A N

I N T R O D U C T I O N A N D U S E R ’ S G U I D E T O

A GUIDE FOR

THE PUBLIC

CONTAINING:

Background on

Wetlands and

Restoration

Information on

Project Planning,

Implementation, and

Monitoring

List of Resources,

Contacts, and Funding

Sources

A Guide for the Public Containing:

Background on wetlands and restoration

Information on project planning, implementation, and monitoring

Lists of resources, contacts, and funding sources

Developed by the Interagency Workgroup on Wetland Restoration:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, 

Army Corps of Engineers, Fish and Wildlife Service, and 

Natural Resources Conservation Service
II

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

T

his guide would not have been possible without the contributions of many individuals. The

members of the Interagency Workgroup on Wetland Restoration were critical to the document’s

development from start to finish: Susan-Marie Stedman, National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) Fisheries; John McShane, Lynne Trulio, Doreen Vetter, Mary Kentula, and

Matt Little, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); Jack Arnold, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

(FWS); Jeanne Christie, Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) [now with the Association

of State Wetland Managers]; and Colleen Charles, US Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) (now with

the US Geological Survey).

The Workgroup would like to acknowledge the members of the Expert/User Review Panel for their

practical knowledge and valuable input: Robert P. Brooks, Pennsylvania State University’s

Cooperative Wetlands Center; Andre F. Clewell, Society for Ecological Restoration (SER); Donald

Falk, SER; Susan Galatowitsch, University of Minnesota; Curtis Hopkins, Ducks Unlimited Inc.;

Mike Houck, Audubon Society; Michael Josselyn, Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies;

Jon Kusler, Association of State Wetland Managers; Leah Miller and Gwyn Rowland, Izaak Walton

League of America; Steve Moran, Nebraska Rainwater Basin Coordinator; Richard P. Novitski,

RP Novitzki and Associates; Duncan T. Patton, Arizona State University; John Rieger, California

Department of Transportation; Frederick T. Short, University of New Hampshire; William Streever,

BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc.; Jim Stutzman, FWS; Billy Teels, the Wetland Science Institute; Gordon

Thayer, NOAA Fisheries; Ronald Thom, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories; Pat Wiley, NRCS;

and Joy Zedler, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
1

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

LETTER TO THE READER 2

PART 1. INTRODUCTION 4

Why is Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement Necessary? 4

What are Wetlands? 4

The Importance of Wetlands 7

PART 2. WHAT IS RESTORATION, CREATION, AND ENHANCEMENT? 11

Definitions 11

Two Approaches to Wetland Projects 13

PART 3. TACKLING THE WETLAND PROJECT 14

Have Someone Do the Project for You 14

Do the Project Yourself 14

PART 4. PLANNING 17

Why Plan? 17

Know Your Landscape 18

Choosing the Project Site 21

Know Your Project Site 22

Setting Goals and Objectives 24

Using Reference Sites 25

Using Adaptive Management 29

Refine Your Goals and Objectives 30

Choose the Simple Approach 31

Preparing for Implementation 33

Publicize Your Project 34

PART 5. IMPLEMENTATION 35

Stages of Implementation 35

Working with Volunteers 38 

Publicize Your Project 39

PART 6. MONITORING 40

What is Monitoring? 40

What Should I Monitor? 40

How Should I Monitor? 40

How Often Should I Monitor? 42

How Long Should I Monitor? 43

What Should I Do with the Monitoring Information? 43

PART 7. LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT 45

PART 8. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 48

Words to the Wise 48

A Wetland Restoration/Creation/Enhancement Checklist 49

RESOURCE APPENDICES 51

R-I Bibliography of Reference Resources 51

R-II Federal Financial Assistance 57

R-III Organizations, Websites and Training Opportunities 69

TECHNICAL APPENDICES 73

T-I What Makes a Wetland Unique? 73

T-II Activities Used to Restore or Change Wetland Characteristics 78 

T-III Wetland Parameters and Monitoring Methods 82

T-IV Definitions of Categories of Wetlands Conservation Activities 85
2

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Letter to the Reader

ver the past 200 years, more than 50 percent of the wetlands in the coterminous U.S. have

been lost and many of the remaining wetlands are degraded. These losses and alterations

compromise the important benefits provided by wetlands including protecting water

quality, providing habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals, and reducing flood

damage. While preserving remaining wetland resources is critical to our nation’s environmental health,

restoring, creating, and enhancing wetlands also is essential to improving the quality of aquatic systems.

Because wetlands are so important to the earth’s ecosystems and human society, the National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Fish and Wildlife Service

(FWS), Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), and Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) worked

together to develop this document designed for people wishing to support or undertake wetland projects.

Many documents about wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement activities are technical or

scientific in nature and are designed for experts. This document, however, is not a scientific paper. It is

designed specifically for individuals, community groups, municipalities, or others who have little or no

experience in this field. We have written to a general audience for a number of reasons:

Most land in the U.S. is in private ownership; significant increases in wetland quality and

quantity can be achieved if private landowners restore, create, or enhance wetlands on

their property.

Many EPA, NOAA, FWS, and NRCS programs support public involvement in wetland projects

efforts; information on wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement for the general

public may enhance those programs.

Restoration is an important, growing environmental field. The general public can benefit

from access to basic information about restoration, creation, and enhancement, and may

become encouraged to become involved in and support wetland projects.

Developing a guide on wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement applicable across the nation is

difficult for a number of reasons. First, the terms “restoration,” “creation,” and “enhancement” encompass

a wide range of activities related to establishing or re-establishing wetlands. Second, climate, region,

wetland type and local conditions determine the type of wetland project that is most appropriate. Third,

the goals of people undertaking wetland projects vary widely and these goals influence what kind of

activities are best suited to a particular site. Given the broad scope of the subject matter, this document

is designed to achieve two goals:

Introduce non-technical readers to the basics of wetland projects including planning,

implementing, and monitoring, and

Direct interested persons to documents and resources specific to a particular region or

wetland type.

LETTER TO THE READER

O

Letter to the Reader
3

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Letter to the Reader

The document is organized around these two goals. The text gives information on wetlands, background

on the practice of restoration, creation, and enhancement, and information on the process involved in

undertaking a wetland project. The appendices provide documents, web sites, agencies, and other

resources for finding additional information and advice on restoration, creation, and enhancement

projects.

As you read this document, it will become clear that wetland projects vary considerably in size and

complexity. In some cases, one person’s efforts (fencing out cows, mowing instead of tilling, or

eliminating the use of pesticides) can substantially improve a degraded site. On the other hand, teamwork

and the help of specialists is usually required for establishing new wetlands or restoring sites with

extensive damage. In her book Restoring Streams in Cities, Ann Riley (1998) states that most restoration

projects require teams of people with expertise in areas such as ecology, hydrology, engineering, and

planning, among others.

Many landowners enroll in federal or state programs in which

the public agency puts together a team of specialists who help

with the wetland project. Other landowners or citizen groups

may not be eligible for these programs or simply may want to

organize the project themselves. Whether you are enrolled in

a wetland program or are organizing a wetland project

yourself, this guide will help you understand what types of

people and resources to consult in order to plan, implement,

and monitor your wetland project.

The agencies who have worked on this informational document

want it to be as useful as possible. Please give us your

thoughts and comments on the information provided here.

Write us or e-mail us care of:

Susan-Marie Stedman

NOAA Fisheries F/HC

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

susan.stedman@noaa.gov

A restored prairie

pothole wetland,

USFWS
Why Restore, Create, or Enhance Wetlands?

he public’s interest in the renewal of natural ecosystems has grown steadily during the

past few decades. While preservation of habitat is a key to environmental health, there

is a growing awareness that restoration, creation, and enhancement are essential to

recover ecosystems that have been degraded or destroyed. Wetland habitats are the

focus of many recovery efforts because over the past 200 years the area and health of wetlands

have declined significantly. Less than 46 percent of the 215 million acres of wetlands estimated

to exist in the contiguous U.S. when Europeans arrived remain. Prior to the mid-1970s, the

draining and destruction of wetlands were accepted practices. Many wetlands altered by humans

were drained to support agricultural uses, while others were filled for urban development, diked

for water impoundments or to diminish flooding, or dredged for marinas and ports. Indirect

impacts from pollutants, urban runoff, and invasion by non-native species continue to degrade and

destroy wetlands. 

Scientists and policy makers also recognize the value of wetland restoration. In 1992, scientists

completed a study for the National Research Council that called for the development of a national

wetlands restoration strategy. Since then, federal agencies have been working with partners to

achieve a net increase of 100,000 acres of wetlands per year by 2005. This goal will be reached

only through carefully planned and implemented restoration and creation projects that add

ecologically valuable wetlands to the landscape. States and the federal government are funding

and conducting large-scale ecosystem restorations, such as the South Florida/Everglades

Ecosystem Restoration, which are contributing to the national wetland goal. However, without the

support of citizens and local groups around the country the 100,000 acre per year goal cannot be

reached.

For many decades, citizens have been restoring, creating, and enhancing wetland habitats through

local non-profit organizations. In addition, citizens have become involved in wetland projects

through government programs. Despite these efforts, the nation is still losing more wetlands than

it gains each year. This document is designed to support and further encourage landowner and

community-based wetland projects. 

What are Wetlands?

Wetland Characteristics. Wetlands are

unique ecosystems that often occur at the edge

of aquatic (water, fresh to salty) or terrestrial

(upland) systems. They may be wet year-round,

wet during certain seasons, or wet during part of

the day. Corps regulations for implementing the

federal Clean Water Act define wetlands as:

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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 1: Introduction

INTRODUCTION

T

Part One 

Forested wetland, USFWS
5

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 1: Introduction

"those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and

duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a

prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands

generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas."

In addition to bogs and swamps, wetlands include tidal marshes, prairie potholes, seagrass beds,

forested wetlands, and seasonally ponded sites, such as vernal pools. Some of these wetland types,

such as seasonal wetlands that are dry much of the year, may not always appear to be wetlands.

The National Research Council’s 1995 report entitled “Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries”

lists several major classes of U.S. wetlands and some plants associated with each:

Freshwater Marsh—grasses, sedges, herbs;

Tidal Salt and Brackish Marsh—salt tolerant grasses, rushes;

Prairie Potholes—grasses, sedges, herbs;

Fens—sedges, grasses, shrubs;

Bogs—sphagnum moss, shrubs, trees;

Swamp Bottomland—cypress, gum, red maple; and

Mangrove Forest—black, red, white mangroves.

Although wetland types are diverse, they all possess several ecological characteristics that

distinguish them from upland or other aquatic ecosystems. Specifically, wetlands are

characterized by unique hydrologic, soil (substrate), and biotic conditions. The hydrological

regime, which is determined by the duration, flow, amount, and frequency of water on a site, is

typically the primary factor driving the other ecological elements of the system. A site has wetland

hydrology when it is wet enough to produce soils that can support hydrophytic vegetation (plants

that are adapted to waterlogged environments). Wetland substrates are called hydric soils,

meaning they are saturated with water for part or all of the year. Saturated soils become anaerobic

(without oxygen) as water stimulates the growth of micro-organisms, which use up the oxygen in

the spaces between soil particles. When soils become anaerobic, they change significantly in

structure and chemistry. These factors all make wetland soils stressful to terrestrial plants. 

As a result of waterlogged, anaerobic conditions, wetlands are

dominated by hydrophytic plants that are specifically adapted to

withstand these demanding conditions. The wide diversity of wetland

plant species includes emergent plants (those with leaves that grow

through the water column, such as cattails, sedges, and rushes),

submerged plants (pondweeds, eelgrass), and floating-leaved plants

(such as water lilies and duckweed). Wetland plants also include trees

(such as cypress, red maple, and swamp oak), shrubs (such as willows

and bayberry), moss, and many other vegetation types. 

Because they exist where land and water meet, wetlands are often used by animals from both wet

and dry environments. A number of invertebrate, fish, reptile, and amphibian species depend on

wetland water cycles to survive or complete their lifecyles. For example, nearly all amphibians and

at least 50 percent of migratory birds use wetlands regularly. Approximately 75 percent of all

commercial marine fish species depend on estuaries, which in turn depend on their wetlands to

maintain these productive ecosystems. See Technical Appendix T-I for more information on these

attributes of wetlands. 

Fen, Newport

Bay, USFWS
6

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 1: Introduction

Definitions of Wetland Systems from Cowardin, et al. (1979)

Marine:

Open ocean overlying the continental shelf and associated high-energy coast line. Examples of wetland types

within this system are subtidal and intertidal aquatic beds, reefs, and rocky shores.

Estuarine:

Deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that are usually semi-enclosed by land but have open,

partially obstructed, or sporadic access to the ocean and in which ocean water is at least occasionally diluted

by freshwater runoff from the land. Examples of estuarine classes include subtidal and intertidal emergent

wetlands, forested wetlands, and rock bottom.

Riverine:

Wetland and deepwater habitats contained within a channel with two exceptions: 1) wetlands dominated by

trees, shrubs, persistent emergent plants, emergent mosses, or lichens, and 2) habitat with water containing

ocean-derived salts in excess of 5 ppt (parts per thousand). Rivers and streams fall within this system and

subsystems include tidal, perennial, and intermittent watercourses.

Lacustrine:

Wetlands and deepwater habitats with all of the following characteristics: 1) situated in a topographic

depression or a dammed river channel, 2) less than 30 percent areal coverage by trees, shrubs, persistent

emergent vegetation, emergent mosses, or lichens, and 3) total area exceeds 8 hectares (20 acres). Lakes typify

lacustrine wetland systems.

Palustrine:

All nontidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent vegetation, emergent mosses or lichens,

and all such wetlands that occur in tidal areas where salinity due to ocean-derived salts is below 5 ppt. This

system also includes wetlands lacking such vegetation if they are less than 8 hectares, lack wave-action or

bedrock shoreline features, and are no deeper than 2 meters at low water in their deepest spot. Examples

include ponds, bogs, and prairie potholes.

Diagram of

Palustrine

wetland from

Cowardin et

al., 1979
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 1: Introduction

Wetland Classification. Scientists have classified wetlands into various types. A well-known

scheme, developed by Cowardin et al. (1979) for the FWS, has become the federally-accepted

standard (see box at left). Cowardin et al. state “Wetlands are defined by plants (hydrophytes), soils

(hydric soils), and frequent flooding. Ecologically related areas of deep water, traditionally not

considered wetlands, are included in the classification as deepwater habitats.” For the complete

national wetlands classification standard see http://wetlands.fws.gov/Pubs_Reports/pubs.html.

The Importance of Wetlands

The loss and degradation of wetlands in the U.S. has resulted in a decline in the important benefits

that wetlands provide to society. These benefits or functions usually link to goods and services

important to society. Some of the benefits wetlands provide include:

Healthy fisheries. A 1991 study by James R. Chambers determined that approximately 75

percent (by weight) of commercially harvested fish and shellfish are dependent on estuaries and

their wetlands. Nationally, commercial fisheries were valued at $3.2 billion in 2001. In California

alone, the seafood industry generated approximately $900 million in wholesale sales in 2001.

Virtually all freshwater species of fish are dependent to some degree on wetlands, often spawning

in marshes adjacent to lakes or in riparian forests during spring flooding. These species are sought

by recreational anglers, who spent $20.4 billion on trip related and durable goods in 2000 to pursue

their sport. 

Juvenile spot in a tidal wetland, USFWS
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 1: Introduction

Support for birds and other wildlife. Wetlands are probably

best known for their value to waterfowl. The freshwater wetlands in

the prairie pothole region of North America support an estimated

50 to 80 percent of the continental waterfowl production each year.

The loss of wetlands in this region, which is estimated to be more than

50 percent of the original wetland acreage occurring at the time of

settlement, has been considered a major factor in the decline in

nesting success of duck populations in North America. Wetlands also

support a wide diversity of other birds. Eighty percent of America’s

breeding bird population and more than 50 percent of the 800 species

of protected migratory birds rely on wetlands. In addition to birds,

other wildlife makes its home in wetlands. Reptiles and amphibians

are common wetland residents. Nearly all of the approximately 190

species of amphibians in North America depend on wetlands for

breeding. Other wildlife associated with wetlands includes muskrat,

beaver, mink, raccoon, marsh and swamp rabbits, numerous mice,

voles, shrews, lemmings, and other small mammals. Large mammals

also rely on wetlands. For example, moose often depend on wetlands

such as white cedar swamps and other forested wetlands for winter

shelter and food.

High biological productivity. Many wetlands are highly productive ecosystems in large

part because they are rich in organic matter and nutrients. These nutrients support organisms

within the marsh, but in many instances the nutrients are also transferred to nearby aquatic

systems (lakes, rivers, and estuaries), enhancing the productivity of these systems and supporting

human uses such as commercial fisheries.

Black fern

feeding chick,

Elinor Osborn

A blue crab in a saltmarsh,

NOAA
9

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 1: Introduction

Biodiversity protection. Wetlands support a great

diversity of species and many of the species are unique and rare.

Among this vast diversity are many plant species used for food,

drugs, and other commodities. There are most likely other

beneficial organisms yet to be discovered. Of the 1,082 U.S. plant

and animal species listed as threatened and endangered as of May

31, 1997, 499 species (46 percent) are wetland-associated. These

organisms are important to ecosystem function and, ultimately,

for the health of the environment upon which humans depend.

Erosion control. By

dissipating wave energy and

stabilizing shorelines, wetland

vegetation buffers the adjacent

upland from wave action and

intensive erosion. 

Flood damage reduction. Wetlands intercept runoff and store stormwater, thereby

changing rapid and high peak flows to slower and smaller discharges over longer periods of time.

Because it is usually the peak flows that cause flood damage, the effect of wetlands is to reduce

the danger of flooding. A classic study by the Corps in the Charles River Basin in Massachusetts

estimated that the loss of 3,400 hectares (approximately 8,100 acres) of forested wetlands would

increase downstream flood damage, costing millions of dollars annually. 

A whooping crane, John McShane

Salt marsh, Rehoboth Bay, Delaware, Susan-Marie Stedman 

A beaver, G. Kearns 
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 1: Introduction

Good water quality. Wetlands are known for their ability to capture sediments and filter

pollutants, which improves water quality. For example, spring floods often carry very turbid water

which, if not for the filtering that occurs in downstream wetlands, could deposit sediment that

would smother plants and fish eggs. In addition, wetlands constructed to treat municipal runoff

require only a fraction of the construction and operation budget of a conventional system.

Aesthetics and recreation. Many recreational activities take place in and around

wetlands. Hunting and fishing are popular activities associated with wetlands. Other recreational

activities in wetlands include hiking, nature observation and photography, canoeing, and other

boating. Many people simply enjoy the beauty and sounds of nature and spend their leisure time

near wetlands observing plant and animal life. Wetlands are also important places for outdoor

study and for gaining an appreciation of natural history and ecology. Properties bordering

wetlands often have higher property values than those that do not. Urban wetlands are typically

some of the last remaining pieces of “natural habitat” providing residents some sense of wildness

and open space.

A primary goal of wetland projects is to re-establish natural ecological processes. Some wetland

functions can be mimicked with engineered structures, but engineered methods typically do not

provide the maximum ecological benefit. For example, instead of re-establishing native vegetation

on wetland edges to control erosion, a cement wall could be used to armor the bank. A cement

wall could limit erosion for a time, but it does not provide the other ecosystem benefits of

wetlands, such as filtering pollutants and providing fish habitat. For a more detailed discussion of

wetland functions, see Technical Appendix T-I.

A canoe trip, USFWS
11

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 2: What Is Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement?

he terms “restoration”, “creation”, and “enhancement” have been defined a variety

of ways. The following commonly-accepted definitions for these terms, based on

Lewis (1990), will be used in this document:

Restoration - Returning a degraded wetland or former wetland to a pre-existing condition 

or as close to that condition as is possible.

Creation - Converting a non-wetland (either dry land or unvegetated water) to a wetland.

Enhancement - Increasing one or more of the functions performed by an existing wetland

beyond what currently or previously existed in the wetland. There is often an accompanying 

decrease in other functions.

A similar set of definitions was adopted by a number of federal agencies in 2000 to keep track of

federal wetland conservation projects. This set of definitions distinguishes between two types of

restoration - “rehabilitation” (restoration in an existing wetland) and “reestablishment”

(restoration in a former wetland). These definitions are in Appendix T-IV.

Restoration and enhancement projects may be difficult to distinguish from each other, because

both can encompass activities in existing degraded wetlands. According to the definitions above,

restoration entails returning a wetland to a former state (e.g., filling a ditch so that a drained

wetland becomes flooded again), while enhancement means changing the wetland so that one or

more functions are increased beyond their original state. An example would be diverting a small

stream into a wetland so that the area has deeper water. 

Enhancing a wetland in one way often degrades it in another way. For example, adding more

water to a wetland may create better habitat for fish, but it will decrease the ability of the wetland

to hold flood waters. This trade-off is particularly true for enhancement in relatively unaltered

wetlands. Some common examples of the trade-offs that can occur with wetland enhancement

include loss of fish habitat when salt marshes are impounded to provide waterfowl habitat,

decreased water storage when seasonal wetlands are flooded to increase aquatic habitat, and loss

of colonial waterbird habitat when mangroves are removed to provide shorebird habitat. When

wetland enhancement is undertaken, the project goals should include minimizing any decrease in

existing wetland functions.

Wetland creation - putting a wetland where it did not exist before - is usually a difficult

undertaking. The primary challenges in creation projects are bringing water to a site where it does

not naturally occur and establishing vegetation on soils that are not hydric. While creation is

possible, it typically requires significantly more planning and effort than restoration projects, and

the outcome of the effort is difficult to predict. Many attempts to convert uplands to wetlands

result in ecosystems that do not closely resemble natural wetlands and that provide limited

Part Two

WHAT IS RESTORATION, 

CREATION, AND ENHANCEMENT?

