surveyed in 1996. 

Over 95% (95.6%) of the sample identified itself as non-Hispanic and 97.1% as 

Caucasian. This was similar to the 96.6% of the respondents who identified themselves 

as Caucasian in the 1996 sample. 

Dive operators supported an average of 1.94 family members (SD = 1.16), including 

themselves, in the 2006 study. In 1996, operators supported a slightly higher average of 

family members, or 2.18 family members (SD 1.28), including themselves. 

As shown in Table 23, dive operator affiliation frequencies shifted in the two study 

periods. In 1996, for instance, 40.1% of the respondents reported being part of the Florida 

Association of Dive Operators (FADO), but that affiliation rate dropped to 30.4% in 

2007. Conversely, the percentage of dive operators affiliated with the Keys Association 

of Dive Operators (KADO) increased from 16.4% in 1996 to 43.5% in 2006. This 

movement toward local affiliation was reflected in the gains in affiliation among other 

Keys-based groups, including Chambers of Commerce and local organizations. 

When asked about how long they had been dive operators in the Florida Keys, the 

average tenure reported by the respondents was over 6-10 years (n = 69; mean = 2.35, on 

a scale from 1 – 4, where 1 = 1-5 years and 4 = over 20 years; SD = 1.02). This was 

higher than the average tenure reported by the operators in 1996 (n = 60; mean = 1.98; 

SD = 0.99). The average period during which the dive operation had been in existence in 

the 2006 sample was almost between 11-20 years (n = 69; mean = 2.88; SD = 1.01), 

which was significantly higher (Mann Whitney test: z-score = 3.87; p < 0.001) than the 

period of existence for dive operations from the 1996 sample (n = 47; mean = 2.06; SD = 

1.03). 

4.2.2 Dive operations survey economic information 

Dive operators provided economic information that concerned vessel numbers and 

characteristics, replacement costs of vessels and gear, and annual operating expenses in 

2005. 
70 

Table 24: Dive operator vessel costs and characteristics and employee information

Item 2006 sample 

(std dev) 

1996 sample 

(std dev) 

Vessel number n = 67 

1.72 (1.22) 

n = 57 

1.74 (0.95) 

Vessel costs n = 65 

$352,762 

(559,142) 

n = 57 

$306,998 

(393,629) 

 

Number of divers per vessel n = 72 

18.0 (12.9) 

n = 100 

26.8 (29.3) 

Number of snorkelers per vessel n = 86 

20.6 (17.4) 

- 

 

Number of full-time employees n = 62 

4.77 (4.82) 

n = 59 

7.14 (7.59) 

Number of part-time and seasonal 

employees 

n = 56 

3.11 (2.33) 

- 

Dive gear costs n = 63 

$52,738 

(140,883) 

n = 58 

$43,788 

(98,008) 

Compressor costs n = 38 

$31,382 

(25,575) 

- 

 

As shown in Table 24, the overall characteristics of the dive operations remained 

consistent across the two study periods, with the exception of gear costs. Although vessel 

costs increased over the decade in between studies, the average number of vessels 

operated was similar, as well as the number of employees. In the earlier study, the survey 

did not request that respondents separate full-time from part-time or seasonal employees; 

thus, when the sum of both types of employees (7.88) in the 2006 sample is compared to 

the 7.14 employees in 1996, the results suggest that dive operations have remained 

largely unchanged in terms of their personnel and vessel numbers. Finally, in 1996, dive 

operators only provided information on the maximum number of clients that they could 

take out on their vessels, which averaged 26.8 persons. In the 2006 study, respondents 

were requested to answer on both the number of divers and snorkelers. The number of 

snorkelers per vessels averaged 20.6, compared to 18.0 divers, suggesting a slight 

contraction in the size of the vessels; however, it should be noted that the earlier sample 

contained considerable variation in vessel capacity. Finally, dive gear costs increased by 

almost $20,000 per operation in the two reporting periods, and the average replacement 

value of an additional item, compressors, was estimated at $31,382 per operation (55.1% 

of the operations characterized had a compressor). 
71 

Table 25: Dive operator annual operating costs in 2005

Item 2006 sample 

(std dev) 

1996 sample 

(std dev) 

Docking fees n = 37 

$16,793 

(12.707) 

n = 35 

$11,697 

(12,566) 

Interest payments on 

vessels 

n = 13 

$8,307.7 

(9,650.8) 

- 

 

P&I15 n = 58 

$10,578 

(11,166) 

- 

Vessel maintenance and 

repair 

n = 59 

$21,722 

(64,614) 

n = 47 

$15,855 

(14,887) 

 

Equipment maintenance 

and repair 

n = 42 

$4,000.0 

(3,912.7) 

n = 53 

$4,255.5 

(4,573.0) 

 

Dive shop costs/rental n = 25 

$25,592 

(31,411) 

- 

Advertising n = 50 

$10,190 

(10,705) 

Average personal 

income from operation 

n = 61 

70.1 (33.9) 

n = 53 

74.5 (32.9) 

 

Table 25 shows the average operating costs, as reported by the 2006 sample, and as 

compared to the 1996 sample. The highest costs for the 2006 sample were those related 

to dive shop mortgage or rental costs, followed by vessel maintenance and repair, 

docking fees, insurance (P&I), and advertising. In two of the three annual cost items 

obtained for the 1996 sample, concerning docking fees and vessel maintenance and 

repair, the 2006 sample reported significantly higher costs. With respect to docking, 

qualitative data collected during the interview session suggest that operators may be 

feeling the same price pressures as other waterfront operators due to higher dockage; 

moreover, dive operator vessels are often located in prominent marinas, which usually 

have among the highest dockage rates. The other costs that were significantly higher in 

the 2006 sample, compared to the earlier sample, were those related to vessel 

maintenance and repair. Also, while dive shop mortgage or rental costs and advertising 

 

15 P&I refers to property and indemnity insurance that covers operations at sea and damage and loss of life 

resulting from vessel operations. 
72 

fees were not determined for the 1996 sample, the present study’s results found that such 

costs comprise a considerable percentage of overall dive operations’ annual expenses. 

Among the 36.2% who disclosed what they paid for their dive shop via mortgage or rent, 

the average of $25,592 represented the highest portion of all expenses. Similarly, in an 

industry that relies strongly on advertising, the average cost that respondents spent on 

brochures, media-based advertisement, and other promotional material amounted to over 

$10,000 per year, on average. Finally, the average personal income derived from dive 

operations did not change significantly from 1996 to 2006. Formerly, dive operators 

reported earning an average of 74.5% of their total personal income from their dive 

operation, which dropped to 70.1% in the 2006 sample. The results show that the income 

from the industry remains an important source of revenue for its exponents and that 

reliance on the profession has declined only slightly, on average. 

4.2.3 Dive operator survey trip information 

In this section, dive operations provided use and costs information for the areas in which 

they took dive and snorkel trips, and these are presented based on region (i.e. Upper, 

Middle, and Lower Keys). 

Table 26: FKNMS dive survey trip costs 

Item Upper Keys 

(std dev) 

Middle Keys 

(std dev) 

Lower Keys 

(std dev) 

1. 2006 sample trip expenses 

 a. Fuel and oil n = 32 

$52.1 (34.2)

n = 11 

$50.8 (25.7)

n = 18 

$80.6 (47.2)* 

 b. Supplies n = 28 

$16.4 (13.0) 

n = 11 

$11.2 (8.1) 

n = 18 

$33.7 (42.4) 

 c. Crew number n = 14 

1.9 (0.5) 

n = 8 

2.3 (0.9) 

n = 10 

1.9 (0.6) 

 

2. 1996 sample trip expenses 

 a. Fuel and oil n = 30 

$48.1(37.7) 

n = 7 

$31.9 (14.0) 

n = 17 

$40.3 (21.2)* 

 b. Supplies n = 30 

$11.4 (10.8) 

n = 7 

$10.8 (6.9) 

n = 17 

$32.6 (82.9) 

 c. Crew number n = 30 

2.1 (0.7) 

n =7 

2.1 (1.9) 

n = 17 

2.2 (0.7) 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) 

As shown in Table 26, fuel costs comprised a majority of trip costs in all three regions of 

the 2006 sample, and the Lower Keys operators spent significantly more than the Upper 

and Middle Keys counterparts. When compared to the 1996 sample, the 2006 sample 

reported higher costs in both fuel and supplies (and fuel costs were significantly higher). 
73 

Also, while costs were similar across region in the previous study, Lower Keys operators’ 

costs were higher than other regions in the present study, due most likely to the increase 

in multiple activity cruises (these are trips offered by operators that last a half or full day 

and consist of activities such as snorkeling, cruising, and picnicking on island beaches, 

among others). 

Table 27: FKNMS dive survey total trips, average trips, and average divers per trip 

Trips Total 

(std dev) 

Upper Keys 

(std dev) 

Middle Keys 

(std dev) 

Lower Keys 

(std dev) 

1. Average trips 

 a. 2006 

 b. 1996 

n = 67 

383.7 (209.0) 

n = 58 

429.5 (314.7) 

n = 35 

437.6 (224.7) 

n =34 

471.2 (380.8)* 

n = 15 

293.7 (195.0) 

n = 8 

336..9 (160.1)* 

n = 17 

352.2 (157.0) 

n = 16 

387.2 (186.6) 

2. Average divers per trip 

 a. 2006 

 b. 1996 

n = 66 

12.5 (13.9) 

n = 58 

12.9 (15.2) 

n = 34 

14.4 (17.2)* 

n = 34 

15.0 (19.0) 

n = 15 

8.0 (5.6)* 

n = 8 

8.0 (4.4) 

n = 18 

12.5 (10.8) 

n = 16 

10.9 (6.9) 

5. Trips taken to FKNMS zones 

 a. 2006 

 i. ERs and SPAs 

 

 ii. WMAs 

 b. 1996 

n = 67 

73.1% 

n = 4 

1.5% 

n = 58 

72.7% 

n = 35 

73.0% 

- 

n = 34 

82.6% 

n = 15 

78.8% 

- 

n = 8 

30.8% 

n = 17 

69.4% 

n = 4 

6.3% 

n = 16 

65.0% 

6. Divers taken to FKNMS zones 

 a. 2006 

 i. ERs and SPAs 

 ii. WMAs 

 b. 1996 

n = 67 

77.8% 

n = 4 

2.5% 

n = 58 

78.7% 

n = 35 

77.7% 

- 

n = 34 

85.4% 

n = 15 

85.5% 

- 

n = 8 

22.0% 

n = 17 

71.9% 

n = 4 

10.3% 

n = 16 

66.4% 

*refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) 

Table 27 shows that the 60% of the trips reported by 67 of the 69 dive operators surveyed 

in 2006 were taken in the Upper Keys. Fewer were taken in the Lower (23.9%) and 

Middle Keys (17.1%). On average, Upper Keys operators took almost 438 trips in 2005, 

which was higher than the average trips taken by Lower (352.2 trips) and significantly 

higher than the average trips taken by Middle Keys operators (293.7). Upper Keys 

operators also took the highest average total of divers and snorkelers per trip, averaging 

14.4 clients per trip, compared to the 12.5 clients per trip for the entire sample, 12.5 
74 

clients in the Lower Keys, and significantly higher than the only 8.0 clients per trip in the 

Middle Keys. These patterns were consistent across the two study periods, in the Upper 

Keys in the 1996 sample also reported the highest number of trips, average trips, and 

average divers and snorkelers. While total trips were higher in the 2006 sample, average 

total trips per operator were higher in the 1996 sample. This may have been due to the 

reporting year in which the 2006 study was conducted. The reporting year, 2005, was 

less than an average year as related by several respondents because of the unprecedented 

threats of tropical cyclones and impacts by four hurricanes across the Florida Keys. As a 

result, water conditions (clarity, sea state) were negatively affected throughout much of 

the hurricane season (June – November), and these (along with the storm threats affecting 

tourism) led to fewer dive trips. 

Table 28: FKNMS dive operations FKNMS zone trips and divers in 2005 

Zone 2005 % trips 2005 % divers Total users divers/trip 

Carysfort 2.19 1.19 6 7.46 

The Elbow 3.92 2.73 8 9.61 

Dry Rocks 6.18 7.79 15 17.4 

Grecian Rocks 3.2 5.19 7 22.3 

French Reef 5.5 6.02 13 15.1 

Molasses Reef 18.9 24.4 19 17.8 

Conch Reef 2.89 2.69 7 12.9 

Davis Reef 3.15 2.52 9 11 

Hen and Chickens 4.02 3.27 6 11.2 

Cheeca Rocks 4.41 1.59 5 4.98 

Alligator Reef 5.57 3.59 7 8.91 

Coffins Patch 5.09 2.34 8 6.35 

Sombrero Key 11.4 12.5 9 15.1 

Looe Key 6.3 4.83 5 10.6 

Newfound Harbor Key 0.35 0.47 1 18.4 

Eastern Dry Rocks 7.6 11.6 12 21.1 

Rock Key 2.2 1.69 4 10.6 

Sand Key 1.38 1.14 3 11.4 

Western Sambos ER 5.46 4.33 8 11 

Tortugas ER 0.28 0.08 1 4 

Table 28 shows the percentage of 2005 trips and divers taken to each of the FKNMS no-take 

zones (ERs and SPAs). The most popular site reported by the higher number of respondents was 

Molasses Reef SPA, which attracted the highest percentage of trips and divers in 2005. This was 

followed by another Upper Keys SPA – Dry Rocks SPA. In the Lower Keys, Looe Key SPA 

attracted the most trips and divers, followed by Western Sambos ER. 
75 

Figure 22: Upper Keys trips to FKNMS zones 
76 

Figure 23: Upper Keys divers to FKNMS zones 
77 

Figure 24: Upper Keys percent trips to FKNMS zones 
78 

Figure 25: Upper Keys percent divers to FKNMS zones 
79 

Figures 22 – 25 show the dive and snorkel use in the Upper Keys FKNMS zones. As 

shown in Figures 21 and 22, use was highest in the section that previously comprised the 

Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary (KLNMS) and which includes SPAs between 

Carysfort SPA to Molasses Reef SPA, from the northeast to the southwest. This is 

mainly because of the high concentration of dive operations in Key Largo and Tavernier, 

which contained 82.1% of all dive operations in the Upper Keys. Also, Molasses Reef 

SPA is the most heavily dived reef site in the Florida Keys and together with the other 

SPAs in the KLNMS of the Upper Keys, these sites accounted for 62.9% of all trips and 

77.6% of all divers to Upper Keys FKNMS zones. In the lower section of the Upper 

Keys, the remaining 17.9% of the dive operators in the region took trips in all five SPAs. 

