Data from the

NATIONAL HEALTH SURVEY

SelectedGeneticMarkersof

BloodandSecretions

for Youths,12-17 Yearsof Age

UnitedStates

Percentage distributions of nine genetic markers, including ABO

blood type, secretor ability, haptoglobin type, transferring type, and

group specific component type, are presented and discussed by age,

sex, race, geographic region, family income, and parental education

for youths aged 12-17 years in the United States, 1966-70. Some

comparisons are made with earlier published estimates.

DHEW Publication No. (PHS) 80-1664

Series 11

Number 168

US. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

Public Health Service

Office of Health Research, Statistics, and Technology

National Center for Health Statistics

Hyattsville, Md. February 1980
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

LTnited St:ltes. Nationtil Center for Health Statistics.

Selected genetic markers of blood and secretions for youths 12-17 years of age, United

states.

(\Tital and health statistics: Series 11, Data from the National Health Survey ; no. 168)

(DHEIV publication , (PHS) 80-1 664)

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Medical genetics–United States–Statistics. 2. Blood group antigens. 3. Blood proteins. 4. Human population genetics–United States–Statistics. 5. Health surveys-United

States. I. Cohen, Bernice H. II. Title. III. Series: United Stai.es. National Center for

Health Statistics. Vital and health statistics : Series 11, Data from the National Health

Survey, Data from the health examination survey ; no. 168. IV. Series: United States.

Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. DHEW publication ; (PHS) 80-1664. [DNLM:

1. Blood cck. 2. Genetics, 13ttln:~n–Phellotype-111 adolescence. 3. Saliva-S ccrcti(m.

W2 A N148vk no. 168]

RA407.3.A347 no. 168 [RB155] 312’.0973s

IS13N 0-8406 -0171-9 [612’.1] 7!3-607087
NATIONAL CENTER FOR HEALTH STATISTICS

DOROTHY P. RICE, Director

ROBERT A. ISRAEL, Deputy Director

JACOB J. FELDMAN, Ph.D., Associate Director for Analysis

GAIL F. FISHER, Ph.D., Associate Director for the Cooperative Health Statistics System

ROBERT A. ISRAEL, A cting .4ssociute Director for Data Systems

ROBERT M. THORNER, SC.D., A cting Associate Director for Internatiomd Statistics

ROBERT C. HUBER, Associate Director for Management

MONROE G. SIRKEN, Ph.D., Associate Director for Mathematical Statistics

PETER L. HURLEY, Associate .Directorfor Operations

JAMES M. ROBEY, Ph.D., Associate Director for Pro~am Development

PAUL E. LEAVERTON, Ph.D., Associate Director for Research

ALICE HAYWOOD, Information Officer

DIVISION OF HEALTH EXAMINATION STATISTICS

ROBERT S. MURPHY, Director

JEAN ROBERTS, Chiej Medical .Statisfics Branch

JAMES E. KELLY, Dental Advisor

KURT R, MAURER, Acting Chiej ,Sw-vey Planning and Development Branch

DIVISION OF OPERATIONS

HENRY MILLER, Chiej Health Examination Field Operations Branch

COOPERATION OF THE U.S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS

Under the legislation establishing the National Heafth Survey, the Public HeaIth Service is

authorized to use, insofar as possible, the services or facilities of other Federal, State, or private

agencies. In accordance with specifications established by the National Center for Health Statistics, the U.S. Bureau of the Census participated in the design and selection of the sample and

carried out the household interview stage of the data collection and certain parts of the statistical processing.

Vital and Health Statistics-Series 11-No. 168

DHEW Publication No. (PHS) 80-1664

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-607087
CONTENTS

introduction ................................................................................................................................O...OO.....

Background: Rationale and Review of Literature .................................................................................o.

Need for Population Frequency Data on Genetic Markers ................................................................

Genetic Marker Traits .......................................................................................................................

Method ...................................................................................................................................................

Sample Collection and Shipment ......................................................................................................

Laboratory Procedures ......................................................................................................................

Results ...................................................................................................................................................

ABO Blood Types .............................................................................................................................

RH Types ..........................................................................................................................................

RhD ............................................................................................................................................

Rh cc ..........................................................................................................................................

Rh Ee ..........................................................................................................................................

Rh Summary Classifications and Combined classes

ABH Secretor Ability

.....................................................................

.......................................................................................,,......O......O....OOOO.. O..O.

Plasma Proteins .................................................................................................................................

Haptoglobin Types ......................................................................................................................

Transfcrrin Types ........................................................................................................................

Group Specific Component Types ...............................................................................................

Discussion ..............................................................................................................................................

References ..............................................................................................................................................

List of Detailed Tables ...........................................................................................................................

Appendixes

‘I,

II.

III.

Statistical Notes ........................................................................................................................

Demographic and Socioeconomic Terms ...................................................................................

Rh Genotype Combinations Classification ..,.. O...,,...,,...,, .....O.....................................................

1.

2.

3.

5.

6.

7.

LIST OF TEXT FIGURES

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by ABO blood type, race, and sex: United States, 1966-70 .....

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by Rh D type and race: United States, 1966-70 ......................

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by Rh C type and race: United States, 1966-70 .......................

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by Rh E type and race: United States, 1966-70 .......................

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by summarized Rh genotype combinations and race: United

States, 1966-70 ............................................................................................................................

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by ABH secretor ability and race: United States, 1966-70 .......

Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by haptoglobin type and race: United States, 1966-70 ............

1

2

2

4

7

8

8

9

1!

13

14

14

15

17

19

19

21

25

27

29

31

53

57

59

11

13

14

15

16

19

20

...

Ill
8. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by transferring type and race: United States, 1966-70 ..............

9. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by group specific component type and race: United States,

1966-70 .................................................................................................................................... ...

LIST OF TEXT TABLES

A. Number and percent distribution of specified population by blood type, according to race and

area: ABO system, test with anti-A and anti-B antisera ................................................................

B. Number and percent distribution of specified population by blood type, according to race and

area: ABO system, test with anti-A, anti-Al, and anti-B antisera .................................................

c. Number and percent distribution of specified poprdation by secretory ability, according to race

and area: ABH secretion and Lewis systems, sahva tested for ABH secretion ..............................

D. Number and percent distribution of specified population by haptoglobin type according to race

and area: Haptoglobh system, Hp 1 not subtyped .......................................................................

E. Number and percent distribution of specified population by transferring type, according to area:

Transferring system, not more than one variant distinguished in each of classes B and D ..............

F. Number and percent distribution of specified population by transferring type, according to area:

Transferring system, more than one B or more than one D variant present ...................................

G. Number and percent distribution of specified population by Gc type, according to area: Gc system, common types only present .................................................................................................

SYMBOLS

Data not available-—-—-—-— ------- ---

Category not applicable–--–— ----------- . . .

Quantity zero —---———-...—-

Quantity more than O but less than 0.05--–- 0.0

Figure does not meet standards of

reliability or precision .— *

23

25

5

10

18

20

22

22

25

I I

iv
SELECTED GENETIC MARKERS OF BLOOD

AND SECRETIONS FOR YOUTHS 12-17YEARS OF AGE

Bernice H. Cohen, Ph.D., M.PII.~ Wilma B. Bias, Ph.D.F Peter V.V. Hamill, M.D.,MJ’.H.f

Terence A. Drizd, M .S.P.H.S and Earl L. Diamond, Ph.DR

INTRODUCTION

This report presents the frequencies of certain selected genetically determined markers of

the blood and secretions as distributed by race,

sex, geographic region, income, and education.

Data source.–The data were collected during the third cycle of the Health Examination

Survey, which was limited to a proportionately

representative sample of noninstitutionalized

youths aged 12-17 years in the U.S. population.

Cycle I of the Health Examination Survey

was conducted from 1959 to 1962 to obtain information on the prevalence of certain chronic

diseases and the distribution of various anthropometric and sensory characteristics in the

civilian noninstitutionalized population of ages

18-79 in the continental United States. The general plan and operation of the survey and of

Cycle I are described in two previous publications.1 ~z

aProfessor of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health.

bAssociate Professor of Medicine, Johns Hopkins

University School of Medicine.

cProfessor of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine: formerly Chief Medical Advisor, Division of Health Examination Statistics, National Center for Health Statistics.

dAnalytic Statistician, Division of Health Examination Statistics, National Center for Health Statistics.

cProfessor of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health.

Cycle II of the Health Examination Survey,

conducted from July 1963 to December 1965,

involved the selection and examination of a

probability sample of noninstitutionalized children aged 6-11 years in the United States. During this program 96 percent of the 7,417 children selected for the sample were examined.

The primary focus of Cycle II was on health

factors related to growth and development as

determined by a physician, a nurse, a dentist,

and a psychologist and on a variety of somatic

and physiologic measurements performed by

specially trained technicians. The detailed plan

and operation of Cycle II and the response results are described in Series 1, No. 5 of Vital

and Health Statistics. 3

Cycle III of the Health Examination Survey,

conducted from March 1966 to March 1970,

was essentially an agewise extension of Cycle II.

The sample design of Cycle III was similar to

that of Cycle II in that it utilized the same 40

sample areas and the same segments. It was

more similar to Cycle II than to Cycle I in form,

content, and style, and its major emphasis was

on factors of “normal” growth and development

rather than on chronic diseases. During Cycle II,

two separate caravans were used simultaneously

for the first 25 locations; for the remaining 15

locations, the two were consolidated into one

caravan. During Cycle III, however, only one

1
caravan was used for all 40 locations, which

created a different itinermy or sequence of locations around the United States, even though the

identical sites and even primary sampling units

were used again. The average, time interval between locations was about 3 years. The plan and

operation of Cycle III arc described in Series 1,

No. 8 of Vital and Health Statistics.4

Genetic markers examined. –The genetic

markers examined comprise red blood cell antigens of the ABO system and the Rh system (D,

C, c, E, c, and combinations thereof); plasma

proteins including haptoglobin phenotypes,

transfcrrin phenotypes, and group specific component phenotypes; and in addition, a genetically determined marker of salivary secretions:

ABH secretor ability.

Most of the results of the three cycles of the

Health Examination Survey arc published in

Series 11 of Vital and Health Statistics,

BACKGROUND: RATIONALE AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Since E. B. Ford5 first defined the term

“polymorphism,” there has been a growing

recognition of the existence of numerous polymorphic genetic markers and their importance

not only in delineating different genetic

groups6’7 but also in their relationship to differential disease susceptibility .8-11 The differences

in frequencies observed in vm-ious racial groups

and geographic areas have been published in

volumes of tables’ z-’A and individual reports.

These frequencies have been based on evaluations of numerous series of people, including

mainly blood donors and large and small samples

of diverse population groups from various

countries. However, very few samples have been

random or systematic, and none have been systematic representative samples of the U.S. population. Reliable statistics on genetic marker frequencies can be valuable not only as population

descriptors, but also as a means for better understanding host factors in disease etiology and

prognosis. This potential value was the incentive

to incorporate the collection of such data into

Cycle 111.

NEED FOR POPULATION

FREQUENCY DATA ON

GENETIC MARKERS

Field studies are increasingly becoming the

basic epidemiologic approach to the investigation of health problems. For field studies, as

well as for the more strictly genetically

investigations in population genetics,

oriented

accurate

estimates of baseline population frequencies of

simply inherited marker traits are essential.

Moreover, these genetic parameters are very useful as epidemiologic parameters in studies that

are primarily epidemiologic and not necessarily

genetic. Genetic marker traits such as those of

the blood components–red blood cell (RBC)

antigens, plasma proteins, secretor ability, and

so forth—characterize a population and show

\

considerable variation with ethnic and racial

,composition. An important question is whether

genetic markers are also correlated to either the

e~idemiologic agents being examined or those

being controlled.

The need for representative, unbiased esti-

#nates of genetic marker frequencies of a US.

population base may be considered in terms of

(1) the purpose for which these data arc

/ required, that is, their function; and (2) the

: inadequacy of the frequency data presently

available.

Applications of frequency distributions of

genetic markers.–Genctic marker frequency

data are needed for genetic studies that require

estimates of mutation rates, selection, genetic

drift, inbreeding, migration, racial intermixture,

population admixture and consanguinity, as well

as determination of zygqsit y in twin studies.

Although such investigations examine primarily

genetic problems, they provide demographic

descriptors and important information on host

factors applicable to health problems.

Although classical genetic studies are easily

performed - with

genie stocks and

laboratory organisms of is;-

inbred lines where gcmc fre2
quencies

genetics

avuilablc

are known, investigations in human

depend on the relative reliability of’

Population frequency data, because the . .

remaining genetic calcul~tions are based on such

dutu. Inaccuracy of population frequency data

necessarily alters the validity of all statistics

derived therefrom or compared to thcm.

Genetic marker frequencies are also needed

for epidemiologic studies dealing with associations between blood groups and diseases, the

role of genetic factors in differential susceptibilityy to various diseases, differential fertility, mortuhty, response to drugs (pharmacogenetics) and

other extrinsic agents , as well as for studies

attempting to evaluate the role of genetic factc~rs and/or the interaction of environmental and

genetic components.

Especially in chronic diseases, but even in

ttcutc and infectious diseases, there is increasing

rrco~nition of the importance of constitutional

[}r host factors as agents that must be considered in addition to and along with environmental a~cnts. Many of these so-called constitutional risk factors are basically genetic in nature,

w-td thus the relative role of genetic factors in

the etiology of disease concerns not only the

human geneticist but also the epidemiologist.

Individuals with various genetically determined marker traits (often variants within the

normal range) show differential susceptibility to

specific diseases. Even some infectious diseases

such as malaria, for which the causative organism

as well as the vector have been identified, show

differential manifestation in persons of different

~cmotypes, for example, persons with hemoglobin variants S, C, E, K, and h4.

Besides the clear-cut malaria-S hemoglobin

reltitiunship, many studies suggest a differential

sul.c*l}tibility to various chronic diseases among

persons of different red blood cell antigen

~llPt,.Y.6,1 1,15-24 Carefu] examination ~eveal~ that

s~)nlc of the reported associations between blood

~ri~ups und chronic diseases are well established.

H(nvcv(jr, some findings are still questioned because of the use of unsatisfactory controls. The

in~dequocy of blood donor series has been

demonstrated in the observed significant differLmces among hospital donors, Red Cross donors,

and “population “ frequencies used for studies in

th(’ same community .25 Yet investigators have

been hampered by the lack of satisfactory population frequency data for comparison purposes.

Another use for reliable baseline genetic

marker frequency data is in epidemiologic

studies, even where the role of hereditary components per se is not under study, because

genetic markers are valuable as indicators of

sampling reliabilityy. For example, case-control

studies usually should include cases similar to

controls in all characteristics except those under

study or at least cases representative of the same

universe. By comparing the respective frequencies of various marker traits in the cases and controls, these marker traits can be used as indicators to determine any differences between the

two groups. Moreover, the cases and controls

must be compared with each other as well as

with the total population from which they are

believed to be derived because the relative frequencies of genetic marker variants are dissimilar

in different populations, that is, for different

racial and ethnic groups, and even by geographic

area for the same racial-ethnic group. Either

cases or controls may show aberrant frequencies

relative to the reference population; or both

cases and controls, although similar to one

another, may be different from the supposed

reference population.

Thus genetic marker traits are not only

genetic but also epidemiologic parameters and

thereby serve a useful methodologic role in

epidemiology.

Inadequacy of availabk frequency data. –

Probably the most well-known and the best

documented of the genetic marker traits are the

ABO blood groups. In 1958, Mourant, Kopec,

and Domaniewska-Sobczak published The ABO

Blood Groups. Comprehensive Tables and Maps

of World Distn”bution, 13 which was the best

collection of frequencies available; and that

volume subsequently was updated .14 Yet none

of the U.S. frequencies listed therein could be

considered a representative sample of the United

States or of any U.S. geographic region. In the

1958 edition,13 the U.S. frequencies are a ccmglomeration of small samples from heterogeneous sources, some dating as far back as 1907. In

addition to being small in numbers, the samples

comprise mainly blood donors or groups with

other specialized demographic characteristics
(see table A). Moreover, none of the frequencies

listed are classified by sex or other commonly

used epidemiologic categorizations, and, because

they pertain to donors, the frequencies represent

primarily male subjects. Although the updated

tabulations in Mourant’s 1976 edition14 apply

to more recently obtained samples, they involve

the same problems of source selection and so

forth.

The importance of current population-based

statistics cannot be overemphasized. In addition

to the fact that blood typing techniques were

not as accurate in some of the early studies as

they are today, Buckwalter and Knowler26

found secular differences reaching statistical

significance in samples taken in the same hospitals in Iowa over 17 different years, In another

study of blood group frequencies of donors

from two different donor organizations in the

same city during the same time period (Balti-

●

more, July-August 1963), the two samples

yielded significantly different distributions for

white donors.

Although donor samples have often been

used for obtaining “population frequencies,”

especially in Great Britain and other European

countries, for the United States the representativeness of such samples is open to question.

This question exists even for the ABO blood

groups. The frequency data on many other

blood components depend on statistics from the

British population, Norwegian samples, Milwaukee blacks (for S“ ), or Seattle donors (for haptoglobins), representing the “best” statistics

available.

In summary, although some genetic marker

systems have been known for longer than 75

years–ABO blood types were discovered by

Landsteiner2T in 1900–no reliable frequency

data exist on population samples for the U.S.

population’ as a whole, for various U.S. geographic regions, or for subclassifications by age

or sex. Many frequencies reported are derived

from blood donor samples that often are not

representative of the total population as just

indicated.

GENETIC MARKER TRAITS

Erthrocyte antigens–ABO and Rh blood

group systems.–The significance of the ABO

and Rh systems

recognized. The

most important

with regard to health is well

ABO and Rh systems are the

red blood cell (RBC) antigen

systems in terms of transfusion, maternal-fetal

effects, and likely associations between blood

groups and diseases. In tissue matching for transplantation, the ABO system may be as important as the histocompatibility. Consequently,

the ABO and Rh systems were selected for

study. About 10-12 established systems of

genetically determined RBC antigens exist, as

well as the less well-known “private” or family

systems, which involve low-frequency antigens,

and the “public” systems, which involve highfrequency antigens. Although those systems also

may be of medical importance, a large-scale

survey of the public and private systems was not

considered feasible because of their extreme

relative frequencies–high and low, respectively–

and the difficult y in obtaining antisera.

Plasma proteins. –The plasma proteins were

described by HarrisZ8 as “an exceedingly complex mixture of many different protein species

with diverse physiological functions .“28 With

the development of new methods of analysis of

protein mixtures, this heterogeneity has become

more apparent, and certain components or fractions have demonstrated clear-cut genetically

determined differences. Moreover, although

some pathologic types do occur, many components show so-called normal variations that

represent true polymorphisms, just as the ABO

blood group system and other RBC antigen systems do. Many variants occur commonly in

human populations, so that normal persons can

be classified into one type or another according

to the particular properties of the specific proteins involved, By means of simple classical electrophoresis either in free solution or in a supporting medium such as filter paper, agar, or

starch grains, human plasma proteins can be

fractionated into multiple groups.

Individuals possessing variants of a given protein fraction are grouped according to their characteristic phenotype with regard to that protein

fraction, just as individuals are grouped with

regard to their ABO types.

17aptoglobins.-Haptoglobins are plasma protein components that have the distinctive property of completing and forming a stable

compound with hemoglobin, that is, they are

4
Table A. Number and percent distribution of specified population by blood type, according to race and area: ABO system, test with

b

Area and race

UNITED STATES

Colorado, Denver (s) RH.

Connecticut, New Haven

(s) ABH-Seer.

Indiana, Adams County

Indiana, Adams and Wells

Counties

Iowa

lowa, Iowa City (s) S.,C.

Mlch igan, Jackson County

Missouri, St. Louis

New York

New York

Ohio, Holmes County

Pennsylvania, Allegheny

County (s) A,,S,

Pennsylvania, Franklin County

Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh

(s)Schools

Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh

Texas

Utah, Salt Lake City

UNITED STATES WHITES

ABROAD

Japan

UNITED STATES NEGROES

Alabama, Birmingham

Florida, Miami

Iowa

Missouri, St, Louis

UNITED STATES NEGROES

ABROAD

Japan

UNITED STATES CITIZENS

ABROAD

Turkey

anti-A and anti-B antisera

Population

Donors

Students (male)

‘Amish’

‘Swiss’

White donors

Donors (ebout 2%

Negroes)

White Protestant

couples with nonSlavonic surnames

White donors

Volunteer donors

Non-Jewish donors

(from surnames)

‘Amish’

Largaly white

‘Dunkers’

White schoolchildren

White donors

(males)

‘Mexicans’ (from

surnames)

Student donors

Children

Donors

Donors

Donors

Navy

Author

Charney 1969

Niederman et al. 1962

Jackson et al. 1968

Jackson et al. 1966

Buckwalter et al. 1958

Buckwalter & Knowler

1958

Reed & Ahronheim

1959

Sievers 1959

Osborne & de George

1962

Macmahon & Folusiak

1958

McKusick et al. 1967

Kaplan et al. 1964

Glass et al. 1952

Kaplan et al. 1964

Kaplan et al. 1964

King et al. 1955

Mayeda 1966

Furuhata et al. 1954

Casey et al. 1968

Butts 1955

Buckwalter et al. 1958

Sievers 1959

Furuhata et al. 1954

Mizan et al. 1963

Number

3648

1000

892

619

6313

49979

1116

32945

4738

548

1027

3871

228

1578

1959

1597

247

400

610

502

6722

1395

100

253

8100d.type

o A B AB

Parcent distribution

47.1

43.1

15.6

60.6

45.8

44.8

46.3

45.3

42.8

51.3

34.0

41.0

35.5

38.6

42.9

60.2

44.9

38.5

49.5

48.6

49.1

51.1

49.0

41.9

40.4

42.2

64.6

31.5

41.6

42.3

41.7

41.3

38.6

33.6

53.9

41.2

59.2

39.9

37.9

28.3

43.7

42.0

26.9

24.3

26.5

25.3

34.0

43.5

8.9

11.0

11.4

5.8

9.0

9.4

8.4

9.9

13.4

11.3

6.0

12.6

3.1

15.8

12.9

9.0

9.3

13.8

20.0

23.1

20.1

19.3

15.0

9.1

3.7

3.7

8.4

2.1

3.6

3.5

3.6

3.5

5.2

3.8

6.0

5.2

2.2

5.6

6.3

2.4

2.0

5.8

3.6

3.8

4.3

4.3

2.0

5.5

SOLIRCI; : TQble 1,1 in reference 14,
hemoglobin binding. In conventional electrophoresis, they form a part of the alpha2 fraction. When plasma or sera from normal individuals of European ancestry are subjected to starch

gel electrophoresis, three distinct types (l-l, 2-1,

and 2-2) can be recognized as a result of genetically controlled differences in this part of the

alpha fraction.

The relationship of the various types to differential disease susceptibility remains to be

elucidated, but the clear-cut geographic and

population differences suggest that there may be

interesting associations. Quantitative variation in

haptoglobin levels in disease states is well

known, and possible interactions with qualitative variation have been suggested. Although the

absence of haptoglobins occurs as a temporary

pathologic state in certain hemolytic conditions

(ahaptoglobinemia), the absence of haptoglobins

is also found in a certain percent of apparently

healthy individuals in all African Negro populations and in the black American population.

This finding suggests the possible existence of a

“silent” allele in these populations.