T
12

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 2: What Is Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement?

wetland functions (valuable upland habitat might be lost in the process as well). Creating

wetlands from open water is less difficult with respect to establishing a water source, but it often

requires placing dirt or other fill into existing aquatic habitats, which means destroying one kind

of aquatic habitat to create another. While this trade-off sometimes can be justified ecologically,

the engineering and regulatory challenges of these projects are so complicated that professional

expertise and oversight are almost always required. 

The outcome of a creation and enhancement project is often difficult to predict because these

projects essentially try to produce a new ecosystem. With restoration projects, outcomes are more

predictable, although there may still be uncertainty depending on the type of wetland, extent of

degradation, and many other factors. Under certain circumstances, creation or enhancement may

be the best option (see box below for an example) but for the most part, restoration is more likely

to have a positive outcome in terms of improving wetland resources. 

One additional term common in discussions about wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement

is mitigation. In a general sense, mitigation means reducing environmental damage by avoiding,

minimizing, and compensating for activities that damage or destroy protected resources. In a

wetland context, “mitigation” is often short for “compensatory mitigation” and means wetland

restoration, creation, enhancement, or some other action undertaken for the specific purpose of

compensating for the damage or destruction to another wetland area. When wetland restoration

or a related activity is undertaken as mitigation, there are usually a number of requirements that

must be met to ensure that the wetland activity provides adequate compensation for the

associated wetland loss. 

Discussing the regulatory requirements of compensatory mitigation is beyond the scope of this

document. More information on topics specific to compensatory mitigation can be obtained from

agencies involved in wetland regulation, especially the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and

the Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) (see Federal agency web sites in Resource Appendix R-III). 

Planning, monitoring, and long-term management, which are important for all wetland

restoration, creation, and enhancement activities, are especially important for wetland

mitigation projects.

Created Wetlands to Treat Urban Runoff

Created treatment wetlands can control the increased runoff and pollutants generated by development inwatersheds. In the Sligo Creek Watershed of Montgomery County Maryland, the Metropolitan Washington

Council of Governments (COG) worked with many groups and agencies to create wetlands to capture

stormwater runoff from local urban development. The created wetlands control the amount of water reaching

Sligo Creek and allow the sediment and other pollutants to settle out before the water reaches the Creek.

Because the created wetlands helped improve water quality and establish more natural flows to Sligo Creek,

COG and local groups were able to complete stream restoration in the Creek itself. They have restored the

natural channel shape, replanted native tree species, and reintroduced native fish and amphibians.
13

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 2: What Is Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement?

Two Approaches to Wetland Projects

The first method to consider for renewing wetland functions is to remove the factors causing

wetland degradation or loss and let nature do the work of re-establishing the wetland. This

method is often called the passive approach. For example, if wetland vegetation and water

quality are degraded primarily as a result of cattle grazing, then removing the cows may be the

only activity needed to restore the wetland system (however, animal grazing is not always bad for

wetlands). Passive methods allow natural regeneration of wetland plant communities, natural recolonization by animals, and re-establishment of wetland hydrology and soils. Passive approaches

are most appropriate when the degraded site still retains basic wetland characteristics and the

source of the degradation is an action that can be stopped. The success of passive methods usually

depends on an accessible source of water, the close proximity of wetland plants and animals, and

a mechanism for bringing species to the restoration site. The benefits of passive methods include

low cost and a high degree of certainty that the resulting wetland will be compatible with the

surrounding landscape. 

For many sites, passive methods are not enough to result in the necessary changes to the site, and

so an active approach is necessary. Active approaches involve physical intervention in which

humans directly control site processes to restore, create, or enhance wetland systems. The active

approach is most appropriate when a wetland is severely degraded or when goals cannot be

achieved in any other way, as is the case with wetland creation and most enhancements. Active

methods include re-contouring a site to the desired topography, changing the water flow with

water control structures (i.e., weirs or culverts), intensive planting and seeding, intensive

non-native species control, and bringing soils to the site to provide the proper substrate for native

species. The design, engineering, construction, and costs for such work can be significant. 

Grading a wetland restoration site, The Louis Berger Group 
14

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 3: Tackling the Wetland Project

Enroll In a Wetland Program

here are a number of federal wetland programs in which landowners can enroll

for help with a wetland project. Federal programs provide technical and financial

assistance to landowners, communities, and local governments interested in

restoring, creating, and enhancing native fish and wildlife habitats, including

wetlands, uplands, riparian, and in-stream habitats. Many people take this route.

Information on federal programs is given in Resource Appendix R-II. Several states, non-profit

organizations, and local governments have similar programs. Check with your state department

of natural resources (or similar agency) to determine whether local wetland programs exist.

Hire a Project Manager

If you don’t qualify for a federal or state program, another project approach is to hire someone

with experience in wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement to put together a plan and a

team for you. There are consulting firms and some non-profit groups around the country who have

the expertise in-house or can act as a wetland project contractor to find those with the right kind

of expertise. Check the Association of State Wetland Managers’ “Directory of Wetland

Professionals” at http://www.aswm.org or the Professional Certification section of the Society of

Wetland Scientists’ site at http://www.sws.org for lists of professional wetland scientists (and see

Resource Appendix R-III).

Be Your Own Project Manager

If you (as an individual or citizen’s group) choose to do the project yourself, you will want to

assemble the people necessary to complete your wetland work. The type of technical advice and

amount of physical help needed will depend on the project goals, the extent of degradation of the

site, and the type of wetland; in short, it will depend on the complexity of the project. An example

of a community-based project requiring moderate effort, the Decker Lake Wetlands Project, is on

the following page. 

For many projects, to accomplish the changes in hydrology, soils, and biota necessary to create or

restore a functioning system, you will need assistance from local experts on wetlands. Resource

Appendix R-I contains potential sources of information. You will most likely need funding for your

project, too. See Resource Appendix R-II for a start on where to look for funding. Some sources

of information, technical help, and funding include:

On-Line Resources. There are numerous on-line sources of wetland restoration, creation, and

enhancement experts and expertise. Resource Appendix R-III contains internet addresses for

directories of wetland and ecological professionals, training opportunities, documents, and other

sources of information. New information is constantly added to the world wide web, so internet

searches on wetland topics will result in additional on-line information.

TACKLING THE WETLAND

PROJECT

Part Three T
15

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 3: Tackling the Wetland Project

Agencies. Talk with public agencies to see if they have staff who can help you. You might begin

with your local office of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS),

NOAA Fisheries, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), or the Corps. In agricultural areas, check

with the NRCS for wetland expertise. Your state or local natural resource agencies, conservation

districts, or state departments of natural resources may have staff with experience in wetland

restoration, creation, and enhancement. Ask for help in developing your wetland plan, reviewing

it, or in providing specific information on the ecology of the wetland type you want to establish.

If the agencies you contact do not have enough time or expertise to help you, ask for other

contacts they would recommend. Some agencies have programs for funding wetland projects (see

Resource Appendix R-II). 

Local Experts. Solicit restoration expertise from the local community. Post or send out flyers

asking for volunteer experts in the community to help you. Many people with wetland expertise

are involved in wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement efforts in their off hours. Not

everyone who volunteers will have the expertise you need, so ask questions about what projects

they’ve worked on, and look at the projects to see if they are meeting their goals. 

Universities and Non-Profits. Check with the biology or environmental studies departments

of local colleges and universities. They may offer ecological restoration courses or programs that

could provide you with more background. The course instructors may be willing to help you with

your project by providing technical advice and/or student volunteers. Local non-profit

organizations may have restoration programs as well as access to advisors and volunteers. If local

non-profits don’t yet have a restoration program, you might convince them to team up with you

to plan and undertake your project. Consider such organizations as the Izaak Walton League of

America, the local Sierra Club or Audubon Society, native plant societies, and watershed protection

groups.

Several large non-profit groups are significant supporters of wetland projects. The National Fish

and Wildlife Foundation helps groups find money to finance environmental projects, Ducks

Unlimited provides funds and expertise to protect and restore wetland habitat, and The Nature

Conservancy is a valuable source of information on restoration, creation, and enhancement

projects. Find contact information for these and other groups in Resource Appendix R-III.

Decker Lake Wetlands Project–A Multi-Partner Effort

I

n Salt Lake County, Utah, non-native species were contributing to the degradation of Decker Lake.

Youth Force, part of the Salt Lake County Service and Conservation Corps, decided to do something to

help the Lake. The Salt Lake County Job Training Partnership Act and the EPA’s Five-Star Restoration

Program helped fund the effort. EPA’s Region 8 office provided funding for a local naturalist who gave

presentations on local ecology to the Youth Force crew and the community. With technical assistance

from a Fish and Wildlife Service staff member, the Youth Force team pruned non-native tamarisk and

removed Phragmites and other invasive plants from a 15 foot by 500 foot bank area next to Decker Lake.

In addition to improving lake-side conditions, the Youth Force educated visiting groups about nonnative species and attracted many other volunteers to help at the site.
16

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 3: Tackling the Wetland Project

Corporations. Many corporations sponsor wetland projects, sometimes in partnership with

government agencies and non-profits. For example, the National Corporate Wetlands Restoration

Partnership, sponsored by the National Association of Manufacturers, the Gillette Company, and

Coastal America, is a public-private partnership between the federal government, state

governments, and private corporations to restore wetlands and other aquatic habitats (see

http://www.coastalamerica.gov/text/cwrp.html).

The remainder of this document describes the four phases of a restoration, creation, or

enhancement project: planning, implementation, monitoring, and long-term management. If you

are having someone undertake the wetland project for you, you will not be using this information

yourself, but knowing the process will help you ask the right questions and understand the work.

For those doing their own projects, the following information gives a basic overview of the

restoration, creation, or enhancement process and provides some resources. This document cannot

provide the specific information on local wetland types, site conditions, watershed land uses, or

implementation that is necessary to accomplish a project. That information must be obtained from

sources with specific local knowledge. Some of these sources are listed in the Bibliography

(Resource Appendix R-I) and in Resource Appendices R-II and R-III. 

Egrets at Kingman Lake restoration site, Washington, D.C., Kathryn Conant
17

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 4: Planning

Why Plan?

ood planning is a critical, but often overlooked, stage of the restoration, creation,

and enhancement process. Inadequate planning is often cited as a major reason

projects fail to result in self-sustaining, naturally-functioning systems. Here are

just a few reasons thoughtful planning is so important:

Planning requires collecting information about the local area, potential restoration,

creation, or enhancement sites, historical trends, and other topics that will help you

understand the project you are initiating.

Planning will help you choose the best site to achieve your goals, or, if you already have a 

site in mind, planning will help you determine the most reasonable goals for your site.

Planning will help you establish clear and feasible objectives given the factors that may 

constrain the project. 

Planning identifies the materials, labor, and activities that will be needed to achieve the

project’s goals.

Objectives and target criteria

established during planning direct

the type of monitoring that will be

needed.

Clear goals and objectives will help

you explain to other people,

including potential funders,

partners, and the local community,

what you are trying to accomplish. 

Not every project will require all of the

planning steps described in this section, nor

will everything in each step be needed. The

extent of the planning required will depend

on the condition of the project site and

your goals. More complex projects require

more planning.

Part Four

PLANNING

G

A landscape and watershed consist of many

components, NOAA
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 4: Planning

Know Your Landscape

To plan a wetland project that will be compatible with adjacent ecosystems, you will need to

understand the local landscape. If you have already chosen a project site, understanding the

landscape will help you determine what is ecologically possible on your site. If you are looking for

a site, understanding the landscape will help you choose the site most likely to achieve your goals. 

All wetlands exist in a landscape that has an enormous influence on how the wetland develops

and functions. As you begin planning a wetland project, look at the landscape and identify the

major natural features and any patterns in the way these natural features occur. For example, is

the area fairly flat, hilly, or sloped? These factors affect surface and groundwater drainage and

ponding patterns. Are land uses in the surrounding landscape changing rapidly, as is often the case

near eroding coastlines or in urbanizing areas? Rapidly changing land forms or land uses may have

future negative effects on project sites. Do the wetlands occur throughout the landscape or are

they concentrated in one place? The distribution of wetlands is influenced by natural features of

watersheds, such as topography (elevation, aspect, and slope), climate, precipitation patterns, soil

types, groundwater, surface waters, floodplains, and vegetation communities. You will want to

collect current information on the hydrology, soils, and vegetation communities in the watershed.

Maps with local topography and existing aerial photography can provide essential information on

the primary sources of water in the watershed and the way wetlands are associated with them.

Rivers, streams, lakes, bays, and the ocean are obvious sources of water that may have wetlands

associated with them. Some wetlands are sustained by less obvious sources of water such as

groundwater (springs, seeps, high water table) or rainfall and surface runoff. Obtain topography,

drainage, and runoff information from the NRCS Field Office Technical Guides. Local water quality

control districts, water management districts, or flood control districts (states often use different

names) will have rainfall data and water level data for local water bodies. Look for data on the

groundwater levels. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and local flood control

districts have maps on the location and elevations of floodplains. These agencies can help you find

out the frequency and magnitude of the flood events that occur in your community. 

Soil maps for your watershed are available from the NRCS and are invaluable in locating where

wetland soils exist or used to exist. Soil maps also often contain information about the location

of springs, ponds, streams, and drainage ditches. Aerial photographs from the USGS or local aerial

photography firms may provide data on some watershed features including the presence of

wetlands and the amount and type of

vegetation cover in an area. Information on

local vegetation communities also may come

from recent biological reports completed for

planning agencies, Environmental Impact

Statements, or other documents available

from local planning agencies. Table 1 gives

sources of information on soils, floodplains,

and other watershed features. 

Soil Surveys
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 4: Planning

Aerial photos are a valuable and commonly used source of data on watershed features such as

topography, drainage and ponding patterns, land uses, vegetation communities and coverage, and

habitat fragmentation and loss. Aerial photos cannot provide all of the information needed to

evaluate watershed conditions; you will need to check with other sources to fully evaluate your

watershed. Consult local agencies and other sources of information to get a full picture of current

watershed conditions. 

In addition to information about present conditions, collect information on the history of the

watershed for valuable insight into the ecosystems that used to be there and what factors have

caused loss or degradation to wetlands in the area. There may be aerial photographs for the past

several decades or other records of past watershed conditions that could provide some of this

information. Reviewing aerial photos from several years probably will show that some features,

such as topography, have not changed much but others, such as land use, drainage ditches, roads

and other structures, and vegetation communities, have changed significantly. 

After considering natural conditions, identify human influences and constructed features. Roads,

ditches, dams, and large areas of impervious surfaces such as parking lots are all features of the

landscape that could affect existing wetlands and proposed wetland projects. Adjacent or regional

land uses may or may not be compatible with re-establishing a former wetland or with the goals

of a wetland creation or enhancement. Typical land uses include urbanized lands (residential,

industrial, commercial), agriculture, grazing, mining, forest harvesting, streams, lakes, wetlands,

non-harvested forest, open grassland, or park/recreational open space. 

Example of an aerial view photo
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

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Urban and industrial areas may be sources of excess sediment and pollutants, such as oil and heavy

metals, that wash off paved areas into streams and wetlands. Agriculture is often a source of

pesticides and fertilizers that may harm wetlands. These land uses may impair the health of newly

established wetlands. On the other hand, farms are capable of providing valuable adjacent upland

habitat if there are uncultivated buffer areas between the wetland and the fields. Consider not

only existing land uses, but also future changes to the landscape such as encroaching

development. Local zoning and planning documents from cities and counties can be examined to

identify proposed conservation areas and future development areas.

Two land use questions to address as you plan your project are:

How might changes in land uses, roads, ditches, and other human-constructed features

have affected water quality, surface water runoff, and drainage/ponding patterns?

How might these changes in land use, and the presence of roads, buildings, and other human 

constructed features affect your ability to restore, create, or enhance a wetland?

For more information on watershed features, check the data available on your watershed at the

EPA website, http://www.epa.gov/surf. For another information source, check the USGS 7.5

minute quadrangle maps for your area; these maps have many relevant landscape features. Also,

National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) maps from the FWS for your region will show the location of

some (but not all) of the wetlands. Visit their web site at http://www.nwi.fws.gov/.

Local Geological Survey (USGS) office, NASA (satellite photos such as those from the Thematic

Mapper); Farm Services Agency (FSA); local aerial photography companies; state natural resource

agencies.

County, city, or town zoning and planning offices; Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Flood Hazard Maps; District offices of the Corps; state natural resource agencies.

For map status and free desktop printing of areas and acreage status (42% of US available) use the

Wetland Interactive Mapper at http://wetlands.fws.gov. To purchase paper maps (90% of US available)

call the USGS Earth Science Information Center at 1-888-ASK-USGS or contact a state distribution

center from the list at http://wetlands.fws.gov/state_distribution_centers.htm.

Local office of NRCS; find the field office directory at: http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html.

Local USGS office or USGS’s “Map Finder” at:

http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/Webglis/glisbin/finder_main.pl?dataset_name=MAPS_LARGE

or call 1-800-ASK-USGS; local map or sporting goods stores.

 Table 1. Where to Find Information on Your Watershed/Landscape and Site

Information Resource Where to Find Information Resources

Aerial Photography

Flood elevations

and floodplains

National Wetlands

Inventory (NWI) Maps

Soil Survey Information

 Topographic Maps
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 4: Planning

Portion of a National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) map

Choosing the Project Site

Many people decide to do a wetland project with a site already in mind--one they own or have a

special interest in--but, for many people, site selection is part of the planning process. All

restoration, creation, and enhancement projects must be carefully placed in the watershed to meet

hydrologic, soil, and biotic requirements. Site selection is a process of setting goals and then

looking for sites with characteristics that will support achieving your goals. In the early stages of

planning, you may select one site and then switch to another as your goals are refined. The best

approach to site selection is to be flexible.

The first place to start when looking for a project site is a local, regional, or state list of priority

wetland restoration sites. By choosing a site from such as list, you will be taking advantage of

local wetland expertise. The contacts listed in Appendix R-III, as well as local and state wetland

contacts, can help you find out if there is a list of priority restoration sites for your area. Talking

to the people who created the list can help you pick the site that best fits your goals and resources.

When there are a number of potential project sites, you will need to evaluate them carefully.

Hammer (1992) lists these six factors to consider when choosing a restoration, creation, or

enhancement site:

hydrology;

topography and geology;

soils;

biotics; 

land ownership; and 

agency requirements.
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

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Information on the first four factors may be provided when you conduct the landscape/watershed

evaluation described in the previous section. When choosing a project site, specifically consider

how to achieve the necessary amount and duration of water for your wetland type. Look for

locations with the hydrology, topography, and geology typical of the type of wetland you want to

restore, create, or enhance. Look also for the presence of wetland soils (hydric soils) or drained

wetland soils, which indicate places that would be appropriate for wetlands. Choosing a site that

is close to an area with native wetland species or finding a site that already has native species

might aid natural colonization of the site. The best sites are likely to be near wetlands similar to

your target type. 

If you are buying a site, determining the ownership of a potential project site is a critical step. Find

out if there are easements, liens, covenants, water-rights issues, or other aspects of the parcel that

may restrict its use for your project. Agency requirements also determine the suitability of a site

for the intended project. Find out from local, state, and federal agencies what permits or

authorizations may be necessary to undertake your project. For more information on this topic,

see the section below, “Government and Agency Requirements.”

Successful site selection produces locations that will support your wetland project goals. You may

need to revise your project goals to reflect the constraints of current conditions if available sites

do not meet your original purposes.

Know Your Project Site

Before designing a project, you will want to learn about the past and current conditions of your

project site by conducting a site assessment. The goals of a site assessment are to:

understand former conditions on the site;

determine whether or not a wetland ever existed on the site;

determine what factors resulted in wetland degradation or loss, if a wetland did exist; and

determine the current condition of the site.

Before visiting the site and collecting samples or other information, make sure you have permission

from the owner or own the site yourself. 

The site assessment is a more focused version of the landscape evaluation and it may tap some of

the same information sources. Examine historical photos (including aerials), historical maps of the

area, talk to long-time residents, or hire a wetland professional to determine the locations and

types of former wetlands. Past conditions can provide valuable information on impacts to the site

that may affect project outcomes. For example, if the site history reveals that the area was once

a dumping ground for potentially toxic materials, you should contact experts on toxic substances

to determine how to proceed. A range of toxic materials can occur in polluted sites, and while

some pollutants may be serious problems, others may not. Expert advice is essential for

determining whether a polluted site is suitable for your project or whether you should seek another

project location. 

You will also need to characterize the current conditions of the restoration, creation or

enhancement site. Information on the site’s current hydrology, soils, and vegetation will help you

understand the site’s potential wetland restoration, creation, or enhancement. Visual inspection

of the site and the sources listed in Table 1 can provide qualitative (general) information on the

following characteristics:
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 4: Planning

topography;

evidence of erosion;

evidence of drainage and water movement patterns;

major vegetation types;

human structures and land use; and

adjacent land uses.

In addition to qualitative information, collecting site-specific, quantitative (numerical) data is

often necessary to determine the causes and cures for wetland loss or degradation. Quantitative

site measurements may be required to obtain permits or to design the project. Collecting

quantitative data typically requires the help of local experts familiar with conducting biological

assessments and wetland delineations, and who are knowledgeable about the local natural

communities. Several quantitative parameters that are often measured in the field include:

exact elevations and topography of features;

levels of soil nutrients, organic matter, and moisture;

water flow rates and timing;

location of wetland soils, wetland plants, and wetland hydrology; and

diversity and cover of native and invasive or non-native plant species.

