NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Opportunities for Energy, Water, 

and Waste Reduction at U.S. 

Forest Service Fire Camps

Alicen Kandt, Emma Elgqvist, 

and Jimmy Salasovich

Produced under the direction of the U.S. Forest Service by 

the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) under 

Interagency Task No. WFED10386.

Strategic Partnership Project Report

NREL/TP-7A40-73771

April 2019
NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

15013 Denver West Parkway

Golden, CO 80401

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov

Strategic Partnership Project Report

NREL/TP-7A40-73771

April 2019

Opportunities for Energy, Water, 

and Waste Reduction at U.S. 

Forest Service Fire Camps

Alicen Kandt, Emma Elgqvist, 

and Jimmy Salasovich

Suggested Citation

Kandt, Alicen, Emma Elgqvist, and Jimmy Salasovich. 2019. Opportunities 

for Energy, Water, and Waste Reduction at U.S. Forest Service Fire Camps. 

Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 

NREL/ TP-7A40-73771. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/73771.pdf.
NOTICE

This work was authored by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, operated by Alliance for Sustainable 

Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Funding 

provided by the U.S. Forest Service under Interagency Agreement IAG-15-1973. The views expressed herein do 

not necessarily represent the views of the DOE or the U.S. Government.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) reports produced after 1991 

and a growing number of pre-1991 documents are available 

free via www.OSTI.gov.

NREL prints on paper that contains recycled content.
iii

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Preface

As part of ongoing efforts by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) to reduce energy use and 

incorporate sustainable and efficient practices into its operations, the USFS funded U.S. 

Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory to conduct site visits and 

analyses of fire camp operations at six fires across the United States. This report documents the 

findings of those visits and provides suggestions for the implementation of energy, water, and 

waste conservation measures, and renewable energy measures. 
iv

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contacts

U.S. Forest Service National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Dennis Fiore

Cooperative Fire Program Manager/ 

Fire Prevention Coordinator

Phone: 505-808-2063

Email: djfiore@fs.fed.us

David Wiley

Capital Assets Program Manager

Phone: 703-605-4512

Email: davidrwiley@fs.fed.us

Lara Y. Buluc

Sustainable Operations & 

Co-Climate Change Coordinator

Phone: 707-562-8937

Email: lara.buluc@usda.gov

Alicen Kandt

Project Leader, Senior Engineer

Phone: 303-384-7518

Email: alicen.kandt@nrel.gov

Emma Elgqvist

Engineer

Phone: 303-275-3606

Emma.Elgqvist@nrel.gov

Jimmy Salasovich

Senior Engineer

Phone: 303-384-7383

Email: james.salasovich@nrel.gov
v

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List of Acronyms

CFL compact fluorescent lighting

DOE Department of Energy

EE energy efficiency

EUI energy-use intensity

FAM Fire and Aviation Management

FY Fiscal Year

GFT Greening Fire Team

ICP Incident Command Post

IMT Incident Management Team

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

RE renewable energy

USFS U.S. Forest Service

WE water efficiency

WTE waste to energy
vi

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Executive Summary

This report summarizes the results from energy efficiency, water efficiency, waste reduction, and 

renewable energy site assessments conducted at fire camps located in the United States. A team 

led by the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 

conducted the assessments with U.S. Forest Service (USFS) personnel during the summers of 

2016 and 2017 as part of ongoing efforts by the USFS to reduce energy use, water use, and waste 

generation, and to implement renewable energy technologies. 

The Greening Fire Team (GFT) within the USFS was created in 2010 with the vision to achieve 

“net zero waste, water, and energy at all large fire incidents by 2030,” and the mission to 

“integrate sustainability best management practices into the fire community.” In 2015, staff from 

NREL began work with USFS staff to identify ways to improve the efficiency of fire camp 

operations, including decreasing energy use, water use, and generated waste. This effort began 

with an exercise to understand fire operations and associated energy and water use, as well as

waste generation. NREL staff participated in monthly calls with GFT members, researched 

related efforts in similar operations, and conducted a data call to gather relevant energy, water,

waste, and other operational data. NREL staff had difficulties procuring data on operational 

energy or water use and cost, or waste generation associated with fire camp operations.

In 2016, NREL staff along with USFS staff determined that visiting wildfire incidents would be 

the best way to understand the complicated logistical operations at fire camps and to begin to 

gather data, while attempting to identify operational efficiencies that could be implemented to 

reduce energy and water use, and waste generation. NREL staff and GFT members visited six

fires: the Cold Springs and Hayden Pass fires (Colorado, 2016), and the Highline, Boundary, 

Milli, and Whitewater fires (Arizona and Oregon, 2017). At each fire, they visited the Incident 

Command Post, base camps, and a spike camp. The intent of the visits was to understand fire 

operations that relate to, are dependent on, or impact energy use, water use, and waste 

generation.

NREL staff gained invaluable insights during the visits to the fires and continued dialogue with 

Incident Management Team (IMT) staff supporting fire operations, but the lack of data made it 

difficult to quantify savings opportunities. Most opportunities for reduction cannot be 

economically quantified at this time; one of the team’s priority recommendations was to create a 

central repository of data on costs incurred for energy and water procurement and waste removal 

in fire operations. These data would be useful to help justify the importance of sustainable 

measures and to quantify the value of such efforts. Another high-priority recommendation was to 

deploy an on-site sustainability coordinator for every fire. 

The suggested best practices, including many observed during the visits to the fires, are listed

below: 

• Championing of sustainability: In general, most USFS staff and IMTs were highly 

motivated to incorporate sustainable measures into incident operations. Site champions 

will be influential in moving sustainable initiatives forward in the future, and it was very 

encouraging to encounter so many supportive staff and crews while visiting the fires. 
vii

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

People generally embraced sustainability and conservation; they were observed turning 

off lights and air-conditioning when leaving tents, for instance. 

• Composting: Current practices and contracting requirements ensure that catering 

contractors provide compostable utensils, plates, and cups, and collect these items and 

food waste in compostable bags. This is an effective first step in implementing 

composting in fire camp operations. 

• Recycling: Some fire camps had comprehensive recycling options, including cardboard, 

plastics, glass, and even batteries. One camp contracted out these services to a vendor, 

resulting in a large increase in recycled materials and minimizing the burden to USFS 

staff associated with coordinating recycling efforts. 

• Canteens: The use of canteens, or cubies, was broadly encouraged and often adopted. 

Potable water taps are provided on all fires, and the use of cubies helps reduce the plastic 

waste generated from plastic bottle use. 

• Electrolyte powder: Some fire camps were piloting the use of electrolyte powder, which 

can be added to water in cubies, thus further reducing plastic waste generated from 

electrolyte (sports) drink plastic bottle use. 

• Greening Fire Team efforts: The GFT worked to communicate opportunities to the fire 

community to make fire operations more sustainable, including the promotion of 

“Greening Fire Tips” (Appendix B) and the distribution of GFT stickers. 

• Solar-powered radio repeater: One fire camp deployed a solar-powered radio repeater 

and indicated it was very effective. Adding a lead-acid battery further extended the 

operating hours, and the system was built to withstand harsh elements found in the field. 

• Rechargeable battery radios: The use of radios with rechargeable lithium-ion battery 

has the potential to drastically reduce battery waste. This technology is already being 

effectively deployed in Alaska.

• LED lights: LED lights were observed in some fire camps, including light towers and 

tent lighting. LEDs are much more efficient than the incumbent incandescent lighting. 

• Reuse and recycling at caches: Personnel at the various fires indicated that many of the 

tools and equipment taken from the main cache and used to fight a fire are reconditioned 

and reused for future fires. Recycling also occurs at the main cache. 

NREL staff also identified a variety of reduction opportunities for energy, water, and waste. 

Potential best management practices include using renewable energy systems, specifying LED 

lights, offering more than one meal size, recycling and composting at every incident, and others. 

Each potential best management suggestion is described in detail, and potential next steps and 

considerations are provided. 
viii

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Table of Contents

1 Background........................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Project Background and Intent...................................................................................................... 3

2 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 4

3 Fire Camp Assessments...................................................................................................................... 5

3.1 Overview of Fire Camp Operations .............................................................................................. 5

3.2 Logistical Considerations.............................................................................................................. 6

3.3 Fire Camp Visits............................................................................................................................ 7

3.3.1 Cold Springs Fire (Nederland, Colorado) ........................................................................ 7

3.3.2 Hayden Pass Fire (Salida, Colorado) ............................................................................... 8

3.3.3 Boundary Fire (Flagstaff, Arizona)................................................................................ 10

3.3.4 Highline Fire (Payson, Arizona) .................................................................................... 12

3.3.5 Whitewater Fire (Bend, Oregon).................................................................................... 14

3.3.6 Milli Fire (Sisters, Oregon)............................................................................................ 18

4 Observations....................................................................................................................................... 21

4.1 Current Best Practices................................................................................................................. 21

4.2 Challenges and Constraints......................................................................................................... 22

5 Best Management Suggestions ........................................................................................................ 23

5.1 Coordination................................................................................................................................ 23

5.1.1 Sustainable Operations Coordinator for Every Incident ................................................ 23

5.1.2 Centralized and Standardized Data Collection of Metrics............................................. 23

5.1.3 Continued and Expanded Greening Fire Team Efforts.................................................. 24

5.2 Energy Reduction........................................................................................................................ 24

