iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 1998, field studies of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi)

were conducted at all of its main reproductive sites in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. These

studies provide information necessary to evaluate (1) the status and trends of monk seal

populations, (2) natural history traits such as survival, reproduction, growth, behavior, and

feeding habits, and (3) the success of various activities designed to facilitate population growth. 

Results of these studies are best described on a site-by-site basis, and the information

presented in this document is organized accordingly. Pooled site-specific data, however, provide

useful indices of the status and trends of the whole species, including the total number of pups at

the main reproductive sites, the total of the site-specific mean beach counts, and the size

composition of the seals observed during the counts (Fig. 1).

Since 1983, the number of pups born at the main reproductive sites (excluding Midway

Atoll) has been highly variable, and the variability has been largely determined by the number

born at French Frigate Shoals (Fig. 1a), the largest subpopulation. In 1998, 235 pups were

counted at these sites, 109 of which were born at French Frigate Shoals. This is the highest

number of pups counted since standard assessments began. Mean beach counts, excluding pups,

from the main reproductive sites (again, excluding Midway Atoll) totaled 375 seals and have

remained essentially unchanged since 1993 (Fig. 1b). 

Since the mid 1980s, adults have comprised a growing portion of the animals counted

(Fig. 1c) and, in 1998, the composition of the counts remained largely skewed towards adults. 

This shift in composition bodes poorly for reproduction in the near future if older adult females

are not replaced by young females reaching reproductive age. The overall impact from this shift

in composition will be determined by the magnitude of its change and the length of time that the

resulting skewed distribution persists, neither of which can be reliably predicted at this time. 

High mortality of immature seals appears to be a major factor leading to the shift in composition,

particularly at French Frigate Shoals and Laysan Island. 

In 1998, three management activities were conducted by the Marine Mammal Research

Program (Honolulu Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service) to enhance recovery of the

species. First, debris capable of entangling seals was removed from all study sites and nine

entangled seals were disentangled by field biologists. Second, debris was removed from sections

of fringing reef at French Frigate Shoals and Pearl and Hermes Reef to reduce hazards to the

seals, to assess the extent of reef fouling, and to determine the feasibility of large scale debris

removal. Third, two adult male seals known to drown and kill pups were collected and

translocated to Johnston Atoll to increase pup survival.

This document describes these and other field studies conducted during 1998. The format

followed is intended to provide complete, standardized, and timely summaries of the research

activities and findings at each study site. The ready availability of such information is essential

for ongoing efforts to stop the decline of this species and enhance its recovery.

v

CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ....................................... 1

MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................... 3

Censuses and Patrols .............................................. 3

Reproduction .................................................... 4

Factors Affecting Survival .......................................... 5

Individual Identification ............................................ 6

Measurements of Seals ............................................ 7

Collection of Samples ............................................. 7

CHAPTER 2. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS, 1998 ............................................. 9

RESEARCH .......................................................... 11

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 11

Individual Identification ........................................... 11

Collection of Samples ............................................ 11

Special Studies .................................................. 12

Health and Disease Study ................................... 12

Habitat Use Study ......................................... 12

Prey Availability .......................................... 12

Adult Male Translocation ................................... 12

Galapagos Shark Assessment ................................. 12

Large-Scale Debris Removal from Fringing Reef ................. 13

RESULTS ........................................................... 13

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 13

Reproduction ................................................... 13

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 13

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 13

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 14

TABLES ............................................................. 15

CHAPTER 3. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

LAYSAN ISLAND, 1998 ..................................................... 23

RESEARCH .......................................................... 25

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 25

Individual Identification ........................................... 25

Collection of Samples ............................................ 25

Noteworthy Events ............................................... 26

Translocated Adult Males ................................... 26

Oiled Seals ............................................... 26

Debris Plots .............................................. 26
(CONTENTS, continued)

Page

vi

RESULTS ........................................................... 26

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 26

Reproduction ................................................... 26

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 27

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 27

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 27

TABLES ............................................................. 29

CHAPTER 4. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON 

LISIANSKI ISLAND, 1998 .................................................... 37

RESEARCH .......................................................... 39

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 39

Individual Identification ........................................... 39

Collection of Samples ............................................ 39

RESULTS ........................................................... 40

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 40

Reproduction ................................................... 40

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 40

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 40

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 40

TABLES ............................................................. 41

CHAPTER 5. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

PEARL AND HERMES REEF, 1998 ............................................ 49

RESEARCH .......................................................... 51

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 51

Individual Identification ........................................... 51

Collection of Samples ............................................ 51

Special Studies .................................................. 52

Habitat Use Study ......................................... 52

Health and Disease Study ................................... 52

Debris Removal from Fringing Reef and Shore Study Plots ......... 52

RESULTS ........................................................... 52

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 52

Reproduction ................................................... 52

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 52

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 53

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 53

TABLES ............................................................. 55
(CONTENTS, continued)

Page

vii

CHAPTER 6. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

MIDWAY ATOLL, 1998 ..................................................... 63

RESEARCH .......................................................... 65

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 65

Individual Identification ........................................... 66

Collection of Samples ............................................. 66

Special Studies .................................................. 66

Health and Disease Survey ................................... 66

Emergent Reef Surveys ..................................... 66

Debris Survey and Retrieval along the Atoll Reef ................. 66

RESULTS ........................................................... 67

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 67

Reproduction ................................................... 67

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 67

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 67

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 68

TABLES ............................................................. 69

CHAPTER 7. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

KURE ATOLL, 1998 ......................................................... 77

RESEARCH .......................................................... 79

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 79

Individual Identification ........................................... 80

Collection of Samples ............................................ 80

Special Studies .................................................. 80

The Assessment of Photogrammetry as a Tool to Estimate Body

Size ............................................... 80

Paradise Queen II Grounding ................................ 80

RESULTS ........................................................... 81

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 81

Reproduction ................................................... 81

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 81

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 81

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 81

TABLES ............................................................. 83

CHAPTER 8. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

NECKER ISLAND, 1998 ..................................................... 91

RESEARCH .......................................................... 93

Censuses and Patrols ............................................. 93

Individual Identification ........................................... 93

Collection of Samples ............................................ 93
(CONTENTS, continued)

Page

viii

RESULTS ........................................................... 93

Population Abundance and Composition .............................. 93

Reproduction ................................................... 93

Interatoll Movement .............................................. 93

Factors Affecting Survival ......................................... 94

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... 94

REFERENCES ............................................................. 95

APPENDIXES ............................................................... 99

Appendix A.--Reports summarizing annual field research on the Hawaiian monk

seal by the National Marine Fisheries Service and collaborating scientists . . . 101

Appendix B.--Hawaiian monk seal census form and 1998 census form directions. ... 107
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

3

The endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) hauls out and breeds in

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI, Fig. 1.1). The National Marine Fisheries Service

(NMFS) is the lead agency responsible for the recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal. Each year

the Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, NMFS Marine Mammal Research

Program conducts studies at the main breeding sites to provide information necessary to evaluate

(1) the status and trends of the monk seal populations, (2) natural history traits such as survival,

reproduction, growth, behavior, and feeding habits, and (3) the success of various activities

designed to facilitate population growth.

The Marine Mammal Research Program began research on Hawaiian monk seals at most

major reproductive sites in the NWHI during 1981 (Kure Atoll, Laysan Island, and Lisianski

Island), 1982 (French Frigate Shoals (FFS) and Pearl and Hermes Reef), and 1983 (Midway

Atoll). Nearly every year thereafter, field camps of several days to 9 months were established to

monitor and enhance the recovery of this species. Limited population monitoring has also been

conducted at Nihoa and Necker Islands, where pup production is spatially limited by availability

of haulout area. Reports summarizing past NMFS research are listed in Appendix A.

In 1998, the Hawaiian monk seal research activities were to (1) conduct beach counts

(censuses), (2) tag weaned pups and immature seals for permanent identification, (3) identify

other seals by previously applied tags and by natural or applied markings, (4) monitor

reproduction, survival, injuries, entanglements, interatoll movements, disappearances, and

deaths, (5) perform necropsies, (6) collect scat and spew samples for food habits analysis, (7)

collect flipper plugs and molt samples for DNA analysis of paternity patterns and genetic

variation within and among populations, (8) collect placental samples for genetic and hormonal

studies, (9) disentangle seals, and (10) inventory, sample, and destroy debris capable of

entangling seals. Location-specific objectives and summaries of data collected during the 1998

field season are described in the following chapters. Much of the information presented in this

memorandum is incorporated into larger data sets for additional analysis and publication

elsewhere.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Censuses and Patrols

The primary means of data collection were censuses and patrols. Censuses consisted of

timed, standardized beach counts during which an entire island or atoll was surveyed for seals. 

Although data were collected on all seals, those that were in the water, captive, or dead were

excluded from the beach count totals. Identified individuals were counted only once if they were

resighted during the survey. The resulting counts did not reflect total population size but

provided an index of population size for comparison among years and locations. Data collected

on each seal observed during censuses included size class (ranging from pup to juvenile,

subadult, and adult size as described in Stone, 1984 and Appendix B); sex; location on the island;

beach position (indicating whether the seal was in the water or on land); body condition (a

subjective estimate; e.g., fat or thin); identification information (permanent or temporary
4

identification numbers and tag numbers); molting status (an estimate of the percentage an animal

had molted); and disturbance index (the extent that the observer disturbed the seal). Further data

were collected if any of the following events occurred: (1) factors affecting survival (e.g.,

entanglements, mobbings, or shark injuries), (2) animal handling, (3) photography, and (4)

documentation of tag condition (e.g., good or broken). In addition, behavior data (seal

associations and interactions) were collected on Laysan and Lisianski Islands. A sample census

form and guidelines for its completion are included in Appendix B. Censuses were conducted

once at Necker Island, or every 4 to 7 d (at all other locations), starting at 1300 Hawaii standard

time when possible, using census methods and criteria outlined in Johanos et al. (1987). Atollwide counts for locations with more than a single island (French Frigate Shoals, Pearl and

Hermes Reef, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll) were completed within a 2-day period. The

perimeter of each study area was divided into sectors to facilitate the analysis of data and

detection of demographic trends in different geographic areas. Census methods specific to each

location are detailed in the following chapters.

Patrols consisted of untimed surveys of an entire island perimeter. Information collected

during patrols was similar to that collected during censuses. Because patrols were not timed,

observers concentrated on documenting adult and subadult behavior, identifying and marking

individuals, and collecting scat and spew samples. Island-specific standardized patrols were

conducted at some locations and are described in the following chapters. 

During all observation periods (i.e., censuses, patrols, and incidental sightings), observers

attempted to minimize seal disturbance by walking above the beach crest and using vegetation as

a visual barrier. On census days, activities which could disturb the animals and bias the count

were not conducted until after the count was completed. Additionally, special efforts were

directed toward documentation of (1) births, pup exchanges, and weanings; (2) mating activities,

adult male aggression, and post-mobbing aggregations (defined below); (3) entanglements in

marine debris; (4) injuries; and (5) deaths.

Reproduction

Parturient females were identified, and birth and weaning information were recorded. 

Because parturient females will nurse pups other than their own (Boness, 1990; Boness et al.,

1998), efforts were made to identify pups and document changes in nursing relationships from

birth to weaning. A pup exchange occurred when the pups of two lactating females were

switched or one nursing female ended up with multiple pups. Most frequently, such exchanges

occurred during an aggressive interaction between the two females. On other occasions, a

mother and pup became separated, and one or both seals then actively sought and obtained

another nursing relationship.

The average nursing period was calculated for the pups at each location. The average

lactation period of parturient females was also calculated for seals at FFS because higher

population density and frequent pup exchanges (Boness, 1990; Boness et al., 1998) made it

difficult to track individual pups and determine their nursing period. Nursing or lactation periods

were defined as the number of days from birth until the end of the last nursing relationship. 
5

Temporary breaks in nursing relationships were not subtracted from the total. When the exact

birth or weaning date was not known, but occurred within a range of 4 days or less, then the

midpoint of that range was used as the start or end date for calculation of average nursing or

lactation period. Nursing or lactation data were not used if the range exceeded 4 days, or if the

pup died or disappeared before weaning.

Factors Affecting Survival

A wide range of injuries was observed. The origins of these injuries were distinguished

based upon characteristic wound patterns described in Hiruki et al. (1993). Injuries were

documented if they were related to mounting or entanglement or if they were considered severe

enough to possibly affect survival. Injuries were considered severe, and were summarized if they

consisted of (1) three or more abscesses, each <5 cm in diameter, or one abscess with a diameter

$5 cm; (2) an amputation of more than half a flipper (either foreflipper or hindflipper); (3) at

least three punctures or gaping wounds, if largest dimension was <5 cm, or one gaping wound

with a maximum diameter-largest dimension $5 cm; or (4) densely spaced (overlapping)

scratches, abrasions, or lacerations covering an area equivalent to half the dorsum, or evidence of

extensive underlying tissue damage (e.g., an uneven or darkened surface of the injured area,

leaching fluids, or impaired seal movement). Injuries that were healed when first observed were

not included.

A seal was listed as dead if its death or carcass was observed. Deaths summarized here

include carcasses found at the beginning of the field season if the seal had clearly died during the

calendar year. A seal was listed as probably dead if it sustained severe injuries or was emaciated

(with skeletal structure clearly evident) and subsequently disappeared. In addition, one of the

following conditions must have been satisfied to place a seal in the "probably dead" category:

(1) the seal was lethargic, had difficulty moving, or floated listlessly in the water, and

disappeared more than a week before the end of data collection, or (2) the seal was in

deteriorating condition (loss of weight, enlargement of abscesses, sloughing of skin) and

disappeared at least 10 surveys or 1 month before the end of data collection (whichever was

longer). Nursing pups were listed as probably dead if they disappeared within 3 weeks of birth.

Mobbing and other mating-related male aggressions were observed and recorded. By

definition, mobbing occurred when multiple males attempted to mate with a single seal, usually

an adult female or immature seal of either sex, causing injury or death of that seal (e.g., Alcorn,

1984). Mating-related aggression was defined as any incident where an adult or subadult male

repeatedly bit the dorsum, attempted to mount, and tried to prevent the escape of another seal. 