You also should look for site conditions that could limit the project

goals. Modifications to the project design or maintenance plan

may be needed to address problems such as:

poor water quality or lack of sufficient water;

local pollutants; 

improper sun exposure for plantings;

lack of native species nearby;

invasive and non-native species on adjacent lands;

herbivores that could decimate new plants (Canada geese,

muskrats, etc.);

human uses (of the site and adjacent sites) that are

incompatible with wetland functions;

future land uses (in and around the site) that are

incompatible with wetland functions; and

presence of cultural resources.

As noted earlier, watershed conditions play a major role in achieving restoration, creation, or

enhancement goals. It is important to realize that it may be harder to reach your goals at an

isolated site than at a site located near or adjacent to comparable wetlands. Isolated habitats may

be more vulnerable to invasion by non-native species and are more difficult for native plants and

animals to colonize. However, some wetland types such as prairie potholes and vernal pools are

naturally separated from similar habitats. For these types of wetlands, it is appropriate to restore

or create them where they typically occur in the landscape and in numbers typical to the

watershed. 

Taking water

samples,

Mary Kentula
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 4: Planning

Setting Goals and Objectives

As you selected the project site and evaluated its condition, you did so with ideas of what you want

to achieve. These goals, which are general statements about the desired project results, reflect

your motivations for undertaking the project. Do you want to see your site support a diversity of

native plant and animal species? Are you interested in improving the water quality in local

streams? Do you hope to return the site to a condition you remember from years before?

Examples of goals for wetland restoration projects might include “repair damage to seagrass beds

from boat traffic” or “restore the native plant species and seasonal water cycle to a drained prairie

pothole.”

Goals provide an overall framework. The next step is to develop objectives that provide specific

targets focused on hydrology, soils, topography, and/or biological factors that must be changed on

the project site to restore, create, or enhance a wetland. For the goal “restore the natural

hydrology and vegetation of a degraded Atlantic coast salt marsh” the following objectives would

be appropriate:

Restore the natural tidal regime;

Ensure the mudflat is returned to a level appropriate for vegetation;

Re-establish dominance of the native plant community, e.g., Spartina and Salicornia species; and

Limit the presence of non-native or invasive plant species.

Progress is determined by measuring performance standards or target criteria that are linked to

each objective. Target criteria often include a numerical end-point and a time line to reach that

end-point. For example, the objective “Restore the natural tidal regime” might be linked to this

target criterion: “Remove enough of the dike so that within one year the tidal range upstream of

the dike is equal to the tidal range downstream of the dike.” Such numerical targets are

measurable and will allow you to know if the site is progressing toward your goals. You should set

target criteria that are: (1) measurable and objective; (2) collectable with simple methods that

generate comparable data each time they are used; and (3) produce repeatable results. Include

incremental targets that reflect how the site is likely to change as it moves from its initial

condition toward a more established community.

The box at right provides information on the target criteria set for the West Eugene Wetlands

Project in Oregon. This project also illustrates another important point: even if you have a very

specific goal, such as providing additional wetland habitat for a rare species, be sure that you focus

not just on that one wetland function, but on the wetland system as a whole. 

Here are other examples of target criteria:

If your goal is to restore a seasonal prairie pothole by re-establishing its natural hydrology,

then one target criterion might be to “establish water depths between 1 and 2 feet on 75

percent of the site for the period of the year necessary to support native vegetation.”

If your goal is to restore a seagrass bed, then one objective might be to re-establish native

eelgrass. A target criterion for that objective could be to “establish eelgrass plants covering

60 percent of the original area at the end of 3 years.”
25

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

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Using Reference Sites

How do wetland scientists determine what kind of hydrology, soil conditions, or specific organisms

to establish at a project site? A standard method for setting project targets is to base them on the

conditions of the wetland that existed on the site before it was altered. If hydrology, soil, and

biotic data on the pre-damaged condition of the wetland are complete enough, this information

can be used to set standards for partially or completely re-establishing the pre-alteration

conditions. Information collected from aerial photos and historical maps may show the former

extent of vegetation and/or hydrology. Data from sources such as local water districts, universities,

and citizens, may also provide the detail needed. 

However, in most cases, there is not enough detailed background information on plant species and

cover, animal species and abundance, soil conditions, or hydrology to set target criteria. Because

historical information is often missing, most wetland scientists depend on local “reference sites,”

which are sites that represent the least altered wetlands of the target type in the area. The

ecological conditions at reference sites are usually indicative of the natural communities that can

be supported under current conditions. Even if we wanted to restore a “pristine” ecosystem such

as the Europeans first saw when they arrived in North America, changes to land uses, water

sources, or other aspects of the surrounding landscape in the last 300 years usually make it

difficult or impossible to restore a wetland to its pre-alteration ecological condition (see box on

next page). Reference sites provide insight into what is possible now. 

West Eugene Wetlands Project Targets Rare Species Habitat

T

he Lane-Metro Youth Corps of Eugene, Oregon, undertook a 9-month wetland restoration project in

the West Eugene Greenway, which is managed by the Army Corps of Engineers. The goal of the

project was to complete work in endangered and threatened species habitat that would lead to natural

re-colonization by the native species. The specific measurable target criteria to be achieved in ninemonths included:

Enhance and restore 5 acres of

habitat to provide for the survival

and reproduction of Bradshaw’s

lomatium and Willamette Valley

daisies.

Collect seeds from 40 acres of

native wetlands.

Construct 11 accessory water

channels to enhance site

hydrology to support rare daisies.

Plant native species along 5,000

feet of levees to provide a diverse

native plant community. Lane-Metro Youth Corps working to restore a wetland
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 4: Planning

To collect reference site data, examine the least altered nearby wetlands that are in the same

landscape position as your site (e.g., along a river, in an isolated depression) and appear to be

similar to the pre-alteration condition of the degraded wetland, if known. You may have already

collected some information on similar wetlands when you were learning about the local

watershed. Try to identify several reference wetlands, because wetlands of the same type can vary

considerably in their characteristics. Looking at multiple wetlands of the type you hope to

establish can help you understand the natural range of variation of the wetland type. Be sure you

have the landowner’s permission to enter any property you examine.

Wetland scientists also look for data on different phases of recovery to understand how the system

will change over time. Some states are currently developing sets of data from reference wetlands.

Contact your state water quality agency or department of natural resources to find out if your

state is gathering information on reference wetlands. The wetlands division of your regional EPA

office may also have information on reference sites. Look also for other restoration, creation, or

enhancement projects and talk to the people responsible about how well the project is progressing

toward its goals. Understanding how other wetland projects are developing can help you

determine whether your goals are appropriate.

You or someone on your team should collect basic information on the hydrology, soils, and plant

community from the reference sites. General information can be collected from visual inspection

of the sites and from the sources you consulted for general information on your project site.

Reports and published literature may also be a source of general information on reference sites.

The Community Profiles series published by the FWS provide basic information on a range of

wetland types (see Resource Appendix R-I). Wetland scientists often collect specific, quantitative

measurements on the characteristics of the reference sites. These characteristics are the same as

those used to quantify conditions on the project site. 

Restoration in “The Meadowlands” of Northern New Jersey

Agood example of altered regional hydrology and its effect on wetland restoration exists in northernNew Jersey in “The Meadowlands.” In colonial times, this area was an Atlantic white cedar swamp,

but today the cedars are gone, replaced by fill, roads, buildings, some brackish marsh, and a tall reed

known as Phragmites. There are

numerous wetland restoration projects

in The Meadowlands, but none of them

have as their goal restoration of a white

cedar swamp. In addition to all the

other landscape changes, a dam on the

Hackensack River has made the area

too salty for cedars. Instead, wetland

restoration efforts are focusing on

establishing brackish water marsh,

which is much more appropriate given

the current regional ecological and

hydrological conditions.

“The Meadowlands” Restoration project, Susan-Marie Stedman
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

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When using data from reference sites to set target criteria, remember that ecological systems are

not static, so target criteria should include an acceptable range of natural variation. Also plan for

typical disturbance regimes, such as 2-year to 100-year flood conditions. While natural

disturbance regimes are essential to the long-term health of ecosystems, many projects have been

damaged or lost soon after completion because planners did not consider the flood potential or

natural disturbance regime of their site.

Below is a list of questions to ask your technical advisors and to keep in mind as you plan your

wetland project. Don’t be alarmed if the answer to many of these questions is “we don’t know

precisely and finding out would be too costly.” Many of these questions do not have simple

answers, but even partial answers can help you in your planning.

Ask about Hydrology:

Where can regional baseline hydrologic data, including typical and extreme flood events and

their potential, be found? 

What are the current hydrologic characteristics of the project site?

What are the pre-alteration hydrologic characteristics at the project site (if known)?

Where can reference sites for this wetland type be found in the watershed or nearby?

What parameters should be measured at the project and reference sites?

What has caused changes to the hydrologic characteristics of the site (what removed the

water or prevents it from entering your site)?

Are there potential effects on downstream areas of changing the hydrologic characteristics

of your site?

What is the relationship between the elevation of the land surface and primary water sources

(surface and ground water) for the wetland?

What changes might restore hydrology and the correct relationship between soil and water

levels?

What design elements should be included to restore or create the typical hydrological regime

and allow for extreme events?

What soft engineering or bioengineering methods are available to rectify the problems?

What factors might constrain restoring or creating full hydrological functioning?

What are likely reasons that the site might fail to reach its hydrological goals?

What potential remediation or correction measures are available?

Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

What parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored and for

how long?

Ask about Water Quality:

Are there indications of pollution? What are the likely sources?

What water quality tests are necessary?

What are the best methods for testing water quality (field kits, lab testing)?

What methods are available for fixing pollution problems?
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

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Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

What parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored and for how

long?

Ask about Wetland Soils and Substrates:

Where can baseline information about local soils be found?

What are the typical characteristics of substrates in the wetland of interest? Levels of

organic matter, nutrients, soil moisture? Particle sizes and soil structure?

Are there impervious soil layers contributing to the wetland dynamics?

What soil parameters should be sampled to characterize the site?

What are typical substrate elevations and microtopographic features of this wetland type

(including channels, islands, and mounding)?

If toxic soils are found, can they be removed or remediated?

What methods are available to bring the soil conditions and substrate elevation in line with

observations from relatively unaltered wetlands? 

What bioengineering or soft engineering implementation methods are available?

Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

What soil and elevation parameters should be monitored? How often should they be

monitored and for how long? 

Ask about Wetland Plant Communities:

What native plant species are found in pioneer and mature stages of the target wetland type?

What are the dominant and rare species?

On the potential project site, what plant species are present, including special status and

listed species, non-native invasives, and species native to the target wetland?

What natural disturbances are typical of this wetland type? 

What soil and hydrolgical conditions on the potential site would constrain establishing the

native community? How should these conditions be changed?

How should the site be prepared (adding soil amendments, removing non-natives, etc.) for

establishing native plants? 

What methods are available for eliminating the most damaging non-native species?

Is it likely that native species will colonize the site quickly? If not, what methods should be

used to establish native plants?

What are the threats to newly established plants (herbivores, flooding, intense sun, etc.) and

how should they be combated?

Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

What plant and plant community parameters should be monitored? How often should they

be monitored and for how long? 
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

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Ask about Wetland Animal Communities:

What native animal species are found in pioneer and mature stages of the target wetland

type? What are the dominant and rare species?

On the potential site, what animal species are present, including special status and listed

species, non-native invasives, and species native to the target wetland? 

What natural disturbances affect animal species in this wetland type? 

What soil, hydrological and plant community conditions on the potential site would

constrain establishing the native community? How should these conditions be changed?

What habitat conditions will attract the typical animal species and what specific habitat

features can be added to attract specific valuable and/or rare species?

What methods are available for eliminating the damaging non-native species?

Is it likely that native species will colonize the site quickly? If not, what can be done?

What are the threats to newly established animal populations on the site (predators,

flooding, pollution, human impacts, etc.) and how should they be managed?

Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

What parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored and for

how long?

Using Adaptive Management

Natural ecosystems are complex. Even if you start out with detailed information about a site, the

way it responds to changes can be unpredictable. Unforseen events may occur, such as a

unexpected plant species colonizing the site, or new information may become available, such as

the presence of a natural spring on the site. These unforseen elements may be beneficial or

detrimental to the project. In either case, you will need to make decisions about how to adapt

your project to account for the new element.

Adaptive management is a technique that involves incorporating new information into all stages

of a wetland project. Using adaptive management means you continuously evaluate your project

in light of new information, generating ideas and making decisions about how to further refine the

project. This process also can be thought of as a “feedback loop” in which information about what

is happening with your project currently helps you determine how best to go forward with the next

step of project. Monitoring (covered in detail in Part 6) provides the information, you and/or your

project team provide the decisions. Adaptive management is a repeated process that should be

applied through the lifetime of the project.

In the planning stage, adaptive management should be used to refine goals and objectives (see

next section) and make changes to implementation plans as necessary. In the implementation

stage, adaptive management should be used to evaluate the need for changes to any of the

original plans for specific components of the project, e.g., the number and types of plants, the

configuration of channels or grading, or the amount of new soil brought in. In the long-term

management stage, adaptive management should be used to keep the project developing toward

a positive outcome.
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

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Refine Your Goals and Objectives

The initial goals and objectives for any project may change based on the ecological data collected

about the landscape, current and past conditions on the potential restoration, creation, or

enhancement site, and the ecology of reference sites. In addition, non-ecological factors such as

agency requirements and socioeconomic factors (financial resources, available labor, concerns of

adjacent landowners) may alter what you can achieve. Therefore, you may need to revise your

goals after considering the following factors. 

Government and Agency Requirements. Discuss your project goals with agencies that

regulate and manage natural resources. If you have asked these agencies for information or help

with an earlier planning stage, you may already be aware of any regulatory requirements relevant

to your project. Do not assume that wetland restoration, creation, or enhancement projects are

exempt from needing a permit or other authorization--some are, but many are not. For complete

information you should call the appropriate federal, state, or local regulatory agencies. If you want

to work in a former or existing wetland, you may need a permit for your project. Begin with your

local district of the Corps. This agency regulates discharges of dredged or fill material to wetlands

under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Talk to the EPA about other applicable Clean Water

Act regulations. If your site is on agricultural land, you may need to talk to the NRCS. Your project

also may be subject to federal and state regulations that protect certain kinds of fish and wildlife.

States often have "Natural Heritage" or rare species programs that can tell you whether there are

plants and animals protected by state or federal regulations on or near your site. Alternatively, you

can contact state fish and wildlife agencies and/or local offices of the FWS and NMFS for

information. See Resource Appendix R-II for contact information. In addition, you should talk to

your city and county planning offices about local requirements or permits for your project. 

Be sure to avoid or minimize adverse environmental impacts that may result from wetland project

construction activities. For example, earth moving, which can be a part of more complex projects,

can cause erosion, increases in particulate matter in the air, and potential disturbance to locally

nesting bird species. Avoid impacts by following the requirements of regulating agencies and by

implementing the Best Management Practices (BMPs) recommended by the agencies and local

municipalities. BMPs to limit erosion may include using silt fences and hay bales to capture silt,

avoiding work during rainy periods, and/or capturing runoff in a holding pond. 

Socioeconomic Factors. For many projects, restoration, creation, or enhancement potential is

restricted by societal factors. Some of these include availability of funds, volunteer resources, local

landowner concerns, community support, and legal issues (such as water rights). The relevant

societal issues must be considered in your project design and implementation, with the hope that

someday in the future some of the limitations to a more complete restoration may be removed.

A major limiting factor is, of course, money. Some projects are relatively inexpensive, but others

can be major financial undertakings. Typically, the more engineering that is needed, the more

expensive your project will be. To help finance your project, begin with the list of funding sources

in Resource Appendix R-II. Other sources of money or information on funding are:

local cities or counties;

state programs, especially through parks and recreation, wildlife, or other resource

agencies; and 

local corporations, some of which have philanthropy programs for local projects. 
31

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 4: Planning

Other potential constraints on your project may arise from adjacent landowners and/or a lack of

community support. Local communities should be involved if your project may result in

controversial effects on public lands. Neighbors may feel that your project could damage their

property through potential flooding or other effects. Ask your local experts and agencies if there

appear to be any potential community or adjacent landowner issues. See the box below for

information on an enhancement project that factored in these types of challenges.

Choose the Simple Approach

You now have a better idea of what your site conditions are like and what you want to achieve.

What, then, will need to be done for your site to meet its restoration, creation, or enhancement

goals? This question links goals with implementation. Methods for implementing projects are very

diverse and should be developed with as much ecological, hydrological, and/or soils expertise as

you can muster. In general, the best approach is to use the simplest methods possible, because

the more complex a wetland project is, the greater the chance that something could go wrong.

Implementation should be achieved through the least destructive means and the most ecologically

sound solutions. Passive methods should be considered before more active interventions. 

Wetland Enhancement in Marshy Hope Creek, Maryland

On Maryland’s eastern shore, Marshy Hope Creek winds its way to the Chesapeake Bay. Along mostof its reaches it is a meandering stream with lush riparian vegetation. However, where it flows

through the town of Fredericksburg, the Creek was straightened and channelized with levees. Much of

the vegetation was removed and the historical floodplain had been filled. The levees containing the

modified portion of the Creek prevented flooding of adjacent properties and local landowners did not

want these embankments to be removed. The Maryland Department of Natural Resources (DNR) worked

with the town to develop a plan that enhanced the Creek’s ecological values while leaving the levees in

place. DNR removed fill from the floodplain and created channels through the levee that allowed river

water to flow to newly sculpted depressions on the floodplain. The channels also connected the river

with existing deep ponds adjacent to the floodplain that were remnants of former mining operations.

Soil excavated from the floodplain was used to fill part of the mining ponds to create shallow water

habitat for fish. Native

vegetation recolonized the

floodplain and fish quickly

began to use the channels

and ponds. Although total

restoration was not

possible, enhancing the

conditions adjacent to

Marshy Hope Creek

increased overall wetland

values of the area. 

Marshy Hope Creek, Maryland, Judy Long Bailey
32

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 4: Planning

If natural processes cannot be initiated with passive methods, then implementation should focus

on bioengineering or soft engineering solutions over traditional hard engineering solutions. Soft

or bioengineering methods are based on working with natural processes. This approach is an

alternative to the traditional, hard engineering solutions that often replace ecosystem functions

with human-designed structures. For example, hard engineering solutions to controlling erosion

along a stream bank such as rip rap or cementing the stream banks destroy natural wetland

processes. Soft engineering uses physical solutions that reinstate ecological processes and allow

the system to become as self-sustaining as possible. In addition to being ecologically preferable,

bioengineering methods are often more economical than traditional techniques. Some researchers

have found that hard engineering for erosion control can cost up to four times as much as soft

engineering methods. Examples of soft engineering solutions to stream bank erosion include: 

planting native vegetation, especially fast growing species such as willows;

shoring the banks with logs that will decompose in time; or

stabilizing the bank with “geotextile materials” that do not decompose, but are covered with

soil and allow root growth through the material.

Table 2 contains some of the most common and obvious examples of wetland damage and typical

corrective measures. The table also lists some cautions. If the damage is severe or has been present

for a long time, reversing the damage may not be as simple as it initially seemed. Some of these

corrective measures are also applicable to implementing enhancement or creation projects.

Technical Appendix T-II contains additional information on typical measures for restoring, creating,

or enhancing wetlands.

Table 2. Common Wetland Problems and Corrective Methods

Wetland Damage

Water Quality Impairment

Water Quality Impairment

Altered Hydrology (drained)

Altered Hydrology

(constrained)

Altered Hydrology (drained)

Excess sediment or nutrients

in runoff from adjacent area

Excess sediments from

eroding slopes

Ditching or tile drains

Road crossing with

undersized culvert

Former wetland diked off

from its water sources

Work to change local land use

 practices; install vegetated

buffers/swales/ constructed

treatment wetlands; install

sediment traps.

Stabilize slopes with vegetation/

biodegradable structures.

Fill or plug ditches or drains;

break tiles.

Replace with properly sized

culvert or with a bridge.

Remove/breach dikes or install

water control structures.

Sediment traps will need

periodic cleaning; an expert

may be needed to design

buffers and swales.

Many corrective methods exist;

look for most sustainable and

effective methods.

Organic soil may have

decomposed so that the

elevation of the site is lower

than it used to be.

Hydrologic expert needed to

correct this.

Substrate elevation may not be

correct for vegetation; add soil

or control water level with low

maintenance structures.

Reason for Damage Suggested Correction Considerations

HYDROLOGY
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

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Prepare for Implementation

After determining what site changes are necessary, prepare to implement the changes by

developing project designs such as field protocols or construction plans and specifications.

Protocols are written guidelines for field crews on how to undertake the work. They should be as

specific as possible, but in easy-to-understand language, especially if volunteers will be doing the

work. Even with protocols, volunteers will need direction in the field.

Most projects will need some level of documentation to direct implementation; more complex

projects will probably need construction plans. Good designs include at least these elements:

specifications/diagrams for all installation/construction features;

descriptions of site preparation needed;

descriptions of how to install features, such as plants, etc.;

plans to prevent construction impacts, such as erosion;

lists of plant species, numbers of each to be planted, and planting locations;

plans for site maintenance; and 

monitoring features, such as groundwater wells, staff gauges, or boardwalks. 

The design of restoration, creation, or enhancement projects can be highly technical and may

require hydrologists, ecologists, geotechnical experts, engineers, and/or landscape architects.

Construction documents are usually prepared by engineers for use by contractors in the field for

constructing a project. If construction documents are necessary, take the time to find engineering

Table 2. Common Wetland Problems and Corrective Methods - CONTINUED

Wetland Damage

Raised Elevation

Subsidence

Toxic Soils

BIOTA

Loss of Biodiversity

Loss of Native Plant Species

Soil dumping or fill

Soil removal; oxidation of

organics; groundwater

removal

By-product of on-site or offsite industrial process;

dumping; leaching and

concentration of natural

compounds.