The observation of temporary haptoglobinemia and other evidence suggest the importance of haptoglobins in health and disease, but

these findings still remain to be clarified. The

physiologic role of haptoglobin is of interest;

Gib1ett29 suggested that, in addition to being a

hemoglobin binder, haptoglobin might have

other properties, such as the binding of some

other protein or proteins, possibly hormones,

enzymes, or toxins.

Furthermore, the haptoglobins vary quantitatively with various disease states. Regarding

levels of haptoglobins, Giblettzg noted:

“The normal haptoglobin level, expressed in terms of the milligrams of

hemoglobin bound per 100 ml. of serum,

is about 50 to 150 milligrams per ml.

This level is usually increased in diseases

associated with an inflammatory process

or tissue necrosis. Thus haptoglobin

quantitation is not a specific diagnostic

aid, having about the same significance

as the erythrocyte sedimentation level.

“Laure]] and N ymans O in Sweden and

Allison ap Rees31 in England pointed

out that in diseases associated with increased red CCIIdestruction, the haptoglobin level is either decreased or entirely absent .“29

Moreover, there is good evidence of an ,intm--

action between quantitative and qualitative variation in both normal and pathologic states, but

the nature of this interaction remains to be

resolved. The relative quantitative relationship

may be 1-1>2-1>2-2, and quantitative differences as well as qualitative differences may bc

under genetic control .30

Tr&ferrins. –The transferring are another

series of genetically determined protein variants

discovered by the application of starch gel electrophoresis to the study of human plasma.

Transferring is the iron-binding globulin that

forms a part of the beta fraction in conventional

electrophoresis, and thus this component was

referred to as “beta-globulin” in many of the

earlier discussions.

In a majority of racial groups yet studied,

only one transferring, C, is present, although two

transferring can be demonstrated in the serum of

some individuals.

So far, more than nine types of transferring

differing in their electrophoretic mobility have

been distinguished. Transferring moving more

slowly than C toward the anode at pH 8.6,

found in the American black population and in

Australian aborigines, were named “D .“ TylJc

CD occurs in as much as 10 perceht of some

Negro populations. Transferring moving more

rapidly than C were named “B” and have been

found in Caucasians, particularly the Canadian

groups studied.

As for the role of transferring in health and

disease, many interesting possibilities and unanswered questions remain. Although the transferring bind iron, there is no confirmed association with iron diseases. Moreover, the rates of

iron utilization were very much the same for

the different phenotypes, so that no differences

were detected in the transport and utilization

of iron bound to those transferring tested. Cm--

tain bacteriostatic properties have been reported

for transferrins, a fact that raises the question of

possible selective value of transferring variants in

infectious diseases.

Group specific component (Gc) types. –

Another group of protein variants for which

alleles appear to determine the formation of
qualitatively distinct forms are the electrophorcticully distinct types of particular alpha, globulin~~ known as Group specific component

(often referred to as the Gc types). Gc types

were first described in 1959 by Hirschfeld.33

By slight modification of an earlier immunoelectrophorctic technique, he observed qualitative

differences in alphaz globulins of normal human

serum, independent of haptoglobins, The phenotypes arc also detectable by starch gel electrophoresis using a modified technique designed by

Bearn?4 Normal sera are classified into three

different phenotypes: Gc 1-1, Gc 2-1, or Gc 2-2,

A few rare variants have been observed.

The physiologic functions of Gc types are

not yet known, but, as with other genetically

determined components of the blood and body

fluids, their existence and the presence of variants probably are meaningful in health and

disease,

ABH secretor ability. –The ABH antigens

found on erythrocytes are present in alcohol

soluble form on almost all cells of the body,

except possibly nervous tissue. Moreover, about

70-80 percent of Caucasians secrete these antigens in water soluble form into the body fluids–

saliva, seminal fluid, milk, and so forth. These

individuals are called secretors. As first demonstrated by Schiff and Sasaki35 in 1932, persons

who are either homozygous or heterozygous for

the secretor gene (whose locus is completely

independent of the ABO locus) are secretors.

Thus the ability of the ABO alleles to express

themselves in the saliva and body fluids depends

on the secretor locus, and the ABO locus merely

determines which of the ABH antigens are to be

secrctcd.

The importance of the secretor characteristic

in differential susceptibility y to duodenal ulcer is

well documented .Zo-zz Other suggested relationships, such as with rheumatic heart disease, are

controversial.36 -38 Recently, increased risk of

airway obstruction has been reported for nonsecretors as compared with secretors .39

The frequency of secretor ability varies in

different populations, having been estimated at

75 percent for the U.S. white population, 61

percent for the U.S. black population, 100 percent for American Indians, and 86 percent for

Finnish and Danish populations.

In conclusion, the potential usefulness of

genetic marker statistics for epidemiologic and

genetic research, as well as for public health purposes, could be documented at great length; but

for simplicity, three most apparent reasons have

been considered briefly:

(1) The needed population baseline frequen-

(2)

(3)

ties (in a normal healthy population

sample) are not otherwise available.

Such frequencies are essential to certain

types of population genetic studies and

most valuable in many other genetic and

epidemiologic investigations as population descriptors.

Growing evidence suggests that so-called

normal variants in blood components

and other genetic markers may be associated directly or indirectly with differential disease susceptibility and response

to environmental agents (including

drugs), so that providing baseline frequencies to assist further research may

help to define high-risk groups and

clarify the evolution of disease states in

healthy individuals.

At each of the 40 preselected locations (see the afternoon. Except during vacations, they

appendix I for survey design) throughout the were transported to and from school and/or

United States, the youths were brought to the home.

centrally located mobile examination center for After entering the examination center, each

an examination that lasted about 3% hours. Six youth’s oral temperature was taken, and a

youths were examined in the morning and six in cursory screening for acute illness was made. If

7
illness was detected, the youth was sent home

and reexamined later. The examinees changed

into gymnasium-type shorts, cotton sweat socks,

a terry cloth robe; and, for the girls, a light

sleeveless top. All six then proceeded to different stages of the examination, each one following a different route. The 31%-hour examination

was divided into six 35-minute periods, each

consisting of one or more detailed examinations

at a designated station. At the end of each

period, the youths rotated to another station so

that at the end of 3% hours each youth had been

given essentially the same examinations by the

same examiners, but in a different sequence.

Four examination time periods were allocated to

examinations by a pediatrician, a dentist, and a

psychologist (two periods), and the other two

were allocated to a group of examinations performed >y highly trained technicians. This last

group of examinations consisted of X-rays of the

chest and hand-wrist, hearing and vision tests,

measures of respiratory function, a 12-lead electrocardiogram, a submaximal exercise tolerance

test on a treadmill with chest leads to a continuous electrocardiogram, a battery of body

measurements, grip strength measurement,

examination of blood and (on girls only) urine

cultures for bacteria, a school questionnaire, and

a privately administered health behavior and

attitude questionnaire.

SAMPLE COLLECTION AND

SHIPMENT

The ABH secretor types were determined

from the saliva sample collected immediately

after the dental examinations from all subjects

who did not have actively bleeding gums, No

attempt was made to promote more than normal secretion, nor was the subject allowed to eat

or drink during the examination period prior to

the collection of the saliva sample. After collecting at least 2 ml of saliva, 2 drops of 0.2

percent merthiolate was added to the sample for

each 1 ml of sputum collected. The sample was

capped and then frozen at -20° C until shipment.

A venipuncture was performed by the physician at the beginning of the physical examination with the assistance of the nurse, Blood samples for a variety of chemical and laboratory

genetic determinations were drawn from the

anticubital fossa while the subject was supine,

The whole blood for the genetic marker determinations was collected in a 15-ml vacutainer

containing 2 ml of ACD Solution A to prevent

coagulation, and then refrigerated.

The saliva samples were packed in dry ice

and sent to Dr. Wilma Bias of the Johns Hopkins

Immunogenetics Laboratory (then located at the

Baltimore City Hospitals) for analysis. The

blood samples were packed in regular ice and

sent to the same destination.

LABORATORY PROCEDURES

ABO and Rh types were determined by

standard saline tube agglutination with licensed

blood-banding reagents. The indirect Coombs

test was performed on all D-negative cells to test

for presence of the D“ variant. Reverse grouping

using the subjects’ plasmas and known group A

and B red cells was performed to confirm ABO

typing.

Haptoglobin, transferring, and GC groups

were typed after vertical polyacrylamide gel

electrophoresis by using a modification of the

method described by Peacock et al .Ao A 7-

percent gel was used with the buffer system of

Kitchin$ ] Five microliters of an approximately

O.I-g/ml solution of hemoglobin was added to

each 250-pl serum sample. Fifteen microliters

of each sample was inserted in the gel slots, and

electrophoresis was performed for 5 hours at

10 V/cm, After electrophoresis, the gel was

washed in 1 M acetic acid for 15 minutes, then

stained in a 10-percent guaiacol solution for 20

minutes to resolve the haptoglobin bands. This

solution was prepared by adding 20 ml of guaiaCOI to a mixture of 90 ml of glacial acetic acid,

55 ml of distilled water, and 35 ml of 5 N

sodium hydroxide. Immediately before staining,

18 ml of 5 percent hydrogen peroxide was

added to the solution. After haptoglobin types

were determined, the guaiacol solution was

aspirated off the gel; the gel was washed in two

changes of distilled water and stained for 45

minutes with 1 percent amido

cent acetic acid. The gel was

percent acetic acid until the

black in 10 perdestained in 10

background was

8
clear. Transferring and Gc groups were then

determined.

For secretor testing, at least 2 ml of saliva

was collected from each subject, 0.05 ml of

aqueous 4 percent merthiolate was added as a

preservative, and the sample was frozen at

-20° C. Before testing, the samples were thawed,

boiled for 10 minutes, and centrifuged. The

clew supernatant was tested for A, B, or H substance by a semiquantitative agglutination inhibitions test in which 0.05 ml of serial dilutions

of the heat-inactivated saliva was incubated

for 5 minutes with 0.05 ml of a standard dilution of anti-H (Ulex europaeus seed extract) or

tinti-A, or anti-B antisera. Erythrocytes of the

appropriate blood group were. added, the tubes

were centrifuged for 15 seconds at 3,000 rpm,

and the results were graded from O to 4+ agglutination, Zero agglutination indicated positive

secretor status.

Hemoglobin quantitation was performed on

the ACD blood sample?z A small portion of the

blood sample was centrifuged at 15,000 rpm,

and 10@ of the packed cells was blown into 5 ml

of dilute ammonium hydroxide (4 ml/1). The

solution was mixed thoroughly to hemolyze the

cells and saturate the hemolysate with oxygen.

Then the solution was read in a Perkin-Elmer

spectrophotometer at 540 mp. The reading on

the density scale multiplied by the molecular

extinction coefficient of hemoglobin at 540 mp

(14,800) multiplied by the molecular weight

(16,700) multiplied by the dilution factor (500)

gives milligrams of hemoglobin per milliliter of

packed cells. Grams percent hemoglobin of the

whole blood was obtained by dividing milligrams per milliliter by 10 and multiplying by the

hematocrit.

D540/14,800 X 16,700 X 500 = hemoglobin, mg/ml

mg/ml/l ,000 X 100 X hct = whole blood hemoglobin, gYo

The ACD solution used as anticoagulant is

slightly hypotonic, and the red cells absorb

water. This absorption results in a decrease in

the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

(MCHC). The average MCHC of blood stored in

the ACD solution for 7 days is 25.3 as compared

with a normal value of 32 (Technical Manual of

the Amen”can Association of Blood Banks43 ).

To obtain normal estimates, the value obtained

for milligrams per milliliter of packed cells

should be increased by about 20 percent.

RESULTS

The weighted frequency distributions by

race for ABO, Rh, haptoglobin, transferring, and

Sroup specific component types are presented in

tubular form and discussed briefly. Frequencies

arc presented for white and black youths, tabulated by categories of sex and age, geographic

region, family income, and education of parent

or ~uardian, Because genetic marker frequencies

vm-y markedly by race, all data were examined

separately for white and black groups, rather

than combined. The small number of individuals

in the sample belonging to other racial groups

(e.g., Orientals or American Indians) precludes

presentation of sets of tabulations for those

groups separately, and the recognized differences

in genetic marker frequencies preclude pooling

with data for white or black youths. Consequently, the data from “other races” were not

considered.

ABO BLOODTYPES

For samples upon which satisfactory ABO

determinations could be carried out, six ABO

categories are designated: O, Al , A2, B, Al B,

and A2 B; the A type was subclassified into Al

and A2 .

Race. –As might be expected from published

series14~6’44-7s (see tables A and B), U.S. black

youths have a very markedly higher frequency

of B type, more than twice that of U.S. white

youths (21.2 versus 10.2 percent, respectively),

a slightly higher frequency of O (47.5 versus

44.3 percent, respectively), a markedly lower

frequency of A (23.4 versus 35.2 percent, respectively, for Al and 3.4 versus 6.9 percent,

respectively, for A z ) (table 1, figure 1).

Sex and age. –Among white youths aged 12

through 17 years, no significant differences

9
Table B. Number and percent distribution of specified population by blood type, according to race and area: ABO system, test with

Area and race

UNITED STATES

California, San Francisco

Bay

California, San Francisco

Bey

Georgia, Bullock and

Evans Counties

Iowa (s) S., secretion

Iowa, Iowa City

Massachusetts, Boston

(S) S., Rh, MNS, P

Le.K

Massachusetts, Boston

Michigan, Tecumseh

New York City

Pennsylvania, Lancaster

County

Tennessee, Hancock

County and Virginia,

Lee County

Washington, Seattle

(s)S., allergies

West Virginia

Negroes

California, San Francisco

Bay

Georgia, Bullock and

Evans Counties

Georgia, Sapelo Island

North Carolina

South Carolina,

Charleston

South Carolina, James

Island

West Virginia

Population

Whitas

‘Mexicans’

Whites

Controls

Controls

Hospital staff

Whites

Of West European

extraction

Whites

‘Amish’

‘Melungeons’

Whites

Whites

‘Coloured’ (nonIndian)

Gullah

Gullah

anti-A, anti-A1, and anti-B antisera

Author

Reed 1968

Reed 1968

Cooper et al. 1963

Newman et al. 1961

Buckwalter et al,

1962

Sanger & Race

1950-51

Dublin et al. 1964

Shreffler et al. 1971

Milleret al. 1951

McKusick et al.

1967

Pollitzer & Brown,

W. H. 1969

Vanarsdel & Motulskyr

1959

Juberg 1970

Reed 1968

Coopar et al. 1963

Robinson et al.

1967

Pollitzar et al. 1966

Pollitzer 1958

Pollitzer et al.

1964

Juberg 1970

Number

8962

335

333

1261

1355

94

605

8965

5000

215

177

5657

1412

3146

300

78

111

514

151

133

Blood type

o

I

Al A2

I

B AIB A2B

Percent distribution

45.4

55.5

51.7

44.6

43,5

53.2

46.4

43.7

43.8

10,7

35.6

42.4

45.9

49.0

54.0

64.1

65.8

49.8

53.0

54.9

31.9

22,1

29.1

33.6

34,8

36.2

28,6

34.0

30.4

65.1

23.0

34.6

31.4

19.2

16.7

12.8

24.3

13.0

18,5

22.3

8.7

5.1

11.7

7.0

6.5

9.6

8.6

9.6

8.6

8.8

27,3

8.9

9.9

8.5

8,0

9.0

4.5

8.9

7.3

4.8

10.7

13.1

6.0

11.4

11.5

1.0

12,6

9.0

12,6

4.7

7.3

10.6

9,1

19.2

19.3

11.5

2.7

24.7

17.9

15.8

2.5

3.9

1.2

2,5

2.8

0.0

2,6

2,6

3.4

7,0

2.3

2.5

2,7

2.7

0.3

0.0

1.8

1.0

0.7

2.3

O.B

0.3

0.3

0.9

1.0

0.0

1,2

1.1

1.2

3.7

4,5

1.0

1,0

1.5

1,7

2.6

0.9

2.5

2,6

0.0

SOURCk; : Table 1.2 in reference 14.

appeared between males and females or by age: cent for all white female youths, The highest

The ABO distribution appeared quite sim~ar

for males and females of pooled ages and also

did not show any discernible age patterns

(table 1). The highest type O frequencies were

found in 14-year-old maks (46.7 percent) and

13-year-oId females (47.5 percent) and the Iowest in 15-year-oId females (41.0 percent), results

that are neither very different from the 44.3

percent for all white male youths or 43.6 pertype Al frequencies appe&ed in 15-ye;r-old

males and 15-year-oId females (37.7 and 38,4

percent, respectively). Again this result was not

very different from the totals (34.3 and 36.0

percent, respectively) and did not appear to indicate an age-related trend, as the lowest frequency (30.5 percent) occurred in 16-year-old

males. Although the highest type A2 frequency

was found in the oldest males (9.4 percent) and

10
o % AZ B A, B A2 B

BLOOD TYPE

❑ Whitarn.h

❑ White females

❑ Blackmalw

WIBlackfemalm

Figure 1. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by ABO blood type, rece, end sex: United States, 1966-70

the lowest was found in males in the youngest Geopaphic rep-on. –Among white youths,

~roup (5.3 pcrccnt), this trend was not observed re~ional differences are not marked (table .2).

for females, since 16-year-old females had the

lowest frequency (4.6 percent ). The frequency

of type B varied from a low of 8.7 percent in

12-year-old males to a high of 11.5 percent in

15-year-old females.

Among black youths, the ABO distributions

of males of pooled ages and females of pooled

~xcs Were very similar to each other. The highest

frequency of type O occurred in 17-year-old

females (54.7 percent), and a low frequency of

O occurred in 15-year-old females (37.5 percent). The highest Al frequency (31.0 percent)

and the highest A2 frequency (6.6 percent)

occurred in 1tl-year-old males, and the highest B

frequencies occurred in 15-year-old females

(28.6 percent) and males (25.1 percent).

R~latively, the value for type O was h’igh (47:4

percent) and that for type B was low (8.3 percent) in the West Region (p <0.10 for both,

when compared with the corresponding percentages for all white youths); in the Midwest, the

frequency of type B was high (11.5 percent) and

that for A was also slightly above average (35.8

percent for Al plus 7.3 percent for A2 ), but

neither difference was statistically significant

(p> O.1 O). The A values are not surprising in

view of the well-reco,gnizcd high frequency of A

in Scandinavian populations who are more

heavily represented in the northern Midwest

(Minnesota, Wisconsin, etc.). The total U.S. estimates for white youths—44.3 percent for O,

42.1 percent for Al + A2, and 10.2 percent for

11
B–appear consistent with those expected for

white populations of European descent.

Black youths showed much wider regional

variation, possibly associated with differences in

degree of racial intermixture among emigrants

from the South. Although not directly correlated with distance of migration, the West

showed the broadest deviation from the South.

The high frequency of type O in the South (49,4

percent) and Northeast (50.6 percent) and the

high values for B (24.8 percent) in the South

(twice that of the West) were much closer to

African frequencies than were the 39.6 percent

for O or the 12.4 percent for B in the West,

which appear to be quite low. The Al level of

34.3 percent in the West was comparable with

that of white youths across the United States

and almost twice the 17.8 percent for black

youths in the South (p< 0.1 O). The extremely

high Al B value (6.3 percent), giving a total 9.3

percent AB for black youths in the West, although not statistically significant (p> 0.10),

could be associated with transition and intermixture. Previous estimates 4 are quite consistent with the observed total U.S. sample estimates for the black population, 21,2 percent for

B and 47,5 percent for O, although the observed

26.8 percent for A suggests that previous estimates are too high.

Family income. –At the extreme categories,

family income and frequency of type O showed

an inverse relationship among white youths:

Those in the lowest income class (less than

$1,000) had an O frequency of 58.3 percent,

and those in the income group of $15,000 or

more had an O frequency of 39.5 percent (table

2) (p < 0.05). Although very marked in white

youths, the deviation between the end groups

was not so distinct in black youths (48.8 percent in the lowest income group and 29.2 percent in the highest group), and the highest O

frequency (50.7 percent) occurred in the

$3,000-$4,999 category, not very different from

the overall frequency of 47.5 percent. Among

white youths, although the frequencies in the

$3,000-$14,999 categories were similar to each

other, the extreme values were very different

from the estimate of 44.3 percent for total

U.S. white youths.

frequency tended to

income categories,

12

Concomitantly, the Al

be higher in the highest

although the deviation

around the “total” estimate (35.2 percent) was

not great. The patterns were similar with A2. In

black youths, however, the difference in Al frequency between the lowest income group (17.0

percent) and the highest income group (38.2

percent) was quite striking: The latter value was

not only as high as the overall estimate for white

youths, but it was as high as the highest frequency for the white youths.

Education of parent or guardian.–Among

white youths, although the highest frequency of

type O (50.3 percent) appeared in those whose

parent or guardian had the least education and

the lowest frequency (40.2 percent) in those

whose parent had 13-15 years of schooling

(some college), the trend was not consistent, because those whose parent had graduate/professional education had higher O values (table 2).

Consistent patterns were not discernible in the

other blood types. Although the lowest Al frequency (30.1 percent) appeared with 5-7 years

of education, similar frequencies (32.7 and 34.0

percent) occurred at college graduate and at

less than 5 years levels, respectively. The highest

value (38.2 percent) was not very different in

frequency nor in the associated educational level

(13-15 years).

Similarly, among black youths no consistent

trends were observed to suggest a relationship

between ABO blood type and years of education

of parent or guardian. The highest frequency of

type O (57.4 percent was found in those whose

parent had only 8 years of schooling, but the

next highest (57.0 percent) appeared at the level

of 17 years and over, and the lowest frequency

of O (42.9 percent) was observed in the category

adjacent to that with the highest frequency of

O–those with some high school but not high

school graduates. Likewise, Al frequencies

showed no consistent pattern: The lowest (9.7

percent) and the highest (33.7 percent) occurred

in contiguous groups. A similarly erratic pattern

appeared in the frequency of the B blood type.

Clearly, no consistent’ patterns of association

between ABO type and level of parental education among white or black youths exist.

Rh TYPES

The alternate Fisher-Race nomenclature for

the Rh system (Dal, Cc, Ee) was used for data
coding because it did not require the use of subscripts or superscripts and was likely to result

in fewer transcription errors by data handlers.

~\ccordingly, for simplicity, that nomenclature

is also used to describe the results. Tabulations

me presented for Rh D, Rh Cc, Rh Ee, and a

summary code for Rh types is given in table IV

of appendix III,

Rh D

Race, –Consistent with published data,lq the

frequency of the Rh D negative type (D-1) was

much higher among white youths (15.0 percent)

than among black youths (6.0 percent)

(p< 0,001), and thus concomitantly the frequency of D+ was higher among the black group

(93.7 percent) than among the white group

(84.8 percent) (table 3, figure 2). Interestingly,

the frequency of the D“ phenotype was almost

as high in white as in black youths (O.2 and O.3

percent, respectively), although D“ has often

been associated with African or non-Caucasian

ancestry,

Sex and age.–The Rh D frequencies for

white males and white females were very similar,

and no age trends were discernible (table 3).

Black males and females were also similar to

each other with a slightly lower frequency of Damong females than among males for black as

•1White ❑ Black

15.0

&

D+ D- Dv

Rh D TYPE

Figure 2, Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by Rh D type and

race: United States, 1966-70

well as for white youths. As in the white group,

no age trends were detectable in black youths,

and the high frequencies of D- in 17-year-old

black males (16.1 percent) and 15-year-old black

females (10.4 percent) are likely due to chance

variation.

