MONTREAL PROTOCOL 

ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE 

THE OZONE LAYER 

UNEP

2010 ASSESSMENT REPORT OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL

UNEP 

2010 ASSESSMENT REPORT OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL
iv 2010 TEAP Assessment Report 

Montreal Protocol 

On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 

UNEP 

2010 Assessment Report of the 

Technology and Economic Assessment Panel 

The text of this report is composed in Times New Roman. 

Co-ordination: Technology and Economic Assessment Panel 

Reproduction: UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat 

Date: February 2011 

Printed copies of this report are available from: 

SMI Distribution Service Ltd., Stevenage, Hertfordshire, UK, 

fax: + 44 1438 748844 

This document is also available in portable document format from 

http://www.unep.org/ozone 

No copyright involved. This publication may be freely copied, abstracted and cited, with 

acknowledgement of the source of the material.

ISBN: 9966-7319-7-0 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report v

Disclaimer 

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel 

(TEAP) Co-chairs and members, the Technical Options Committee, chairs, Co-chairs and members, the 

TEAP Task Forces Co-chairs and members, and the companies and organisations that employ them do not 

endorse the performance, worker safety, or environmental acceptability of any of the technical options 

discussed. Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper disposal of 

contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues - including additional toxicity evaluation - 

more information on health, environmental and safety effects of alternatives and replacements will become 

available for use in selecting among the options discussed in this document. 

UNEP, the TEAP Co-chairs and members, the Technical Options Committee, chairs, Co-chairs and 

members, and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Task Forces Co-chairs and members, in 

furnishing or distributing this information, do not make any warranty or representation, either express or 

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Mention of any company, association, or product in this document is for information purposes only and does 

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UNEP, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Co-chairs or members, the Technical Options 

Committee chairs, Co-chairs or members, the TEAP Task Forces Co-chairs or members or the companies or 

organisations that employ them. 

Acknowledgement 

The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, its Technical and Economic Options Committees and the 

Task Forces Co-chairs and members acknowledges with thanks the outstanding contributions from all of the 

individuals and organisations who provided support to the Panel and the Technical Options Committees. The 

opinions expressed are those of the Panel, the Committees and Task Forces and do not necessarily reflect the 

reviews of any sponsoring or supporting organisation.

2010 TEAP Assessment Report vii

UNEP 

2010 ASSESSMENT REPORT 

OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL 

Table of Contents Page 

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 KEY MESSAGES ........................................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 CHEMICALS (CTOC) ................................................................................................................... 2 

1.3 FOAMS (FTOC)............................................................................................................................ 3 

1.4 HALONS (HTOC)......................................................................................................................... 3 

1.5 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS (MTOC).............................................................................................. 3 

1.6 METHYL BROMIDE (MBTOC)..................................................................................................... 4 

1.7 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING AND HEAT PUMPS (RTOC)....................................... 5 

1.8 REMAINING MILITARY AND SPACE USES OF ODSS (MAY 2008 TEAP PROGRESS REPORT)..... 5 

1.8.1 Unique Military and Space Uses of HCFCs............................................................................... 7 

1.8.2 Continuing International Co-operation...................................................................................... 8 

1.9 REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE ON ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF BANKS 

OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES (DECISION XX/7) 2009 .................................................... 8 

1.10 RESPONSE BY TEAP AND ITS MTOC TO DECISION XX/4: CAMPAIGN PRODUCTION FOR 

SOME ARTICLE 5 PARTIES MANUFACTURING METERED DOSE INHALERS WHICH USE 

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (2009)............................................................................................. 12 

1.11 QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT REPORT (DECISION XX/6, REPORT OF NOVEMBER 

2009) ......................................................................................................................................... 13 

1.12 ASSESSMENT OF HCFCS AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND ALTERNATIVES (DECISION 

XXI/9) MAY 2010 ..................................................................................................................... 14 

1.12.1 Methods and metrics ................................................................................................................. 14 

1.13 SCOPING STUDY ON ALTERNATIVES TO HCFC REFRIGERANTS UNDER HIGH AMBIENT 

TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS (DECISION XIX/8) MAY 2010..................................................... 15 

1.14 CROSS-SECTORAL FINDINGS ..................................................................................................... 15 

1.15 2007 TASK FORCE ON TEAP ..................................................................................................... 16 

2 ABSTRACT EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES.......................................................................... 17 

2.1 CHEMICALS TOC....................................................................................................................... 17 

2.2 FLEXIBLE AND RIGID FOAMS TOC............................................................................................ 18 

2.3 HALONS TOC ............................................................................................................................ 20 

2.4 MEDICAL TOC........................................................................................................................... 22 

2.4.1 Metered dose inhalers............................................................................................................... 22 

2.4.2 Pharmaceutical aerosol products other than MDIs................................................................. 22 

2.4.3 Sterilants.................................................................................................................................... 23 

2.5 METHYL BROMIDE TOC............................................................................................................ 23 

2.6 REFRIGERATION, AC AND HEAT PUMPS TOC........................................................................... 26 

3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES OF ALL TOCS..................................................................... 31 

3.1 CHEMICAL TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE (CTOC)............................................................ 31 

3.1.1 Process Agents .......................................................................................................................... 31 

3.1.2 Laboratory and Analytical Uses............................................................................................... 31 

3.1.3 Feedstocks ................................................................................................................................. 31 

3.1.4 Solvents...................................................................................................................................... 32 

3.1.5 Destruction Technologies ......................................................................................................... 32 

3.1.6 Carbon Tetrachloride (CTC) Emissions and Opportunities for Reduction............................. 32 

3.2 FOAMS TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE ................................................................................ 33 

3.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 33 

3.2.2 Foam Market Dynamics............................................................................................................ 33 
viii 2010 TEAP Assessment Report 

3.2.3 Transitional Status .................................................................................................................... 34 

3.2.4 Likely Future Scenarios ............................................................................................................ 35 

3.2.5 Banks, Emissions and Destruction ........................................................................................... 36 

3.2.6 Specific Regional Messages...................................................................................................... 36 

3.3 HALONS TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE.............................................................................. 38 

3.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 38 

3.3.2 Global Production and Consumption Phase-out of Halons .................................................... 38 

3.3.3 Fire Protection Alternatives to Halon...................................................................................... 38 

3.3.4 Climate Considerations for Halons and Alternatives.............................................................. 39 

3.3.5 Global Halon 1211 and 1301 Banking..................................................................................... 39

3.3.6 Global Halon 2402 Banking..................................................................................................... 40 

3.3.7 Global/Regional Supply and Demand Balance........................................................................ 40 

3.3.8 Continued Reliance on Halons ................................................................................................. 40 

3.3.9 Estimated Global Inventories of Halons 1211, 1301 and 2402............................................... 42 

3.3.10 Practices to Ensure Recycled Halon Purity ............................................................................. 42

3.3.11 Halon Emission Reduction Strategies ...................................................................................... 42 

3.3.12 Destruction................................................................................................................................ 43 

3.4 MEDICAL TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE ............................................................................ 43 

3.4.1 Metered Dose Inhalers.............................................................................................................. 43 

3.4.2 Pharmaceutical aerosol products other than MDIs................................................................. 45 

3.4.3 Sterilants.................................................................................................................................... 45 

3.5 METHYL BROMIDE TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE ............................................................. 46 

3.5.1 Mandate and report structure................................................................................................... 46 

3.5.2 The Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC)............................................... 46 

3.5.3 Methyl bromide control measures ............................................................................................ 46 

3.5.4 Production and consumption trends......................................................................................... 47 

3.5.5 Consumption trends at national level....................................................................................... 47 

3.5.6 Alternatives to methyl bromide................................................................................................. 48 

3.5.7 Impact of registration on availability of alternatives............................................................... 48 

3.5.8 Alternatives for soil treatments................................................................................................. 49 

3.5.9 Alternatives for treatment of post-harvest uses: food processing structures and durable 

commodities (non-QPS)............................................................................................................ 51 

3.5.10 Rate of adoption of alternatives................................................................................................ 53 

3.5.11 Alternatives to methyl bromide for quarantine and pre-shipment applications (exempted 

uses)........................................................................................................................................... 54 

3.5.12 Progress in phasing-out methyl bromide in Article 5 Parties ................................................. 56 

3.5.13 Economic criteria...................................................................................................................... 57 

3.5.14 Emissions from methyl bromide use and their reduction......................................................... 57 

3.6 REFRIGERATION, AC AND HEAT PUMPS TOC........................................................................... 58 

3.6.1 Refrigerants............................................................................................................................... 58 

3.6.2 Domestic Refrigeration............................................................................................................. 58 

3.6.3 Commercial Refrigeration ........................................................................................................ 60 

3.6.4 Industrial Systems ..................................................................................................................... 61 

3.6.5 Transport Refrigeration............................................................................................................ 62 

3.6.6 Air-to-air air conditioners and heat pumps.............................................................................. 63 

3.6.7 Water heating heat pumps ........................................................................................................ 64 

3.6.8 Chillers ...................................................................................................................................... 66 

3.6.9 Vehicle air conditioning............................................................................................................ 67 

4 TEAP AND TOC MEMBERSHIP INFORMATION ........................................................ 69 

4.1 TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL DISCLOSURE OF INTERESTS STATUS 

JANUARY 2011........................................................................................................................... 69 

4.2 TEAP TOC MEMBERSHIP LIST STATUS JANUARY 2011 .......................................................... 80 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 1

1 Executive Summary 

Since the 2006 Assessment of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP), several 

important technical developments have taken place. The direction that some of these developments 

have taken could not have been predicted in 2006. The Panel's Technical Options Committees, on 

Chemicals (CTOC), on Foams (FTOC), on Halons (HTOC), on Methyl Bromide (MBTOC), on 

Medical Uses (MTOC) and on Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps (RTOC) have each issued a 2010 

Assessment Report that document these new developments as well as progress along the lines 

described in the 2006 TEAP Assessment Report. The Executive Summaries of these reports form the 

body of the 2010 TEAP Assessment Report and their Abstract Executive Summaries, with the 

summaries of other chapters, form the Executive Summary of the 2010 TEAP Assessment Report." 