Change in original habitat

Invasive and/or non-native

plants; change in hydrology;

change in land use

Remove material.

Add fill; allow natural

sedimentation.

Treatment systems or methods

appro- priate to the soil /

pollutants; remove material;

cover with appropriate soil.

Restore native plant and animal

community using natural

processes.

Remove invasive, non-native

plants (allow native plants to

re-colonize); try to reverse

changes in hydrology.

Fill may have compressed soil

to lower than initial elevation;

take steps to avoid erosion.

Fill must support target

wetland; test fill for toxic

compounds.

Work with experts to choose

treatment methods that

cause least amount of indirect

damage; choose a different site

to avoid serious toxin problems.

Allow species to colonize

naturally; import species as

appropriate.

Pick lowest impact removal

method; repeat removal as

non-natives re-invade; alter

conditions to discourage

non-native species.

Reason for Damage Suggested Correction Considerations

SOILS
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 4: Planning

and construction firms that are flexible and willing to undertake non-traditional designs and soft

engineering methods. Try to find firms that have undertaken wetland projects in the past. Talk to

their former clients to see what their work was like. Be sure your ecological advisors work with

the engineers to produce plans that accurately reflect the methods you want used for the project.

During construction, have the work inspected by your ecological experts to be sure that the plans

are being followed accurately. 

Publicize Your Project

After talking with your neighbors and the appropriate agencies, and after developing feasible goals

and objectives, consider writing a small article for a local newsletter or newspaper describing your

project and its benefits. Publicity at the end of the planning phase lets people know about the

work and may turn up local issues you had not considered. More often, publicity builds public

support and can help you find volunteers to help you install and monitor the project. 

Steps in the Planning Process

Collect past and present information on the local watershed.

Choose a project site.

Collect past and present information on the project site.

Collect data on reference sites.

Develop objectives and target criteria based on watershed,

project site, and reference site information. 

Talk to the agencies about appropriate regulations. Talk to

adjacent landowners and identify important social or

economic factors that could affect the project.

Refine goals and objectives.

Decide on methods for implementing changes designed to

rectify damage and meet planning goals and objectives. 

Prepare designs, such as protocols or construction

documents, to direct implementation.

Publicize your project.

Planting saltmarsh, Prall’s Island, 

New York, Robbin Bergfos
35

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 5: Implementation

Stages of Implementation

mplementation is the physical process of actually doing the restoration, creation,

or enhancement project according to the design developed in the planning stage.

This phase of the process is popular with volunteers and it is the most visible

phase to the public. Implementation may require a series of steps depending on

the wetland type, your project goals and objectives, and the extent of the degradation. Steps in

implementation typically include site preparation, plant preparation, installation, maintenance,

and continuous adaptive management.

Site Preparation. During site preparation, the project site is altered either to allow natural

processes to operate or to prepare it for additional human intervention. Common activities in this

stage are:

removing non-native species;

removing piles of soil, debris and trash;

amending soil with nutrients or other

enhancements;

removing polluted soils;

bringing in appropriate soils or substrates;

plugging or removing drains;

fencing out cattle or other herbivores;

breaching levees; and

mowing or burning the site to reinstate the

natural disturbance regime. 

Plant Preparation. For some restoration projects you can rely on natural re-vegetation to reestablish native wetland vegetation. Native seed banks are present in many wetlands. As long as

the soils have not been removed or filled over, native seeds are likely to germinate and grow when

suitable conditions have been established. There also may be local sources of plants that can drive

natural re-colonization. However, for many other projects, indigenous species must be brought to

the site. If native plants must be grown for the site, plant preparation should begin during or

before site preparation. Growing the number of plants needed may take 6 months to a year or

even longer. 

Always use native species and cuttings or seeds from local plants. Locally-adapted seeds and

plants will have a better chance of surviving the conditions at your site than plants or seeds of the

Removing trash and preventing new dumping is often

the first step of a wetland restoration plan

Part Five

IMPLEMENTATION

I
36

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 5: Implementation

same species that come from another area. When collecting native plant material, take care not

to damage the collection site and always check with the property owner (public or private) before

collecting plant material. Plant preparation includes: 

collecting seeds;

propagating plants;

collecting cuttings; and

collecting plugs (newly-grown whole plants with soil).

There are innumerable methods to collect and treat plants and seeds. Find out from local plant

experts what methods are best for the species you need. Native plant nurseries and native plant

societies may also have expertise with local native species and they may have seeds or plants

appropriate for the area. They may also be able to grow particular species that are not available

in nurseries.

Students growing saltmarsh plants in Tampa, Florida, NOAA
37

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 5: Implementation

Controlling Invasive Species--A Tale of Two Wetlands

I

nvasive species, especially plants, are a

tremendous problem in the U.S. They

degrade more habitat each year than urban

growth. The FWS estimates that 4,600 acres

of habitat are lost each day to invasive

species. Consequently, removing these

invaders is a major component of restoration

work. Control methods and success rates

vary widely, as the following examples show. 

In Fairfield, Connecticut, impounded salt

marshes that were once tidal were overrun

by Phragmites, a tall invasive wetland plant.

Phragmites had replaced the local plant

species and, being prone to burning in the

summer, the invader was threatening homes

near the marsh. Phragmites is intolerant of

high salt levels and the City was able to

quickly reduce the infestation by installing

tidal gates that allowed the return of salt

water to the marsh. This project was

expensive, but it was very effective.

At the Hayward Regional Shoreline along the San Francisco Bay, an insidious invader has taken root

in the tidal salt marsh. Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), a species from the east coast of the

U.S., is replacing its close relative, the native Spartina foliosa. Smooth cordgrass is a tough customer.

It is tolerant of a wider range

of conditions than its cousin

and it has resisted all efforts

to remove it. Biologists have

tried digging it up, spraying

it with herbicide, and

cooking it under black plastic

mats. None of these

measures have worked well

and the plant is spreading.

The search is on for a

biological control agent that

will specifically target and

destroy S. alterniflora. 

Phragmites, NOAA

Spartina alterniflora x Spartina foliosa hybrid in San Francisco Bay,

California, San Francisco Estuary Invasive Spartina Project
38

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 5: Implementation

Installation/Construction. A wide array of activities can occur during this phase including large

earth-moving activities, such as grading. Minimize the temporary but destructive impacts that

may occur at this stage. Limit the movement of heavy vehicles to the smallest footprint possible

and use the methods that create the least disturbance possible. Implement appropriate Best

Management Practices. Installation/construction may include:

constructing water control structures;

installing bank/edge stabilization structures;

building habitat islands;

grading existing soils;

placing and grading new soil;

planting plugs, seeds or newly-grown plants;

installing plant protections (tubes, screens, etc.);

placing irrigation systems; 

constructing and placing habitat structures.

As-Built Documentation. After the project is installed, conduct an “as-built” assessment, which

is a detailed description of the site conditions immediately after the installation is completed. If

you and your volunteers installed the site, document whether everything was installed as expected.

If the work was done by a contractor, the as-built assessment should be conducted by a site

inspector who is not employed by the contractor to document whether the project plans and

specifications were followed by the contractor. This also ensures that the site complies with any

regulatory (e.g., permit) requirements. 

It is likely that there will be some deviations from the site plan caused by human error or

unanticipated characteristics of the site (e.g., a hidden spring in a corner of the site). Use adaptive

management: any deviations should be documented and discussed with your technical team to

determine whether they need to be corrected to ensure that the project meets its goals. If the

installed project deviates in important ways from the plans, have the construction firm correct the

problem--but only if the benefits of corrections outweigh the impacts from further disturbance. If

corrections are needed, they should be made as soon as possible. The as-built assessment also

provides a “baseline,” or starting point, for measuring change during subsequent monitoring.

Maintenance. Implementation does not end with installation. Maintaining the site in good

ecological condition is a critical part of implementing a project. Many factors can conspire to

undo the hard work you put into the previous stages. Maintenance may require:

controlling non-native and invasive species; 

controlling herbivores;

repairing structures;

maintaining monitoring and other equipment;

replacing plants;

mowing, burning, and/or other activity reinstating or mimicking the natural disturbance

regime; 

reducing or preventing human intrusion; and

controlling local pollutants.

Working with Volunteers

The implementation and monitoring phases are great times to involve volunteers and there are

many good reasons to include volunteers in your project. Volunteers can help reduce the costs of

implementation, provide community support, and bring a social dimension to the work. Working

Installing water control

structures at a farm

field restoration site,

USFWS
39

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 5: Implementation

with volunteers may be one of the most rewarding aspects of your project. Among the volunteers,

you may find experts, new friends, and dedicated helpers. Some helpers may be inspired to

undertake a similar project of their own and you may find people who will want to continue

stewarding your site by helping you with maintenance and monitoring. 

Look for volunteers through non-profit environmental groups, schools, public community service

groups, and private service groups organized by local corporations. If you decide to use volunteers,

you will enjoy the vitality that they bring to the project. You will also

have to carefully train and monitor those enthusiastic helpers. The more

complex the task the more training volunteers will need. Generally, it is

best to have volunteers do one or two simple but time-consuming tasks.

Keep things interesting by rotating people among different tasks.

Carefully observe volunteers to be sure they are following protocols.

Encourage and reward your helpers’ hard work.

Discuss your project with the volunteer coordinator for a local nonprofit

group to determine any issues that may arise from using volunteers.

While volunteers can be great additions to a project, weigh the benefits

against these potential complications: 

the time and effort required for training;

the potential need for compensation;

oversight of volunteers’ work; and

potential liability issues.

Publicize Your Project

The implementation phase is a great time to get the local media (especially newspapers and

television) interested in your project. People working outside on wetland projects provide great

photo opportunities and these action shots are often popular with the local press. Find out if any

of your volunteers have media contacts or call local TV and newspaper science, outdoors, and

current events reporters. If reporters do cover your project, be sure that they come to the site on

a day when there is some interesting people-oriented activity occuring. For example, plan media

events on days when volunteers are planting seedlings. You or another supervisor must be on site

and the volunteers must be informed that the press will be there. Prepare what you or your

spokesperson will say to the reporters. Tell them a little about the history of the project and always

highlight the positive environmental and community benefits of the project. 

Monitoring a

seagrass bed

in Florida,

NOAA

Summary of Implementation Stages

Prepare the site by making changes that allow natural processes to occur.

Prepare plants by collecting materials from local stocks.

Install the plants, structures, and major features of the project.

Use adaptive management to adjust plans as needed

Involve volunteers to keep costs down and develop community support.

Publicize your project.
What is Monitoring?

onitoring is systematic data collection that provides information on changes

that can indicate problems and/or progress towards target criteria or

performance standards which, when met, indicate that established ecological

goals have been reached. Thus, monitoring provides data on whether a site is

developing in a way that will achieve the project goals. 

A common misconception about wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement is that once a

project is implemented, nature will just do the rest. In reality, many wetland projects need

mid-course corrective actions such as re-planting seedlings that were washed away by a storm,

digging more channels to get water to remote parts of the site, or plugging ditches missed during

the initial site survey. Monitoring provides the information for this adaptive management.

Monitoring can also give information on routine maintenance that may be necessary to keep the

site functioning well. Broken sprinkler heads, non-native weed growth, and holes in fences are

just a few of the routine maintenance items that are easily observed during monitoring.

What Should I Monitor?

Monitoring consists of measuring a number of wetland attributes or parameters at regular

intervals to record the changes in the wetland. The parameters to be measured at any particular

site are based on the project objectives and target criteria. Monitoring efforts should be directly

linked to the target criteria. An array of parameters is usually measured to assess hydrology, soils,

and biological conditions on the site. After the project is completed, initial site conditions

(including as-built conditions) should be documented to provide baseline information against

which changes to the site can be evaluated. Typical parameters measured to evaluate wetland

functions are listed in Technical Appendix T-III. 

How Should I Monitor?

Two basic approaches to monitoring are to collect qualitative (observational and general)

information and to collect quantitative (numerical and specific) data. Qualitative methods can be

used in conjunction with quantitative measures. Qualitative methods typically do not provide

enough information to accurately determine how close the site conditions are to target criteria,

but they do give a general view of whether change is occurring. Some typical methods for

gathering qualitative information include:

aerial photographs to show general hydrology, evidence of channelization and general

substrate levels, and the extent of the site covered by plants;

ground-level photographs for identification of some plant species, general level of plant

growth, general substrate levels, and general water levels; and

40

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 6: Monitoring

MONITORING

M

Part Six
41

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 6: Monitoring

general observations such as water clarity and

scum, presence of trash, evidence of human use,

bird species present, vegetation condition

(stressed, blooming, healthy), presence of invasive

plants, evidence or erosion, and the integrity of

structures.

Quantitative methods are used to provide detailed

information about how the wetland is developing with

respect to target criteria and can also provide

information important to long-term wetland research.

A wide range of methods exist for collecting numerical

data. With your technical advisors, develop the most

appropriate methods for your project. Talk to local

wetland experts and get their advice on what is needed

for adequate monitoring and whether there are special

circumstances (e.g., rocky soils that make it difficult to

install wells) or opportunities (such as a nearby school

looking for a science project) that will affect how you

monitor your wetland. Examples of some quantitative

methods include:

measuring water level changes with an automatic

water level gauge;

collecting and testing water samples periodically

to evaluate changes in water quality;

collecting a representative sample of sediment cores to test for organic matter and other soil

characteristics;

surveying surface elevations at permanent transects once a year;

recording plant species and cover by species along randomly established transects across the

site; and

setting traps for small mammals at randomized locations to determine species diversity and

abundance.

Quantitative monitoring is often carried out by experts in hydrology, soils, or biota. However,

volunteers may be used to collect numerical data if they are supervised by an advisor who knows

the protocols for data collection. With the right training and supervision, wetland quality can be

monitored by citizens to provide useful information. Quantitative methods can be expensive and

time consuming, but they do provide the most accurate information on site changes. See Technical

Appendix T-III for common quantitative methods and qualitative methods used to monitor

ecological attributes. On the next page is an example of a monitoring plan that measures a range

of parameters. 

Even if you have very limited resources, monitor by observing your site and documenting the

changes using basic qualitative methods. Take photographs of the site and write down general

observations such as how wet the site is and for how long, what the soils are like, what kinds of

plants are growing on the site, and what kinds of animals you see or hear. Repeat the photographs

(from the same vantage point) and the written descriptions as often as you can. The result will be

a chronicle of your wetland project for yourself, future owners of the land, and others interested

in your site.

A volunteer

monitoring for

invertebrates,

NOAA
42

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 6: Monitoring

How Often Should I Monitor?

How often and when a particular attribute should be monitored depends on many factors

including the attribute’s natural variability, the rate of change of the site, and the goals of the

project. Most characteristics should be monitored at least annually. Vegetation should be

monitored during the growing season (monitoring in both the early and late growing season will

make it easier to identify all plants), and animals should be monitored during breeding, nesting,

and/or migration seasons. Depending on your project goals, you might want to monitor hydrology

during both high and low water periods. Once the site has stabilized, some characteristics such as

wetland size may be monitored less frequently, unless there are signs of change.

Consistent monitoring is very important, and you may need help doing it. Ideally, every stakeholder

involved in the wetland project should help with the monitoring so they can see the benefits of

their work and continue to support it. Monitoring is a good way to get the local community

involved in your wetland project, and it’s a great way to give people hands-on experience in

learning how local ecosystems function. Talk to schools, clubs, and other community groups to see

if they would be interested in helping you with the monitoring. Have training sessions for

volunteer monitors. Many states have active volunteer monitoring groups or programs that

monitor lakes and streams. Many are also beginning wetland monitoring projects. Check out the

EPA website for information on volunteer monitoring at

http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands/wqual.html#Volunteer.

Monitoring in Mountain View, California

T

he Stevens Creek Tidal Marsh restoration project in the City of Mountain View is a compensatory

mitigation site with the primary goal of providing vegetated tidal marsh habitat for rare species such

as the salt marsh harvest mouse. The site began as a deep pit with ponded water. Project objectives

included restoring tidal influence, building up the mudflat, and establishing native tidal salt marsh

vegetation. Target criteria included: 

Re-establish tidal influence.

Within 3 years, develop mudflat on 50 percent of the site at an elevation available to vegetation.

Restore native salt marsh vegetation on 50 percent of the site within 5 years.

To assess progress, the City monitored the following parameters once a year:

Amount of tidal exchange: measurements were taken by an automatic tide gauge and

interpreted by a hydrologist.

Elevation of the mudflat: measurements were taken by a qualified surveyor.

Amount of vegetation on the mudflat: measurements were taken on the ground using

transects and taken from aerial photographs, then interpreted by an ecologist.

Extent of channel formation: measurements were taken from aerial photographs and

interpreted by a hydrologist. 

These quantitative methods were supplemented by qualitative observations on tidal flow, non-native

species invasion, bird use, and human use.
43

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 6: Monitoring

How Long Should I Monitor? 

Like most ecosystems, wetlands change over many years. This is especially true for restored,

created, or enhanced wetlands that may take decades to reach a condition close to that of a

mature, naturally-occurring wetland. Research on wetlands created from dredged material in the

Gulf of Mexico suggests that these wetlands are still changing and maturing 20 years after they

were created. Consider monitoring to be a long-term activity, not just something you do for the

first year or two. At a minimum, a site should be monitored until it meets all performance

standards, which can take from several years to decades. Future managers of wetlands will thank

you for monitoring for as long as you can. Even after it reaches maturity, your wetland will be a

dynamic system that varies over time.

What Should I Do With the Monitoring Information?

Monitoring information can be used in several ways. First, monitoring data are essential for

determining whether your project goals are being met. Organize, summarize, and graph

(if possible) the monitoring data at least annually to show how the wetland site is developing.

Monitoring information should be compared to the target standards to assess whether the site is

developing as planned. If it is not, determine whether remedial measures should be taken or

whether the original goals should be reevaluated (see section above on adaptive management). 

Second, monitoring data can be used to determine whether the target criteria were good measures

of the project goals you hoped to achieve. If you were to do this again, would you do anything

differently? Third, use long-term monitoring to assist in maintaining structures and managing the

site to keep it functioning well. See Part 7 for more on long-term management. 

Finally, use your monitoring data to inform others. Provide copies of your findings to your local

planning and wetland regulatory authority, and the local offices of the Corps, EPA, FWS, NMFS, or

NRCS. Present your work to local groups and ecological societies or at professional meetings of

the Society of Wetland Scientists, Society for Ecological Restoration, and others (see Appendices

for contact information). Write an article for the local newspaper or a journal, such as Ecological

Restoration, which publishes reports from landowners, community groups, and restoration

practitioners. All too often, years of irreplaceable data are lost if they are not shared, archived, or

published. Don’t assume no one is interested in your project; every wetland restoration, creation,

and enhancement project that is monitored provides wetland scientists with additional knowledge

about how wetlands function and develop over time. With this additional information, scientists,

policy-makers, and landowners can make better decisions about wetland conservation, including

the use of wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement.
44

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 6: Monitoring

Steps in the Monitoring Process

Select the parameters you will monitor based on the target criteria established in the planning

stage. Include observations to assist in site maintenance.

Develop procedures for qualitative and quantitative monitoring methods.

Collect data at intervals that will provide information necessary to monitor the progress of the

site relative to the target criteria.

If monitoring shows that site conditions are not meeting target criteria, use an adaptive

process to identify corrective measures.

Continue long-term monitoring and maintenance to ensure that the site continues to provide

the maximum ecological value.

Provide your monitoring data and results to local groups and publish in newsletters.

Monitoring fish use of a salt marsh, NOAA
45

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 7: Long-Term Management

n addition to providing data on whether a site is developing in a way that will

achieve the project goals, monitoring is essential for the long-term management

of wetland projects. A wetland is an ecosystem that evolves and changes in

response to the surrounding environment. It is not realistic to expect that when

the implementation stage is complete, the work is done. Long-term management is often required

to keep the site functioning as it was designed to function and to keep human impacts to a

minimum. For example, long-term management is often needed to: 

maintain existing structures such as berms, water control structures, or levees;

maintain a specific desirable plant community by burning, mowing, or otherwise 

managing the vegetation on a periodic basis;

address problems such as invasive species or excessive sediment deposition; or

address unexpected events such as structural failure.

Adaptive Management, introduced in Part 4 as an iterative process of monitoring conditions and

then taking appropriate action, should be an integral part of long-term management and

stewardship of your site. If your site is not developing as anticipated, there are two basic options:

make changes to the site to try to get it “back on track,” or allow the site to continue developing

in the new direction. Which option to pick should be decided in consultation with your local

experts.

Consider whether current progress at the site might achieve your

overall goals in a different way than you originally intended. Also

consider whether any deviation from the expected development is

within the ecological norms for that wetland type and the region.

Since natural systems are variable, sites may diverge from objectives,

but this difference may not require significant changes to the site. For

example, your site may be developing a native wetland community, but

one that is different from what was expected. If this new community

is within the norms of the wetland type and the watershed, it may not

be necessary to change it. 

If, however, your site is growing a crop of invasive or non-native species or otherwise falling far

short of the objectives, then corrective action is probably necessary. Significant corrections to a

site are called remedial measures. Work with local experts or your technical team to determine the

source of the problems and the appropriate remedial actions. The remedial measures taken will

depend on why the site is diverging from its expected path and what the costs and impacts of the

changes would be. Always consider whether changing conditions on the site will be worth the cost

of the disturbance that would be incurred. Typical problems with wetland sites include the

Part Seven

LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT

I

Looking for

Polliwogs, 

Michael Corey
46

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 7: Long-Term Management

hydrology not being properly established, incorrect water-to-substrate elevations, nutrient

problems with the soil, and rapid invasions by non-native species. Some typical remedial measures

include: 

regrading the site to the correct substrate elevations;

contouring channels or installing structures to redirect water flow;

adding to or reworking water control structures or altering structure operations;

removing invasive plants, planting native species, or installing a cover crop; and

replanting.