Geographic region. –The highest rates of D+

(85.9 percent) and the lowest of D- (14.1 percent) among white youths occurred in the Midwest Region. The highest frequency of D+ in

black youths appeared in the South (94.9

percent) (table 4). Although it was expected

that the highest D“ rates among black youths

would occur in the South (O.4 percent) and

Northeast (O.6 percent), it was surprising that

white youths of the South (O.4 percent) had the

same rates as black youths (O.4 percent) and

white youths of the Northeast and West had

rates of O.3 and O.2 percent, respectively.

Family income.–The lack of relationship

between the Rh D type and family income

among black youths is shown by the occurrence

of the lowest (2.9 percent) and the highest (9.2

percent) frequencies of D- in adjacent groups:

The lowest income category (less than $1,000)

and the next to lowest ($1,000-$2,999), respectively (table 4). Moreover, the only two recordable frequencies of D“ for black youths

appeared in the $3,000-$4,999 category (O.7

percent) and the “unknown” income category

(1.9 percent). For white youths, the data were

no more informative: The highest frequency of

D- (17.0 percent) occurred in those in the less

than $1,000 category, and the lowest (12.9 percent) occurred in the $3,000-$4,999 category.

Education of parent or guardian. -No consistent trends were discernible with regard to

educational levels (table 4), Among white

youths the highest frequencies of D+ occurred

among those whose parent or guardian had the

least education (89.6 and 90.1 percent) and

among those whose parent or guardian had the

most education (87.9 percent); the highest frequencies of D- appeared among those whose

parent or guardian had elementary but no high

school education (17.5 percent) and among

those whose parent or guardian had attended

college for 4 years (16.5 percent). The latter

group also had the highest frequency of D“ (0.5

percent). The D+ and D- frequencies in black, as

in white youths, showed no discernible trends.

13
Rh Cc

Race.–The marked contrast in Cc frequency

between black and white youths is shown by the

distribution of C homozygotes and c homozygotes. More than 70 percent of black youths are

of the cc genotype and only 1.7 percent are of

the CC genotype; less than one-third (32.0 percent) of the white youths are of the cc type and

more than 17 percent are of the CC type. Thus

only about 27 percent of black youths but 68

percent of white youths carry a C allele, that is,

they show a C phenotype (either CC or Cc)

(table 5, figure 3) (p < 0.001).

Sex and age. –No differences between males

and females in the frequency of distribution of

CC, Cc, and cc genotypes were observed in

either white or black youths (table 5). The

marked differences were in the relatively low

frequency of C-bearing phenotypes and very

high frequency of c-bearing phenotypes in black

as compared with white youths (17.8 percent

for CC and 32.0 percent for cc for the white

group versus 1.7 percent for CC and 72.7 percent for cc for the black group). Although in

white males there was a suggestion of a trend

with age—the highest CC value appeared in 12-

year-olds and the lowest CC in 17-year-olds–

this trend was not observed for females nor was

there any corresponding pattern for cc. In black

youths the frequencies appeared almost random

with no discernible systematic relationship to

age.

80

70

80

50

+

; 40

u

& 30

20

10

0

I

Ii%! White

❑ Bl=k

ao.z

cc cc

Rh C TYPE

cc

Figure 3. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by Rh C type and

race: United States, 1966-70

Geographic region. —The

showed the lowest frequency

West Region

of cc genotypes

for white youths (30 JO versus 32.0 perc&t

mean) or black youths (65.8 versus 72.7 percent

mean) (tables 5 and 6). The lowest frequency of

the CC genotype for white youths occurred in

the South (16.6 versus 17.8 percent total); surprisingly this result was not true for black

youths, for whom the lowest CC frequency occurred in the Northeast (0.6 versus 1.7 percent

average).

Family income. –Among white youths the

highest frequency of CC (20.7 percent) and the

next to the highest frequency of cc (32.9 percent) appeared in the $1,000-$2,999 income

bracket, the same income class in which among

black youths a very high frequency of CC (2.7

percent) and the next to lowest frequency of cc

(68.2 percent) appeared (table 6). The values

were, however, quite divergent and no pat tems

can be detected.

Education of parent or guardian. –Neither in

white nor in black youths did any systematic

patterns of association between years of education of parent or guardian and Cc frequency

appear (table 6). Among white youths a low

(25.8 percent) and a high (37.8 percent) cc frequency appeared in adjacent categories of educational level (5-7 and 8 years, respectively). The

result was similar among black youths: cc values

of 53.5 percent for those with 17 years or more

of parental education and 80.9 perceni for those

with 16 years of parental education.

Rh Ee

Race. –White youths had a higher frequency

of E and a very slightly lower frequency of e

(indicated by their distribution of 3.1 percent

for EE, 26.9 percent Ee, and 70.0 percent for

ee) as compared with black youths (1.2 percent,

17.1, and 81.6 percent, respectively) (table 7,

figure 4).

Sex and age. –As with the Cc frequencies,

with the EE, Ee, and ee phenotypes, very similar distributions appeared among white males

and females, with a just slightly lower frequency

of EE and higher frequency of ee among males

than among females (table 7). In the black

group, the male and female frequency distributions also were almost identical to each other.

14
No age trends were discernible in white or black

youths. The lowest EE frequencies among white

males occurred in the youngest and oldest ages

examined (1.5 percent for those 12 years old

and 1.7 percent for those 17 years old), and the

other frequencies fluctuated erratically. The frequencies among black youths also were erratic–

the lowest ee frequency (72.5 percent) occurred

in 16-year-old black males, the highest (87.9

percent) in 15-year-old black females with no

systematic relationship to age.

Geographic req”on, —No marked regional

patterns were noted for either black or white

youths (table 8). However, among black youths,

the highest frequency of E carriers (EE or Ee)

occurred in the West Region (O.6 percent EE

plus 26,5 percent Ee) and in the Midwest (2.0

percent EE plus 25.0 percent Ee), although

black youths of the South and Northeast

Regions had a low frequency of E bearers. These

findings suggest that the black emigrants to the

West have more white admixture than those who

remained in ttie East.

Family income. –Among white youths, the

frequency curve for EE and ee by family income

appears almost bimodal; the lowest EE (2.9 and

2.4 percent) and the highest ee (72.8 and 72.6

percent) frequencies occurred in the $5,000-

$6,999 and $7,000-$9,999 categories, respectively. Among black youths the highest EE value

(5.4 percent) and next to lowest ee value (70.8

90r

EE Ee ee

Rh E TYPE

Figure 4, Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by Rh E type and

race: United States, 1966-70

percent) occurred in the $10,000-$14,999

income class (table 8).

Education of parent or guardian. –As with

Cc, Ee frequencies did not display trends of

association with educational level of parent or

guardian-outlying values were scattered for

both white and black youths (table 8). In the

white group, low frequencies of ee occurred in

the lowest and highest educational levels (66.1

and 62.6 percent, respectively), and the highest

frequency occurred just two groups from the

latter. Among black youths the lowest frequency of EE (1.0 percent) occurred among

those whose parent or guardian had attained but

had not completed high school, and the lowest

ee frequency occurred in the group with parent

or guardian a college graduate (16 years of education).

Rh Summary Classifications and

Combined Classes

“ The classification of the Rh genotype combinations is given in appendix table IV. Some

categories involved such rare combinations that

no individuals were observed in those categories.

The actual numerical distribution of the sample

by Rh genotype is given in table V. For the

purpose of computing estimates of the population distribution, three cells were combined with

larger cells: (1) The one subject in cell 9 (having

D, C, c, and E antigens) was combined with

those in the 4 cell (having D, C, c, and E antigens) and, in addition, e antigen not possessed

by the added member); (2) the five subjects in

cell 35 (having D“, c, and e antigens) were combined with those in cell 5 (having D, c, and e

antigens); and (3) the four subjects in cell 36

(having D“, c, E, and e antigens) were joined

with those in cell 6 (having D, c, E, and e

antigens). The intraset differences in the last two

sets involving pooling were that one class had D

antigen and the other had D“.

Race. –Among white youths clearly the most

frequent antigenic complex (2) included the D,

C, c, and e reactions (35.4 percent), which in

the black group was somewhat less frequent

(22.7 percent), being second to the 5 +35 antigenic complex involving D, C, c, E, and e reactions (51.6 percent) (table 9, figure 5).

15
50

40

30

20

10

0

1 2 3 4+9 5+35 6+36 7 8 12 13 32

SUMMARIZED Rh GENOTYPE COMBINATIONS

Figure 5. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by summarized Rh genotype combinations and race: United States, 1966-70

In the white group, the second most frequent genotypic c~mb;nation appeared in the 3

category with D, C, E, and e antigenic reactions

(17.6 percent). The next two in order were

category 4 (with antigenic specificity D, C, c,

E, and e) plus 9 (with D“ specificity instead of

D) (14.2 percent) and category 1 “true Rh negative” cde/cde homozygous, at a similar frequency of 14.1 percent. The only other category

in white youths with a frequency greater than

10 percent was 6 (including D, C, E, and e antigens) with category 36 added (containing D“

instead of D) —totaling 12.1 percent. Other categories not having any D specificity added to less

than 1 percent (category 12 at O.5 percent and

category 13 at O.4 percent). Both negative for D

specificity y, category 12, has C, c, and e specificity and category 13 has c, E, and e specificity.

In the black group, besides categories

5 + 35 and 2 (which make up more than 74

percent of the total types among black youths),

only one other had a frequency above 10 percent: Category 6 (having antigenic specificity y D,

c, E, and e which was combined with category

36, the latter having D“ instead of D specificity)

had a frequency of 14.8 percent.

Sex and age. –White males and females were

quite similar in distribution of Rh genotypes

(table 9). Among males, there appeared to bc a

slightly higher frequency of “true ncy@ ivc”

category 1 (15.1 compared with 13.0 percent

for females) with slightly lower frequencies of

4 + 9 (13.7 versus 14.6 percent) and 5 + 35 (1.8

~,ersus 2.9 percent). NO real patterns occurred

with age. In males of the 2 category, lower frequencies were apparent at younger ages and

higher frequencies at older ages. The reverse was

true in the 6 + 36 category; 12-year-old males

had a frequency of 12.6 percent, and 17-ycarold males had a frequency of 9.7 percent compared with the overall male frequency of 12.0

percent. None of the other categories of white

males or females appeared to vary systematically, however.

In black youths also, there appeared to bc

a very similar Rh distribution for males and

females with possibly a slightly higher frequency

of the Rh negative ( 1) category among males

than among females (5.6 versus 3.7 percent), a

lower frequency of the 2 category among males

(21.1 versus 24.3 percent for females), and a

higher frequency of the 6 + 36 category among

males (15.6 versus 14.1 percent). Age trends arc

suggested in the 4 + 9 category of males with an

increase from 1.6 percent in the 12-year-old

group to 3.5 percent in the 17-year-old group,

16
and in the 5 + 35 category, which showed a decline from 58.6 percent in 13-year-old males to

43.2 percent in 17-year-old males, although the

12-year-olds had a mid-low level. No discernible

trends with age appeared in black females.

Geographic region, –Regional variation was

not marked for either white or black youths.

Among white youths, q somewhat elevated frequency of true Rh negatives was found in the

South Region (15.8 compared with 14.1 percent

overall) (table 10). The 2 frequency was high in

the Midwest (37.6 compared with 35,4 percent

overall). However, none of these differences is

significant.

Among black youths, the most noteworthy

deviation was the low frequency of the 5 + 35

category in the West (37.4 percent) and the high

frequency in the South (5 7.6 percent), probably

attributable to differences in racial admixture in

the black population in the two regions as suggested by the marked difference in overall frequency of that Rh combination in black and

white youths (51,6 and 2.4 percent, respectively). The relatively elevated frequency of the

2 category among black youths in the West

Region (29.3 percent) may similarly be a reflection of more racial admixture in the West. The

most puzzling deviation is the high frequency of

category 6 + 36 in the West (22.0 percent) comptircd with the overall frequency of 14.8 percent

among black youths and overall frequency of

12.1 percent among white youths.

Family income. –No systematic trend of

association of Rh genotype frequencies and

family income was observed among either white

or black youths (table 10). In the white group,

thc lowest frequency of the true Rh negatives

occurred in the lowest income group, and higher

frequencies occurred in higher income groups,

although the pattern was not entirely consistent.

A high frequency of the 3 type in the next to

lowest income category (20.7 percent compared

with an overall 17.6 percent) and a high frequency in the 4 + 9 category in the lowest

income group (16.8 versus 14.2 percent overall)

may be due to spurious variation.

Among the black population, high frequencies of the 3 and 4 + 9 types (13.2 versus 1.7 percent ovcrdl and 6.0 versus 1.9 percent) plus a

low frequency in the 5 + 35 category (36.4 compared with 51.6 percent overall) shown in the

highest income group may indicate more racial

intermixture as these values deviate in the direction of frequencies found in the white population. On the other hand, the very high 26.2 percent in the 6 + 36 category in the top income

group is very different from the overall frequencies among both black and white youths (14.8

and 12.1 percent, respectively), and suggests that

many of the observed deviations in small samples are spurious: A total of 15 black youths was

observed in the sample in the group with income

of $15,000 or more, extrapolated in the

weighted distribution to 41,870 individuals in

the U.S. population.

Education of parent or guardian. –As with

income, no systematic trends appeared to suggest an association between Rh type and number

of years of education of parent or guardian

(table 10). Among white youths, a high frequency of the 4 + 9 category in the lowest educational levels (19.1 versus 14.2 percent of overall) is difficult to explain, and other sporadic

elevations and deviations apparently do not represent any meaningful patterns. Noteworthy

and puzzling, however, is the very high frequency of the 6 + 36 category (20.7 versus 12.1

percent overall) in the highest educational level

both because a similarly very high and deviant

frequency also occurred among black youths (in

the 6 + 36 category) at the highest educational

level (23.4 versus 14.8 percent overall). This

deviation parallels that noted in the highest income level in black youths, even more markedly

deviating with income than among white youths.

(In white youths, the 6 +36 frequency in the

highest income level was 13.9 percent, only

slightly above the overall 12.1 percent.) Although these findings with regard to the 6 + 36

category are interesting, the extremely high frequency of 2 (46.5 percent compared with an

overall 22.7 percent in black youths and an overall 35.4 percent in white youths) among black

youths with a parent or guardian in the highest

education class suggests possible erratic sampling

phenomena.

ABH SECRETOR ABILITY

Table C shows percent of secretors compared with nonsecretors in selected population

17
Table C. Number and percent distribution of spacified population by secretory ability, according to race and area: ABH secretion and

Araa

AMERICA

NORTH AMERICA

UNITED STATES

Connecticut, New Haven

(s) ABO

lowa (s)S., A1A2B0

Massachusetts, Boston

(s) LeLe

Michigan, Tecumseh

Washington, Seattle (s) S., ABO,

alIergies

Wisconsin (s) Le and Le

seer.

“ Negroes

(s) Le Le, Le seer.

New York, Harlem

South Carolina, Charleston

(s) Le sacr.

Lewis systems, saliva tested for ABH secretion

Secratory ability

Population

Students (male)

Controls

White controls

Whites of West

European extraction

Whites

Parents (White)

Family matarial

SOURCE: Table 7,1 in reference 14.

Author

Niederman et al. 1962

Newman et al. 1961

Dublin et al. 1954

Shreffler et al. 1971

Vanarsdel & Motulsky 1959

Greenwelt 1961

Miller et al. 1954

Schiff 1940

Cepellini et al. 1959

groups and the literature available on the subject.14

Race. –Despite the overall differences in

secretor frequencies and proportion with unsatisfactory samples (i.e., insufficient sputum or

sputum contaminated by blood, usually from

the gums), the patterns among white and black

youths considered separately were very consistent (table 11, figure 6).

Sex and age.–White males and white females

showed very similar frequencies of secretors

(75.8 and 75.5 percent, respectively) and of unsatisfactory samples (2.3 and 1.8 percent, respectively), and nonsecretors were 21.4 and 22.2

percent of the respective totals. No trends

appeared with age when ages 12-17 years were

examined (table 11).

As among white youths, black males and females were similar to each other, although males

showed a slightly higher frequency of unsatisfactory samples (12.1 percent) compared with 8.8

Number

1000

1261

594

8684

3144

146

111

178

236

Secretors Non.

secretors

Percent distribution

77.3

77.0

73.6

74.6

75.9

80.8

72.1

61.2

75.4

22.7

23.0

26,4

25.4

24,1

19.2

27.9

38.8

24.6

percent for females. Nonsecretor frequencies

were 21.5 percent for males and 24.5 “percent

for females. Again no consistent age patterns

were observed.

Geographic region. –Only 2.0 percent of

white youths but 10.4 percent of black youths

gave unsatisfactory saliva samples, and the largest proportion of the latter (15.1 percent) was

in the South Region (table 12). Among white

youths, the highest frequency of unsatisfactory

samples also was in the South (2.8 percent). The

large proportion of missing data thus makes it

difficult to extrapolate total percent distributions. In total estimates, white youths showed a

higher frequency of secretors than black youths

did (75.7 versus 66.0 percent, respectively);

and this difference is consistent for all regions

except the West (75.4 percent for white youths

and 76.0 percent for black youths).

The highest frequency of nonsecretors was

found among black youths of the Northeast

18
80

70

60

I&- 60

# do

:

30

20

10

01

factory

AflH SECRETOR ABILITY

Figure 6. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by ABH secretor

ability and race: United States, 1966-70

Region (29.4 percent); the lowest frequency of

nonsccretors occurred among white youths of

the Northeast (20.2 percent) as compared with

an overall nonsecretor rate of 22.0 percent (21.8

percent for all white youths and 23.0 percent

for all black youths).

Because of the sizable proportion of unsatisfactory samples, it is difficult to compare percents of nonsecrctors by region. In the South

and West Regions white youths had a higher proportion of nonsecretors; in the Northeast Region

black youths had a higher prevalence of nonsecretors.

Family income. —Among white youths

(except for the lowest income group), a clear

inverse relationship exists between family

income level and proportion of unsatisfactory

saliva samples (from 4.3 percent for those with

family incomes of $1,000-$2,999 to 1.0 percent

for those with family incomes of $15,000 or

more) (table 12). Not only was the proportion

of unsatisfactory samples among black youths

much higher, but the pattern did not appear

related to income levels: 12.8 percent for those

with family incomes of $15,000 or more and

only 1.7 percent for those with family incomes

of $10,000-$14,999. Further emphasizing the

lack of consistent pattern is the occurrence of

the hi~hcst frequency of nonsecretors among

bl:ick youths (31.5 percent) in the $10,000-

$14,999 income group; among white youths the

largest proportion of nonsecretors was observed

in the next to lowest income group.

Education of parent or guardian. –Among

white youths, the frequency of unsatisfactory

samples is inversely related to education of

parent or guardian-the highest frequency (6.6

percent) occurred among those youths whose

parent or guardian had 5-7 years of education

and the lowest value (O.5 percent) occurred

among those whose parent had 17 years or more

of education. Among black youths, however,

not only is the frequency of unsatisfactory samples higher but the pattern is erratic: 15.6 percent for those whose parent or guardian had 5-7

years of education and 14.5 percent for those

whose parent had some high school education.

No other consistent patterns of association

are observed between the secretor frequencies

and education levels. Whereas the highest frequency of nonsecretors (38.2 percent) was

found among black youths with 8 years of education of parent or guardian, the highest nonsecretor frequency in white youths (24.7 percent ) occurred in the highest education level.

PLASMA PROTEINS

Haptoglobin Types

Table D presents the distribution of and

available literature on haptoglobin (Hp) types in

selected U.S. populations.1 4

Race. –Black youths showed twice as high a

frequency of 1-1 types as white youths did (32.2

versus 16.4 percent, respectively) but less than

half as many 2-2 phenotypes (13.3 versus 32.8

percent, respectively) ‘(table 13, figure 7). Although the frequency of 2-1 individuals was not

strikingly different among white (46.8 percent)

and black (39.4 percent) youths, black youths

had a much higher frequency of “other” types,

that is, other than 1-1, 2-1, or 2-2 (12.1 percent

as compared with only 1.9 percent for white

youths) (p< 0.001). Thus, type 2 appeared to

occur much more frequently in white youths

than in black youths (about 80 percent for

white youths as compared with about 53 percent for black youths) (p < 0.001); type 1 was

more prevalent in black individuals (72 percent

for black youths versus 63 percent for white

youths) .

19
Table D. Numbw and percent distribution of specified population by haptoglobin type according to rece and area: Haptoglobin system, Hpl not subtyped

Area and race

UNITED STATES

Georgia, Bullock and Evans Counties

Illinois, Chicago

Maryland, Bethesda

Michigan, Ann Arbor

Michigan, Ann Arbor

Michigan, Tecumseh

Michigan, Tecumsch

Washington, Seattle

Tennessee, Hancock County, Virginia, Lee

County

Negroes

California

Georgia, Bullock and Evans Counties

Georgia, Sapelo Island

Illinois, Chicago

Michigan, Ann Arbor

Ohio, Cleveland, Washington, Saattla

New York City

Texas, Austin

Washington, Seattle

SOURCE: Table 36,1 in reference 14.

PooulatiOn

‘Hutterites’ (parents)

Whites

Whites

Whitas (mostly males)

Whites

Males

Whites of West European origin

Parents

White donors

‘Melungeons’

Parents selacted for sickle ce!l

Hemoglobin in at least one

Donors

501-

“’1 n ❑ White

❑ a,sck

1.1 2.1 2.2 Other IJnsms Not done

facmry

HAPTOG LOa IN TYPE

Figure 7. Percent of youths 12-17 yeers old, by haptoglobin

type and race: United States, 1966-70

Author

Kirk 1971

Cooper et al. 1963

Shih & Hsia 1969

Queen & Peacock 1966

Sutton et al, 1959

Bayani-Sioson et al. 1962

Shraffler et al. 1971

Kirk 1971

Giblett & Brooks 1963

Poll itzer & Brown. W.H. 1969

Harris et al. 1959

Cooper et al. 1963

Parker & Beam 1961

Shih & Hsia 1969

Sutton et al. 1959

Giblett & Steinberg 1970

Parker & Beam 1961

Sutton & Karp 1964

Giblett & Brooks 1963

tiumber

54s

145

101

192

68

161

7649

271S

409

111

51

167

38

101

4s

176

100

249

1657

Haptoglobin type

HP1-1 HP2-1 HP2.2 Other

Percent distribution

26.6

18.6

17.s

12.5

13.2

14.3

17.1

17,9

13.2

14.4

41.2

2s. 7

55.3

29.7

35.4

25.3

36.0

29.7

26.5

46.5

44.1

50.5

44.3

68.s

47.8

4s.s

47.2

50.4

46.8

27.5

36.5

36.S

46.5

35.4

39.3

35.0

34.5

36.7

26.6

35.9

31.7

43.2

27.9

37.9

33.7

34.9

36.4

36.9

19,6

25.1

5.3

23.S

1s.s

17.4

19.0

20.1

16.5

0.4

11.8

9.6

2.6

10.4

16,0

10.0

15.7

14.3

Sex and age. –Among white youths, the

haptoglobin phenotype frequencies for males

and females were strikingly similar: 16.4 percent

for 1-1, 47.3 percent for 2-1, and 32.1 percent

for 2-2 in males as compared with 16.5, 46.3,

and 33.6 percent, respectively, for ~vhite

females. Among black youths, the distribution

of phenotypes for males and females was not

quite as similar. Black youths showed much

higher rates of 1-1: 34.9 percent for males and

29.6 percent for females with oppcxite de\’iiitions for 2-1 (35.5 percent for males and 43.2

percent for females) and 2-2 ( 11.0 percent for

males and 15.4 percent for females). Thus the

Hp phenotype frequencies for black youths Jvcre

very different from those for white ):ouths; the

1-1 type was about half that for lvhitc incli\iduals and 2-2 Tvas twice or three timrs IIMI [>1)-

served in white youths.