1.1 Key Messages 

• The Montreal Protocol is working. There is progress in every sector, with many applications 

phased out worldwide. However, some MDI, laboratory and analytical uses still depend on 

new production of Annex A and B substances authorized by essential use exemptions; some 

fire protection, refrigeration and air conditioning service, and minor other applications still 

depend on banked and recycled Annex A and B substances; critical use exemptions of MB 

continue to decline, however uncontrolled feedstock uses of MB continue and quarantine and 

pre-shipment (QPS) uses of MB continue to increase. It is technically and economically 

feasible in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 countries: to collect and destroy surplus ODSs 

not required for important uses; to reduce emissions of ODSs and HFCs substitutes for ODSs 

from refrigeration, air conditioning, and fire protection equipment; and to phase out HCFCs 

faster in new refrigeration and air conditioning equipment in Article 5 countries if financing 

is made available to go beyond compliance. Actions to speed phaseout, reduce emissions, 

and destroy ODS can take servicing needs of existing equipment into consideration. 

• Adequate financing of ozone protection, or, in some cases, combined financing of ozone and 

climate protection can leapfrog high-GWP HFCs in some applications, avoiding a second 

transition out of HFCs under the Kyoto Protocol and complications of an increasingly large 

inventory of HFC equipment requiring servicing with HFCs that may be expensive or 

unavailable. Joint funding will require continuing technical and administrative cooperation 

as Protocols are modified, and particularly when the CDM provisions are modified in 2013 

when the Kyoto Protocol must be updated. 

• 'Bottom up' TEAP/CTOC estimates of uncontrolled uses such as feedstocks are significantly 

smaller than 'top down' estimates made by consideration of observed stratospheric 

concentrations and the estimated atmospheric lifetime of CTC. 

• The opportunity to destroy unwanted ODSs is leaking away. 

• Considerable interest has focused on the status of collection and potential destruction of 

ODS banks based on the potential ozone and climate benefits of the avoided emissions of 

ODS still remaining in equipment, products, and stockpiles. The window of opportunity is 

narrowing (over the next 10-15 years, primarily in the refrigeration sector) to increase ODS 

recovery at equipment end of life to avoid potential emissions altogether by destroying 

unwanted ODS. Little new, on-the-ground effort has occurred since the last assessment; with 

the exceptions of Canada, EU, and Japan, and the US. With the recent introduction of offsets 

project standards offering carbon credits for destruction of certain ODS, collection and 

destruction can be profitable based on both the potential ozone and climate benefits. The 

difficulty is that neither economic incentive is available in most countries nor the 

infrastructure to support the activities. Funding the full-cost effort for collection and 

destruction of the banks of unwanted ODS remains a challenge and a significant hurdle to 

demonstrating the viability of this opportunity. 
2 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

• Collection and destruction is highly profitable if both GWP and ODP value is paid to 

society but neither economic incentive is available in most countries; 

• Collection and destruction is not profitable without payment for environmental 

benefit; 

• It is counter-productive to compel collection and destruction without incentives. 

• The technical developments that have occurred between 2006 and 2010, and which are 

described in this 2010 TEAP Assessment Report, have increased the technical and economic 

feasibility of each of the following outcomes for both Article 5 and non-Article 5 countries: 

• Accelerating the phase-out of consumption of most ODSs, 

• Limiting the use or reducing the emissions in many applications, 

• Collecting and destroying unwanted ODS contained in foam, refrigeration, and other 

equipment, 

• Leap-frogging the use of high-GWP HFCs when phasing out HCFCs, and 

• Phasing down the use of high-GWP HFCs in mobile air conditioning applications 

where ODSs are already phased out worldwide in new equipment. 

The key TOC sector findings can be summarised as given below. 

1.2 Chemicals (CTOC) 

 Collaboration with the Executive Committee (MLF) will promote the reduction of ODS uses 

as process agents and their corresponding emissions by monitoring phase-out of process 

agent uses. 

 The Ozone Secretariat and experts identified by the CTOC will continue to work with 

analytical chemists in Article 5 countries and with national and international bodies that 

establish standard methods with a view to implementing new non-ODS methods. 

 Knowledge of ODS feedstock use and emissions is incomplete. 

 Perhaps some carbon tetrachloride (CTC) feedstock uses could be replaced by not-in-kind 

manufacturing processes using non-ozone depleting substances (non-ODS). Parties may 

wish to consider CTOC periodic assessment of available and emerging alternatives and 

substitutes for feedstock uses with a view to restricting exempted uses. 

 Regulatory and technical changes may continue to impact earlier phase-out of ozone 

depleting solvent applications by introducing non-ODS. New cleaning processes might be 

sought for the applications where suitable alternatives are not available. 

 The phase-out of ozone depleting solvents in Article 5 countries will require: (1) access to 

information and knowledge about the acceptable alternatives, (2) economic assistance, and 

(3) identification of small and medium users. 

 Efforts discussed in the SAP 2010 report have further refined the understanding of the 

substantial difference between CTC emissions derived with ‘top down’ methods 

(atmospheric concentrations and lifetimes), which are larger, and those from ‘bottom up’ 

methods (estimated production, uses and emissions), which are smaller and more variable. 

Work will need to continue with all parties involved (science, technology and industry) to 

identify the causes of the remaining differences in these estimates. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 3

1.3 Foams (FTOC) 

• Energy efficiency pressures are relentlessly forcing innovation in blowing agent technologies 

globally. Blends are playing an increasingly important role and the approach to optimisation 

is becoming ever more sophisticated. Unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) are likely to be available 

commercially earlier than originally expected (2013-2015) and are showing better thermal 

performance than saturated HFCs in early evaluations. However, widespread uptake will 

require substantial further validation of both performance and cost. 

• Concerns persist over the availability of low-GWP replacements for HCFCs in Article 5 

countries. It is not yet clear whether pre-blended hydrocarbons or methyl formate will 

provide totally adequate solutions for SMEs since the management of flammability issues 

related to blends may require significant reformulation. For methyl formate this could 

include the possibility of blending part of the blowing agent in the isocyanate stream. There 

are additional concerns in the case of methyl formate that the achievement of viable foam 

properties at desired densities may be challenging for some applications in the rigid PU 

sector. 

• Recovery of appliance foams is at its most cost-effective in climate terms with high-GWP 

(CFC) blowing agents. However, this cost effectiveness will deteriorate as the product mix 

shifts towards lower-GWP HCFC-containing foams. ODS banks in foams installed in 

buildings have been further characterised, confirming that the flow of ODS containing foams 

from buildings will be at low level for the next decade. Marginal costs of 

recovery/destruction depend on demolition waste segregation practices, but are likely to be 

well above US$ 100 per tonne CO2 saved for most scenarios. 

1.4 Halons (HTOC) 

• There appear to be sufficient halon 1211 and 1301 stocks to meet known needs for the 

foreseeable future. Supply and demand of these halons appears to be in balance although 

regionally stocks are not evenly distributed. The situation for halon 2402 is different in that 

the bulk of the much smaller bank of halon 2402 is in the Russian Federation and Ukraine 

but there is a significant demand from outside these Parties. Although no Party has expressed 

that it is unable to meet the demands of important uses of halon 2402, this may occur in the 

foreseeable future. 

• Now that there is no global production of halons for fire protection uses, management of the 

remaining stock becomes crucial for ensuring sufficient halons for applications that need 

them. However, numerous Parties have not implemented halon bank management 

programmes or are experiencing significant challenges with their programmes, in particular 

with the reclamation or disposal of cross contaminated halons. 

• The aviation sector, through their United Nations agency, the International Civil Aviation 

Organization (ICAO), has endorsed a schedule to replace halons on board new aircraft in the 

lavatory trash receptacles, hand-held extinguishers, engine nacelles, and auxiliary power 

units. The protection of cargo compartments remains a challenge for which there is no 

acceptable solution at this time, but for which research continues. 

1.5 Medical Applications (MTOC) 

• There has been significant global progress in the transition of CFC metered dose inhalers 

(MDIs) to CFC-free inhalers. Technically satisfactory alternatives to CFC MDIs are now 

available in almost all countries worldwide to cover all of the key classes of drugs used in 

the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 
4 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

• Most Article 5 countries and the Russian Federation are expected to have completed 

transition from CFC MDIs by about the end of 2012. A notable exception is China, which 

plans to complete the CFC MDI phase-out in 2016. 

• A cautious approach to CFC production for MDI manufacture is advisable since transition is 

moving quickly. It could be possible to complete the phase-out of CFC MDIs with careful 

management of existing CFC stockpiles, provided manufacture of pharmaceutical-grade 

CFCs in China continues to supply its own needs and those of the Russian Federation. 

• Technically and economically feasible alternatives are also available for medical aerosol 

products other than MDIs. However, there are a few developing countries that are yet to 

complete the conversion of CFC-based medical aerosols to alternatives. 

• There is a range of commercially available sterilization methods that will replace the use of 

CFCs and HCFCs in this sector over time. The use of CFCs in blends with ethylene oxide 

(EO) has been successfully phased out in non-Article 5 countries and in many Article 5 

countries. An orderly phase-out of HCFCs in sterilization to meet Montreal Protocol HCFC 

phase-out schedules is readily achievable. 

1.6 Methyl Bromide (MBTOC) 

• MB phase-out for controlled uses has advanced significantly. Global consumption has been 

reduced by 88% from the aggregate baseline. The reduction in consumption of MB for soil 

fumigation has been the major contributor to the overall reduction in global consumption of 

MB, but consumption of MB for pest control in structures and for commodities has also 

declined significantly. 

• Article 5 Parties have reduced consumption by approximately 72% of baseline, which is well 

ahead of phase out schedules, but further efforts are still necessary to ensure the full phase 

out deadline of 2015 can be met. 

• By 2009, the MB phaseout has led to a 60% fall in anthropogenic bromine for MB in the 

troposphere and a 30% fall in effective chlorine load from MB in the stratosphere. Owing to 

the short (0.7 year) MB atmospheric lifetime, MB phaseout has a rapid benefit to ozone 

recovery. 

• Technical alternatives exist for almost all controlled uses of methyl bromide. 

• Phase-out for the remaining MB uses will be greatly influenced by the registration and the 

regulatory controls on several key chemical alternatives (including 1,3-dichloropropene, 

chloropicrin, methyl iodide and SF) and by the incentives for non-chemical alternatives and 

Integrated Pest Management. 