Long-term management often is needed to compensate for changes in the surrounding landscape.

In many cases, the surrounding land use, hydrology, or other features of the local watershed will

change over time, possibly affecting your wetland site. Ideally, those changes were at least

partially anticipated, and your site was designed to withstand or adapt to their effects. If

something unanticipated happens, such as a substantial reduction of the water source or

conversion of what had been an adjacent park area to development, you will need to reevaluate

how your wetland site fits into the changed landscape, and whether the goals or management of

the site will need to change. The overall goal of long-term management is a wetland that provides

a maximum amount of wetland function and value within the context of the landscape and that

requires a minimum amount of intervention by humans.

Finally, a plan for long-term management is needed to identify who will be responsible for the site

and what kinds of activities should or should not occur there. The responsible party may be you,

the landowner, or some combination of people. One approach to long-term management of a

wetland site is to establish a stewardship program. Local schools, scout groups, or citizen

conservation groups may be willing to “adopt” the site and provide the kind of observation, care

taking, and even remedial action that would be difficult for one person to provide. The kinds of

activities you need to think about are recreational (do you want to allow hikers, campers, birdAdaptive Management in Commencement Bay, Washington

T

he Middle Waterway Shore Restoration project is an attempt to re-establish some of the salt marsh

that once covered thousands of acres of Commencement Bay. In a cooperative effort, federal, state,

tribal, and private interests planned and implemented a restoration project that included re-grading fill

material to intertidal elevations and planting salt marsh plants salvaged from the same area, as well as

some provided by a nursery. One year after project implementation, monitoring showed that few of the

plants had survived. A review of the planting procedures pointed to a number of possible causes for the

low plant survival, including soil that was too sandy, nursery plants that weren’t from the local area,

and planting during the summer. The goal of the project (increasing the acreage of fringing marsh)

could not be achieved without better plant growth, so a decision was made to replace some of the soil

and re-plant. The top eighteen inches of the sandy fill was replaced with topsoil. A local nursery

collected seeds from plants in the local area and grew them into seedlings, which were planted on the

site in the spring. A year after this new planting, salt grass, seaside plantain, seaside arrowgrass, and

other species were thriving. Monitoring will continue in case other remedial actions are needed, but for

now the project seems to be on the right track.
47

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 7: Long-Term Management

watchers, or hunters on the property?) and possibly commercial (does the landowner want to allow

grazing or tree-cutting on the property?). The answers to these questions should be included in a

long-term management plan.

Long-term legal protection of a wetland site is also an important consideration. Do you want to

take steps to ensure the wetland will be permanently protected? One way might be to place a

deed restriction on the site or establish a conservation easement. These arrangements should

effectively restrict harmful activities that might otherwise jeopardize achieving the goals of the

wetland project. When needed, the acquisition and protection of water rights should be secured.

One of the best ways to secure long-term protection is to donate or sell the land to a local, state,

or federal natural resource agency or a non-profit organization such as a land trust. 

Wetlands provide important habitat for

many fish, such as this sunfish, NOAA
48

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 8: Putting It All Together

Words to the Wise

hile restoration, creation, or enhancement projects can be complex and

time-consuming, most people find their projects are very rewarding. As

you undertake a project, keep in mind the following points:

Be patient. Restoration, creation, and enhancement are processes, not a products. There

is no cookbook for this creative activity.

Talk to many people. There are many elements and phases to wetland projects and many

different views on how to accomplish them. Talk to a range of people to collect as much

information as possible and to get different perspectives on the process.

Be flexible. Your ideas and goals may be clear at the outset, but for many reasons it may

be best to change some, add some, and throw others out. As you go through the process, be

flexible but keep your goals in mind.

Take your time. Try not to rush the process. Get the technical help you need. Get the

permits required. Develop a community support base, if necessary. 

Plan well. A well-considered and thorough plan will guide you through the project as

directly as possible. A good plan will result in reasonable, measurable, and ecologically

beneficial goals. A good plan will help you get money and help. 

Let reference sites be your guide. Reference sites are valuable models of what

ecological conditions are achievable.

Use low impact implementation methods. Use soft engineering and passive methods

whenever possible. Consider the impact the project construction will have and minimize

those impacts. 

Monitor and manage your site. The work does not end after the plants and structures

are installed. All wetland projects must include monitoring to see if goals are being met and

to direct the long-term management of the site.

Do your best to recover as much of the wetland system as possible. Restore, create,

or enhance your site to the greatest ecological functioning possible so that they are selfsustaining for the long-term. 

PUTTING IT ALL

TOGETHER

W

Part Eight 
49

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Part 8: Putting It All Together

A Wetland Restoration/Creation/Enhancement Checklist

Use this checklist to help guide you through the wetland project process.

Talk to local wetland experts. Visit local wetland restoration, creation, or enhancement sites as well

as relatively unaltered wetlands.

Ask about getting help through programs that support wetland projects with cost-sharing and

technical assistance.

Get to know the local landscape and watershed characteristics.

Give first priority to restoring degraded wetlands.

Set goals. Pick a site that is most appropriate for achieving your goals.

Plan your entire project before you start. Include monitoring and long-term management in your

planning.

Clarify your goals with specific objectives. Quantify the objectives with measurable target criteria.

Use adaptive management to refine your goals and implementation plan.

Identify techniques for achieving your objectives.

Develop written protocols or construction documents.

Discuss your plans with local regulators, wetland experts, and adjacent landowners.

Implement your plans. Have someone who understands the project on the site whenever work is

occurring.

Perform an “as-built” assessment after site work is completed.

Involve local volunteer organizations in the project’s implementation, monitoring, and long-term

management.

Publicize your project.

Develop a written monitoring plan.

Monitor your project’s development. Apply

the results to adaptive management of your

site.

Send monitoring results to local wetland

experts and discuss the results with them.

Develop a long-term management and

stewardship plan.

Investigate protecting the site in

perpetuity.

An Alaska seagrass bed, prime habitat

for wetland-dependent fish, USFWS
50

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Part 8: Putting It All Together

Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge, Jay O’Brien
51

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Resource Appendix

Appendix R-I: Bibliography

Below is a list of sources of information on wetlands and wetland restoration. It is not a comprehensive

list, just a way to introduce you to the wealth of information available.

ONLINE BIBLIOGRAPHIC RESOURCES:

http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wetresto/wetresto.htm - A searchable wetland

restoration bibliography with over 3,000 entries, developed by the Northern Prairie Science Center

and the Midcontinent Ecological Science Center.

http://www.wetlands.agro.nl/wetl_publications.html - A 1996 compilation of over 1,000 wetland

restoration and creation literature references is available for download from Wetlands

International and the Association of State Wetland Managers.

http://www.nwrc.gov/library_catalog.html - National Wetlands Research Center's Library (11,000

documents)

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Knutsen, G.A., and Euliss, N.H., Jr., 2001, Wetland restoration in the Prairie Pothole region of

North America: a literature review: U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Biological

Science Report USGS/BRD/BSR--2001-0006, 54 p. 

Pinit, T.P. and R.J. Bellmer. 2000. Habitat Restoration - Monitoring Toward Success: a Selective Annotated

Bibliography. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-42. Silver Spring, MD. 21 pp.

Erwin, K.L. 1996. A Bibliography of Wetland Creation and Restoration Literature. The Association of

State Wetland Managers, Berne, New York.

GENERAL INFORMATION ON WETLANDS AND RESTORATION

Azous, A. and R. Horner, eds. 2000. Wetlands and Urbanization. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.

Berger, J.J. 1987. Restoring the Earth. Anchor Press, New York, New York.

Berger, J.J. 1990. Environmental Restoration. Island Press, Covelo, California.

Boylan, K.D. and D.R. MacLean. 1997. Linking Species Loss with Wetlands Loss. National Wetlands

Newsletter. Vol. 19, No. 6, Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C.

Resource Appendix

RESOURCE APPENDICES
52

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Resource Appendix

Bradshaw, A.D. 1987. The reclamation of derelict land and the ecology of ecosystems. Pages 53-74 in W. R.

Jordan, M. E. Gilpin, and J. D. Aber, editors. Restoration Ecology. Cambridge University Press, New York,

New York.

Brinson, M.M. 1993. A Hydrogeomorphic Classification for Wetlands. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA. Technical Report WRP-DE-4.

Cairns, J., ed. 1995. Rehabilitating Damaged Ecosystems. Lewis Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater

Habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., USA. FWS/OBS-79/31.

Hammer, D.A. 1992. Creating Freshwater Wetlands. Lewis Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Jordan, W.R. III, M.E. Gilpin, and J.D. Aber, eds. 1987. Restoration Ecology: Ecological Restoration as a

Technique for Basic Research. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York.

Kentula, M.E. 1996. Wetland restoration and creation, p. 87-92. In The National Water Summary on Wetland

Resources. J.D. Fretwell, J.S. Williams, and P.J. Redman, compilers. Water-Supply Paper 2425. U.S. Geological

Survey, Washington, D.C.

Kusler, J.A. and M.E. Kentula. 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press,

Washington, D.C.

MacDonald, K. B. and F. Weinmann, eds. 1997. Wetland and Riparian Restoration: Taking a Broader View

(contributed papers and selected abstracts). Society for Ecological Restoration International Conference,

September 14-16, 1995. Seattle, Washington.

Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 1999. Wetlands (third edition). John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, New

York.

National Research Council. 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and Public Policy.

National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

National Research Council. 1995. Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries. National Research Council.

National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Niering, W.A. 1984. Wetlands. The Audubon Society Nature Guides. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York. 

Schneller-McDonald, K., Ischinger, L.S., and G.T. Auble. 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration: Description

and Summary of the Literature. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 90(3).

Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends. U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service, National Wetlands Inventory, Washington, DC.

Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1985. Wetlands of New Jersey. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory,

Newton Corner, Massachusetts. 

Thayer, G.W., ed. 1992. Restoring the Nation's Marine Environment. Maryland Sea Grant College, College Park,

Maryland.

USEPA, 2000. Principles for the Ecological Restoration of Aquatic Resources. EPA841-F-00-003. Office of

Water (4501F), United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 4pp.
53

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Resource Appendix

APPROACHES TO RESTORING WETLANDS

Admiral, A.N., J.M. Morris, T.C. Brooks, J.W. Olson, M.V. Miller. 1997. Illinois Wetland Restoration and Creation

Guide. Illinois Natural History Survey, Special Publication 19. Champaign, Illinois.

Allen, J.A., Keeland, B.D., Clewell, A., H. Kennedy. 1999. Guide to Bottomland Hardwood Restoration. U.S.

Geological Survey. 

Denbow, T.J., D.Klements, D.W. Rothman, E.W. Garbisch, C.C. Bartoldus, M.L. Kraus, D.R. Maclean, and G.A.

Thunhorst. 1996. Guidelines for Development of Wetland Replacement Areas. National Cooperative Highway

Research Program Report 379. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Ducks Unlimited, Arkansas Game & Fish Commission, and the Cooperative Extension Service of Mississippi

State University. 1993. Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook for the Lower Mississippi River Valley. 

Eckles, S.D., Barnard, T., Dawson, F., Goodger, T., Kimidy, K., Lynn, A., Perry, J., Reisinger, K., Rhodes, C., and R.

Zepp. 1994. Mitigation Technical Guidance for Chesapeake Bay Wetlands. U.S. EPA Region 3, Annapolis,

Maryland.

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 1998. Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles,

Processes, and Practices. http://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/newgra.html. 

Garbisch, E.W. The Do’s and Don’ts of Wetland Planning. Environmental Concern’s Wetland Journal, volume

10, number 4.

Gersib, R. 1997. Restoring Wetlands at a River Basin Scale: A Guide for Washington's Puget Sound.

Washington State Department of Ecology Publication no. 97-99, Seattle, Washington.

Galatowitsch, S.M. and A.G. van der Valk. 1994. Restoring Prairie Wetlands: An Ecological Approach. Iowa

State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Hollevoet, R., Gregoire, T., and B. Vose. 1992. Income alternatives for farmers and ranchers. North Dakota

State University Extension Service, Fargo, North Dakota.

Marble, A.D. 1990. A Guide to Wetland Functional Design. Federal Highway Administration Report Number

FHWA-IP-90-010, McLean, Virginia.

Matthews, G.A. 1994. Technology and Success in Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement of Spartina

alterniflora Marshes in the United States, Vols 1 and 2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Middleton, B. 1999. Wetland Restoration, Flood Pulsing, and Disturbance Dynamics. John Wiley and Sons,

Inc. New York, New York.

Stevens, M. and R. Vanbianchi. 1993. Restoring Wetlands in Washington: A guidebook for

wetland restoration, planning and implementation. Washington State Department of Ecology, Publication

#93-17.

The Nature Conservancy, 1998. Restoration Procedures for Public Lands in Florida. Prepared for the Florida

Department of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee, Florida.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1998. Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Conservation Practice

Standards - “Wetland Restoration”, “Wetland Enhancement”, “Wetland Creation”, and “Wetland Wildlife

Habitat Management” http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/nhcp_2.html.
54

An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Resource Appendix

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Restoring and Creating Wetlands: a Planning Guide for the

Central States Region: Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska. U.S. EPA Region 7, Kansas City, Kansas.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. A Citizen’s Guide to Wetland Restoration: Approaches to

Restoring Vegetation Communities and Wildlife Habitat Structure in Freshwater Wetland Systems. U.S. EPA

Region 10, Seattle, Washington.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Mitigation Technical Guidance for Chesapeake Bay Wetlands.

U.S. EPA Region 3, Chesapeake Bay Restoration Program, Living Resources Subcommittee, Annapolis,

Maryland.

Wenzel, T.A. 1992. Minnesota Wetland Restoration Guide. Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources,

Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Yozzo, D., J. Titre, and J. Sexton, 1996. Planning and Evaluating Restoration of Aquatic Habitats from an

Ecological Perspective. IWR Report 96-EL-4. Institute for Water Resources, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Zedler, J.B. 2000. Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Zedler, J.B. 1996. Tidal Wetland Restoration: A Scientific Perspective and Southern California Focus.

California Sea Grant Program, La Jolla, California.

APPROACHES TO MANAGING AND MONITORING WETLANDS

Adamus, P.R. 1996. Bioindicators for Assessing Ecological Integrity of Prairie Wetlands. EPA/600/R-96/082.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory,

Western Ecological Division, Corvallis, Oregon. 

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and R.E. Witmer. 1976. A Land Use and Land Cover Classification

System for Use with Remote Sensor Data. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Professional

Paper 964. Washington D.C.

Bartoldus, C.C. 1999. A Comprehensive Review of Wetland Assessment Procedures: A Guide for Wetland

Practitioners. Environmental Concern Inc., St. Michaels, Maryland.

Breaux, A. and F. Serefiddin. 2001. Validity of performance criteria and a tentative model for regulatory use

in compensatory wetland mitigation permitting. Env. Man. 24(3):327-336.

Brinson, M.M. 1993. A Hydrogeomorphic Classification for Wetlands. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA. Technical Report WRP-DE-4.

Firehock, K., Graff, L., Middleton, J.V., Starinchak, K.D., and C. Williams. 1998. Handbook for Wetlands

Conservation and Sustainability. Izaak Walton League of America, Gaithersburg, Maryland.

Horner, R.R. and K.J. Raedeke. 1989. Guide for Wetland Mitigation Projects Monitoring. Report Number WARD 195.1. Washington State Department of Transportation, Seattle, WA.

Karr, J.R. and E.W. Chu. 1998. Restoring Life in Running Waters: Better Biological Monitoring.

Kentula, M.E., Brooks, R.P., Gwin, S.E., Holland, C.C., Sherman, A.D., and J.C. Sifneos. 1992. An Approach to

Improving Decision Making in Wetland Restoration and Creation. Island Press, Washington, DC.
55

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Resource Appendix

Kusler, J.A, D.E. Willard, and H.C. Hull, Jr., eds. 1995. Wetlands and Watershed Management: Science

Applications and Public Policy, A Collection of Papers from a National Symposium and Several Workshops.

Association of State Wetland Managers, Berne, New York.

Leibowitz, S.G., B. Abbruzzese, P.R. Adamus, L.E. Hughes, J.T. Irish. 1992. A Synoptic Approach to Cumulative

Impact Assessment. EPA/600/R-92/167. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research

Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.

Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory. 1990. A manual for assessing restored and natural coastal wetlands

with examples from southern California. Report Number T-CSGCP-021. California Sea Grant Program, La

Jolla, California.

Pennsylvania State University College of Agricultural Sciences Cooperative Extension. 1996. Managing Your

Restored Wetland. 

Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Proter, S.K. Gross and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid Bioassessment protocols for

Use in Streams and Rivers: Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

Washington DC. Report Number EPA/444/4-89-001.

Rubey, J. and S. O’Connor. 1996. Exploring Wetland Stewardship - a reference guide for assisting Washington

landowners. Washington State Department of Ecology publication #96-120.

Smith, R.D., A Ammann, C. Bartoldus, and M.M. Brinson. 1995. An Approach for Assessing Wetland Functions

Using Hydrogeomorphic Classification, Reference Wetlands, and Functional Indicators. Technical Report

WRP-DE-9. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1996. Planning Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring Programs. IWR

Report 96-R-23, http://www.wrsc.usace.army.mil/iwr/currpt.htm.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries

Service. 1998. Goal Setting and Success Criteria for Coastal Habitat Restoration (compilation of papers and

abstracts). Office of Habitat Conservation, Silver Spring Maryland.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Wetland Bioassessment Fact Sheets. EPA 843-F-98-001. U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Habitat Evaluation Procedures. ESM 102. U.S. Department of the Interior,

Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Ecological Services, Washington D.C.

Yozzo, D., J. Titre, and J. Sexton. 1996. Planning and Evaluating Restoration of Aquatic Habitats from an

Ecological Perspective. IWR Report 96-EL-4. Institute for Water Resources, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

The Volunteer Monitor (A monthly newsletter on monitoring topics, including wetlands. 

Free subscriptions available by contacting 

River Network

The Volunteer Monitor Newsletter

520 SW 6th Ave, Suite 1130

Portland, OR 97204-1535

volmon@rivernetwork.org 

also available at http://www.epa.gov/volunteer/info.html)
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DOCUMENTS ON RESTORING, ENHANCING, AND CREATING 

SPECIFIC WETLAND TYPES

Streams

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 1998. Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles,

Processes, and Practices. http://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/newgra.html. 

Petts, G. and P. Calow, eds. 1996. River Restoration. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Riley, Ann. 1998. Restoring Streams in Cities. Island Press, Covelo, California.

Tidal Marshes

Eckles, S.D., Barnard, T., Dawson, F., Goodger, T., Kimidy, K., Lynn, A., Perry, J., Reisinger, K., Rhodes, C., and R.

Zepp. 1994. Mitigation Technical guidance for Chesapeake Bay Wetlands. U.S. EPA Region 3, Annapolis,

Maryland.

Josselyn, M. and J. Buchholz. 1984. Marsh Restoration in San Francisco Bay. A Guide to Design and Planning.

Technical Report #3, Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University, San Francisco,

California.

Matthews, G.A. 1994. Technology and success in restoration, creation, and enhancement of Spartina

alterniflora marshes in the United States, vols 1 and 2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory. 1990. A Manual for Assessing Restored and Natural Coastal Wetlands

with Examples from Southern California. Report Number T-CSGCP-021. California Sea Grant Program, La

Jolla, California.

Zedler, J.B. 2000. Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Zedler, J.B. 1996. Tidal Wetland Restoration: A Scientific Perspective and Southern California Focus.

California Sea Grant Program, La Jolla, California.

Seagrass Beds

Fonseca M.S., J.W. Kenworthy, and G.W. Thayer. 1999. Guidelines for the Conservation and Restoration of

Seagrasses in the U.S. and Adjacent Waters. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series No. 12.

Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, MD. 222 pp.

Inland Wetlands

Admiraal, A.N., J.M. Morris, T.C. Brooks, J.W. Olson, M.V. Miller. 1997. Illinois Wetland Restoration and Creation

Guide. Illinois Natural History Survey - Special Publication 19. Champaign, Illinois.

Allen, J.A., Keeland, B.D., Clewell, A., Kennedy, H. 1999. Guide to Bottomland Hardwood Restoration. U.S.

Geological Survey. 

Galatowitsch, S.M. and A.G. van der Valk. 1994. Restoring Prairie Wetlands: An Ecological Approach. Iowa

State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Stevens, M. and R. Vanbianchi. 1993. Restoring wetlands in Washington: a guidebook for wetland

restoration, planning, and implementation. Washington State Department of Ecology publication #93-17.

Wenzel, T.A. 1992. Minnesota Wetland Restoration Guide. Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources,

Minneapolis, Minnesota.
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Resource Appendix

Wetlands and Wildlife Habitat

Payne, N. 1992. Techniques for Wildlife Habitat Management of Wetlands. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, New

York.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. A Citizen’s Guide to Wetland Restoration: Approaches to

Restoring Vegetation Communities and Wildlife Habitat Structure in Freshwater Wetland Systems. U.S. EPA

Region 10, Seattle, Washington.

Constructed Treatment Wetlands

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2000. Guiding principles for constructed treatment wetlands:

providing water quality and wildlife habitats. EPA 843-B-00-003, U.S.EPA, Washington D.C.

Appendix R-II: Federal Financial Assistance

Below is a list of some federal sources of money that may be applicable to wetland restoration projects. Be

sure to contact your state environmental agencies for other sources of funding and check with some of the

organizations listed in Appendix III for possible nonprofit assistance.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Clean Water Act State Revolving Fund

Purpose: Provides grant funds to states to help them establish state revolving fund (SRF) programs.