Most trips and divers were taken to Alligator Reef SPA, followed by Cheeca Rocks SPA 

and Hen and Chicken SPA. 

The relative importance of individual zones was determined by dividing the number of 

trips and divers taken to a zone by the total number of trips and divers taken by the users 

that used that zone (as determined in Shivlani and Suman (2000)). The relative 

importance of each zone by trips and divers is shown in Figures 23 and 24, respectively. 

In the Upper Keys, the 19 dive operators who used Molasses Reef SPA in 2005 took 

39.2% of their total trips and 46.4% of their total divers to the SPA; thus, dive operators 

using Molasses Reef SPA did so almost every four out of 10 trips, which comprised 

almost half of their divers. Another zone, Cheeca Rocks SPA (primarily a snorkel site), 

attracted 36.4% of all trips and 23.6% of all divers that the five operators who reported 

using that site. In the Key Largo section of the Upper Keys, only Molasses Reef attracted 

more than 20% of trips and 25% of divers from dive operators who visited that site. In 

other sites, including The Elbow SPA, Grecian Rocks SPA, and French Reef SPA, 

percent trips and divers ranged between 15-19% and 20-22%, respectively. This shows 

that Upper Keys dive operator use patterns in this area relied on switching trips across 

various SPAs (with the exception of Molasses Reef SPA), as reported for the 1996 

sample (Shivlani and Suman, 2000). By contrast, dive operators in the lower section of 

the Upper Keys demonstrated a greater reliance on individual SPAs, such that percent 

trips ranged between 15-36% and percent trips between 15-30%. Dive operators who 

reporting using Cheeca Rocks, Alligator Reef, and Hen and Chickens SPAs took a 

quarter or more of their total trips and a fifth or more of their divers to these zones. 

Therefore, while these dive operators did also switch their trips across several SPAs, they 

tended to rely on fewer SPAs than did their counterparts in the Key Largo section of the 

Upper Keys. 
80 

Figure 26: Middle Keys trips to FKNMS zones 
81 

Figure 27: Middle Keys divers to FKNMS zones 
82 

Figure 28: Middle Keys percent trips to FKNMS zones 
83 

Figure 29: Middle Keys percent divers to FKNMS zones 
84 

Figures 26 – 29 show dive and snorkel use in the two SPAs in the Middle Keys. Use 

targeting the two SPAs – Coffins Patch and Sombrero Reef – originated from the 

adjacent (northern) island of Marathon. Overall, nine dive operators in the Middle Keys 

reported using Sombrero Key SPA and eight used Coffins Patch SPA. Sombrero Key 

SPA attracted a large number of trips and divers, and it was second only to Molasses 

Reef SPA in the Upper Keys in both categories for all FKNMS zones. In the Middle 

Keys, the almost 2,000 trips and 30,000 divers taken to Sombrero Key SPA represented 

68.4% and 84.2% of the FKNMS zone trips and divers, respectively, for the region. 

Thus, while, Coffins Patch SPA did host almost a third of FKNMS zone trips in the 

Middle Keys, it only attracted 15% of the divers. 

As per percent trips, both SPAs were very important to the users who reported taking 

trips and divers to the zones. The nine operators who used Sombrero Key SPA took 

57.9% of their total trips and 73.6% of their total divers to that SPA. By contrast, Coffins 

Patch accounted for 35.1% of the total trips taken by the eight Middle Keys respondents 

who took trips to the zone, as well as 31.2% of their total divers. Together, these two 

zones captured a majority of all dive use in the Middle Keys (78.8% of all trips and 

85.5% of all divers), and the percent trips show that unlike in the Upper Keys where dive 

operators switched their trips, the main use patterns in the Middle Keys were to visit 

Sombrero Key SPA as a primary site and to take relatively fewer trips and divers to 

Coffins Patch SPA. 
85 

Figure 30: Lower Keys trips to FKNMS zones 
86 

Figure 31: Lower Keys divers to FKNMS zones 
87 

Figure 32: Lower Keys percent trips to FKNMS zones 
88 

Figure 33: Lower Keys percent divers to FKNMS zones 
89 

Figures 30 – 33 show the trips and divers taken to Lower Keys FKNMS zones. The 

Lower Keys, like the Upper Keys, are evaluated in two sections. The eastern section is 

that which includes Looe Key SPA (formerly part of the Looe Key National Marine 

Sanctuary), Looe Key SUA, and Newfound Harbor Key SPA, and the northern, adjacent 

islands of Big Pine Key, Ramrod Key, and Summerland Key. The western section is 

comprised of the Sand Key-Rock Key-Eastern Dry Rocks SPA complex, Western 

Sambos ER, and Eastern Sambos SUA, which attract use mainly from islands of Key 

West and Stock Island. Within the eastern section, Looe Key SPA is the most important 

dive site, hosting 26.7% of all trips and 20% of all divers in the Lower Keys’ zones. 

However, because there is no overlap in trips between the eastern and western sections, it 

should be stated that Looe Key hosted almost all trips and divers in the eastern section 

(with Newfound Harbor Key SPA hosting a handful of trips and divers). Within the 

western section, Eastern Dry Rocks SPA hosted 32.2% of all trips and 48% of all divers 

for the region’s zones (again, these percentages would be considerably higher if only the 

western section is considered), followed by Western Sambos SPA (23.2% of all trips and 

17.9% of all divers in the Lower Keys zones. 

Percent trips and divers for each zone (Figures 32 – 33) demonstrate that Looe Key SPA 

was the most important zone in the eastern section of the Lower Keys, as it was in 1996 

(Shivlani and Suman, 2000). The five operators who used Looe Key SPA took 62% of 

their total trips and 65.1% of their total divers to Looe Key SPA, suggesting a higher 

reliance among these users for Looe Key SPA than for those who used Molasses Reef 

SPA in the Upper Keys and comparable to those who used Sombrero Reef Key SPA in 

the Middle Keys. In the western section of the Lower Keys, Eastern Dry Rocks SPA and 

Western Sambos ER attracted the highest level of percent trips and divers. Twelve (or 

60% of the Lower Keys’ total dive operators) took 32.1% of their total trips and 44.1% of 

their total divers to Eastern Dry Rocks SPA; fewer operators (four or fewer) took trips to 

adjacent SPAs (Sand Key and Rock Key SPAs), which accounted for a quarter or less of 

those operators’ total trips and divers. Finally, 40% of the Lower Keys’ dive operators 

took trips and divers to the Western Sambos ER (a majority of the trips were taken along 

the southern part of the ER, which encompasses the preferred coral reef habitat and has 

mooring buoys), and the zone attracted 37.7% of all of the users’ trips and 36.9% of their 

total divers. As in the lower section of the Upper Keys, where dive operators focused on 

a few zones for most of their trips, dive operators in the western section of the Lower 

Keys concentrated either on the southern Western Sambos ER or on Eastern Dry Rocks 

SPA, located further to the southwest. 

4.2.4 Dive operator survey attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs 

Dive operators described their views on the information sources on the FKNMS and their 

perceptions concerning the FKNMS process and its outcomes, the FKNMS zones, and 

FKNMS performance. 
90 

Table 29: Dive operator survey sources of information 

Sources of information 2006 sample 

(n = 69) 

2006 sample 

ranking 

(std dev) 

1996 sample 

(n = 62) 

1996 sample 

usefulness of 

source (n = 62) 

1. FKNMS website* 38.8 n =22 

3.5 (2.20) 

- 

2. FKNMS staff/personnel 50.7 n = 35 

1.91 (1.03) 

53.2 24.2 

3. FKNMS Draft 

Management Plan** 

- 69.4 38.7 

4. FKNMS Advisory 

Council* 

26.1 n = 18 

2.78 (1.96) 

- 

5. FKNMS 

brochures/literature 

65.2 n = 45 

2.11 (1.3) 

43.5 9.7 

6. FKNMS signage* 42.0 n = 29 

3.03 (1.61) 

- 

7. NOAA meetings** - 56.5 29.0 

8. Newspapers 49.3 n = 34 

3.23 (1.71) 

66.1 16.1 

9. Radio 23.2 n = 16 

3.75 (1.81) 

40.3 4.8 

10. Television 17.4 n = 12 

4.33 (2.06) 

40.3 4.8 

11. Anti-FKNMS groups** - 32.3 4.8 

12. Commercial fishing 

groups** 

- 3.2 1.6 

13. Environmental groups** - 38.7 4.8 

14. Government fisheries 

organizations** 

- 17.7 4.8 

15. Sea Grant** - 3.2 1.6 

16. Dive organization** - 76.1 15.2 

17. Rumors/word of mouth 59.4 n = 41 

2.83 (1.39) 

66.1 9.7 

* refers to those sources listed in the 2006 survey but not in the 1996 survey 

** refers to those sources listed in the 1996 survey but not in the 2006 survey 

As shown in Table 29, dive operators used a variety of sources to obtain information on 

the FKNMS in both during the designation process and in the present study. The most 

frequently used sources listed by the 2006 sample consisted of FKNMS sources, 
91 

including FKNMS literature (65.2%), FKNMS staff/personnel (50.7%), FKNMS signage 

(42%), FKNMS website (38.8%), and the Sanctuary Advisory Council (26.1%). While 

there was a range in the level to which each was accessed, dive operators relied 

considerably on the suite of FKNMS sources. Almost 60% of dive operators also 

received information on the FKNMS from word of mouth sources, and fewer relied on 

media sources (with the exception of newspapers, which 49.3% of the sample identified 

as an FKNMS information source). This is to be contrasted with the 1996 sample which 

relied more frequently on media sources. Also, in 1996, only 43.5% of the respondents 

listed FKNMS literature as an information source, compared to almost two thirds of the 

2006 sample (although it should be noted that 69.4% of the 1996 sample reported having 

read part of the FKNMS Draft Management Plan). 

In terms of the usefulness of the information provided, dive operators in the 2006 sample 

ranked FKNMS personnel as the most useful source of information on the FKNMS, 

followed by FKNMS literature, and the Sanctuary Advisory Council. Generally, the 

sample did not rank non-FKNMS sources as useful as FKNMS sources, such that media 

sources were not considered very useful. However, word of mouth sources were ranked 

above all media sources, suggesting that intra-group communication plays an important 

role in information dissemination. Also, the respondents ranked the FKNMS website as 

the least useful of all FKNMS sources, suggesting that while it is used by almost 40% of 

the dive operators interviewed, it is not considered very useful. The respondents in the 

1996 sample reported the FKNMS Draft Management Plan and FKNMS personnel as the 

most useful sources of information, respectively; thus, like their 2006 sample 

counterparts, dive operators in the 1996 study believed that FKNMS sources provided the 

most useful information on the FKNMS objectives and process. Similarly, media 

sources, though used frequently by respondents in the 1996 sample, were not considered 

as useful as FKNMS sources. 
92 

Table 30: Dive operator survey perceptions on FKNMS processes * refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strondisag

1. The process that NOAA has used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS was open and fair to all groups. 

2006 1996 

34.8 29.5 

15.9 21.3 

13.0 9.8 

7.3 6.6 

7.3 13.1 

2. The process has used by NOAA to develop boundaries and regulations for the FKNMS zones was open and fair to all groups. 

2006 1996 

37.7 14.8 

14.5 24.6 

5.8 8.2 

10.0 11.5 

7.3 18.0 

3. It has not mattered whether the average person participated in the workshops and meeting on the FKNMS because the average person could not influence the final decisions. 

2006 1996 

18.9 27.9 

13.0 16.4 

11.6 6.6 

24.6 19.7 

18.9 26.2 

4. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of local and state governments in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

2006 1996 

8.7 16.4 

8.7 16.4 

21.7 13.1 

20.0 18.0 

15.9 13.1 

5. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of individual citizens in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

2006 1996 

14.5 31.1 

14.5 26.2 

8.7 9.8 

23.2 6.6 

20.3 19.7 

6. Once that the FKNMS regulations have been in effect, there has been no way that the average person to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of the regulations. 

2006 1996 

14.5 39.3 

14.5 21.3 

13.0 4.9 

17.4 4.9 

24.6 24.6 

7. The procedures that NOAA has established to deal with violations of FKNMS regulations have been fair and just. 

2006 1996 

23.2 8.2 

17.4 18.0 

13.0 4.9 

18.9 14.8 

14.5 22.9 
93 

Table 30 presents dive operators’ views on process outcomes as these (mainly) relate to 

the FKNMS zoning strategy. Over half of the dive operators interviewed in 2006 

believed that the processes NOAA used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS 

and to develop boundaries and regulations for the FKNMS zones were open and fair to 

all groups. In contrast, dive operators in the present study were significantly more in 

agreement than their 1996 sample counterparts that the process used to develop 

boundaries and regulations were open and fair to all groups. Similarly, a significantly 

higher percentage in the 2006 sample, compared to the 1996 sample, disagreed that 

NOAA had not addressed the concerns of individual citizens in developing rules and 

regulations for the FKNMS. Also, significantly more respondents in 2006 compared to 

those in 1996 disagreed that there has been no way that the average person has been able 

to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of FKNMS regulations. Effectively, dive 

operators shifted their views on the FKNMS process from wariness to acceptance. Thus, 

while 57.3% of the respondents in 1996 believed that NOAA had not addressed the 

concerns of individual citizens in the FKNMS designation process, only 29% in the 2006 

sample concurred. Also, 31.9%% of the dive operators surveyed in 2006 believed that 

participation on the FKNMS had not mattered, compared to 44.3% of the respondents in 

the 1996 sample. Finally, the industry’s perceptions on the fairness of the FKNMS 

process since its implementation have become more favorable over time. 