These incidents were summarized in this report if they simultaneously involved more than one

male aggressor or resulted in at least one puncture or gaping wound (missing skin or extending

into the blubber layer) or > 15 scratches to the dorsum or flanks. Post-mobbing aggregations

were also summarized: these were groups of males congregated on the beach, attending a seal

with new mounting injuries as described above.
6

 

1Reference to trade names does not imply endorsement by the National Marine Fisheries

Service, NOAA.

Individual Identification

During censuses and patrols, individual seals were identified by tags, applied bleach

marks, scars, or natural markings. After weaning, pups were tagged on each hind flipper with a

colored plastic Temple Tag,®1 uniquely coded to indicate island or atoll population, year of birth,

and individual ID (Gilmartin et al., 1986). In addition, two passive integrated transponder (PIT)

tags were implanted subcutaneously in the dorsum of most weaned pups (see Lombard et al.,

1994, for detailed tagging procedures).

Colored plastic Temple Tags have been applied to nearly all weaned pups since 1981 at

Kure Atoll, 1982 at Lisianski Island, 1983 at Laysan Island and Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1984 at

French Frigate Shoals, and 1995 at Midway Atoll. Pups at Midway Atoll, Necker and Nihoa

Islands, and the main Hawaiian Islands have been tagged opportunistically since 1983. Since

1991, PIT tags have also been implanted subcutaneously in the ankle (1991) or the dorsum (all

subsequent years) of most weaned pups. 

In 1998, untagged immature seals were tagged with Temple Tags uniquely coded to

indicate that their ages and birth locations were unknown and also received PIT tags. Immature

seals with lost or broken tags were retagged to maintain their identities.

At five locations (Laysan Island, Lisianski Island, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Midway Island,

and Kure Atoll), seals were bleach-marked for individual identification (Stone, 1984), using the

solution described in Johanos et al. (1987). Molting seals were re-marked to maintain their

identities. At Laysan and Lisianski Islands, nursing pups were also bleached prior to molt.

Tags, scars, natural markings, and any applied bleach marks were sketched on an

individual scar card, which was revised throughout the field season to maintain a current

description of the identifying marks of each seal. Photographs of scars and natural markings

were added to individual identification files begun during 1981 or 1982.

Population size and composition were determined at locations where all seals were

identified (i.e., observers no longer encounter unidentified seals). These statistics included all

individuals seen alive at the location during the interval from March through August, and all

known parturient females and pups born during the year. If a seal was seen at more than one

location during March-August, it was included in the population where it was sighted closest to 

May 15 unless it pupped or molted at another location. A parturient female was always included

in the population where it pupped, and a non-parturient seal was included in the population

where it molted. Pups were always included in the population where they were born.

The movement of seals between island or atoll populations confounds the estimation of

population size and composition. This is particularly true at Midway Atoll, where a number of
7

the observed seals were tagged at other locations (primarily Kure Atoll and Pearl and Hermes

Reef). These seals may be transient visitors, and additional study is needed to distinguish them

from seals that reside at Midway Atoll. 

Measurements of Seals

Pups were measured to determine their condition, and the relation between size and

survival. Measurements were taken as soon after weaning as possible and included straight dorsal

length (Winchell, 1990) and axillary girth (American Society of Mammalogists, 1967).

Collection of Samples

Samples were collected for DNA analysis, pathology analysis, investigation of food

habits, and documentation of marine debris. Tissue samples for DNA analysis were collected

during tagging efforts for all newly tagged or retagged seals, and during necropsies on recently

dead seals. Samples of placentas were also collected from recent birth sites. The primary

objectives of genetic analyses are to investigate paternity patterns and determine genetic

variability within and among populations. 

For each dead seal recovered, an external examination was made, photographs were

taken, external measurements and observations were recorded. For a recent death, an internal

examination was made, and samples of tissue, organs, parasites, and stomach contents were

collected. Detailed descriptions of necropsy procedures and sample collection methods are in

Winchell (1990).

Scat and spew samples were collected (Alcorn, 1984) for analysis of food habits. 

Emphasis was placed on collecting these samples from seals of known size and sex class, but

samples from seals of unknown size and sex class were also collected. 

Nets, lines, ropes, and other debris capable of entangling seals and turtles were

inventoried and destroyed, following the methods in Johanos and Kam (1986).
8

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9

CHAPTER 2. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS, 1998

 Mitchell Craig, Melissa Shaw, Guilia Mo, 

and Matthew Rutishauser

11

The largest island population of Hawaiian monk seals is located at French Frigate Shoals

(FFS, lat. 23°45'N, long. 166°10'W), ca. 830 km northwest of Oahu in the Northwestern

Hawaiian Islands. This atoll is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge (Fig. 1.1),

and consists of 10 islands and 7 sand spits (Fig. 2.1). 

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian monk seals

at FFS in 1982. In 1998, research was conducted by NMFS during May 2-September 5. 

Incidental observations were recorded by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) personnel

during the rest of the year. The perimeters of the six larger islands were divided into sectors

using artificial or natural landmarks. Research activities specific to this population in 1998

included (1) epidemiological assessment of all age and sex classes, (2) investigation of habitat

use patterns using seal-mounted video cameras, (3) assessment of nearshore prey availability, (4)

removal of adult male seals known to drown weaned pups, (5) assessment of number and

behavior of Galapagos sharks in the nearshore area at Trig and Whaleskate Islands, and (6) largescale debris removal from the fringing reef.

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 10) were conducted every 5 d, on average, from June 9 to July 30. 

Each atoll census began between 1045 and 1310 Hawaii standard time and ended between 1430

and 1755. Round Island, Mullet Island, and Disappearing Island were censused either from a

boat or on foot, while the remaining islands were censused on foot by one or two persons. 

Patrols were conducted on noncensus days. East, Mullet, Round, and Trig Islets were visited at

least every 3 d to monitor pupping activity and factors affecting survival. Patrols of Tern Island

were conducted every 4 d.

Individual Identification

A total of 412 individuals (303 excluding pups) were identified by existing or applied

tags, scars, or natural markings. Most weaned pups (88 of 97) were tagged with Temple Tags; 76

of these same pups were tagged with passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. One juvenile

female, 5 adult males and 1 adult female were tagged, and 23 juvenile, subadult or adult seals (13

male, 10 female) were retagged with Temple Tags. 

Collection of Samples

Sixty-two scat and spew samples were collected. Tissue plug samples were collected

from 89 seals during tagging. Necropsies were performed on two dead seals found at the study

site, and tissue samples were collected from both seals. In total, 10 pieces of potentially

entangling debris were inventoried and destroyed.
12

Special Studies

Health and Disease Study

In July, biologists collected blood, fecal samples, and blubber biopsies from 33 seals (13

adult and 10 immature seals, and 10 weaned pups) restrained specifically for epidemiological

studies. Blood, fecal samples were also collected from five seals instrumented with video

cameras for a habitat use study and two seals translocated to Johnston Atoll. The purpose of the

sampling was to obtain baseline information to assess the health and disease status of the

Hawaiian monk seal population. 

 

Habitat Use Study

In July and August, five molted adult males were instrumented with video cameras for 4

to 34 d. The seals were instrumented as part of a habitat use study conducted in collaboration

with the National Geographic Society. 

Prey Availability

 The Insular Resources Investigation (IRI) of the Honolulu Laboratory, NMFS, conducted a

study at FFS to determine if a decline had occurred in fish stocks that are potential prey for seals

(DeMartini et al., 1993). In August, the IRI conducted transects at nine stations around FFS to

estimate densities of higher taxonomic categories of reef fishes. These surveys replicated

surveys conducted at FFS during 1980-83, 1992, and 1995-97. In 1998, this study was expanded 

to assess prey availability at deeper sites (50-60m). The results of this ongoing research will be

reported at the conclusion of these studies.

Adult Male Translocation

Two adult male seals known to drown and kill pups during mounting attempts were

captured in June, instrumented with satellite linked time-depth recorders, and translocated to

Johnston Atoll, 860 km south of FFS. Neither seal had returned to FFS by September. The last

transmitter contact from both seals was received in July.

Galapagos Shark (Carcharhinus galapagoensis) Assessment

Fourteen individual Galapagos sharks were tagged with colored Floy® spaghetti tags near

shore to Trig Island. Galapagos sharks were also identified near shore to East Island and Round

Island. Two pups were observed being killed by Galapagos sharks. At least one Galapagos

shark was observed patrolling near to Trig Island on most of the 89 d researchers were present

between May 2 and September 4. Nine different Galapagos sharks were the most observed in 1 d

at Trig Island. 
13

Large-Scale Debris Removal from Fringing Reef

A cooperative multi-agency reef cleanup at FFS involved the USCGC Kukui and the

NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell. Personnel representing eight different agencies removed

debris from a section of fringing reef to reduce these hazards to monk seals and other marine life,

and assess the extent of reef fouling. 

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The means (±SD) for 10 atoll censuses were 167.0 seals (±9.0) including pups, and 108.5

seals (±7.0) excluding pups (Table 2.1). The total spring-summer population was 412

individuals, 303 excluding pups (Table 2.2). This number may be a subset of the total identified

in the calendar year, but is not in this case. The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at FFS

during the period from 1984 to 1997 and resighted there in 1998 are summarized in Table 2.3.

Reproduction

At least 109 pups were born; 97 were weaned and 12 died or disappeared prior to

weaning (Table 2.4a). Four pups were born after September 5. One fetus was found, but not

counted in the total number of pups born. Nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups

are summarized in Table 2.4b. The birth rate, measured as number of pups born to the number of

adult-sized females in the population was 71.2% (109/153). The birth rate was 70.6% (60/85) for

older (>14 years old) and unknown-age adult females and 69.1% (47/68) for younger females of

adult size (#14 years old). The mean (±SD) lactation period for 49 females was 39.9 d (±5.7 d). 

At least 26 pups were fostered by mothers other than their own.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for five seals that made a total of seven movements

between FFS and either Laysan Island or Pearl and Hermes Reef (Tables 2.5a and b).

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, mounting attempts by males, entanglement, emaciation, and

other-unknown factors resulted in 43 life-threatening conditions, which led to the confirmed

deaths of 8 animals and the probable death of 14 seals (Table 2.6). Two seals were found

entangled; both were released by observers. In addition to the events presented in Table 2.6, one

aborted fetus was found on Tern Island in January and six incidents of adult male aggression

were observed; each incident involved an adult male attempting to mount a weaned pup but did

not result in obvious injury.
14

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff. We thank the captain, officers, and crew of the NOAA

ships Townsend Cromwell and Ka’imimoana, and Coast Guard cutters Kiska and Kukui for

logistical assistance.
15

TABLES

for French Frigate Shoals
16

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17

Table 2.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 10) of Hawaiian monk seals at French

Frigate Shoals from June 9 to July 30, 1998. 

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 90.7 5.6

Male 25.8 2.3

Female 62.3 5.0

Unknown 2.6 1.3

Subadults 12.8 2.7

Male 4.0 1.6

Female 8.1 2.2

Unknown 0.7 0.9

Juveniles 4.9 2.0

Male 1.9 1.3

Female 2.6 1.3

Unknown 0.4 0.7

Pups 58.5 4.1

Male 20.2 4.2

Female 12.8 3.7

Unknown 25.5 3.9

Non-pup Total 108.5 7.0

Grand Total 167.0 9.0
18

Table 2.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at French Frigate Shoals during

the spring and summer of 1998. Includes all pups born during the calendar year. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 102 153 0 255 0.7:1

Subadults 10 21 0 31 0.5:1

Juveniles 7 10 0 17 0.7:1

Pups 55a48 6 109b1.1:1

Non-pup Total 119 184 0 303 0.6:1

Grand Total 174 232 6 412 0.8:1

a

 Includes one neonatal pup death.

b

 One fetus is not included in this total.
19

Table 2.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at French Frigate Shoals and resighted

there in 1998.

Age

(years) Sex Number originally tagged

Number resighted

 in 1998

14 Male

Female

49

43

8

14

13 Male

Female

48

38

 3

9

12 Male

Female

52

48

11

16

11 Male

Female

55

51

13

14

10 Male

Female

52

62

 5

8

9 Male

Female

51

50

 6

5

8 Male

Female

39

40

1

2

7 Male

Female

24

44

1

3

6 Male

Female

36

55

 2

6

5 Male

Female

40

39

 3

2

4 Male

Female

47

48

 1

4

3 Male

Female

29

26

 2

3

2 Male

Female

39

30

 5

5

1 Male

Female

32

19

 1

6
20

Table 2.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at French Frigate Shoals in 1998.

 Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 55 48 6 109a

Died/probably died

prior to weaning

4 3 5 12

Weaned 51b45c1 97

Tagged 49 39 0 88d 

aOne male fetus was also found but is not included in the total number of pups born.

bTwo weaned male pups were not tagged due to a shark injury or ulcerated eye.

cFive weaned female pups were not tagged due to shark injury. One weaned female pup was not

tagged due to death from male mounting. 

dOne female pup, born in 1998, was tagged in January 1999. 

Table 2.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at French Frigate

 Shoals in 1998. Nursing periods were calculated where both birth and weaning date

 ranges were #4 d. All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period (d) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal length

(cm)

Mean 40.9 106.3 126.8

St. Dev. 7.7 10.5 7.2

n 18 68 68
21

Table 2.5a.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals to French Frigate Shoals from other

 locations in 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. 

Original location Number, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 2 adult females

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 juvenile female 

Table 2.5b.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals from French Frigate Shoals to other

 locations in 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. One seal

 made two trips.

Destination Number, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 1 adult male,

3 adult females
22

Table 2.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at French Frigate Shoals in 1998. 

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Male

Female

1

2

1

2

0

0

0

0

Juvenile Female 1 1 0 0

Weaned pup Male

Female

6

3

5

1

1

2

a

0

0

Nursing pup Male 

Female

3

4

1

4

2

a

0

0

0

Mounting by Males

Adult Female 1 1 0 0

Weaned pup Male

Female 

1

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

Entanglement

Adult Female 1

b

0 0 0

Weaned pup Female 1

b

0 0 0

Emaciation

Juvenile Male 1 0 0 1

Other/Unknown

Adult Female 2

c

1 0 0

Weaned pup Male

Female

Unknown

1

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

3

1

Nursing pup Male

Female

Unknown

2

3

5

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

3

4

aOne female weaned pup and one male nursing pup were observed beingeaten by Galapagos

 sharks.

bSeal was released by observers.

cSeal with an evulsed uterus or retained placenta was lethargic and had restricted mobility, but

was resighted alive the following month. 
23

CHAPTER 3. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

LAYSAN ISLAND, 1998

Brenda L. Becker, Barbie L. Byrd, and Dorothy M. Dick 

25

Laysan Island (lat. 25°46'N, long. 171°46'W) is located ca. 1,300 km northwest of Oahu

in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1). This island lies within the Hawaiian Islands

National Wildlife Refuge, and is one of the major haulout and pupping locations of the Hawaiian

monk seal (Fig. 3.1).