States, in turn, offer loans and other types of financial assistance from their SRFs to

municipalities, individuals, and others for high-priority water quality activities. 

Projects: While traditionally used to build or improve wastewater treatment plants, loans are also used

increasingly for: agricultural, rural, and urban runoff control; wetland and estuary

improvement projects; wet weather flow control (including stormwater and sewer overflows);

and alternative treatment technologies.

Assistance: States offer loan rates that are two to four percent below market rates. Some states offer

even lower interest rates to small, economically disadvantaged communities.

Eligibility: Municipalities, individuals, communities, citizen groups, and non-profit organizations, though

each state ultimately determines eligibility.

Address: U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management (4204M), 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW,

Washington, DC 20460

Phone: (202) 564-0752

Facsimile: (202) 501-2403

E-mail: srfinfo.group@epa.gov

Web Site: http://www.epa.gov/owm/cwfinance/index.htm
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Five-Star Restoration Program

Purpose: To promote community-based wetland and riparian restoration projects.

Projects: The projects must have strong on-the-ground habitat restoration components that provides

long term ecological, educational, and/or socio-economic benefits to the people and their

community.

Assistance: Each project would ideally involve at least five partners, who are expected to contribute

funding, land, technical assistance, workforce support, or other in-kind services that match

EPA's contribution which amounts to about $10,000 on the average per project. 

Eligibility: Partners may include citizen volunteer organizations, corporations, private landowners, local

conservation organizations, youth groups, charitable foundations, and other federal, state,

tribal agencies and local governments. 

Address: U.S. EPA, Wetlands Division (4502T), 1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20460

Phone: (202) 566-1350

Facsimile: (202) 566-1349

Wetlands 

Helpline: 1-800-832-7828

E-mail: pai.john@epa.gov

Web Site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/5star/

Nonpoint Source Implementation Grants (319 Program)

Purpose: To help States, Territories, and Tribes develop and implement programs to prevent and control

nonpoint source pollution, such as creating constructed wetlands to clean-up urban runoff

and agricultural wastes.

Projects: State, Territories, and Tribes receive grant money (and may then provide funding and

assistance to local groups) to support a wide variety of activities, such as technical assistance,

financial assistance, technical programs, education, training, technology transfer,

demonstration projects (e.g. best management practices), and monitoring specific to nonpoint

source implementation. 

Assistance: Grants are first awarded to state agencies. Local organizations can then apply for grants

through the agencies, but they must provide 40 percent of the total project or program cost

as non-federal dollars.

Eligibility: State, local, and tribal governments, nonprofit and local organizations, etc. (check with your

state contact).

Address: U.S. EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (4503T), 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW,

Washington, DC 20460

Phone: (202) 566-0232

Facsimile: (202) 566-1331

E-mail: ow-general@epa.gov

Web Site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/NPS
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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA)

USDA - Forest Service

Taking Wing

Purpose: To create and enhance partnerships in the management of wetland ecosystems for waterfowl

and wetland wildlife, while providing a variety of compatible recreational opportunities on

National Forest System lands.

Projects: Focus towards on-the-ground wetland enhancement and restoration, although some projects

include assessment and analysis components. Example: restoration of 100 acres in the

Columbia River Scenic Area.

Assistance: Funds are allocated to Forest Service units through internal budget process.

Eligibility: Non-federal entities and individuals - projects must be on National Forest System lands or

provide benefits to those lands.

Address: Ellen Campbell, Federal Office Building, 709 West 9th Street, PO Box 21628, Juneau, AK

99802-1628

Phone: (907) 586-7919

Facsimile: (907) 586-7877

E-mail: ellen.campbell@fs.fed.us

Web Site: http://www.fs.fed.us/biology/wildlife/takingwing/index.html

USDA - Farm Service Agency

Conservation Reserve Program

Purpose: To establish long-term resource-conserving covers on eligible cropland to conserve soil, water,

and wildlife.

Projects: Voluntary program where landowners receive rental payments or enter into a cost-share

restoration agreement, while maintaining private ownership, to plant cover on marginal

cropland.

Assistance: Three options: 1) receive annual rental payments of up to $50,000/year; 2) receive payment of

up to 50% of cost to establish cover; 3) receive payment of up to 25% of cost for wetland

hydrology restoration. Contracts are typically 10-15 years in length.

Eligibility: Individuals, states, local governments, tribes, or any other entity who owns private land for at

least 1 year that is: either cropland planted with a crop in 2 of the last 5 crop years or marginal

cropland that is enrolled in the Water Bank program or suitable to be used as a riparian buffer.

Also, the land must be either highly erodible land, a cropped wetland, be devoted to highly

beneficial environmental practices, subject to scour erosion, located in a CRP priority area, or

be a cropland associated with or surrounding non-cropped wetlands.

Address: Contact your local or state Farm Service Agency office; otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

Farm Service Agency, Conservation Reserve Program Specialist, Stop 0513, Washington, D.C.

20250-0513

Phone: (202) 720-6221

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: info@fsa.usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/publications/facts/pubfacts.htm
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USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service

Conservation Technical Assistance

Purpose: To assist land-users, communities, units of state and local government, and other federal

agencies in planning and implementing conservation systems.

Projects: Projects that reduce erosion, improve soil and water quality, improve and conserve wetlands,

enhance fish and wildlife habitat, improve air quality, improve pasture and range condition,

reduce upstream flooding, and improve woodlands

Assistance: Technical assistance available to land users who voluntarily applying conservation and to

those who must comply with local or state laws and regulations, such as the wetland

(Swampbuster) provisions of the 1985 Food Security Act and the wetlands requirements of

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. 

Eligibility: Individual landusers, communities, conservation districts, and other units of State and local

government and Federal agencies.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/organization/regions.html); otherwise: Natural Resources

Conservation Service, ATTN: Conservation Technical Assistance National Program Manager

Walley Turner, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: (202) 720-4527

E-mail: walley.turner@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/cta/index.html

Emergency Watershed Protection Program

Purpose: To protect lives and property threatened by natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes,

tornados, and wildfires.

Projects: Examples: Clearing debris from clogged waterways, restoring vegetation, stabilizing river

banks, restoring wetland flood retainers.

Assistance: Funds cover up to 75% of costs to restore the natural function of a watershed. Another option

is to offer land for a floodplain easement that would permanently restore the hydrology of the

natural floodplain as an alternative to traditional attempts to restore damaged levees, lands,

and structures. Funds can cover up to 100% of the agricultural value of the land, costs

associated with environmental measures taken, and costs associated with establishing the

easement. A sponsor must assist you in applying for assistance. Sponsors can be any legal

subdivision of state, local, or tribal governments, including soil conservation districts, U.S.

Forest Service, and watershed authorities.

Eligibility: Owners, managers, and users of public, private, or tribal lands if their watershed area has been

damaged by a natural disaster.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/organization/regions.html); otherwise: Natural Resources

Conservation Service, ATTN: National EWP Program Leader Victor Cole, P.O. Box 2890,

Washington, D.C.

Phone: (202) 690-4575

E-mail: victor.cole@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/ewp/index.html
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Environmental Quality Incentives Program

Purpose: To install or implement structural, vegetative, and management practices in priority areas.

Projects: Conservation practices, such as grassed waterways, filter strips, manure management

facilities, capping abandoned wells, and other practices important to improving and

maintaining water quality and the general health of natural resources in the area; and land

management practices such as nutrient management, manure management, integrated pest

management, irrigation water management, and wildlife habitat management.

Assistance: Cost sharing may pay up to 75 percent of the costs of certain conservation practices.

Incentive payments may also be made to encourage a producer to perform land management

practices for up to three years. Offers 5-10 year contracts. Maximum of $10,000 per person

per year and $50,000 for the length of the contract.

Eligibility: Eligibility is limited to persons who are engaged in livestock or agricultural production,

excluding most large confined livestock operations.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/organization/regions.html); otherwise: Natural Resources

Conservation Service, ATTN: National EQIP Program Manager Anthony Esser, P.O. Box 2890,

Washington, D.C.

Phone: (202) 720-1840

E-mail: anthony.esser@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/eqip/

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention

Purpose: Works through local government sponsors to help participants voluntarily plan and install

watershed-based projects on private lands.

Projects: Projects include watershed protection, flood prevention, erosion and sediment control, water

supply, water quality, fish and wildlife habitat enhancement, wetlands creation and

restoration, and public recreation in watersheds of 250,000 or fewer acres.

Assistance: Provides technical and financial assistance. Funds can cover 100% of flood prevention

construction costs, 50% of costs associated with agricultural water management, recreation

and fish and wildlife, and none of the costs for other municipal and industrial water

management.

Eligibility: Local or state agency, county, municipality, town or township, soil and water conservation

district, flood prevention or flood control district, tribe or tribal organization, or nonprofit

agency with authority to carry out, maintain, and operate watershed improvement works.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/organization/regions.html); otherwise: Natural Resources

Conservation Service, ATTN: Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention, P.O. Box 2890,

Washington, D.C.

Phone: (202) 720-3534

E-mail: bruce.julian@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/watershed/
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Wetlands Reserve Program

Purpose: Protect and restore wetlands, riparian areas and buffer zones.

Projects: Voluntary program where landowners may sell a conservation easement or enter into a costshare restoration agreement, while maintaining private ownership.

Assistance: Three options: 1) permanent easement - USDA purchases easement (payment will be the lesser

of: the agricultural value of the land, an established payment cap, or an amount offered by

the landowner) and pays 100% of restoration costs; 2) 30-year easement - USDA pays 75%

of what would be paid for permanent easement and 75% of restoration costs; 3) restoration

cost share agreement - 10-year minimum agreement to restore degraded habitat where USDA

pays 75% of restoration costs.

Eligibility: Individuals, states, local governments, tribes, or any other entity who owns private land. The

land must be owned for at least 1 year and be restorable and suitable for wildlife.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/organization/regions.html); otherwise: Natural Resources

Conservation Service, ATTN: Wetlands Reserves Program Contact Leslie Deavers, P.O. Box 2890,

Washington, D.C.

Phone: (202) 720-1067

E-mail: leslie.deavers@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp/

Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program

Purpose: To develop and improve fish and wildlife habitat on private lands.

Projects: Participants prepare a wildlife habitat development plan in consultation with the local

conservation district. The plan describes the landowner's goals for improving wildlife habitat,

includes a list of practices and a schedule for installing them, and details the steps necessary

to maintain the habitat for the life of the agreement.

Assistance: Technical assistance and cost-share agreements where NRCS pays up to 75% of cost of

installing wildlife practices. Typically 5-10 year contracts.

Eligibility: Must own or have control of the land and cannot have it enrolled in other programs with a

wildlife focus, such as the Wetlands Reserve Program, or use the land for mitigation. Other

restrictions may apply.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/organization/regions.html); otherwise: Natural Resources

Conservation Service, ATTN: Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program Contact Martha Joseph, P.O.

Box 2890, Washington, D.C.

Phone: (202) 720-7157

E-mail: martha.joseph@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/whip/
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DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR (DOI)

DOI - Fish and Wildlife Service

Coastal Program

Purpose: To conserve healthy coastal ecosystems for the benefit of fish, wildlife, and people.

Projects: Examples of protection include use of conservation easements and fee title acquisition to

protect relatively pristine coastal wetlands, salt marshes, prairies, dunes, bottomland hardwood

forests, and riparian areas. Examples of coastal habitat restoration include: reintroduction of

tidal flow to formerly-diked mud flat and salt marsh habitat, planting of native vegetation

(including submerged aquatic grasses), control and monitoring of exotic invasive species,

fencing to restore riparian salmon spawning habitat, and removal or retrofit of small dams and

culverts to allow for passage of anadromous fish in coastal streams and estuaries.

Assistance: Technical and financial assistance is available. The program focuses exclusively on coastal

watersheds. It applies an ecosystem-level approach to resolving resource problems, and targets

efforts for a strategic (rather than opportunistic) approach. The program is a non-regulatory,

pro-active program that relies on voluntary partnership building. Partners include other federal

and state agencies, local and tribal governments, businesses, conservation organizations, and

private landowners.

Matching grants are also awarded annually, on a competitive basis. States that border the

Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, Pacific and Great Lakes are eligible to apply for grants. The one

exception is the State of Louisiana, which has its own coastal wetlands program. Trust

Territories and Commonwealths of the United States are also eligible for grants.

Eligibility: The Coastal Program funds projects on private and public lands.

Address: Martha Naley, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Branch of Habitat Restoration, Room 400, 4401 N.

Fairfax Blvd, Arlington, VA 22203. National, regional, and state contacts are listed at

http://www.fws.gov/cep/coastweb.html

Phone: (703) 358-2201

Facsimile: (703) 358-2232

E-mail: martha_naley@fws.gov

Web Site: http://www.fws.gov/cep/cepcode.html

Jobs in the Woods Watershed Restoration Program

Purpose: Provides funding to support watershed restoration projects in timber-dependent communities

within the range of the northern spotted owl through the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP). The

NWFP was created to offset impacts of economic losses to communities in CA, OR and WA,

resulting from reductions in timber harvest. 

Projects: Program funds are to support watershed restoration projects, including: instream habitat

restoration, fish passage improvements, fish screen installation, riparian and wetland habitat

restoration, and upland forest restoration, on non-federal lands, while employing workers from

timber dependent communities to conduct project work. Projects are focused on implementing

habitat improvements to benefit federally listed, proposed or candidate species, under the ESA.

Assistance: The Service provides the grants and assists applicants with obtaining permits and complying

with federal laws, including the ESA, NEPA, NHPA, and the Clean Water Act. Most funded

projects involve grants of under $100,000. 

Eligibility: Projects must occur on non-federal lands. Non-profit organizations, individuals, private

businesses, Native American tribes and state and local governments are eligible.
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Address: Paula Golightly, Jobs in the Woods Coordinator, Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office, 1655 Heindon

Road, Arcata, CA 95521

Phone: (707) 822-7201

Facsimile: (707) 822-8136

Web Site: http://www.ccfwo.r1.fws.gov/jitw/

North American Wetlands Conservation Act Grant Program

Purpose: To promote long-term conservation of North American wetland ecosystems and the wildlife

that depend on them.

Projects: For on-the-ground wetland and wetland-associated acquisition, creation, enhancement,

and/or restoration.

Assistance: Regular Grant Program (over $50k) and Small Grant Program ($50k or less) 

Eligibility: Must form public-private sector partnerships and match grant funds 1:1 with U.S. non-Federal

dollars.

Address: Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Bird Habitat Conservation,

4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 110, Arlington, VA 22203 (Attn: specify which grant program you

are interested in)

Phone: (703)358-1784

Facsimile: (703)358-2282

Web Site: http://northamerican.fws.gov/NAWCA/grants.htm

Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program

Purpose: To conserve, protect, and enhance fish and wildlife and their habitats

Projects: Examples of voluntary habitat restoration: restoring wetland hydrology, planting native trees

and shrubs, planting native grasslands, installing fencing and off-stream livestock watering

facilities, removal of exotic plants and animals, prescribed burning, reconstruction of instream aquatic habitat.

Assistance: Financial and technical assistance available. The landowner may perform the restoration and

be reimbursed directly for some or all of his or her expenses, the Service may hire a contractor

to complete the work, or the Service may complete the work itself. While not a program

requirement, a dollar-for-dollar cost share is sought on a project-by-project basis. In some

states where the program is very popular, however, a 50:50 cost share is required. Partners for

Fish and Wildlife funds are not used to purchase or lease real property interest or to make

rental or other incentive payments to landowners. Minimum 10-year contract. 

Eligibility: Although the primary partners are private landowners, anyone interested in restoring and

protecting wildlife habitat on private or tribal lands can get involved in the Partners for Fish

and Wildlife Program, including other federal, state and local agencies, private organizations,

corporations, and educational institutions.

Address: Contact your state office for assistance. National, regional and state contacts are listed at

http://partners.fws.gov under “contact list”; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Branch of Habitat

Restoration, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Arlington, VA 22203

Phone: (703) 358-2201

Facsimile: (703) 358-2232

Web Site: http://partners.fws.gov/
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NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA)

NOAA - National Marine Fisheries Service

NOAA Community-based Restoration Program

Purpose: To restore marine fish habitat by fostering partnerships with local communities

Projects: Community-based restoration efforts that benefit marine fish habitat (including coastal

wetlands and anadromous fish streams)

Assistance: Small grants available - should be developed in partnership with local National Marine

Fisheries Service office

Eligibility: non-profits, state and local agencies, tribes

Address: National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Habitat Conservation, Restoration Division,

1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910.

Phone: (301) 713-0174

Facsimile: (301) 713-0184

E-mail: robin.bruckner@noaa.gov or alison.ward@noaa.gov

Web Site: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/restoration/community/

ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (CORPS)

CORPS—Civil Works Directorate

Planning Assistance to States Program, Section 22 of the Water Resources Development Act

Purpose: To allow the Corps of Engineers to perform technical studies for management of water

and related land resources to help states and Indian tribes deal with their water

resources problems. The program is limited to a maximum of $500,000 per state or tribe

in any year.

Projects: Typical activities studied under this Program are flood damage reduction, water

resources development, water supply, water conservation, water quality, erosion,

wetlands evaluation, and navigation. 

Assistance: This is not a grant program. The local sponsor of the study shares in the cost of the

study.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on requests to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District

office by the local sponsor. Example: In Louisiana, Section 22 funds were used to costshare in a study to plan and design a hiking/biking/recreation trail compatible with

existing levee systems and other floodplain improvements. The local sponsor then

implemented the trail design using non-Federal funding sources.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers

(http://www.usace.army.mil/divdistmap.html).

Beneficial Uses of Dredged Material, Section 204 of the Water Resources Development Act 

Purpose: To allow the Secretary of the Army to carry out projects for the protection, restoration,

and creation of aquatic and ecologically related habitats, including wetlands, in

connection with dredging for construction, operation, or maintenance by the Secretary

of an authorized navigation project. 
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Projects: Work must be for the protection, restoration and creation of aquatic and ecologically

related habitat, including wetlands. Examples include: placement in subsiding wetlands

to re-establish necessary elevations for vegetation, additions to offshore islands to reestablish submerged areas and nesting habitat, filling deep holes to re-establish

wetlands.

Assistance: This is not a grant program. A local sponsor, a governmental entity, must partner with

the Corps. The non-federal share is 25% of the costs in excess of the costs necessary

to carry out the dredging for the authorized navigation project.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on request to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District

office by the local sponsor.

Example: Battery Island Bird Habitat Preservation, Cape Fear River, North Carolina. Battery Island

is owned by the State of North Carolina and administered by the North Carolina Division

of Parks and Recreation. The Ecosystem Restoration Project will protect 10 acres of

upland nesting habitat for colonial waterbirds from further erosion. The project will also

restore 5.5 acres of valuable colonial waterbird nesting habitat by placement of dredged

material obtained from periodic dredging of the adjacent Wilmington Harbor navigation

project.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers

(http://www.usace.army.mil/divdistmap.html).

Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration, Section 206 of the Water Resources Development Act

Purpose: To allow the Corps to carry out aquatic ecosystem restoration projects that will improve

the quality of the environment, are in the public interest and are cost-effective. 

Projects: Work has to be related to aquatic restoration. Examples include reforestation of

bottomland hardwoods, modification of stream channels to stabilize channels, while

introducing complexity and fish habitat, riparian re-vegetation, improvement of fish

passage, which may include dam removal, re-establishing submerged vegetation,

restoration of reclaimed land, restoration of wetlands.

Assistance: A non-federal sponsor, a public entity, must partner with the Corps. The non-Federal

share is 35% of the total project cost, including study phase cost. The non-Federal

sponsor is also responsible for 100% of the operation, maintenance, repair and

rehabilitation cost.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on request to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District

office by the local sponsor.

Example: At the Ladd Marsh Wildlife Area, 6 miles southeast of LaGrande, Oregon, the State of

Oregon teamed with the Corps to restore the meandering pattern and riparian

vegetation of an approximately 4,000-foot section of Ladd Creek and a 2,000-foot

section of Barney Creek. This project enhances habitat for resident rainbow trout as well

as the steelhead trout, which is listed under the Endangered Species Act for protection

in the entire Snake River Basin.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers

(http://www.usace.army.mil/divdistmap.html).
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Project Modifications for Improvement of the Environment

Purpose: Section 1135 of the Water resources Development Act of 1986, as amended, authorizes a

program of modifications to water resources projects constructed by the Corps for the

improvement of the environment.

Projects: Work has to be related to an Corps water resources development project. 

Assistance: A non-federal sponsor, a public entity or non-governmental organization, must partner with

the Corps. The non-Federal share is 25% of the total project cost. The non-Federal sponsor is

also responsible for 100% of the operation, maintenance, repair and rehabilitation cost.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on request to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District office by

the local sponsor.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers

(http://www.usace.army.mil/divdistmap.html).

Flood Mitigation and Riverine Restoration (Challenge 21)

Purpose: Section 212 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1999 authorizes a program to

implement projects that reduce flood hazards and restore the natural functions and values of

rivers.

Projects: Projects must significantly reduce potential flood damage as well as improve the quality of the

environment. Nonstructural approaches are emphasized.

Assistance: A non-federal sponsor, a public entity, must partner with the Corps. The non-Federal share is

35% of the total project cost, and 50% of the study phase cost. 

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on request to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District office by

the local sponsor.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers

(http://www.usace.army.mil/divdistmap.html).

Other Funding Source Documents:

“Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance”. Published biannually by General Services Administration.

http://aspe.os.dhhs.gov/cfda, (202) 708-5126.

“Catalog of Federal Funding Sources for Watershed Protection, 2nd Edition” (1999). EPA’s Watershed

Academy, Office of Water, Publication No. EPA 841-B-99-003. 

http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/watershed/wacademy/fund.html, National Center for Environmental Publications

and Information (NCEPI), (800) 490-9198. 