• Implementation of barrier films in soil fumigation has become more widespread. They 

significantly reduce dosage rates and emissions of methyl bromide and alternative fumigants. 

• Recent registration of methyl iodide in the USA (now including California) has reduced 

significant amounts of MB requested in Critical Use Nominations. 

• Pre 2005 stocks of MB are anticipated to be exhausted for non-critical use sectors and 

critical use sectors in the US within the next 3 years. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 5

• A regulatory proposal to phase-in the deregistration of sulfuryl fluoride (SF) for food contact 

in the United States may increase pressure to use MB for pest control in food processing and 

food commodities. SF has been an important alternative for those uses and the reason for 

decline in MB use. 

• Increased use of MB for Quarantine and Pre-shipment (QPS) is offsetting gains made by 

reductions in controlled uses for soils, structures and commodities. Some of this increase is 

due to preplant soil use in propagation nursery sectors. 

• TEAP estimates that currently available alternatives and substitutes could replace about 31% 

to 47% (1,937 to 2,942 tonnes) of QPS consumed in four categories of QPS use investigated. 

Since these four categories account for about 70% of total 2008 QPS methyl bromide use, 

the available technology can replace approximately 22% to 33% of total QPS consumption. 

• Some Parties have stopped all uses of MB including QPS, other Parties have announced their 

intention to stop all uses in the near future. 

• Parties contemplating controls on exempted MB use may wish to consider economic 

incentives that encourage minimal use, containment, recovery and recycling, as well as notin-kind alternatives and substitutes for QPS uses of MB. 

1.7 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps (RTOC) 

• The required global phase-out of HCFCs, and the need to manage the lifetime operation of 

CFC- and also HCFC-based equipment, coupled with concerns to reduce global warming, 

drive transition from ozone depleting substance (ODS) refrigerants. The technical options 

are universal, but local laws, regulations, standards, economics, competitive situations and 

other factors influence regional and local choices. 

• More than 60 new refrigerants, many of them blends, were introduced for use either in new 

equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 

assessment report. The primary focus for examination of new refrigerants is on unsaturated 

hydrofluorocarbons and unsaturated hydrochlorofluorocarbons. The overarching climate 

change issue as well as changing refrigerant options for refrigeration and air conditioning 

will continue to advance equipment innovations. HFCs and non-fluorochemical options are 

increasingly used in most sectors, with emphasis on optimising system efficiency (expressed 

as Coefficient of Performance - COP) and reducing emissions of high Global Warming 

Potential (GWP) refrigerants. 

• There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as replacements for 

HCFC-22. These include lower GWP HFC refrigerants (HFC-32, HFC-152a, HFC-161, 

HFC-1234yf and other unsaturated fluorochemicals, as well as blends of them), HC-290 and 

R-744 (CO2). HC-290 and some of the HFC refrigerants are flammable and will need to be 

applied in accordance with an appropriate safety standard. A high degree of containment 

applies to all future refrigerant applications, either for decreasing climate impact or for safety 

reasons. The latter aspect will also increase the need to advance charge reduction 

technologies. 

• In commercial refrigeration stand-alone equipment, hydrocarbons (HCs) and R-744 are 

gaining market shares in Europe and in Japan; they are replacing HFC-134a, which is the 

dominant choice in most countries. In many developed countries, R-404A and R-507A have 

been the main replacements for HCFC-22 in supermarkets, however, because of their high 

GWP, a number of other options are now being introduced. Indirect systems are the most 

effective option for emissions reductions in new centralised systems for supermarkets. In 
6 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

two stage systems in Europe, R-744 is used at the low-temperature level and HFC-134a, R744 and HCs at the medium temperature level. 

• In industrial refrigeration, R-717 (ammonia) and HCFC-22 are still the most common 

refrigerants; R-744 is gaining in low-temperature, cascaded systems where it primarily 

replaces R-717 (ammonia), though the market volume is small. 

• In air-to-air air conditioning, HFC blends, primarily R-410A, but to a limited degree also R407C, are still the dominant near-term replacements for HCFC-22 in air-cooled systems. 

HC-290 is also being used to replace HCFC-22 in low charge split system, window and 

portable air conditioners in some countries. Most Article 5 countries are continuing to utilise 

HCFC-22 as the predominant refrigerant in air conditioning applications. 

• Up to now, car manufacturers and suppliers have evaluated several refrigerant options for 

new car (and truck) air conditioning systems including R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf, 

all with GWPs below the EU threshold of 150. These options can achieve fuel efficiency 

comparable to the existing HFC-134a systems with appropriate hardware and control 

development. The use of hydrocarbons or blends of hydrocarbons has also been considered 

but so far has not received support from vehicle manufacturers due to safety concerns. The 

eventual decision which refrigerant to select for vehicle air conditioning will be made based 

on the GWPs of the above three options along with additional considerations including 

regulatory approval, costs, system reliability, safety, heat pump capability and servicing. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 7

1.8 Remaining Military and Space Uses of ODSs (May 2008 TEAP Progress 

Report) 

The primary remaining military ODS use is for halon in applications considered to be vital to 

operations lacking technically or economically feasible retrofit alternatives, or not yet budgeted or 

scheduled for retrofit or retirement. Like their civil aviation counterparts, some military aircraft 

continue to be produced with halon fire protection systems. CFC refrigerants continue to be used in 

some Naval vessels (ships and submarines) because: the refrigeration plants were designed 

specifically to use a particular ODS refrigerant, the refrigeration plants are sized according to the 

needs of the vessel, the acoustic signature of the vessel would be changed by using an alternative, and 

because the cost of removing the plant and replacing it is cost prohibitive. For example, in some 

vessel designs, the hull of the vessel must be opened in order to remove and replace the plant. For the 

latest TEAP findings on critical military and space uses see: TEAP, “2006 Assessment Report of the 

Technology and Economic Assessment Panel,” United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, 

2006, pp. 127-137. 

The primary remaining Space applications for ODS uses are in thermal insulating foam, manufacture 

of solid rocket motors, and in cleaning of electronic and precision mechanical assemblies. In nonArticle 5 Parties, military and space applications continue to be satisfied by recycling existing stocks 

of ODS, with a small number of uses met through Essential Use Exemptions previously granted by 

Parties to Poland (CFC-113 to clean torpedoes), The Russian Federation (Halon 2402 for fire 

protection; CFC-113 for aerospace applications) and the United States (methyl chloroform for 

manufacture of civilian and military rockets). 

1.8.1 Unique Military and Space Uses of HCFCs 

Most current use of HCFCs by military and space organisations is in applications that are not unique 

but may be vital to current operations. It can be expected that many of the ordinary HCFC uses will be 

replaced by the same technology that is implemented in civilian sectors. However, there are a few 

low-volume HCFC uses that are unique to military and space organisations and which are vital to safe 

operations. These unique uses can be: 1) phased out with new technology, 2) supplied from stockpiles 

or from recovered HCFCs, or 3) provided under terms of an Essential Use Exemption (if agreed by 

Parties). 

Mission-vital HCFC uses include: 

• Solvent HCFC-225 used for cleaning oxygen systems, electro-optical devices, precision 

navigation systems and similar components where a combination of materials must be 

compatible with the solvent and the solvent must remove soil with little residue left behind. 

Small amounts of CFC-113 and HCFC-225 will continue to be used for some in situ

cleaning of oxygen systems having complex geometries. 

• HCFC refrigerants used in a battlefield environment can be replaced with existing or new 

non-flammable or possibly mildly flammable HFCs, but cannot be replaced with nonfluorocarbon refrigerants such as hydrocarbons and ammonia owing to flammability and 

safety concerns in a battlefield environment. Some militaries are considering extending the 

use of HCFCs in some battlefield equipment for a few years by using recycled refrigerant 

rather than shifting to high-GWP HFCs to allow time for the technical maturity of low-GWP 

refrigeration systems, such as transcritical carbon dioxide. Military-unique systems tend to 

have very long development and operational lifetimes, lasting half a century or longer in 

both developed and developing countries. The systems are highly integrated, their designs 

are highly constrained in terms of space and weight, and modification costs are generally 

very high. 
8 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

• HCFC-141b used for thermal insulating foam on the oxygen tank of the United States (U.S.) 

Space Shuttle is vital today, but is expected to be phased out when the next generation 

spacecraft replaces the Space Shuttle. 

1.8.2 Continuing International Co-operation 

There have been significant efforts over the years to spread awareness of the Montreal Protocol and 

the availability of measures militaries can take to manage the phase-out including: five workshops on 

the role of the military in implementing the Montreal Protocol (1991, 1994, 1997, 2001, and 2008); 

bilateral military-to-military technology co-operation projects involving Mexico, Thailand, Turkey, 

and Malaysia; and UNEP sponsored workshops in India and Jordan that included regional military 

participation. 

Military and space organisations have invested significant effort and funding, and have made great 

strides to reduce their dependence on ODS. Modifications to existing systems and practices have been 

made where technically and economically feasible alternatives exist. Very few new military systems 

continue to rely on ODS. By demonstrating the feasibility of the alternatives, especially emerging 

technologies, military and space organisations continue to pave the way for the civilian sector 

transition away from ODS. For military and space applications that continue to need ODSs, military 

and space operators of reserve stocks have been diligent in preventing leakage and ensuring that 

ODSs are only used for vital applications. 

The following actions will further minimise ODS emissions from continuing uses and reduce the need 

for essential use nominations: 

9 Fostering the continued collection and recycling of ODSs; 

9 Employing best practices for ODS recovery/recycling, storage, reuse and destruction; 

9 Ensuring flexibility that will enable transnational shipment necessary to supply recycled 

ODS for vital needs; and 

9 Planning to reduce future dependency on ODS through the use of alternatives and other 

options. 