5.2.1 Use of Permanent Structures When Possible ................................................................. 24

5.2.2 Potential Use of Solar Energy Systems.......................................................................... 24

5.2.3 Potential Use of Mobile Biomass Systems..................................................................... 25

5.2.4 Use of LED Lights......................................................................................................... 26

5.3 Water Reduction.......................................................................................................................... 27

5.3.1 Vehicle Washing and Dust Abatement .......................................................................... 27

5.4 Waste Management and Reduction............................................................................................. 27

5.4.1 Composting .................................................................................................................... 28

5.4.2 Multiple Meal-Size Options........................................................................................... 28

5.4.3 Recycling........................................................................................................................ 29

5.4.4 Electrolyte Powder......................................................................................................... 29

5.4.5 Rechargeable Batteries in Radios................................................................................... 30

6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 31

Glossary..................................................................................................................................................... 32

Appendix A. Energy Audit Questionnaire........................................................................................ 34

Appendix B. Greening Fire Tips........................................................................................................ 35

Appendix C. Building Energy Modeling........................................................................................... 36

C.1 Modeling Results......................................................................................................................... 39
ix

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

List of Figures

Figure 1. Percent of USFS annual appropriated budget allocated to firefighting......................................... 1

Figure 2. Base camp at the Hayden Pass Fire near Salida, Colorado ........................................................... 9

Figure 3. Handwashing and shower facilities at the Hayden Pass Fire......................................................... 9

Figure 4. Reefer truck at the Hayden Pass Fire........................................................................................... 10

Figure 5. Boundary Fire Camp near Flagstaff, Arizona.............................................................................. 11

Figure 6. Highline Fire Camp near Flagstaff, Arizona ............................................................................... 13

Figure 7. Highline Fire................................................................................................................................ 14

Figure 8. Whitewater Fire Camp near Bend, Oregon ................................................................................. 15

Figure 9. Whitewater Fire Camp recycling operation................................................................................. 17

Figure 10. Whitewater Fire Camp solar-powered radio repeater................................................................ 18

Figure 11. Milli Fire Camp Near Sisters, Oregon....................................................................................... 19

Figure 12. Milli Fire Camp mobile sleeper truck........................................................................................ 20

Figure 13. Dust abatement activities at the Hayden Pass Fire .................................................................... 27

Figure 14. Water and sport drink bottles for crews at the Cold Springs Fire base camp............................ 29

Figure 15. Representative tent photo and eQUEST model representation ................................................. 36

Figure 16. Representative mobile office trailer photo and eQUEST model representation........................ 37

Figure 17. Representative hard structure photo and eQUEST model representation ................................. 37

Figure 18. Tent baseline energy use estimates............................................................................................ 38

Figure 19. Mobile office trailer baseline energy use estimates................................................................... 38

Figure 20. Hard structure school baseline energy use estimates................................................................. 39

Figure 21. Energy use intensity comparison............................................................................................... 40

List of Tables

Table 1. Percent Reduction in Funding of USFS Programs.......................................................................... 2

Table 2. Hayden Pass Fire Equipment Energy/Water Use ......................................................................... 10
1

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

1 Background

Over the past two decades, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) budget dedicated to fighting fires has 

more than tripled—from 16% of the USFS’s annual appropriated budget in 1995 to more than 

50% in 2015, as seen in Figure 1. In 2014, the USFS’s 10 largest fires cost more than $320 

million. The annual cost of fire suppression is predicted to increase to nearly $1.8 billion by 2025.

Figure 1. Percent of USFS annual appropriated budget allocated to firefighting1

As more of the agency’s resources are spent each year to support firefighting efforts, fewer funds 

are available to support other agency work, including programs and restoration projects that 

reduce the fire threat. As seen in Table 1, USFS programs faced reductions in funding from 

Fiscal Year (FY) 2001 through FY 2015 ranging from 15% to 95%.2

In response to the record-setting fire suppression costs in 2017, Congress was able to find a 

bipartisan fix for the USFS’s “fire borrowing” challenge. In the FY 2018 Consolidated 

Appropriations Act, Congress included a solution—new budget authority that will allow the 

USFS to use funding from a different budget source to avoid having to take funds from nonfire 

programs to cover the cost of fire suppression.

 1

The Rising Cost of Wildfire Operations: Effects on the Forest Service’s Non-Fire Work (Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture-U.S. Forest Service, 2015). 2

Ibid.
2

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Table 1. Percent Reduction in Funding of USFS Programs3

USFS Program Percent Reduction in Funding (%)

(FY 2001–FY 2015)

Deferred Maintenance 95

Facilities 68

Land Management Planning 64

Roads 46

Inventory and Monitoring 35

Landownership Management 33

Vegetation and Watershed 

Management

24

Wildlife and Fisheries Habitat 

Management

18

Recreation, Heritage, and 

Wilderness

15

In 2008, in response to Executive Order 13514 (Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, 

and Economic Performance),

4 the Forest Service developed a strategic framework to address 

climate change. Of the seven goals created, Goal 5, Sustainable Operations (SusOps), targets the 

reduction of the environmental footprint of Forest Service operations and promotes being a 

leading example of a green organization. Tom Harbor, the Director of Fire and Aviation 

Management (FAM) at that time, reinforced this national goal in a 2009 letter, establishing the 

expectation that fire and aviation program managers set an example by: identifying and 

implementing actions to reduce the environmental footprint of operations with a focus on 

national interagency support caches, green purchasing, incident bases and camps, contracting, 

facilities and water conservation, transportation and fleet, and appropriate response to fire.

The national Greening Fire Team (GFT) came to fruition in 2010 with the intention to provide

SusOps guidance to Incident Management Teams (IMTs) and to research, recommend, and assist 

with implementing sustainability efforts related to waste reduction, renewable energy, and 

outreach/education.

Since 2010, the GFT has evolved to include several active members of the fire community, 

including a service first (interagency) fire management specialist, incident business specialists, 

regional fire and aviation leaders, regional SusOps Coordinators, a hotshot member, a wilderness 

ranger, firefighters, and logistical support personnel. The vision of the GFT is to achieve “net 

zero waste, water, and energy at all large fire incidents by 2030,” and the mission is to “integrate 

sustainability best management practices into the fire community.”

In 2017, Shawna Legarza, current Forest Service National Director of FAM and a champion of 

sustainable practices within the wildland fire community, formed a partnership with the GFT, led 

 3

Ibid.

4

This Executive Order was revoked with the issuance of Executive Order 13693 (Planning for Federal Sustainability 

in the Next Decade) in March 2015. Subsequently, Executive Order 13834 (Efficient Federal Operations), issued in 

July 2018, revoked Executive Order 13693.
3

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

at the time by Bobbie Jo Skibo, R10 SusOps Coordinator, and Dennis Fiore, R3 Fire 

Management Specialist.5 The intent of the collaborative partnership is to institutionalize the 

effort into the FAM organization and to ensure alignment between the intent of leadership and 

the implementation of pragmatic approaches on the ground.

The effort aims to build on past accomplishments that include a 2011 GFT article published in 

Fire Management Today; the launch of a plastic-bottle consumption reduction initiative, the 

establishment of a disposable-battery recycling program in R6 cache, the creation of a visibility 

campaign with a GFT graphic and stickers, and a delegation-of-authority letter highlighting the 

need for SusOps efforts to IMTs.6

The findings included in this report will be used to inform the development of strategies and 

actions to be implemented in the future. 

1.1 Project Background and Intent

In 2015, the USFS requested assistance from the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in support GFT efforts. NREL is dedicated to advancing 

energy efficiency (EE) and renewable energy (RE) technologies and applications. Since its 

inception, NREL has supported the federal and private sectors in implementing EE and water 

efficiency (WE) systems and strategies to lower energy use and meet remaining energy needs 

with renewable resources while having minimal environmental impact. NREL has had a longstanding partnership with the USFS, having supported sustainability efforts for more than 15 

years, including conducting net zero energy and water audits, greenhouse gas accounting and 

reduction efforts, RE project screening for the USFS portfolio of buildings, and others.

The USFS requested NREL assistance to identify and assess opportunities for reduction of 

energy and water use, waste generation, and associated costs, in fire operations. In 2015, NREL 

staff began work with USFS staff to identify ways to improve the efficiency of fire camp 

operations, including decreasing energy use, water use, and generated waste. This effort began 

with an exercise to understand fire operations and associated energy and water use, and waste 

generation. NREL staff participated in monthly calls with GFT members, researched related 

efforts in similar operations, and conducted a data call to gather relevant energy, water, waste,

and other operational data. NREL staff had difficulties procuring data on operational energy or 

water use and cost, or waste generation associated with fire camp operations.

In 2016, NREL staff, in conjunction with USFS staff, determined that visiting fire camps would 

be the best way to understand the complicated logistical operations at fire camps and to begin 

gathering data while attempting to identify operational efficiencies that could be implemented to 

reduce energy and water use, and waste generation. NREL staff and GFT members visited six

fires during the summers of 2016 and 2017. At each fire, they visited the Incident Command Post 

(ICP), the base camps, and a spike camp, in an effort to understand fire operations that relate to, 

are dependent on, or impact energy use, water use, and waste generation.

 5

Team leadership transitioned to Lara Buluç, R5 SusOps and Climate Change Coordinator, and Dennis Fiore, R6 

Fire Management Specialist, in October 2018, after the writing of this manuscript.