“Environmental Grantmaking Foundations”. Published annually by Resources for Global Sustainability, Inc.

http://www.environmentalgrants.com (800) 724-1857

“Exploring Wetlands Stewardship--A Reference Guide for Assisting Washington Landowners” (1996).

Washington State Department of Ecology Publication No. 96-120. 

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/96120.html, (360) 407-7472

“Financing Clean Water Action Plan Activities” (1998), EPA Clean Water Act State Revolving Fund Branch,

Office of Water. http://www.epa.gov/owm/cwfinance/index.htm, (202) 564-0752.

“Funding for Habitat Restoration Projects” Citizen’s Guide: A Compendium of Current Federal Programs with

Fiscal Year 1996–1998 Funding Levels”. Restore America’s Estuaries. 

http://www.estuaries.org/policyandfunding.php
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An Introduction and User’s Guide to

Resource Appendix

“A Guidebook of Financial Tools” (1997). Environmental Finance Center Network and the

Environmental Financial Advisory Board. http://www.epa.gov/efinpage/guidebk/guindex.htm or e-mail:

mcprouty.timothy@epa.gov

“Landowners Guide to Voluntary Wetland Programs in Arkansas”. Arkansas Game and Fish Commission.

http://www.agfc.com/hunting/waterfowl_section/wetland_info.html (501) 223-6300. 

“Landowning Colorado Style”, Colorado Association of Conservation Districts, (303) 232-6242. 

“Living with Michigan’s Wetlands: A Landowner’s Guide”. Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council,

http://www.watershedcouncil.org/book.htm (231) 347-1181

“Ohio Wetlands”. National Audubon Society's Ohio Office, (614) 224-3303. 

“Options for Wetland Conservation: A Guide for California Landowners”. California Coastal Conservancy. Order

at http://www.coastalconservancy.ca.gov/Publications/pubs.htm or (510) 286-1015. View at

http://www.ceres.ca.gov/wetlands/introduction/opt_guide.html

“The Oregon Wetlands Conservation Guide: Voluntary Wetlands Stewardship Options for Oregon’s Private

Landowners” (1995). Oregon Wetlands Conservation Alliance. Contact Oregon Department of Agriculture,

Natural Resources Division at (503) 986-4700.

“Private Landowner’s Wetlands Assistance Guide: Voluntary Options for Wetlands Stewardship in Maryland”

(1992). Contact EPA Region III at (215) 814-5000. 

“A State and Local Government Guide to Environmental Program Funding Alternatives” (1994). EPA document

#EPA 841-K-94-001, Office of Water.

“Wetland and Riparian Stewardship in Pennsylvania: A Guide to Voluntary Options for Landowners, Local

Governments and Organizations” (1997). Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. Contact the Bureau of Watershed

Conservation, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, 

http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/WC/Subjects/NonPoint.htm (717) 236-8825.

“Wetlands Assistance Guide for Landowners (in Texas)”. Texas Parks and Wildlife. 

http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/conserve/wetlands/wetintro.htm or (512) 389-4328.
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Appendix R-III: Organizations, Web Sites, and Training Opportunities

Below is a list of sources of assistance and information on wetland restoration. It is not a comprehensive list,

but is a good introduction to what is available.

Nonprofit Organizations:

NAME CONTACT INFORMATION

Association of State Floodplain Managers 2809 Fish Hatchery Road, Suite 204, Madison, WI 53713

(608)274-0123 http://www.floods.org/

asfpm@floods.org

Association of State Wetland Managers PO Box 269, Berne, NY 12023-9746 

(518)872-1804 http://www.aswm.org/ 

aswm@aswm.org

Ducks Unlimited, Inc. One Waterfowl Way, Memphis, Tennessee, USA 38120

1(800)45DUCKS http://www.ducks.org/ 

conserv@ducks.org

Environmental Law Institute 1616 P St., NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036 

(202)939-3800 http://www.eli.org/, 

law@eli.org

Estuarine Research Federation PO Box 510, Port Republic, MD 20676 

410-586-0997 http://www.erf.org/, 

webmaster@erf.org

Izaak Walton League of America 707 Conservation Lane, Gaithersburg, MD 20878 

(800)IKE-LINE (453-5463) http://www.iwla.org/

general@iwla.org

Native American Fish and Wildlife Society 750 Burbank Street, Broomfield, CO 80020

(303) 466-1725 http://www.nafws.org/

Soil and Water Conservation Society 945 SW Ankeny Road, Ankeny, Iowa 50021-9764

(515)289-2331 http://www.swcs.org,

webmaster@swcs.org

Society for Ecological Restoration 1955 W. Grant Rd., #150, Tuscon, AZ 85745

(520) 622-5485, http://www.ser.org/

info@ser.org

Society of Wetland Scientists 1313 Dolley Madison Boulevard, Suite 402 

McLean, VA 22101, 

(703)790-1745 http://www.sws.org/

SWS@BurkInc.com

Terrene Institute http://www.terrene.org/ cbahler@erols.com

Water Environment Federation 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-1994 USA, 

1(800)666-0206 http://www.wef.org/, 

msc@wef.org
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Army Corps of Engineers http://www.usace.army.mil/

Bureau of Reclamation http://www.usbr.gov/

Bureau of Land Management http://www.blm.gov/

Council on Environmental Quality http://www.whitehouse.gov/CEQ/

Department of Agriculture http://www.usda.gov/

Environmental Protection Agency’s Office 

of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds http://www.epa.gov/owow/

Farm Service Agency http://www.fsa.usda.gov/

Fish and Wildlife Service http://www.fws.gov/

Forest Service http://www.fs.fed.us/

Geological Survey http://www.usgs.gov/

National Oceanic and Atmospheric http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/habitatprotection/

Administration, wetlands.htm

National Marine Fisheries Service http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/restoration/

National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/

Natural Resources Conservation Service http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

Office of Surface Mining http://www.osmre.gov/

State Department’s Bureau of Oceans http://www.state.gov/g/oes/

and International Environmental and 

Scientific Affairs 

Other Web Sites:

Better Wetlands: More Than a Dozen Ideas http://www.ia.nrcs.usda.gov/News/Brochures/

to Improve Restored Wetlands for Wildlife enhance/wetlands_enhance_intro.html

and Personal Enjoyment 

(U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service)

Do Created Wetlands Replace the Wetlands http://wi.water.usgs.gov/pubs/FS-246-96/

that are Destroyed? (U.S. Geological Survey)

Evaluation of Restored Wetlands in the http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/wetland/

Prairie Pothole Region

AGENCY INTERNET ADDRESS

Federal Agency Web Sites:

DESCRIPTION INTERNET ADDRESS
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Resource Appendix

AGENCY INTERNET ADDRESS

Monitoring Water Quality Web Page: http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/

Resources for Volunteer Monitors (USEPA)

Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, http://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/

Practices, and Processes (Interagency)

Volunteer Estuary Monitoring (USEPA) http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/monitor/

http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/estuary/

Wetland Bioassessment Fact Sheets (USEPA) http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/wqual/bio_fact/

Wetland Creation and Restoration: Available from Island Press 

The Status of the Science (USEPA, 1990) http://www.islandpress.org (800) 828-1302

Wetland Research: Restoring the Balance http://www.ramsar.org/wurc_library_research.html

(LWRRDC)

WES Environmental Laboratory - http://www.wes.army.mil/el/wetlands/

Wetlands (US Army Corps of Engineers)

Training Opportunities:

The following are training opportunities offered by nonprofit, government, and academic organizations. There

are also many private firms not listed here that have wetland training courses available.

NAME/DESCRIPTION CONTACT INFORMATION

CPESC, Inc.

David Ward

796 Old Linville Rd., Marion, NC 28752

Phone: (828) 756-4484

Fax: (828) 756-7344

http://www.swcs.org/f_orglinks_cpesc.htm,

david@cpesc.net

N. Nevada Sci. Center 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno,

NV 89512 (775) 673-7300

S. Nevada Sci. Center 755 E. Flamingo Rd., 

Las Vegas, NV 89119 (702) 895-0400

http://www.dri.edu/Education/

Bureau of Land Management National Training

Center, 9828 N 31st Ave, Phoenix, AZ 85051, USA,

(602) 906-5579 http://www.ntc.blm.gov/partner/

Save Our Streams, Izaak Walton League of America,

707 Conservation Lane, Gaithersburg, MD 20878,

USA, (301)548-0150, (800)IKE-LINE (453-5463)

http://www.iwla.org/sos/workshops.html,

sos@iwla.org

Certified professional in erosion and sediment

control (CPESC) - Certification training

Desert Research Institute - Courses available

Interagency training opportunities and 

non-government training partners - 

Internet training list (hot links to natural

resources training web pages)

Izaak Walton League’s Save Our Streams

program training workshops - Short workshops

(volunteer wetlands and streams monitoring,

quality assurance, restoration)
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Resource Appendix

NAME/DESCRIPTION CONTACT INFORMATION

(215) 814-2718, spagnolo.ralph@epa.gov 

1955 W. Grant Rd., #150

Tuscon, AZ 85745 USA, (520) 622-5485,

http://www.ser.org/, info@ser.org

Society of Wetland Scientists Business Office, 1313

Dolley Madison Boulevard, Suite 402, 

McLean, VA 22101, USA, 703-790-1745

For academic programs -

http://www.sws.org/colleges/ 

For training courses - 

http://www.sws.org/training/, SWS@BurkInc.com

SWS Professional Certification Program,

P.O. Box 7060, Lawrence, Kansas 66044 

800-627-0629 or 785-843-1235,

fax: 785-843-1274, http://www.wetlandcert.org,

swscertif@allenpress.com

Bruce Newton, National Water and Climate Center,

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 101

SW Maine Street, Suite 1600, Portland, OR 

97204-3224, USA, (503)414-3055,

bnewton@wcc.nrcs.usda.gov 

NCTC, Rt 1, Box 166, Shepherdstown, WV 25443

(304)876-7472, http://training.fws.gov/, 

kelly_kennedy@fws.gov

Watershed Academy, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and

Watersheds, USEPA (4503T), 1200 Pennsylvania

Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20460, 202-566-1155

http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/

Louisiana State University

225-578-8810, http://www.leeric.lsu.edu

Wetlands Program c/o William J. Mitsch, The Ohio

State University, School of Natural Resources, 2021

Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210, (614)292-9774,

http://swamp.ag.ohio-state.edu/, mitsch.1@osu.edu

http://www.wes.army.mil/el/nrrdc/train.html

Mid-Atlantic interagency wetland training -

Free courses (delineation, plants, soils,

hydrology)

Society for Ecological Restoration - Restoration

Training Workshops

Society of Wetland Scientists Wetland-related

academic programs and training courses

Society of Wetland Scientists professional

certification program

U.S. Department of Agriculture (Natural

Resources Conservation Service) training

workshops on water quality monitoring - Free

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s National

Conservation Training Center (NCTC)

Courses

Watershed training opportunities through 

The Watershed Academy - Free

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute (delineation

training and biogeochemistry

symposia)

WETLAND program short courses at Ohio State

University (wastewater treatment, delineation,

mitigation)

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Proponent-Sponsored Engineer Corps 

Training (PROSPECT) courses on wetlands 

and restoration
Technical Appendix

Technical APPENDICES

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APPENDIX T-I: What Makes a Wetland Unique? 

lthough they are varied in type and location, wetlands possess several ecological

characteristics that distinguish them from upland or aquatic habitats. Wetlands are

characterized by unique hydrologic, soil (substrate), and biotic conditions that set

them apart from other systems. Each of these characteristics is described in detail

below to provide you with a basic understanding of the ecological elements that wetland restoration,

enhancement, or creation projects seek to establish. 

Hydrology and Water Quality

Wetland hydrology generally exists when an area is wet enough to result in soils that are anaerobic

(depleted of oxygen) and support hydrophytic vegetation (plants that are adapted to anaerobic,

waterlogged environments). The hydrological regime is typically the primary factor driving the rest of

the elements of the system. 

Wetland hydrology may exist at sites that are obviously flooded or at sites that are never flooded but

have soils that are saturated near the surface. A site’s hydrologic characteristics are the most important

factors in determining what kind of wetland will exist and what functions it will perform. The hydrologic

characteristics of a wetland are commonly described in terms of water depths over time, flow patterns,

and duration and frequency of flooding or saturation. Some systems, such as streams, have very

dynamic hydrological regimes that can be difficult to re-create. Other wetlands, such as permanent

ponds or bogs, have hydrological conditions that are more static. 

The presence of water on a site can be measured and illustrated with a hydrograph. A hydrograph

indicates the level of water or the depth of soil saturation over the year. The figure below shows the

water signatures for a typical tidal marsh and a prairie pothole. Wetland water levels usually fluctuate

based on seasonal precipitation, temperature, and evaporation. Hydrographs for wetlands in coastal

areas will be heavily influenced by tidal cycles. Inland wetland hydrographs, such as those for prairie

potholes, may show the strong influence of rain and/or ground water.

A

Hydrographs of a tidal marsh (top) and prairie

pothole (bottom), after Mitsch and Gosselink, 1999
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Many wetlands are dynamic and fluctuate in size during the year and between years. These natural

fluctations are the wetland’s disturbance regime and this regime needs to be included in the design for

your wetland site. Sites may flood on regular 2, 10, or 50 year cycles and cause significant, but

predictable changes in wetland size and shape. Extreme events, such as hurricanes, may have less

predictable effects. 

If wetland hydrology can be established at your site, there is a good chance that other wetland

characteristics will develop over time. When a wetland project does not develop as planned, or does

not develop into a wetland at all, it is most often because the hydrologic characteristics of the site are

not what they need to be to achieve the goals. The first step in trouble-shooting wetland projects is to

check the hydrologic characteristics of the site.

For many sites, establishing the proper hydrology requires the services of a hydrologist who will assess

current conditions on your site, evaluate the local disturbance regime, and determine what changes are

necessary to achieve the hydrological regime typical of the wetland you wish to establish.

Water contains a number of dissolved and suspended materials including nutrients (e.g., nitrogen,

phosphorus, dissolved carbon), contaminants (e.g., pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons), and other

constituents (e.g., dissolved oxygen, salts, metals, suspended sediments). Some chemicals (e.g.,

nutrients) can be either beneficial or toxic, depending on how much is present. Water quality usually

refers to how “healthy” the water is for humans, animals and plants. An aquatic area with “good” water

quality has the water chemistry typical of the ecosystem and region, including the levels of dissolved

oxygen, contaminants, and other constituents (nutrients, suspended sediments) that result in healthy

populations of native plants and animals. 

Because wetland types vary, good water quality varies from one wetland type to another. For example,

significant amounts of suspended sediments are typical of good conditions for some tidal marshes

because, as sediments settle out, they help to build up the marsh surface, which allows the growth of

marsh vegetation. Conversely, too much suspended sediment in coastal waters can be harmful to

seagrass beds because it reduces the amount of light penetrating the water to the plants. If you suspect

that the water quality might be a problem, you will need to compare the water condition at your site

with those at reference wetlands, i.e., sites in your region that are relatively undisturbed examples of

your wetland type. This work will almost always require the expertise of a water quality specialist. 

Wetland Soils and their Qualities

Wetland soils or substrates are hydric soils, meaning they are waterlogged for all or part of the year

which results in anaerobic conditions. In hydric soils, water fills the air spaces between soil particles

and forces the oxygen out causing soils to become anaerobic (depleted in oxygen) in the zones closest

to the surface. Waterlogged, anaerobic conditions are very hostile to terrestrial plants and these

conditions will quickly kill most upland species. As a result, wetlands are dominated by plants that are

specifically adapted to these tough, waterlogged, anaerobic soil conditions. When soils lose their

oxygen, they change significantly in structure and chemistry which also influences the plant and animal

species able to survive there.

Wetland soils come in two major types—organic and mineral. Organic soils are made up primarily of

plant material, either decomposed (the soil is then called “muck”) or undecomposed (called “peat”).

Mineral soils are composed primarily of non-plant material such as quartz, biotite, or calcite.

Depending on the size of the soil grains, mineral soils are generally described (from largest grain size to

smallest) as sand, silt, and clay. Sandy wetland soils are the most permeable, allowing water to move
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Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Technical Appendix

easily between the wetland and the groundwater, depending on the depth of the water table. Less

permeable clayey soils are more likely to maintain water in the wetland even if the water table is low.

Some sites have “hard pan” layers underneath them, impermeable layers of clay or rock, essential to the

ecology of the wetland. These hard subsurface layers may allow water to stay ponded for much longer

than would occur otherwise, resulting in unique ecosystems, such as “vernal pool” habitats. 

Many wetland soils, especially organic soils such as peat, are characterized by relatively high amounts

of organic carbon and nutrients, which drive the significant biological productivity of wetlands. The

organic material provides energy for soil microbes to recycle nutrients and to convert nitrogen to

organic forms that encourage plant growth. Of course, not all soils are naturally high in organic

material or nutrients. As with other wetland elements, soil characteristics vary with the system and the

region. Reference sites can provide data on typical soil conditions of the region. Soil scientists can

identify hydric soils by their color and structure. Often organic, anaerobic soils are dark grey to nearly

black. In more mineral soils, the chemistry of hydric soils affects minerals such as iron and manganese

causing distinctive color variations.

In addition to small scale soil qualities, two large scale features of substrates are critical to restoration

projects: 1) soil or substrate elevation in relationship to water levels, and 2) networks of channels to

move water in and out. These features are shaped by water and their relationship to water levels is

critical. Incorrect elevations and topographies are some of the most common reasons wetland

restoration projects fail to achieve their goals. 

Soil maps produced by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service are a good place to start for

local soil information. Soil maps are produced for each county and provide information on the presence

of hydric soils, the permeability of these soils, and their suitability as wetland habitat. However, some

county maps are decades old, and most do not contain enough detail to locate small hydric “inclusions”

in non-hydric soils (or vice-versa). You may need to have a professional soil scientist examine the soils

at the project site, particularly if the site has been altered, to determine whether the existing soil is

hydric. Determining proper soil elevations and topography, if they have been altered, is the job of

hydrologists or wetland experts who deal with sediments and their transport.

Wetland Plants

Wetland plants, or hydrophytic plants, are specifically adapted to waterlogged, anaerobic conditions.

Some wetland plants grow exclusively in wetlands and are called “obligate” wetland species; others are

“facultative” species as they may be found in both wetlands and drier areas. There are many types and

categories of wetland plants, including emergent plants (such as rushes), submerged plants (eel grass),

and floating plants (such as duckweed). Wetland plants also include trees (like swamp oak), shrubs (like

bayberry), moss, and many other types. The wetland’s water source (fresh, saline (salty), or brackish)

will affect the composition of the wetland plant community, as will the amount and duration of water

in the wetland. 

Plant species also can be regionally and locally specific: the dominant native plant in Atlantic coast tidal

systems is smooth cordgrass (Spartina alternaflora) whereas the dominant native plant in central Pacific

coast salt marshes is Pacific cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). Some wetlands may be degraded because they

contain non-native species, that is, plants from other regions. These non-natives may be invasive and

displace more typical wetland plants. Sometimes non-native species can completely replace the natural

wetland plant community, which alters the ecological functioning of the site. Purple loosestrife, reed

canary grass, and common reed are examples of non-native invasive wetland plants. Atlantic cordgrass

becomes an invasive, exotic species when it occurs along the Pacific coast, outside its native range.
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The spread of non-native species is a huge ecological problem in the U.S. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service estimates that approximately 4600 acres per day in public natural areas are lost to non-native

plants and animals. For many restoration and enhancement projects, significant effort is devoted to

removing the invaders so that the native species can re-establish.

Nutrient, turbidity, and salinity levels are key parameters determining the composition of wetland plant

community. Another critical element is the relationship of water levels to substrate elevation. If water

is too deep, emergent and sub-emergent vegetation will not establish. If the substrate elevation is too

high, then what you may get is an upland. In some habitats, such as vernal pools, microtopographic

changes must be re-created to establish the very sensitive endemic species that occur there. 

Wetland Animals

Wetlands are inhabited by creatures large and small: water fleas and alligators; shrews and bears;

minnows and salmon; wrens and herons. Because wetlands exist where land and water meet, they are

often used by animals from both wet and dry environments. Many species depend on wetlands for all

or part of their lives. For example, the salt marsh harvest mouse lives its entire life in the tidal salt

marshes around the San Francisco Bay. It is so well adapted to this habitat that it has developed special

kidney functions that allow it to eat salt marsh vegetation and survive the ingestion of sea water.

Wetlands are very important in maintaining biodiversity; they are used by approximately 80 percent of

the wildlife species listed as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act.

Some of the smallest wetland animals are invertebrates (animals without backbones) such as beetles,

water fleas, crayfish, dragonflies, snails, and clams. Invertebrates are an important food source for other

animals, both as adults and in their egg and larval forms. Amphibians and, to a lesser extent, reptiles,

are very strongly tied to wetlands because many frogs, snakes, turtles, and salamanders need both water

and drier environments to complete their life cycles. Fish are not found in all wetlands, but wherever

there is permanent water fish are likely to occur. Even wetlands with only seasonal flooding may be

temporary habitat for fish from adjacent permanent water. Many fish spawn in wetlands, and wetlands

are particularly valuable as nursery areas where young fish can hide from hungry predators until they

are big enough or fast enough to survive in open water. 

Birds are some of the best-known inhabitants of wetlands. Ducks, in particular, are valuable to people

who enjoy hunting or birding. However, wetlands are also important to shorebirds (plovers, sandpipers)

that feed in mudflats, wading birds (herons, egrets, bitterns) that feed in shallow water, songbirds (redwinged blackbirds, rails, marsh wrens) that perch on or nest in tall grasses or shrubs, and other birds

such as terns and hawks that are all common inhabitants of wetlands. Finally, mammals such as

beavers, raccoons, shrews, mice, moose, and bear are common residents of wetlands, although their

tracks are usually seen more often than the animals themselves.