1.9 Report of the Task Force on Environmentally Sound Management of 

Banks of Ozone-Depleting Substances (Decision XX/7) 2009 

In the period since 2006, TEAP has assessed further the characteristics of the ODS Banks identified in 

its earlier work. This has included two complementary reports prepared in response to Decision XX/7 

in 2009 as well as further data analysis ahead of the Workshop on the Environmentally Sound 

Management of Banks held in Geneva in June 2010. Meanwhile, individual TOCs have monitored 

developments in their sectors in order to assess the cost-effectiveness of measures and likely future 

trends. Key conclusions from this work are as follows: 

• The IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Ozone and Climate indicated total ODS and HFC bank 

sizes of 5.79 million tonnes in 2002 with forecast growth to 7.72 million in 2015. In this 

period ODS were expected to decline by 353,000 tonnes while HFCs were expected to grow 

by 2.41 million tonnes. 

• More recent estimates of actual bank sizes have shown refrigerant banks at approximately 

2.8 million tonnes in 2006 and foam banks at 3.53 million for the same year with a further 

444,000 tonnes of CFC-11 contained in foams already in landfill. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 9

• The Phase 1 Report for Decision XX/7 showed that approximately 85% of this total is 

reachable, with around 47.5% (3 million tonnes) of the bank being in the low to medium 

effort categories. 

Region ODS type Low Effort Medium Effort High Effort 

(all in ktonnes) 

 

Developed Countries CFCs 123.82 239.76 1009.08 

 HCFCs 631.86 308.23 838.73 

 Halons 44.32 15.00 - 

 

Developing Countries CFCs 160.79 225.80 154.27 

 HCFCs 563.49 645.72 347.22 

 Halons 22.24 28.95 - 

 

Global 1546.52 1463.46 2349.30 

• Further work on the cost-effectiveness of measures to recover ODS in banks suggests that, 

from a climate perspective, low effort banks could be recovered at an average cost of around 

$15 per tonne of CO2-eq. while medium effort banks could require average investments 

equivalent to $35 per tonne of CO2-eq. However, the effective cost of recovery and 

destruction will increase with time in many sectors because of reductions in the average 

GWP of the product mix within waste streams. 

• Amongst the reachable banks, commercial refrigeration offers the largest potential recovery 

opportunity, but the cost effectiveness in climate terms is slightly worse than some other 

sectors because the primary ODS used in the sector has been HCFC-22 throughout 

(GWP=1780). 

• Stationary Air Conditioning represents the largest refrigerant bank in tonnage terms (48% of 

total), but is of a similar magnitude to commercial refrigeration in climate terms. The 

disperse nature and ownership of Air Conditioning units has made it difficult to formulate 

effective recovery strategies. 
10 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

40.00

45.00

50.00

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Cost per tonne CO2 saved ($)

Year

Trends in Cost Effectiveness of ODS Bank Recovery

Commercial - Dense

Commercial - Sparse

Transport - Combined

SAC - Dense

SAC - Sparse

• The TEAP analysis of the last four years has sought to differentiate between banks situated 

in densely populated (urban) areas and sparsely populated (rural) areas. An impact on cost 

from the higher recovery challenges is correctly anticipated, although the magnitude of that 

impact is only estimated at present. 

• Although foamed products in appliances and buildings account for the largest banks, their 

emissions are relatively low. In addition, recovery and destruction is seen to be technically 

more challenging than for refrigerants. Most foams are currently positioned in the high 

effort category. 

• Even the most accessible building insulation foams are expected to lead to bank 

management costs in excess of $100 per tonne CO2 saved. The figure will depend to a 

significant extent on the demolition waste management practices mandated in the region. 

However, the relatively long lifetimes of buildings will result in low levels of blowing agent 

reaching the waste stream in the next decade. The statistical distribution around the average 

lifetime of buildings may also mean that any recovery/destruction provisions may need to be 

in place until around 2050 to capture a high proportion of the reachable bank. 

• A further unknown in the evaluation of recovery options for ODS is the extent to which 

anaerobic degradation will take place in (managed) landfills. This could clearly impact 

baseline emissions and result in less benefit from end-of-life measures. 

• For appliances, the major opportunity to achieve significant climate benefits is within the 

next 5-10 years. As the product mix moves from CFC-containing to HCFC/HFC containing, 

the expectation is that the costs of recovery/destruction will increase substantially in climate 

terms (see below). 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 11

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Cost per tonne CO2 saved ($)

Year

Trends in Cost Effectiveness of ODS Bank Recovery

Dom. Refrigerant - Dense

Dom. Refrigerant - Sparse

Commercial - Dense

Commercial - Sparse

Transport - Combined

SAC - Dense

SAC - Sparse

Dom. Appliance - Dense

Dom. Appliance - Sparse

• Although the carbon markets could have a role to play in financing future ODS bank 

management activities, the relatively low carbon price, coupled with a lack of internationally 

recognised protocols for validation/verification means that only the most cost-effective 

measures can be supported at present. 

• For halons, the bulk of the bank, with the exception of contaminated materials, is being 

managed for re-use. It would therefore be inappropriate to consider recovery/destruction 

when vital future uses are envisaged and Essential Use Exemptions for production and 

consumption would otherwise need to be granted. 
12 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

• Although halons have high direct GWPs they have not been included in either of the two 

known voluntary ODS destruction protocols because of uncertainty related to their indirect 

GWPs. Owing to the fact that halons contain bromine and are potent ozone-depleting 

substances, it has been estimated that their indirect GWPs could be less than zero. If GHG 

reduction credits are provided in the future for destroying used halons, this could have a 

significant impact on the cost of recycled halon and its availability for important uses. In 

light of recent published data on the indirect GWPs of halons (Young et al., Atmos. Chem. 

Phys., 2009), the Parties may wish to consider requesting the Scientific Assessment Panel to 

clarify the extent of the climate benefits, if any, resulting from destroying banked halons. 

• There are a few important fire protection applications such as crew bays of armoured 

vehicles where the only current options are to use recycled halon or a high GWP HFC. From 

a total environmental impact perspective, is it better to reuse an already produced, recycled 

halon or produce a high GWP HFC for the application? This is a challenge that the Parties 

may wish to consider. 

• There is concern that the establishment of active halon bank management regimes has been 

slow to emerge in Article 5 Parties. 

• Overall, flows of ODS into the waste stream are expected to peak globally at 200,000-

225,000 tonnes per annum in the 2018-2020 window. The inclusion of ODS substitutes 

within the list of managed substances will see this figure grow to 400,000-450,000 tonnes 

per annum in 2030 and continue to grow thereafter. Nonetheless, there is expected to be 

sufficient destruction capacity to manage these quantities relatively easily. The more 

challenging aspect will be in relation to the logistics of getting the materials to the facilities. 

This challenge may lead to the deployment of smaller-scale, localised destruction units in 

some regions. 

1.10 Response by TEAP and its MTOC to Decision XX/4: Campaign 

Production for Some Article 5 Parties Manufacturing Metered Dose 

Inhalers Which Use Chlorofluorocarbons (2009) 

At their 17th MOP, Parties discussed the difficulties faced by some Article 5 Parties with respect to 

the phase-out of CFCs used in the manufacture of MDIs. In Decision XVII/14 the Parties expressed 

concern that Article 5 Parties that manufacture CFC MDIs might find it difficult to phase out these 

substances without incurring economic losses to their countries and the risk that, for some Article 5 

Parties, 2007 CFC consumption for MDIs might exceed the amounts allowed for all CFC uses. 

The Parties considered the issue again at their 18th Meeting and in Decision XVIII/16 requested: 

“TEAP to assess and report on progress at the 27OEWG and to report to the MOP19 on the need for, 

feasibility of, optimal timing of, and recommended quantities for a limited campaign production of 

chlorofluorocarbons exclusively for metered-dose inhalers in both Parties operating under paragraph 1 

of Article 5 and Parties not operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5.” 

The TEAP and its MTOC included its response to Decision XVIII/16 in the April 2007 TEAP 

Progress Report. The 27th Open-ended Working Group discussed the possibility of maintaining the 

current system of “just-in-time production,” but not achieve consensus, nor was consensus achieved at 

the 19th Meeting of the Parties. 

In its 2008 TEAP Progress Report, MTOC reviewed new information available from the Multilateral 

Fund Secretariat, implementing agencies, countries, and industry sources and considered issues 

surrounding CFC MDI transition in both Parties manufacturing CFC MDIs and also Article 5 

countries importing MDIs. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 13

The Parties considered the issue of a final campaign production of CFCs (for MDIs granted an 

essential use exemption) at their 20th Meeting and, under Decision XX/4, requested the Technology 

and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) to present a report to their 21st Meeting, concerning timing, 

storage, distribution, and management, minimizing the potential for over- or under-production, 

contractual arrangements, and minimizing the production of waste non-pharmaceutical-grade CFCs 

and options for its disposal, to be preceded by a preliminary report to the 29th Open-Ended Working 

Group. A coordinated final campaign production for essential MDI uses was recommended previously 

by the TEAP and its Medical Technical Options Committee (MTOC) when it was understood that 

after 2009 only the CFC producer in Spain would be supplying the majority of CFCs needed for 

Article 5 countries, and that China would supply itself. 

However, circumstances changed when the EC banned CFC production from 1st January 2010, 

making it difficult for TEAP and its MTOC to predict where essential use CFCs approved by Parties 

would be sourced for 2010 and beyond. Therefore, TEAP and its MTOC were unable in 2009 to 

provide Parties with a detailed response to Decision XX/4 and asked Parties to clarify the CFC 

production situation. 

The report outlined options for the possible future supply of bulk pharmaceutical-grade CFCs to meet 

demand for MDI manufacture and estimated CFC requirements after 2009. Options considered in this 

report included supplying pharmaceutical-grade CFCs from a single production facility source or 

multiple production facilities. 

TEAP and its MTOC suggested that Parties might wish to consider a fixed timetable for CFC 

production at a single facility or multiple facilities to avoid open-ended CFC production. Remaining 

stockpiles that would otherwise be destroyed were also suggested as a potential source of 

pharmaceutical-grade CFCs. TEAP and its MTOC cautioned that if Parties did not resolve the CFC 

production uncertainties, the default outcome could be that CFC MDI production ceased at the end of 

2009 in many countries. TEAP and its MTOC recommended that Parties consider the source of 

production of CFCs for granted essential use exemptions for MDIs, and vigorously pursue 

opportunities to source stockpiles that would otherwise be destroyed. 

TEAP and its MTOC emphasised that given the uncertainties and risks associated with the long-term 

supply of suitable quality CFCs after 2009, the highest priority for continued supply of metered dose 

inhalers was to complete transition as quickly as possible and ensure the expeditious introduction of 

CFC-free alternatives. 