6

Greening Fire Team: 5 Year Strategy (draft).
4

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

2 Introduction

This report summarizes work undertaken to understand and quantify fire camp operations’ 

energy use, water use, and waste generation, and to identify opportunities for reduction. This 

scope included stationary (nontransportation fuels) energy use and costs, water use and costs, 

and waste generation and costs. By reviewing these data, combined with on-site observations 

gleaned from visiting multiple fire camps, best management practices can be identified to reduce 

the operational costs and increase the sustainability of operations at fire camps associated with 

energy and water use, and waste generation. 

In 2015, staff from NREL began work with USFS staff to identify ways to improve the 

efficiency of fire camp operations, including decreasing energy use, water use, and generated 

waste. Initial work focused on understanding fire camp operations and logistics protocols, and 

quantifying energy use, water use, and waste generation, and associated costs. The intent of the 

2015 effort was to gather this baseline data; fire camp visits were initiated the following summer 

(2016).

Beginning in 2015, NREL staff began participating in GFT calls and engaged with other 

members of the USFS fire community to gather needed data. A short survey was developed and 

sent to about 10 USFS staff members involved in fire camp operations (see Appendix A). Only 

two questionnaires were returned, and both were lacking information. NREL and USFS staff also 

gave a presentation on this effort and the associated data needs at the 2015 National Logistics 

meeting held in March 2015. After nearly a year of data-gathering efforts that failed to produce 

the requested information, the NREL assessment team determined that the baseline data that the 

team sought likely did not exist in a central repository or at the level of detail needed, and that it 

should proceed to the next stage of the study. 

In 2016, NREL staff, in conjunction with USFS staff, determined visiting fire camps would be 

the best way to understand the complicated logistical operations at the camps and to begin 

gathering data, while attempting to identify operational efficiencies that could be implemented to 

reduce energy and water use, and waste generation. NREL staff and GFT members visited six

fires during the summers of 2016 and 2017: the Cold Springs and Hayden Pass fires (Colorado,

2016), and the Highline, Boundary, Milli, and Whitewater fires (Arizona and Oregon, 2017). At 

each fire, they visited the ICP, the base camps, and a spike camp. The intent of the visits was to 

understand fire operations that relate to, are dependent on, or impact energy and water use, and 

waste generation.
5

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

3 Fire Camp Assessments

The fires NREL and USFS staff visited in the summers of 2016 and 2017 are listed below and 

described in detail later in this section:

• Cold Springs Fire near Nederland, Colorado: July 13, 2016

• Hayden Pass Fire near Salida, Colorado: July 19–20, 2016

• Boundary Fire near Flagstaff, Arizona: June 19, 2017

• Highline Fire near Payson, Arizona: June 20, 2017

• Whitewater Fire near Sisters, Oregon: August 23, 2017

• Milli Fire near Sisters, Oregon: August 23, 2017

3.1 Overview of Fire Camp Operations

The term “fire camp” is used in multiple contexts in fire operations, sometimes in reference to all

related incident logistical operations, and sometimes in reference to only portions. These 

operations encompass a central, congregating area for firefighting efforts; a location where crews 

eat, sleep, and refuel; and a location for operations, planning, logistics, and administration 

support staff to operate. Most fire operations have one ICP, a base camp, and spike camps; some 

fires have multiple base camps, and most fires have multiple spike camps. Every incident is 

different. In this document, the term fire camp refers to all related incident logistical operations, 

including the ICP, base camp, and spike camps.

The ICP is a location at which primary command functions for the incident are executed and may 

be collected with the incident base camp or other incident facilities.7 The ICP serves as the 

administrative headquarters for the support of the incident. Oftentimes, depending on the 

proximity of the fire to a town, the ICP is housed in a large, permanent structure with grid-tied 

energy and water services, such as a community center or school.

The base camp is a geographical site (or multiple sites) within the general incident area,

equipped and staffed to provide sleeping, food, water, and sanitary services to incident 

personnel.8 The base camp could either be located in conjunction with the ICP or within a 1- to 

2-hour drive time to the fire line and may or may not be tied to the grid. In the base camp,

catering operations provide food for the crews; portable toilets are brought in; mobile washing 

units are used for showering, hand washing, and laundry; and most often, generators provide 

what little power is needed for light towers, water heating, and small electric loads (such as a 

laptop or air-conditioning unit in the medical tent). In most climates, crews sleep in personal 

tents. In very hot climates, crews sleep in conditioned spaces, if possible. This could be at the 

ICP, or a conditioned temporary structure (such as a sleeping trailer or yurt). The catering 

operations use significant amounts of energy for refrigeration and food preparation and are a

contract service to the USFS; effecting change in those operations will require collaboration with 

contracting officers to modify or renew any contracts that incorporate recommendations from 

this report.

 7

National Wildfire Coordinating Group, “Glossary A–Z,” https://www.nwcg.gov/glossary/a-z#. 8

Ibid.
6

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Spike camps are satellites of the main fire camp and generally draw their supplies and food from 

the main base camp while providing their own sanitation facilities. Spike camps are used to 

support operation areas and minimize travel time for firefighters accessing the fire line, typically 

no more than 1 to 2 hours away from the base camp. Spike camps tend to be (but are not always) 

small, remote, fully off-grid operations for smaller crews. Often, food, water, and other supplies 

are driven or flown in. They are generally considered safety measures to prevent excessive 

fatigue and reduce the probability of a collision between a firefighting vehicle and a civilian 

vehicle or stationary object.9

3.2 Logistical Considerations

Assembling a fire camp is a considerable challenge that typically spans days. Many activities 

occur during this setup period, and because issues such as safety and functionality are primary 

concerns, issues related to greening fire camps necessarily become a secondary focus. Each 

incident and fire camp is unique, but many common activities occur during the planning and

setup period, including: 

• Siting:

o Identifying appropriate locations for the ICP, base camp, and spike camp(s), and

negotiating and executing necessary land- and facility-use agreements, including 

access to energy, water, and wastewater services

• Catering services:

o Procuring catering services (a catering contractor provides all food, serve ware, 

and related infrastructure, such as cooking trailer(s), refrigerator trucks, 

generators, and fuel)

• Energy services:

o Grid-tied services are part of land- and facility-use agreements.

o Off-grid power supplies (usually diesel generators up to 100 kW) are specified 

initially via a preorder list, and supplemental power supplies are procured, as 

needed, during the setup period.

o Light towers (or light carts) are prevalent in fire camp operations.

o Fuel for generators is supplied daily by fuel trucks from nearby communities.

• Water provision:

o Fire camp operations operating out of permanent facilities (schools, community 

centers) have access to water and wastewater services via land- and facility-use 

agreements. 

o Operations occurring in open land areas have potable water brought in via trucks 

and provide services such as mobile showers, handwashing units, and laundry. 

Potable water taps can be used to fill canteens or water bottles, and bottled water 

is also provided.

o Portable toilets are provided to operations in open land areas. 

 9

Ibid.
7

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

• Waste management:

o Fire camp operations functioning out of permanent facilities have access to trash 

and, where possible, recycling and composting services.

o Operations occurring in open land areas usually have roll-off dumpsters for trash

disposal; some incidents have dumpsters for recycling. The availability and use of 

small recycling receptacles and related signage vary by incident.

o Catering operations collect food waste, compostable utensils, plates, and cups in 

compostable bags, but often this waste is not composted. 

• Internet service:

o The USFS has a contract with Verizon to provide cell tower boosters at no charge 

to the USFS in the event of an emergency.

The availability of services and supplies (e.g., tents, trailers, generators, latrines, catering) that 

are used in a fire camp can be limited depending on the site location and time of fire season. Fire 

camp supplies come from the local cache, as well as local suppliers, and can come from regional 

or even national stockpiles if the equipment is not available locally. Equipment is often ordered 

and used based on that which is readily and quickly available (e.g., more generalized equipment 

such as a light tower, rather than equipment with specific capacity such as a photovoltaicpowered LED light tower).

The availability of supplies in the caches is somewhat standardized but can vary from cache to 

cache (e.g., there might be only incandescent lights in one cache and LED lights in another 

cache). The USFS does a good job reusing equipment, tools, and supplies stored in the caches 

(e.g., tools such as shovels, axes, etc., will be put back into the local cache), but there may be an 

opportunity to standardize the caches and stock them with more sustainable options.

The Buying Team is responsible for purchasing supplies for the fire camps, and it has green 

purchasing guidelines and requirements. The Buying Team, however, commonly has difficulty 

with availability of green products, and there is typically a cost premium associated with green 

products. Currently, there is no mechanism for tracking green purchases and non-green 

purchases. The Buying Team has a spreadsheet for tracking purchases, and they could consider 

inserting a column into the spreadsheet to track whether products are green. Green purchasing 

guidelines and requirements should be further standardized so that the Buying Team has a clear 

understanding of what is required and what is available.

3.3 Fire Camp Visits

NREL staff visited six fire camps during the summers of 2016 and 2017. ICPs and base camps 

were visited at every fire; spike camps were visited when logistically feasible. At each site, 

NREL staff met with the Logistics Chief and Deputy Incident Commander to discuss GFT 

efforts and solicit feedback.

3.3.1 Cold Springs Fire (Nederland, Colorado)

The Cold Springs Fire was first reported on July 9, 2016, at 1:45 p.m., burning 2 miles northeast 

of Nederland, Colorado. On July 15, 2016, the Rocky Mountain Incident Management Team 
8

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(IMT) Black transferred command of the fire to the Boulder County Type 3 IMT.