20
Among white youths, an inverse relationship

lxtwcen the frequency of 1-1 and age in males

was observed, as well as an increase in 2-1 and

2-!2 frequency with age, but the pattern was not

so regular in females; nor did any other suggested associations with age appear in white or

black youths. The most marked variations were

the persistent black-white differences in phenotype frequency: twice as high a frequency of 1-1

in black as in white youths (32.2 versus 16.4

pm-cent, respectively) and less than half the frequency of 2-2 (13.3 versus 32.8 percent, respectively). The absence of a male-female difference

in white youths with suggested deviation in

black youths may just represent random variation due to the smaller sample size of the latter.

Geographic region. –B y region, the haptoglobin phenotypes were remarkably similar for

white youths, 1-1 possibly being slightly lower

in the Northeast and South Regions (table 14).

Among black, youths, however, the regional variation was much more discernible. Black youths

of the Midwest~nd Northeast Regions had 1-1

frequencies of 37.5 and 34.9 percent, respectively; those in the West had a frequency of 20.8

percent for 1-1, closer to the white frequency of

16.4 percent than to the black of 32.2 percent;

their 2-2 frequency (20.3 percent) in the West

was much higher than the frequency for all

black youths (13.3 percent) but lower than that

for all white youths (32.8 percent). However,

black youths in the West showed the same high

frequency (12.7 percent) of “other” types as

noted for allblack youths.

Family income,–No discernible trends suggesting any relationship between haptoglobin

phenotypes and family income, either in white

or black youths, were noted (table 14). A few

deviant cells appeared but whether these indicate associations or were the results of random

variation is not evident. Among white youths,

the highest frequency of 1-1 occurred in the

income group $1,000-$2,999 (20.8 percent),

and the lowest frequency (14.9 percent)

appeared in the adjacent income group $3,000-

$4,999. The pattern of extreme frequencies in

adjacent income groups was similarly noted with

2-2 (26.1 percent in the $1,000-$2,999 group

and 34.0 percent—the penultimate frequency—

in the next income bracket, $3,000-$4,999).

Furthermore, among black youths the findings show no apparent associations between

haptoglobin phenotypes and family income. In

the group $15,000 or more, the 1-1 phenotype

frequency (42.7 percent) was quite high but in

the group directly below it, the frequency was

quite low (19.1 percent). Moreover, in the

$15,000 or more group the 2-1 heterozygote

frequency (18.8 percent) was very low. Because

no systematic patterns appear, this variation

probably is random.

Education of parent or guardian. –Among

white youths no clear-cut association appeared

between Hp type and educational level of parent

or guardian (table 14). The highest frequency of

1-1 (21.3 percent) appeared in those with the

least parental schooling (less than 5 years) and

the lowest (14.5 percent) among those with 12

years of parental schooling; considerable variation occurs in-between, and no real pattern is

discernible. Among black youths, the 2-2 phenotype was highest in those with more than 4

years of parental education beyond the high

school level (52.9 percent in the category 17

years or more and 21.5 percent at the level of

16 years). However, the lowest frequency (8.6

percent) occurred in the 12-year category.

Phenotype 1-1 showed an even more erratic

pattern. Thus in black as in white youths, Hp

phenotype and level of parental education evidently are not correlated.

Transferring Types

The distribution of transferring in selected

populations and related available literature are

presented in tables E and F.

The usual transferring phenotype is CC,

which is reported to occur in more than 95 percent of white youths and more than 90 percent

of black youths. The frequency of variants is so

low, especially in the white group, that patterns

and trends are difficult to observe. The observations, however, are presented in tables 15

and 16.

Race. –The racial differences in variant type

and frequency are noteworthy. Type B is the

main variant occurring in white persons and D is

the main variant in the black population.

21
Table E. Number and percent distribution of specified population by transferring typa, according to area: Transferring system, not more

than one variant distinguished in each of classes B and D

Area

AMERICA

NORTH AMERICA

UNITED STATES

Arizona, between Ajo and Tucson

Arizona, Gila Valley

Florida

New York, Cattaraugus Reservation

New Mexico

Illinois, Chicago

Michigan, Tecumseh

South-East

Georgia, Bullock and Evans

Counties

Georgia, Sapelo Island

I Ilinois, Chicago

New York City

Population

Papago

Pima (full blood)

Seminole

Seneca

Zuni

Whites

Whites (of West

European origin)

Negroes (donors)

Negroas

Negroes

Negroes

Negroes

Author

Brown & Johnson 1970

Maison et al. 1968

Pol[itzer et al. 1970

Doeblin et al. 1968

Brown & Johnson 1970

Shih & Hsia 1969

Shreffler et al. 1971

Roop et al. 1968

Cooper et al. 1963

Parker & Beam 1861

Shih & Hsia 1969

Parker & Beam 1961

Number

541

247

375

112

654

101

7654

418

133

38

101

99

<

Transfcyrin type

c BC DC B D

Percent distribution

96.3

93.5

100.0

100.0

80.9

100.0

98.8

95.5

90.2

73.7

92.1

89.9

3.3

6.5

18.5

1,1

-

0.4

0.6

0.1

4.5

9.8

26.3

7.9

9.1 1.0

SOURCE: Table 37.1 in reference 14.

Table F. Number and percent distribution of specified population by trpnsferrin type, according to area: Transferring system, more than

one B or more than one D variant present

AMERICA I POLYNESIA

Place UNITED STATES I

MEXICO

Southeast Georgia, Bullock and Veracruz, Tamiahua

Evans Counties

HAWAI IAN ISLANDS

Population Whites Males Nahua (s) G., T. Mixed and miscellaneous

(s)

Authors Roop et al. Cooper et al. Lisker et al. Lisker et al.

1968

Beckman et al.

1863 1969 1867 1964

Number

Percant

2221 107 I 109 355

c 98.8 96.3 95.4 96.6

BC 0.8 0.9 1.8 3.4

DC 0.5 1.9 2.8

Other 0.0 0.9

684

97.4

0,3

2.3

SOURCE: Table 37.2 in reference 14.

22
As the variant alleles are very rare, no homozygotes even for D in black persons or B in white

persons would be expected to be observed in

numbers adequate for extrapolation to the population. Therefore, as an index of variation

associated with various characteristics—age, sex,

family income, and education of parent or

guardian-BC frequency in white youths and DC

frequency in black youths are used (table 15,

figure 8).

Sex and age. –White males and females have

very similar frequency distributions of transferringtypes (table 15), Among white males, 96.7

percent were of the usual or CC type, 1.4 percent carried a B variant and were BC type, and

0.6 percent were of DC type, that is, carrying

the D variant, which is more common in black

persons. White females showed a similar distribution, the slightly lower frequencies of CC

(95.4 percent), BC (1.2 percent), and DC (0.4

percent) types deriving primarily from the additional 1.7 percent with no blood sample (2.3

percent for females compared with 1.2 percent

for males) or with unsatisfactory samples (0.7

percent for females versus O.1 percent for

males). “Other” variants in white youths were

observed in males (at a very low frequency of

0.1 percent) but no; in females. -

1s0 -

90 -

130-

70 -

60 -

e

z

50 -

%

u

H! 40 -

30 -

20 -

10 -

0 —

factory dme

TRANSFERRING TYPE

Figure 8. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by transferringtype

and race: United States, 1966-70

No systematic age patterns appeared. In

white males, a low frequency of BC variants

occurred in the 14- and 15-year-olds (O.9 percent and O.6 percent, respectively, compared

with an overall frequency of 1.4 percent for

white males aged 12-17 years) and a high frequency of DC in 15-year-olds (1.1 percent compared with an overall frequency of 0.6 percent

for those aged 12-17 years). In white females, a

low frequency of BC was noted in 12- and 13-

year-olds (0.4 and O.9 percent, respectively,

compared with an overall frequency of 1.2 percent for white females aged 12-17 years).

The frequency distribution of transferring

types was very similar for black males and black

females. However, although the very slight malefemale difference in unsatisfactory (i.e., hemoIyzed) samples and absence of samples was

negligible, it could account for the slight deviation in frequency of CC types, 91.7 percent for

males and 90.0 percent for females. For males,

2.1 percent, had missing samples, and of those

obtained O.2 percent were listed as unsatisfactory; for females, 2.6 percent did not have samples, and of those obtained 1.0 percent were

unsatisfactory.

With frequencies of 91.7 percent for CC, no

BC, 5.8 percent for DC, and 0.2 percent for

“other” types in black males and 90.0 percent

for CC, O.3 percent for BC, 5.7 percent for DC,

and O.4 percent for “other” types in black females, any slight deviations are obviously within

the bounds of random variation. No real age

trends were discernible. A high frequency of DC

in 12-year-old males (10.1 percent) is almost

twice the overall black male frequency of 5.8

percent; 2.8 percent in 17-year-olds is only onehalf the overall frequency; nevertheless, considerable variation occurred in ages 13 through 16,

a result that does not fall into a systematic trend

of decline with age. No noteworthy patterns ‘

occurred in females. Only females had any BC

variants (12- and 14-year-olds). “uther” variants

appeared in 14-year-old males and 12- and 17-

year-old females.

Geographic regz”on.-In white youths, the

highest frequency of BC (2.0 percent) was found

in the Midwest Region and the lowest was found

in the Northeast (O.7 percent), as compared with

an overall 1.3 percent for white youths (table

23
16). That the high frequency in the Midwest

may be real and possibly a function of ethnic

distribution of white population in that region is

suggested by the finding that the only region of

the United States with detected—or detectable—

BC frequencies in black youths (1.0 percent)

was the Midwest. This finding possibly indicates

that the B variant is more frequent in that region

in some ethnic groups. Possibly, then, its occurrence in black youths in that area—and that area

primarily–results from racial admixture perhaps

occurring at the usual levels there. Nevertheless,

in that area of high B this result would be reflected in its appearance in the black group of

the region also. On the other hand, the lowest

frequency of DC in white youths was found in

the Midwest (O.3 as compared with 0.5 percent

overall for all white youths. This result suggests

little blrck intermixture there, whereas black

youths in the Midwest had relatively high DC

frequencies (6.5 compared with 5.8 percent

overall for black youths). Mixture would not

be expected to be unidirectional! That the

highest frequency of DC in white youths was

observed in the South (O.7 percent) is not as

surprising, because the highest black frequency

of DC is in the South (6.8 percent). The combination of a somewhat high DC frequency in

white youths occurring in the West (O.5 percent)

with the very lowest DC frequency in black

youths occurring in the West (3.3 percent) is

not surprising in that the genetic marker patterns throughout suggest much racial admixture

in black persons in the West, and thus likely

more ongoing racial mixture there than in other

regions. This situation tends to push the black

frequencies closer to those of the white population and vice versa, although the latter would be

less readily discernible because of differences in

the population sizes involved. To add to the puzzling findings in the Midwest is the observation

that the highest frequency of “other” variants

for black or white youths occurred in black

youths of the Midwest (O.6 percent).

Family income. –No really systematic associations between transferring variant types and

family income can be detected (table 16). In

white youths, a possible higher frequency of BC

variants with higher income appeared. In the

lowest income group (less than $1,000 per year),

24

no variants were noted, and in the highest income group, 1.4 percent were BC, compared

with an overall frequency of 1.3 percent,

although the highest frequency (1.4 percent)

also occurred in the $7,000-$9,999 group.

Except for the two lowest income categories,

the reverse seems to happen with regard to DC

variant: The highest frequency appeared in the

$3,000-$4,999 range (1.0 percent, twice the

overall O.5 percent) and the lowest (O.1 percent)

in the highest income bracket in white youths.

Among black youths, the frequencies of

variants were more erratic. The only bracket

showing any BC (1.0 percent) was the $5,000-

$6,999 group, which is the bracket having the

highest frequency of DC (9.0 compared with

5.8 percent overall frequency), although relatively high frequencies of DC (6.4 percent) were

found in the two lower income categories. Concomitantly, 6.1 percent DC was observed in the

top income bracket with only 1.7 percent observed in the next to highest income bracket.

Clearly, in black youths no association exists

between family income and frequency of transferring variants.

Education of parent or guardian. –The findings with regard to education of parent or

guardian and transferring are not only not

indicative of systematic associations but also are

somewhat inconsistent with the observations

concerning family income, emphasizing the

likely spurious nature of the transferring relationship. Although education and income tend to be

associated with one another, this association did

not appear with regard to the frequency of BC

variants in white youths where there was a suggested trend toward association of higher BC

frequency with higher income. With regard to

education, except for the category of less than

5 years, where no BC variants were observed, the

lowest BC frequencies (O.5 and 0.9 percent)

appeared in the two categories with the most

years of education: 16 years and 17 years or

more, respectively. The highest BC frequencies

(1.8 and 2.3 percent) occurred in categories

13-15 and 8 years, respectively, of parental education reported. DC frequencies among u41itc

youths were similarly erratic and inconsist cmt:

The

(1,0

highest DC frequency among \vhitc youths

percent) appeared in the group with 8 years
of parental education, but those reporting 16

years had a DC frequency of O.1 percent, and

those in the highest educational category did not

show any DC phenotypes at all. The overall

frequency for white youths was 0.5 percent.

Among black youths, the highest frequency

of DC (6.4 compared with 5.8 percent overall)

appeared in the group whose parents had only

elementary (8 years) education (with the exception of 22.0 percent for the group with 16 years

of parental education, doubtless a sampling

problemf ). Among those educational categories

for which frequencies could be computed, the

lowest frequency of DC in black youths (4.9

percent) occurred in the categories of less than

5 years and 12 years of schooling. Only one

category, 13-15 years of parental education,

showed any BC variants (3.1 percent).

Group Specific Component Types

Table G presents the distribution of group

specific component (Gc) types in selected populations and related available literature.lA~GTYgg,100

fOnly 11 black youths had a parent with 16 years

of education, and 2 were DC variants; thus the weighted

frequency was 22.0 percent, whereas the frequency was

5.0 percent in the preceding category of 13-15 years and

O percent in the next highest and top category 17 years

or more.

Race. –Group specific component, Iike the

other genetically determined serum proteins,

shows racial differences in allele frequencies

(table 17, figure 9). About 94 percent of black

youths and slightly fewer white youths (about

90 percent) carry a 1 allele (p< 0.001). More

than 75 percent of black youths (75.5 percent)

were 1-1 homozygotes, but two-thirds as many,

only slightly more than 50 percent, of white

youths were (p <0 .001). More than twice as

many white youths (38.5 percent) as black

youths (18.6 percent) were 2-1 heterozygotes;

so[n75.5

~

70 ~

.......

1 ,,72.3

0.1 0.0 0.40.15 -

2.1 2.2 Variant Unsstis. Not

factory done

GROUP SPECIFIC COMPONENT (Gc) TYPE

Figure 9. Percent of youths 12-17 years old, by group specific

component type and race: United States, 1866-70

Table G. Number and parcent distribution of specified population by Gc type, according to area: Gc systam, common types only

present

Area

AMERICA

NORTH AMERICA

UNITED STATES

Massachusetts, Boston (s)S.

Michigan, Tecumseh

New York City

New York City

Population

Controls

Whites of West

European origin

Whites

Negroes

Author

Murray, R.F. & Robinson

1968

Shreffler et el. 1971

Cleve & Beam 1961

Cleve & Beam 1961

Number

407

7658

122

144

Gc type

1-1 2-1 2-2

Percent distribution

57.5

51.1

51.6

BO.6

35.9

41.0

40.2

17.4

6.6

8.0

8,2

2.1

SOURCE: Tdble 38.1 in reference 14.

25
7.4 percent in the white group were 2-2 homozygotes and O.1 percent were- other variants as

compared with only 3.0 percent in the black

group who were the 2-2 type and none who

were detected as other types. About 2 percent

of white youths aql 3 percent of black youths

had no blood samples available for determinations or produced unsatisfactory samples

(among white youths, 1.7 percent without blood

samples and O.4 percent with unsatisfactory

samples compared with 2.3 percent without

blood samples and O.6 percent with unsatisfactory samples among black youths).

Sex and age,–The frequency patterns of

group specific component for white male and

female youths were extremely similar to each

other (table 17). The slightly lower frequencies

for the females derive from the slightly higher

frequency of absent samples (2.3 versus 1.2 percent), unsatisfactory samples (O,7 versus O.1 percent), and other phenotypes (O.1 percent versus

none detected) in females as compared with

males.

No systematic trends in Gc frequencies

appeared with age in either white males or white

females aged 12-17. The low frequency of 1-1 in

12-year-old males (50.3 percent) and the high

frequency in 17-year-olds (56.4 percent) suggests a pattern of increase with increasing age,

but it does not follow completely in males and

was not observed at all in females. A high frequency of 2-2 phenotype was found in 14-yearold males (8.5 percent) and 15-year-old females

(9.2 percent). Highest frequencies of 2-1 heterozygotes in younger males, especially those aged

13 (40.3 percent) and also those aged 12 and

15, may be sporadic despite low frequencies in

17-year-olds (36.2 percent).

Among black youths, as in white, the male

and female frequency distributions- are almost

identical to each other, and again the very minor

deviations likely come from the slightly higher

frequency of missing and/or unsatisfactory samples among females than among males (3.6 versus 2.3 percent).

Again no systematic differences occurred

with age. High frequencies of 1-1 occurred in 14-

and 15-year-old females (81.4 and 82.7 percent,

respectively) and 15-year-old males (82.9 percent), but these are not part of any real trend

with age in males or females (the other frequencies wavered around the overall values). High

frequencies of 2-2 in 16-year-old females (4.5

percent) were outstripped by 16-year-old males

(9.4 percent) adjacent to very low values ‘for

15-year-old males (O.8 percent) and also low

values for 15-year-old females (1.5 percent ).

Whether the highs and lows in both sexes are

sporadic and coincidental or indicate selection

for a single year (possibly due to some infection,

epidemic, or subclinical manifestation) is not

clear, but certainly they do not coincide with

age trends functioning over longer spans.

Geographic region, –Among white youths,

the lowest frequency of 1-1 types occurred in

the South Region (49.3 percent) and the highest

in the West (53.6 percent) compared with an

overall white frequency of 51.9 percent (table

18). White youths from the South showed the

highest frequency of 2-1 heterozygotes (41.2

compared with 38.5 percent overall white frequency) and the lowest frequency of 2-2 homozygotes (6.0 compared with 7.4 percent overall

white frequency).

Regional frequencies in the black group are

as puzzling as those in the white group and are

not as consistent as the red blood cell antigen

frequencies in suggesting more racial intermixture in the black population in the West than in

the South or Northeast. Overall, black youths

had much higher frequencies of 1-1 phenotype

than white youths did (75.5 versus 51,9 percent,

respectively), yet the highest frequency of 1-1

in black youths occurred in the Midwest (79.3

percent) and not in the South, which surprisingly had the lowest 1-1 frequency of the black

group in any region (73.8 percent). This finding,

however, is not inconsistent with the low frequency of 1-1 in white youths in the South

(49.3 percent) and may be related to racial intermixture with southern white persons who come

from European ethnic stocks with a low frequency of the 1 allele. Another possibility, of

course, is geographic selection pressures against

the 1 allele.

Still another puzzling observation is the very

low frequency of 2-2 among black youths in

the West Region (1.8 percent), which, instead of

falling between the overall frequencies for white

(7.4 percent) and black (3.0 percent) youths, is

26
even more divergent from white frequencies

than those of black youths from other regions.

.Only the high heterozygote (2-1) frequency

among black youths in the West (20.8 percent),

higher than for other black youths and in the

direction of the overall white frequency of 38.5

percent, shows the suggestions of more racial

intermixture in the black population in the West

noted in the discussion of red blood cell

frequencies.

Family income. –No real trends of family

income in relation to group specific component

phenotype are discernible. Very high and very

low frequencies of specific phenotypes were

observed in adjacent income brackets (table 18).

Among white youths, the highest frequency

of 1-1 (55.4 percent) was found in the lowest

income group (less than $1,000); the next income level ($1,000-$2,999) showed the lowest

1-1 frequency (46.8 percent; the highest income

level ($ 15,000 or more) had a frequency (48.4

percent) similar to that in the next to the lowest

income bracket. Similarly, in regard to 2-1

heterozygotes, whereas the lowest income level

had the lowest frequency (34.9 percent), the

next income bracket had next to the highest frequency (41.9 percent), not very different from

the highest 2-1 frequency (42.4 percent) found

in the highest income bracket. A rather high

frequency of 2-2 was found in the next to lowest income bracket (9.0 percent) compared with

an overall white frequency of 7.4 percent.

The frequency of 2-2 in black youths was

highest in the income bracket listed as

“unknown” (4.7 percent), approaching the 7.4

percent overall white frequency and not very

different from the overall black frequency of

3.0 percent. In phenotypes of black, as in white

youths, very different frequencies appeared in

adjacent income brackets: The highest 1-1

phenotype frequency (87.3 percent) occurred

in the highest income bracket, and the next to

lowest 1-1 frequency (70.0 percent) occurred

in the adjacent next to highest income bracket.

The 2-1 frequency among black youths ranged

from 12.7 to 28.1 percent, as compared with an

overall black frequency of 18.6 percent; these

frequency extremes occurred in adjacent categories.

Education of parent or guardian. –Educational levels of parent or guardian and Gc genotype frequency associations appeared just as

erratic as associations with family income. In

the white group, the highest frequency of 2-1

heterozygotes occurred among those with

parental elementary school educational levels

(5-7 years) and those whose parent had completed elementary school (8 years): 42.7 and

41.2 percent, respectively, compared with the

overall white frequency of 38.5 percent. The

highest frequency of 2-2 appeared for those with

parental education of 8 years (10.4 compared

with 7.4 percent overall white), and the highest

frequency of 1-1 for those with less than 5 years

of school (57.4 compared with 51.9 percent

overall white). These frequencies are not very

deviant and are not associated with extremes of

educational level.

In the black group, the highest (4.8 percent)

and lowest (0.8 percent) 2-2 frequencies

occurred in adjacent educational levels of 9-11

and 8 years, respectively. Similar erratic patterns

occurred in 1-1 frequencies. On the other hand,

for 2-1 heterozygosity, the highest frequency

(46.9 percent compared with an overall black

frequency of 18.6 percent and an overall white

frequency of 38.5 percent) occurred in the highest parental educational level (17 years or more),

and although the trend was not completely consistent, lower frequencies occurred at lower educational levels and higher frequencies occurred

at higher educational levels.