Thus, while in 1996, 60.6% of those operations surveyed agreed that there will be no way 

for the average person to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of FKNMS regulations, 

only 29% in the 2006 sample agreed. Similarly, 40.6% of the respondents in the present 

study agreed that the procedures that NOAA has established to address FKNMS 

regulatory violations are fair and just, a large increase over the 26.2% who agreed in 

1996. Taken together, these perceptions describe a change in overall views held by the 

dive operator industry on the FKNMS and the process that NOAA used to implement the 

FKNMS. Whereas many dive operators remained unsure of the FKNMS in 1996, 

especially as related to the participatory nature of the process that NOAA would use to 

develop FKNMS rules and regulations and the fairness of those rules and regulations, 

dive operators in 2006 had worked under FKNMS rules and regulations for almost a 

decade, determining that the FKNMS was not as arbitrary in its rulemaking as previously 

feared. 
94 

Table 31: Dive operators’ views on FKNMS zone purpose and beneficiaries 

Dive operators provided their views on the purpose of the FKNMS zones and the prime 

beneficiaries of the FKNMS zones, as shown in Table 31. In terms of replenishment, 

60.9% of the respondents agreed that the main purpose of SPAs was to increase stocks 

and biomass within the SPAs, compared to 56.2% and 39.0% who agreed that zonespecific replenishment represented the main purpose of ERs and WMAs, respectively. 

Fewer dive operators believed that any of the three zone types had been set up to increase 

replenishment across the region (although more respondents agreed that ERs, over SPAs 

and WMAs, may have been set up to increase regional replenishment). Most dive 

operators agreed, for all three zone types, that the main purpose of the zones was to 

conserve and protect corals, fish, and other marine life within the zones, with 75.3% 

agreeing that SPAs had been set up to fulfill that purpose. Also, a majority of the 

respondents agreed that ERs (52.2%) and SPAs (62.3%) had been set up to support 

scientific research. Fewer believed that zone designation addressed user conflict 

resolution, with 40.6% agreeing that SPAs were set up for that purpose, and fewer 

(21.7% for ERs and 14.5% for WMAs) believing that other zone types were set up to 

reduce user conflicts. These findings were similar to those reported for the 1996 sample, 

which also agreed that the main purpose of the zones was more to increase fish stocks 

Question 1996 

sample 

Ecological 

reserves 

Sanctuary 

preservation 

areas 

Wildlife 

management 

areas 

1. Which of the following represents 

the main purpose of the FKNMS 

zones? 

 

a. Increasing overall fish stocks and 

biomass inside the zones 

n = 62 

83.9 

n = 69 

56.2 

n = 69 

60.9 

n = 69 

39.0 

b. Increasing overall fish stocks and 

biomass outside the zones 

59.7 43.5 37.7 34.8 

c. Conserving and protecting corals, 

fish, and other marine life 

83.9 56.2 75.3 46.4 

d. Resolving user group conflicts 21.7 40.6 14.5 

e. Supporting scientific research 52.2 62.3 37.7 

 

2. Which groups have benefited the 

most from FKNMS zones? 

a. Commercial fishers n = 62 

24.2 

n = 69 

27.5 

n = 69 

30.4 

n = 69 

27.5 

b. Recreational/sport fishers 35.5 30.4 34.8 15.9 

c. Commercial dive operators - 43.5 59.4 31.9 

d. Recreational (local and tourist) 

divers 

38.7 46.4 75.4 35.5 

 
95 

and biomass and to protect corals, fish, and other marine life within the zones than to 

replenish stocks and biomass outside the zones. 

With respect to zone beneficiaries, dive operators identified recreational divers as the 

group that had most benefited from ERs (46.4%), SPAs (75.4%), and WMAs (35.5%). 

The dive operators also identified their own group as a prime beneficiary, with 43.5% 

agreeing that dive operators had benefited from ERs, 59.4% from SPAs, and 31.9% from 

WMAs. Fewer respondents agreed that consumptive users, such as commercial and 

recreational fishers, had been the primary beneficiaries of the zone closures, and these 

views were similar to those expressed by the 1996 sample. It is important to note that 

dive operators differentiated the level of benefits they derived from different zone types. 

For instance, 59.4% and 75.3% of the respondents agreed that dive operators and 

recreational divers had benefited from the SPAs, respectively. Fewer identified 

recreational divers (46.4% for ERs and 35.5% for WMAs) and dive operators (43.5% for 

ERs and 31.9% for WMAs) as prime beneficiaries of the other zones, as compared to 

SPAs. This was most likely related to the high level of SPA use, which accounted for 

69.3% of total trips and 93% of all zone-specific trips taken by the dive operator sample 

in 2005. 
96 

Table 32: Dive operator views on FKNMS zone outcomes Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongly disagre

1. FKNMS zones have reduced conflicts between different user groups. 

ER (n =69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

23.2 30.4 18.8 11.5 

11.6 20.3 11.6 21.3 

18.8 20.3 20.3 14.7 

10.1 10.1 7.2 11.5 

5.8 10.1 5.8 37.7 

2. FKNMS zones have been effective in restoring coral reefs in the Florida Keys to what they used to be. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

11.6 21.7 11.6 14.7 

15.9 15.9 15.9 22.9 

11.6 13.0 11.6 8.2 

15.9 17.4 8.7 14.7 

17.4 26.1 17.4 34.4 

3. FKNMS zones have led to better diving conditions in the Florida Keys, such as healthy coral, more abundant marine life, and clearer water. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

13.0 17.4 11.6 16.4 

29.0 37.7 24.6 37.7 

17.4 20.3 14.5 6.6 

7.2 8.7 5.8 11.5 

5.8 8.7 5.8 26.2 

4. My use of FKNMS zones has increased 

since their establishment. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 

24.6 29.0 20.3 

4.3 10.1 2.9 

24.6 30.4 24.6 

4.3 7.2 4.3 

11.6 15.9 8.7 
97 

5. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones as they are established currently. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

40.6 49.3 34.8 18.0 

14.5 23.2 13.0 22.9 

10.1 11.6 10.1 8.2 

2.9 2.9 2.9 16.4 

5.8 5.8 4.3 26.2 

6. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Upper Keys. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

34.8 43.5 33.3 31.1 

11.6 18.8 11.6 34.4 

11.6 14.5 8.7 9.8 

2.9 4.3 1.4 6.6 

5.8 4.3 4.3 14.7 

7. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Middle Keys. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

37.7 42.0 34.8 32.8 

7.2 17.4 10.1 31.1 

13.0 15.9 10.1 9.8 

2.9 2.9 2.9 6.6 

5.8 4.3 1.4 14.7 

8. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Lower Keys. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

36.2 42.0 34.8 36.1 

10.1 17.4 10.1 34.4 

8.7 14.5 8.7 8.2 

5.8 4.3 4.3 4.9 

5.8 4.3 2.9 14.7 
98 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree 9. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Dry Tortugas. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 

36.2 42.0 34.8 

10.1 17.4 10.1 

8.7 14.5 8.7 

5.8 4.3 4.3 

5.8 4.3 2.9 

10. There should be more FKNMS zones in 

the Florida Keys. 

ER (n = 69) SPA (n = 69) WMA (n = 69) 

36.2 42.0 34.8 

10.1 17.4 10.1 

8.7 14.5 8.7 

5.8 4.3 4.3 

5.8 4.3 2.9 
99 

Dive operators provided their opinions on the outcomes of the FKNMS zones (Table 32), 

and the general consensus was that dive operators were in favor of the current zoning 

strategy but that the zones had produced mixed results. For example, while respondents 

generally agreed that the FKNMS zones (especially the SPAs) had reduced use conflicts, 

led to improved diving conditions, and had led to increased dive operator use, the sample 

was split in its opinion on whether the zones had restored coral reefs to their previous 

condition. Nevertheless, when compared with the 1996 sample, dive operators from the 

present study perceived mainly favorable zone outcomes. Thus, while the average 

response among dive operators in 1996 was moderate disagreement on average for the 

statement that zones would reduce use conflict, the average response in the 2006 sample 

was that of moderate agreement for the same statement. Similarly, dive operators 

showed significantly higher support for the zones as they are currently established in the 

present sample, compared to the 1996 sample. Moreover, even in those results which did 

not show a significant difference between samples, dive operators from the present study 

generally tended to favor the FKNMS zoning (ex. support for FKNMS zones in the 

various parts of the Florida Keys) than did their counterparts in 1996. Finally, a large 

percentage of dive operators surveyed in 2006 agreed that there should be more FKNMS 

zones in the Florida Keys, with 59.4% of the respondents agreeing that there should be 

more SPAs. These results show that dive operators recognize that their group has 

benefited from the FKNMS zoning strategy and that the FKNMS zones have, in part, 

generated conditions favorable to diving and snorkeling such that zone use has remained 

stable or increased (over 69% of dive operators agreed with or were neutral on the 

statement that their use of FKNMS zones had increased since they started using the 

zones)16. As such, the concerns expressed by respondents in the earlier study, in which 

dive operators were divided on whether the FKNMS zones would reduce use conflicts 

and the siting of the zones, had been largely allayed over the FKNMS tenure. Dive 

operators are now largely proponents of the FKNMS zoning strategy. 

 

16 In another question, 18.5% of 65 dive operators reported having increased their use of FKNMS zones 

since their implementation, compared to 4.6% who reported reducing FKNMS zone trips. A majority, or 

76.9%, did not change their use patterns since FKNMS zone implementation. 
100 

Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongdisagre

1. I support the establishment of Special-use Areas (SUAs) in the FKNMS. 

2006 (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

40.6 27.9 

23.2 26.2 

10.1 4.9 

11.6 8.2 

5.8 32.8 

2. There should be additional SUAs in the FKNMS. 2006 

(n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

24.6 11.5 

14.5 11.5 

20.3 14.7 

10.2 9.8 

14.5 45.9 

3. NOAA has made a positive contribution to the marine environment via the National Marine Sanctuary Program 

2006 (n = 69) 

47.8 40.6 7.3 1.4 2.9 

4. The Florida Keys have benefited environmentally from the FKNMS. 

2006 (n = 69) 

52.2 30.4 8.7 4.3 2.9 

5. There has been a net economic benefit to the Florida Keys from the establishment of the FKNMS. 

2006 (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

39.1 21.3 

26.1 31.1 

13.0 16.4 

8.7 9.8 

7.3 14.7 

6. Diving and snorkeling have no effect on marine ecosystems or resources. 

2006 (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

7.3 8.2 

14.5 13.1 

8.7 8.2 

24.6 32.8 

43.5 37.7 

Table 33: Dive operator views on FKNMS zone outcomes 
101 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree 

7. Mooring buoys have a positive effect on the marine environment. 

2006 (n = 69) 

79.7 11.6 2.9 1.4 4.4 

8. There should be a dive/snorkel operator funded mooring buoy program in the FKNMS. 

2006 (n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

20.3 8.2 

5.8 18.0 

17.4 6.6 

15.9 11.5 

40.6 55.7 

9. There should be a diver/snorkeler (user) funded mooring buoy program in the FKNMS. 

2006 (n = 69) 1996 (n =61) 

17.4 3.3 

18.8 24.6 

10.2 1.6 

18.8 4.9 

34.8 37.7 

10. There should be limited entry for dive/snorkel operations in the Florida Keys. 

2006 (n = 69) 

14.5 11.6 21.7 13.0 37.7 

11. I generally support the establishment of the FKNMS. 2007 

(n = 69) 1996 (n = 61) 

53.6 44.3 

33.4 19.7 

7.3 16.4 

2.9 8.2 

1.4 11.5 
102 

In Table 33, dive operators provided their views on effects of the FKNMS, the impacts of 

diving and snorkeling, and their support for management alternatives. Almost two thirds 

of the sample, or 63.8%, supported the establishment of the Special-use Areas (SUAs), 

which are no-dive zones; the level of support was significantly higher than in 1996, when 

54.1% of the sample supported SUAs. However, the level of support dropped to 39.1% 

when dive operators were asked whether they would support additional SUAs (which was 

still significantly higher than the 23% that supported additional SUAs in 1996). Dive 

operators were overwhelmingly in support of the FKNMS and its parent agency, NOAA, 

in terms of the Sanctuary’s performance. Over 88% of the sample agreed that NOAA 

had made a positive contribution to the marine environment via the National Marine 

Sanctuary Program, and 82.6% believed that the Florida Keys had benefited 

environmentally from the FKNMS. Also, 65.2% of the dive operators agreed that there 

had been a net economic benefit to the Florida Keys from the establishment of the 

FKNMS, a significantly higher level of support than shown by the 1996 sample for the 

same statement. Overall, 87% of the respondents supported the establishment of the 

FKNMS, compared to 64% who supported FKNMS establishment in 1996; in the 

previous study, 19.7% did not support the FKNMS, significantly higher than the 4.3% 

that did not support the FKNMS in the 2006 sample. Effectively, support for the 

FKNMS increased by 23% in the ten years since the FKNMS was implemented, 

suggesting a dramatic shift in the dive operator industry’s views on the FKNMS and its 

effects on the industry. 

As for their perceptions on their industry, dive operators remained convinced that their 

activity is not non-consumptive, as 68.1% disagreed that diving and snorkeling have no 

effects on marine ecosystems or resources. Conversely, 91.3% of those surveyed 

expressed support for mooring buoys, which they agreed have a positive effect on the 

marine environment. However, the 2006 sample did not report a higher preference for 

user fees to fund a mooring buoy program in the FKNMS than did the 1996 sample. 