10 NREL staff, 

escorted by Dennis Fiore (USFS), visited the ICP and the base camp of the Cold Springs Fire on 

July 13, 2016.

The ICP was operating out of the Nederland Community Center, and the base camp was sited in 

two fields about 1 mile outside of the town. The ICP was grid-tied for all utilities (electricity, 

water, and wastewater), and the base camp was off-grid. Minimal power was provided via small 

generators (about three), powering light towers and some ancillary loads (a fan and laptop in the 

medical tent). Handwashing stations (with heated water) were provided via a mobile trailer, and 

potable water was provided from a truck. No shower or laundry facilities were provided; crews 

used the nearby Nederland high school for these services and for sleeping (if on a daytime shift).

This was the first fire visited, and NREL staff spent a large amount of time meeting with staff 

from the IMT to learn more about the operations and logistics and walking around ICP and Base 

Camp. NREL staff did not receive any data during this site visit, but given the proximity of this 

fire to Golden, Colorado (where NREL is located), NREL staff are working to make 

arrangements to visit the unit offices and look through the fire box to determine what data are

stored there.

3.3.2 Hayden Pass Fire (Salida, Colorado)

The Hayden Pass Fire, outside of Salida, Colorado, was ignited by lightning on July 8, 2016. On 

July 12, 2016, the local Type 3 organization transferred command of the Hayden Pass Fire to the 

Rocky Mountain Type 2 Blue Team (IMT).

11 NREL staff, accompanied by Dennis Fiore, visited 

the Hayden Pass Fire on July 19–20, 2016; they visited the ICP, the base camp, and one spike 

camp. The ICP was operating out of Salida High School, and the base camp was situated on land 

adjacent to the Salida Ranger District office. Both locations featured sustainable elements: the 

high school is Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certified, and the USFS 

office has a large PV array, as seen in Figure 2.

 10https://gacc.nifc.gov/rmcc/detailed_ireport.php?year=2016&incident=inc54_2016.log. 11https://gacc.nifc.gov/rmcc/detailed_ireport.php?year=2016&incident=inc55_2016.log.
9

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Figure 2. Base camp at the Hayden Pass Fire near Salida, Colorado

Photo by Alicen Kandt, NREL

The IMT operated out of the high school and mobile trailers that were transported to the high 

school; the trailers were powered by generators. The IMT members working out of the trailers 

preferred to work out of their own trailers, which housed their office equipment, rather than the 

high school.

The base camp included catering operations; a refrigeration (“reefer”) truck; portable toilet,

shower, and handwashing units (Figure 3 and Figure 4); portable laundry units; and personal 

tents.

Figure 3. Handwashing and shower facilities at the Hayden Pass Fire

Photos by Alicen Kandt, NREL
10

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Figure 4. Reefer truck at the Hayden Pass Fire

Photo by Alicen Kandt, NREL

Approximate energy and water use information is provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Hayden Pass Fire Equipment Energy/Water Use12

Equipment Commodity Quantity Unit

5-kW Light Cart Diesel 15 Gallons/day

Reefer Van Diesel 15 Gallons/day

Shower Trucks Diesel 15 Gallons/day

Shower Trucks Potable Water 2,000 Gallons/day

Water Pumps Potable Water 4,000 Gallons/day

3.3.3 Boundary Fire (Flagstaff, Arizona)

The Boundary Fire, outside of Flagstaff, Arizona, was ignited by lightning on June 1, 2017. 

NREL staff, escorted by Dennis Fiore (USFS), visited the Boundary Fire on June 19, 2017; 

photos from the assessment are provided in Figure 5. At the time of the audit, there were 435 

people working the fire. The base camp was located at a fairground, and electricity to the site 

was provided by diesel generators. The major power users at the site included office equipment, 

interior space lighting, site lighting, reefer trucks, and food catering operations. Diesel-powered 

light carts with incandescent lights were used for site lighting; most of these lights operated from 

7 p.m. to 10 p.m., although a select few light carts remained on all night for safety reasons. A 

fuel truck topped off the five diesel generators, the refrigerated trucks, and light carts daily. The 

estimated fuel use at the site was 106 gallons per day.

 12847 total personnel on July 19, 2016.
11

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Figure 5. Boundary Fire Camp near Flagstaff, Arizona

Photos by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL

Uninsulated rented tents were used for meeting/office space and dining. These tents had typical 

office equipment and compact fluorescent (CFL) and incandescent lighting. Power for airconditioning, lighting, and other end-uses in the tents was provided by diesel generators, and 

typically three tents were operated off of one generator. Personal tents set up in open fields were 

used for sleeping. Portable toilets, handwashing stations, and showering units were set up 
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throughout the site. A bulk water truck provided water to the site at an average rate of 2,250 

gallons per day.

At the time of the audit, the caterer was providing 500 hot breakfasts and dinners per day and 

500 cold (sack) lunches per day. Compostable tableware, cups, and silverware were used and

disposed of in compostable bags, but this waste was not being composted. Only an estimated 5% 

of the waste generated at the site was recycled. A member of the catering team said that the 

caterer tries to minimize food waste when possible and has donated excess food in the past. The 

catering contractor indicated it would comply with any recycling standards required by the 

USFS. The catering operations used about 25 gallons of diesel per day for refrigeration and 25 

gallons of propane per day for cooking.

A significant portion of the audit involved discussions with personnel working the fire. Every

person the audit team spoke with believed having a Sustainable Operations Coordinator assigned 

to a fire camp would be an effective way to help make fire camp operations more efficient and 

sustainable.

A general feeling prevailed that recycling at the site could have been better if they had more time 

setting up the fire camp. People were generally open to using recycling bins for paper, cardboard, 

plastic, aluminum, and glass if they were provided, but there were cultural barriers to recycling 

with some people fighting the fires. One idea was to have hotshot crews take the lead on 

recycling, given their elevated status at fire camps. Furthermore, great progress has been made in 

getting people to wash their hands prior to eating, which suggests cultural changes are possible at 

fire camps. Battery use was closely connected to battery-powered radios, and there was no 

battery recycling at the site. People were open to battery recycling, and they were also open to 

the idea of moving toward rechargeable radios. In general, people were open to providing 5-

gallon water containers (“cubies”) along with standard bottled water so that people had a choice 

and an opportunity to reduce waste associated with bottled water.

The audit team met with the Buying Team, which had a standardized spreadsheet for purchasing. 

The people on the Buying Team were required to take a green training and purchase locally 

when available. The Buying Team suggested urban vehicles could be hybrids in most cases, and 

they reported consolidating delivery trips to the site when possible. The Buying Team did 

specification refreshes where working groups got together and updated specifications for 

procuring needed supplies.

3.3.4 Highline Fire (Payson, Arizona)

The Highline Fire near Payson, Arizona, originated on June 10, 2017.13 NREL staff, escorted by 

Dennis Fiore, visited the Highline Fire on June 20, 2017; photos from the assessment are 

provided in Figure 6. The audit team visited the base camp and the Sharp Creek Campsite 

located 25 miles from the base camp. Located at a campground, the base camp had very limited 

space. Electricity to the site was provided by diesel generators. The major power users included 

office equipment, interior space lighting, site lighting, reefer trucks, and food catering. Dieselpowered light carts with incandescent lights were used for site lighting, and most of these lights 

operated from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m., except for a select few light carts that remained on all night for 

 13https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/5233/.
13

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safety reasons. The five generators, six light carts, and one reefer truck at the base camp used

about 200 gallons of diesel per day. A fuel truck topped off the diesel generators, refrigerated 

trucks, and light carts daily at both the base camp and the Sharp Creek Campsite.

Figure 6. Highline Fire Camp near Flagstaff, Arizona

Photos by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL

Insulated rented tents were predominantly used for meeting/office space and dining (see Figure 7). 

These tents had typical office equipment and CFL and incandescent lighting. Power for air-
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conditioning, lighting, and other end-uses in the tents was provided by diesel generators, and each 

tent would typically draw 30 amps of power given the high air-conditioning load. Personal tents set 

up in open fields were used for sleeping space, and portable toilets, handwashing stations, and 

showering units were set up throughout the site. A bulk water truck provided water to the site.

Figure 7. Highline Fire

Photo by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL

The caterer provided hot breakfasts and dinners and cold lunches to everyone working the fire. 

Except for cardboard, there was no recycling at the site due to how quickly the site was set up. 

The logistics coordinator noted that most of the sites that he had previously worked at did 

provide recycling. The caterer noted that it would be very difficult to provide 6,000 calories/day 

meals for fire fighters and 2,000 calories/day meals for nonfirefighters working the fires. They 

tried to provide two meal sizes in the past, and it was too much to manage. The site staff noted 

that food waste is always an issue, and although they donate some of the packaged lunch food to 

charities, most of the excess food is wasted because things are so dynamic. The staff also noted 

that the bottled water and sports drinks never get wasted.

Personnel at this site were more outspoken than other sites that were visited with regard to the 

importance of providing water bottles. The personnel noted that “cubies” are only good for 3 

days once they are filled, but people use them for longer. Cubies are also only supposed to be 

used once and are not supposed to be refilled, but people refill them. It was stated that the 

potential issues with using bulk water for drinking is huge given that in the past 1,000-person 

camps have had to shut down because of water contamination.

3.3.5 Whitewater Fire (Bend, Oregon)

The Whitewater Fire near Bend, Oregon, originated on July 23, 2017.14 NREL staff, escorted by 

Dennis Fiore, visited the Whitewater Fire on August 23, 2017; photos from the assessment are 

provided in Figure 8.