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian monk seals

at Laysan Island in 1981. In 1998, research was conducted by NMFS during March 16-July 26,

and incidental observations were recorded by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) personnel

during the rest of the year. The perimeter of the island (ca. 11 km) was divided into 20 sectors

using artificial or natural landmarks (Fig. 3.1). Research objectives specific to this population in

1998 included identification of all seals, assessment of maternity and pup exchanges, comparison

of two methods to measure length of weaned pups, description of male behavioral patterns and

aggression to determine if the removal of 22 adult males from Laysan Island in 1994 reduced the

incidence of mobbing, and identification of any of those males that may have returned to Laysan

after translocation to the main Hawaiian Islands.

 

Censuses and Patrols

Censuses and patrols were scheduled to ensure that the entire island perimeter was

monitored at least once each day during March 30-July 18. Censuses (n = 26) were conducted by

two observers every fourth day from April 8 to July 18. Each census began at 1300 Hawaii

standard time and continued for 2.6 to 4.2 h.

Standardized behavior patrols were conducted on 76 noncensus days from March 30 to

July 16 to assess activity patterns of adults and large subadults, document male aggression, and

detect mobbing incidents. During behavior patrols, attention was directed out to sea as much as

possible because mobbings have been observed most frequently in the water. Two full-island

incidental patrols to record noteworthy events were conducted on noncensus and nonbehavior

patrol days. 

Individual Identification

A total of 291 individuals (245 excluding pups) were identified by existing or applied

tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 45) and one yearling were

tagged with Temple Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. Two seals (one yearling

and one weaned pup) were retagged with a Temple Tag to replace lost or broken tags.

Collection of Samples

One hundred and thirty-three scat and spew samples were collected. Tissue plug samples

were collected from 44 weaned pups and one yearling during tagging. Two necropsies were

performed, tissue samples and skulls were collected from both dead seals. Eighteen placentas

were also collected. In total, 592 pieces of potentially entangling debris were inventoried; all

were destroyed, with the exception of five items that were removed and collected from an
26

entangled animal (three from seals and two seabirds). Three fishhooks used in commercial

fisheries were found on the beach and were collected. 

Noteworthy Events

Translocated Adult Males

Twenty-two adult male seals were collected from Laysan Island in 1994: 1 male died

shortly after capture and the remaining 21 males were translocated to the main Hawaiian Islands. 

In 1998, none of the translocated males had migrated back to Laysan Island, nor were they seen

elsewhere in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands; one was sighted at Nihoa Island in 1996.

Oiled Seals

Eleven of 17 seals observed with oiled pelage on Laysan Island in the spring of 1993

were sighted there in 1998. These seals appeared to be in good health, but sublethal or long-term

effects could not be evaluated. Of the six not sighted in 1998, one was last seen in 1995, four

were last seen in 1994 (one of these, an adult male, was translocated to the main Hawaiian

Islands in 1994), and one was last seen in 1993.

Debris Plots

In May, three plots to monitor debris accumulation rates on the beaches of Laysan were

established by the crew and officers of the Townsend Cromwell.

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The means (±SD) for 26 censuses were 118.3 seals (±18.1) including pups, and 92.7 seals

(±14.1) excluding pups (Table 3.1). The total spring-summer population was 285 individuals,

239 excluding pups (Table 3.2). This number is a subset of the total identified in the calendar

year. The sex ratios of non-pup immature seals and adults were ca. 0.9:1 (44 males: 49 females)

and 0.9:1 (69 males: 77 females), respectively. The sex ratio for older (>15 years of age) and

unknown-age adults was ca. 1.0:1 (34 males: 33 females), whereas the ratio for younger adults

(#15 years of age) was ca. 0.8:1 (35 males: 44 females). The numbers of tagged known-age seals

born at Laysan Island during the period from 1983 to 1997 and resighted there in 1998 are

summarized in Table 3.3. 

Reproduction

At least 46 pups were born: 45 were successfully weaned and 1 pup was mortally injured

near the time of weaning (Table 3.4a). Nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups are

summarized in Table 3.4b. The birth rate, measured as number of pups born to the number of

adult-sized females in the population was 59.7% (46/77). At least 5 pup exchanges occurred

between 10 nursing females; none of these incidents were observed. 
27

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 21 seals that made a total of 29 movements

between Laysan Island and either French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski Island, Midway Atoll, or Maro

Reef (Tables 3.5a and b).

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, mounting attempts by males, entanglement, and other/unknown

factors led to 26 life-threatening conditions, which resulted in the confirmed deaths of four

animals (Table 3.6). Although incidents of adult male aggression were not observed, one seal

died from injuries chacteristic of a male mounting incident. One seal disappeared after

sustaining moderate to severe injuries characteristic of a mobbing event, yet is it unclear if this

disappearance was a result of the injuries. Five seals were entangled: one escaped

independently, three were released by observers, and one died while entangled in a net ensnared

on an offshore reef. In addition to the incidents presented in Table 3.6, a weaned pup

disappeared 17 days after weaning and was not seen the remaining 2.5 months of the camp. 

Nothing unusual was observed prior to this seal’s disappearance. One subadult male still had a

tumor or cyst that was first observed when the seal was a pup in 1996. One subadult female had

a bluish eye, although it is unknown if its vision was affected. One nursing pup lost mass (based

on visual observations) during its first 3 weeks of life and then started to gain weight and nursed

for an extended period (51-52 days). This pup was smaller than average size at the time of

weaning, and its mother was probably not initially producing an adequate milk supply.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff and thank the captain and crew members of the NOAA

ship Townsend Cromwell. Special thanks are extended to Petra Bertilsson-Friedman, Russell

Bradley, Chris Depkin, Christopher Dodge, Jay Kelly, Elizabeth Mitchell, Chuck Monnett,

Matthew Patterson, Vanessa Pepi, Cindy Rehkemper, Michelle Reynolds, Patty Scifres, Christina

Sulzman, Mark Vekasy, and Natalie and Thomas Wilkie for their data collection and seal tagging

and disentangling assistance. 
28

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29

TABLES

for Laysan Island
30

(blank page)
31

Table 3.1.--Summary statistics for censuses (n = 26) of Hawaiian monk seals at Laysan Island

 from April 8 to July 18, 1998.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 54.2 6.6

Male 22.5 3.8

Female 31.4 5.9

Unknown 0.3 0.5

Subadults 21.5 7.3

Male 9.1 3.7

Female 12.2 4.0

Unknown 0.1 0.3

Juveniles 17.0 4.6

Male 9.6 2.7

Female 7.3 3.1

Unknown 0.0 0.2

Pups 25.6 7.5

Male 15.1 3.5

Female 10.2 4.3

Unknown 0.3 0.5

Non-pup Total 92.7 14.1

Grand Total 118.3 18.1
32

Table 3.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Laysan Island during the

 spring and summer of 1998. Includes all pups born during the calendar year. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 69 77 0 146 0.9:1

Subadults 20 28 0 48 0.7:1

Juveniles 24 21 0 45 1.1:1

Pups 25 20 1 46 1.2:1

Non-pup Total 113 126 0 239 0.9:1

Grand Total 138 146 1 285 0.9:1
33

Table 3.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Laysan Island and resighted there in

1998.

Age

(years) Sex Number originally tagged

Number resighted 

in 1998

15 Male

Female

10

10

1

6

14 Male

Female

16

13

1

5

13 Male

Female

16

14

1

5

12 Male

Female

15

17

2

2

11 Male

Female

13

15

3

5

10 Male

Female

23

17

4

3

9 Male

Female

16

13

2

2

8 Male

Female

7

9

2

3

7 Male

Female

18

13

 8

7

6 Male

Female

18

14

2

3

5 Male

Female

23

14

3

3

4 Male

Female

18

29

 8

8

3 Male

Female

16

21

6

11

2 Male

Female

23

21

14

14

1 Male

Female

19

16

13

11
34

Table 3.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Laysan Island in 1998.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 25 20 1 46

Died prior to weaning 1

a

0 0 1

Weaned 24 20 1 45

Tagged 24 20b1

c

45

aAfter the NMFS camp, a nursing pup was injured, and died immediately before or after the

mother left.

b

Includes two pups weaned and tagged after the NMFS camp; one of these was also born after

the NMFS camp.

c

Includes one pup weaned and tagged after the NMFS Camp.

Table 3.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Laysan Island in

 1998. Nursing periods were calculated where both birth and weaning date ranges

 were #4 d. All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period (d) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal length

(cm)

Mean 37.8 106.6 126.6

St. Dev. 4.9 7.7 6.0

n 38 45 45
35

Table 3.5a.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Laysan Island from other locations in

 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. One seal made more than

 one trip.

Original location Number, size, and sex class

French Frigate Shoals 1 adult male,

3 adult females

Lisianski Island 2 adult males,

4 adult females,

1 subadult male,

1 subadult female

Midway Atoll 1 adult female

Table 3.5b.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Laysan Island to other locations in

 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. 

Destination Number, size, and sex class

French Frigate Shoals 2 adult females

Lisianski Island 5 adult males,

6 adult females,

2 subadult males

Maro Reef 1 adult male
36

Table 3.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Laysan Island in 1998.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Male

Female

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Subadult Male

Female

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Juvenile Male 2

a 2 0 0

Mounting by Males

Adult Female 1

 1b

0 0

Subadult Male 1 0 1 0

Entanglement

Adult Male 1

c

0 0 0

Juvenile Male 1

d

0 0 0

Weaned pup Male

Female

2

e

1

f

0

1

1

0

0

0

Other/Unknown

Adult Male 

Female

3

4

3

4

0

0

0

0

Subadult Female 2 2 0 0

Juvenile Female 1 1 0 0

Weaned pup Male 2 1 1 0

Nursing pup Male 1

g

0 1 0

aSame seal received injuries from two separate encounters with a shark.

bThe last sighting of this injured seal was >1 month before end of observations. It is uncertain

why this animal disappeared.

cSeal was released by researchers and sustained minor injuries from the entanglement.

dSeal escaped by itself with minor injuries.

eOne seal was entangled in net ensnared on an offshore reef and died, probably drowned. The

other seal was released by researchers.

fSeal was released by researchers.

gSeal was mortally injured near weaning, cause unknown.
37

CHAPTER 4. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON 

LISIANSKI ISLAND, 1998

Carolyn Cornish, Amber Pairis, and Rebecca Seymour

39

Lisianski Island (lat. 26°04'30"N, long. 173°58'30"W) is one of the major haulout and

pupping locations of the Hawaiian monk seal. The island is located ca. 1,760 km northwest of

Oahu (Fig. 1.1), and is part of Neva Shoal, a shallow reef bank within the Hawaiian Islands

National Wildlife Refuge (Fig. 4.1).

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian monk seals

at Lisianski Island in 1981. In 1998, research was conducted by NMFS during March 19-July 22. 

The perimeter of the island was divided into 20 sectors using artificial or natural landmarks (Fig.

4.1). Research objectives specific to this population in 1998 included identification of all seals,

assessment of maternity and pup exchanges, and documentation of adult male behavioral patterns

and aggression.

Censuses and Patrols

Censuses and patrols were scheduled to ensure that the entire island was monitored at

least once each day during March 19-July 22. Censuses (n = 29) were conducted by two

observers every fourth day from April 1 to July 22, beginning at 1300 Hawaii standard time and

continuing for 1.6 to 3.0 h. 

Standardized behavior patrols were conducted on noncensus days to assess activity

patterns of adults and large subadults, document male aggression, and detect mobbing incidents. 

During these patrols (n = 66), attention was directed out to sea as much as possible because

mobbing has been observed most frequently in the water.

Individual Identification

A total of 191 individuals (166 excluding pups) were identified by existing or applied

tags, bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 21) were tagged with

Temple Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. 

Collection of Samples

One hundred and seven scat and spew samples were collected. Tissue plug samples were

collected from 14 seals during tagging. Necropsies were performed and tissue samples were

collected from three dead seals. Skeletal samples were collected from five dead seals; two

samples consisted of miscellaneous seal bones found at two different sites on the beach. In total,

984 pieces of potentially entangling debris were inventoried and destroyed.
40

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The means (±SD) for 29 censuses were 72.0 seals (±8.4) including pups, and 58.6 seals

(±6.4) excluding pups (Table 4.1). The total spring-summer population was 187 individuals, 162

excluding pups (Table 4.2). This number is a subset of the total identified during the calendar

year. The sex ratios of non-pup immatures and adults were ca. 1.1:1 (24 males: 22 females) and

1.6:1 (71 males: 45 females), respectively. The sex ratio for older (>16 years of age) and

unknown aged adults was strongly skewed toward males at ca. 2.7:1 (38 males: 14 females),

whereas the ratio for younger adults (<16 years of age) was ca. 1.1:1 (33 males: 31 females). The

numbers of tagged known-age seals born at Lisianski Island during the period from 1982 to 1997

and resighted there in 1998 are summarized in Table 4.3.

Reproduction

At least 25 pups were born: 21 were weaned, 2 died or probably died prior to weaning,

the weaning status of 1 pup was unknown, and 1 was still nursing at the end of this study (Table

4.4a). Nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table 4.4b. The

birth rate, measured as number of pups born to the number of adult-sized females in the

population was 55.6% (25/45). At least 43 pup exchanges occurred between eight nursing

females; researchers observed four of these incidents. Four of the females nursed two pups at the

same time over the course of the nursing period.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 10 seals that made a total of 24 movements

between Lisianski Island and Laysan Island or Pearl and Hermes Reef (Tables 4.5a and b).