DISCUSSION

Frrquency distributions. –Although detailed computed. Calculation of allele frequencies from

tabulations of phenotype frequencies are pre- these data would not be meaningful. All such

sented in this report, no allele frequencies were calculations are based on the Hardy-Weinberg

27
principle and thus assume ‘random mating, that

is, a panmictic population. Clearly, this method

is not applicable for a population as heterogeneous and geographically dispersed as that of the

total United States. Moreover, the overall U.S.

frequencies of various markers and also the frequencies estimated for individual regions present

a working comparison base rather than an absolute set of frequencies for any study series. Comparison series matched on ethnic group and

region would be required for examination in

specific studies.

Tables A and B present blood type data

adapted from Mourant et all 4 The Mourant

data exhibit a high degree of regional and–in

some cases—ethnic specificity, but in general

these percents compare quite well with those of

the Health Examination Survey (HES), when

crossed by race. Comparisons based on other

demographic factors (e.g., geographic region)

are much less illuminating due to the difficulty

in winnowing precise and comparable definitions from the Mourant data. However, the HES

data present a stable and reliable picture of the

distribution of this variable in the United

States.

Similar conclusions can be reached concerning the other variables discussed. Of particular

interest for comparison purposes is the Tecumseh, Mich., study reported by Shreffler et aI.44

This study, which had a sample size varying

around 8,000, discovered distributions for transferring, haptoglobin, secretor ability, and group

specific component that agree to within a few

percent in every cell (when only white persons

are considered) with the geographically broader

but numerically smaller HES. Less agreement

was observed between HES black data and data

for black persons collated by Mourant, but no

consistent difference is detectable; the larger

differences are likely due to greater variability

associated with much smaller sample skes.

Variation in frequencies. –The only consistent and noteworthy differences in genetic

marker frequencies observed are the differences

between white and black youths. These findings

were expected because racial, ethnic, and geographic differences in genetic markers are well

documented. Some” suggested regional differences appear, although they are less clear. Although one might speculate as to possible

ecological/geographical/ environment al selective

factors that might be responsible for some of the

regional variation, quantitative differences in

racial admixture in migrants probably are responsible. For example, other reports45 suggested that the California black population

(migrants to the west coast) is less inbred than is

the South Carolina black population.

No patterns of variation in genetic marker

frequencies in relationship to age, sex, family

income, or education of parent or guardian are

discernible. Therefore, any slight deviations that

might appear to be associated with those

biologic, demographic, or socioeconomic factors

likely derive from racial/ethnic stratification in

the subsets rather than any primary effect. The

absence of any consistent trends tends to reaffirm that at least within the age range of 12

through 17, no significant selective survival is

associated with the markers studied (ABO and

Rh blood types; ABH secretor status; or hap toglobin, transferring, or Gc types). Sex differences

in blood group frequencies have never been

established; the findings reported from studies

of blood groups and sex ratio have at best been

equivocal.46947 The role of ABO and Rh incompatibility singly and their interaction, although examined extensively, have not sLlggested sex differences or selection occurring

during the second decade of life ?6’48 The

sociodemographic variables, where suggestive of

possible associations, cannot be disengaged from

confounding factors that could be responsible.

In conclusion, of the factors examined (race,

sex, age, geographic region, family income, and

education of parent or guardian), only race

appears to be associated with distinct differences in genetic marker frequencies. Regional

and other observed variations in marker frequencies may be related to differences in racial/

ethnic composition and admixture. In view of

the increasing literature on associations bctwccn

genetic markers and diseases, the mcial/cdmic

composition and comparability of groups being

examined must be considered in cwduating the

impact of environmental or other agents on

health status and prognosis.

28
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37 Glynn, A. A., Glynn, L. E., and Holborow, E. J.:

Secretion of blood group substances in rheumatic fever.

A genetic requirement for susceptibility. Br. Med. J. 2:

266-270, 1959.

38 Chung, C. S., Pitt, E. L., and Dublin, T. D.: Heterozygous ABH secretor and susceptibility to rheumatic

fever. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 17:352-358, 1965.

39 Cohen, B. H., et al.: Pulmonary Dysfunction and

ABH Secretor Status. Presented at the American

Thoracic Society Annual Meeting, Boston, Mass. on

May 17, 1978. Abstract in Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 117(4):

227, Apr. 1978.

40 Peacock, A. C., Bunting, S. L., and Queen, K. G.:

Serum protein electrophoresis in acryknide gel: Patterns from normal human subjects. Science 147: 1451,

1965.

4] KitChin, F. D.: Demonstration of the inherited

serum group specific protein by acrylamide electrophoresis. Proc. Sot. Exp. Biol. Med. 119:1153, 1965.

42 Anderson, E. P., Kalckar, H. M., Kurabashi, K., and

Isselbacher, K. J.: A specific enzymatic assay for the

diagnosis of congenital galactosemia, I. The consumption

test. J. Lab: Clin. Med. 50:469, 1957.

43Mi11er, W. V., cd.: Technj~al Manual of the A mpri.

can Association of Blood Banks. Philadelphia. J. B. Lippincott Co., 1977.

44 Shreffler, D. C., Sing, C. F., Neel, J. V., Gershowitz,

H., and Napier, J. S.: Studies in genetic selection in a

completely ascertained Caucasian population. i. Frequencies, age and sex effects and phenotype associations

for 12 blood group systems. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 23:

150-163, 1971.

45 Reed, T. E.: Caucasian genes in American Negroes.

Science 165:762-768, 1969.

46 Cohen, B. H., and Glass, B.: The ABO blood groups

and the sex ratio. Hum. Biol. 28:20-42, 1956.

47Cohen, B. H., ~d Glass, B.: Further obsewati~ns on

the ABO blood groups and the sex ratio. Am. J. Hum.

Genet. 11:274-278, 1959.

48 Race, R. R., and Sanger, R.: Blood Groups in Man.

Oxford. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1950.

49 National Center for Health Statistics: Sample design

and estimation procedures for a national health examination survey of children. Vital and Health Statistics.

Series 2, No. 43. DHEW Pub. No. (HRA) 74-1005.

Health Resources Administration. Washington. U.S.

Government Printing Office, Aug. 1973.

5ONational Center for Health Statistics: Origin, program, and operation of the U.S. National Health Survey.

Vital and Health Statistics. PHS Pub. No. 1000-Series 1-

No. 1. Public Health Service. Washington. U.S. Government Printing Office, Sept. 1969.

51 National Center for Health Statistics: Replication, an

approach to the analysis of data from complex surveys.

Vital and Health Statistics. PHS Pub. No. 1000-Series 2-

No. 14. Public Health Service. Washington. U.S. Government Printing Office, Apr. 1966.

52Hersko”witz, M. J.: The American Nt?gro, a Study in

Racial Crossing. New York. Alfred A. Knopf, 1928.

53 Glass, B., and Li, C. C.: The dynamics of racial

intermixture–an analysis of the American Negro. A m. J.

Hum. Genet. 5:1-20, 1953.

54 Roberts, D. F.: The dynamics of racial intermixture

in the American Negro—some anthropological considerations. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 7:361-367, 1955.

55 Roberts, D. F., and Hiorns, R. W.: The dynamics of

racial intermixture. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 14: 261-277,

1962.

30
LIST OF DETAILED TABLES

1. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by blood type, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1966-70 ...........

2. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by blood type, according to race, geographic region, income, and education:

United States, 1966-70 ................................................................................................................................ .............................

3, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh D type, according to race, sex, and aga: Unitad States, 1966-70 ...........

4, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh D type, according to race, geographic ragion, incoma, and education:

United States, 1866-70 ................,,,...........................................................................................................................................

5. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh C type, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1866-70 ............

6. Percant distribution of youths 12.17 years old by Rh C type, according to rata, geographic region, income, and education:

United States, 1966-70 !....................................................................................................................................... .................... ,

7. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh E type, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1866-70 ............

8. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh E type, according to rata, geographic ragion, income, and education:

United States, 1966-70 ,...,,..,.,.,,,.,.,,.,.,, ,..,... .............................................................................................................................

9, Percent distribution of youths 12.17 years old by summarized Rh genotype combinations, according to race, sex, and age:

United States, 1866-70 ................................................................................................................................ .............................

10. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by summarized Rh genotype combinations, according to race, geographic

region, income, and educetion: United States, 1866-70 ...................................... ......................................................................

11. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 yeers old by ABH secretor ability, according to race, sex, end age: United States,

19s36-70 ................,., .,, .,, .,. .,. ., ............................................................................................................................... ,,,,,,,......,,.....

12. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 yeers old by ABH secretor ability, according to race, geographic ragion, income, and

education: United Statas, 1966.70 ............................................................................................................ ............................ ....

13, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by haptoglobin typa, according to race, sex, and age: United State$,

1866-70 ,,.,,,....,,,.,, ,,..,,,,....,,., ,...,,, ,,,.,.,..,.,... ,,,,,.........................................................................................................................

14, Percant distribution of youths 12-17 yaars old by haptoglobin type, according to race, geographic region, income, and education: United States, 1966-70 ................................................................................................................................ .................

15. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by transferringtype, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1966-70 ...

16, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by transferringtype, according to race, geographic region, income, and education: United States, 1966-70 ................................................................................................................................................ .....

17. Parcent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by group spacific component (Gc) type, according to race, sex, and age:

United States, 1966-70 ................................................................................................................................ .............................

18, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by group specific component (Gc) type, according to race, geographic region,

income, and education: United Statas, 1966-70 .,,.....................................................................................................................

19, Number of youths 12-17 yaars old, by race, sex, and age: United States, 1866-70 ...................................................................

20. Number of youths 12-17 years old, by race, geographic region, income, and education: Unitad States, 1966-70 .....................

21. Number of examined youths 12-17 years old, by race, sex, and age: United States, 1966-70 ...................................................

22, Number of examined youths 12-17 yaars old, by race, geographic ragion, income, and education: United States, 1966.70 .....

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

50

51

51

31
Table 1. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by blood typa, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1866.70

Race, sax, and age

Blood type

WHITE

Both sexes Percent distribution

35.2

36.0

34.5

34.9

38.0

34.1

33.2

34.3

35.2

35.7

34.7

37.7

30.5

31.8

36.0

36.9

33.2

35.0

38.4

37.9

34.7

23.4

6.9

=

5.3

7.5

7.1

6.3

6.6

8.6

7.5

.

::

6.8

6.8

8,4

9.4

6.2 —

5.4

6.3

7.4

5.8

4.6

7.6

3.4

.

2.6

2.7

5.5

2.2

2.7

4.6

3.9

10.2

10.0

9.8

10.4

10.8

9.9

10.2

9.7

—

8.7

6.8

10,3

10.1

10.6

9.5

10.7

44.3 2.5 1.1

44.5

45.4

44.9

41.3

45.5

43.8

44.9

46.1

43.5

46.7

41.7

45.9

45.5

43.6

42.9

47.5

43.1

41.0

45.1

42.0

47.5

2.8

2.1

2.4

2.0

3.0

2.6

2,7

1.3

0.7

0.3

1.5

0.9

1.6

1.0

Male

3.2

2.6

1.5

2.5

3,6

2.4

2.3

—

2.4

:::

1.6

2.4

2.8

2.2

1.5

0.7

1.3

1.1

1.4

1.1

.—

:;

0.7

1.8

0.8

1.8

2,3

Female

11.4

10.9

10.4

11.5

9.2

10.9

21.2

8 LACK

Both sexes

51.4

50.4

42.6

40.B

46.3

53.2

47.4

21.4

23.1

27.0

19.7

27.3

22.2

23.9

21.1

20.3

21.2

26.B

20.4

17.5

20.8

2.2

1.2

2.6

4.3

1.1

1.7

2.2

1.4

2.3

1.0

6.2

2,1

0.8

1.6

49.3

50,6

39.1

43.9

50.6

51.7

47.6

23.3

19.9

31.0

18.2

24.7

26.2

23.0

2.1’

4.1

6.6

3.0

3.3

4.6

2.B

22.8

22.1

20.0

25.1

19.2

14.5

21.7

2.5

1.0

3.3

2.6

2.2

1.3

2,2

2.3

7.1

1.6

2.7

53.5

50.3

46.1

37.5

42.1

54.7

19,4

26.2

23.2

21.2

30.0

18.4

3.0

1.4

4.4

1,4

201

4.7

19.4

18.5

22.4

28.6

21.6

20.2

.

2.7

2.2

2,0

5.2

4.2

—

32
Table 2. Percent distribution of vouths 12-17 years old by blood type, according to race, geographic region, incoma, and education: United

Statas, 1866-70

Blood type

Race, region, income, and education

WHITE

Income

o % AZ B AIB A2B

Percent distribution

43.0

41.0

46.3

47.4

5B.3

47.6

46.0

43.5

44.4

45.6

39.5

40.8

50.3

49.5

45.2

47.3

43.2

40.2

43.0

43.1

51.3

50.6

44.B

49.4

39.6

48.8

47.4

50.7

42.7

48.6

47.2

29.2

48.8

48.8

51.2

57.4

42.9

46.9

50.8

50.5

57.0

53.5

35.6

35.8

33.4

35.3

30.8

33.6

36.3

33.6

35.0

33.9

39.6

35.8

34.0

30.1

34.4

35.1

35.3

38.2

32.7

37.0

36.9

27.2

25.9

17.8

34.3

17.0

21.3

24.3

30.6

16.7

20.3

38.2

27.1

16.9

18.1

20.8

2B.5

21.3

23,6

33.7

9.7

22.3

6.0

7.3

8.1

6.2

7.4

6.4

6.0

6.8

6.2

6.8

B.9

8.0

7.4

6.4

6.0

6.3

7.2

7.6

6.9

6.6

5.2

1.9

3.2

3.8

4.4

3.1

4.1

3.3

4.4

3.7

1.9

4.6

2.2

4.6

2.2

8.0

10.4

11.4

11.5

9.3

8.3

3.5

10.4

8.7

11.8

10.5

10.5

9.5

8.9

8.4

12.0

10.3

8.1

10.4

10.1

13.1

10.2

4.4

18.1

22.1

24.8

12.4

26.5

21.4

18.0

19.0

27.3

24.1

20.0

21.6

23.6

23.2

18.6

21.1

22.3

16.3

10.3

22.8

21.2

2.9

3.2

1.6

1.9

1.3

1.9

3.7

2.5

1.9

1.8

6.5

1.1

2.0

2.8

2.6

2.5

3.2

2.9

2.1

0.5

3.4

1.3

6.3

2.9

3.2

1.5

2.2

1.3

3.5

6.5

2.4

1.4

3.3

1,0

4.4

5.5

3.0

1.1

1.2

1.2

0.8

0.7

1.1

0.6

1.3

1.4

0.7

1.0

0.9

2.1

0.4

1.3

1.4

1.2

0.2

1.8

0.6

2.8

3.0

1.6

2.7

2.2

1.1

2.5

2,9

6.1

2.6

3.7

4.0

2.0

2.8

1.4

33
Table 3. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh D type, according to race, sex, and age: United Stetes, 1966-70

Race, sex, and age

WHITE

Both SaXSS

12-17 years.................................................................................................................................................... ..........................

12 years................................................................................................................................. ................................ ................................ ..

13 years................................................................................................................................. ................................ ................................ ..

14 years............................................................................................................................................................. ................................ ......

15 years................................................................................................................................ ............................... ............................... .....

16 years.............................................................................................................................. ............................... ................................ ......

17 years............................................................................................................................................................. ............................... .......

Male

—

12-17 years ..........................................................................................’. ......................................................................... ..............

12 years............................................................................................................................... ................................ ................................ .,,.

13 years............................................................................................................................................................. ............................... .......

14 yaars....................o..............................................................................................................................................................................

15 yeers.................................................................................................................................................. .................................... .............

16 yeers..................,, ,.....,,..,, ,,............................................................................................................................. ................................ ....

17 years.................................................................................................................................................... .................................... ...........

Female

12-17 years ..............!............................................................................................................................. ................................ .......

12 years.................................................................................................................... . ..............................+.<..........<3...a.<........3...$$.<.<......

13 years...........................................................................................................................................+....a..............$...................................

14 years................................................................................................................................................................4...o...........<.cr...............

15 years........................................................................................................................................................... ................................ ........

16 years............................................................................................................................... ............................... ................................ .....

17 years....................................................................................................................................................e.ea.............ee.............a..............

BLACK

Both sexes

12-17 yaars............................................................................................................................................................. .................

12 years.................................................<............................................................................................................4........$..$........r........4.c.4..

13 years...................................................................................................................................................3......a.<aa......<....<................<...a<..

14 years.......................................................................................................................................................e.o.c.oo...........c...o4c............4..@.4

15 yeers.........................................................................,......................................................................... ..................................... .,,,,.,,...

16 years.........................................................................................................................................c$....4..............oo.....t........<.coo...r.........c..

17 years..........................................................................................................................<........................+..........................................<....

Male

.

12-17 years ................................................................................................................................................... ................................

12 yaars...................................................................................................................................................................................................

13 years........................................................................,,... ,...............................,.................................... ..................................... ............

14 years..............................................................................................,.,,,.,.,,,..,.....,,,.,,,,,,., ................................ ................................ ,.,,,,

15 years.......................................................#.,...............,,,. ,,,................................................................. ..................................... .,...,,,,..,,

16 yaars.................................................................................................................................................. ..................................... ............

17 years..................................................................................................................................e........e.........eea...e...............e................e...a..

Female

12-17 yaars ............................................................................................................................................................ .......................

12 years............................................................................................................................................ ................................ .......................

13 yeers................................................................................................................e................@....4............$.$o...................................t.......

14 years.................................................................................................................................................. ..................................... ............

15 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years................................................................................................................................................... ..................................... ...........

17 years........................................................................................................................................... ................................ ........................

Rh D type

m

Percent

distribution

64.8

=

84.6

BA.6

83.5

85.5

85.8

84.7

83.7

63.9

B5,2

61.6

84.4

83.4

83,6

859

—

85.4

B4.O

85.5

86.6

88.4

85.9

93.7

93.1

91.8

95,3

93.1

98.6

90,4

92.4

89.9

92,3

93.6

88.4

98,4

83.9

94.9

—

96,3

91.4

96.9

89.6

98.9

96.4

15.0

15.3

15.1

16.4

14.4

13.8

15.0

16,1

16.0

14.4

18,2

15.6

16.2

16,0

13.9

.

14.6

15.8

14.5

13.2

11.2

14.1

6.0

u

4.3

6.9

1,4

9.6

7.2

9.1

7.7

5.5

3,6

1.6

16.1

4.9

—

2.3

8.6

3.1

10.4

1.1

3.6

0.2

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.2

0.3

0,2

0.4

0,2

0.6

0.4

0.1

—

0.2

0.2

0,3

0,3

1.2

0.;

0!4

1.0

0.9

0.2

1.3

34
Table 4. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh D type, according to rwe, geographic region, income, end education: United

States, 1866-70

Race, region, income, and education

WHITE

Regicm

Northeast ..............................................................................................................................................................................

Midwst .................................................................................................................................................................................

West ......................................................................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.OOO ...................................................................................................................................................................

$l.00@$2.999 .......................................................................................................................................................................

$3,000-$4,999 ...................................................................................................................................................... ............... ..

$5,000$6,999 ...................................................................................................................................................... ............... ..

$7,000-$9,999 ...................................................................................................................................................... .................

$10,000-$14,999 ............................................................................................................................................... ....................

$15,000 or more ...................................................................................................................................................... .............

Unknown ..............................................................................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 6 years ...................................................................................................................................................................

5-7 years ................................................................................................................................................................................

8 years ...................................................................................................................................................................................

9.11 years ...................................................................................................................................................... ........................

12 years .................................................................................................................................................................................

13-15 years ......................................................$.............................................<.......................i ...............................................

16 years .................................................................................................................................................................................

17 years or more ...................................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ..............................................................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Region

Income

,

Education

Rh D type

D+ ID-IDU

Percent

distributicm

B5.O

85.9

82.9

84.6

B3.O

86.3

B6.9

B4.5

83.6

84.7

84.7

B5.3

B9.6

90.1

B2.5

83.9

84.6

B4,0

B3.O

87.9

85.6

91.1

93.6

94.9

93.2

97.1

90.8

94.1

91.5

95.6

96.3

00.0

97.1

94.8

93.2

93.0

91.4

95.6

94.4

00.0

00.0

00.0

14.7

14.1

16.7

15.2

17.0

13.4

12.9

15.3

16.1

15.1

15.2

14.7

10.4

9.9

17.5

16.1

15.0

15.9

16.5

12.1

14.4

8.3

6.4

4.7

6.8

2.9

9.2

5.2

8.5

4.4

3.7

1.0

5,2

5.9

5.9

8.4

4.4

5.6

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.5

0.6

0.4

0.7

1.9

0.9

1.0

0.3
Table 5. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh C type, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1866-70

Race, sex, and age

WHITE

Both sexes

12-17 yaars................................................................................................................................ ................................ ..............

12 years............................................................................................................................... ................................ ............................... .....

13 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

14 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

15 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

17 years................................................................................................................................ ............................... ................................ ....

Male —

12-17 years ...................................................................................................................................................................................

12 years..................................................................................................................................................... ..................................... .........

13 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

14 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

15 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years............................................................................................................................... ................................ ............................... .....

17 years............................................................................................................................... ................................ ............................... .....

Female

12-17 years ................................................................................................................................ ................................ ...................

12 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

13 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

14 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

15 years................................................................................................................................ ................................ ................................ ...

16 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

17 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Both sexes

12-17 years..............................................................................................................................................................................

12 years.............................................................................................................................................................. ............................... ......

13 years..................................................................................................................................................................................................

14 years..................................................................................................................................................................................................

15 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years............................................................................................................................................................ ................................ .......

17 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

Male

—

12-17 years ................................................................................................................................................ ................................ ...

12 yeara..................................................................................................................................................................................................

13 years...............................................................................................................................,.,,,.,,,,..., ................................ ......................

14 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

15 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

17 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

Female

12-17 years............................................................................................................................... ................................ ....................

12 years................................................................................................................................. .......................... .......................... .............

13 years............................................................................................................................... ................................ ......................,,......” ....

14 years................................................................................................................................. ....................:........... ............................... ...

15 years...................................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years.............................................................................................................................t.....................................................................

17 years............................................................................................................................................................... .............................. ......

Rh C type

m

Percent

distribution

17.6

=

I9.4

18.5

I6.6

‘7.5

19,3

16.4

7.8

!0.9

!0.3

:::

88.7

14.5

17.8

17.9

16.5

15.6

16.7

19.9

18.3

1.7

=

1.5

3.7

1.7

1.1

1.5

0.7

1.9

1.9

4,1

1.0

2,1

2.0

1,6

1.1

3.4

2.3

1.1

1.3

50.2

=

09.2

$8.7

50.8

50.0

$9.9

52.6

50.0

—

$8.2

+7.4

18.4

52.1

48,7

55.9

50.4

50.1

50.2

53.4

47.9

51.1

49.5

25.6

31.1

19.6

26.1

25.7

21.4

28.9

24.3

30.6

16.1

23,2

22.0

23.9

29.9

26.8

31.1

23.(

29.(

29.[

18.[

27.{

32.0

=

31.4

32.8

33.5

32.5

30.8

30.9

32.2

.

30.9

12.3

15.9

11.6

32.6

29.6

31.8

—

31.9

33.3

31.0

33.4

28.9

32.2

72.7

=

67.4

76.7

72.2

73.2

77.1

70.4

73.6

67.3

78.8

75.6

75.9

74.1

70.1

71.7

67.5

73.6

66.6

70.4

80.0

70.7

36
Table 6, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh C type, according to race, geographic region, income, and education: United States,

1886-70

Race, region, income, and education

WHITE

Region

South ......................................................................................................................................................................................