The base camp was located at the main lodge of the Hoodoo Ski Area, and although a majority 

of the electricity to the site was provided by the local electric utility, there were also some diesel 

generators providing electricity to the operations. The major power users at the site included 

office equipment, interior space lighting, site lighting, refrigerated trucks, and food catering. 

Four diesel-powered light carts were used for site lighting, and most of these lights operated 

from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m., except for a select few light carts that remained on all night for safety. It 

should be noted that one of the light carts had LED lights, as opposed to the standard 

 14https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/5420/.
15

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incandescent light carts typically found throughout fire camps. (A photo of the LED light cart is 

included in the photo montage below; note how much smaller the associated generator is for this 

light cart, given that LEDs are much more efficient than incandescent lighting.) Often, the 

generators for the standard light carts were used to power equipment other than the lights. Those 

working at the site were satisfied with the operation of the LED light cart. A fuel truck would 

periodically top off the diesel generators, the refrigerated trucks, and light carts.

Figure 8. Whitewater Fire Camp near Bend, Oregon

Photos by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL
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The main lodge of the Hoodoo Ski Area was used for meeting/office space and dining. 

Uninsulated, rented tents were also used for office space, and the tents were equipped with five 

100-watt incandescent lights and evaporative coolers. Personal tents set up in open fields were 

used for sleeping space, and portable toilets, handwashing stations, and showering units were set 

up throughout the site. A bulk water truck provided water to the site. 

At the time of the audit, the caterer was providing 500 hot breakfasts and dinners per day and 

500 cold lunches per day. The caterer used about 100 gallons of diesel per day, purchased from 

the site fuel truck. The caterer used about 2,000 gallons of bulk water per day, including water 

used for the kitchen and wash stations. Propane was used at a rate of 100 gallons per day in the 

kitchen. The refrigerated trucks used about 30 gallons of diesel per day.

USFS hired a vendor to handle recycling; photos related to the recycling operation are provided

in Figure 9. The recycling vendor charged $2,400 per day. Hiring a vendor for recycling is not 

commonly done at fire camps, but Whitewater site personnel felt very positive about recycling. 

At this fire, waste was reduced by an estimated 40% due to recycling.

The site staff were unable to compost, although the vendor estimated it could achieve up to 70% 

waste reduction with composting. The USFS criteria for net zero waste is 100% reduction in 

waste sent to the landfill via reduction in waste generation and reuse and recycle.

15 A 20% waste 

reduction can typically be achieved by providing bottle and cardboard recycling, 40% can be 

achieved by hiring a recycling contractor, and 70% can be achieved by recycling and 

composting. On the food side, all waste generated at the Whitewater site could have been

composted except for the silverware wrapper.

The staff at the fire camp found that recycling is contagious, and it helps that recycling bins are 

nice and well-designed. Deschutes County, where this fire occurred, has well-established, 

effective infrastructure for recycling. Kelly Jaramillo (USFS Southwestern Region Sustainable 

Operations Specialist) did a comparison of the true cost of hiring a camp crew to recycle versus

hiring a vendor, and it showed that the cost of contracting recycling services is close to and 

sometimes cheaper than using in-house resources.

The Whitewater site offered battery recycling, and the staff estimated that 30% of batteries were

being recycled. AA batteries were used most commonly at the site, primarily for radios. At the 

time of the audit, which was conducted a month after the fire started, the site had used 80,000 

AA batteries and had ordered an additional 80,000. Site personnel generally felt there was a need 

to move toward using rechargeable lithium-ion battery radios, noting that Alaska crews currently 

use rechargeable radios with good success. More information on the use of rechargeable batteries 

in handheld devices can be found in the USFS National Technology and Development Program 

publication “Hand-held Devices: Recharging Batteries in the Field.”16

 15https://www.fs.fed.us/sites/default/files/factsheets-netzero.pdf. 16Ted Etter and David J. Plummer, Hand-held Devices: Recharging Batteries in the Field (Missoula, MT: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Technology and Development Program, 2011), 

https://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/php/library_card.php?p_num=1166%202314.
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Figure 9. Whitewater Fire Camp recycling operation

Photos by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL

The site was using a solar-powered radio repeater (004080 Solar Panel Kit). Photos of the solarpowered radio repeater are provided in Figure 10. Site personnel had positive feedback regarding 

using the solar-powered radio repeater kit, reporting that it worked well in remote locations,

because it is built to withstand the harsh environments found in the field. They also noted that 

combining this kit with a lead-acid battery to extend the operating hours is good practice. 

Specifications for the Solar Panel Kit can be found in the National Incident Radio Support Cache 

User’s Guide.17

 17National Incident Radio Support Cache User’s Guide (Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Center, 2018), 

https://www.nifc.gov/NIICD/docs/2018%20NIRSC%20Users%20Guide%20Web.pdf.
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Figure 10. Whitewater Fire Camp solar-powered radio repeater

Photos by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL

3.3.6 Milli Fire (Sisters, Oregon)

The Whitewater Fire near Sisters, Oregon originated on August 11, 2017.18 NREL staff, escorted 

by Dennis Fiore, visited the Milli Fire on August 23, 2017; photos from the assessment are 

provided in Figure 11. Similar to the Boundary Fire, the base camp was located at a fairground,

and electricity to the site was provided by diesel generators. The major power users at the site 

included office equipment, interior space lighting, site lighting, refrigerated trucks, and food

catering. Diesel-powered light carts with incandescent lights were used for site lighting, and 

most of these lights operated from 7:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m., while a select few light carts 

remained on all night for safety. A fuel truck topped off the diesel generators, the refrigerated 

trucks, and light carts daily.

 18https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/5517.
19

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Figure 11. Milli Fire Camp Near Sisters, Oregon

Photos by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL
20

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Rented uninsulated tents were used for meeting/office space and dining. These tents had typical 

office equipment and CFL and incandescent lighting. Power for air-conditioning, lighting, and 

other end-uses in the tents was provided by diesel generators. Four mobile office trailers were 

also used at the site at the time of the audit, and these trailers had standard air-conditioning units 

with linear fluorescent lighting. Personal tents set up in open fields were used for sleeping space; 

portable toilets, handwashing stations, and showering units were set up throughout the site. A 

bulk water truck provided water to the site.

The caterer provided hot breakfasts and dinners and cold lunches each day for everyone working 

at the fire. There was some recycling taking place at the site (managed by site personnel), and 

site personnel were very interested in having a recycling vendor provide recycling services.

The Milli Fire was the only site that the audit team visited that used mobile sleeper trucks (see

Figure 12). The mobile sleeper trucks can sleep 42 people, and each person has an individual

storage area. Powered by 16.5-kW generators, the sleeper trucks are self-sufficient as far as 

electricity goes; they have air-conditioning units and humidifiers and are sanitized two times a 

day.

Figure 12. Milli Fire Camp mobile sleeper truck

Photo by Jimmy Salasovich, NREL
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4 Observations

The many insights gleaned from the six fire camp visits conducted in 2016 and 2017 were 

invaluable for NREL staff seeking to understand fire camp operations and begin to identify 

potential best management suggestions and opportunities.

4.1 Current Best Practices

The suggested best practices, including many observed during the visits to the fires, are listed 

below.

• Championing of sustainability: In general, most USFS staff and IMTs were highly 

motivated to incorporate sustainable measures into incident operations. Site champions 

will be influential in moving sustainable initiatives forward in the future, and it was very 

encouraging to encounter so many supportive staff and crews while visiting the fires. 

People generally embraced sustainability and conservation; for instance, they were 

observed turning off lights and air-conditioning when leaving tents.

• Composting: Current practices and contracting requirements ensure that catering 

contractors provide compostable utensils, plates, and cups, and collect these items and 

food waste in compostable bags. This is an effective first step in implementing 

composting in fire camp operations.

• Recycling: Some fire camps had comprehensive recycling options, including cardboard, 

plastics, glass, and even batteries. One camp contracted out these services to a vendor, 

resulting in a large increase in recycled materials and minimizing the burden to USFS 

staff associated with coordinating recycling efforts.

• Canteens: The use of canteens, or cubies, was broadly encouraged and often adopted. 

Potable water taps are provided on all fires, and the use of cubies helps reduce the plastic 

waste generated from plastic bottle use.

• Electrolyte powder: Some fire camps were piloting the use of electrolyte powder, which 

can be added to water in cubies, thus further reducing plastic waste generated from 

electrolyte (sports) drink plastic bottle use.

• Greening Fire Team efforts: The GFT worked to communicate opportunities to the fire 

community for making fire operations more sustainable, including the promotion of 

“Greening Fire Tips” (Appendix B) and the distribution of GFT stickers.

• Solar-powered radio repeater: One fire camp deployed a solar-powered radio repeater 

and indicated it was very effective. Adding a lead-acid battery further extended the 

operating hours, and the system was built to withstand harsh elements found in the field.

• Rechargeable battery radios: The use of radios with rechargeable lithium-ion battery 

has the potential to drastically reduce battery waste. This technology is already being 

effectively deployed in Alaska.

• LED lights: LED lights were observed in some fire camps, including light towers and 

tent lighting. LEDs are much more efficient than the incumbent incandescent lighting.