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, mounting attempts by males, entanglement, and other/unknown

factors led to 24 life-threatening conditions, which resulted in the confirmed deaths of four

animals and the probable death of two other seals (Table 4.6). Two incidents of adult male

aggression were observed, yet no seals were known to have died following male mounting

incidents. Four entanglements were observed involving three seals: two escaped independently

and one was released by observers twice from the same debris. In addition to the incidents

presented in Table 4.6, one pup disappeared after 34 days of nursing, and one weaned pup

disappeared mid-season.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge staff. We thank the captain, officers and crew of the NOAA

ship Townsend Cromwell for logistical assistance. 
41

TABLES

for Lisianski Island
42

(blank page)
43

Table 4.1.--Summary statistics for censuses (n = 29) of Hawaiian monk seals at Lisianski Island

 from April 1 to July 22, 1998.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 43.2 5.3

Male 24.3 3.9

Female 17.3 2.9

Unknown 1.6 2.0

Subadults 10.9 4.2

Male 5.6 2.6

Female 4.8 2.3

Unknown 0.6 0.9

Juveniles 4.4 1.6

Male 2.8 1.5

Female 1.6 0.9

Unknown 0.1 0.3

Pups 13.4 3.4

Male 7.1 1.6

Female 6.3 3.0

Unknown 0.1 0.3

Non-pup Total 58.6 6.4

Grand Total 72.0 8.4
44

Table 4.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Lisianski Island during the

 spring and summer of 1998. Includes all pups born during the calendar year.

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 71 45 0 116 1.6:1

Subadults 16 15 0 31 1.1:1

Juveniles 8 7 0 15 1.1:1

Pups 10 14 1 25 0.7:1

Non-pup Total 95 67 0 162 1.4:1

Grand Total 105 81 1 187 1.3:1
45

Table 4.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Lisianski Island and resighted there in

1998.

Age

(years) Sex Number originally tagged

Number resighted 

in 1998

16 Male

Female

7

6

2

1

15 Male

Female

6

18

2

7

14 Male

Female

10

5

3

2

13 Male

Female

5

9

2

1

12 Male

Female

11

9

5

3

11 Male

Female

12

6

1

0

10 Male

Female

10

8

 5

6

9 Male

Female

--

--

--

--

8 Male

Female

8

9

4

3

7 Male

Female

9

6

5

2

6 Male

Female

13

8

6

4

5 Male

Female

 4

9

2

2

4 Male

Female

4

5

2

1

3 Male

Female

7

10

2

2

2 Male

Female

9

13

3

2

1 Male

Female

 10

9

6

4
46

Table 4.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Lisianski Island in 1998.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 10 14 1 25

Died/probably died prior to weaning 0 1 1 2

Still nursing 0 1 0 1

Weaning status unknown 0 1

a

0 1

Weaned 10 11 0 21

Tagged 10 11 0 21

aPup disappeared after 34 days of nursing.

Table 4.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Lisianski Island

 in 1998. Nursing periods were calculated where both birth and weaning date ranges

 were #4 days. All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period (d) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal length

(cm)

Mean 42.0 105.8 124.2

St. Dev. 11.0 12.5 9.6

n 16 17 18
47

Table 4.5a.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Lisianski Island from other locations

 in 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. Some seals made more

 than one trip.

Original location Number, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 5 adult males,

6 adult females,

2 subadult males

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 adult male 

Table 4.5b.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Lisianski Island to other locations

 in 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. Some seals made more

 than one trip.

Destination Number, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 2 adult males,

4 adult females,

1 subadult male,

1 subadult female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 adult male,

1 adult female
48

Table 4.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Lisianski Island in 1998.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Juvenile Male 1 1 0 0

Mounting by Males

Adult Female 5

a

3 0 0

Subadult Female 1 1 0 0

Weaned pup Female 1 0 1

b

0

Entanglement

Adult Female 3

c

0 0 0

Weaned pup Female 1

d

0 0 0

Other/Unknown

Adult Male

Female

4

1

4

1

0

0

0

0

Subadult Male 1 1 0 0

Juvenile Male 1 1 0 0

Weaned pup Male

Female

1

2

0

0

0

2

f

1

e

0

Nursing pup Female

Unknown

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

g

aTwo incidents were observed, but did not result in injury. A seal was mounted by one to three

males 4d after her pup died, and a nursing female was mounted by two males 2 days before her

pup weaned. 

b At least three adult seals were fighting at the water’s edge. After they dispersed, a dead pup was

found floating in the water. Carcass very fresh, eyes clear, with fresh dorsal scratches.

cOne seal freed itself, one seal was entangled twice and released each time by observers.

dSeal freed itself.

ePrematurely weaned,in deteriorating condition throughout season. Incurred dorsal scratches 2

weeks prior to disappearance. Last seen floating listlessly in water. 

fOne weaned pup got caught in rocks and died.

gDisappeared within 2 d of birth. 
49

CHAPTER 5. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

PEARL AND HERMES REEF, 1998

Chad Yoshinaga, Irene Kinan, Albert Harting, 

Dyanna Lambourn, Mitch Craig, Alonso Aguirre, 

Lizabeth Kashinsky, and Andrew McClung

51

Pearl and Hermes Reef (lat. 27°55'N, long. 175°45'W) is one of the major haulout and

pupping locations of the Hawaiian monk seal. This atoll is located ca. 1,900 km northwest of

Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife

Refuge (Fig. 1.1). Pearl and Hermes is composed of four vegetated and three nonvegetated sand

islands enclosed in a fringing reef (Fig. 5.1).

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on Hawaiian monk seals

at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1982. In 1998, research was conducted by NMFS during February

15-23 and May 25-July 19. The perimeters of the four larger vegetated islands were divided into

sectors using natural landmarks. The smaller sand islands were counted as single sectors. The

research objectives specific to this population in 1998 included (1) obtain baseline information to

assess the health and disease status of the Hawaiian monk seal population, (2) investigate habitat

use patterns using satellite-linked telemetry, and (3) remove or destroy hazardous marine debris

from the fringing reef and all haulout areas. In addition, seabird counts were conducted on all

islands for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and efforts were made to document and remove

two harmful exotic plant species.

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 8) were conducted every 4 d, on average, during June 9-July 10,

beginning at 1000 Hawaii standard time and continuing for approximately 5 h. All islands were

censused on foot by one or two persons. In addition, incidental patrols were conducted

opportunistically to resight seals tagged in previous years. 

Individual Identification

A total of 255 individuals (223 excluding pups) were identified by existing or applied

tags, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 29) were tagged with Temple Tags and 28

of these were also tagged with passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. Three immature seals

(two male, one female) were also tagged with Temple Tags. In addition, 11 seals (7 adults, 2

sub-adults, and 2 juveniles) were retagged, and one adult male seal was tagged with Temple

Tags.

Collection of Samples

Eighty-three scat and spew samples were collected and processed. Tissue plug samples

were collected from 27 seals during tagging. One skull from a pup and one whole juvenile

skeletal sample were collected. In total, 172 pieces of potentially entangling debris were

inventoried and destroyed.
52

Special Studies

Habitat Use Study

Satellite transmitters, deployed in November 1997, were retrieved opportunistically from

eight seals (four adults and four immature seals) hauled out on beaches during the February 1998

field effort.

Health and Disease Study

In February, a team of NMFS and USFWS biologists collected blood, fecal samples, and

blubber biopsies from 26 seals (11 adult and 15 immature seals) for epidemiological studies. The

purpose of the sampling was to obtain baseline information to assess the health and disease status

of the Hawaiian monk seal population

Debris Removal from Fringing Reef and Shore Study Plots

In February, personnel aboard the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell removed debris from

a section of fringing reef to reduce hazards to monk seals and other marine life, assess the extent

of reef fouling, and determine the feasibility of a large-scale debris removal effort. In May, ship

personnel established study plots onshore at Seal-Kittery to assess the rate of debris

accumulation.

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The means (±SD) for eight atoll censuses were 93.1 seals (±8.7) including pups, and 74.3

seals (±10.6) excluding pups (Table 5.1). The total summer population was 244 individuals, 212

excluding pups (Table 5.2). This number is a subset of the total identified in the calendar year. 

The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at Pearl and Hermes Reef during the period from

1983 to 1997 and resighted there in 1998 are summarized in Table 5.3.

Reproduction

At least 32 pups were born in 1998: 29 were weaned, 1 was found dead at the beginning

of the season, 1 was still nursing at the end of the study, and the weaning status of 1 pup was

unknown (Table 5.4). Measurements of weaned pups are summarized in Table 5.4. The birth

rate, measured as number of pups born to the number of adult-sized females in the population

was 52.5% (32/61).

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 22 seals that made a total of 32 movements

between Pearl and Hermes Reef and either French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski Island, Midway

Atoll, or Kure Atoll. (Tables 5.5a and 5.5b). 
53

Factors Affecting Survival

Entanglement and other/unknown factors affecting survival resulted in four lifethreatening conditions (Table 5.6). Remains of two seals, a pup and a juvenile, were found. 

Cause of death for both is unknown; however, the pup was found near a large net with its head

severed. In addition, a female pup was disentangled from debris and an adult female was

observed blind in her right eye due to trauma.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the captain, officers, and crew of the NOAA Ship Townsend Cromwell and the

M/V Glorita for their logistical support. We also acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service and the Hawaiian Island National Wildlife Refuge staff.
54

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55

TABLES

for Pearl and Hermes Reef
56

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57

Table 5.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 8) of the Hawaiian monk seal at Pearl and

 Hermes Reef from June 9 to July 10, 1998.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 50.6 9.0

Male 21.5 4.8

Female 23.8 4.2

Unknown 5.4 1.6

Subadults 13.5 3.2

Male 5.3 1.6

Female 6.6 1.7

Unknown 1.6 1.6

Juveniles 10.1 2.1

Male 3.9 1.6

Female 5.1 2.1

Unknown 1.1 0.8

Pups 18.9 4.1

Male 3.8 1.8

Female 12.3 2.5

Unknown 2.9 1.0

Non-pup Total 74.3 10.6

Grand Total 93.1 8.7
58

Table 5.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Pearl and Hermes Reef during

 the spring and summer of 1998. Includes all pups born during the calendar year.

Number of seals

Size Male Female Unknown Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 70 61 1 132 1.1:1

Subadults 16 19 0 35 0.8:1

Juveniles 23 22 0 45 1.0:1

Pups 8 21 3 32 0.4:1

Non-pup Total 109 102 1 212 1.1:1

Grand Total 117 123 4 244 0.9:1
59

Table 5.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Pearl and Hermes Reef and resighted

 there in 1998.

Age

(years) Sex Number originally tagged

Number resighted 

in 1998

15 Male

Female

8

2

4

1

14 Male

Female

5

8

3

2

13 Male

Female

9

6

0

3

12 Male

Female

Unknown

10

7

1

2

2

0

11 Male

Female

14

7

8

2

10 Male

Female

12

6

9

3

9 Male

Female

8

6

5

2

8 Male

Female

5

1

3

0

7 Male

Female

10

11

8

3

6 Male

Female

13

10

8

7

5 Male

Female

14

7

5

3

4 Male

Female

–

–

–

–

3 Male

Female

16

11

8

6

2 Male

Female

11

12

5

7

1 Male

Female

16

11

12

8
60

Table 5.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1998.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Unknown Total

Born 8 21 3 32

Died prior to weaning 0 0 1 1

Still nursing 0 0 1 1

Weaning status unknown 0 0 1 1

Weaned 8 21 0 29

Tagged 8 21 0 29

Table 5.4b.--Summary of measurements of weaned pups at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1998. All

 measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning.

Axillary girth (cm) Straight dorsal length (cm)

Mean 110.9 127.1

St. Dev. 5.5 3.2

n 7 7
61

Table 5.5a.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Pearl and Hermes Reef from other

 locations in 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. 

Original location Number, size, and sex class

Lisianski Island 1 adult male,

1 adult female

Midway Atoll 4 adult males,

3 adult females

Kure Atoll 1 adult male,

1 adult female,

1 subadult male

Table 5.5b.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Pearl and Hermes Reef to other

 locations in 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. 

Destination Number, size, and sex class

French Frigate Shoals 1 juvenile female

Lisianski Island 1 adult male

Midway Atoll 7 adult males,

6 adult females,

2 subadult females

Kure Atoll 1 adult male,

1 adult female,

1 subadult male
62

Table 5.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1998.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

(none observed)

Mounting by Male

(none observed)

Entanglement

Nursing pup Female 1 1

a

0 0

Other/Unknown

Adult Female 1 1

b

0 0

Juvenile Female 1 0 1 0

Pup Unknown 1 0 1

c

0

aSeal released by observers.

bSeal unilaterally blinded by fresh injury of unknown cause.

cPossible entanglement, decomposed carcass with severed head found near net.
63

CHAPTER 6. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL AT

MIDWAY ATOLL, 1998

Suzanne Canja, Cynthia Vanderlip, and Wayne Sentman

65

Midway Atoll (lat. 28°14'N, long. 177°22'W) has historically been one of the major

haulout and pupping locations of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, although current

population levels and pup production are low. This atoll is located ca. 2,100 km northwest of

Oahu in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1) and comprises a circular atoll reef

approximately 9 km in diameter, enclosing a lagoon and three permanent islands (Sand, Spit, and

Eastern Islands) inside the southern part of the reef (Fig. 6.1). Eastern and Spit Islands are

uninhabited. Sand Island was the site of a U.S. Naval Air Facility until 1993 when the facility

was closed. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has maintained an overlay refuge

(Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge) at the site since 1988, and full authority was

transferred to the USFWS in October, 1996. In 1996, USFWS joined Midway Phoenix

Corporation (MPC) in a joint cooperative agreement. Through this agreement MPC maintains

the island infrastructure, and operates the airport and harbor (both serve as mid-Pacific refueling

stations for private, commercial, and military aircraft and ships). Additionally, this agreement

enables MPC to operate island ecotourism and recreational ventures. In 1998, approximately

5,000 people visited Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. Thus, there is the potential for

human impact to the ecosystem and resident monk seal population at this site.