Only 26.1% were in favor of a dive operator funded mooring buoy program (and 56.5% 

were against such a program), while 36.2% favored a diver funded mooring buoy 

program (with 53.6% against it). Dive operators were also not in favor of having a 

limited entry system, which just over a quarter (26.1%) supported and a majority (50.7%) 

opposed. These results show that while dive operators understood that their activities do 

have impacts on marine resources (i.e. diving and snorkeling are not completely benign), 

a majority of the industry was unwilling to bear the burden of funding (either directly or 

via user fees) a mooring buoy program. Several of those surveyed argued that the 

FKNMS should be charged with funding a mooring buoy program. Most dive operators 

in the sample were also against having a limited entry system, which may in part be a 

result of the high turnover in the industry (average tenure among dive operators was 

between 6-10 years). 
103 

Table 34: Dive operators’ views on FKNMS resource conditions 

 Better Å----Neutral------Æ Worse 

**1-5 scale, where 1 is better and 5 is worse; 3 is neutral or no change 

Table 34 shows the dive operators’ perceptions on a variety of resource conditions, in 

terms of changes that have occurred in the resource conditions since the implementation 

of the FKNMS. Dive operators believed that vessel groundings had decreased and 

fisheries and sea grass conditions had improved since the implementation of the FKNMS, 

but that land-based pollution and water quality had worsened, and coral reefs had 

declined17. Of all the resources that had improved over the FKNMS tenure, dive 

operators pointed to the greater number and better siting of mooring buoys, both of which 

had assisted in the prevention of anchor and vessel damage on coral reefs. The 

respondents were mixed in their opinion on whether the FKNMS was responsible for the 

observed resource conditions, as 38.2% agreed that the FKNMS was responsible and 

33.8% disagreed. 

When asked about the areas in which the FKNMS had been a success, the most common 

response among dive operators was mooring buoys (28.9%), followed by FKNMS zones 

(18.0%), fisheries and marine life (13.3%), coral reefs (13.3%), and enforcement (10%). 

Respondents often identified the same areas that others had stated were successes as 

failures. For example, almost a third of those who identified a failure listed enforcement 

 

17 In a similar study conducted with seven stakeholder groups in the southeast Florida region, Shivlani and 

Villanueva (2007) determined that all stakeholder groups believed that coral reef and water quality 

conditions had declined over their tenure. 

Resource Sample 1 2 3 4 5 Don’t 

know 

Sample 

mean** 

(std dev) 

1. Water quality n = 69 7.2 17.4 33.3 17.4 17.4 7.2 n = 64 

3.22 (1.19) 

2. Land-based pollution/sewage n = 69 8.7 14.5 26.1 24.6 17.4 8.7 n = 63 

3.31 (1.23) 

3. Sea-based pollution/marine debris n = 69 8.7 30.4 21.7 17.4 17.4 4.4 n = 66 

3.04 (1.27) 

4. Coral reefs n = 69 8.7 18.8 14.5 37.7 17.4 2.9 n = 67 

3.37 (1.24) 

5. Sea grasses n = 69 5.8 30.4 42.0 4.4 5.8 11.6 n = 61 

2.70 (0.92) 

6. Fisheries n = 69 13.0 20.3 26.1 11.6 10.1 18.8 n = 56 

2.82 (1.24) 

7. Mooring buoys n = 69 50.7 23.2 15.9 5.8 - 4.4 n = 66 

1.82 (1.11) 

8. Vessel groundings n = 69 18.8 20.3 34.8 13.0 7.2 5.8 n = 65 

2.68 (1.17) 
104 

(32.3%). Other common areas of perceived failure were coral reefs (20%), pollution 

(18.5%), and vessel groundings (12.3%). 

Table 35: Dive operators' views on resource conditions inside FKNMS zones 

Resource type Changes in 

Ecological 

Reserves** 

(std dev) 

Changes in 

Sanctuary 

Preservation Areas** 

(std dev) 

Changes in Wildlife 

Management Areas** 

(std dev) 

Water quality n = 39 

3.00 

(1.15) 

n = 59 

3.05 

(1.18) 

n = 42 

3.19 

(1.11) 

Number of fish n = 43 

2.42 

(1.16) 

n = 63 

2.28 

(1.18) 

n = 43 

2.65 

(1.04) 

Types of fish n = 42 

2.81 

(1.10) 

n = 62 

2.71 

(1.14) 

n = 41 

3.05 

(0.97) 

Amount of living coral n = 42 

3.29 

(1.13) 

n = 62 

3.48 

(1.18) 

n = 35 

3.51 

(1.09) 

Other marine life n = 42 

2.71 

(1.07) 

n = 63 

2.62 

(1.09) 

n = 41 

2.83 

(0.97) 

Crowding n = 40 

3.17 

(1.01) 

n = 62 

3.76 

(1.15) 

n = 41 

3.51 

(1.19) 

**1-5 scale, where 1 is better and 5 is worse 

Finally, dive operators stated their views on changes in six resource conditions inside 

FKNMS zones since the establishment of the zones (Table 35). There was general 

agreement across all three zone types that faunal conditions (i.e. number of fish, types of 

fish, and other marine life) had improved. The greatest improvement had occurred in the 

number of fish in SPAs (mean = 2.28 on a 1-5 scale, where 1 is better and 5 is worse). 

However, dive operators also believed that the coral conditions (i.e. amount of living 

coral) inside all three zone types had decreased. They also perceived higher (and less 

acceptable) levels of crowding in all three zones types, with the worse crowding reported 

for SPAs (mean = 3.76). These results demonstrate that dive operators perceived 

differences in the extent of resource changes in the different zones, such that numbers 

and types of fish were reported as having improved more in the ERs and SPAs than in the 

WMAs (the latter of which are open to consumptive activities). The results also 

corroborate worrying trends in coral reefs in south Florida, those of decreased coral cover 

and increased crowding, and signal the need for increased biophysical and socioeconomic 

monitoring to determined the long-term changes in coral reefs, their resources, and uses. 

4.2.5 Dive operator survey discussion 

Dive operations’ objectives frequently align with those of resource management 

programs (Rivera Miranda, 2007; Davis and Tisdell, 1995; Dixon et al., 1993), especially 

where these programs may lead to privileged (and even exclusive) access (ex. no-take 
105 

zones) and when the costs of protection and management are borne by governments, 

NGOs, or users (Arjina and Kramer, 2002; Bunce et al., 1999). However, dive operators 

in the Florida Keys did not express similar support for exclusive access in FKNMS zones 

when the Sanctuary underwent its designation process in 1995-97 (Suman and Shivlani, 

1998). While 64% of the dive operators interviewed in 1996 did support the 

establishment of the FKNMS, many respondents believed that the NOAA had not heeded 

the concerns of local citizens in the designation process and that their opinions would not 

matter once the FKNMS regulations were implemented. Also, the 1996 sample 

moderately disagreed, on average, that the FKNMS zones would reduce user conflicts, 

and over 42% were not in favor of the zone locations in the FKNMS Draft Management 

Plan. Finally, dive operators were generally against having more FKNMS zones in the 

Florida Keys and were opposed to additional SUAs. These views revealed a wary dive 

operator industry that was unsure of the effects that the FKNMS rules and regulations 

would have on their operations (indeed, ability to use dive sites on which they relied and 

were now designated as SPAs). 

The industry’s uncertainty was further affected by anti-FKNMS propaganda. Suman et 

al. (1999) and NAPA (2001) have described the volatile conditions in the Florida Keys in 

the period following the release of the FKNMS Draft Management Plan, during which 

Keys’ residents took sides with and against the establishment of the FKNMS. Opponents 

of the FKNMS argued that NOAA expected to add another ‘layer of bureaucracy’ and 

that the federal government would eventually restrict or prohibit all water-based 

industries (Swift, 1996). Anti-FKNMS groups such as the Conch Coalition and Victims 

of NOAA were comprised of a variety of stakeholders (ex. treasure salvors, commercial 

fishermen, real estate developers and professionals, etc.) concerned about the impacts of 

the FKNMS (in particular with its submerged cultural resources action plan and its 

zoning action plan), and these groups held frequent meetings and produced anti-FKNMS 

literature. Almost a third of the dive operators in the 1996 sample reported receiving 

anti-FKNMS literature, and 66% considered word of mouth information or rumors as a 

source of information. 

When considered together, it is indicative that dive operator uncertainty over what antiFKNMS groups purported were the NOAA’s ulterior motives in zoning led to the group’s 

unwillingness to provide greater support for the FKNMS process and FKNMS zoning 

action plan. Thus, while support for FKNMS establishment was high (due to an aligned 

view on resource management), the industry took a “wait and see” approach to specific 

aspects of FKNMS management, including zoning. 

In 1997, the FKNMS implemented its zoning action plan. With that, the industry 

obtained privileged access (which is almost exclusive among commercial stakeholders in 

the no-take zones) to the FKNMS zones, and almost a fifth of the sample reported 

increasing their total trips to FKNMS zones. The smaller SUAs, where no diving is 

permitted, did not attract much dive use prior to their implementation (see Shivlani and 

Suman, 2000; NOAA, 1996), and dive operators’ fears over no-dive/entry zones were not 

realized. Finally, regulations concerning carrying capacity/limits of acceptable change 
106 

that NOAA included as part of the FKNMS mooring buoy action plan were not 

implemented. 

After a decade of FKNMS management, the dive operator industry effectively embraced 

the Sanctuary and its zoning action plan. Dive operator support for the establishment of 

the FKNMS increased by 23% in the ten years between studies; that is, 87% of the dive 

operators interviewed in 2006 supported the FKNMS. Support in the 2006 sample 

extended beyond that for FKNMS establishment. Dive operators accepted many aspects 

of the FKNMS process that the previous sample had questioned. Specifically, dive 

operators in 2006 were more in agreement than those in 1996 that the process that NOAA 

had used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS zones was open and fair. 

Similarly, more dive operators in the present sample believed participation made a 

difference and that NOAA heeded the concerns of individual citizens. Most importantly 

from a process perspectives, dive operators were now more in agreement that their views 

on FKNMS management effectiveness can lead to changes in management direction (i.e. 

stakeholder-influenced adaptive management). 

Dive operator support extended to FKNMS zones as well. Whereas in 1996, dive 

operators had been ambivalent about the FKNMS Draft Management Plan zoning action 

plan, 72.5% of the 2006 respondents approved of the present SPA locations. Dive 

operators even expressed greater support for SUAs in 2006 than they did a decade earlier, 

mostly agreeing that there should be additional SUAs in the FKNMS. As per the effects 

of the zoning strategy, there was general agreement within the sample that the zones had 

reduced user conflicts (especially SPAs), improved diving conditions, and generated 

positive impacts on the region’s economy. Dive operators were now mostly willing to 

accept more FKNMS zones (especially SPAs) in the Florida Keys. 

This support, however, should not be interpreted as a uniform approval of the FKNMS or 

its zoning strategy. For instance, the group was not convinced that the FKNMS had been 

able to restore coral reefs to their original state, and 20% of those who listed an FKNMS 

failure identified coral reefs as the area in which the FKNMS had most failed. Coral 

cover was listed, along with crowding and water quality, as a resource undergoing a 

worsening/declining trend, and dive operators believed, on average, that coral reefs had 

declined in the FKNMS since the implementation of the Sanctuary. Also, while the dive 

operators were in favor of mooring buoys (and the FKNMS mooring buoy action plan), 

the industry showed little support for either an industry or user-funded mooring buoy 

program. 

Apart from the actual results that dive operators experienced and which led to an increase 

in their support for the FKNMS and its zoning strategy has been the change in the 

composition of sources of information that the respondents in the 2006 sample used to 

obtain FKNMS information. In 1996, dive operators reported using both the FKNMS 

and anti-FKNMS sources and rumors to learn about the FKNMS. By 2006, with the 

demise of anti-FKNMS groups, the dive operator industry relied mostly on the FKNMS 

for its sources of information (and particularly on FKNMS personnel and FKNMS 

literature). Without accessing anti-FKNMS movement to provide alternate 
107 

interpretations of FKNMS actions, dive operators have relied increasingly on FKNMS 

and some media sources, and this may have affected their views on the Sanctuary. 

4.3 Environmental group survey results 

A total 438 environmental group members returned complete or partially completed 

surveys, resulting in a response rate of 11.6%. Reef Relief members accounted for a 

majority (369 surveys, or 84.2%) of the returned surveys. However, when compared to 

the population size, the return rate for Reef Relief members was 10.7% (369 returns from 

3,442 mailed surveys); by contrast, 20.9% of Last Stand members returned a survey (69 

returns from 330 mailed surveys). Finally, another 577 members (15.3% of the total 

population) returned the non-response bias postcard18. 

The previous survey effort determined that there was considerable cross group affiliation, 

in that members of one of the target groups were members of one or both other target 

groups. In total, 27% of Last Stand and SFFK members reported being members of Reef 

Relief in 1996, compared to 8.9% of Reef Relief and SFFK members who were members 

of Last Stand, and less than 1% of Last Stand and Reef Relief members who were 

members of SFFK. In the present study, 37.7% (n = 29) of Last Stand members reported 

that they were also members of Reef Relief, and 7.8% (n = 26) of Reef Relief members 

identified themselves as members of Last Stand. These findings suggest that return rates, 

when the cross affiliations are considered, were as high as 13.1% (n = 493) for both 

groups. 

The results presented generally follow the survey instrument (see Appendix 3) and are 

divided into the following two sections: General information, which concerns sociodemographic and use characteristics; and FKNMS information and perceptions, which 

addresses the types of information sources used on obtaining information on the FKNMS 

and views on the FKNMS designation process, FKNMS zones, and FKNMS outcomes. 