While the ecological requirements for animals vary with the species, here are a few general

requirements of major taxa using wetlands:

Invertebrates process nutrients and organic matter and are important for supporting much of the

wetland food chain. Invertebrate species are numerous and live in a range of ecological

conditions. In general, like most aquatic animals, most invertebrates need well-oxygenated

water. Temperature levels and food sources are essential to support invertebrate diversity. A

reliable source of water, a diversity of typical plant species, and buffers around the wetland will

support invertebrates by filtering out pollutants, moderating temperature, providing a variety of

habitats, and providing food sources. 
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Amphibians and reptiles (herptiles) require a range of habitats during their lifecycles. Plant

structural diversity, such as brush, leaf litter, and small dense stands of grass or reeds, can give

these species cover, foraging and nesting habitat. Larger debris like logs are attractive for basking.

Areas of sandy soil with a warm, southern exposure encourage turtle reproduction. Deep water

areas will support species that overwinter by burrowing in mud. Shallow water (usually with

vegetation) is important for hiding egg masses and protecting tadpoles from predators. Gradual

slopes from the wetland to the upland help animals move easily between habitats. Habitat

requirements vary by species and restorations should be designed with the needs of local herptile

species in mind.

Fish need both shallow water to protect eggs and young fish, and deeper water for adults. Fish

may move in and out of wetlands as water depths fluctuate. Some wetlands support no fish or

only small fish because the wetland is shallow or temporary. Temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO),

and salinity levels are parameters that will determine the species present. Shade,

streambed/wetland structure, and food sources (such as invertebrates) will also determine the

species richness. Trees for shade and large debris for hiding can be very beneficial. Some fish can

provide insect control in the wetland. However, others, such as bottom-feeding fish can destroy

submerged plant communities and thereby reduce light levels by stirring up sediment.

Birds occupy a variety of habitats in and around wetlands and are important indicators of wetland

functioning. Breeding or migratory waterfowl and shorebirds will be present in wetlands that offer

adequate cover and food sources. Rare species can be indicators of specific habitat conditions.

For example, clapper rail populations in west coast tidal salt marshes, are indicators of mature,

healthy Pacific cordgrass marshes. A wide range of bird species, including wrens, sparrows, and

yellowthroats, live and nest in wetlands or where the wetlands interface with the upland.

Adjacent uplands, especially grass, willow, and tree dominated zones, are important as high tide

refuges for wetland birds and offer millions of migratory birds places to stop and forage. In

developing wetland enhancement activities to attract particular species, carefully weigh the

potential effects on other species that use the wetland. Restorationists have also found that some

birds can be very destructive to newly installed plants; geese, for example, are able to denude

acres of newly planted stems in one night and they can be one of the biggest challenges to new

wetland restoration sites.

Mammals generally need adjacent uplands or upland islands for escape during high-water periods.

Therefore, undisturbed upland buffers and corridors connecting adjacent habitats are critical to

these taxa. Nest boxes may attract bats, which can provide insect control in the wetlands.

Muskrats can help to control vegetation, but can also “eat-out” the vegetation and be a nuisance

with burrowing activities. Beavers, a keystone species of wetlands throughout North America,

can aid wetland restoration by creating the very water control structures that are needed to keep

water in a wetland, but they also can redesign your site by creating dams where you didn’t plan

for them. 

The conversion of wetland vegetation to non-native plants alters the habitat for native animals and

results in the loss of species from local wetlands. In addition, non-native animals are as big a problem

as non-native plants. Non-native animals are causing losses of wetland communities and biodiversity

(see box on next page).
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Animal communities vary with wetland type and region, but in general, healthy wetlands are rich in

wildlife and very productive. For example, approximately three-quarters of the Nation’s commercially

harvested fish and shellfish depend on estuaries, of which wetlands are an integral part. According to

some estimates, the annual production associated with estuarine wetlands accounts for more than

$100 billion dollars in sales of fish and shellfish and provides one and a half million jobs. 

Each wetland has its own distinctive animal community. Relatively undisturbed wetlands in your region

will give you an idea of what you can expect to inhabit your wetland, as long as your wetland project

results in typical wetland hydrology and native plant communities. If you are interested in attracting

a particular animal or animals to your wetland, a wetland biologist or ecologist may be able to help you

pick specific plants or take other actions designed to accomplish that goal.

Nutria, Non-native Nightmare

Nutria are large (8-18 lb) beaver-like rodents native to South America. Accidentally introduced into

Maryland’s eastern shore marshes in the 1940's, nutria have been implicated in the loss of emergent

brackish marsh. 

First noticeable in the 1950s, marsh loss along the Blackwater River in Dorchester County, Maryland, has

accelerated at an alarming rate as nutria populations have grown. What was once continuous marshland

now appears as fragmented remnants.

Nutria forage directly on the vegetation root mat and cut the marsh into finer and finer fragments.

Erosion by tidal and wave action lowers the unvegetated marsh bottom and prevents plants from

recolonizing.

A recent study found that within the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge alone, over 6 square miles of

marsh have been lost to open water since 1938. Over 50 percent of the remaining marsh has significant

damage and may likely be lost in the near future.

APPENDIX T-II: Activities Used to Restore or Change Wetland Characteristics

Typical Activities Used to Restore or Change Hydrology:

Try to reverse the actions that caused the loss or alteration of a wetland’s hydrologic

characteristics. Some measures include: 

Remove dams or other water control structures

Fill or plug ditches or drains 

Remove fill that has elevated the land surface

Bring additional water to the site if the current water supply is inadequate. Methods include:

Dig channels to bring water to additional areas

Pumping water in from other sites

Installing pipes to bring in water

Control water levels by installing water control structures. Some structures include:

Open culverts

Culverts with manual or automatic gates

Weirs

Check dams 
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Use the lowest maintenance water control structures possible. Seek structures that allow flexibility in

use and are able to withstand extreme hydrological and climatic (e.g. winter ice) events

Reinstate proper substrate to water level elevations. Some methods include:

If the substrate elevation is too low, allow natural sedimentation to build up the elevation 

a passive method).

If the substrate elevation is too low, import appropriate sediment/soils (an active method). 

Soils may come from upland sites, dredged sites (dredged material), or other wetlands.

If the substrate elevation is too high, excavate to the required level.

Shape and contour your site to re-establish the right relationship between the hydrology of 

the site and its topography. 

If the primary water source is tidal or groundwater, you may need very precise grading because

deviations of only inches can alter the habitat for plants.

Typical Approaches to Improving Water Quality: 

If contaminants are found in the water at the restoration site, check uses and inputs upstream or

adjacent to the site for sewer outflows, other outfall pipes, ditches draining industrial or agricultural

areas, landfills, or areas where junk and trash has been illegally dumped. 

If you find a potential source of pollution contact local authorities for help to determine whether it is

the source of the contaminants and whether it can be cleaned up. Never attempt a clean-up yourself

unless you know exactly what you are removing and you own the property or have the owner’s

permission. If a site contains contaminants in amounts that are toxic to wildlife or humans, have the

toxic materials removed or remediated by professionals.

If the source of the pollution can’t be removed, lessen its impact by:

Implementing “Best Management Practices” (BMPs) to reduce pollution from stormwater 

runoff from developed areas adjacent to the site. BMPs include activities such as labeling 

storm drains, installing settling basins, etc.

Planting vegetated upland buffers to reduce the amount of contaminants, excess nutrients, 

or sediment coming into your site from adjacent or upstream areas.

Selecting plant species that can tolerate the existing conditions.

Routing the water through pools or other structures constructed to allow excess nutrients, 

sediments, or contaminants to settle out or become absorbed or converted to a less harmful 

form by natural processes.

Educating neighbors about pollutant effects on wetlands and asking them to reduce their use 

of fertilizers and pesticides. " 

Typical Activities for Restoring or Changing Soils/Substrates:

If soils are degraded or are lacking nutrients, organic matter or other soil component (often the case

when wetlands are created from excavated uplands):

Do nothing, and see what plants grow at the site.

Amend the soil with materials designed to address the soil nutrient deficiency. There are scores 

of amendment approaches. Talk to a specialist to determine the best one for the problems.

Cover the site with wetland soils salvaged from wetlands that are being destroyed.

If you need to raise the elevation of compacted or eroded sites: 

Let natural sedimentation build up the elevation, if the process is fast enough. 

Use dredged materials to build up the elevation.
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Provide controls against erosion and sedimentation during construction in or near the wetland or

aquatic areas. Common erosion prevention techniques include:

wheat straw (which is longer, thus more stable, than grass/hay straw) 

mulch or bales

fiber blankets

cover vegetation (temporary plantings or seeding)

plastic sediment fences with hay bales (be sure they are ultimately removed and do not 

remain on site or wash downstream). 

Once construction is completed, you may want to delay flooding the site until the exposed soils have

been stabilized with vegetation.

Protect site against long-term erosion. Many methods exist to achieve this goal.

Typical Activities for Establishing a Healthy Wetland Plant Community:

To establish native species for the target habitat type, after establishing hydrology and soil conditions:

Wait a season or two and see what comes in naturally (assuming wetland hydrology has been 

established).

Plant wetland vegetation, using local plants or seeds from local nurseries and seed 

distributors (see USDA’s Plant Materials Program for sources of seeds and plants at 

“http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/”). If you are using seeds, ask for a germination test 

result before you buy.

Salvage plants that would otherwise have been destroyed from local land development, road 

building, or logging operations, and plant them at your site.

Follow plant lifecycle needs, including:

Plant early in the species’ growing season.

Control water, if possible, to help vegetation become established.

Provide irrigation until young plants are established.

Control erosion, add nutrients, and establish cover quickly with a fast-growing “cover species” while

slower-growing plants become established. Use a leguminous species to boost soil nitrogen, if needed.

Never use an invasive or competitive native or non-native species.

Remove non-native species. The wide range of methods falls into three categories:

Mechanical–pull by hand, use a pulaski or weed wrench, use a blade or backhoe, burn, graze, etc.

Chemical–use a pre-emergent or a herbicide for emergent plants.

Biological–use a biocontrol species, host-specific to the non-native exotic plant.

Protect new plants from herbivores. Many methods exist, depending on the herbivore, including:

Fencing the planted area.

Putting wire cages around planted seeds, roots, and shoots.

Put seedlings in plastic tubes, which also keep in water.

Put up perching posts to attract birds of prey that feed on animals, such as gophers, which 

feed heavily on new plants.
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Typical Activities for Establishing a Healthy Wetland Animal Community:

Plant upland species around the wetland to enhance the habitat diversity and act as a buffer. Help with

choosing species for wildlife cover and food, erosion control, etc. can be found on the Plant Materials

Program website at “Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/”, the National Plant Data Center website at

“npdc.usda.gov/npdc/”, and the Center for Plant Conservation website at “www.mobot.org/CPC/”.

Create a variety of habitats - different water depths, different vegetation types - to appeal to a variety

of animals. 

Tailor nesting and foraging habitats to particular native species, especially rare species, based on

information from wildlife specialists and reference wetlands. Typical structures include:

Nest boxes or nesting platforms,

Perches,

Logs and brush,

Islands,

Specific food sources. 

Create a variety of gentle slopes of 3:1 to 20:1 (3:1 means three feet of length for every one foot of

rise) similar to those in the reference wetlands.

Establish connections to other habitats (e.g.,channels connecting to larger water bodies, forested

corridors connecting to wildlife refuges) unless those areas contain invasive species or other threats.
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APPENDIX T-III: Wetland Parameters and Monitoring Methods

Location

Wetland Type

Drainage area

Surrounding land use

Wetland area

Slope

microtopography

Water depth

Flow patterns

Flow rates

Indirect observations

use existing map or create map

with property boundaries, scale,

north arrow, county, state, and

landmarks

classify existing (if appropriate)

and intended type(s) (Cowardin

et al., 1979)

identify USGS hydrologic unit

from state maps or state

watershed unit

estimate % surrounding land

use and photograph major

types w/in 1,000 feet of site

(Anderson et al.,1976)

determine wetland boundary

and use basic survey techniques

to create a map of the site

measure slope at intervals along

a transect

survey elevations every foot or

meter on transects traversing

the wetland

above ground: use staff gauge,

below ground: use shallow well

or 2-3" slotted PVC pipe

direct observation to indicate

major pathways and channels

on map

measure inflow or outflow (if

present) with flumes or weirs,

measure interior flow with

current meters

record observations of highwater marks, drift lines, etc.

classify actual type(s)

estimate % surrounding land

use and photograph major types

w/in 1,000 feet of site (Anderson

et al. 1976)

above ground: use staff gauge,

below ground: use shallow well

or 2-3" slotted PVC pipe and

read on site

direct observation to indicate

major pathways and channels

on map

estimate flow based on rates

typical for the area and

estimated wetland size

record observations of highwater marks, drift lines, etc.

classify actual type(s)

map using GIS and appropriate

base maps

estimate % surrounding land

use and photograph major

types w/in 1,000 feet of site

(Anderson et al., 1976)

delineate wetland boundary

and use basic survey

techniques to create a map of

the site

survey elevations

survey elevations every foot or

meter on transects traversing

the wetland

above ground: use automatic

water level gauge, below

ground: use shallow well or 2-

3" slotted PVC pipe with

automatic recorder

regular direct observation or

aerial photography to indicate

major pathways/channels on

map

measure inflow or outflow (if

present) with flumes or weirs,

measure interior flow with

current meters

GENERAL

CHARACTERISTIC

BEING MONITORED AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE METHOD QUANTITATIVEMETHOD

HYDROLOGY
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Soil depth

Soil color

Soil texture

Organic matter

Sedimentation

dig to compacted soil or at least

18 inches, observe changes in

soil color and structure

use Munsell color chart to

determine color of matrix (the

dominant color) and any

mottles or streaks

use soil texture triangle to

classify based on feel (Horner

and Raedeke, 1989)

lab analysis for percent organic

matter in top layer; include soil

moisture measurement

survey base elevations of

completed project

dig to compacted soil or at least

18 inches, observe changes in

soil color and structure

use soil texture triangle to

classify based on feel (Horner

and Raedeke, 1989)

read changes in sediment depth

from a staff gauge

take soil core to at least 18

inches deep and have soil

expert analyze the soil horizons

and their composition

use Munsell color chart to

determine color of matrix (the

dominant color) and any

mottles or streaks

take a soil core to soils lab for

particle size analysis of the

different soil horizons

lab analysis for percent organic

matter in top layer; include soil

moisture measurement

survey topography or

bathymetry on a yearly basis;

or, take sediment cores on a

yearly basis for analysis by soils

experts

S O I L (SAMPLE USING SOIL AUGER OR PIT)

CHARACTERISTIC

BEING MONITORED AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE METHOD QUANTITATIVEMETHOD

VEGETATION

Species diversity

Coverage

Survivorship

Height

Structure

Reproduction

identify species, document

planting locations

estimate coverage to 10%, map

plant communities

count plants and determine %

of plants alive

identify common species and

note number of unidentified

species

estimate coverage to 10%, map

plant communities

visually determine % of plants

alive

measure heights of particular

plants on a regular basis

count stems and branching of

particular plants on a regular

basis

of particular plants, determine

the number blooming and

setting seed each year

identify all species, native and

non-native

collect plot data along

transects, calculate coverage,

map plant communities

count plants and determine %

of plants alive

measure heights of randomly

chosen plants for a valid

statistical comparison

count stems and branching of

randomly chosen plants for a

valid statistical comparison

determine percentage of

randomly chosen plants

blooming and setting seed

each year; count new seedlings

in randomly chosen plots
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Observations

Habitat evaluations

Species diversity and

abundance

Species survivorship

Breeding success

Rare species

record direct and indirect

observations of wildlife, fish,

and invertebrates

Use Habitat Evaluation

Procedures (FWS 1980) or

comparable method for

selected species

use trapping or point count

methods as required to

determine diversity and

abundance of indicator species

record direct and indirect

observations of wildlife, fish, and

invertebrates

count bird species and their

abundances on a regular (at

least quarterly) basis; ask local

Audubon chapter for any data

record any species breeding on

site and number of young

use Habitat Evaluation

Procedures (FWS 1980) or

comparable method for

selected species

use trapping, point count or

other quantitative method as

required to determine diversity

and abundance of indicator spp

mark and recapture study

use point counts, surveys, or

other protocols to determine

percent of population breeding

and numbers of young

produced

conduct studies as legally

permitted by the jurisdictional

wildlife or resource agency

ANIMALS

CHARACTERISTIC

BEING MONITORED AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE METHOD QUANTITATIVE

METHOD

WATER QUALITY

Water samples

(pH, salinity, nutrients,

pollutants, heavy metals,

etc.)

Sediment levels

when construction is over,

measure appropriate attributes

based on project targets using

field kits, meters, or lab analysis

use field meters or lab analysis

on a regular basis, measure

appropriate attributes based on

project targets using field kits

and/or field meters

observe clarity and/or use a

secchi disk

on a set schedule designed to

show seasonal differences,

measure appropriate attributes

based on project target using

field meters or lab analysis

use field meters or lab analysis
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Appendix T-IV: Definitions of Categories of Wetlands a Conservation Activities

1 Establishment - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics present to

develop a wetland on an uplandb or deepwaterc site that did not previously exist. Establishment results

in a gain in wetland acres.

2 Restoration - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a site with

the goal of returning natural/historic functions to a former or degraded wetland. For the purpose of

tracking net gains in wetland acres, restoration is divided into:

Re-establishment - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics

of a site with the goal of returning natural/historic functions to former wetlandd. Reestablishment results in rebuilding a former wetland and results in a gain in wetland acres.

Rehabilitation - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a

site with the goal of repairing natural/historic functions of degraded wetlande. Rehabilitation

results in a gain in wetland function but does not result in a gain in wetland acres.

3 Enhancement - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a wetland

(undisturbed or degraded) site to heighten, intensify, or improve specific function(s) or to change the

growth stage or composition of the vegetation present. Enhancement is undertaken for a purpose such

as water quality improvement, flood water retention or wildlife habitat. Enhancement results in a

change in wetland function(s), and can lead to a decline in other wetland functions, but does not result

in a gain in wetland acres. This term includes activities commonly associated with the terms

enhancement, management, manipulation, directed alteration. 

4 Protection/Maintenance - the removal of a threat to, or preventing decline of, wetland conditions

by an action in or near a wetland. Includes purchase of land or easements, repairing water control

structures or fences, or structural protection such as repairing a barrier island. This term also includes

activities commonly associated with the term preservation. Protection/Maintenance does not result in

a gain of wetland acres or function.

Current Condition of Land, Prior to Wetland Conservation Activity

a Wetlands (non-agricultural lands): The COE (Federal Register 1982) and the EPA (Federal Register

1980) jointly define wetlands as: Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water

at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a

prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally

include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.

Wetlands (agricultural lands): 1985 Food Security Act. Wetland is defined as land that; 1. has a

predominance of hydric soils and 2. is inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency

and duration sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances does support, a prevalence of

hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. “Normal circumstances”

refers to the soil and hydrologic conditions that are normally present, without regard to whether the

vegetation has been removed. All three wetland criteria, hydric soils, hydrophytic vegetation, and

wetland hydrology, normally must be met for an area to be identified as wetland.
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Wetlands (non-jurisdictional wetlands): Conservation activities conducted on all wetlands that

meet the national standard for classifying wetlands (“Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater

Habitats of the United States”), will be reported even if they are not considered to be regulatory

wetlands. The regulatory jurisdictional nature of a wetland is not relevant to its status for these

accounting activities. 

b Uplands: Uplands are neither deepwater habitats nor wetlands. They are seldom or never

inundated, or if frequently inundated, they have saturated soils for only brief periods during the

growing season, and, if vegetated, they normally support a prevalence of vegetation typically

adapted for life only in aerobic soil conditions.

c Deepwater Habitat: Deepwater habitats are permanently flooded lands lying below the

deepwater boundary of wetlands. The boundary between wetland and deepwater habitat in tidal

areas is the elevation of the extreme low water of spring tides. The boundary between wetlands

and the deepwater habitats of lakes and rivers lies at a depth of 2 meters (6.6 feet) below low

water. If emergents, shrubs, or trees grow beyond this depth at any time, their deepwater edge is

the boundary.

d Former Wetland: An area that once was a wetland but it has been modified to the point it no

longer has the hydrologic characteristics of a wetland. The area is considered to be upland.

Formerly vegetated shallow coastal open water areas are also considered to be “former wetlands”

because when they were converted from wetland marshes to open water areas, this conversion

was considered to be a loss of wetland acreage both by the Fish and Wildlife Service’s wetlands

Status and Trends and Natural Resources Conservation Service’s National Resources Inventory.

Former wetlands include by definition Prior Converted Croplands (PC) and, by determination, other

areas that no longer meet the jurisdictional criteria for wetlands.

Prior converted wetland (PC): Wetlands that before December 23, 1985, were drained,

dredged, filled, leveled, or otherwise manipulated for the purpose of, or to have the effect

of, making the production of an agricultural commodity possible. (National Food Security

Act Manual)

e Degraded Wetland: A wetland with one or more functions reduced, impaired, or damaged due

to human activity. When determining whether or not a wetland is degraded, consider: physical

alteration, including the conversion of a wetland from one system (e.g., estuarine or marine) to a

different system; chemical contamination; and biological alteration, including the significant

presence of non-indigenous invasive species.
The printing of this document was made possible by:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service,

Office of Habitat Conservation

Habitat Protection Division

Habitat Restoration Division

Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds

Wetlands Division