Beach counts of the Hawaiian monk seal at Midway Atoll averaged 56 animals in the late

1950s (Kenyon, 1972) but declined severely by the late 1960s; a single seal was observed during

an aerial survey in 1968 (Kenyon, 1972). From the late 1960s to the late 1980s the population

failed to recover, but recent assessments suggest that recovery may be beginning due to an influx

of immigrants from nearby sites (Kure Atoll and Pearl and Hermes Reef) and an increasing

number of seals born on Midway Atoll. The earlier counts indicate that the Midway population

has significant potential for growth, and recovery of this population is an important management

goal (Gilmartin and Antonelis, 1998).

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began limited monitoring of Hawaiian

monk seals at Midway Atoll in 1983. This effort was increased to year-round monitoring in 1997

by collaborating researchers from Hawaii Wildlife Fund (HWF). In 1998, year-round monitoring

was continued by HWF researchers. In addition, research was conducted by NMFS personnel

during June 24-29 and July 2 to November 11. Perimeters of the three permanent islands were

divided into sectors using artificial or natural landmarks. In 1998, research objectives specific to

Midway Atoll included the identification of all seals in the resident population, tagging pups and

other untagged seals, blood sampling for a disease survey of the wild population, scat collection,

resightings of immature seals to estimate survival, and conducting reef surveys to determine

haulout patterns on the fringing reef. 

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 52) were conducted every 7 d, on average, from January 6 to

December 30. All islands were censused on foot by one or two persons. Each atoll census began

between 0830 and 1802 Midway time, and ended between 1156 and 1830. Patrols of Sand Island

(n = 100), Eastern Island (n = 92), or Spit Island (n = 92) were conducted on non-atoll census

days during January 5 to December 28 to identify and resight seals. 
66

Individual Identification

A total of 81 individuals (68 excluding pups) were identified by existing or applied tags,

bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. All weaned pups (n = 10) were tagged with Temple

Tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. Seven seals were retagged during the NMFS

health assessment study: four adult females and one adult male with both Temple tags and PIT

tags, one juvenile male with a Temple tag, and one adult female with a PIT tag. 

Collection of Samples

Two hundred and thirteen scat and spew samples were collected and sorted. Tissue plug

samples were collected from 10 weaned pups during tagging. Twenty molt samples (sloughed

pelage) were collected. In total, 744 pieces of potentially entangling debris were inventoried and

destroyed. 

No necropsies were performed at Midway Atoll. However, a dead female pup and two

fetuses were collected and shipped to Fort Collins, Colorado for necropsy. A blood sample was

collected from one of the fetuses prior to shipment. The female pup had an unusual number of

congenital anomalies, most obvious was the seal’s disproportionate skeletal structure (the right

side significantly smaller than the left).

Special Studies

Health and Disease Survey

In June, a team of NMFS and HWF biologists collected blood, fecal samples, and blubber

biopsies from 10 seals (6 adults and 4 immature seals) for epidemiological studies. The purpose

of the sampling was to obtain baseline information to assess the health and disease status of the

Hawaiian monk seal population. All but one seal appeared healthy at the time of sampling; one

subadult female was very thin and appeared to be small for her age.

Emergent Reef Surveys

Patrols (n = 54) were conducted along the emergent reef areas of the North Reef (n = 27,

East Reef (n = 21), Southwest Reef (n = 5) and Southeast Reef (n = 1) year round, weather

permitting, via motorboat or kayak. A detailed sector map of the reef was created by using

latitude and longitude position fixes as a guide. A GPS unit was used to allow for more accurate

documentation of the location of seals. Findings from these data were used to assist USFWS in

management decisions about placement of a swim/snorkel/kayak platform with the least possible

disturbance to seals.

Debris Survey and Retrieval along the Atoll Reef

In September, a collaborative effort between HWF, NMFS, and USFWS began to remove

nets and lines from the surrounding emergent reef areas on a regular basis. This included

removing entangling debris that washed up on top of the emergent reef as well as debris that was

submerged in the water along the reef.
67

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The means (+SD) for 52 atoll censuses were 23.3 seals (+6.0) including pups, and 19.5

seals (+5.8) excluding pups (Table 6.1). The total spring-summer population was 58 seals, 47

excluding pups (Table 6.2). This number is a subset of the total identified in the calendar year. 

The estimation of population abundance is confounded by movement of seals among Midway

Atoll, Kure Atoll, and Pearl and Hermes Reef. The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at

Midway Atoll during the period from 1988 to 1997 and resighted there in 1998 are summarized in

Table 6.3.

Reproduction

At least 11 pups were born, and 10 survived to weaning (Table 6.4a). Two fetuses were

found, but not counted in the total number of pups born. Measurements of weaned pups and

nursing periods are summarized in Table 6.4b. The birth rate, measured as the number of pups

born to the number of adult-sized females in the population was 50.0% (11/22).

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 32 seals that made a total of 48 movements

between Midway Atoll and either Laysan Island, Pearl and Hermes Reef, or Kure Atoll. The

movement from Midway Atoll to Laysan Island is the first recorded between these two points

(Tables 6.5a and b). In addition to the trips documented above, an adult female, first sighted in

mid June, was not seen elsewhere and probably made an undetected movement. 

Factors Affecting Survival

Attacks by large sharks, entanglements, and other factors led to eight life-threatening

conditions which resulted in the confirmed death of one seal and the probable death of another

animal (Table 6.6). In addition to the perinatal death of a female pup with congenital

abnormalities, a subadult female was severely injured by sharks, disappeared, and probably died a

week after injuries were first observed. This same animal was sampled and noted in poor

condition during the health assessment project 12 days prior to injury. Four entanglements were

documented: three male weaned pups were entangled and released by observers, and one adult

male freed itself after observers attempted to free it. In addition to the incidents presented in

Table 6.6, a juvenile female was found by USFWS personnel on January 3 hauled up on the

alternate runway in sector 5. Upon assessing the situation, they decided to move the seal to the

nearest beach. This seal has not been resighted since. Two aborted fetuses were also found: one

on Spit Island in October and a second on Eastern Island in December.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the officers and crew of the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell for logistical

assistance. We also acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Midway
68

Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, National Marine Fisheries Service, The Oceanic Society, San

Francisco, and the Midway Phoenix Corporation. Special thanks to Robert Shallenberger,

Nanette Seto, Ken Niethammer, Nancy Hoffman, Bob Dieli, James Aliberti, Bart McDermot,

Carolyn Rogers, Lisa King, Bruce Casler, Annarie Shallenberger, Sam Whitcraft, Andi Shluker,

Bob Wilson, Norm Garon, Bruce Jones, Shawn, Gilbert, Noriel, Carlito, and the USFWS

volunteers for all their kind support.
69

TABLES

for Midway Atoll
70

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71

Table 6.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 52) of Hawaiian monk seals at Midway

 Atoll from January 6 to December 30, 1998.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 11.2 3.9

Male 3.8 1.8

Female 7.0 3.0

Unknown 0.4 0.7

Subadults 3.2 1.7

Male 1.3 0.9

Female 1.7 1.0

Unknown 0.1 0.4

Juveniles 5.2 1.7

Male 1.5 0.9

Female 3.6 1.3

Unknown 0.1 0.3

Pups 3.8 2.1

Male 3.3 1.7

Female 0.6 0.7

Unknown 0.0 0.1

Non-pup Total 19.5 5.8

Grand Total 23.3 6.0
72

Table 6.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Midway Atoll during the

 spring and summer of 1998. Includes all pups born in the calendar year. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 9 22 31 0.4:1

Subadults 2 4 6 0.5:1

Juveniles 3 7 10 0.4:1

Pups 8 3 11 2.7:1

Non-pup Total 14 33 47 0.4:1

Grand Total 22 36 58 0.6:1
73

Table 6.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Midway Atoll and resighted there in

 1998.

Age

(years) Sex Number originally tagged

Number resighted 

in 1998

10 Male

Female

0

1

NA

1

9 Male

Female

0

0

NA

NA

8 Male

Female

0

0

NA

NA

7 Male

Female

1

1

1

1

6 Male

Female

0

1

NA

0

5 Male

Female

1

0

0

NA

4 Male

Female

0

0

NA

NA

3 Male

Female

Unknown

1

6

1

0

1

0

2 Male

Female

1

4

0

1

1 Male

Female

3

6

2

6
74

Table 6.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Midway Atoll in 1998.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Total

Born 8 3 11

Died prior to weaning 0 1 1

Weaned 8 2 10

Tagged 8 2 10

Table 6.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Midway Atoll in

 1998. All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning.

Nursing period (d) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal length

(cm)

Mean 39.4 107.5 126.2

St. Dev. 3.9 9.4 4.8

n 8 10 10
75

Table 6.5a.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Midway Atoll from other locations

 in 1998, summarized by movements between three locations. 

Original location Number, size, and sex class

Pearl and Hermes Reef 7 adult males,

6 adult females,

2 subadult females

Kure Atoll 5 adult males,

4 adult female,

1 subadult male,

2 weaned male pups

Table 6.5b.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Midway Atoll to other locations in

 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. One seal made more than

 one trip.

Destination Number, size, and sex class

Laysan Island 1 adult female

Pearl and Hermes Reef 4 adult males,

3 adult females

Kure Atoll 4 adult males,

4 adult females,

3 subadult males,

1 subadult female,

1 juvenile male
76

Table 6.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Midway Islands in 1998.

 Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

Adult Female 1 1 0 0

Subadult Female 1

a

0 0 1

Mounting by Male

(none observed)

Entanglement

Adult Male 1

b

0 0 0

Weaned Pup Male 3c 1 0 0

Other

Juvenile Female 1 1 0 0

Nursing pup Female 1

d

0 1 0

aThe seal incurred a severe gaping wound on left side of the face, became emaciated, and

disappeared a week later.

bSeal freed itself after an attempt by observers to free it.

cAll seals were released by observers. One seal incurred a long, deep wound from serious rope

entanglement.

dPerinatal death of abnormal pup.
77

CHAPTER 7. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL AT

KURE ATOLL, 1998

Allison C. Veit, Katherine W. McFadden,

 and Wayne Sentman

79

Kure Atoll (lat. 28°24'N, long. 178°20'W) is one of the major haulout and pupping

locations of the Hawaiian monk seal. The atoll is located ca. 2,300 km northwest of Oahu in the

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1) and is a seabird sanctuary of the State of Hawaii. The

atoll consists of a circular fringing reef approximately 9 km in diameter, the enclosed lagoon, one

permanent vegetated island (Green Island), two sand islets (Sand and Shark Islets), and a

sometimes emergent area known locally as Stark Reef (Fig. 7.1). Until 1992, Green Island was

the site of a U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) LORAN station, commissioned in 1961 and staffed by 20-

30 USCG personnel. In July 1992, this station was closed and vacated by the USCG, leaving the

atoll uninhabited. In 1993, the USCG completed removal of buildings and other structures on

Green Island.

The Kure Atoll population of Hawaiian monk seals has been increasing in recent years

due, in part, to a reduction of human disturbance and two capture and release programs designed

to increase recruitment of females. The Head Start Project (1981-1991) involved the capture and

protection of weaned female pups from Kure during the transition phase from weaning to

independent feeding. The Rehabilitation Project (1984-91, 1993-95) involved the capture of

undersized weaned female pups from French Frigate Shoals, rehabilitation on Oahu, and then

transport to Kure Atoll for release. 

RESEARCH

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) began research on the Hawaiian monk

seal at Kure Atoll in 1981. In 1998, research was conducted by NMFS during May 23-July 21,

October 8-12, October 19-20, and November 1. The perimeter of Green Island was divided into

eight sectors using artificial or natural landmarks. Research objectives for the Kure Atoll monk

seal population in 1998 included identification of all seals, evaluating the success of past

management efforts (primarily seal introductions), evaluating the use of photogrammetry as a tool

to estimate body size, and assessing entanglement risks and other negative impacts following the

Paradise Queen II’s grounding at Kure Atoll on October 16, 1998.

Censuses and Patrols

Atoll censuses (n = 10) were conducted approximately every 4-5 d, weather permitting,

from June 3 to July 15. Each census began between 1220 and 1345 Hawaii standard time and

ended between 1556 and 1752. All islands were censused on foot by one or two persons. Stark

Reef was not emergent during the 1998 field season. Shark Island was present only until June. 

Patrols were conducted to identify seals and monitor locations used by parturient females.
80

Individual Identification

A total of 122 individuals (99 excluding pups) were identified by existing or applied tags,

bleach marks, scars, or natural markings. All but one weaned pup (n = 22) were tagged with

Temple Tags, and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags. Three juvenile seals (one male and

two females) were also tagged with Temple Tags and PIT tags.

Collection of Samples

Ninety-two scat and spew samples were collected. Tissue plug samples were collected

from 22 weaned pups and 2 other seals during tagging. In total, 634 pieces of potentially

entangling debris were inventoried and all but one were destroyed before the end of the field

season. Two entanglement items were removed from seals and one of the two items was

collected. 

Special Studies

The Assessment of Photogrammetry as a Tool to Estimate Body Size

During the 1998 field season, weaned pups were photographed, measured, and weighed in

order to evaluate whether photographs can be used as a noninvasive means to assess size and

condition. A rigid measuring pole was positioned over the seals while they were sleeping, and

photographs of two views (either anterior/posterior or lateral) were taken at various camera

heights and distances. The goal of this project was to determine if a predictive relationship can be

established between photographically measured variables (digitized side, anterior/posterior area,

length, width) which may aid researchers in more accurately predicting size and condition.

Paradise Queen II Grounding

On the night of October 16, 1998 the 120-ft lobster boat, Paradise Queen II, went aground

on the emergent reef at Kure Atoll. The wreck location was immediately east of Green Island (off

sector 3). There were 11,000 gallons of diesel fuel on board; 7,500 gallons were recovered and

the remainder spilled and apparently was carried away from the atoll by currents. All bait washed

overboard, and most may have been carried away from the atoll. Most of the 1,040 lobster traps,

5,000 bait holders, and other deck items and material washed overboard into the lagoon. In

addition, 7.5 miles of a 11.5 mile heavy 1⁄2 in ground line washed overboard, forming a large ball

of line behind the boat. A NMFS researcher accompanied salvage operations on October 19-20,

October 27, October 31, and November 1, 1998 to assess the beach area adjacent to the wreck for

possible oil/fuel contamination and debris accumulation, to monitor seals for entanglement and

other adverse effects, and to minimize disturbance to seals during cleanup operations. Although

beaches on Green Island, sectors 2-4, were heavily covered with debris, oil was not found on the

beach, and no entangled or oiled wildlife were found. 
81

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The means (±SD) for 10 atoll censuses were 54.4 seals (±5.8) including pups, and 40.9

seals (±5.2) excluding pups (Table 7.1). The total spring-summer population was 119 individuals,

96 excluding pups (Table 7.2). This number is a subset of the total identified in the calendar year.