West ........................................................................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $1 .OOO.....................................................................................................................................................................

$l.00@$2.999 .........................................................................................................................................................................

$3.00@$4.999 .........$.............o......!......o...................................................................................................................................

$5,000-$6,999 ............................................................................................................................................. ............................

ilo.oo6$i4.999 .....................................................................................................................................................................

$16,000 or more .....................................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years .....................................................................................................................................................................

5-7 years ..................................................................................................................................................................................

8 years .....................................................................................................................................................................................

911 years ................................................................................................................................................................................

12 years ...................................................................................................................................................................................

13-15 years ..............................................................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Ragion

Northeast ................................................................................................................................................................................

South ......................................................................................................................................................................................

West .S......................................................................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.OOO .....................................................................................................................................................................

$1,000-$2,999 ........................................................................................................................................... ..............................

$3,000-$4,999 ............................................................................................................................................ .................... .........

$6.000.$6.999 .........................................................................................................................................................................

$7.m@$9.999 .........................................................................................................................................................................

$10,000.$14,999 ...............,,, ,,,!O,..,,!, .......................................................................................................................................

$16,000 or mora ...................,., ,,. .................................................................................................................................... ........

Unknown ................................................................................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years .....................................................................................................................................................................

6.7 years ..................................................................................................................................................................................

8 years .....................................................................................................................................................................................

8-11 yaars ................................................................................................................................................................................

12 yaars ...................................................................................................................................................................................

13-15 years ..............................................................................................................................................................................

16 yaars ...................................................................................................................................................................................

17 years or more .....................................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................................................................

Rh C type

cc cc cc

Percant

distribution

18.0

17.5

16.6

18.8

14.4

20.7

17.0

16.3

18,1

17.2

17.0

17.6

20.7

19.6

14.5

19.1

18.4

16.3

18.1

15.6

13.4

0.6

2.6

1.8

2.2

1.4

2.7

0.8

3.5

13.2

1.6

1.6

Y3

5.4

49.5

51.0

48.4

51.2

54.6

46.4

51.9

53.6

49.7

50.2

47.1

50.9

53.2

E

49.8

49.7

54.5

47.9

47.4

49.4

24.4

26.2

24.0

32.0

17.7

29.1

24.4

23.7

30.9

25.3

24.2

23.0

12.2

24.0

23.7

23,7

29,9

40.8

19.1

46.5

26.9

32.5

31.5

35.0

30.0

30.9

32.9

31.2

28.1

32,3

32.6

36.0

31.5

26.1

25.8

37.8

31.1

31.9

29.2

34.0

37.0

37.2

75.0

71.1

74.2

65.8

80.9

68.2

74.8

72.8

69.1

74.7

62.6

77.0

87.8

74.4

74.8

74.7

67,8

53.7

80.9

53.5

73.1

37
Table 7. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 yaars old by Rh E type, according to race, sax, and age: United States, 1888.70

Race, sex, and age

Rh E type

=

Percent

distribution

3.1

.

2.3

3.9

2.4

4.1

3.4

2.4

2.8

1.5

4.0

2.8

4,0

2.6

1.7

3.4

3.1

3.8

1,9

4.3

4.2

3.2

1.2

1.6

0.6

2.0

2.1

1.0

1.4

—

2.4

1.2

1.9

2.6

1.0

26.9

27.9

26.6

27.6

25,7

263

27.1

26,4

28.8

27.2

25.4

25.4

26,1

25.5

27.4

27.0

26.1

30.0

26.0

26.6

28.7

17.1

14.9

17.2

14.7

14.0

26.6

16.2

17.6

15.1

13.6

15.7

17.4

27.5

17.2

16.6

——

08’ “/

1

20.6

2.0 13.8

1.6 10.5

2.1 26.8

15.4

70.0

69.8

69.4

70.0

70.2

703

70.5

70,8

697

6a 8

718

70.6

71.3

72.8

69.2

70.0

70.1

68,1

69.7

69.3

68.1

81.6

83.6

82.3

83.3

83.8

72.3

83.8

81.0

—

82.5

85.2

82.4

79.9

72.5

82.8

82.2

64.6

79.4

84.1

87.9

72.2

84.6

—
Table 8. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by Rh E type, according to race, geographic region, income, and education: United States,

186670

Race, ragion, income, and education

WHITE

Region

Northeast ..................................................................................................................................................................................

Midr.%st .,, !.....,.....,,. ............................................................................................................................................ .......................

Wast ..........................................................................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.OOO .......................................................................................................................................................................

$l.00@$2.999 ...........................................................................................................................................................................

$3.00G$4.999 ...........................................................................................................................................................................

$5. 00G$6.999 ...........................................................................................................................................................................

$7.000.$9.999 ...........................................................................................................................................................................

$lo.oo&$14.999 .......................................................................................................................................................................

$15,000 or more .ii ..........m.........................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ..................................................................................................................................................................................

Educaticrn

Less than 5 years .......................................................................................................................................................................

6.7 years ....................................................................................................................................................................................

8 years .......................................................................................................................................................................................

9.11 yaars ..................................................................................................................................................................................

13-15 years .................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years .....................................................................................................................................................................................

17 yaars or mora .......................................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ..................................................................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Region

Northeast ..................................................................................................................................................................................

Midwast .....................................................................................................................................................................................

South ........................................................................................................................................................................................

West ............................................................................................................................................... .................... ...................... .

Income

Less than $1 .OOO.......................................................................................................................................................................

$1,000-$2,999 .................,., ........................................................................................................................................ ...............

$3.000.$4.999 ...........................................................................................................................................................................

$5; OO@$6;999

$7,m&$9,999:::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

$lo#oo@$14.999 ................!......................................................................................................................................................

$16,000 or more .......................................................................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 yaars .......................................................................................................................................................................

5.7 years ....................,. .0,,,,,,..,.,,.,.0..,,.,...,,., ......!....,.,,!. ....................,.. ,,!. ,,.................................................................................

9.11 yaars .........................c........................................................................................................................................................

12 years .....................................................................................................................................................................................

13-15 yaars ................................................................................................................................................................................

16 years .....................................................................................................................................................................................

17 years or more .......................................................................................................................................... .............................

Unknown ..................................................................................................................................................................................

Rh E type

=1’=1=

Percent

distributicm

3.1

3.0

3.7

2.7

6.1

4.5

3.4

2.9

2.4

3.6

2.9

2.3

1.8

3.6

4.9

2.5

3.6

1.8

3.8

1.3

0.8

1.3

2.0

1.1

0.6

1.9

1.2

0.5

0.7

5.4

4.0

2.4

1.0

1.2

25.4

25.9

26.5

29.4

30.0

29.9

27.2

24.4

25.0

28.1

27.5

30.3

32.1

30.6

29.1

25.0

25.0

23.9

28.7

36.0

31.7

13.6

25.0

13.2

26,5

16.6

13.5

13.7

20.3

27.0

23.8

32.2

11.9

18.1

9.4

16.2

19.0

17.8

18.7

32.2

23.4

8.7

—

71.4

71.1

69.6

67.9

63.9

65.5

69.4

72.8

72.6

68.3

69.7

67.4

66.1

65.7

65.9

72.5

71.3

74.2

67.5

62.6

67.5

85.1

73.0

85.7

72.9

83.4

84.6

85.2

79.2

72.4

70.8

67.8

88.1

77.9

88.3

83.8

80.1

81.0

81.3

67.8

76.6

91.3
Table 9. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by summarized Rh genotype combinations, according to race, sex, and ege: United States, 1866-70

Rh genosypecombinations

1 2 3 4+91 5+351 6+361 7 8 12 13 32

Race, sex, and age

WHITE

Both sexes Percentdistributicm

12-17 yeara..................................................................................... 14.1 35.4 17.6 14.2 2.4 12.1 3.1 0.2 0.4 0.1

.

2.3

3.e

2.4

4.1

3,4

2.4

2.B

—

1.5

4.0

2.6

4.0

2.6

1.7

3.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.6

—

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.5

0.2

0.5

—

0,5

0.7

0.4

0.3

0.7

0.7

0.9

=

1.7

0.6

1.0

1.4

0.8

1.5

—

3.4

1.3

0.8

1.3

1.7

0.4

14.4

13.9

15.5

13.5

12.9

14.3

15.1

15.0

13.2

17.4

14.4

15.4

15.6

13.0

33.5

34.3

37.C

36.1

35.3

36.5

35.6

—

31.5

32.3

37.0

37.5

36.1

40.0

35.2

19.4

18.3

15.2

17.4

18.9

16.2

17.5

20.7

20.0

15.3

16.3

18.1

14.3

17.6

14.9

13.6

13.4

13.4

14.2

15.6

13.7

15.8

13.9

10.B

14.1

12.7

16.3

14.6

1.9

2.1

1.9

2.7

2.7

2.8

1.B

1.5

2.2

1.4

2.0

1.7

2.4

2.9

12.6

12.5

13.3

11.6

11.2

10.9

12.0

12.6

12.6

14.2

10.5

12.1

9.7

12.1

0.1

0.2

0’5

0.1

0,4

0.2

0.3

—

0.2

0.3

0.3

0,6

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

Male

12-17 years..........................................................................................

0,2

0.3

0.2

0.8

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.1

Female

12-17 years:.........................................................................................

13.8

14.6

13.5

12.6

10.4

12.9

4.7

35.6

36.3

36.9

34.7

34.5

32.9

22.7

17.9

16.5

15.0

16.5

19.7

18.1

1.7

14.1

13.2

16.1

12.8

15.8

16.0

1.9

2.2

2.0

2.4

3.5

3.8

3.5

51.6

12.6

12.4

12.5

12.8

10.4

12.1

14.8

3.1

3.7

1.9

4.3

4.2

3.2

1.2

—. —

1.6

0,6

2.0

2.1

1.0

1.4

—

2.4

1.2

1.9

2.6

1.0

0.3

0,6

0.7

0.3

0.1

0.6

0.4

=

1.6

1.0

0.2

0.6

0.2

0,2

0!2

=

—

0,2

0.2

=

BLACK

Both sexes

12-17 years.....................................................................................

4.1

6.0

3.3

5.5

1.4

7.8

5.6

27.4

18.5

22.9

23.6

17.9

25.6

21.1

1.5

3.7

1.7

1.1

1.6

0.7

1.9

2.0

0.5

2.3

0.7

3.4

2.5

1.8

46.9

53.4

54.4

62.2

51.6

4B.9

51.0

12.9

15.1

12.5

13.3

23.2

12.7

15.6

17 years..........................................................................................................

Male

6.7

6.5

4.7

2.3

1.6

13.2

3.7

2.3

5.5

2.0

8.9

1.1

2.7

25.8

14.8

19.B

20.7

20.6

24.8

24.3

—

29.0

22.1

26.0

26.5

15.3

26.3

1.9

4.1

1.0

2.1

2.0

1.6

::

2.3

1.1

1.3

1.6

2.6

3.3

3.5

2.0

2.4

1.0

I .9

i.5

3.5

1.6

45.7

58.6

56.1

63.5

48.3

43.2

52.1

52.1

48,4

52.7

50.9

54.6

54.3

13.5

13.6

13.0

17,4

24.2

12.5

14.1

1.2

0.7

Female

12-17 years..........................................................................................

12.2

16.6

11.9

9.0

22.2

12.9

0.8

2.0

1.6

2.1

1.2

1.5

3.1

0.9

lSee the Resultssection of the test for the rationale behind these mergers.
Table 10. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by summarized Rh genotype combinations, according to race, geographic region,

income, and education: United States, 1866-70

Race, region, income, and eckation

WHITE

Region

Northeast ...............................................................................

Midmst ..................................................................................

South .....................................................................................

West .......................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.MO ....................................................................

$l.00&$2.999 ........................................................................

$3.00@$4.999 ........................................................................

$5.00@$6.999 ........................................................................

$7.00&$9.999 ........................................................................

$lo.oo@$14.999 ....................................................................

$15,000 or more ....................................................................

Unknown ...............................................................................

Education

Less than 5 yeers ....................................................................

6-7 years .......i .........................................................................

8 years ....................................................................................

8-11 years ...............................................................................

12 years..................................................................................

13.15 years .............................................................................

16 yaars ..................................................................................

17 years or more ....................................................................

Unknown ...............................................................................

BLACK

Region

Northeast ...............................................................................

Midwest ..................................................................................

South .....................................................................................

West ...............................................................j .......................

Income

Less than $1 .OOO....................................................................

$l.000.$2.999 ........................................................................

$3.000$4.999 ........................................................................

$5.00G$6.999 ........................................................................

$7.00@$9.999 ........................................................................

$lo.oo&$14.999 ....................................................................

$15,000 or more ....................................................................

Unknown ...............................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years ....................................................................

6.7 years .................................................................................

8 years ....................................................................................

8-11 years ...............................................................................

12 years..................................................................................

13-16 years .............................................................................

16 years..................................................................................

17 years or more ....................................................................

Unknown ...............................................................................

Rh genotype combinations

1 2 3 4+91 5+351 6+36 1 7 8 12 13 32

Percent distribution

13.7

13.0

15.8

14.4

10.0

11.5

12.6

14.1

15.3

13.9

15.0

14.7

8.0

9.4

16.1

I 5.3

14.2

14.6

I5.9

11.5

12.1

6.8

5.7

3.8

3.1

2.9

7.4

4.7

5.0

2.4

3.7

1.0

3.7

5.0

5,0

6.7

2.8

3.9

35.9

37.6

34.0

33.6

33.1

30.1

37.4

38.1

36.0

34.8

34.1

34.2

33.2

34.2

32.1

35.7

36.4

40.1

31.2

32.2

34.6

21.9

21.3

21.8

29.3

17.7

25.6

22.3

19.3

26.3

25.3

18.1

21.5

9.7

22.3,

21.0

20.9

27.0

33.8

15.4

46.5

24.3

18.0

17.3

16.6

18.3

14.4

20.7

16.9

17.9

17.8

17.1

16.5

17.6

20.7

19.3

14.4

18.7

18.0

16.3

18.1

15.6

13.4

0.6

2.6

1.8

2.2

1.4

2.7

0.8

3.5

13.2

1.6

1.6

1.6

2.3

5.4

12.8

12.7

14.1

17.0

16.8

16.1

14.4

14.6

12.8

14.5

12.9

16.7

19.1

20.4

14.9

13.5

12.7

13.5

16.2

15.0

12.6

1.1

4.2

1.4

1.8

1.7

1.6

2.8

3.4

6.0

1.5

0.9

0.7

2.6

1.9

1.3

7.0

3.7

2.6

3.1

2.(

2.$

1.1

1.7

3.C

2,E

1.E

2.7

1.7

4.C

(JS

3.3

2.8

2.7

2.3

2.1

2.3

1.8

3.1

6.1

54.4

42.6

57.6

37,4

61.4

47.1

56.9

49.8

42.6

41.8

36.4

65.5

63.0

56.4

56.2

49.9

47.4

38.1

52.4

30.0

67.0

12.1

12.6

11.9

11.5

11.0

11.9

12.4

9.0

11.7

13.1

13.9

13.6

11.4

9.7

13.3

10.8

11.5

9.9

12.4

20.7

19.1

12.5

20.8

11.6

22.0

16.6

11.8

12.0

15.5

22.7

23.8

26.2

10.5

17.2

8.6

12.6

16.4

16.5

10.0

28.5

23.4

6.1

3.1

::;

2.6

6.1

4.5

3.4

2.8

2.4

3.6

2.9

2.3

1.8

3.4

4.9

2.5

3.6

1.8

3.8

1.3

0.8

1.3

2.0

1.1

0.6

1.9

1.2

D.5

0.7

5.4

*.O

2.4

I .0

I .2

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.1

0.4

0.3

0.1

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.4

0.4

,-

0.[

0.:

0’..

0.:

4.Z

0.[

0.(

0.[

O.g

0. j

().:

0.4

O.E

0. ~

0.2

2.2

1.5

0.7

0.8

1.C

1.8

0.5

1.6

1.2

1.6

D.9

0.9

1.6

—

0.4

0.3

0.7

0.3

2.2

1.9

0.3

0.4

0.1

0.4

0.2

1.6

0.5

0.7

D.3

0.4

0.5

2.2

0.4

1.1

2.7

2.0

1.8

).9

).7

.7

—

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

lsee the Results section Of the text for the rationale behind these mergers.

41
Table 11.Percent distribution of youths 12-17 yeers old by ABH secretor ability, according to reca, sex, and agw United States, 1686-70

Race, sax, and age

WH WE

Both SEXeS

12-17 years ............................................................. .......... .......................................................................

12 yaars ...... ........................... ......................................................... .............. ...........................................................

13 yaars ...................................... ...... ........... ............... .....c... ............. .......................................................................

ABH secretor ability

se+ 3a1

Unsatisfactory Test

sample not done

Percent distribution

75.7 21.8 2.0 0.5

78.5

76.6

72.3

76.1

75,6

74.3

75.8

19.B

21.3

24.B

21.4

21.7

22.0

21.4

1.5

1.6

2.3

2.3

1.9

2.8

0.1

0.3

0.6

15yeers ............................ ............................................................c........................................................................... 0.3

16 yeers ....................... .......................... ....................... .... ................ .......................................................................

17 years ...................... ................................ ................................ .. ........ .. .................... .............................................

Mala —

12-17 years ................................... ... ........... ...... ................... ................................. .... .... ................................

12years .................... ......... ............... ..... ..................................................................................................................

13 yaars ................................. ................................................................ .................. ...................................... ..........

14 yaars ................................. ................................ ............................. .....................................................................

15 years ...................... ........... .... .. .... .................................. .... ...................... ............................................................

16 yaars . ................................................................................................ .......... ........................................................

17 years ..... .. ..... ............................... ..... ............... ............................. ........ ...............................................................

Female

0.6

0.9

2.3 0.5

77.6

78.1

72.3

78.1

75.6

72.7

75.5

20.6

19.5

24.4

1B.9

22.3

22.8

22.2

1.6

1.9

2,1

2.8

1.9

3.4

0.3

0.4

1.2

0.1

1.;

1.8 0.4

12 years ................................................ ........ ..... ....................................... .......... .....................................................

13 years ........................ .............. ..... ....................... ............................................ .....................................................

14 years ................... .....................................................................e......................... .................................................

15 yaars ........................................... ..... ..... ........... .............. ...... ........ ................ ....... ... .............................................

16 yaars .................................... ........... ....... .... .................... .. ............................ ... ....................................................

17 years ......................... ...................... ................. .......................................... .. .... ...... .............................................

79.5

75.4

72.3

74.0

76.7

76.9

66.0

19.1

23.1

25.3

23.9

21.0

21.1

23.0

1.4

1.3

2.4

1.7

2.0

2.1

042

0.4

1.3

0.9

BLACK

Both saxas

12-17 years ............... .................... ................ .......... .... ................ ......... ..... .... ............ ............................... 10.4 0.6

12 years ............................... .............. .......... .... ............................ .............. ..............................................................

13 yaars .......................... ....................... ............ ....i ..... .... ................ .......... ............ ..................................................

14 years ....................................................................... .......... .... ..a................................. ..........................................

15vears ........................ ......................... ......... ................................................c........................................................

66.8

70,9

66.9

60.9

68.7

60,8

65.6

6B.O

71.5

67.9

57.9

65.7

62.7

66.2

—

65.5

70.3

66.0

64.1

71.6

59.0

—

25.6

23.1

19.9

2B.O

21.7

19.0

21.5

25.2

22.9

16.4

27.6

22.9

12.6

24,5

26.5

2J.3

23.3

26.4

20,5

25.0

6.3

5.4

12,3

10.7

2;;

1.0

0.6

0.9

0.4

16 years ................. ........................................................ .......................................... ................................................ 0.5

17 years .. .......................................... ...................... ............................... ..................................................................

Male

—

12-17 years ................................. ..... .. .... ............ .............. ........... .. ....... .........................................................

12 yaars ................. ............................................ ......... ........... .. ................... ..............................................................

13 vaars ...................... .................... .... ..... ....... ...... ............ .......... .... .......... ................ ...............................................

12.1 0.6

6.1

4.4

14.9

13.7

11.3

24.5

0.7

M

0.8

14 yaars ...................... ........................ .. ... ........ .................... .......... ... ........................... ............................................

15 yaars ........................ ...... ...................................... ....... ........................ ..... ................................................. ..........

16 yaars .. .. ........... ...................................................... ........... ..... ........ ....... ................... ............................................

17 years ....................................... .. ......... ........... ........ ................ .................. .... ... .....................................................

Femala

12-17 yaws ............. .. .... ............ .................... ...... .......... .... .. .................... ................. .....................................

12 years ... .................... ............................ ......... ................. .... ..... ............. ................................................................

13 yeara ..... ............ .. .......... .. .. ................ ..... ..... ................................ ........................... ................. ............................

14 yaars ........... .......... ...... ...... .......... ...... ........ .................. .......... .................. .................................................. ,,,..,,,,.

15 years .............. .................................. ... ......................................... .......................................................................

16 years ... ................... .......... .......... .. ........... ... ............................. ................ ... .. .......................................................

17 years ..... .................................... ........................ ...... .............. ..............................................................................

B,8 0.6

6.6

6.3

9.B

7.6

7.0

16,0

1.3

0,9

1.1
Table 12, Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by ABH secretor ability, according to race, geographic region, income, and education:

United States, 1966-70

Race, region, income, and education

WHITE

Region

Northeast .................................................................................................................................................

Midwest ...................................................................................................................................................

South ......................................................................................................................................................

West ........................................................................................................................................................

Less than $l.OOO .....................................................................................................................................

$1 ,00fJ$2,999

$3,00044,999"`" ...."'""" .....'"""" ....."""" .....""""" ...."o""" .....""""" ......""""" .....`"""" .....""""" .....""""" ....""""" .....""""" ....."""""" ......""""" ......""""" ...."""""" .......""""" .....""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ..............................................

$5,000-$6,999 .........................................................................................................................................

$7,000.$9,999 ........................................................................................................................................ .

$lo.ooo$14#999 .....................................................................................................................................

$16,000 m more .....................................................................................................................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................................

Education

Less thsm 5 years .....................................................................................................................................

6-7 yeers..................................................................................................................................................

8 years .....................................................................................................................................................

8-11 years ................................................................................................................................................

12 yeara...................................................................................................................................................

13-16 years..............................................................................................................................................

16 years...................................................................................................................................................

17 years or more .....................................................................................................................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Region

IncOme

Lessthan $1 .OOO.....................................................................................................................................

$1,000-$2,999

$3,oo@$4,999:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

$6,000$6,999 .........................................................................................................................................

$7,000.$9,999 .........................................................................................................................................

$lo.oom$14.999 .....................................................................................................................................

$15,000 or more .....................................................................................................................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years .....................................................................................................................................

5-7 years............i .....................................................................................................................................

8 years.....................................................................................................................................................