Parties took action to secure adequate supplies of pharmaceutical-grade CFCs through Decision 

XXI/4 and through Decision 60/47 of the Executive Committee. Decision XXI/4 requested Parties to 

report to the Secretariat on pharmaceutical-grade CFCs in existing stockpiles in order to make these 

CFCs available to supply authorised essential use requirements in 2010. The 60th Executive 

Committee Meeting, April 12-15, 2010, decided to modify the production sector agreements for 

China and India to allow CFC production for export of pharmaceutical-grade CFCs for 2010, with an 

annual review, for purposes of meeting essential use requirements of other countries provided that the 

exporting countries had specified reporting and verification systems in place. With technically 

satisfactory alternatives to CFC MDIs now available in almost all countries worldwide, and CFC 

consumption now decreasing, the pharmaceutical-grade CFC production uncertainties of the late 

2000s have been resolved, and a CFC MDI supply crisis averted. 

1.11 Quarantine and Pre-Shipment Report (Decision XX/6, report of 

November 2009) 

Between 1999 and 2007 reported production of MB for QPS remained approximately constant on an 

annual basis and roughly at the same level (11,000 metric tonnes a year since 1995) as reported 

consumption. 
14 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

QPS consumption in A5 countries has increased since 2000, particularly in the Asian region, while in 

non-A5 countries it has declined. 

Five major QPS use categories were identified: fresh fruit and vegetables; grain; soil for preplant 

fumigation in situ; whole logs; and wood and wood packaging material. A discrepancy of about 

1,300 tonnes for non-A5 Parties for 2007 between total consumption as represented by methyl 

bromide actually used and total consumption was apparent. 

Uses that have been classified as QPS use by some Parties but not by others were: a) export coffee 

(Vietnam); b) export rice and cassava chips (Thailand, Vietnam); and c) soil for production of high 

health propagation material (USA). The Parties provided rationale as to why these situations qualify 

to be treated as QPS uses. 

Development of methyl bromide alternatives for quarantine applications on commodities continues to 

be a difficult process, however there are technically effective alternatives approved and in use for at 

least some of the major categories of current quarantine use. Substituting uses for pre-shipment 

treatment is easier to achieve. Several soil treatment techniques and soilless systems can deliver 

propagation material produced to high plant health status. 

Methyl bromide emissions from fumigations can be minimised through recapture and adoption of best 

practice, both directly through best use of the fumigant and indirectly by minimising the need to 

retreat after treatment failures. 

Some Parties have discontinued use of QPS methyl bromide or have announced they intend to do so 

in the near future. 

In the light of the information available on categories of use of methyl bromide for QPS purposes, 

alternatives available and key pests, the QPSTF was able to make preliminary estimates of uses and 

amounts that could possibly be replaced with alternatives. 

1.12 Assessment of HCFCs and Environmentally Sound Alternatives (Decision 

XXI/9) May 2010 

TEAP proposed a definition of low, medium and high GWP. 

The latest comprehensive table with GWP values for a large variety of natural and synthetic 

substances can be found in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I. The Global 

Warming Potential is based on the radiative forcing integrated over a specific time period due to a 

pulse emission of a unit mass of gas. The Kyoto Protocol has adopted GWP values for a time horizon 

of 100 years, but IPCC science assessments have generally presented GWPs for three time horizons, 

i.e., 20, 100 and 500 years. 

The terms “high-GWP” or “low-GWP” are comparative in nature. The most commonly used ODS, 

representing more than 95 per cent of the global use of these substances have GWPs (100 year time 

horizon) between 700 and 4000, with a median value of slightly more than 2000. The TEAP proposal 

is to classify the 100-yr GWPs of greenhouse gases as “low” if less than 300, “moderate” if greater 

than 300 but less than 1000, and “high” if greater than 1000. 

1.12.1 Methods and metrics 

Methods and metrics can identify and quantify the benefits of technology superior in protecting ozone 

and climate. The results depend on the accuracy and completeness of the input data, the 

appropriateness of assumptions and the sophistication of the model. The ultimate choice of 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 15

technology will be based on ozone depletion and also climate impact, health, safety, affordability and 

availability. 

Choosing the lowest GWP substance may not always be the optimum approach because the GHG 

emissions from product manufacturing and product energy use often dominate the life-cycle carbon 

footprint. When available, LCCP calculations are the most comprehensive method to determine the 

direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions at the product level. LCCP models need more 

development to be transparent, adaptable to local climate and electricity carbon intensity situations. 

When LCCP models are not available, appropriate, or the necessary data to apply them is not yet 

available, other methods and metrics will be useful. 

1.13 Scoping Study on Alternatives to HCFC Refrigerants Under High 

Ambient Temperature Conditions (Decision XIX/8) May 2010 

In the near term, regions with hot climates should be able to rely on the refrigerants and technologies 

that are currently commercially available to replace HCFC-22 (R-407C, R-410A and HC-290). 

However, when replacing HCFC-22 products with those using R-410A or R-407C the application 

engineer will need to take into consideration the reduced capacity at the design ambient temperature 

when sizing the equipment for the design cooling load. The application engineer should consult the 

application data published by the manufacturer when making sizing decisions. In most cases R-410A 

or R-407C will only need to be sized 5-10% larger than HCFC-22 equipment to compensate for the 

lower capacity at ambient temperatures up to 50 °C. The increased cost of oversizing the equipment 

will be about 3% for a 10% increase in capacity. 

HFC-32 is likely to become a longer-term replacement for R-410A. It has a GWP approximately 32% 

of that of R-410A and exhibits much better high ambient performance than R-410A. In addition, the 

design changes required to convert from R-410A to HFC-32 should be minor. 

HFC-134a and HC-600a would seem attractive from the point of view that they have similar 

performance to HCFC-22 at high ambient temperatures. However, both of these refrigerants are lowpressure refrigerants. The use of these low pressure refrigerants would require extensive redesign of 

the base system components in order to achieve the same capacity and efficiency of the HCFC-22 

system. Therefore, HFC-134a and HC-600a are not considered cost effective options to replace 

HCFC-22 in unitary air-conditioning applications. 

A number of low GWP alternatives to HFC refrigerants are currently under development. However, 

because these refrigerants are in the early stages of development it is premature to list them as options 

to the current HCFC alternatives, in particular at high ambient temperatures. 

In the longer term, as non-ODP and low-GWP technologies are developed to replace current HCFC22, R-407C and R-410A products, equipment designed to operate with acceptable efficiency and 

capacities at the extreme environment conditions should become widely available in both developed 

and developing countries. 

1.14 Cross-Sectoral Findings 

The following are cross-sectoral findings: 

• Technically and economically feasible substitutes are available for almost all applications of 

HCFCs, although transitional costs remain a barrier for smaller enterprises, particularly in 

developing countries. 

• Accelerated phase-out of HCFCs could lead to incremental energy efficiency benefits if 

existing, less efficient, equipment is retired early. 
16 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

• A considerable portion of the 3.5 million ODP-tonnes of ODS contained in banks is available 

for collection and destruction at costs that can be justified by benefits in reducing ODS and 

greenhouse gas emissions. 

• Parties contemplating collection and destruction may wish to consider incentives for 

collection that avoid prolonged use of inefficient equipment, intentional venting or product 

dumping. In this context, the classification of ODS recovery and destruction activities as 

carbon offset projects could warrant further investigation. 

• Since 2002, TEAP and its TOCs have undertaken extensive work to co-ordinate with the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on climate protection and to refine and 

improve estimates of ODS banks and emissions. Parties may wish to consider whether 

additional co-ordination will provide useful policy-relevant technical information and, if so, 

how such co-ordination can be encouraged. 

1.15 2007 Task Force on TEAP 

The 1987 Montreal Protocol included a specific provision (Article 6) for periodic assessment and 

review: 

“Beginning in 1990, and at least every four years thereafter, the Parties shall assess the 

control measures provided for in Article 2 on the basis of available scientific, environmental, 

technical, and economic information. At least one year before each assessment, the Parties 

shall convene appropriate panels of experts qualified in the fields mentioned and determine 

the composition and terms of reference of any such panels. Within one year of being 

convened, the panels will report their conclusions, through the Secretariat, to the Parties.” 

The four original Montreal Protocol panels – 1) Panel for Scientific Assessment, 2) Panel for 

Environmental Assessment, 3) Panel for Technology Assessment, and 4) Panel for Economic 

Assessment – were informally organized in The Hague at the October 1988 ‘UNEP Conference on 

Science and Development, CFC Data, Legal Matters, and Alternative Substances and Technologies’ 

and were formalized at the First Meeting of Parties, held in Helsinki in May 1989. 

After 1990, the Panel for Scientific Assessment re-labelled itself “The Scientific Assessment Panel” 

(SAP); the Panel for Environmental Assessment re-labelled itself “The Environmental Effects 

Assessment Panel” (EEAP); and The Panel for Economic Assessment was merged with the Panel for 

Technology Assessment and re-labelled “The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel” (TEAP). 

The permanent membership of the TEAP includes its Co-Chairs, the Co-Chairs of the Technical 

Options Committees, and Senior Expert Members. In any year, its temporary membership includes 

the Co-Chairs of any active Task Force. 

Over 175 experts serve on the TEAP and its TOCs and subsidiary bodies. Since its creation, over 900 

experts from about 65 countries have participated in the assessment process. 

About 50 per cent of TEAP/TOC/Task Force members are from industry, 25 per cent from 

government, 15 per cent from universities, 5 per cent from NGOs, and the rest are from are from 

research institutes, hospitals, or list no affiliation. About one third are from Article 5 Parties and two 

thirds from non-Article 5 Parties. 

Lists of TEAP and TOC members are given in the last chapter of this report. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 17

2 Abstract Executive Summaries 

2.1 Chemicals TOC 

Current Status 

After assessing information provided by Parties, 17 process agent uses were added to Table A (Annex 

to decision XXII/8) and 12 uses were deleted from Table A as processes were abandoned or modified. 

Reporting of emissions for including in Table B has been less than complete. 