• Reuse and recycling at caches: Personnel at the various fires indicated that many of the 

tools and equipment taken from the main cache and used to fight a fire are reconditioned 

and reused for future fires. Recycling also occurs at the main cache.
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4.2 Challenges and Constraints

The biggest challenge associated with this work effort is the lack of baseline data. Generally, 

when conducting an audit and trying to identify and quantify savings opportunities, the first step 

is to establish a baseline. For this effort, that would include energy and water use and cost and 

waste generated, as well as waste disposal costs. Currently, there is no central repository of costs 

expended on energy and water services or on waste removal in fire operations. There is also no 

collection of data on energy and water use, or waste generation in these operations. NREL 

researchers met with USFS financial staff on the IMTs and were not able to procure this 

information. It became apparent that although costs expended on firefighting operations are 

tracked daily during a fire, those costs are not categorized by expenditure type. These data would 

be useful to help justify the importance of sustainable measures, and it is necessary to quantify 

the value of such efforts.

Another constraint is that the mission associated with fire camp operations often pushes SusOps

to a secondary consideration. Identifying sustainable practices that can be incorporated into the 

everyday operations in a way that is seamless and ingrained in operational practices will enable 

sustainability to become commonplace without adding burden or creating distraction for IMTs.
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5 Best Management Suggestions

The current best practices listed above should be examined for opportunities for replication, 

improvement, or standardization, then broadly expanded to fire camp operations for widespread 

adoption. Other suggested best management practices are provided below.

5.1 Coordination

5.1.1 Sustainable Operations Coordinator for Every Incident

Currently, a coordinated approach to SusOps is lacking in IMTs and fire camp operations. 

Providing a dedicated staff person at each fire camp who is fully responsible for promoting and 

implementing sustainable actions (e.g., identifying what recycling and composting infrastructure 

is available in the community; setting up recycling/composting; coordinating 

recycling/composting pickup; communicating recycling/composting processes to staff in base 

camp and ICP; identifying local community foodbanks or relevant organizations for food 

donation; and researching the local availability of alternative generation technologies, such as 

photovoltaic-powered light towers and solar-powered water heating for shower and hand 

washing) could result in drastic energy, water, waste, and associated cost savings.

Next steps and additional considerations: Thought should be given to determining the best 

skill set for this position; outlining the duties, expectations, requirements, and resources 

associated with this position; and identifying how this person would fit organizationally within 

the IMT, when the coordinator would be deployed to the incident, and how long they would need 

to stay on-site. The Sustainability Coordinator Checklist drafted in 2016 could serve as a starting 

point for this process.

5.1.2 Centralized and Standardized Data Collection of Metrics

One of the biggest challenges associated with this work effort was the lack of baseline data. 

Developing metrics and procedures for collecting data, as well as a centralized repository for this 

data, will help facilitate quantification of energy and water use, and waste generation, as well as 

associated costs, from fire camp operations. These data can then be used for identifying and 

quantifying savings opportunities, as well as comparing the efficiency of one incident’s 

operations to another. These data could also be used for further study of potential savings,

including investigating the correlation between a variety of factors, such as cost, incident type, 

total personnel, energy use, water use, and waste generation.

Next steps and additional considerations: Consider building on the survey in Appendix A to 

outline a list of data needs. Work with IMTs to better understand what level of detail is collected 

versus what level of detail is desired and try to determine whether additional data could be 

collected and at what level of effort. Consider working to procure the fire box documents from 

one of the previously visited fires to delve deeper into what data are collected. Investigate 

options for a central repository of related energy, water, and waste use and cost data, including 

examining what other agencies and entities (Department of Defense, Bureau of Land 

Management, and state and local organizations) use for reporting and tracking such information.
24

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5.1.3 Continued and Expanded Greening Fire Team Efforts

The GFT has been effective at initiating dialogue regarding the potential to incorporate 

sustainable practices into incident operations. They have successfully communicated Greening 

Fire Tips (Appendix B) and promoted their work via stickers and other education and outreach 

materials. Continued support for the GFT should be provided by the USFS. GFT members 

should also examine ways to expand their impact, not only within USFS operations but to the 

broader incident response community, including other federal agencies, as well as state and local 

entities. 

Next steps and additional considerations: The GFT has worked to disseminate findings from 

this and related efforts to others within the broader incident response community, including 

potentially creating a publicly available website or publishing relevant findings. The GFT could 

work to create a mechanism to share lessons learned with other related stakeholders, such as a 

working group or annual meeting. The GFT should continue trying to leverage related efforts 

and research conducted by other entities such as the Department of Defense and Department of 

Homeland Security. 

5.2 Energy Reduction

5.2.1 Use of Permanent Structures When Possible

Fire camp operations use a variety of structures, primarily driven by what is available in the area. 

These include permanent structures, such as schools or community centers, as well as nonpermanent structures such as yurts, tents, or trailers. Generally, permanent structures are better 

insulated, higher performing, and less energy-intensive than non-permanent structures. An 

energy analysis was conducted to compare the energy-use intensity (EUI) of tents, mobile office 

trailers, and hard (permanent) structures. The results of the analysis are presented in Appendix C, 

but the findings indicated that tents have the highest EUI, followed by mobile office trailers, and 

then, hard structures. This indicates that when hard structures are available, they have the lowest 

EUI; they also provide the added benefits of not having to contend with dust intrusion and 

having grid power. For optimal energy use and associated costs, the ICP should be sited in an 

efficient, permanent structure. When comparing tents to trailers, the trailers have a lower EUI 

and should be considered in cases where trailers are available at a comparable cost to tents.

Hybrid solutions, where a permanent structure is procured for the ICP but portions of the IMT 

operate out of mobile trailers or tents, should be avoided unless necessary due to space or other 

constraints.

Next steps and additional considerations: Consider including building vintage and efficiency 

as part of the site selection process associated with selecting a location for the ICP. Investigate 

opportunities to educate IMTs about the benefits of using permanent structures (when available) 

instead of mobile trailers or tents.

5.2.2 Potential Use of Solar Energy Systems

Minimal use of renewable energy systems was observed in fire camp operations. Small, portable 

photovoltaic or solar thermal systems have the potential to be cost-effective, resilient, and 

broadly applicable in these operations for such end uses as powering light towers or water 

pumps; providing hot water for handwashing stations, shower facilities, and phone charging 
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stations; and recharging radio batteries. For example, the Whitewater Fire IMT used a solarpowered radio repeater and expressed support for the system. Mobile photovoltaic systems—

such as the trailer-mounted system used by the National Park Service in Yellowstone National 

Park, which combines 9-MW photovoltaics (PV) with a generator and batteries—could be used 

to power larger electrical loads and could be moved to wherever power was needed and from 

incident to incident.19

Next steps and additional considerations: Examine the potential to add PV-powered light 

towers to fire caches, and to specify these systems as a priority over standard generator light 

towers, when light towers are ordered from suppliers (i.e., not procured by the cache). Also 

consider specifying PV or solar thermal-powered handwashing or shower facilities over 

standard, generator-powered ones. Conduct a cost-benefit analysis of these alternative options 

(PV-powered light towers and PV- or solar thermal handwashing and shower facilities) versus 

standard generator-powered systems. Consider procuring a mobile PV system and piloting it at

numerous incidents throughout a fire season. Conduct a cost-benefit analysis of the mobile PV 

system and interview system users regarding ease of use, maintenance requirements, and other 

lessons learned.

5.2.3 Potential Use of Mobile Biomass Systems

Mobile waste disposal has been an area of interest for many years. Research in biomass has 

looked at smaller mobile systems that can process small-diameter timber or help with cleanup 

after infestations such as the pine beetle. Disaster relief efforts have initiated research into small 

systems that can process wood waste, as well as hurricane debris, and generate power where it is 

badly needed. Companies have tried to develop small systems that can process waste from 

remote communities, military bases, forward operating bases, island communities, and others. 

Some systems target construction and demolition debris, infectious waste, and document waste.

Many systems have been developed to some degree, but no company has captured a large market 

share, primarily due to a few key challenges. First, the term is waste to energy (WTE), and the 

energy portion is difficult. A system could process waste and generate electric power, but there 

are issues with locating the system near power lines, then getting the permission required to tie 

into a utility grid system. Another form of energy is thermal energy. A waste system can 

generate heat, which is typically in the form of hot water. Without this energy-generation aspect, 

the systems are purely incinerators, which have their place, but do not generate the same level of 

interest as do actual WTE projects.

The primary technologies assessed are combustion, gasification, anaerobic digestion, and 

composting. Combustion systems typically require a substantial scale to make economic sense 

and are not very efficient. In waste disposal applications, energy-generation efficiency is not 

always the primary concern, because disposal is the key driver. However, investing large 

amounts of capital into a system that is difficult to be mobile for a small amount of electricity is 

a challenge and would not be suitable for campsites.

 19Case Study: Mobile Photovoltaic System at Bechler Meadows Ranger Station, Yellowstone National Park

(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy), https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f8/60516.pdf.
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Gasification can be attractive, as the waste material is turned into a combustible gas that is fed 

into a gas engine to make power. Gasifiers are very sensitive to waste-stream quality, however,

and they perform better when they have a more uniform, heterogenous waste stream. Biomass 

can be a good fuel, although most gasifiers require a very dry, woody feedstock. Gasifying 

mixed waste is a challenge. A gasifier waste stream is normally free of metal, rocks, and dirt, and 

must be shredded to an appropriate size. Some gasifiers are more forgiving because they do not 

rely on material moving through the system using gravity; instead, they use fluidized beds or 

rotary kilns (which look like cement mixers). Additionally, for a mixed waste containing plastics, 

advanced pollution control systems are needed to clean up the emissions, which can add cost and 

complexity. Small-batch gasification systems are used in specific applications. One example is 

the Micro Auto Gasification System (MAGS) that can treat a variety of waste streams.