4.3.1 Environmental group survey general information 

Under this section, environmental group members provided information on their 

domicile, race and ethnic group, years within the environmental group, water-based 

 

18 The respondents from the non-response bias postcard survey answered two questions that were 

determined to have affected whether environmental group members completed and returned surveys from 

the original (1996) study (Suman et al., 1999). These related to the age of the individual and the 

individual’s support for the FKNMS. In the present effort, the average age of the respondents who 

completed the postcard but not the survey was between 41-50 years old (n = 573; mean = 3.98; SD = 1.05), 

which was significantly lower (Mann-Whitney test: z-score = 12.9; p= 0.0) than the average age (51-60 

years old) of the respondents (n = 403; mean = 4.92; SD = 1.01) who completed a survey. Similarly, there 

was a significant difference in the level of support shown for the establishment of the FKNMS (MannWhitney test: z-score = 3.81; p < 0.001) between those that completed a survey and showed less support (n 

= 368; mean = 1.94; SD = 1.54) and those that did not and showed more support (n = 570; mean = 1.47; SD 

= 0.96). Effectively, older individuals who were less satisfied with the FKNMS were significantly more 

likely to complete a survey than were younger individuals who were more satisfied with the FKNMS. 
108 

activities in which they participate in the Florida Keys, and whether their occupation is 

affiliated with the marine environment in the Florida Keys. 

Table 36: Environmental group survey distribution by region 

Region 2007 sample (n = 438) 1996 sample (n = 401) 

Lower Keys 32.4 56.6 

Middle Keys 3.0 4.0 

Upper Keys 4.3 9.2 

State of Florida 18.9 13.0 

All regions outside of 

Florida 

29.0 9.5 

Not specified 12.3 7.7 

As shown in Table 36, the 2007 sample of environmental group members consisted of a 

large percentage of residents from the Florida Keys, who made up almost 40% of all 

respondents. This was followed by respondents from states other than Florida (29.0%), 

Florida (18.9%), and those who did not provide a zip code (12.3%). Within the Florida 

Keys, Lower Keys members comprised a majority (81.6%), followed by the Upper Keys 

(10.9%) and the Middle Keys (7.5%). When compared to the previous sample, there 

were proportionally fewer responses from the Florida Keys (67.8% of the 1996 sample 

compared to 39.7% of the 2007 sample); this may have been in part due to having 

surveyed another local group in 1996, Sanctuary Friends of the Florida Keys (SFFK)19, 

which had an almost exclusively Keys-based membership. 

The average age of the respondents in the present sample was between 51-60 years old (n 

= 403; mean = 4.92; SD = 1.01), which was significantly higher than the average age 

(between 41-50 years and 51-60 years old) of respondents in the previous sample (MannWhitney test: z-score = 7.1; p = 0.0). Racially, 97.5% of the respondents identified 

themselves as Caucasian, similar to the 97.6% that gave the same answer in the 1996 

sample. 

The average period in which respondents had been members of Last Stand or Reef Relief 

was 6-10 years (n = 387; mean = 3.00, where 1 is less than one year and 6 is over 20 

years; SD = 1.20), and almost 60% of the sample had been affiliated with its respective 

group for six or more years. This finding suggests that a majority of the sample was 

affiliated with its group during either or both the FKNMS designation process (1995-97) 

and the Tortugas 2000 process (1998-2001) and thus may be familiar with the FKNMS 

history. 

Almost two thirds of those who responded (64.3%) stated that they belong to one or more 

environmental groups. On average, environmental group members belonged to 2.22 

other environmental groups (n = 232; SD = 1.41), with groups such as The Nature 

 

19 The research team attempted to re-survey this group but learned that the original Sanctuary Friends of the 

Florida Keys had not been in existence for a few years and that more recent group bearing the same name 

had been formed (but chose not to participate). 
109 

Conservancy (18.7%), Sierra Club (14.4%), and The Audubon Society (10.9%) 

representing the most popular groups. Table 37 shows the breakdown of environmental 

groups. 

Table 37: Environmental group survey member affiliation 

Environmental groups 2007 sample (n = 395) 1996 sample (n = 395) 

1. One or more environmental groups 64.3 70.1 

2. The Audubon Society 10.9 15.0 

3. Environmental Defense Fund 3.3 - 

4. Greenpeace 3.5 9.2 

5. The Nature Conservancy 18.7 23.5 

6. Natural Resources Defense Fund 6.3 - 

7. The Ocean Conservancy 5.1 - 

8. Sierra Club 14.4 8.0 

9. The Wilderness Society 1.8 5.2 

10. World Wildlife Fund 7.3 - 

11. Other groups 40.0 46.0 

As shown in Table 37, rates of environmental group affiliation dropped among group 

members from 1996 to 2007. Fewer respondents (64.3%) in 2007 reported being part of 

one or more environmental groups than did the 1996 sample (70.1%). Although the 1996 

sample did not list all environmental groups, the groups in which both samples reported 

affiliation generally had higher percentages of members in the 1996 than in the 2007 

sample (with the exception of the Sierra Club). 

When asked about their residency, the average response among environmental group 

members was that they spend between 7-9 months each year in the Florida Keys (n = 

258; mean = 3.22, on a scale where 1 refers to ’1-3 months in the Florida Keys each 

year’, and 4 refers to ‘resident’; SD = 1.19). Almost two-thirds of the respondents 

(65.9%) identified themselves as residents, while 18.2% reported spending between 1-3 

months each year in the Florida Keys. In the 1996 sample, the mean response for the 

amount of time spent in the Florida Keys (n = 353; mean = 3.54; SD = 0.98) was 

significantly higher (Mann Whitney Test: z-score = 2.90; p < 0.01) than that reported for 

the 2007 sample, and 79.3% of the 1996 sample identified themselves as residents. Thus, 

there were fewer residents in the present sample than in the previous one, and the current 

findings determined almost twice as many part-time residents who stay 1-3 months per 

year compared to the 1996 sample (9.9% of whom reported spending 1-3 months per year 

in the Florida Keys). 
110 

Table 38: Environmental group survey member activities 

Activities undertaken in the Florida Keys 2007 sample 1996 sample 

1. Sportfishing n = 379 

43.9 

n = 267 

47.9 

2. Swimming n = 395 

72.6 

n = 267 

86.7 

3. Snorkeling n = 391 

77.9 

n = 267 

85.8 

4. SCUBA diving n = 380 

47.1 

n = 267 

48.5 

5. Boating n = 386 

56.3 

n = 267 

71.1 

6. Water-skiing n = 370 

5.7 

n = 267 

12.0 

7. Jet-skiing n = 370 

5.1 

n = 267 

5.0 

8. Kayaking n = 390 

36.6 

n = 267 

23.9 

9. Net fishing n = 370 

1.6 

n = 267 

1.6 

10. Trap fishing n = 371 

3.2 

n = 267 

1.0 

11. Spear fishing n = 373 

14.2 

n = 267 

14.4 

12. Fish collecting n = 370 

3.8 

n = 267 

1.0 

13. Bird watching n = 391 

48.4 

n = 267 

51.0 

14. Underwater photography n = 374 

24.3 

n = 267 

21.6 

15. Glass bottom boating n = 371 

3.8 

n = 267 

7.9 

16. Sailing n = 382 

30.3 

 

As shown in Table 38, activities in which the respondents participated largely remained 

similar across study periods. For instance, swimming and snorkeling were the two most 

popular activities in both samples. While fewer 2007 sample members (56.3%) reported 

boating as a primary activity than did 1996 sample member (71.1%), it nevertheless 

ranked as the third most popular activity in both samples. The only activity which 

witnessed a considerable increase from 1996 to 2007 was kayaking; in the earlier sample, 

23.9% of environmental group members listed kayaking, compared to 36.6% of the 2007 

sample. Otherwise, nonconsumptive activities (such as swimming, snorkeling, boating, 

birdwatching, and SCUBA diving) remained more popular than consumptive ones 

(sportfishing, spear fishing, and fish collecting, among others). These results 

demonstrate the importance of nonconsumptive activities to the respondents and (in part) 

assist in characterizing their attitudes towards FKNMS management strategies. 
111 

4.3.2 Environmental group survey attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs20

Environmental group members described their views on the information sources on the 

FKNMS and their perceptions concerning the FKNMS process and its outcomes, the 

FKNMS zones, and FKNMS performance. 

Table 39: Environmental group survey sources of information 

Sources of information 2007 sample 1996 sample 

1. FKNMS website* n = 377 

25.3 

- 

2. FKNMS staff/personnel n = 381 

22.1 

n = 267 

22.4 

3. FKNMS Draft Management Plan** - n = 266 

36.5 

4. FKNMS Advisory Council* n = 374 

9.7 

- 

5. FKNMS brochures/literature n = 385 

45.2 

n = 267 

29.1 

6. FKNMS signage* n = 375 

17.6 

- 

7. NOAA meetings** - n = 266 

29.7 

8. Newspapers n = 398 

52.7 

n = 267 

78.2 

9. Radio n = 381 

21.3 

n = 267 

48.9 

10. Television n = 378 

19.8 

n = 267 

48.9 

11. Anti-FKNMS groups** - n = 266 

13.0 

12. Commercial fishing groups** - n = 265 

10.0 

13. Environmental groups** - n = 266 

50.6 

14. Government fisheries organizations** - n = 266 

10.0 

15. Sea Grant** - n = 266 

5.2 

16. Own environmental group** - n = 266 

87.2 

17. Rumors/word of mouth n = 384 

39.7 

n = 267 

30.3 

* Source of information only in 2007 survey 

** Source of information only in 1996 survey 

 

20 Results concerning group survey attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs, as well as those related to activities, 

have been weighted to compare only the two groups (Reef Relief and Last Stand) that were surveyed in 

both studies. 
112 

Table 40: Environmental group survey information source usefulness 

Sources of information 2007 sample 1996 sample 

1. FKNMS website* n = 374 

12.3 

- 

2. FKNMS staff/personnel n = 374 

8.0 

n = 266 

11.2 

3. FKNMS Draft Management Plan** - n = 266 

26.6 

4. FKNMS Advisory Council* n = 371 

2.9 

- 

5. FKNMS brochures/literature n = 375 

25.6 

n = 264 

12.1 

6. FKNMS signage* n = 370 

2.1 

- 

7. NOAA meetings** - n = 266 

15.7 

8. Newspapers n = 384 

29.0 

n = 266 

37.5 

9. Radio n = 373 

4.2 

n = 265 

13.8 

10. Television n = 372 

3.1 

n = 265 

13.8 

11. Anti-FKNMS groups** - n = 266 

4.1 

12. Commercial fishing groups** - n = 266 

4.6 

13. Environmental groups** - n = 266 

19.7 

14. Government fisheries organizations** - n = 266 

0.5 

n = 266 

15. Sea Grant** - 3.3 

16. Own environmental group** - n = 266 

60.0 

17. Rumors/word of mouth n = 372 

8.2 

n = 266 

4.5 

* Source of information only in 2007 survey 

** Source of information only in 1996 survey 

Environmental group members generally relied on the same types of information sources 

in the two study periods (Tables 39 and 40), and while not all sources were asked across 

study periods, the results demonstrate the importance of media sources and rumors/word 

of mouth. Overall, however, a higher percentage of members from the 1996 sample 

obtained information from a variety of sources than did their 2007 sample counterparts. 

In fact, the only common source among samples in which a higher percentage of 2007 

sample members received information than the 1996 sample members was that related to 

rumors/word of mouth. Also, the results demonstrate that environmental group members 

in both samples trusted official sources of information (ex. those emanating from the 

FKNMS) more than they did media sources such as radio and rumors/word of mouth. 

Finally, although rumors/word of mouth represented an important source of information 

in both samples, only 8.2% and 4.5% of the 2007 and 1996 samples listed the source as 

being the most useful, respectively. Put differently, only a fifth of the 2007 sample 
113 

members and a seventh of the 1996 sample members who reported receiving information 

from others believed that such information was useful. 
114 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagreeQuestion Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strondisag

1. The process that NOAA has used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS was open and fair to all groups. 

2007 1996 

19.4 17.7 

16.9 13.6 

10.6 10.3 

5.6 7.0 

7.5 9.2 

2. The process has used by NOAA to develop boundaries and regulations for the FKNMS zones was open and fair to all groups. 

2007 1996 

18.4 16.4 

18.7 14.4 

8.4 10.1 

6.2 7.1 

8.7 13.7 

3. It has not mattered whether the average person participated in the workshops and meeting on the FKNMS because the average person could not influence the final decisions. 

2007 1996 

12.8 13.9 

13.5 10.6 

12.1 12.6 

16.4 21.6 

16.4 28.7 

4. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of local and state governments in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

2007 1996 

7.8 8.5 

8.4 6.5 

14.2 15.4 

11.0 17.8 

16.0 16.9 

5. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of individual citizens in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

2007 1996 

10.2 9.8 

15.4 13.2 

10.7 10.8 

11.6 21.1 

13.6 16.4 

6. Once that the FKNMS regulations have been in effect, there has been no way that the average person to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of the regulations. 

2007 1996 

11.2 18.9 

12.3 11.9 

13.9 6.9 

13.6 16.9 

12.2 20.0 

7. The procedures that NOAA has established to deal with violations of FKNMS regulations have been fair and just. 

2007 1996 

9.5 7.3 

14.7 12.7 

12.8 11.2 

5.2 8.7 

7.0 11.5 

Table 41: Environmental group survey perceptions on FKNMS processes 
115 

Table 41 shows the respondents’ perceptions on the FKNMS process. It should be noted 

that in both studies, large percentages of environmental group members stated that they 

did not know enough to answer these questions. Importantly, while such views could 

have been related to the respondents’ unwillingness to predict the outcomes of FKNMS 

regulations and procedures in the earlier study, the high rates of environmental group 

members listing a lack of knowledge in the present study suggests a sample that has not 

learned more about the FKNMS process since the implementation of the FKNMS. 