There are very few identified uses of ODS in laboratory and analytical procedures in non-Article 5 

countries, but use (especially of CTC) as a chemical reactant continues and will be hard to replace. 

Some use continues in several Article 5 countries. 

An extensive listing of known use of ODSs as feedstocks has been compiled. By using volumes 

suggested by the CTOC members and by following guidelines for emission calculations suggested by 

the IPCC for the UNFCCC, estimates of emissions from these feedstocks have been generated. 

In 2009, CTOC identified 176 destruction facilities in 27 countries including new technologies not 

listed in the 2002 Task Force Report. Most destruction facilities are based on combustion in dedicated 

furnaces or equipment such as cement kilns and there has been some adoption of such technologies in 

Article 5 countries. 

The TEAP/CTOC made a comprehensive review on CTC emissions, concluding that there is a 

significant discrepancy between reported emissions and the observed atmospheric concentrations 

under Decisions XVI/14 and XVIII/10. 

What is left to be achieved 

A better standard method of reporting of emissions needs to be agreed upon so that Table B (Annex to 

decision XXII/8) will give a more reliable picture of emissions arising from process agent uses. When 

the CTOC and MLF will produce a joint report in 2011 according to the Decision XXI/3 (5), further 

deletions from Table A and a more complete update on phase-outs or suggestions for phase-outs could 

be possible. 

Advice by experts is required, together with modest financial support for alternatives that have 

already been identified to be tried in Article 5 countries, alongside current procedures that involve 

ODSs. New standard methods need to be developed. 

There is a lack of reporting of use of ODSs as feedstocks. Also, at the current time, the majority of the 

production from ODS feedstocks is for HFCs, the production of which is not reported to a publicly 

accessible data bank. Should Parties wish quantification of feedstock emissions, reporting of ODS 

used in feedstock applications will be recommended. Expert opinion suggests that the IPCC 

guidelines are maximal values and actual emissions may be lower at well-managed facilities. Better 

emission control mechanisms need to be developed. 

The major challenge is the complete phase-out of ODS solvents in Article 5 countries. Preferable 

alternatives have been identified and are generally available. Another hurdle to overcome is the 

economic impact on the small and medium size users who make up a major portion of the remaining 

ODS solvent market. 

Recently several emerging technologies for ODS and HFC destruction have been requested for 

evaluation. Following Decision XXII/10, they will be reviewed when technical details are made 

available. 
18 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

The studies have not yet been completed on the production and consumption of CTC with particular 

emphasis on feedstock uses with the goal to estimate emissions and try to reconcile them with values 

calculated by atmospheric scientists. 

The way forward 

A list of Parties with approved process agent uses could be provided to the Ozone Secretariat, so that 

requests for information could be targeted and followed up, rather than including such requests in 

global communications. 

It would be helpful to the phase-out of ODSs in laboratory and analytical uses for the Ozone 

Secretariat and experts identified by the CTOC to work with national and international standards 

bodies to establish new standard methods of analysis that do not use ODS. TEAP and the CTOC will 

keep Parties informed of advances on these fronts. 

Developed countries, in their inventory reporting, report to the UNFCCC the emission data for HFCs. 

Thus, discussions with UNFCCC may assist in developing new estimated sources of data for HFC 

production (which may have utilised ODSs as feedstock in their preparation). The reporting of ODS 

volumes for each feedstock uses by Parties through the Ozone Secretariat may enable a more 

complete quantification of this activity. 

Regulatory changes will continue to impact on the use of solvents. In some cases, this may require 

solvent and/or equipment change or a new cleaning process. The definition of low-GWP (Global 

Warming Potential) and high-GWP alternatives, which TEAP has proposed, may help users in 

selecting more appropriate solvents. 

Periodic review of available destruction technologies will be necessary to provide updated technical 

guidelines for destruction of ozone depleting substances such as CFCs, halons and methyl bromide as 

well as for HFCs. 

Further studies will be needed to improve and reconcile bottom-up and top-down calculations, to 

search for other unreported CTC emission sources, to critically analyse UNEP inventory data and to 

possibly further revise the atmospheric lifetime of CTC. 

2.2 Flexible and Rigid Foams TOC 

Current status 

HCFC phase-out is virtually complete in all non-Article 5 countries, with XPS in North America 

being the last major sector to make the transition. In this instance, the technology choice has been 

saturated HFCs, reflecting the demanding product range and process requirements that the XPS 

industry has in the region. Experience from this transition has made the industry wary about 

committing to any further transitions in the medium term, since proving emerging alternatives in these 

applications will involve substantial further effort. 

Growth in thermal insulation foams continues to be driven by increasing energy efficiency 

requirements in appliances and buildings. Although hydrocarbons continue to be the primary solution 

in non-Article 5 countries, there is pressure in some sectors to further optimise these solutions by 

blending. While cyclopentane continues to play an important role in optimising blend performance, 

other components such as unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) and methyl formate are also being assessed at 

this time. Early work on unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) suggests that they deliver better thermal 

performance than their saturated counterparts, although toxicological work remains to be completed 

for those yet to be commercialised. In the interim, there is evidence that some enterprises 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 19

manufacturing appliances in developing countries are already blending saturated HFCs with 

hydrocarbons to meet energy requirements. 

HCFC phase-out in Article 5 countries continues to be a serious source of unease. In several sectors, 

particularly in rigid PU foams, previously identified low-GWP alternatives to HCFCs have yet to be 

fully proven in the field. This is particularly important since many of the enterprises expected to take 

up these technologies are SMEs and have little, if any, internal capacity to optimise formulations. 

There is concern that measures to manage flammability for methyl formate may require system 

houses to reformulate with more compatible polyols for rigid foam applications in order to reduce the 

risk. However, in a limited number of cases it may be more productive to blend methyl formate in the 

isocyanate component to obtain the required foam properties whilst avoiding flammable blends. 

The management of ODS banks in appliance foams is currently being addressed by a variety of 

regulatory and voluntary frameworks and using a range of fully automated, semi-automated and 

manual technologies. Although there is evidence to suggest that fully automated approaches provide 

the most comprehensive recovery potential, the relevant cost-abatement curves would suggest that 

some semi-automated processes will have a place in the on-going management of ODS banks, 

particularly in areas where population densities are low or investment is restricted. 

Efforts have been made to further characterise foam inventories in a number of regions. The flow of 

ODS-containing foams into the demolition waste stream from buildings is currently low and is likely 

to remain so for the next decade for most product types. Although the economics of recovery vary by 

region and are influenced by wider demolition waste management frameworks, even the most 

favourable circumstances lead to costs of above $100 per tonne CO2 saved on average. There will be a 

need for further innovation in the longer-term if recovery from this source is going to become 

economically feasible. 

What is left to be achieved 

Decisions need to be made at short notice within HCFC Phase-out Management Plans (HPMPs) on 

the choice of alternative to HCFCs in Article 5 countries. The prioritisation of ‘worst first’ embodied 

within Decision XIX/6 puts a strong focus on dealing with HCFC-141b applications in the early 

phases of implementation. Nevertheless, some countries are finding it easier to manage their 

compliance issues by phasing the foam sector transitions according to the ease with which projects 

can be implemented and the magnitude of their impact. Shortfalls are then being made up from other 

sectors. 

There continues to be a need to characterise the performance of foams made from low-GWP 

alternatives in the range of applications envisaged. This is an on-going exercise, but is particularly 

important for technologies that do not have a significant history of use in non-Article 5 countries. The 

role of the Pilot Projects sponsored under the Multilateral Fund are especially relevant here and the 

work of UNDP on methyl formate, for example, has already cleared the way for wider use in the 

flexible moulded and integral skin sectors. 

In non-Article 5 countries, the primary future interest is in further improving energy efficiency. 

However, an additional pressure may arise from proposals to see the phase-down in use of saturated 

HFCs. Apart from initiatives signalled under the Montreal Protocol itself, there is growing interest in 

seeing such a measure as part of the re-cast F-Gas Regulation in Europe. This may serve to strengthen 

research efforts in non-Article 5 countries towards low-GWP solutions and, in particular, towards the 

intelligent use of blends. There may be added spin-offs for Article 5 countries from this work, but 

these are unlikely to emerge in time for incorporation within relevant HPMPs. 

Considerations will continue into the most appropriate strategies for ODS bank management in foams, 

with particular focus on ensuring that CFC capture from existing appliance-based banks is optimised 

before those opportunities are lost. This may involve the need to look at efficient ways of transferring 
20 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

existing technologies from non-Article 5 to Article 5 environments. The most appropriate funding 

mechanisms for such action are still under discussion, but these need to reach a conclusion soon if 

opportunities are going to be grasped. 

The way forward 

Although less emissive than the refrigeration and air conditioning sector, the foam sector continues to 

represent a substantial bank of long-lived ODS which provide opportunities for future management. 

Time pressures for management initiatives vary by sector, but ultimate policy decisions will depend 

on the emerging cost abatement curves on a wide range of other ozone layer protection and climate 

measures. It remains to be seen whether or not the recovery of ODS from buildings will become a 

viable option given the scattered nature of the sources involved and the efforts required for recovery. 

For the immediate challenge of phasing out HCFC-reliance in Article 5 countries, there are a number 

of obstacles. The time pressure to resolve these only serves to add to the complexity of the situation 

and it may be that a number of unproven solutions need to be adopted in the short-term, with the 

potential downside risk to enterprises and investors alike. One of the consequences of this could be 

that enterprises choose to minimise their risks by choosing proven, but sub-optimal, technology 

solutions (e.g. high GWP or less energy efficient solutions) with the intent of making a second 

conversion when more appropriate solutions have become established. 

2.3 Halons TOC 

The current status, the on-going issues 

The HTOC models estimate the end of year 2010 global bank of halons as follows: halon 1301 at 

42,500 MT, halon 1211 at 65,000 MT, and halon 2402 at 2,300 MT. Parties have not indicated to the 

Ozone Secretariat that they are unable to obtain halons to satisfy their needs, although some Parties 

have expressed cost concerns to HTOC members. 

Since 1 January 2010, the only production of halon 1301 has been in China and France for use as a 

feedstock in the manufacture of the pesticide Fipronil. 

As yet, an alternative with all of the beneficial characteristics of the halon to be replaced has not been 

developed. Nevertheless, new agents and technologies continue to be developed. In particular, an 

unsaturated hydrobromofluorocarbon (HBFC) is being tested for aviation applications. 