20

The most likely options for fire camp applications would be anaerobic digestion or composting. 

Waste from the fire camp applications typically consist of cardboard, plastics from water bottles, 

and food waste. There is also waste from plates, utensils, etc., although the USFS requires that 

these be compostable. Additionally, compostable bags are used for food waste and other 

compostables, although bags filled with compostable materials are often thrown into the trash. If 

organic waste could be collected separately from other waste, then a centralized digester could 

be installed. Generated gas could be flared or used to supply heat. Composting would be the 

simplest approach and the easiest to initiate. This is not a new concept. Yosemite National Park 

has diverted much waste from landfills while cutting disposal costs.21 The organic waste is 

collected and hauled to a composting facility. A number of companies also provide small 

composting bins that could be located at fire camps to process organic food waste and 

compostable products.

Next steps and additional considerations: Consider a waste stream analysis (waste audit) at 

one or more incidents to define the waste composition and quantity. Investigate potential 

opportunities to pilot a biomass technology at an incident.

5.2.4 Use of LED Lights

Many incandescent lights were observed in use in fire camp operations, including in dining tents 

and in light towers. LED lights are much more efficient than the incumbent incandescent 

lighting. LED lights should be listed as a priority request for all lighting applications, when 

available. 

Next steps and additional considerations: Examine the potential to add LED light towers to 

fire caches and to specify these systems as a priority over standard incandescent light towers 

when light towers are ordered from suppliers. Conduct a cost-benefit analysis of LED light 

towers versus standard incandescent light towers. Also, investigate the potential to specify LED 

lights in all other lighting applications in nonpermanent structures. 

 20“MAGSTM, an energy-generation appliance fueled by waste,” Terragon Environmental Technologies, Inc., 

https://terragon.net/resource-recovery-solutions/energy-from-waste/. 21“Food Waste Composting at Yosemite National Park,” Waste360, https://www.waste360.com/food-waste/foodwaste-composting-yosemite-national-park.
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5.3 Water Reduction

5.3.1 Vehicle Washing and Dust Abatement

Vehicle washing and dust abatement activities consume large quantities of potable water (see 

Figure 13).

Figure 13. Dust abatement activities at the Hayden Pass Fire

Photo by Alicen Kandt, NREL

In some communities, opportunities may exist to use nonpotable, recycled water for these 

purposes. Also, noxious weeds vary from location to location, and vehicle washing to avoid 

spreading to other sites may not be necessary at every incident. Consider revisiting requirements 

and opportunities associated with vehicle washing and dust abatement to identify opportunities 

for water savings or alternative water use.

Next steps and additional considerations: Examine the potential to have the Sustainable 

Operations Coordinator research noxious weeds in the area of each incident and determine 

whether vehicle washing is necessary, and to what degree and frequency. Also consider the 

potential to have the SusOps Coordinator research the availability of recycled or grey water in 

the vicinity of the ICP and base camp operations. Consider a pilot to test these responsibilities 

for the SusOps Coordinator and to identify the availability of related information and the time 

burden for such research on the Coordinator, versus the benefit of reduced water use and 

associated water cost savings. 

5.4 Waste Management and Reduction

The USFS has been proactively working to minimize its waste generation and increase its 

recycling and composting efforts associated with fire operations. In this vein, the USFS has 

undertaken waste-stream analyses to quantify its waste generation, has required composting by 

its caterers, and supports recycling efforts.
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5.4.1 Composting

Current practices and contracting requirements ensure that catering contractors provide 

compostable utensils, plates, and cups, and collect these items and associated food waste in 

compostable bags. Although this is an effective first step in implementing composting in fire 

camp operations, this waste is seldom composted. No requirement or oversight ensures that the 

catering contractor disposes of the compostable waste in a composting facility. Often, no such 

facility is in the vicinity of the fire, and the compostable waste is disposed of in the trash. This 

results in a lost opportunity to maximize the return on investment in compostable products. 

Also, compostable water bottles are commercially available, which could serve as another 

potential waste-reduction opportunity. However, they are only beneficial if they are composted 

in a composting facility. If they are recycled or thrown away, the benefit associated with the 

bottle being compostable is not realized. 

Next steps and additional considerations: Investigate the feasibility of requiring (via 

contracting language) the catering contractor to dispose of all compostable waste in a 

composting facility. In lieu of this option, the SusOps Coordinator could identify the proximity 

of composting facilities to the incident and communicate this information to the catering 

contractors. Or, if a third party is managing the recycling for the incident, they could also be 

tasked with the eventual disposal/hauling off-site of the compostables. A pilot could be 

conducted with compostable water bottles, in an incident where they will be able to be 

composted, and users could be surveyed to gather feedback on the bottles and the disposal 

process.

5.4.2 Multiple Meal-Size Options

Food waste is a common issue at the fire camps. Crews are given 6,000 calories per day, and 

although many of the support staff do not need or consume 6,000 calories per day, caterers are 

required to serve the full 6,000 calories per day to every person, despite dietary preferences or 

restrictions such as allergies. This results in a large amount of uneaten food waste. The USFS 

could revisit the caloric requirement to determine whether 6,000 calories is an appropriate 

amount for crew members. The USFS could also examine the potential to have two meal sizes—

a crew meal (larger, full-caloric requirements) and a staff meal (smaller, fewer calories). 

Uneaten food is disposed of differently from one incident to the next; it is sometimes thrown out, 

donated to a local shelter, or given to livestock in areas where landowners have evacuated and 

are not able to feed their animals. Creating uniform guidance for disposing of food waste, and 

identifying IMT staff to support these efforts, will lead to waste minimization.

Next steps and additional considerations: Revisit the caloric requirement for crews. Speak 

with catering contractors to discuss the feasibility, cost, and time implications of creating two 

meal sizes. Consider conducting a cost-benefit analysis to examine the costs associated with 

preparing two meal sizes versus the savings associated with less food waste. Consider adding the 

responsibility of identifying an off-taker for food waste to the job requirements associated with 

the SusOps Coordinator.
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5.4.3 Recycling

Recycling is not widespread across all incident operations. Barriers include cost, lack of 

ownership and time to research recycling options in the local community and procure those 

services, lack of communication to crews and support staff regarding what materials can be 

recycled and where, and lack of directive requiring or encouraging widespread adoption of 

recycling practices. Creating recycling goals or requirements, and identifying staff to be 

responsible for all related logistics, will reduce waste and potentially reduce costs associated 

with waste removal. Hiring a contractor to handle recycling is one strategy that could be 

deployed to increase recycling rates without adding the burden of overseeing recycling logistics 

to an IMT staff member.

Next steps and additional considerations: Investigate appropriate IMT position to be 

responsible for recycling logistics. Consider adding this responsibility to the job requirements for 

the SusOps Coordinator. The SusOps Coordinator could also be tasked with procuring (or 

developing if not available) a map of available recycling and composting facilities throughout 

the United States. Alternatively, investigate the potential to hire a vendor to handle recycling. 

Staff from the IMT that supported the Whitewater Fire could be reached for information, 

feedback, and lessons learned from their experiences with hiring and using a vendor to handle 

recycling. Also, consider conducting a cost-benefit analysis of recycling versus no recycling, 

including the costs to transport both recyclables and waste, versus waste only.

5.4.4 Electrolyte Powder

Many crew members drink electrolyte (sports) drinks to help with hydration, as seen in Figure 

14. The plastic waste associated with these drinks is very large in quantity, and the issue is 

exacerbated at incidents where recycling is not available. Electrolyte powder can be added to 

water in a personal-use container or in a cubie, thus eliminating associated plastic-bottle waste.

Figure 14. Water and sport drink bottles for crews at the Cold Springs Fire base camp

Photo by Alicen Kandt, NREL

Next steps and additional considerations: Consider implementing a formal pilot at one or two 

incidents, and survey crews to get feedback regarding taste, effectiveness, and ease of use of 

electrolyte powder in lieu of bottled sports beverages. Consider conducting a cost-benefit 

analysis of bottled sports beverages versus electrolyte powder, including waste generation and 

waste or recycling removal costs.
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5.4.5 Rechargeable Batteries in Radios

The use of radios with rechargeable lithium-ion batteries has the potential to drastically reduce 

battery waste. This technology is already being deployed effectively in Alaska and should be 

considered for much broader deployment in incident operations. More information on the use of 

rechargeable batteries in handheld devices can be found in the USFS National Technology and 

Development Program publication “Hand-held Devices: Recharging Batteries in the Field.”22

Next steps and additional considerations: Building on findings and outcomes from the USFS 

National Technology and Development Program study,

23 implement a formal pilot at one or two 

incidents and survey crews to get feedback regarding functionality of rechargeable batteries 

(including time to charge, life of charge, and life of battery), ease of recharging batteries during 

an incident, and ease of packing out batteries for charging. In addition to or in lieu of a pilot, 

IMT staff who have supported Alaska incidents could be contacted for information, feedback, 

and lessons learned from their experiences using rechargeable batteries in radios. Consider 

conducting a cost-benefit analysis of rechargeable batteries versus standard, nonrechargeable 

batteries, including waste generation and waste or recycling removal costs.