In most questions concerning the FKNMS process, the two samples were mainly in 

agreement, although environmental groups members surveyed in 1996 were significantly 

more in disagreement than those surveyed in 2007 that the participation in the FKNMS 

workshops and meetings did not matter because the average person could not influence 

the final decisions. Otherwise, similar percentages of respondents agreed that the 

processes that NOAA had used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS and the 

FKNMS zones were open and fair, whether NOAA had addressed local government or 

individual citizen concerns in developing the rules and regulations for the FKNMS, and 

the ability of the average person to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of the 

regulations. It must be noted, however, that environmental group members in both 

samples generally sided in favor of the FKNMS process and that the comparisons 

between samples demonstrate a weakening (but not abandonment) of support. 

Finally, it is important to discuss the large percentage of environmental group members 

in both samples who did not answer certain process related questions. In both the 2007 

and 1996 samples, over a third of the respondents stated that they did not know enough 

about the process used to develop FKNMS and FKNMS zone rules and regulations, and 

over 40% did not know whether the procedures adopted to address FKNMS violations 

were fair and just. In fact, a quarter or greater of the 2007 sample stated that it did not 

know enough about any process related question to provide an opinion. These results 

suggest that environmental group members may know less now about the FKNMS 

process than they did a decade ago; while this is understandable in the case of process 

related issues related to the FKNMS designation process (which occurred in the mid1990s), the lack of knowledge on current FKNMS management procedures identifies the 

need for greater outreach and education. 
116 

Table 42: Environmental group member views on FKNMS zone purpose and beneficiaries 

Table 42 presents environmental group members’ views on FKNMS zones, as 

determined by the main purpose that the respondents believed that the zones serve and by 

the user groups they identified as those that had most benefited from the zoning strategy. 

A majority of those surveyed listed conservation and protection of corals, fish, and other 

marine life as the primary purpose of ERs, SPAs, and WMAs. This view was consistent 

across samples, as 85.1% of the 1996 agreed that conservation and protection represented 

the primary purpose of all FKNMS zones. Also, environmental group members in both 

samples generally did not believe that replenishment outside the FKNMS zones is a main 

purpose, although the 1996 sample showed more support than the 2007 sample (although 

this is more likely due to the fact that respondents in the latter sample had to select one 

out of the five purposes whereas respondents in the 1996 sample were provided separate 

questions on the main purpose of the zones; in both studies, replenishment outside the 

zones trailed conservation and protection and replenishment within the zones as a listed 

primary purpose). Importantly, environmental group members in the 2007 study 

differentiated between the FKNMS zone types with respect to their primary purpose; 

thus, while only 11.2% and 3.9% believed that ERs and WMAs served to resolve use 

Question 1996 

sample 

2007 sample 

Ecological 

reserves 

2007 sample 

Sanctuary 

preservation 

areas 

2007 sample 

Wildlife 

management 

areas 

1. Which of the following represents 

the main purpose of the FKNMS 

zones? 

 

a. Increasing overall fish stocks and 

biomass inside the zones 

n = 378 

71.9 

n = 415 

22.7 

n = 404 

11.6 

n = 385 

14.3 

b. Increasing overall fish stocks and 

biomass outside the zones 

56.4 18.9 8.2 9.6 

c. Conserving and protecting corals, 

fish, and other marine life 

85.1 46.5 51.5 57.7 

d. Resolving user group conflicts 3.9 22.3 11.2 

e. Supporting scientific research 6.8 5.7 6.2 

 

2. Which groups have benefited the 

most from FKNMS zones? 

a. Commercial fishers n = 378 

24.1 

n = 374 

17.4 

n = 367 

11.7 

n = 346 

11.3 

b. Recreational/sport fishers 29.0 17.7 22.6 26.9 

c. Commercial dive operators 37.6 14.2 21.3 7.8 

d. Recreational (local and tourist) 

divers 

50.3 42.8 40.9 47.1 

 
117 

group conflicts, respectively, over a fifth of the sample (22.3%) believed that SPAs 

served that purpose (which is a stated objective of the SPAs). Similarly, 22.7% of the 

respondents agreed that the main purpose of ERs is to provide replenishment inside the 

zones, whereas only 14% or less agreed that such replenishment was the main purpose 

for the other two zone types. Also, twice as many (18.9%) respondents agreed that ERs 

have been set up to provide region-wide replenishment than have SPAs or WMAs. 

In terms of beneficiaries of the zoning strategy, a majority of respondents in the 1996 

sample and a large percentage in the 2007 sample agreed that recreational divers had 

benefited (or would benefit) from the FKNMS zones. While the 1996 sample believed 

that commercial dive operators would benefit more than recreational or sport fishers, the 

2007 sample felt that the recreational or sport fishers had gained more than the dive 

operators, especially in the WMAs (which restrict access but do not affect extractive 

activities). The environmental group members in both samples were also in agreement 

that the user group least likely to benefit from the FKNMS zones were (or would be) 

commercial fishers. As shown in the previous question concerning FKNMS zone 

purpose, environmental group members in the 2007 sample were able to differentiate 

among beneficiaries across zone types. Thus, while only 7.8% of the respondents 

identified dive operators benefiting from WMAs, 21.3% agreed that dive operators would 

benefit from SPAs (no-take zones that attract a majority of recreational dive use in the 

FKNMS (NOAA, 1996) and which have been set up to reduce user group conflict). Also, 

more environmental group members believed that recreational fishers had benefited from 

WMAs and SPAs than from ERs, due most likely to their understanding that the WMAs 

generally do not restrict fishing and because a few SPAs allow catch-and-release fishing 

(as well as the small size of SPAs, as compared to ERs). 
118 

Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongly disagre

1. FKNMS zones have reduced conflicts between different user groups. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

7.8 10.6 8.5 21.0 

18.9 18.2 20.5 22.1 

12.2 12.0 11.5 13.9 

9.6 7.9 7.2 12.7 

5.6 4.4 4.9 13.0 

2. FKNMS zones have been effective in restoring coral reefs in the Florida Keys to what they used to be. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

6.0 6.3 6.0 33.8 

16.3 16.0 13.6 29.3 

7.8 9.1 11.8 7.2 

18.6 19.4 17.9 11.1 

22.1 20.1 20.9 10.3 

3. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones as they are established currently. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

29.8 29.1 28.0 19.0 

21.6 22.8 22.9 15.1 

11.4 11.1 10.8 21.1 

5.4 5.4 6.6 6.2 

6.8 6.3 5.5 16.2 

4. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Upper Keys. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

46.9 45.6 45.5 47.1 

17.1 18.7 17.6 18.5 

6.3 6.5 8.0 10.3 

2.7 2.1 1.9 2.6 

5.6 5.1 4.8 8.8 

Table 43: Environmental group member views on FKNMS zone outcomes 
119 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05)ʃ refers to significant differences in distributions (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree5. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Middle Keys. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

48.0 46.8 46.1 47.0 

17.9 18.7 18.9 18.3 

4.8 5.2 6.0 10.7 

2.3 2.3 2.0 3.1 

6.4 5.6 5.3 9.3 

6. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Lower Keys. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

52.4 50.2 50.3 48.7 

15.9 17.9 18.0 17.7 

4.0 4.3 4.6 8.4 

2.3 2.5 2.0 2.6 

8.3 7.2 7.2 11.8 

7. I support the establishment of FKNMS zones in the Dry Tortugas. 

ER SPA WMA 

55.5 53.2 53.9 

14.3 16.5 15.5 

3.1 2.8 3.9 

2.7 2.4 1.9 

6.7 6.7 6.1 

8. There should be more FKNMS zones in the Florida Keys. 

ER SPA WMA 1996 

46.7 46.8 45.3 39.6 

13.5 13.6 13.4 13.3 

5.4 6.2 6.3 7.6 

3.5 3.2 4.0 5.4 

11.0 10.2 10.2 12.2 
120 

Table 43 shows that there have been either no changes or increased negative views in 

environmental group members’ perceptions towards the FKNMS zones, especially as 

these relate to the outcome of the zones. For instance, environmental group members in 

1996 were, on average, in agreement that FKNMS zones would be able to restore coral 

reefs to their original condition in the Florida Keys. By contrast, in the 2007 sample, 

respondents tended to disagree, on average, that any of the three FKNMS zone types had 

accomplished that prediction. Similarly, while respondents in both samples agreed that 

FKNMS would (1996 sample) or had (2007 sample) reduced user conflicts, while 43.1% 

of the 1996 sample agreed that user conflicts would be reduced, less than 30% of the 

2007 sample agreed that user conflicts had been reduced. 

Respondents in both samples supported the establishment of FKNMS zones across the 

Florida Keys as they were to be or are established currently; support actually increased, 

with the 2007 sample showing a significantly higher level of support for the established 

FKNMS zones than the 1996 sample. Also, there were less support for more FKNMS 

zones in the Florida Keys in both samples as compared to the support for FKNMS zones 

in the three (or four, in the 2007 sample) regions in the Florida Keys. Suman et al. 

(1999) suggested that lower support for more FKNMS zones may represent a “not in my 

backyard” (NIMBY) response, and that trend continued in the present study (note for 

instance the higher level of support for FKNMS zones in the Dry Tortugas, located 

within the western boundary of the FKNMS); however, it must be noted that while 

support did decline for implementing more FKNMS zones, the majority and overall 

responses in both samples still favored the closure of more marine areas. 
121 

Table 44: Environmental group member views on the effects of the FKNMS * refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongdisagre

1. NOAA has made a positive contribution to the marine environment via the National Marine Sanctuary Program 

2007 1996 

32.6 34.7 

28.9 25.2 

5.7 9.2 

4.0 4.2 

4.0 10.6 

2. The Florida Keys have benefited environmentally from the FKNMS. 

2007 1996 

37.3 44.0 

30.5 26.3 

5.9 6.6 

1.6 4.3 

4.3 8.6 

3. There has been a net economic benefit to the Florida Keys from the establishment of the FKNMS. 

2007 1996 

26.8 38.1 

22.9 20.3 

9.2 10.5 

3.9 6.2 

5.9 10.3 

4. I generally support the establishment of the FKNMS. 

2007 1996 

53.2 57.4 

18.5 17.5 

4.2 4.9 

2.7 3.1 

4.8 11.9 
122 

As shown in Table 44, environmental group members’ views on the effects of the 

FKNMS remained positive throughout the samples, and the level of agreement over the 

beneficial economic and environmental effects of the FKNMS increased in the later 

sample. Environmental group members from the 2007 sample on average agreed that 

NOAA and the FKNMS had benefited the marine environment and the Florida Keys 

economy and marine ecosystem. Overall, 71.7% of those surveyed in 2007 agreed that 

they support the establishment of the FKNMS, similar to the 74.9% that supported 

FKNMS establishment in 1996. 

Over 60% (61.5%) of the 2007 respondents agreed that NOAA has made a positive 

contribution to the marine environment, compared to 59.9% who agreed with the same 

statement in 1996. Also, over two thirds of the environmental group members in the 

present sample (67.8%) agreed that the Florida Keys have benefited environmentally 

from the FKNMS, compared to 59.7% who believed that there had been a net economic 

benefit to the region from the establishment of the FKNMS. Environmental group 

members were less certain about the economic benefits of FKNMS establishment than 

they were of its effects on the environment, as noted by the almost quarter of the 2007 

that did not answer the question related to economic benefits. Moreover, the lower level 

of agreement on the Sanctuary’s economic benefits compared to its environmental 

benefits suggests that environmental group members may either not link environmental 

and economic benefits (ex. ecosystem function, replenishment, etc.) or that they do not 

perceive the FKNMS having performed as effectively in the economic sector as it has for 

the environment. 

Finally, overall response rates to statements related to FKNMS effectiveness were lower 

in the 2007 sample, as compared to the 1996 sample, a result that requires further 

discussion. It appears that respondents in the present study were less informed than their 

1996 counterparts and therefore elected not to answer these questions; this is 

corroborated in part by the lower percentage of the 2007 sample who obtained 

information from fewer sources on the FKNMS compared to the 1996 sample. Also, the 

2007 sample did not include members from one of the three environmental groups, 

SFFK, which was among the most active organizations in the Florida Keys during the 

FKNMS designation process. Finally, it is to be expected that ten years after the FKNMS 

has been established that environmental group members would have shifted their focus 

away from the FKNMS (which many members supported during its designation stage) to 

other issues. Collectively, these factors likely contributed to the lower response rates on 

statements concerning FKNMS effectiveness. 
123 

Table 45: Environmental group members' views on FKNMS resource conditions 

 Better Å----Neutral------Æ Worse 

*1-5 scale, where 1 is better and 5 is worse; 3 is neutral or no change 

Table 45 shows environmental group members’ views on the performance of eight 

resources in the past ten years, or during the FKNMS’ tenure. A few resource conditions 

were perceived to have remained the same (mean = 3.0) or slightly worsened, including 

water quality (mean = 3.02), land-based sources of pollution (mean = 3.15), and coral 

reefs (3.17); respondents felt that on average the condition of the latter two resources had 

somewhat declined. The respondents believed that other resource conditions had 

improved since the implementation of the FKNMS, including fisheries (mean = 2.72). 

With respect to the number and quality of mooring buoys, environmental group members 

believed that the mooring buoy system used by the FKNMS represented an overall 

improvement (mean = 1.97). Also, the sample believed that vessel grounding problems 

had declined over the past ten years (mean = 2.41). Overall, the results show that 

respondents believe that conditions have either remained the same or improved over the 

past ten years, with the exceptions of land-based sources pollution and coral reefs. 