The numbers of tagged known-age seals born at Kure Atoll during the period from 1981 to 1997

and resighted there in 1998 are summarized in Table 7.3.

Reproduction

At least 23 pups were born and weaned (Table 7.4a). Nursing periods and measurements

of weaned pups are summarized in Table 7.4b. The birth rate, measured as the number of pups

born to the number of adult-sized female in the population was 56.1% (23/41). At least 4 of these

23 parturient females had been temporarily maintained as pups in the Kure Atoll Head Start

enclosure (one in 1984, two in 1985, and one in 1988), and none were rehabilitated seals from

FFS introduced to Kure as yearlings via the Head Start enclosure.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was documented for 19 seals that made a total of 31 movements

between Kure Atoll and either Midway Atoll or Pearl and Hermes Reef (Table 7.5a and b).

Factors Affecting Survival

Entanglement in debris and other factors resulted in three life-threatening conditions

(Table 7.6). Two adult female seals were entangled; one female freed herself and the other female

was released by observers. One adult female, not included in Table 7.6, was observed with limited

vision and an opacity in the right eye. This seal’s eye impairment was not noted before the 1998

field season.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the support of the State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural

Resources, Division of Forestry and Wildlife. We thank the captain and crew of the NOAA ship

Townsend Cromwell for logistical support and for transport to and from Kure Atoll.
82

(blank page)
83

TABLES

for Kure Atoll
84

(blank page)
85

Table 7.1.--Summary statistics for atoll censuses (n = 10) of Hawaiian monk seals at Kure Atoll

 from June 3 to July 15, 1998.

Size/Sex Mean number of individuals Standard deviation

Adults 29.0 3.9

Male 9.6 2.6

Female 18.6 3.1

Unknown 0.8 1.1

Subadults 8.7 2.1

Male 6.5 2.2

Female 1.9 0.9

Unknown 0.3 0.5

Juveniles 3.2 1.0

Male 2.2 0.8

Female 0.6 0.5

Unknown 0.4 0.8

Pups 13.5 3.2

Male 9.9 2.1

Female 3.6 1.6

Unknown 0.0 0.0

Non-pup Total 40.9 5.2

Grand Total 54.4 5.8
86

Table 7.2.--Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Kure Atoll during the spring

 and summer of 1998. Includes all pups born during the calendar year. 

Number of seals

Size Male Female Total

Sex ratio

male:female

Adults 29 41 70 0.7:1

Subadults 12 5 17 2.4:1

Juveniles 5 4 9 1.2:1

Pups 17 6 23 2.8:1

Non-pup Total 46 50 96 0.9:1

Grand Total 63 56 119 1.1:1
87

Table 7.3.--Summary of tagged known-age seals born at Kure Atoll and resighted there in 1998.

Age

(years) Sex Number originally tagged

Number resighted

in 1998

17 Male

Female

3

5

2

1

16 Male

Female

1

3

0

3

15 Male

Female

4

0

2

NA

14 Male

Female

4

2

1

2

13 Male

Female

2

3

1

2

12 Male

Female

1

0

0

NA

11 Male

Female

1

3

1

2

10 Male

Female

2

5

2

2

9 Male

Female

5

4

3

1

8 Male

Female

3

3

0

1

7 Male

Female

7

6

4

2

6 Male

Female

5

8

3

5

5 Male

Female

9

4

5

2

4 Male 

Female

3

0

0

NA

3 Male

Female

6

5

4

2

2 Male

Female

10

6

4

0

1 Male

Female

9

7

3

4
88

Table 7.4a.--Summary of Hawaiian monk seals born at Kure Atoll in 1998.

Event

Number of pups

Male Female Total

Born 17 6 23

Died prior to weaning 0 0 0

Weaned 17 6 23

Tagged 16 6 22

Table 7.4b.--Summary of nursing periods and measurements of weaned pups at Kure Atoll in

 1998. Nursing periods were calculated where both birth and weaning date ranges

 were #4 d. All measurements were taken within 2 weeks after weaning. 

Nursing period (d) Axillary girth (cm)

Straight dorsal length

(cm)

Mean 36.2 108.9 129.8

St. Dev. 1.3 10.2 6.9

n 3 9 9
89

Table 7.5a.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals to Kure Atoll from other locations in

 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. One seal made more than

 one trip. 

Original location Number, size, and sex class

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 adult male,

1 adult female,

1 subadult male

Midway Atoll 4 adult males,

4 adult females,

3 subadult males,

1 subadult female,

1 juvenile male

Table 7.5b.--Known movement of Hawaiian monk seals from Kure Atoll to other locations in

 1998, summarized by movements between two locations. 

Destination Number, size, and sex class

Pearl and Hermes Reef 1 adult male,

1 adult female,

1 subadult male

Midway Atoll 5 adult males,

4 adult females,

1 subadult male,

2 weaned male pupsa

aOne pup was prematurely weaned.
90

Table 7.6.--Factors affecting Hawaiian monk seal survival at Kure Atoll in 1998.

Outcome

Size Sex Total Injured Died Probably died

Attack by Large Shark

(none observed)

Mounting by Males

(none observed)

Entanglement

Adult Female 2

a

1 0 0

Other

Juvenile Male 1 1 0 0

aOne seal released by observers, the other seal freed herself.
91

CHAPTER 8. THE HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL ON

NECKER ISLAND, 1998

Chad Yoshinaga and George A. Antonelis

93

Necker Island (lat. 23°36'N, long. 164°42'W) is located ca. 750 km northwest of Oahu in

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1.1). This island lies within the Hawaiian Islands

National Wildlife Refuge (Fig. 8.1). Although endangered Hawaiian monk seals use this island,

pup production is limited by lack of haulout area.

RESEARCH

Research was conducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service on May 17, 1998. The

perimeter of the island was divided into 10 sectors using natural landmarks. Beginning in 1989,

the monk seal population at French Frigate Shoals began to decline, largely from loss of juvenile

seals. In 1998, research objectives specific to the Necker Island monk seal population included

assessment of the extent of migration from French Frigate Shoals to this location to determine if

migration may have contributed to the decline observed at French Frigate Shoals. 

Censuses and Patrols

One census was conducted beginning at 0830 Hawaii standard time and continuing for

approximately 4 h. The island was censused both on foot and by boat. 

Individual Identification

One seal had tags applied at French Frigate Shoals, but both tags were unreadable. 

Collection of Samples

No samples were collected during the census of the island.

RESULTS

Population Abundance and Composition

The census total was 16 seals (10 adults, 3 subadults, 2 juveniles, and an unknown sized

seal). Four of the adults were males, and the other seven were of unknown sex. Because of

limited effort, the composition of the spring-summer population was not determined.

Reproduction

No pups were observed during the census of the island.

Interatoll Movement

Interatoll movement was not documented. One seal was observed with French Frigate

Shoals tags, but it is unknown if this seal is new to the Necker Island population.
94

Factors Affecting Survival

No factors affecting survival were observed. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the captain, officers, and crew of the NOAA Ship Townsend Cromwell for their

logistical support. We also acknowledge the support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the

Hawaiian Island National Wildlife Refuge staff.
95

REFERENCES
96

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97

Alcorn, D. J.

1984. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1982. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-42, 37 p.

American Society of Mammalogists, Committee on Marine Mammals.

1967. Standard Measurements of Seals. J. Mammal. 48:459-462.

Boness, D. J.

1990. Fostering behavior in Hawaiian monk seals: is there a reproductive cost? Behav.

Ecol. Sociobiol. 27:113-122.

Boness, D. J., M. P. Craig, L. Honigman, and S. Austin.

1998. Fostering behavior and the effect of female density in Hawaiian monk seals,

Monachus schauinslandi. J. Mammal. 79(3):1060-1069.

DeMartini, E. E., F. A. Parrish, and J. D. Parrish.

1993. Temporal changes in reef prey populations at French Frigate Shoals, NWHI: 

Implications for juvenile monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) predators. Honolulu

Lab., Southwest Fish. Sci. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-

2396, Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-93-06, 49 p. 

Gilmartin, W. G. and G. A. Antonelis.

1998. Recommended recovery actions for the Hawaiian monk seal population at Midway

Island. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-253, 14

p.

Gilmartin, W. G. and T. Gerrodette.

1986. Hawaiian monk seal status and recovery potential at Kure Atoll. Honolulu Lab.,

Southwest Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396,

Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-86-16, 26 p.

Hiruki, L. M., Gilmartin, W. G., Becker, B. L., and Stirling, I.

1993. Wounding in Hawaiian monk seals (Monachus schauinslandi). Can. J. Zool.

71:458-468.

Johanos, T. C. and Kam, A. K. H.

1986. The Hawaiian monk seal on Lisianski Island: 1983. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-58, 37 p.

Johanos, T. C., A. K. H. Kam, and R. G. Forsyth.

1987. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1984. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-70, 38 p.

Kenyon, K. W.

1972. Man versus the monk seal. J. of Mammal. 53(4):687-696.

Lombard, K. B., B. L. Becker, M. P. Craig, G. C. Spencer, and K. Hague-Bechard.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1990. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-206, 16 p.

Stone, H. S.

1984. Hawaiian monk seal population research, Lisianski Island, 1982. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-47, 33 p.

Winchell, J. 

1990. Field manual for phocid necropsies (specifically Monachus schauinslandi). U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-146, 55 p.
98

(blank page)
99

APPENDIXES
100

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101

Appendix A.--Reports summarizing annual field research on the Hawaiian monk seal by the

 National Marine Fisheries Service and collaborating scientists.

All islands

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1999. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1997. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-262, 131 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1999. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1996. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-259, 134 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1997. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1995. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-241, 121 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1996. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1993. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-227, 141 p.

Johanos, T. C., and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1996. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1994. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-229, 111 p.

Johanos, T. C., L. M. Hiruki, and T. J. Ragen (Eds.).

1995. The Hawaiian monk seal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1992. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-216, 128 p.

French Frigate Shoals

Craig, M. P., J. L. Megyesi, C. S. Hall, J. L. Glueck, L. P. Laniawe, E. A. Delaney, S. S. Keefer,

 M. A. McDermond, M. Schulz, G. L. Nakai, B. L. Becker, L. M. Hiruki, and R. J. Morrow.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal at French Frigate Shoals, 1990-91. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-210, 70 p.

Craig, M. P., D. J. Alcorn, R. G. Forsyth, T. Gerrodette, M. A. Brown, B. K. Choy, L. Dean, L. M.

 Dennlinger, L. E. Gill, S. S. Keefer, M. M. Lee, J. S. Lennox, C. R. Lorence, G. L. Nakai, and K.

 R. Niethammer.

1992. The Hawaiian monk seal at French Frigate Shoals, 1988-89. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-178, 83 p.

Eliason, J. J., J. R. Henderson, and M. A. Webber.

1993. Hawaiian monk seal observations at French Frigate Shoals, 1985. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-187, 46 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

102

Eliason, J. J., and J. R. Henderson.

1992. Hawaiian monk seal observations at French Frigate Shoals, 1984. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-177, 61 p.

Fairaizl, G. W.

1984. Intra-atoll resighting of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi, at

French Frigate Shoals, 1 January 1983-31 August 1983. Southwest Fish. Cent.

Honolulu Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396. Southwest

Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-84-5C, 27 p.

Johnson, P. A., and B. W. Johnson.

1984. Hawaiian monk seal observations on French Frigate Shoals, 1980. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-50, 47 p.

Laysan Island

Alcorn, D.

1984. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1982. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-42, 37 p.

Alcorn, D. J., and E. K. Buelna.

1989. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1983. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-124, 46 p.

Alcorn, D. J., and R. L. Westlake.

1993. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1986. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-191, 25 p.

Becker, B. L., P. A. Ching, L. M. Hiruki, and S. A. Zur.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1987 and 1989. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-213, 20 p.

Becker, B. L., R. J. Morrow, and J. K. Leialoha.

1989. Censuses and interatoll movements of the Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island,

1985. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-135, 25 p.

Becker, B. L., K. E. O'Brien, K. B. Lombard, and L. P. Laniawe.

1995. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1991. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-214, 16 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

103

Johanos, T. C., and S. L. Austin.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal population structure, reproduction, and survival on Laysan

Island, 1985. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFC-118, 38 p.

Johanos, T. C., B. L. Becker, M. A. Brown, B. K. Choy, L. M. Hiruki, R. E. Brainard, and R. L.

 Westlake

1990. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1988. U.S.Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-151, 24 p.

Johanos, T. C., A. K. H. Kam, and R. G. Forsyth.

1987. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island: 1984. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-70, 38 p.

Johnson, B. W., and P. A. Johnson.

1984. Observations of the Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island from 1977 through 1980. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-49, 65 p.

Lombard, K. B., B. L. Becker, M. P. Craig, G. C. Spencer, and K. Hague-Bechard.

1994. The Hawaiian monk seal on Laysan Island, 1990. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-206, 16 p.

Lisianski Island

Alcorn, D. J., R. G. Forsyth, and R. L. Westlake.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal research on Lisianski Island, 1984 and 1985. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-120, 22 p. 

Johanos, T. C., and J. R. Henderson.

1986. Hawaiian monk seal reproduction and injuries on Lisianski Island, l982. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-64, 7 p.

Johanos, T. C., and A. K. H. Kam.

1986. The Hawaiian monk seal on Lisianski Island: 1983. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-58, 37 p.

Johanos, T. C., and R. P. Withrow.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle research on Lisianski Island, 1987. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-121, 18 p.

Lee, M. M., L. K. Timme, R. Van Toorenburg, and B. L. Becker.

1993. The Hawaiian monk seal on Lisianski Island, 1988 and 1990. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-179, 33 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

104

Stone, H. S.

1984. Hawaiian monk seal population research, Lisianski Island, 1982. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-47, 33 p. 

Westlake, R. L., and P. J. Siepmann.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle research on Lisianski Island, 1986. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-119, 18 p.

Pearl and Hermes Reef

Choy, B. K., and L. M. Hiruki.