ABH secretor ability

Se+ Se- Unsatisfactory Test

sample not done

Percent distribution

76.2

78.0

71.9

75.4

76.3

68.3

76.7

76.4

75.4

76.9

76.0

77.2

74.1

71.7

72.2

73.3

77.5

78,1

76.0

74.3

73.8

52.1

72.1

52.8

76.0

70.5

;2’.8

S5.1

71.8

;9.5

;6.8

;7.4

S5.3

;2.4

$8.2

19.2

11.5

;7.5

;6.4

?4.6

12.7

;7.5

20.2

20.3

24.5

22.5

22.5

26.6

19.7

21.0

22.1

21.3

22.6

20.8

20.6

21.0

22.7

23.5

21.1

20.0

22.6

24.7

20.8

29.4

20.9

21.4

21.0

I 6.8

24.0

22.8

15.8

242

11.5

19.8

14.5

?2.9

?6.2

18.2

17.7

?6.0

16.5

I4.4

I7.3

)3.2

2.6

1.3

2.8

1.9

1.2

4.3

3.2

2.2

1.9

1.4

1.0

1.5

5.3

6.6

4.8

2.3

1.2

1.2

1.3

0.6

5.5

7.4

7.1

15.1

3.1

9.6

12.3

12.1

11.6

6.3

1.7

t 2.8

8.4

13.5

15.6

11.7

10.0

6.6

14.5

11.1

9.2

1.1

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.8

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.3

0.4

0.8

0.4

0.9

0.3

0.8

0.1

0.6

1.1

0.7

1.1

1.0

0.9

1.8

1.1

0.9

0.8

2.6

43
Table 13. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by haptoglobin type, according to race, S?X, and age: United States, 18S6-70

Race, sex, and age

Haptcglobin type

1 1 1 , ,

Unsat ia1-1 2-1 2-2 Other factory

Test not

done

sample

WHITE

Both eexas Percent distribution

16.4 32.8 1.9 0.3

.

17.4

17.5

17.6

15.9

14.8

15.1

16.4

46.8 1.7

.

12 years .......... ..... ..... .......... .................................................................................... .................................

13 years ...... ..................................... ........................................................ ................ ................................

14 years . ....... ....... ..... ........................ ... ................... ................................ .................................................

15 years.. ......... ... .............................. ...... ...................................... .............. ....................... ........*.. ............

16 years ...................... ............... ...... ........................... ...... ......................... ....... .......................................

17 years ... .................................................................... .......... ...................... ............................................

43.7

F5

50.1

46.7

49.0

47.3

32.9

30.B

33.5

31.6

34.8

33,5

32.1

2.9

3.0

1.7

;::

0.6

2.9

0.4

0.5

E

0.2

0.3

0.1

2,7

2.0

~8

2,1

1.3

1.2

12 years .. ... ................................................................ .......... .. ................ .... ....c.........................................

13 years .... .............. .... .................................... ...................... .............. .................. ...................................

14 yaars .... ....................................................................... .... ...... .... ............ ...... ........................................

15 years ................ .... ........ .................... .......... .......... ................ .................... ...........................................

16 years ........ ........ ......................................... .. ........................................................................................

17 years ...... .................... ................ ......................... ... ........ .................... ........ ...... .... ...............................

18.0

18.9

16.6

14.8

16.3

13.2

16.5

44.0

44.2

46.9

50.5

47.0

51.9

4s.3

30.8

30.4

33.3

31.7

33.1

33.5

33.6

4.6

4.9

2.1

2.4

2.2

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.5

2.4

1.2

O.B

0.6

1,2

0.6

12-17 years .................... .. .......... .......................................... .. .................. ...... .............. .... .............. 2.3

12 years ... ........................... ........... ................................................... .......................................................

13 years .S................................... ..................... .................. ..................... .................. ................................

14 years ..... ........................ .................... ........... .................. ............... .................... ..................................

16 years ............... ............................ ............ ...................... ........... .............. ..... ........ ................................

16 years ............................. .......... ...... ............... .. ......... ..... ...................................... .................................

17 yaars ............... .... .... ...... .............................. ...... ..................... ....... ........ ..............................................

16.9

16.0

18.4

17.1

13.4

17.2

32.2

.

33.0

33.6

32.3

31.0

30.0

33.3

34.9

43.3

48,2

44.1

49.7

46.3

46.1

39.4

39.0

40.3

3s.1

45.B

39.8

35.4

35.5

35.1

31.2

33.8

31.5

3s.4

33.s

13.3

1.1

1,0

1.4

0.5

0.4

0.s

12,1

0,5

0,7

0.5

0.2

0.3

0.6

0.7

3.1

2.8

1.9

1.0

3.1

1.9

B LACK

Both sexas

12-17 yeers ............ ..... .... ...... ..... ...... ................. ............................ .. .................................. ....... 2.3

9.7

14.5

13.5

13.3

11.4

17.7

11.0

15.6

6.9

15.1

7.8

14.6

12.3

16.1

1.2

0.7

1.2

1.1

0.4

1.5

4.1

2.0

2.0

3.0

1.4

Mala

.

2.1

33.6

37.2

35.9

32.9

35.3

34.4

29.6

31.5

37.0

32.8

41.8

38.6

31.5

43.2

9.0

11.5

8.9

13.4

9.0

15.0

15.4

23.0

10.4

19.9

10.5

15.5

16.3

8.2

1.1

1.2

1.0

1.8

3.9

1.2

1.3

1.s

2.8

Female

2.6

32.4

30.1

28.7

29.1

24.9

32.2

4s.7

43.4

39.2

49.8

41.0

39.1

10.5

17.3

17.8

13.2

13.7

20.2

B.O

3.5

10.4

5.1

13.9

8.5

1.3

1.3

1.1

2.1

1.1

4.3

2.6

2.K

4.4

44
Table 14. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 vears old by haptoglobin type, according to race, 9e09raDhic region. income, and education: United

S{ates, 1S%-70

Raoe, region, income, and education

WHITE

Reaion

Northeast .................................................................................................................................

Midwest ...................................................................................................................................

South .......................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.~O ......................................................................................................................

$1 ,OO@$2,999 .........................................................................................................................

$3,000$4,999 .........................................................................................................................

$6,000$6,999 .........................................................................................................................

$7,000.$9,999 .........................................................................................................................

$lo.oo@$14.999 .....................................................................................................................

$16,000 Or more ......................................................................................................................

Unknown .,, ..............................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years......................................................................................................................

6.7 years ....i .............................................................................................................................

9.11 years ..........................................................i.....................................................................

12 yaars ,,, ,., ,,,, ,,,., ,,,,, ,.,,. ,,,. ,.,,,. ..,.,,,, ........................................................................................

13.16 years ...o..........................................................................................................................

16 yaars ,,,, ,,. .,,,,.,,,,, ....,,.,....,.,!., ...............................................................................................

17 yaars or more ......................................................................................................................

Unknown .................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Ragion

Northeast .................................................................................................................................

Midwest ...................................................................................................................................

South .......................................................................................................................................

West.4.................$.......$......o.............o$.........................................c.............................................

Income

Lessthan $1 .OOO......................................................................................................................

$1,000-$2,999 .........................................................................................................................

$3,000-$4,999 ,.,. ..,..,,. ,.!... ..................................................................................................!....

$6.000*.999...o ......o..o..o...o...!.....!......o...!..............c.........c......................................................

$7.00G$9.999 .........................................................................................................................

$lo.oo@$14.999 .....................................................................................................................

$15,000 or more ......................................................................................................................

Unknown .................................................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years ......................................................................................................................

Elye’ars...........................................a.........................................................................................

9-11 vaars ................. ...o...o........oo....o.........o.......o..........l...................t............c......c...................

12 years ...................................................................................................................................

13.15 vears ..............................................................................................................................

16 yea;s ...................................................................................................................................

17 years or mora .............................................o......................................................c.................

Unknown .....................,., ..,0...0......,,.. .......................................................................................

Haptoglobin type

Unsatis1-1 2-1 2-2 Other factory Tast not

dmre

sample

Percent distribution

15.0

17.9

15.2

17.1

16.3

20.8

14.9

17.6

14.9

16.2

16.9

17.2

21.3

20.9

19.5

16.2

14.5

19,1

15.6

15,3

18.0

34.9

37.6

32.3

20.8

33.3

30.7

31.6

31.8

38.2

19.1

42.7

38.6

26.3

34.5

37.0

28.6

38.7

22.2

36.6

45.7

46.C

47.0

46.4

47.5

45.3

47.5

47.1

46.1

46.1

45.8

46.6

46.0

43.9

44.2

45.7

46.8

48.1

47.B

46.3

43.5

44,2

40.2

37.3

38.7

43.1

37.8

36.4

43.5

39.0

43.6

45.7

16.8

28.6

45.9

42.5

32.2

40.2

40.5

$1.0

17.0

9.7

30.7

35.0

32.5

32.1

32.0

34.0

26.1

34.0

32.8

33.4

34.7

31.8

32.6

29.5

30.8

31.8

33.9

32.9

30.2

34.1

37.2

31.9

12.5

9.5

13.0

20.3

17.8

13.7

10.1

15.2

8.8

18.1

18.7

16.3

9.4

13.1

13.5

14.2

B.6

17.4

21.5

52.9

18.5

.

1.6

;;

1.6

2.8

3.3

1.6

1.3

1.4

;::

2.6

3.0

1.4

1.6

1.3

2.1

0.9

2.5

2.5

4.1

8.0

74.4

12.9

12.7

4.0

14.2

12.9

13.3

7.1

15.2

19.9

12.1

10.0

8.4

16.3

13.4,

9.4

14.2

24.7

37.4

5.1

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.7

0.2

0.1

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.6

0.3

0.8

0.5

0.7

1.0

5.1

0.3

0.4

0.7

3.4

0.9

0.5

1.6

z

1.8

1.6

2.1

2.2

1.4

1.9

;::

1.1

2.4

2.2

1.1

;;

1.5

1.0

1.2

1.0

3.9

0.6

;:

2.1

4.6

1.5

2.3

1.9

4.4

3.0

1.5

1.0

2.8

2.3

5.1

45
Table 15. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by transferring type, according to race, sex, and age: United States, 1S66-70

Transferring type

Race, sex, and age Unsat isCc BC DC ‘ Other factory Test not

done sample

1 1 I I I

WHITE

60th sexes Percent distribution

88.1 0.5 0.1 0.4

.

95.6

95.7

86.9

96.9

95.3

86.2

96.7

1.3 1.7

0.6

1.3

1.0

1.3

1.7

1.5

1.4

—

1.2

1.7

0.9

0.6

2.2

1.6

1.2

0.6

0.1

0.4

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.6

0.3

0.6

0.3

0,2

0.2

0,5

o! 1

2.7

2.0

1.3

0.8

2.1

1.3

1.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

95.9

96.6

97.6

97.5

95.6

96.9

95.4

0.5

0.2

0.6

1.1

0.5

0.6

0.4

2.4

1.2

0.6

0.6

1,2

0.6

2.3

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.2

0,7

Female

95.3

94.6

96.1

88.2

94.7

95.5

90.8

0.4

0.9

1.2

2.0

1.2

1.5

0.2

0.7

0.1

0.3

0.4

0.7

0.2

5.6

0.5

1.4

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.9

0.6

3.1

2,6

1.9

1.0

3.1

1.9

0.3 2.3

BLACK

Both sexes

90.1

69.0

89.4

92.8

90.4

93.9

91.7

0.5

0.4

6.6

6.2

6.5

5.2

5.5

4.1

5.8

0,4

0.5

0.7

0.2

0.7

0.7

1.2

1.1

0,2

1.5

4.1

2.0

2,0

3.0

1.4

2.1

Male

—

68.1

90,7

87.4

95,6

95.1

94.3

90.0

10.1

5.5

9.2

2.9

3.3

2.8

5.7

3.5

6.9

3.9

7.6

7.6

5.3

1.8

3.9

1.2

1.3

;:

0.3 2.6

0.9

0.4

1.2

1.0

Female

92.2

67.4

91.4

89.6

85.9

93.4

1.0

0.9

0.9

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.1

2.1

;:

2.8

2.8

4.4

46
Table 16. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by tranderrin Wm. according tOrace, gewraphic regiOn, incOme, and education: United

States, 1855-70

Race, region, income, and education

WHITE

Region

Northeast ...............................................................................................................................

Midwest .............................................................................................................. ...................

South ................................................o.............................o......................................................

West ....................................................................a.n................................................................

Less than $1,000 ,,,.., ,,,.O,,,,.,.!,... .......................0.....................................................................

$1,000-$2,999 .,, ,,,,. ,,. ,,,,,.. ,,O...,..,., ,,,, ,,,,,, ,., ,,!..........................................................................

$3,000.$4,999 .....................................,..,,.,!!.,...,.. ....,....,,..0,,...,........,..,,0,, .............................

$6,000.$6,689 ..............0!.....................,, ,,, ,., ,!,.......................................................................

$7,00G$9,999 .....................................................!.................................................................

$10,0CG$14,988 ,0..,.................................,,, ,,, ,., ,,, .......!,...,,..,.,..,!. .........................................

$16,000 or more .......................................................................0............................................

Unknown ......................,.,,, ...........................................,,!,,,...,.....,.,,,,,. ..................................

Education

Lessthan 6 years ....................................................................................................................

5.7 yeers ............................................................................................................. .......e..........

8 Veers ...................................................................................................................................

8.11 years ...........................................................................................................4..................

12 yaars ............................................................................................................................e....

13.15 yeers ......oo..o...m..........o.........o......o..........................................o........................o.............

16 years .................................................................................................................................

17 yeera or mora ,.,. ,..,, ,,,., ,... !.....,, .,,,, ..,, ,,., .........,,.. ,,. ,,...................,.!.....................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................

BLACK

Region

Northeast ...............................................................................................................................

Midwest .................................................................................................................................

South .............................................................................o.......................................................

West .......................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.OOO ....................................................................................................................

$1,000.$2,999 ................................................................................!.................!.... ..............0.

$3,000-$4,999 ,,.,, ,,, ,.,, ,,, ,,, ..................,.,,..., ,,,.,.. !,..................................................................

$6,000-$6,889 ....................................................,0,,,.., ,..,..,., ..............................,,0,,,,.,., !!.......

$7,000’$9,889 ,., .,..,.,,,.,,,,.,,,,..,,,.,,.,,,,., ..,.,, ,,.O,.,,.,..................................................................

$10,000-$14,999 ...................................................................................................................

$15,000 or more ,.. ,., .,, ...........................,,,. ............................................................................

Unknown ...............................................................................................................................

Education

Lass than 5 years ....................................................................................................................

5-7 years ................................................................................................................................

8 yaars ...................................................................................................................................

9.11 years ..,.,,,,.,..,.,,,, ,,.,,...,.,.,., ,,, ,,, ,,,,, ,,,!.!.... ... ...............................................................!.....

12 yeers ..........i.o...................o.o....o.........................................................................................

13-16 yaars .......................o..... ........................................................................................o.....

17 yaers or mora ,,,,, ,.,. ..........................! ..............................!..... ..............!!.. ..................., ...!..

Unknown ...............................................................................................................................

cc BC

TransferringWpe

Test not

dona

95.9

85.7

94.7

96.6

98.4

96,3

95.3

95.9

95.8

96.6

E.;

97.6

95.6

95,6

96.2

95.8

95.2

98.0

98,0

90.9

91.7

90.6

89.7

93.7

91.9

86.3

92.1

88,7

95,3

94.5

93.9

88.3

S8.7

91,7

91.6

90.4

91.9

66.8

78.0

100.0

100.0

0.7

2.0

1.1

1.1

1.0

1.1

1.3

1.4

1.1

,1.4

1.9

0.9

2.3

1.4

1.0

1,8

0.5

0.9

7.3

1.0

1.0

3.1

0.5

0.3

0.7

0,5

0.6

1.0

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.1

0.4

0.8

1.0

0.6

0.4

0.9

0.1

4.4

6.5

6.8

3.3

E

6.4

9.0

2.4

1.7

6.1

7.3

4.9

6.2

6.4

6.3

4.9

5,0

22.0

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.6

0.3

0.3

0,5

1.9

0.6

1.0

0.4

1.2

0.2

0.3

0,2

0,4

::

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.5

0.1

0.6

0.6

0.3

0.8

0.7

1.0

5.1

0.3

0.7

3.4

0,6

0.5

1.6

0.8

3.1

1.8

1.6

2.1

2.2

1,4

1.9

1.4

1.9

1,1

2.4

2.2

1.1

1.7

2.1

1.5

1.0

1.2

1.0

3.9

0.6

2.1

3.0

:::

1.5

2.3

1.9

4.;

3.0

1.5

1.0

2,6

2.3

5.1

47
Table 17. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 years old by group specific component (Gc) type, according to race, sex, and age: Un,;ed States. 1966.70

Race, sex, and age

Group speclflc component (Gc) type

Unsatts.

1-1 2-1 2-2

Test not

Vartant factory done

sample

WHITE

Both sexes Percent distribution

51.9 38.5 7.4 0.1 1,7

.

38.9

39.4

37.2

38.7

40.0

36.6

38.6

0.4

_ —

51.7

50.1

52.3

51.4

51.1

55.2

52.6

6.4

7.8

8.7

6.6

6.4

6.4

7.6

0.1

0.1

0.2

0’3

0.7

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.1

27

27

1,3

0.8

2,1

1.3

Male

1.2

50,3

50.5

53.4

51.6

53.9

58.4

51.2

39.6

40.3

37.2

39.7

38.2

36.2

36.5

7.8

7.7

8.5

8.1

6.6

6.6

7.2

2,4

1,2

0.8

0.6

:::

0.1

0.3

0.2

0.2

0,7

Female

2.3

53,1

49.7

51.3

51.1

48.1

54.0

75.5

36.2

38.4

37.3

37.8

41.9

37.3

18.6

.

19.0

21.5

15.7

14.0

20.8

20.3

19.0

4.9

7.9

8.9

9.2

6.2

6.1

3.0

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

1.2

0.7

0.6

0.3

0.6

0.6

3.1

2.8

1.9

1.0

3.1

1.9

BLACK

Both sexes

2.3

75.8

71.3

30.1

32.8

38.2

74.9

75.1

3.1

2.4

1.1

;:

3.5

3.6

0.7

0.7

1.2

1.1

0.2

1.5

4.1

2.0

2.0

3.0

1.4

Male

2.1

76.6

70.4

78.7

32.9

54.1

77.8

76.9

18.2

22.1

17.9

15.0

24.9

15.7

18.2

3.3

3.6

1.0

0.8

9.4

3.6

2.4

1.8

3.9

1.2

1.3

1.2

1.0

1.6

2.8

Female

2.6

74.9

72.2

81.4

82.7

72.1

72.0

—

19,8

20.9

13.6

13.0

16.9

24.6

2.9

1.3

1.1

1.5

4.5

3.4

1.3

1.3

1.1

2.1

1.1

4.3

2.8

2.8

4.4

14 years .... .. .. .. .... .................. ................ ........... ... .. .. .......... .... .... .... ... ...... ..... .... ........ ...............................

15 years .... .. .. .............. ....... ............. ........ ... .. ... .. .... .. ..... .... .. ... .... .. ........ .. .... .. ..... ..... .. .... ...........................

16 years .. .......... .... .... .. ..... .. ................. .. .. ........... ...................... .............. ... .... ........ .................................

17 years .......... .. ........ ... ..... ........................ .... .................... ................ .... .... .... ...... .. .... .............................
Table 18. Percent distribution of youths 12-17 yeers old by group specific component (Gc) type, according to race, geographic region, income, and

education: United States, 1966-70

Race, regicm, income, and education

WHITE

Region

Northeast ..............................................................................................................................

Midwst .................................................................................................................................

South ....................................................................................................................................

West ......................................................................................................................................

Income

Less than $l.OOO ...................................................................................................................

$l.W0.$2.999 .......................................................................................................................

$3,000-$4,999

$6,OO@$6,999::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::::::

$7.m@$9.999 .......................................................................................................................

$lo.oo&$14.999 ...................................................................................................................

$15,000 or more ...................................................................................................................

Unknown ..............................................................................................................................

Education

Reaicm

Income

Lessthan $1 .OOO...................................................................................................................

$l.000$2.999 .......................................................................................................................

$3.000.$4.999 .......................................................................................................................

$5.000.$6.999 .......................................................................................................................

$7.000$9.999 .......................................................................................................................

$10,000.$14,999

$ln~~jO~ more ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::~::::~::::::::::::::~~:::::

..............................................................................................................................

Education

Group specific component (Gc) typa

Unsatis1-1 2-1 2-2 Variant factory Test not

done sample

51.7

52.3

49.3

53.6

55.4

46.8

53.8

51.5

53.9

53.2

48.4

50.2

57.4

48.6

47.3

54.3

52.6

50.6

52.5

49.0

55.3

77.0

79.3

73.8

74.4

68.3

74.1

79.6

76.3

72.1

70.0

87.3

78.5

72.7

80.6

74.6

75.9

75.9

79.2

74.2

53.1

59.2

37.5

39.1

41.2

36.8

34.9

41.9

35.8

38.7

36.8

37.7

42.4

41.5

31.6

42.7

41.2

36.7

37.6

39.2

40.4

41.0

36.0

15.6

17.2

19.7

20.8

21.9

17.3

15.9

20.0

23.1

28.1

12.7

12.4

20.9

16.0

23.6

15.9

18.9

15.7

25.8

46.9

34.0

8.1

7.5

6.0

7.6

8.1

9.0

7.7

7.5

7.0

7.2

7.1

6.7

8.7

5.3

10.4

7.2

7.1

7.8

5.7

8.8

6.9

3.5

2.2

3.4

1.8

2.7

3.7

2.9

3.0

2.5

4.7

2.9

0.8

4.8

2.4

6.7

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.7

0.0

0.1

1.0

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.5

0.7

0.2

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.5

0.1

0.5

0.7

0.5

0.8

0.7

1.0

5.1

0.3

0.7

3.4

0.6

0.5

1.6

0.8

3.1

1.8

1.6

2.1

2.2

1.4

1.9

1.4

1.9

1.1

2.4

2.2

1.1

1.7

2.1

1.5

1.0

1.2

1.0

3.9

0.6

2.1

3.0

2.1

4.6

1.5

2.3

1.9

4.4

3.0

1.5

1.0

2.8

2.3

5.1

49
Table 19. Number of youths 12-17 yaars old, by race, sex, and age: United States, 1966-70

Age

12-17 years....................................................................................

12 years.........................................................................................................

13 years.........................................................................................................

14 years.........................................................................................................

16 years.........................................................................................................

17 years.........................................................................................................

Both

sexes

19,552

3,432

3,396

3,316

3,241

3,136

3,030

Whitel I Blackl

9,929

1,747

1,729

1,686

1,646

1,594

1,528

Number in thousends

9,623

1,685

1,667

1,633

1,594

1,542

1,502 I

3,024 1,496

552 280

538 262

522 256

476 241

474 231

462 225

Female

Region, income, and education

Region

Northeast .................,.,..,,,,,.,,,, ,,,,,,..,.,,.,., .,...,,,..........................................................................................,, ,,.,, ,,,..., ...

Midwest .................................................,.,.,,,,,,.,,,..,,,,,,,.....,.. ................................................,,.,, ,,,...........................,,

South .........................................................................................................................................................................

West...........................................................................................................................................................................

Income

Lessthan $1,000 .......................................................................................................................................................

$1,000-$2,999 ...........................................................................................................................................................

$3,000-$4,999 ................................................................................................................................................ ...........

$5,000-$6,999 ................................................................................................................................ ...........................

$7,000-$9,999 ............................................................................................................................................ ...............

$10,000-$14,999 ................................................................................................................................................. .......

$15,000 or more ........................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ...................................................................................................................................................................

Education

Lassthan 5 years .......................................................................................................................................................