 22Ted Etter and David J. Plummer, Hand-held Devices: Recharging Batteries in the Field (Missoula, MT: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Technology and Development Program, 2011), 

https://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/php/library_card.php?p_num=1166%202314. 23Ibid.
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6 Conclusion

The fire camp visits and assessments conducted in 2016 and 2017 by NREL and USFS staff were 

initial activities to understand fire camp operations and associated energy and water use and 

waste generation. An abundance of potential opportunities, next steps, and considerations have 

been identified, as well as some challenges and constraints.

In collaboration with USFS staff, NREL researchers hope to vet the ideas proposed in this 

document and gather additional ideas not yet considered from GFT members to include in future 

iterations of this document. NREL staff anticipate that USFS staff will select one or multiple 

ideas to pilot during the 2019 fire season. NREL will be available to conduct additional fire 

camp visits and support the piloting of selected best management suggestions, as needed. The 

intent is that after suggestions are further investigated, and in some instances piloted, a Best 

Management Practices guide for SusOps in fire camps can be developed, published, and broadly 

disseminated to the fire community. It is likely that this will take several more years to develop 

and finalize.

Fire camp operations are complex, multiagency efforts driven by a singular mission. Sustainable 

operations have an inherent role in fire camps and can help reduce the costs of fighting fires and 

thus free up additional funds to support the mission.
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Glossary

Term Definition

Base camp The location where primary logistics functions for an incident are coordinated and administered. 

There is only one base per incident. (Incident name or other designator will be added to the term 

“base.”) The Incident Command Post may be co-located with the base.

Cache Supply of fire tools and equipment assembled in planned quantities or standard units at a strategic 

point for exclusive use in fire suppression.

Cubie Portable container, made from cardboard and plastic, capable of holding 5 gallons of water. 

Typically available from supply cache.

Extended 

attack 

incident

A wildland fire that has not been contained or controlled by initial attack forces and for which 

more firefighting resources are arriving, en route, or being ordered by the initial attack incident 

commander.

Fire box Container specifically designated to store incident documents for the long term.

Fire camp Geographical site(s) within the general incident area separate from the incident base, equipped and 

staffed to provide sleeping, food, water, and sanitary services to incident personnel.

Fire line A linear fire barrier that is scraped or dug to mineral soil.

Fire season Period(s) of the year during which wildland fires are likely to occur, spread, and affect resource 

values sufficient to warrant organized fire management activities.

Greening Fire 

Team (GFT)

Established in 2009 under the Sustainable Operations organization, the GFT is tasked with 

reducing the ecological footprint at fire camps by developing best management practices and 

supporting the integration of them into the fire community.

Hotshot crew Intensively trained fire crew used primarily in handline construction (Type-1)

Incident 

Command 

Post (ICP)

Location where primary command functions are executed. The ICP may be co-located with the 

incident base or other incident facilities.

Incident 

Management 

Team (IMT)

The incident commander and appropriate general and command staff personnel assigned to an 

incident.

Net zero 

waste 24

A net zero waste facility reduces and reuses waste and converts it to something valuable (such as 

compost or energy) to a point where nothing is sent to the landfill.

Net zero 

water 25

A net zero water facility limits the consumption of freshwater resources and returns water back to 

the same watershed, not depleting the groundwater and surface water resources of that region in 

quantity or quality over the course of a year.

Reefer truck A refrigerated truck, located at base camp where firefighters to go to get lunches, ice, bottled 

water, etc.

Region 10 26 USFS region covering Alaska

Region 6 27 USFS region covering the Pacific Northwest (Oregon and Washington)

Spike camp A smaller, remote camp, usually near a fire line, lacking the necessities that the base camp would 

provide.

SusOps USFS Sustainable Operations organizational team focused on helping the USFS reduce the 

environmental footprint of FS operations and promoting being a leading example of a green 

organization. 

 24 https://www.fs.fed.us/sites/default/files/factsheets-netzero.pdf 25 https://www.fs.fed.us/sites/default/files/factsheets-netzero.pdf 26 https://www.fs.usda.gov/main/r10/home 27 https://www.fs.usda.gov/r6
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SusOps 

Coordinator

A technical specialist assigned to incidents to assist the IMT with implementing sustainable best 

management practices. 

Type 1 Fire 28 Refers to resource capability and complexity of an extended-attack incident. Personnel often 

exceed 1,000. Involves several types of aircraft and is often greater than 5,000 acres in size.

Type 2 Fire 29 Refers to resource capability and complexity of an extended-attack incident. Personnel often 

exceed 500. Involves several types of aircraft and is often greater than 1,000 acres in size.

Type 3 Fire 30 Refers to resource capability and complexity of an extended-attack incident. Typically smaller in 

the number of personnel, incident size, and duration.

 28

https://www.nifc.gov/nicc/logistics/references/Wildland%20Fire%20Incident%20Management%20Field%20Guide.

pdf, page 28 29

https://www.nifc.gov/nicc/logistics/references/Wildland%20Fire%20Incident%20Management%20Field%20Guide.

pdf, page 28 30

https://www.nifc.gov/nicc/logistics/references/Wildland%20Fire%20Incident%20Management%20Field%20Guide.

pdf, page 23
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Appendix A. Energy Audit Questionnaire

ENERGY AUDIT QUESTIONNAIRE

PURPOSE: This summer the Forest Service, in conjunction with National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory (NREL), will be conducting energy audits at selected incidents across the country. 

They will be monitoring the amount of electricity, fuel, and water being consumed, and analyze 

the waste stream that is generated. Because of your expertise in the management of logistics 

and/or facilities at incidents, you have been selected to provide input to NREL so that they may 

establish a baseline for their analysis. 

DIRECTIONS: Please take a few minutes and answer the questions to the best of your ability 

and provide any comments. Try to think of consumption/cost in terms of per day, if needed. It is 

OK to not have an exact answer.

Data needed in support of this effort (on a camp basis (camp by camp)):

I. Description of Incident:

Location (State/Forest or District)

Type (1,2,3):

Number of people: 

Dates and duration of incident: 

A. If off-grid:

– Generator specifications (make, model, capacity, fuel type): 

– Fuel use: 

– Fuel cost: 

– Dates used at fire camp (if different than operation of fire camp):

A. If on-grid: 

– kWh use: 

– kWh cost:

– Dates grid-tie was used at fire camp (if different than operation of fire camp):

B. Water use: 

C. Water cost: 

D. Waste generated: 

E. Recycling generated: 

II. General comments or observations:
35

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Appendix B. Greening Fire Tips
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Appendix C. Building Energy Modeling

The data collected during the fire camp audits were used to create eQUEST31 building energy 

models of the three different structure types most commonly used in fire camps, including the 

following:

• Tent: 580 ft2

• Mobile office trailer: 320 ft2

• Hard structure assumed to be a school: 16,875 ft2

Building energy modeling is essential to understanding what the current energy consumption is, 

where the highest consumers are (e.g., HVAC, lights, fans, pumping, etc.), and calculating 

potential energy savings associated with identified energy efficiency opportunities. This section 

outlines the building energy models that NREL created. Each of the energy models used 

Flagstaff, Arizona, hourly weather data, and the models were only simulated for the month of 

August (as opposed to the entire year), because forest fires are most common during the summer 

months. Flagstaff was the location of the Boundary Fire audited by the USFS/NREL team on 

June 19, 2017.

The NREL team modeled existing operating conditions of HVAC, lighting, and plug-load 

systems. A representative photo of the building type and a graphical representation of the 

building energy models developed in eQUEST are shown below for each building type. Note 

that the representative photo used for the hard structure is from a ski lodge from the Whitewater 

Fire near Bend, Oregon, and the energy model developed was assumed to be a hypothetical 

school, because this is the most common hard structure used in fire camps. The geometry of the 

buildings was simplified for modeling purposes while still allowing accurate simulations of 

energy transfer through all building surfaces. 

Figure 15. Representative tent photo and eQUEST model representation

 31To learn more about eQuest, visit http://www.doe2.com/equest/.
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Figure 16. Representative mobile office trailer photo and eQUEST model representation

Figure 17. Representative hard structure photo and eQUEST model representation

Estimates of the current energy-use breakdown for the various building types typically found at 

fire camps were generated using the eQUEST building energy model and are presented in the 

graphs below. As shown, the common loads include space cooling in blue, lighting in yellow, 

plug-load equipment (e.g., computers, printers, monitors) in green, and HVAC fans in pink.
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Figure 18. Tent baseline energy use estimates

Figure 19. Mobile office trailer baseline energy use estimates
39

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Figure 20. Hard structure school baseline energy use estimates

C.1 Modeling Results

NREL conducted an analysis using the energy models to compare the energy-use intensity (EUI) 

of each building type. This is the most straightforward way to compare the energy efficiency of 

various building types given that the building areas are different. The EUI is typically the annual 

energy use divided by the area of the building, which normalizes the energy use over various 

building sizes. Because the energy models were only simulated for the month of August, the 

EUIs present below are monthly and have the units of kWh/ft2/month. The lower the EUI, the 

lower the energy use of the building. As shown in the figure below, tents have the highest EUI,

followed by mobile office trailers, and then, hard structures. This indicates that when hard 

structures are available, they have the lowest EUI and provide the added benefits of eliminating

dust issues and having grid power, and should be prioritized for incident operations. 
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Figure 21. Energy use intensity comparison