1992. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle on Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1988. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-175, 18 p. 

Finn, M. A., J. R. Henderson, B. L. Becker, and T. J. Ragen.

1993. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle at Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1990 and 1992. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-182, 29 p.

Forsyth, R. G., D. J. Alcorn, T. Gerrodette, and W. G. Gilmartin.

1988. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle on Pearl and Hermes Reef, 1986. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-107, 24 p.

Kure Atoll

Bowlby, C. E., P. Scoggins, R. Watson, and M. Reddy.

1991. The Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi, at Kure Atoll, 1982-83. U.S.

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-155, 28 p.

Gilmartin, W. G., R. J. Morrow, and A. M. Houtman.

1986. Hawaiian monk seal observations and captive maintenance project at Kure Atoll,

l981. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-59, 9 p.

Henderson, J. R., and M. R. Finnegan

1990. Population monitoring of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi, and

captive maintenance project at Kure Atoll, 1988. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-150, 24 p.

Reddy, M. L.

1989. Population monitoring of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi, and

captive maintenance project for female pups at Kure Atoll, 1987. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-123, 37 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

105

Reddy, M. L., and C. A. Griffith.

1988. Hawaiian monk seal population monitoring, pup captive maintenance program, and

incidental observations of the green turtle at Kure Atoll, 1985. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-101, 35 p.

Van Toorenburg, R. A., W. G. Gilmartin, and J. R. Henderson.

1993. Composition of the Hawaiian monk seal population at Kure Atoll, 1990. Pac. Sci.

47(3):211-214.

Nihoa and Necker Islands

Conant, S.

1985. Observations of Hawaiian monk seals on Necker Island, Northwestern Hawaiian

Islands. 'Elepaio. 6(2):11-12.

Finn, M. A. and M. A. Rice.

1994. Hawaiian monk seal observations at Necker Island, 1993. 'Elepaio. 55(9):55-58.

Morrow, R. J., and E. K. Buelna.

1985. The Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle on Necker Island, 1983. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-55, 11 p.
Appendix A.--Continued.

106

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107

Appendix B.--Hawaiian monk seal census form and 1998 census form directions.

(See following pages.)
108

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111

1998

CENSUS FORM DIRECTIONS

(Unabridged - Laysa n and Lisians ki Islands only)

This form is used to reco rd all Haw aiian monk seal and gre en turtle sightings. T urtle sightings are re corded only

during census activities (not during patrols), unless noteworthy event occurs (turtle injured, tagged, tumored, mating,

etc.).

All original data should be co ded in pencil. Never e rase data once you ha ve left the recording site. Instead, cross

errors out w ith a single line. Field editing is editing b efore runnin g the data en try and chec king progr am. All field

editing by the data collector should be in blue, and field editing by others should be in red. As soon as you begin the

entry and che cking prog ram, the com puter will assign the compute r page num ber and d isplay it on the scre en. At this

point, be sure to fill it in on your census form. All editing after this point should be in orange. After completing the

entry and checking program, check off and initial the ENTERED box on the census form.

A separate data sheet should be filled out for each date, observer, data type, and island within an atoll. If no seals are

present, you should still fill out the information at the top of the census form and write "No seals" in the data area

(only enter the header information). If the island itself is not present, indicate this by using 99 for the sector code,

leaving the rest of the (first) line blank. To save paper, you should use a census form with multiple headers if you

only have a few seals to record (i.e., at some islands within an atoll, or when recording incidental sightings before or

after census or patrol). In essence, on a census form with multiple headers, each header and its associated lines

represents a separate d ata sheet. 

If two peop le conduc t the census, they sh ould have the same we ather and the same beg in and end time (i.e., both

begin at the same time and place, and proceed in opposite directions until they meet on the other side of the island or

islet) and combine pages into one set. Patrols may be conducted by more than one observer, but page sets are not

combine d, and hea der informa tion may differ b etween pa ge sets. Patro l observers should attem pt to start at roug hly

the same time . The sum of all observe rs' patrol activity for a d ay should re sult in one com plete island co unt.

Always record disturbance. You must be honest about this! Fill out a census form to document disturbance if you

disturb a seal when you are not otherwise collecting data. On a census or atoll count, it is also assumed that condition

and molt d ata will be taken . 

Do not make up additional codes. If the need for an additional code arises, contact Honolulu.
112

PAGE HEADER

DATA TYPE

C = Census: A c omplete, timed count o n an island be gun aroun d 1300 . Census is con ducted as q uickly

as possible (while gathering all information ). 

A = Atoll-wide census (must be completed within 2 days)

B = Behavior patrol: A complete, untimed count where size, sex, ID, and disturbance are recorded.

Associations are coded for all seals (Laysan and Lisianski Islands only in 1998).

P = Patrol: A complete, untimed count where size, sex, ID, and disturbance are recorded. Behavior

data is not taken.

I = Incidental observation. In this data type, null fields are interpreted as "data not recorded," so code

data explic itly.

T = Tag status e ntry for non-ac tive tags (tags no t currently on a se al). Record tag status (F or R ) in

notes colum ns.)

COMPUTER PAGE NO. Leave this blank during data collection. It will be assigned and displayed on the

screen whe n you enter the data. At that time , be sure to fill in the computer page

number o n your censu s form, as this num ber is need ed for data retrieval.

PAGE Page number within a census or patrol. For example, if the census (or patrol) requires three pages, then

mark the first page as "page 1 of 3" and so on. If more than one person conducts the census, then

combine page numbers; person A has pages 1 and 2, while person B has pages 3 and 4 of a four-page

census day. H eader information (time begin/end , date, numb er, and wea ther) should be the same for all

pages within a set.

ISLAND Name o f island and ato ll, e.g., East, FFS . 

OBSERVER Three initials. If no middle initial, use the first and last blo ck. 

TIME BEGIN and END On a 24-h clock , e.g., 6 p.m. = 1800, for the gro up of pages.

DATE The date that data are collected (in YYMMD D format).

NUMBER Censuses, A toll counts, Behavior pa trols, and P atrols must be numbere d. Each d ata type will have its

own three-digit number series, starting with 001. For data types other than A, have a separate number

series for eac h islet within an atoll.

Weather information (except temperature) should be a summary of the entire day up until the end of the census or

patrol, not merely an instantaneous observation.

TEMP. Temp erature in de grees Celsius at beginning o f census or p atrol.

WIND Speed: 0 = no wind, calm (< 5 knots)

1 = light breeze (5-15 knots)

2 = strong wind (>1 5 knots)

Direction: NN,NE,EE,SE,SS,SW,WW,NW

Thus, 2 N N = strong wind from north 
113

CLOUD Cloud cover: 00 = no clouds

01-09 = 10 to 90% cover

10 = 100% cover

PREC. Precipitation: 0 = no precipitation or trace

1 = mist/driz zle

2 = rain

3 = intermitten t rain

LINES

CONTINUE If the same seal sighting is recorded on several lines for any reason (e.g., additional tag or

association, behavior at a later time, change of beach position), put the original line number you are

continuing from here. Lines may be continued only within the same page. Fill in the original line

as completely as possible. All fields from TIME through MOLT will be copied from the original

line if left blank on the continuation line. Several lines can have the same con tinuation line num ber. 

Make a new original line (i.e., do not use continuation lines) for a seal each time that you come

abreast of it on census or p atrol. 

TIME The time should be recorded for each seal sighting, on a 24-h clock.

SECTOR Location on island (e.g., 1-20 on Laysan)

Special codes as follow s:

00 = unknown sector

77 = pen

88 = offshore spit/emergent reef

99 = island not present

SIZE Size is estimate d using a classifica tion scheme from Stone (1984), using the followin g terminolo gy. Note

that seals are "sized" by length, girth, appearance, and reproductive status, not by age (except pups):

Pup Seals born within the calendar year. Newborn pups are black, and weigh ca. 11 to 15 kg.

Pups molt to a silver-gray pelage near weaning. Weaning weight is ca. 50 to 80 kg.

Juvenile Short, slight seals from the length of a weaned pup (about 138 cm) to 20-30 cm longer;

includes yearlings, and other young seals up to 3 years. Distinguished from pups by

thinness and pelage color.

Subadu lts Seals perceptibly longer than juv eniles up to breeding size; less robust than ad ults,

generally with lighter pelage. Immature seals ca. 3 to 5 or 6 years old.

Adult Reproductively active or breeding size seals at least as long as known breeders. Mature or

probab ly mature seals. A dult females o ften have exten sive back sc ars or wou nds; adult

males usually dark, including ventrum, and extensively scarred.
114

Code size as follows:

Pups of the year

P = Nursing pup

P1 = Nursing pup, wrinkles

P2 = Nursing pup, no wrinkles

P3 = Nursing pup, blimp, black

P4 = Nursing pup, molting

P5 = Nursing pup, molted

PW = Prematurely weaned/undersized weaned pup (weaned < 2 wks ago a nd < 90 cm girth). 

Code as PW at time of weaning, and then can code as W for remainder of season.

W = Weaned pup 

Immatures

I = Immature

J = Juvenile

J1 = Juvenile I

J2 = Juvenile II

S = Suba dult

S3 = Subadult III

S4 = Subadult IV

Adults

A = Adu lt

Unknowns

U = Seal of unknown size

Turtles

T = Turtle

T1 = Turtle, juvenile (<65 cm straight carapace length)

T2 = Turtle, subadult (65 - 80 cm)

T3 = Turtle, adult (>80 cm)

Only code the sex as known if the ventral is seen or if the seal is the mother in a mother/pup pair, even if you

"know " the sex b ecause o f the tag, ble ach, scars, or beha vior. 

SEX M = M ale

F = Female

U = Unknown

BEACH POS. Location of seal or turtle when observer co mes abreast of animal (e.g., if seal is seen in the water

from a distance and yet is on the beach when the observer comes abreast, the seal is recorded as

being on the beach). W hen recor ding male-m ale interaction s (at Laysan an d Lisianski Islan ds in
115

1998), make a continuation line previous to the original line to indicate that the seal changed beach

position be fore you come abrea st of it.

0 = animal floating or swimming in water (not included in census tally but may be used for

behavioral data or other analysis).

1 = on the beach

9 = on an offshore rock (not included in census tally).

X = data not taken

CONDITION It is assumed tha t condition is re corded for all seals (exce pt nursing pu ps) on cen sus or atoll co unt. 

Always record the condition of the mom on her first sighting postpartum, and of the mom and pup

on their first sighting post-weaning, regardless of data type. Always note condition when recording

a survival factor.

Condition cod es:

M = medium 

P = pro bably preg nant 

F = fat 

T = thin, includes emaciated 

X = data not taken

If the conditio n code is left blank during an atoll or census count, condition is assumed to be

medium.

ID DATA These fields can be used to record either a temporary or permanent ID number. Use continuation

lines to record both a temp orary and perma nent number, or two o r more tempora ry numbers. If the

seal is identified, it will not be counted twice on census. To link two sightings of an unidentified

seal during a survey (i.e., for a cruiser moving ahead of you), assign it a temporary number in a

series reserved for unidentified seals, and code a 6 in the temp ? field.

T/P Indicate whether the number in the subsequent field is a temporary or permanent ID number.

T = temporary ID number (or bleach numb er)

P = permanent ID number

TEMPORARY ID NO. Record the tempo rary ID num ber (or ble ach numb er) of seal if know n; right justified. This

field may be used for any temporary number. Use separate number series for bleach and

various types of temporary numbers. If a number is incompletely read, use dashes as

place-holders within the number to indicate missing digits (e.g., incompletely read bleach

152 ma y be code d -52, 1-2, o r 15-). 

? column: 

0 = seal is definitely unmarked; can coexist with a temporary number, or with a bleach number

if bleach hasn 't taken yet or the num ber has mo lted off

1 = bleach is pre sent, but the num ber is questio nable

4 = partially read b leach numb er comp leted from o ther data

5 = incompletely read bleach number, but partial data are certain (if seal can't be identified by

ID or Tag #)

6 = tempora ry number v alid for this surve y only, use for da ta types C, A, B , or P (for un ident.

cruisers moving ahead of you on census, etc.).

blank = number is certain and complete if present

PERMANENT ID NO. Record the four-digit pe rmanent ID number o f seal if known (p ut both the island -specific

prefix and next digit in the first box provided).

? column: 

1 = ID numb er is questiona ble

blank = ID number is certain and complete if present
116

TAG NO. The complete tag number if known; right justified. If a number is incompletely read, use dashes as

place-holders within the number to indicate missing digits. Put the alpha prefix of the temple tag

(combi ned with tag ? column cod e = 5 ) if yo u ca n de term ine t he h ole drilling pattern , but can 't

decipher the number (e.g., A--RT5 for a right tan tag with a 1983 drill pattern).

Record all tag sightings explicitly (i.e., both left and right tag numbers) at least once during your

stay. During the first weeks of the field camp, no te tag cond ition each time that a tag is sighted. 

Once the majority of tags have been resighted, observers can carry a list of tags/individuals that

haven't been se en, and on ly note tag con dition if these tags/ind ividuals are re sighted. Also carry a

list of broken or lost tags so that you will be aware, and can record, if a specific tag breaks or is lost

during the field season. W hen a pup is tagged, reco rd the anima l handling eve nt on the cens us data

sheet, and re cord de tailed informa tion (such as all tag numbers) on a Tag ging/Hand ling card. If a

seal is identified via a tag, it is not necessary to determine and enter its ID number on the census

form. The ID numb er can be d etermined by comp uter later. 

L/R: Tag position 

L = tag on left flipper 

R = tag on right flipper

B = tags on both flippers (enter one tag number)

COL: Color code -see the Tag Sample Kit if unsure of the colors

Temple tags Other tag types

Y = yellow (FFS) M = metal, Mon el 

T = tan/brown (Laysan) C = clear, PIT tag

G = green (Lisianski) 

B = blue (Pe arl and Hermes)

K = silver/gray (Kure) 

R = red (M idway, Necker, Niho a, Main Islands)

? column:

0 = seal is definitely not tagged on either flipper. To indicate that a seal has only one tag,

code a known missing tag using tag? code 8. If the tag number is unknowable, write the

information in Notes.

1 = seal is tagged, but the number is questionable.

4 = partially read tag completed from other data.