When asked whether they believed that the FKNMS was responsible for the status of the 

resources that they characterized in Table 45, a plurality (36.8%) agreed. Fewer, or 

Resource Sample 1 2 3 4 5 Don’t 

know 

Sample 

mean** 

(std dev) 

1. Water quality n = 306 7.2 25.9 37.1 17.0 12.6 0.4 n = 305 

3.02 

(1.11) 

2. Land-based pollution/sewage n = 299 6.4 21.8 36.4 20.9 14.5 - n = 299 

3.15 

(1.11) 

3. Sea-based pollution/marine debris n = 299 9.0 29.6 34.3 16.2 10.8 - n = 299 

2.90 

(1.11) 

4. Coral reefs n = 305 8.8 21.0 32.3 19.8 18.0 - n = 305 

3.17 

(1.20) 

5. Sea grasses n = 295 11.3 32.1 35.1 12.9 8.5 - n = 295 

2.75 

(1.08) 

6. Fisheries n = 293 12.4 29.5 39.2 11.6 7.3 - n = 293 

2.72 

(1.05) 

7. Mooring buoys n = 298 38.8 36.7 17.3 3.0 4.2 - n = 298 

1.97 

(1.02) 

8. Vessel groundings n = 291 21.5 34.8 30.0 8.7 5.1 - n = 291 

2.41 

(1.07) 
124 

14.6%, believed that the FKNMS was not responsible for the status of the resources, and 

under a fifth of the sample (17.5%) did not know. Thus, most environmental group 

members attributed perceived improvements in resource conditions on the FKNMS, 

which they believe is largely responsible for improvements in fisheries, sea grasses, the 

mooring buoy system, and fewer vessel groundings. However, this also suggests that the 

most environmental group members also believe that the FKNMS is largely responsible 

for perceived declining conditions in coral reefs and land-based sources of pollution. 

When asked about the area in which they believed that the FKNMS was most successful, 

54.3% of the sample listed one or more areas. Of these, the most commonly identified 

area of FKNMS success were the no-take zones, which 17.7% of the respondents listed, 

followed by education and awareness (15.9%), the mooring buoy action plan (15.0%), 

fisheries (13.6%), coral reef protection (12.3%), and lower vessel-related damage (9.1%). 

Fewer respondents believed that the FKNMS had improved water quality (3.6%) or 

reduced use conflicts (0.5%). The findings suggest that environmental group members 

believe that the zoning action plan, the outreach and education action plan, and the 

mooring buoy action plan have been the most successful FKNMS management strategies, 

especially as these plans have been perceived to have improved the other resource 

conditions identified in this question, including fisheries (as improving, in part, from the 

zoning action plan) and coral reef protection (from having no-take zones and mooring 

buoys and an education and awareness program). 

Just over half, or 51.1%, of the sample listed areas in which the FKNMS had failed, of 

which the most commonly identified area was that related to water quality, resulting from 

land-based and sea-based pollution (41.1%). Another 18.4% believed that the FKNMS 

had been unsuccessful in adequately protecting coral reefs, 12.1% felt that fisheries had 

not improved under the FKNMS tenure, and 8.7% and 8.2% listed education and 

awareness and enforcement, respectively, as areas in which the FKNMS had failed. It is 

important to note that there was considerable overlap in areas in which some respondents 

believed that the FKNMS has been both a success and a failure (ex. coral reef protection, 

fisheries, etc.), but that in the area of pollution, there was a strong belief that the FKNMS 

has not enjoyed much success. Only 3.6% of those who identified an area of FKNMS 

success listed water quality, whereas 41.1% of those who identified an area in which the 

FKNMS had not succeeded listed marine pollution. While it could be argued that water 

quality improvement is part of the aforementioned success areas (ex. coral reef 

protection), the results show that environmental group members differentiated between 

the success areas based on regulatory approaches (ex. zoning) and failures that persist via 

lack of political or social will or are otherwise difficult to address (i.e. land-based sources 

of pollution). Thus, the failure to address water quality should not be viewed as an 

indictment on the FKNMS but rather as a shared responsibility that environmental group 

members believed that the stakeholders need yet to resolve. 

4.3.3 Environmental group survey discussion 

The environmental group survey results suggest that environmental group members 

remain the most steadfast supporters of the FKNMS and its parent agency, NOAA. 
125 

While it could be argued that this alignment is a result of a shared objective (i.e. resource 

protection), the results demonstrate that environmental group members are not entirely in 

favor of all FKNMS actions and outcomes; for instance, respondents understand that 

there are areas in which the FKNMS has not succeeded and that there are parts of the 

FKNMS designation process that were perhaps not as transparent as environmental group 

members had earlier anticipated. These views point to the group’s nuanced approach to 

gauging the FKNMS and its management strategies and show that environmental 

approaches as proposed by the FKNMS, while in line with environmental group 

objectives, nevertheless need to provide meaningful results to maintain the same level of 

support. Moreover, results related to the information sources suggest that there remains a 

need to more effectively disseminate such results to the environmental groups which, 

when galvanized as they were in the 1995-97 FKNMS designation process (Suman et al., 

1999), can prove the staunchest proponents of environmental policy. 

Overall, the support displayed by environmental group members for the FKNMS in both 

the present and earlier samples has not waned. In terms of FKNMS outcomes, over 70% 

of the environmental group members surveyed in 2007 stated that they support the 

establishment of the FKNMS, and a majority of the respondents agreed that the FKNMS 

had positive economic and environmental benefits on the Florida Keys. The sample also 

believed that NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program is an important policy 

instrument, with 61.5% agreeing that the program has benefited the marine environment. 

While there were some differences in the level of support determined for the present and 

1996 samples, both samples overwhelmingly favored the FKNMS. 

When asked to consider the outcome of FKNMS zones, environmental group members’ 

responses showed a nuanced understanding of both the different types of zones and their 

impacts and the relationship between zones and FKNMS resources. Thus, in considering 

the beneficiaries of the zones, respondents agreed that while commercial fishers had been 

the user group to least benefit from FKNMS zones that the impacts on that user group 

had been highest in the ERs (which are, after all, the largest closed zones). Similarly, 

environmental group members stated that recreational anglers had gained more from the 

smaller SPAs and less restricted WMAs than they had from the ERs. Finally, over a fifth 

of the sample agreed that dive operators had benefited from SPAs, compared to only 

14.2% and 7.8% who believed that the user group had benefited from ERs and WMAs, 

respectively. Also, environmental group members were in greater agreement that SPAs, 

rather than ERs or WMAs, had led to a reduction in the number of use conflicts. This 

ability to differentiate between zone types and their related objectives was also identified 

in the environmental group members’ views on FKNMS zone effects on coral reefs. In 

1996, 63.1% of the respondents agreed that FKNMS zones would be effective in 

restoring coral reefs in the Florida Keys to what they used to be; however, in 2007, only 

22.3% believed that ERs had been effective in the objective, similar to the 22.3% and 

19.6% who felt that same about SPAs and WMAs, respectively. These results 

demonstrate that the earlier expectation that FKNMS zone management would lead to 

effective coral reef restoration had not been met, and the environmental group members 

had understood that zones by themselves had been unable to achieve the objective. The 

latter point is important as the perceived inability did not affect the respondents’ support 
126 

for FKNMS zones; in fact, the 2007 sample showed a significantly higher approval of the 

final FKNMS zones than the 1996 showed for the then draft FKNMS zones. Thus, while 

they acknowledged the shortcoming of the strategy in restoring coral reefs, environmental 

group members understood that it was not a failed strategy (and perhaps only an 

incomplete one) and one that should be retained. 

With respect to the FKNMS process, the results again show that overall views on the 

process-related activities and outcomes are generally favorable, with a majority of the 

2007 sample agreeing that the processes used to develop FKNMS and FKNMS zone 

rules and regulations were open and fair, and that the procedures that NOAA had 

established to deal with violations of FKNMS regulations were fair and just. However, 

fewer respondents in the present study, compared to the 1996 sample, believed that 

participation had made a difference in influencing the final outcomes for the FKNMS, 

that individual citizens’ concerns had been addressed in developing FKNMS rules and 

regulations, and that there are effective ways by which average persons can voice their 

opinions on the usefulness of FKNMS regulations. The latter results demonstrate that the 

respondents did not entirely agree with the public participation approach used in the 

FKNMS designation process or with the amount of feedback that individuals have on 

reforming FKNMS management strategies. Also, the results show that over a quarter or 

more of the 2007 sample did not provide an answer to the process-related statements, 

replying instead that they did not possess sufficient information to provide an opinion. 

When the aforementioned percentages of non-responses are considered in conjunction 

with the relatively low rates of information sources respondents utilized and the group’s 

perception on the FKNMS’ inaction on water quality issues, it is clear that environmental 

group members remain the least informed of the three stakeholder groups considered in 

the present and 1995-96 studies (Suman et al., 1999). Although this lack of information 

has not affected support for FKNMS management strategies, it has led to environmental 

group members either misperceiving the FKNMS role in resource protection or underestimating FKNMS success in management areas. Finally, and most importantly, as the 

group that most favors the establishment of the FKNMS, it is imperative that the FKNMS 

better inform environmental group members (through popular sources such as FKNMS 

brochures and literature and newspapers, for example) on its achievements and 

management direction; otherwise, while the group may yet remain aligned with the 

FKNMS environmental philosophy, it may not so readily embrace the means by which 

resource protection is achieved. 
127 

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1995. Florida Keys 

National Marine Sanctuary Draft Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement: 

Volume 1. SRD/OCRM/NOS/NOAA, Silver Spring, MD. 

Rivera Miranda, T. 2007. The health of coral reef ecosystems in southwestern Puerto 

Rico: A local ecological knowledge perspective from the diving community. 

Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. 

Shivlani, M., Ehrhardt, N., Murray, T., and J. Kirkley. 2004. The long-term effects of a 

spiny lobster effort reduction program in South Florida: Microeconomic, sociocultural, 

and community level impacts. IN The 57th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 

Conference, November 8-12, 2004, Saint Petersburg, Florida. 

Shivlani, M. P., D. Letson, and C. R. Sawzcyn. 1998. Socioeconomic effects of the 

Florida Net Ban in Monroe County. Florida Geographer 29: 12-29. 

Shivlani, M. P., and J. W. Milon. 2000. Socio-cultural effects of a market-based fishery 

management program in the Florida Keys. Coastal Management 28: 133-147. 

Shivlani, M. P. and D. O. Suman. 2000. Dive operator use patterns in the designated notake zones within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Environmental 

Management 25 (6): 647-659. 

Shivlani, M., and M. Villanueva. 2008. A compilation and comparison of social 

perceptions on reef conditions and use in Southeast Florida: Southeast Florida Coral 

Reef Initiative Fishing, Diving and Other Uses Local Action Strategy Project 10. 

SEFCRI/FDEP, Miami, FL. 
129 

Suman, D. O., M. P. Shivlani, and J. W. Milon. 1999. Perceptions and Attitudes 

Regarding Marine Reserves: A Comparison of Stakeholder Groups in the Florida Keys 

National Marine Sanctuary. Ocean and Coastal Management 42: 1019-1040. 

Suman, D. O., and M. P. Shivlani. 1998. Characterization of the commercial dive 

operator industry in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Florida Sea Grant 

Technical Paper-103. 

Suman, D. O. 1997. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: A case study of an 

innovative federal-state partnership in marine resource management. Coastal 

Management 25 (3): 293-324. 

Thomas J. Murray & Associates. 2007. Socio-economic baseline development: Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary, fishing years 1998-2006. World Wide Web document. 

URL: http://marineeconomics.noaa.gov/SocmonFK/Comm_Fish_Panels_Years_7-8.pdf. 

Thomas J. Murray & Associates. 2005. Tortugas 2000-A post mortem: Evaluation of 

actual versus projected socioeconomic impacts of the Dry Tortugas Ecological Reserve. 

MARFIN final report in completion of MARFIN project NA04NMF4330079. 

Williams, J. 1991. The Florida Keys. Random House, New York, NY. 
130 

6 Appendices 
131 

6.1 Appendix 1: Commercial fisher survey instrument 
132 
133 
134 
135 
136 
137 
138 
139 
140 
141 
142 
143 

6.2 Appendix 2: Dive operator survey instrument 
144 
145 
146 
147 
148 
149 
150 
151 
152 
153 

6.3 Appendix 3: Environmental group member survey instrument 
154 
155 
156 
157 
158 
159 

6.4 Appendix 4: Environmental group member survey plan 
160 

Knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions (KAP) survey study of 

environmental group members concerning the Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) 

Rationale 

The goal of this study is to survey environmental group members on their knowledge, 

attitudes, and perceptions concerning the management of the Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) and its zoning action plan (NOAA, 1996). The 

methodology adopted for this effort - set up as three steps - shall maximize data 

collection, in that it shall be devised to increase return rates and identify sources of nonresponse bias. 

Methodology 

The study utilizes mail surveys as a means by which to collect knowledge, attitudes, and 

perception data from a census of environmental group members, and it employs a threestep process (set up over a period of three months) to achieve an acceptable sample size 

and determine sources of non-response bias. Moreover, the methodology follows wellaccepted survey procedures (Babbie, 1990; West, 1995). Each step follows the 

chronological order of the study. 

Step 1: Promotion letter mailing 

The first step in the mail survey shall consist of mailing a letter (Attachment A) to 

environmental group members promoting the study and shall be conducted in the first

month. The research team shall work with the environmental group representatives in 

obtaining mailing lists for each group, and the promotion letters shall be formatted on 

group stationary. 

The promotion letter shall introduce the recipient to the study and its objectives and the 

research team, it shall emphasize the importance of participating in the study by 

completing the survey to be sent within a month by demonstrating how group findings 

may assist in identifying important management recommendations, and it shall provide 

contact information that the recipient can use to learn more about the study or have 

his/her questions and concerns addressed. 

It is expected that the promotion letter shall prepare environmental group members for 

the survey, thereby boosting returns and reducing non-responses. As the promotion letter 

will be sent on environmental group stationary, members will be able to identify the 

study with their group and understand that the survey has been approved by their group. 

Moreover, the contact information on the promotion letter will allow recipients a means 

by which to reach the research team with any questions or concerns prior to their 

receiving the survey. Finally, and importantly, those promotion letters that are returned 
161 

as a result of changes in address will assist in better identifying the total population for 

each environmental and prevent unnecessary survey mailings. 

Step 2: Cover letter and survey questionnaire 

In the second month, or a month after the promotion letter has been sent, the research 

team shall mail each environmental group member a cover letter and survey 

questionnaire. The cover letter, formatted on environmental group stationary, shall 

reference the promotion letter, reiterate the objectives and significance of the study, and 

emphasize the need for participation. As with the promotion letter, the cover letter shall 

contain contact information that each recipient can use to contact the research team with 

questions or concerns. Finally, the cover letter shall be signed by both the environmental 

group representative and a member of the research team. 