Halon banking is a critical part of halon management, yet there has been a lag in the establishment of 

banking and management programmes in Article 5 Parties globally. 

Emissions, transformation and consumption of halon 2402 as a process agent by the Russian chemical 

industry has substantially reduced the total bank of halon 2402, and new uses in non-traditional 

applications are a cause for concern to the HTOC. 

The HTOC continued its work with the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) – reference 

Decision XXI/7 - resulting in the development of a revised resolution, containing amended halon 

replacement dates agreed to by industry that was adopted at the ICAO 37th Assembly in September 

2010 as Resolution A37/9. 

Halons continue to be used by military organisations in many frontline applications where alternatives 

are not technically or economically feasible at this time. Nevertheless, the militaries of many Parties 

devote considerable effort and resources to reduce and eventually eliminate the use of halons 

wherever technically and economically feasible. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 21

The way forward, towards the future 

Now that there is no global production of halons for fire protection uses, management of the 

remaining stock becomes crucial for ensuring sufficient halons for applications that need them. As 

such, halon recycling is becoming even more important to ensure that adequate stocks of halons are 

available to meet the future needs of the Parties. 

Destruction of halons for carbon credits may not provide the anticipated climate benefits. 

The experience within Europe, where it was found that contaminated halons were making their way 

into the civil aviation industry, has highlighted the need for end users to be aware of the purity of any 

reclaimed or recycled halon that they purchase. 

While there is no apparent shortage of recycled halon 2402 on a global basis, there are regional 

shortages today that Parties may wish to address. 

National or regional banking schemes that maintain good records can minimise the uncertainty in 

stored inventory and stock availability. Parties may wish to encourage such national halon banking 

schemes to ensure that needs considered critical by a Party are met. 

Future 

Despite the introduction of new halon alternatives and the remarkable progress in switching to them, 

there will be an on-going need for halons for the foreseeable future. 

Aviation applications are among the most demanding uses of halons and require every one of their 

beneficial characteristics. Given the 25–30 year life of civil aircraft, this dependency will continue 

well beyond the time when recycled halon is readily available. 

Extensive research, development and testing have all but eliminated the need for halons in new 

designs of armoured vehicles, military aircraft, and naval vessels. Nevertheless, many legacy systems 

will continue to need halons until the end of the equipment life. 

Existing oil and gas pipelines and production facilities in inhospitable climates will continue to use 

halons for fire suppression and explosion prevention as retrofit to available alternatives is not 

technically and/or economically feasible. Where an inerting agent is still required in occupied spaces, 

halon will be replaced by a high GWP hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) or a fluoroketone, where the 

temperatures permit. 

The only halon alternative in a few applications will remain a high GWP HFC. 

For other commercial/industrial applications, halons are no longer necessary and systems will 

continue to be decommissioned and replaced by systems using alternative agents. However, the cost 

to re-engineer and replace some legacy systems can be expensive and, in many cases, unless industry 

is mandated to do so, they will continue to rely on recycled halon from the halon bank to maintain the 

system. 
22 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

2.4 Medical TOC 

2.4.1 Metered dose inhalers 

Current status 

In 2009, about 2,300 tonnes of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were used globally for the manufacture of 

metered dose inhalers (MDIs) for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This 

represents about a 50 percent reduction in global CFC use since the last assessment. 

There has been significant global progress in the transition of CFC MDIs to CFC-free inhalers. 

Technically satisfactory alternatives to CFC MDIs are now available in almost all countries 

worldwide to cover all the key classes of drugs used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. 

By 2010 every developed country had phased out the use of CFCs in MDIs, except the Russian 

Federation, which is yet to complete manufacturing conversion, and the United States, which is well 

advanced in its phase-out. 

Despite initial challenges such as access to technology transfer and economic barriers, most 

developing countries are well advanced in their transition plans to phase out the use of CFCs. CFC 

consumption by Article 5 countries is estimated to have peaked in 2008 and 2009 at about 1,700 

tonnes, and now appears to be decreasing. 

In Article 5 Parties there has been substantial progress in the development and marketing of 

affordable CFC-free MDIs, with hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HFC) MDIs now becoming more 

competitively priced compared to CFC MDIs. As a result, there is now an adequate range of 

technically satisfactory and affordable CFC-free alternatives for CFC MDIs for beta-agonists (in 

particular, salbutamol) and inhaled corticosteroids (in particular, beclomethasone) available in many 

developing countries. Taking these issues into consideration, salbutamol and beclomethasone CFC 

MDIs can now be considered non-essential in most importing countries. 

What is left to be achieved? 

Current predictions are that most Article 5 Parties and the Russian Federation will have largely 

completed transition from CFC MDIs by about the end of 2012. A notable exception is China, which 

has current plans to complete CFC MDI phase-out in 2016. 

The way forward

It could be possible to complete the phase-out of CFC MDIs with careful management of existing 

stockpiles, provided manufacture of pharmaceutical-grade CFCs in China continues to supply its own 

needs and those of the Russian Federation. A cautious approach to CFC production is advisable since 

transition is moving quickly and CFC production that is surplus to actual needs ought to be avoided, 

as otherwise it could subsequently require costly destruction. 

2.4.2 Pharmaceutical aerosol products other than MDIs 

Current status

Technically and economically feasible alternatives are available for all medical aerosol products. The 

manufacture of most CFC-containing medical aerosols in non-Article 5 Parties ceased around 1996, 

and in Article 5 Parties would have ceased around the end of 2009. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 23

What is left to be achieved?

There are some developing countries that are yet to complete the conversion of CFC-based medical 

aerosols to alternatives. In China, some of the traditional Chinese aerosol manufacturers have 

encountered technical difficulties in their conversion to alternatives, with new formulations not 

meeting relevant quality standards. With the 2010 phase-out date for CFCs in developing countries, 

any current CFC consumption for medical aerosols could only be sourced from existing pre-2010 

stockpile. 

The way forward

Government authorities in China are coordinating with companies to resolve remaining technical 

issues. Full conversion of the medical aerosol sector in China, other than MDIs, is likely to be 

completed in 2012. The worldwide phase-out of CFC-containing medical aerosols will occur as part 

of each Article 5 country plan. 

2.4.3 Sterilants 

Current status

The use of CFCs in blends with ethylene oxide (EO) in sterilization has been successfully phased out 

in non-Article 5 countries and in many Article 5 countries. Total global use of CFCs in 2010 for 

sterilization is believed to be close to zero. Estimated global use of HCFCs in replacement mixtures 

is between about 500-700 metric tonnes in 2010, which amounts to less than 25 ODP tonnes 

worldwide. EO/HCFC use in non-Article 5 countries is declining, with regulatory restrictions being 

introduced. EO/HCFC use in Article 5 countries is about 200-400 tonnes. 

What is left to be achieved?

There is a range of commercially available sterilization methods that will replace the use of ozonedepleting substances in this sector over time. 

The way forward

An orderly phase-out of HCFCs in sterilization to meet Montreal Protocol HCFC phase-out schedules 

is readily achievable in Article 5 countries. By 2030 current sterilisers should be ready for 

replacement with available alternative technologies that do not use ozone-depleting substances. 

Hospital procurement should take the HCFC phase-out, and the coming redundancy of EO/HCFC 

sterilization equipment, into consideration in making future investment decisions. 

2.5 Methyl Bromide TOC 

What has been achieved

Global production for the methyl bromide uses controlled under the Protocol was reduced by 87% 

from 66,430 t reported in 1991 to 8,928 tonnes in 2009. Less than 5% of the production occurs in 

Article 5 countries, peaking at 2,397 tonnes in 2000 and falling to 29% (403 tonnes) in 2009. 

Global consumption of methyl bromide for controlled uses was reported at 64,420 tonnes in 1991 and 

remained above 60,000 tonnes until 1998. This fell to 8,148 tonnes in 2009. Historically, in nonArticle 5 regions, 90% of methyl bromide was used for pre-plant soil fumigation and 10% for stored 

products and structures. 
24 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Since 2003, nine non-Article 5 Parties have applied for ‘critical uses’ after 2005 for non-QPS 

purposes. Of the initial 106 applications for 18,700 tonnes in 2003, CUN’s have reduced to 36 

applications for 1,453 tonnes for 2012. Many non-Article 5 countries have achieved complete phase 

out and others have notified intention to phase out post 2011 and 2012. For the remaining uses phaseout or substantial reductions have occurred in most sectors. 

Article 5 countries have also reduced their baseline consumption of methyl bromide from 15,870 

tonnes (average 1995 – 98) to 4,405 tonnes or 28% of the baseline. Several Article 5 Parties 

previously included among the largest users now report complete phase-out and others have made 

very significant reductions in their consumption since 2005. 

MBTOC was able to identify alternatives for over 95% of controlled uses in 2009. Situations where 

no alternatives have been identified amount to less than 1,000 tonnes of methyl bromide. However 

local regulatory restrictions on the alternatives, rather than technical feasibility may restrict adoption. 

The reduction in consumption of methyl bromide for soil fumigation has been the major contributor to 

the overall reduction in global consumption of methyl bromide with amounts used falling by 85%. 

The more difficult remaining sectors include strawberry fruit and nurseries, ornamentals, perennial 

fruit and vine crops (particularly replant) and other kinds of nursery plant materials. Some uses 

previously considered under the CUN process have been reclassified as QPS by one country. Crops 

still using methyl bromide in Article 5 Parties are similar, but the quantities used in nurseries are 

smaller. 

Significant progress in adoption of chemical and non chemical alternatives to replace methyl bromide 

as a pre-plant soil fumigant has been possible because of improved performance of new formulations 

of existing and new fumigants and increased uptake of non chemical alternatives i.e. grafted plants on 

resistant rootstocks. A key alternative for remaining uses, methyl iodide, has been registered in 

several countries. Some initially promising chemicals included in the past report have seen little 

further development, e.g. propargyl bromide, sodium azide, propylene oxide and are no longer 

regarded as potential alternatives to methyl bromide. 

Phase-out in Article 5 countries has been achieved mainly through MLF investment projects, which 

have shown that a similar range of alternatives to those in use in non-Article 5 countries can be 

successfully adopted. Costs and different resource availability may lead to preference for different 

alternatives. 