5-7 years ....................................................................................................................................................................

8 years .......................................................................................................................................................................

8-11 years ................................................................................................................................ ................ ................,0

12 years ................................................................................................................................ ................................ .....

13-15 years .......................................................................................................................................................e........

16 years ................................................................................................................................ ................................ .....

17 years or more ........................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ................................................................................................................................ ................ ................ ...

lData for youths of (~other$yraces are not included in this table.

1,527

272

275

266

235

243

237

1Data for youth5 of ~,~ther,~races are not included in this table.

Table 20, Number of youths 12-17 years old, by race, geographic region, income, and education: United States, 1966.70

EzE

Number in

thousands

4,375

5,929

3,909

5,33B

205

1,495

2,224

3,000

4,815

4,187

2,351

1,275

513

1,090

1,410

3,164

7,513

2,416

1,825

1,333

289

648

524

1,446

407

241

742

803

503

328

163

42

202

234

390

227

1,124

698

166

55

39

90

50
Table 21. Number of examined youths 12-17 years old, by race, sex, and age: United States, 1966-70

Age

loth

:xes

,735

995

,032

,011

950

937

810

White]

Male

3,047

540

542

527

525

496

417

Female

2,688

455

490

484

425

441

393

Blackl

3=8oth Male

sexes

999 II 479

189 101

171 80

189 88

157 84

150 57

143 69

Female

520

88

91

101

73

93

74

l~ata for youths of t~other>)races., of whom 34 were examined, are not included in this table.

Table 22, Number ofexaminad youths 12-17years old, byrace, geographic region, income, andeducation: United States, 1966-70

Region, income, and education

Region

Midwest .......................................~.... .................... .....................................................................................................

South ....... ................ .... .................... .......... .. ................ .................... ..........................................................................

West .............. ................... ................... ............................... ........................................................................................

Income

Less than $1,000 .................................................... ............................................................................ .......................

$1,000$2,999 ,., ..,. ,,, ,,. ... ... ...................... .............. .......................... ................................ ............................... ...........

$3,000-$4,999 ...................... ............ .. ........ .......... ..................................................................................... .............. ..

$5,000-$6,999 ....... .. ........ .. .................. ... ...................................................................................... ............................ .

$7,000-$9,999 .............................................................................................................................. ............................ .

$lo.ooo.$14.999 ................. ..... ............................. ....................................................................................................

$15,000 or more ............. ....................................... ............................................................................ ................ ........

Unknown .............................................................. .....................................................................................................

Education

Less than 5 years ................ .................. .............. .......................................................................................................

b7 years ....................................................... ............................ ........ ............ .... .... .... .. ...............................................

8years ........................................................... ................ .. .. .......... ...... .... .............. .. .. .. ................................................

8-11 years ............................................ .................. ....................................................................................................

12 years ........... .......... ............................................ ............................................................... ................................ .....

13.15 years ................................................................................................................ ................................................

16 years .....................................................................................................................................................................

17 years or more ........................................................................................................................................................

Unknown ...................................................................................................................................................................

l~ata for youths of ‘{other>>races, of whom 34 were examined, were not included in this table.

Whitel

1,428

1,582

1,206

1,519

64

427

665

922

1,440

1,221

629

367

148

316

412

981

2,252

679

496

366

85

Blackl

210

166

498

125

79

247

275

158

105

51

::

79

129

BO

365

233

54

17

11

31

51
APPENDIXES

CONTENTS

I. Statistical Notes .............................................................................................................................

The Survey Design ....................................................................................................................

Response Rates .........................................................................................................................

Parameter and Variance Estimation ..........................................................................................

II. Demographic and Socioeconomic Terms ........................................................................................

III. Rh Genotype Combinations Classification .....................................................................................

LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES

I. HES III response rates by sex and age ............................................................................................

II. HES 111response rates by sex, race, and age ...................................................................................

111, Estimated design effects by demographic classification ..................................................................

N. Rh genotype combinations classification codes ..............................................................................

V. Numerical distribution of sample by Rh genotype combinations classification ........................

53

53

54

55

57

59

55

55

56

59

60

52
APPENDIX 1

STATISTICAL NOTES

The Survey Design

The sampling plan of the third cycle of the

Health Examination Survey followed a multistage, stratified probability sample of clusters of

households in land-based segments in which a

sample of the U ,S. population (including Alaska

and Hawaii) aged 12 through 17 years was

selected. Excluded were those youths confined

to institutions or residing upon any of the

reservation lands set aside for use by American

Indians,

The sample design of Cycle III is similar to

that of Cycle II in that it uses the same 40 sample areas and the same segments. The decision to

incorporate this feature into Cycle III was not

made prior to the selection of the second cycle

sample, although it is consistent with the early

concept of a single program for 6-17-year-olds.

The final decision to use this identical sampling

frame was made during the operation of the second cycle program.

The successive elements for this sample design are the primary sampling unit (PSU); census

enumeration district (ED); segment (a cluster of

households); household; all eligible youths; and

finally, the sample youth. Every eligible youth

within the defined population had a known and

approximately equal chance for selection into

the sample.

The steps of drawing the sample were carried out jointly with the U.S. Bureau of the

Census; the starting points were the 1960 decennial census lists of addresses and the nearly

1,900 PSU’S into which the entire United States

was divided. Each PSU is a standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA), a county, or a group

of two or three contiguous counties. These

PSU’S were grouped into 40 strata so that each

stratum had an average size of about 4.5 million

persons. This grouping maximized the degree of

homogeneity within strata with regard to the

population size of the PSU’S, degree of urbanization, geographic proximity, and degree of industrialization. The 40 strata were then classified into four broad geographic regions of 10

strata each and then, within each region, crossclassified by four population density classes and

by the rates of population change from 1950

to 1960. By using a modified Goodman-Kish

controlled-selection technique, one PSU was

drawn from each of the 40 strata.

The sampling within PSU’S was carried out

in several steps. First, census ED’s were selected.

These ED’s are small well-defined areas of about

250 housing units into which the entire Nation

was divided for the 1960 population census.

Each ED was assigned a “measure of size” equal

to the rcunded whole number resulting from a

“division by nine” of the number of children

aged 5-9 in the ED at the time of the 1960

census. A sample of 20 ED’s in the sample PSU

was selected according to a systematic sampling

technique with each ED having a probability of

selection proportional to the population of

children aged 5-9 at the time of the 1960 census.

From each ED a random selection of one measure of size (segment) was taken.

Minor changes required in the Cycle III design were that it be supplemented for new construction to a greater extent than had been

necessary in Cycle II and that reserve segments

be added. Although it was the plan for Cycle III

to use the Cycle II segments, it was recognized

that within several PSU’S additional reserve segments would be needed to avoid the risk of

having an insufficient number of exarninees.

This additional reserve was prompted by the fact

53
that four of the PSU’S in Cycle II had yields of

less than 165 eligible children and several others

were marginal in their yields. In addition, there

was a 3-year interval between Cycles II and III,

so that it was quite possible for some segments

to have been completely demolished to make

room for highway construction or urban redevelopment.

The time available for examinations at a particular stand, as they have been designated, was

necessarily set far in advance of any preliminary

field work at the stand. Therefore, the number

of examinations that could be performed at a

particular location depended on the number of

examining days available. At most locations, the

number of days available, excluding Saturdays,

was 17, At the rate of 12 examinations each

day, 204 examination slots were possible. Examinations were conducted on Saturdays if it became necessary. Because of rescheduling for cancellations or “no-shows,” the maximum number

of youths considered for inclusion in the sample

is 200. When the number of eligible youths exceeded this number, subsampling was performed

to reduce the number to manageable limits.

This reduction was accomplished through the

use of a master list, which is a listing of all

eligible youths in order by segment, serial number (household order within segment), and

column number (order in the household by age).

After the subsampling rate had been determined, every nth name on the list was deleted,

starting with the y th name, y being a randomly

selected number between 1 and n. Youths who

were deleted from the Cycle III sample but who

were examined in Cycle II as well as any twin

who may have been deleted were, if time permitted, scheduled for an examination for inclusion

only in the longitudinal study portion of the survey. Their data were not included in the report

as part of the regular sample.

Because the strata were roughly equal in

population size and a nearly equal number of

sample youths were examined in each of the

sample PSU’S, the sample design was essentially

self-weighting with respect to the target population; that is, each youth aged 12 through 17 had

about the same probability y of being drawn into

the sample.

The adjustment upward for nonresponse was

intended to minimize the impact of nonresponse

on final estimates by imputing to IIOIIKSI)OII(i-”

.

ents the characteristics of”’’simihlr” rcs])(Jn(]cnls.

Here “similar” respondents were judged to bc

examined youths in a sample PSU Ilavillg thr

same age (in years) and scx as those not cxmnined in that sample PSU.

The poststratified ratio adjustment Llscd in

Cycle III achieved most of the gains in precision

that would have been attained if the sample had

been drawn from a population stratified l)}’ :lKc,

color, and sex; and it made the finnl sam])lc

estimates of population (tables 19 and 20) a:rc’c

exactly with independent controls prcpmcd b~

the Bureau of the Census for the nt)ninstitutional population of the United States m of

March 9, 1968 (approximate midsurvcy point),

by color and sex for each single year of agc 12

through 17. The weight of every rcsponcli]lx

sample child in each of the 24 age, race, and sc x

classes is adjusted upward or downward so that

the weighted total within the class equals the

independent population control.

A more detailed description of the samplin~

plan and estimation procedures is included in

Vital and Health Statistics, Series 2, Number

43,49 and in Series 1, Numbers 1,50 5? and 8,4

which describe the plan and operation of the

first three cycles of the Health E xarninution

Survey (HES).

R&ponse Rates

As mentioned previously, the sample designs

of the second and third cycles of the HES were

similar. Differences did occur, however, in response rates of various subgroups of these sanlples and these differences deserve considcrat ion.

Most importantly, the number of youths

selected for examination increased from 7,417

in Cycle II to 7,514 in Cycle III. The response

rate, that is, the number of youths selected who

were actually examined, decreased from 96 percent in Cycle II to 90 percent in Cycle 111(tables

21 and 22). Of the examined youths of Cycle II,

13.86 percent were black compared with 14.76

percent of those examined in Cycle III. This difference does not reflect a difference in the percent of black youths selected for examination,

but instead, a smaller decrease in response rate

NOTE: A list of references follows the text.

54
for black youths between the two cycles than

was the case for the white youths. In Cycle III,

13,8 percent of the sample selected for examination was black, corresponding to 13,5 percent

for Cycle II. The response rate for white youths

dropped from 95.6 percent in Cycle II to 89.1

percent in Cycle III, but the response rate for

black youths dropped a far lesser degree, from

98.4 to 96.6 percent. Thus better relative

response from the black portion of the sample

yielded a greater percent of these youths actually examined during Cycle III than during the

previous sample.

At every age group, fewer females actually

were examined than males. This situation again

is not attributed to differences in numbers of

youths selected in the sampling design, but

rather to differential response rates between

males and females shown in table 1. At each age

group the response rate for males exceeded that

for females.

A similar analysis of response rates can be

done by sex, race, and age as shown in table II.

Table II clearly indicates that for all ages

under consideration in Cycle III of the HES, the

response rate for black youths exceeded that for

white youths of the same sex and age.

Table 1, HES III response rates by sex end age

Age

12.!7 years ,,,.,,,,,.,,,,,,,.,.,.,.,,.,,,.,,,.,.,,.

12 years .,, ,,,,,,,,..,,,,., .,, ,,,..,,.,.,..,,, ,..,,.,,,,, ,,,,..,

13 years..,,,,,,.,,.,,,,.,..,o..,...,,,,,,,,.....,...,....,....,

14 years .,,.....................................................

15 yaars ........................................................

16 years ........................................................

17 years ........................................................

Table II, HES III responsa ratas by sax

Male Famale

91,4 88.7

1- 93.5 91,3

93,2 91.9

91.7 90.7

91.6 87.9

89.8 87.7

87.6 81.8

race, and age

“e H=t=Fk12-17 years,,,,,.,,,,,,, 90.5 97.6 87,4 95.8

12 years ............................. 92.6 99.0 90.1 98.9

13 years ............................. 92.5 98.8 91.1 96.8

14 years ............................. 91.0 97.8 89.6 96.2

15 yaers..,,,,,,,,,..,...,.,,,,...,.. 90.7 97.7 86.4 98.6

16 years.,,., ........................ 89.2 95.0 86.6 93.0

17 yeers ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,.,,,,,,...,,. 86,5 95.8 80.2 91.4

Reasons for differences in response rates are

many, and may range from the incentive to miss

a day of school, to fear of the examination

itself, to inhibitions with respect to being examined. The very worst response rates among both

white and black youths were recorded for the

oldest females, that is, 17-year-old females.

Parameter and Variance Estimation

Because each of the 6,768 sample children

has an assigned statistical weight, all estimates of

population parameters presented in HES publications are computed taking this weight into

consideration. Thus the estimate of a population

mean p is computed as follows: ~ = 2 W#i/2 Wi;

where Xi is the observation or measurement on

the ith person and Wj is the weight assigned to

that person,

The Health Examination Survey has an extremely complex sampling plan, and obviously

the estimation procedure is, by the very nature

of the sample, complex as well. A method is required for estimating the reliability of findings

that “reflects both losses from clustering sample

cases at two stages and the gains from stratification, ratio estimation, and poststratification .”G1

The method of estimating variances in HES

is the half-sample replication technique. The

method was developed at the Bureau of the

Census prior to 1957 and has at times been given

limited use in the estimation of the reliability

of results from the Current Population Survey.

The half-sample replication technique is particularly well suited to HES because the sample,

although complex in design, is relatively small

(6,768 cases) and is based on only 40 strata.

This feature permitted the development of a

variance estimation computer program that produces tables containing desired estimates of

aggregates, means, and distributions, together

with a table identical in format but with the estimated variances instead of the estimated statistics. The computations required by the method

are simple, and the internal storage requirements

are well within the limitation of the IBM 370-

158 computer system used at the National Center for Health Statistics.

NOTE: A list of references follows the text.

55
Variance estimates computed for this report

were based on 20 balanced half-sample replications. A half-sample was formed by choosing 1

sample PSU from each of 20 pairs of sample

PSU’S. To compute the variance of any statistic, this statistic is computed for each of the 20

half-samples. Then, the weighted mean of the

entire, undivided sample is computed. The variance of the mean is the mean square deviation

of each of the 20 half-sample means about the

overall mean. The standard error of the mean is

simply the square root of this variance of the

mean. In a similar manner, the standard error of

any statistic may be computed.

However, to eliminate the great mass of

tables required to present variance estimates for

all of the statistics in this report, a “variance

smoothing” approach has been used for the presentation of estimated variances.

By using this approach, variance estimators

are produced in two steps. First, the simple random sample (SRS) estimate of variance is calculated with the usual formula,

Vlr@~j) = fij( 1- Fij)/ni

where p is the estimated proportion and ni is the

unweighed number of cases in the row of the

table containing the estimated proportion. Second, the SRS estimate of variance is multiplied

by a design effect (defined as the effect on variances consequent to using a complex sampling

design rather than a simple random sampling

design) specific to the independent variable of

interest (e g., sex X age, region, income, or education) to produce the variance estimate for pij.

The design effects were estimated by the

method of least squares. The replicated halfsample variance estimates for a subset of the

variables presented in this paper were used as

the dependent variables and the corresponding

SRS variance estimates were used as the independent variables in the model

V&@ij) = (design effect) X ~ij(l - $ij)/ni + E

to produce the estimates of the design effects.

The estimated design effects and the correlations between the half-sample variance estimates and the “smoothed” or predicted variance

estimates (giving a measure of the strength of

the relationship between the two, that is, the

effectiveness of the fitting process) are given in

table III.

The following example may be illustrative.

The variances for the proportions of type B

blood for white and black youths in the Midwest

were estimated through the following calculations:

fi@W ) = 0.115 X 0.885/1582 = 0.0000643

ti@J = 0.221 X 0.779/166 = 0.0010371

With design effects from Table III,

ti@W ) = 1.43 X 0.0000643 = 0.0000919

fi&J = 1.43 X 0.0010371 =0.0014831

The variances used in all significance tests presented in the main text employed this technique.

The usual test for the difference between

proportions is used to determine significance:

‘=(P1 -?2)AW1)+ W2)

For the example described in the paragraph

above,

z = (0.115 - 0.221)/ 0.0000919 + 0.0014831

=-2.671 @< O.01).

Table 1I 1. Estimated design effects by demographic classification

Independent variable Design Correeffect Iation

Sex X age ..................................................... 1.08 0.89

Region ......................................................... 1.43 0.93

income ......................................................... 1.60 0.77

Education .................. .................................. 1.66 0.77

000

56
APPENDIX II

DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIOECONOMIC TERMS

Age. –The age recorded for each youth was

the age at last birthday on the date of examination. The age criterion for inclusion in the sample used in this survey was defined as age at time

of interview, Because the examination usually

took place 2-4 weeks after the interview, 23

youths who were 17 years old at the time of the

interview became 18 years old by the time of

the examination. In the adjustment and weighting procedures used to produce national estimates, these 23 were included in the 17-year-old

group.

Race. –Race was recorded as “white,”

“black,” and “other races .’yg In Cycle III, the

white youths constituted 84.74 percent of the

total; the black youths., 14.76 percent; and

youths of other races, 0.50 percent. In Cycle H

white youths constituted 85,69 percent of the

examined subjects and black youths, 13.86 percent. As in Cycle H, because so few youths of

gThe same classification scheme as used in the 1960

census was employed here. As described in the previously mentioned report on the operation of HES Cycle

111,4 this information was obtained at the initial household interview by the U.S. Bureau of the Census field

worker. Its accuracy was checked at the subsequent

home visit by the highly experienced representative from

HES and again at the examination in the trailer. A final

record check by birth certificate turned up only seven

inconsistencies, and these were mostly pertaining to the

category “other races. ” Hence, the possible extent of

misclassification of the variable race as described, is so

minimal that it could have no effect on the data analyzed in this report. However, when comparing the present HIM findings to those of other variously defined

racial groupings in the world, the problems of ascertainment caused by various degrees of genetic admixture, as

first discussed by Herskowitz52 in 1928 and later by

Glass and Li,5~ Roberts,54)55 and Reed,45 should

be taken into consideration.

“other races” were part of the sample, data from

them have not been analyzed as a separate category.

Geographic region. –For purposes of stratification the United States was divided into four

broad geographic regions of approximately equal

population. These regions, which correspond

closely to those used by the U.S. Bureau of the

Census, are as follows:

Rep”on

Northeast .......

South .............

Midwest .........

West ...............

States included

Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,

New Jersey, and Pennsylvania

Delaware, Maryland, District of

Columbia, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,

North Carolina, South Carolina,

Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas

Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,

Iowa, and Missouri

Washin@on, Oregon, California,

Nevada; Ne”w M~xico, Arizona;

Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, South

Dakota, Idaho, Utah, Colorado,

Montana, Wyoming, Alaska,

and Hawaii

Family income.–The income recorded was

the total income during the past 12 months received by the head of the household and all

other household members related to the head by

57
blood, marriage, or adoption. This income was

the gxoss cash income (excluding pay in kind,

e.g., meals, living quarters, or supplies provided

in place of cash wages) except in the case of a

family with its own farm or business, in which

case net income was recorded. Also included in

the family income figure were allotments and

other money received by the family from a

member of the Armed Forces whether that

member was living at home or not.

Education of parent or guardian.–This item

was recorded as the highest grade that had been

completed in school. The only grades counted

were those that had been completed in a regular

school where persons were given formal education in graded or private schools, either day or

night schools, with either full-time or parttime attendance. A “regular” school is one that

advances a person toward an elementary or high

school diploma, or a college, university, or professional school degree. Education in vocational,

trade, or business schools outside the regular

school system was not counted in determining

the highest grade of school completed.

000

58
APPENDIX Ill

Rh GENOTYPE COMBINATIONS CLASSIFICATION

Table IV. Rh genotype combinations classification codes

Code

1...............................................................

2 ...................................... .........................

3 ,,, ............................................................

41 .............................................................

52

.,, ,, .,, ,,, ,, ................................................

63

.............................................................

7 ,,,,,,,.,,,,,.,,...............................................

8 ,..............................................................

91 .............................................................

Genotype

cdelcde

CDe/cde

CDe/cDe

cDe/Cde

CDe/CDe

CDelCde

CDe/cDE

CDE/cde

CDE/cDe

CDe/cdE

CDE/Cde

Cd E/cDe

cDe/cDe

cDe/cde

cDe/cde

cDE/cDe

cDe/cdE

cDE/cDE

cDE/cdE

CDe/CDE

CdelCDE

CDe/Cda

cDE/CDE

cdE/CDE

cDE/Cd E

Symbo

rr

Rlr

RIRO

ROR’

RqRq

R,R’

R1R2

Rzr

RZRO

RIR”

R2R’

R2R0

RORo

Ror

R2r

r2Ro

ROR”

R.2R2

R2R”

RIRZ

R’RZ

RIRY

R2RZ

R“RZ

R.2RV

Code

10 .............................................................

16 .............................................................

17 .............................................................

Genotype

Cde/cdE

Cd E/cde

CdelCde

Cde/cde

cd E/cde

cd Elcd E

CdelCdE

cd E/Cd E

CDEICDE

CDEICdE

CdE/CdE

CD”e/cde

CD”e/Cde

CD”E/cde

cD”e/cde

cD” E/cde

—

Symbol

R’R”

RYr

R’R’

R’r

R“r

R“R”

R’RY

R’JRy

RZRZ

RZRY

%RY

lcodes 4 and 9 are combined in one CkMSifiCz3tiOII.

zcod~s s and 35 are combined in one classification.

Scodes 6 and 36 are combined in one Ck3SSifiC8ti0rI.

59
Table V. Numerical distribution of sample by Rh genotype combinations classification

Code White Black

Total ................................................................................................................................................................... 5;735 999

Not done ....................................................................................................................................................................... 103 24

1 ................................................................................. ............................................... ................................ .................... 803 43

z ................................................................................................................................ ...............0................ ....................

3 ................................................................................................................................ ................................ !0,.!........... ....

4 .......... ...................................................................................................... ............... ................................ ....................

5 ....................................... ....... .......... .................................................................................... ............................ ............

6 ........................................... ................................................................................................. ............................ ............

7 ................................................................................................................................................. ................................ ...

8 ......................... ... .......................... ..........,,, ,.,, .!....... ............................. ................................... ................................ ....

9 ...................................... ........ ......................................... .... ................ .... ................. ................................ ....................

12 ............................................................................. .....................................................................................................

13 ......... ....................................................................................................................... ................................ ..................

32 .......................................................................... ............ .......................................... ................................ ,,.!.,.......... ..

35 .................................................................................................................,, ............. ................ ................................ ..

1,997

1,010

780

121

170

226

17

19

497

138

13

14 -

1

29 11

24 3

7

2 3

36 .................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Unsatisfactory ................. .................o................................................... ......................................................................... 4 5

M.LS.GOVERNMENTPRINTING OFFICE:19S0 311-240/2 1-3
Series 1.

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Programs and Col/ecfio)t Procedures. –Reports which describe the general programs of the National

Center for Health Statistics and its offices and divisions and data collection methods used and include

definitions and other material necessary for understanding the data.

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of a nationwide probability sample of ever-mamied women 15-44 years of age.

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