As previously stated, the research team shall send out cover letters (Attachment B) and 

survey questionnaires to all environmental group members, effectively conducting a 

census. It is expected that with the promotion letter that informs group members of the 

impending survey, provides them with contact details that they use to ask questions and 

raise concerns, and links the survey directly to their environmental group, the return rates 

on the survey shall reach 60%. That is, six in 10 recipients are expected to complete and 

return the survey. 

The research team shall also send out postcard reminders (Attachment B), which will be 

mailed two weeks following the cover letter and survey questionnaire mailing. These 

postcard reminders shall be used to inform recipients that they have not yet returned their 

surveys, but that they may still mail them back at their earliest convenience. 

Step 3: Postcard reminders and non-respondent survey 

In the third month, or a month after the cover letter and survey questionnaire mailing, the 

research team shall mail to each non-respondent a postcard (Attachment C) containing 

the following information: a. A final request to participate in the study, providing contact 

information that the recipient may use to reach the research team in order to obtain 

another copy of the survey questionnaire; and b. A short, two-question survey in the case 

where the person elects not to request another copy of the survey questionnaire. 

The short, two-question survey shall consist of a demographic question, concerning the 

non-respondent’s age group, and an attitude question, related to the non-respondent’s 

approval of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The differences among 

respondents and non-respondents for these two questions shall be used to address nonresponse bias. 

Conclusions 

By using the three-step process as described, it is expected that the study shall achieve a 

60% (or greater) response rate and account for the remaining non-response bias. It 

should be emphasized that the scope of the survey shall be the entire population of each 
162 

environmental group, and that the effort shall effectively consist of a census survey. By 

working closely with each environment group to maximize ‘buy-in’ and support for the 

survey, the research team shall contact group members on a total of four, separate 

occasions prior to resorting to a non-respondent survey. Finally, the study has been 

structured in a way such that recipients are reminded of the importance of the survey 

effort and provided with contact information with each mailer; this dual re-enforcement 

shall ensure that more surveys are completed and returned and that respondents better 

understand the study objectives. 

References 

Alreck, P. L., and R. B. Settle. 1985. The Survey Research Handbook. Homewood, IL: 

Richard D. Irwin, Inc. 

Babbie, E. 1990. Survey Research Methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing 

Company. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1996. Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary Final Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement.. Silver Spring, MD: 

SRD/OCRM/NOS/NOAA. 
163 

Attachment A: Promotion letter 

DATE 

Name of person 

Address line 1 

Address line 2 

Dear Sir/Madam: 

This letter serves as an introduction to an important study being conducted by our group, 

Thomas J. Murray & Associates, on the effectiveness of the Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). Our group has partnered with the environmental 

organization in an effort to obtain your opinions on the FKNMS. 

The FKNMS, which has been in effect since 1997, encompasses all of the Florida Keys 

and implements a comprehensive management strategy, which includes the operation of 

several action plans. Our group’s study focuses in part on your views on the overall 

effectiveness of the FKNMS and its zoning action plan. 

Your participation is essential to the success of this study, and we hope that you will 

participate in our upcoming effort. We shall mail you a short questionnaire in the next 

month that we request that you please complete and mail it back using an accompanying, 

self-addressed and postage-paid, envelope. You may contact the research team at 305-

421-4608 with any questions concerning the study, and we will gladly provide you any 

information that you may require. 

Finally, we wish to thank you for having taken the time to read this letter and hope to 

send you the survey next month. Thank you for your attention. 

Sincerely, 

Thomas J. Murray 
164 

Attachment B: Cover letter for survey questionnaire and postcard reminder 

DATE 

Name of person 

Address line 1 

Address line 2 

Dear Sir/Madam: 

This letter serves as a follow up to an introductory letter that we sent you a month ago, 

detailing an important study being conducted by our group, Thomas J. Murray & 

Associates, on the effectiveness of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

(FKNMS). As stated in that previous letter, our group has partnered with the 

environmental organization in an effort to obtain your opinions on the FKNMS. 

The FKNMS, which has been in effect since 1997, encompasses all of the Florida Keys 

and implements a comprehensive management strategy, which includes the operation of 

several action plans. Our group’s study focuses in part on your views on the overall 

effectiveness of the FKNMS and its zoning action plan. 

Your participation is essential to the success of this study, and we request that you please 

complete the enclosed survey questionnaire and mail it back using the accompanying, 

self-addressed and postage-paid, envelope. You may contact the research team at 305-

421-4608 with any questions concerning the study, and we will gladly provide you any 

information that you may require. 

Finally, we wish to thank you for having taken the time to read this letter and hope to 

receive your completed survey soon. Thank you again for participating in this important 

effort, whose results we shall make available through the environmental organization

and can provide to you, if you so request. 

Sincerely, 

Thomas J. Murray 

Enclosures 
165 

Postcard Reminder 

Dear Sir/Madam: 

As part of a study effort concerning the effectiveness of the Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary, we had sent you a survey with a postage-paid envelope in the last two 

weeks. If you have already mailed back the survey, we thank you for your participation; 

if you have not had the opportunity to do so yet, may we please request that you complete 

and mail us the survey, as your feedback is essential for the success of the study. 

Thank you, 

Thomas J. Murray 
166 

Attachment C: Non-respondent, two-question survey 

Dear Sir/Madam: 

As part of a study effort concerning the effectiveness of the Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary, we had sent you a survey with a postage-paid envelope a month ago. 

If you did not receive the survey and would wish to obtain a copy, please request one via 

telephone at 305-421-4608, via email at mshivlani@rsmas.miami.edu, or via mail 

through: Mr. Manoj Shivlani, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, 

Miami, FL 33149. 

If you choose not to complete the full survey, we would greatly appreciate your 

answering the following two questions that are related to our study and will greatly assist 

us in completing our research. You can mail us back this letter in the postage-paid, return 

envelope provided. 

Question 1 

Which of the following includes your age? (Please circle the age group that contains 

your age) 

18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 over 60 

Question 2 

I generally support the establishment of the FKNMS. (Please circle your response) 

1. Strongly agree 

2. Moderately agree 

3. Neutral 

4. Moderately disagree 

5. Strongly disagree 

Thank you for your help, 

Thomas J. Murray 
167 

6.5 Appendix 5: Comparison of Last Stand and Reef Relief members’ 

views on the FKNMS process and outcomes 
168 

Question Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strondisag

1. The process that NOAA has used to develop rules and regulations for the FKNMS was open and fair to all groups. 

LS (n = 62) RR (n = 331) 

38.7 18.1 

29.0 16.6 

4.8 11.8 

3.2 6.0 

3.2 8.2 

2. The process has used by NOAA to develop boundaries and regulations for the FKNMS zones was open and fair to all groups. 

LS (n = 63) RR (n = 329) 

39.7 17.0 

33.3 17.9 

1.6 10.0 

3.2 6.7 

1.6 9.7 

3. It has not mattered whether the average person participated in the workshops and meeting on the FKNMS because the average person could not influence the final decisions. 

LS (n = 63) RR (n = 331) 

9.5 13.6 

17.5 13.6 

12.7 12.7 

25.4 16.0 

19.1 26.6 

4. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of local and state governments in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

LS (n = 63) RR (n = 332) 

6.4 8.1 

4.8 8.7 

12.7 15.1 

19.1 10.5 

30.2 15.1 

5. NOAA has not addressed the concerns of individual citizens in developing rules and regulations for the FKNMS. 

LS (n = 63) RR (n = 332) 

6.4 10.8 

7.9 16.6 

12.7 10.8 

25.4 10.5 

23.8 13.0 

6. Once that the FKNMS regulations have been in effect, there has been no way that the average person to voice his/her opinion on the usefulness of the regulations. 

LS (n = 63) RR (n = 331) 

6.4 12.1 

9.5 13.0 

9.5 14.8 

23.8 13.0 

23.8 11.5 
169 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagree7. The procedures that NOAA has established to deal with violations of FKNMS regulations have been fair and just. 

LS (n = 63) RR (n = 330) 

17.5 9.1 

36.5 13.0 

6.4 13.9 

1.6 5.8 

3.2 7.6 
170 

* refers to significant differences in means (p < 0.05) ** 1-5 scale, where 1 is strongly agree and 5 is strongly disagreeQuestion Sample Strongly 

agree 

Moderately agree 

Neutral Moderately 

disagree 

Strongdisagre

1. NOAA has made a positive contribution to the marine environment via the National Marine Sanctuary Program 

LS (n = 61) RR (n = 311) 

50.8 34.1 

32.8 31.5 

1.6 6.8 

3.3 4.5 

- 4.8 

2. The Florida Keys have benefited environmentally from the FKNMS. 

LS (n = 62) RR (n = 311) 

51.6 39.5 

38.7 32.8 

- 7.1 

3.2 1.6 

- 5.1 

3. There has been a net economic benefit to the Florida Keys from the establishment of the FKNMS. 

LS (n = 62) RR (n = 310) 

41.9 28.1 

30.6 24.5 

4.8 10.6 

4.8 4.5 

3.2 6.4 

4. I generally support the establishment of the FKNMS. 

LS (n = 61) RR (n = 307) 

73.8 57.7 

16.4 20.9 

4.9 4.5 

- 3.2 

- 5.9 
NMSP CONSERVATION SERIES PUBLICATIONS 

To date, the following reports have been published in the Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series. All 

publications are available on the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries website 

(http://www.sanctuaries.noaa.gov/). 

First Biennial Ocean Climate Summit: Finding Solutions for San Francisco Bay Area’s Coast and 

Ocean (ONMS-08-05) 

A Scientific Forum on the Gulf of Mexico: The Islands in the Stream Concept (NMSP-08-04) 

M/V ELPIS Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2007 Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-08-03) 

CONNECTIVITY Science, People and Policy in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

(NMSP-08-02) 

M/V ALEC OWEN MAITLAND Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 

2004-2007 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-08-01) 

Automated, objective texture segmentation of multibeam echosounder data - Seafloor survey and 

substrate maps from James Island to Ozette Lake, Washington Outer Coast. (NMSP-07-05) 

Observations of Deep Coral and Sponge Assemblages in Olympic Coast National Marine 

Sanctuary, Washington (NMSP-07-04) 

A Bioregional Classification of the Continental Shelf of Northeastern North America for 

Conservation Analysis and Planning Based on Representation (NMSP-07-03) 

M/V WELLWOOD Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2006 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-07-02) 

Survey report of NOAA Ship McArthur II cruises AR-04-04, AR-05-05 and AR-06-03: Habitat 

classification of side scan sonar imagery in support of deep-sea coral/sponge explorations at the 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMSP-07-01) 

2002 - 03 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Science Report: An Ecosystem Report Card 

After Five Years of Marine Zoning (NMSP-06-12) 

Habitat Mapping Effort at the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary - Current Status and 

Future Needs (NMSP-06-11) 

M/V CONNECTED Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2005 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-010) 

M/V JACQUELYN L Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report Monitoring Events 2004-2005 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-09) 

 

M/V WAVE WALKER Coral Reef Restoration Baseline Monitoring Report - 2004 Florida Keys 

National Marine Sanctuary Monroe County, Florida (NMSP-06-08) 
Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Habitat Mapping: Survey report and classification of 

side scan sonar data from surveys HMPR-114-2004-02 and HMPR-116-2005-01 (NMSP-06-07) 

A Pilot Study of Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus Walbaum 1792) Movement in the Conch Reef 

Research Only Area (Northern Florida Keys) (NMSP-06-06) 

Comments on Hydrographic and Topographic LIDAR Acquisition and Merging with Multibeam 

Sounding Data Acquired in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-05) 

Conservation Science in NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries: Description and Recent 

Accomplishments (ONMS-06-04) 

Normalization and characterization of multibeam backscatter: Koitlah Point to Point of the 

Arches, Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary - Survey HMPR-115-2004-03 (ONMS-06-03) 

Developing Alternatives for Optimal Representation of Seafloor Habitats and Associated 

Communities in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-02) 

Benthic Habitat Mapping in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (ONMS-06-01) 

Channel Islands Deep Water Monitoring Plan Development Workshop Report (ONMS-05-05) 

Movement of yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus Block 1790) and black grouper 

(Mycteroperca bonaci Poey 1860) in the northern Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary as 

determined by acoustic telemetry (MSD-05-4) 

The Impacts of Coastal Protection Structures in California's Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary (MSD-05-3) 

An annotated bibliography of diet studies of fish of the southeast United States and Gray's Reef 

National Marine Sanctuary (MSD-05-2) 

Noise Levels and Sources in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary and the St. 

Lawrence River Estuary (MSD-05-1) 

Biogeographic Analysis of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (MSD-04-1) 

A Review of the Ecological Effectiveness of Subtidal Marine Reserves in Central California 

(MSD-04-2, MSD-04-3) 

Pre-Construction Coral Survey of the M/V Wellwood Grounding Site (MSD-03-1) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary: Proceedings of the 1998 Research Workshop, Seattle, 

Washington (MSD-01-04) 

Workshop on Marine Mammal Research & Monitoring in the National Marine Sanctuaries 

(MSD-01-03) 

A Review of Marine Zones in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (MSD-01-2) 
Distribution and Sighting Frequency of Reef Fishes in the Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary (MSD-01-1) 

Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary: A Rapid Assessment of Coral, Fish, and Algae 

Using the AGRRA Protocol (MSD-00-3) 

The Economic Contribution of Whalewatching to Regional Economies: Perspectives From Two 

National Marine Sanctuaries (MSD-00-2) 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Area to be Avoided Education and Monitoring 

Program (MSD-00-1) 

Multi-species and Multi-interest Management: an Ecosystem Approach to Market Squid 

(Loligo opalescens) Harvest in California (MSD-99-1)