5 = incompletely read tag, but partial data are certain (if seal can't be identified by ID or

Temporary #)

8 = a specific tag is lost/unreadable. Fill out tag position (L/R) and the tag condition event

with codes L or U. Complete the tag number a nd color fro m other da ta before en try.

blank = tag information is certain if present. Partial data (either complete Tag #, position, or color

not filled) are OK and will be completed by computer if the seal is identified by ID,

Temp orary #, or T ag #. The compute r will only fill blank fields, so an incomplete Tag #

must be completed by hand (use a "4" in the tag ? column).

MOLT Percentage of old pelage lost, optional for pups. However, for weaned pups, record the % molt at

time of tagging. Record molt as 100% for at least 1 mo nth post-mo lt.

blank = no molting evident

0-9 = 1 to 99% molted: 

0 = molting, but less than 10%; 1 = 10-19%; ... 9 = 90-99%. The first record of

a > 2 molt is con sidered the first day of true mo lt.

 10 = 100% molted, fresh ly molted, req uired for the first month after mo lt. Put both

digits of the 10 in the single box provided.

\
117

? column: 

0 = seal is definitely not molting

1 = seal is molting, b ut % molt e stimate is questio nable. M ay or may no t include an estim ate

in the molt column

"End of season " editing codes that override molt estimates:

2 = seal in molt

3 = seal premo lt

4 = seal postmo lt

DISTURB The degree to which the seal may have been disturbed by observer. Record disturbance every

time a seal is disturbed, regardless of your activity. The only exception is that you do not need

to record a disturbance for a seal that you are handling (i.e., tagging, disentangling).

0 = no disturbance, or seal merely raised its head or looked at observer - If column blank, 0 is

assumed

1 = seal vocalized, gestured, or moved <2 body lengths

2 = seal alerted to observer and moved >2 body lengths

3 = seal alerted to observer and fled into water
118

ASSOCIATION DATA Record detailed association data at Laysan and Lisianski Islands in 1998. Don't record

associations involving turtles. If you wish to indicate that a seal was alone, use the O

behavior code. On a census or behavior patrol data sheet, no code in any of the

association c olumns me ans that the seal w as alone, whe reas on a re gular patro l data

sheet, no code may simply mean that no data were taken. It is not necessary to put an

O code for each unasso ciated animal on census or d uring behavior patrol at these

locations because it will be filled in by computer. If you are unable to record

association data on a census or behavior patrol at Laysan or Lisianski Island for any

reason, indicate this with an X for the behavior code. Use continuation lines to record

more than one assoc iation. 

An association should either be all blank or have the O, Z, or X behavior only (with no

line numbe r or distance ), or have a line number, a distance, and some behavior code

(other than O or X) all present. Don't code behaviors of an animal after it has been

disturbed by the observer (but record the behaviors in Notes).

All associations should be in pairs, i.e., between animals on two different lines. If the

behavior is active, you should fill in the line numbers, distances, and behavior codes

for both animals involved in the asso ciation. If the behavior is N or L, however, you

may record the association on only one of the lines, and the entry/checking program

will fill in the other line. When recording an active be havior that requires a

corresponding code, the association line number should refer directly to the line where

the corresponding behavior is coded (i.e., if the corresponding code is on a

continuation line, refer to that particular line, not to the original line or a different

continuation line).

Active associations 

1) noted for all except behaviors between mother and nursing pup

2) must take place within 30 m of observer

3) subjects may be any distance apart

Spatial associations

1) noted as observer comes abreast of the subject

2) individual seals 

- mother-pup pair (N): any distance

- all others (L): distances <10 m awa y, record two nearest neigh bors, can b e on opp osite

sides of a log, e tc. 

LINE NO. Identity of the oth er seal in the asso ciation. Put its line n umber he re (note line number refers to

within same census page only).

DIST. Closest distan ce during b ehavior - bo th associated lines must have the same min imum distan ce. 

0 = body contact

1 = <2 m

2 = 2-5 m

3 = >5 m (>5 m bu t <10 m in the case of L behavior code)

BEHAVIOR Up to fou r behaviors may be rec orded fo r each asso ciation, but L, N, X, and O should not appear

together with other behaviors. Behaviors B and M require distance = 0. Behavior J requires

distance of 0 or 1. With the exception of Bites, Chases, Jousts, and Mounts, only record repetitive,

sequential behaviors once (for example, if an animal approaches three times in a row, code one A). 

If vocalizations occur, only code V once (whe ther or not the y are sequen tial). 

1) individua l seal 

 a) active behavior

 A = approach/investigate/sniff/nudge

 B = bite (requires distance 0)

 B1 = b ite, nip
119

 B2 = bite, draws blood/breaks skin 

*C = chase 

*C1 = ch ase, <2 body lengths 

*C2 = chase, >2 body lengths

*D = seal displaces another (see CONTEST RULES)

 F = flee/move away

 F1 = flee/move away, <2 body lengths 

 F2 = flee/move away, >2 body lengths move away

*J = joust (requires distance of 0 or 1)

*J1 = jou st <30 s

*J2 = jou st >30 s spa r/fight 

 M = mo unt/attempted (requires d ist. 0) usually A/S4 male

 M1 = mount/attempted mo unt <30 s

 M2 = mount/attempted mount >30 s

*P = play (typically pup/immature behavior in the water)

 R = subm issive roll/prese nt ventral 

 V = vocalize

 Z = cruising. A/S4 male only behavior (actual sex may be

unknown). Does not require a line number reference to another seal, but may have

one)

b) spatial association (reciprocal association filled by computer)

N =mother-pup pair (any distance), does not imply actual

nursing behavior. This is the only association recorded between mother-pup pairs

unless there is an unusual event (i.e., pup switch).

L = association by location only (distance <10 m apart, for

all except mother-pup p airs)

c) additional codes (Laysan and Lisianski 1998)

*L1 = pair assoc. A/S4 male actively defends an adult female or immature of either sex

(actual sex may be unknown), or establishes a pair relationship with a female or

immature after displacing another male. Code the L1 relationship before and after

contest if displacement occurs.

*Q = loser (quitter) 

*W = winner

*Y = tie 

Note: codes Q, W, and Y are used for A/S4 male-male contests only, although the actual sexes may

be unknown (in which case record as though they were known to be males); see the attached

CON TEST RULE S. 

* requires a corresponding code on the line of the associated seal

Code Corresponding code

C, C1, C2.............F, F1, or F2

D.....................F, F1, or F2

J, J1, J2.............J, J1, a nd J2 resp ectively

P.....................P

L1....................L1

Q.....................W

W.....................Q

Y.....................Y

2) nothing nearby

O = no behavior or association

3) no data

X = no association data recorded on Census or Atoll Count
120

NOTES--There is room to code 2 different notes. Always use the first column first. Code an H if you have

handwritten notes on the observation. Put handwritten notes on the bottom of the census form, labeled by line

number. If more than two note cod es apply, use c ontinuation line s. 

A = artwork (scars drawn) - attach drawing, labeled with date, island, observer, data type, page number,

and line number 

B = birth, 1st sighting postpartum (mom and pup)

G = seal is green with algae

H = handwritten notes

M = marked, indicate each time a seal is bleached

W = weaning, 1st sighting post-weaning (pup)

X = pup exchange, 1st sighting after exchange (mom and pup)

Y = disturbance is to "bystander" seal during non-survey activity such as tagging, bleaching,

instrumenting, e tc. This includ es all "hand s on" resea rch, even if the attempt was uns uccessful.

FOR DATA TYP E "T", STATUS OF NON -ACTIVE TAGS:

F = found 

R = recovered from seal in hand 
121

EVENT These columns are used to record a variety of data. The codes used will depend upon the type of event that

you wish to record. Left justify your coding:

TYPE CODES CONTENT

COLUMN

F = survival factor ONLY RECORD RESIGHT OF A SURVIVAL FACTOR

AS AN EVENT IF THERE ARE IMPORTANT CHANGES

TO DOCUMENT, SUCH AS A NEW WOUND, HEALING,

DEATH, ETC. TRANSCRIBE NOTES TO SURVIVAL

FACTOR FORM.

1-3 Survival Factor number 

 4 Factor Type. If seal dead, always record factor type "D" on

ORIGINAL LINE. For mobbings/harassments, always code

a census entry with factor type "M" for the victim at the

beginning and end of the incident. Otherwise, you only need

to record the most appropriate factor type if more than one

applies. 

D = death

W = wound

E = entanglement

V = very thin (emaciated)

I = illness/abnormal (includes eye disease)

M = mobbing/harassment/post-mobbing 

aggregation

O = other

 5 Participant type (for mobbings/harassments/post-mobbing

aggreg. on ly)

V = victim/subject

M = male aggressor

H = handling of wild seal FOR SEAL CAPTURES OR RELEASES, RECORD

DETAILS ON EITHER T HE CAPTURE O R RELEASE

FORM. OTHERWISE, RECORD DETAILS ON THE

TAGGING/HANDLING CARD. HANDLING DOES NOT

NECESSARILY INVOLVE REST RAINT OF SEAL.

 1 Handling type

T = tagging (w/ restra int)

M = measuring (includes weighing)

A = all (both tagging and measuring)

R = remote tagging

D = disentangle (even if not restrained)

I = instrument

B = bleeding

C = take into cap tivity

F = free from ca ptivity

O = other 
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TYPE CODES CONTENT

COLUMN

P = photo NON-SEAL OR TURTLE PHOTOS ARE NOT CODED

ON THE CENSUS FORM, BUT SHOULD BE 

RECORDED IN NOTES AND TRANSFERRED TO THE

PHO TO C OMM ENT FORM . 

 1 Type o f photo

S = slide

P = print

2-3 Roll number (pa d with zeros)

4-5 Frame numbe r (pad with zeros)

 6 Side

L = left lateral or flipper

R = right lateral or flipper

D = dorsal side

V = ventral side

B = both (used for rear flippe rs only)

X = other, describe in handwritten NOTES

 7 Part

H = head

A = anterior body (neck an d shoulders)

M = midbody (behind foreflippers and before

posterior)

P = posterior body (behind midbody and before

rear flippers)

F = foreflipper; w rite whether d orsal/ventral in

comme nts

R = rearflipper; w rite whether d orsal/ventral in

comme nts

O = overall view of a particular side

X = other, desc ribe in comments

 8 Purpose

I = identification

F = survival factor (link with survival factor EVENT

using continuation lines)

X = other, desc ribe in comments
123

TYPE CODES CONTENT

COLUMN

T = tag condition RECORD TAG CONDITION FOR BOTH SIDES OF

EACH TAG AT LE AST O NCE DURING T HE SE ASON . 

IF TAG CONDITION IS RECORDED FOR AN

INCOMPLETELY READ TAG, COMPLETE THE TAG

NUMBER (WITH APPROPRIATE TAG? CODE) PRIOR

TO COMPUTER ENTRY.

1 Web 

 A-D = from inner (medial) to outer web.

E = ankle

P = posterior

U =unknown

2 Side of tag, the dorsal tag side is on the dorsal flipper

surface unless the tag is reversed. For Temple Tags, the

dorsal side is the bigger side; for Metal (Monel) tags, the

dorsal side is the "male" side. For PIT tags, code the side as

B (both ). 

 D = dorsal 

V = ventral 

B = both 

U = unknown

3 Condition, code U (unreadable) if cannot use tag to ID seal

(i.e., if broken so number g one). Also c ode U fo r a PIT ta g if

you completely scan for it with a reliable reader but get no

reading. If rea der is unreliab le, put attemp t in Notes and only

code P IT tag as un readable after 3 separ ate attempts. 

Combine the L or U codes with the tag questionable code of

8. You c an comb ine the tag que stionable co de of 8 with

other cond ition codes to describe why the tag is unre adable

(i.e., worn or broken). Code more than one condition using

continuation lines.

B = broken

F = faded color

G = good

L = tag lost 

N = no/partial resin

O = other 

P = pulling out

U = unreadab le

V = tag side reversed 

W = no. worn /abraded 
124

CONTEST RULES

1. Size class collapse for contests: all subadu lts = adults (both sexes)

2. Definition of pair type (depends on associate of adult male):

• Pair type #1: adult male with adult female (L1)

• Pair type #2: adult male with juvenile or pup of either sex (L1)

• Pair type #3: single adult male not pair type #1 or #2

3. Definition of a male-male contest (must conform to at least one condition below):

• Distance between males = 0

• Either adult male vocalizes (V) or performs a C, D, or J

• If cruiser approaches to beach position $1, regardless of other behaviors

4. Definition of winner or loser adult male (Even if the "winner" is not aware that the other seal flees, if that seal

fled in response to a vocalization, then code the fleeing seal as the loser (Q) and the other seal as the winner

(W)):

Case Winner (W) Loser (Q) Tie (Y)

Paired Male vs. Single Male:

(#1 or #2 vs. #3)

i) Original Single Male if has

D

ii) Original Paired

Male otherwise

Has F No Ties

No Ties

Male Paired with Adult Female vs. Male

Paired w ith Juvenile Se al:

(#1 vs. #2)

i) Original M ale Paired with

Juvenile if has D

ii) Original M ale

Paired w ith Adult Fem ale

otherwise

Has F No Ties

No Ties

Paired Male vs. Paired M ale where b oth

pairs are same type:

(#1 vs. #1 or

#2 vs. #2)

Has D Has F Tie if no D

Single Male vs. Single Male:

(#3 vs. #3)

Has D or C Has F Tie if no D or

C
125

HAWA IIAN MONK SEAL TEMPL E TAGS:

NUMBERING SCHEME AND HOLE DRILLING PATTERN FOR TAGS APPLIED TO WEANED PUPS

Be sure to code the original tag color, not the color that a tag has faded to. See the Tag Sample Kit in the Bible.

Original tag color: Faded tag may appear:

Temple Tags:

 Light Tan (A,T,K ,L series @ Laysan).............Gray, Lt. Yellow, W hite

 Dark Tan/Brown (later series @ Laysan).........Red

 Gray (A,T,K,L,N,F,U,G series @ Kure)..........Light Tan

 Silver Gray (600-900,0,Z and later @ Kure)...Metal

 Red...................................................................Orange

 Yellow..............................................................White, Lt. Yellow

 Green (dark forest)............................................Dark Blue, Navy

 Blue (light)........................................................--