Food processing structures that currently use methyl bromide include flourmills, pasta manufacturing, 

and food and pet food production facilities. These structures are fumigated to control stored product 

(food) pests. 

The main alternatives for disinfestation of flourmills and food processing premises are sulfuryl 

fluoride either alone or with supplemental heat or heat treatment alone. Full control of structural pests 

in some situations can be obtained without full site fumigation through a more vigorous IPM 

approach. A combination of heat, phosphine and carbon dioxide is also successful for specific pest 

situations. 

For commodities, phosphine, sulfuryl fluoride and controlled atmosphere (CA) are the main 

techniques used to control pests. Each of these methods is used extensively to control pests of dried 

fruits and nuts, grains, cocoa beans and other stored foods. Sulfuryl fluoride is used when insects are 

resistant to phosphine. 

In January 2011, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) proposed a regulation which 

would eventually eliminate the previous approvals for sulfuryl fluoride in foods and food processing 

structures, if there will be food contact. Fluorine levels in the total diet including water are considered 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 25

by the USEPA to be injurious to health, however Australia reported that total Australian exposures to 

fluoride do not exceed human health standards. 

Global production of methyl bromide for QPS purposes has been relatively stable over the last 10 

years, at an average of 11,000 tonnes. 

The average global QPS consumption has been relatively constant for the past 11 years and in 2009 

was 11,197 tonnes. QPS consumption in Article 5 Parties has increased constantly over the past 10 

years, while in non-Article 5 Parties it has been decreasing. QPS consumption was reported to be 39% 

higher than non-QPS consumption in 2009. 

Technically feasible alternatives have also been identified for many QPS applications, particularly in 

the largest usage sectors of timber and timber packaging, grain, logs and preplant soil uses which use 

70% of the methyl bromide consumed. There are however QPS uses or particular instances where 

such alternatives are not presently feasible. 

Replacement of methyl bromide for QPS is a complex issue requiring consideration of biosecurity 

risk and complex regulations for use of methyl bromide and alternatives. Approvals are on a pest and 

product specific basis, and often follow lengthy bilateral negotiations. MBTOC estimates that 

currently available alternatives and substitutes could replace about 31% to 47% (1,937 to 2,942 

tonnes) of QPS consumed in four categories of QPS use investigated. Since these four categories 

account for about 70% of total 2008 QPS methyl bromide use, the available technology can replace 

approximately 22% to 33% of total QPS consumption. 

About 1,300 tonnes of consumption has been unidentified for use mainly by one Party over the period 

2003-2007 when comparing a ‘bottom-up’ analysis and total consumption reported as per Article 7 

data. 

On average 75% of the applied methyl bromide is emitted from applications. Barrier films can reduce 

doses rates and emissions to less than 50%, but their adoption for the remaining uses of methyl 

bromide is unfortunately limited. Structural, commodity and QPS applications emit between 50 to 

95% of the applied methyl bromide. The large drop in consumption, has led to a 70% fall in bromine 

in the troposphere and a 30% fall in effective chlorine load in the stratosphere. Owing to the short half 

life of methyl bromide (0.7 years) in the stratosphere, reductions in methyl bromide use is one of the 

few controlled ODS gases that will have a rapid effect on ozone recovery. 

What is left to be achieved

Chemical alternatives in general, including methyl bromide, have issues related to their long-term 

suitability for use. In the EU, methyl bromide use was completely stopped (for all uses including 

QPS) in 2010, mainly due to health issues; in the USA and several other countries, methyl bromide 

and most other fumigants are involved in a rigorous review that could affect future regulations over 

their use. 

For the remaining preplant soil uses in nurseries and some other sectors (strawberry fruit) it is 

important that studies with alternatives be conducted to measure pathogen thresholds and risk of 

spread of disease, and that a continual review of regulations is conducted to allow replacement of 

methyl bromide where feasible. In these cases, combinations of existing products and consideration 

of more sustainable non chemical alternatives need greater consideration. 

Work is still needed to gain a better understanding of the economic and pest risk impacts of the 

methyl bromide phase-out. While the literature provides a useful starting point to the types of analysis 

that is required, it needs to be further extended to Article 5 Parties and to a wider range of methyl 

bromide uses such as the effect of removing methyl bromide use for quarantine applications. 
26 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

For QPS treatments Parties are urged to continue efforts to minimize use and emissions of methyl 

bromide through containment and recovery and recycling methodologies to the extent possible. 

Areas where technical alternatives are proving more difficult include some specific nursery situations 

where certification is required and situations where regulations prevent use of all alternatives, e.g. 

strawberry fruit in California. 

In postharvest applications, MBTOC has not identified technically effective alternatives for only three 

uses: high moisture fresh dates, cheese infested while in storage and traditional Southern cured pork 

products in storages in the USA. Additionally, it is uncertain whether there are technically effective 

and practical alternatives that are sufficiently protective of immovable historical objects and museum 

components when infested with fungi. 

The way forward

For preplant soil uses, continued market penetration of methyl iodide, mixtures of alternatives, and 

use of other methods will contribute to decline in uses of methyl bromide for nurseries. 

It is strongly recommended that all remaining pre-plant uses of methyl bromide be applied with 

barrier films. In those instances where regulations currently prohibit their use or where farmers are 

reluctant to use barrier films, MBTOC would appreciate submission of data to support the reasons. 

Further consideration of alternatives adopted in non-Article 5 Parties to replace methyl bromide is 

desirable for evaluation and registration (if necessary) in Article 5 Parties to limit the need for Critical 

Use nominations from Article 5 countries in 2015 and thereafter. 

In postharvest applications, research is underway to identify and assess technically and economically 

feasible alternatives for pest control of high moisture fresh dates; cheese infested while in storage and 

traditional Southern USA cured pork products in storages. Additionally, more information is needed 

on technically effective and practical alternatives that are sufficiently protective of immovable 

historical objects and museum components when infested with fungi. 

In the US, new regulations have been proposed to phase-in the removal of food contact for sulfuryl 

fluoride. An assessment of the potential for increase in the need to return to methyl bromide use, or 

preferably, technically effective and economically feasible scenarios to avoid returning to methyl 

bromide use, would be useful to MBTOC. 

Parties may wish to give increased consideration to adoption of alternatives for the major usage 

sectors in QPS (timber and wood packaging materials, grains, logs) despite the existing exemption for 

this use under the Montreal Protocol. Efforts to improve knowledge on remaining uses of methyl 

bromide will help guide successful phaseout. 

Revisiting technical and regulatory reasons for listing certain preplant soil uses under QPS 

exemptions is recommended. 

2.6 Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps TOC 

Current status 

The required global phase-out of HCFCs, and the need to manage the lifetime operation of CFC- and 

also HCFC-based equipment, coupled with concerns to reduce global warming, drive transition from 

ozone depleting substance (ODS) refrigerants. The technical options are universal, but local laws, 

regulations, standards, economics, competitive situations and other factors influence regional and 

local choices. The primary current solutions are summarised below. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 27

Refrigerants: More than 60 new refrigerants, many of them blends, were introduced for use either in 

new equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 

assessment report. The primary focus for examination of new refrigerants is on unsaturated 

hydrofluorocarbons and unsaturated hydrochlorofluorocarbons. Additional refrigerants are still being 

developed to enable completion of scheduled phase-outs of ODSs. Significant focus is on 

alternatives, including blend components, offering lower global warming potentials (GWPs) to 

address climate change, forcing more attention than in the past on flammable or low-flammability 

candidates. Research continues to increase and improve the physical, safety, and environmental data 

for refrigerants, to enable screening, and to optimize equipment performance. 

Domestic refrigeration: The conversion of new equipment production to the use of non-ODS 

refrigerants is essentially complete. More than one-third of newly produced units globally now use 

the refrigerant HC-600a; the balance uses HFC-134a. CFC emissions from the 150,000 tonnes 

domestic refrigerant bank are dominated by end-of-life disposal due to the high equipment reliability. 

Approximately 70% of the current, residual CFCs reside in Article 5 countries. 

Commercial refrigeration: Hydrocarbons (HCs) and R-744 (CO2) are gaining market shares for standalone equipment in Europe and in Japan; they are replacing HFC-134a, which is the dominant choice 

in most non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries. For condensing units and supermarket systems, the 

largest refrigerant bank consists of HCFC-22, which represents about 60% of the global commercial 

refrigerant bank. In developed countries, the replacement of HCFC-22 in supermarkets is dominated 

by R-404A and R-507A, however, a number of other options are used. In Europe, R-744 is used at 

the low-temperature level and HFC-134a, R-744 and HCs at the medium temperature level as 

alternatives to R-404A and R-507A because of their high GWP. 

Industrial refrigeration: R-717 and HCFC-22 are the most common refrigerants for new equipment; 

cost considerations have driven small new systems to HFC use. R-744 is gaining in low-temperature, 

cascaded systems where it primarily replaces R-717 (ammonia), though the market volume is small 

for such systems. The ODS refrigerant bank consists of 20,000 tonnes of CFCs and 125,000 tonnes of 

HCFCs and HFCs. Annual ODS emission rates are in the range of 10-25% of the total banked 

refrigerant charge. R-717 remains the primary refrigerant in large industrial systems, especially those 

for food and beverage processing and storage. 

Transport refrigeration: HCFC-22 has a low share in intermodal containers and road equipment, a 

high share in railcars (declining market) and a very high share in marine vessels. Today, virtually all 

new systems utilise HFC refrigerants (R-404A and HFC-134a). Non-fluorinated refrigerants have 

been commercialised to a small extent aboard marine vessels (R-717, R-744), and tested in marine 

containers, trailers (R-744) and trucks (HC-290). The refrigerant banks are estimated at 2,700 tonnes 

of CFCs and 27,200 tonnes of HCFC-22. The annual leak rate is in the range of 20-40%, depending 

on the specific application. 

Air-to-air conditioners and heat pumps: HFC blends, primarily R-410A, but to a limited degree also 

R-407C, are still the dominant near-term replacements for HCFC-22 in air-cooled systems. HC-290 

is also being used to replace HCFC-22 in low charge split system, window and portable air 

conditioners in some countries. Most Article 5 countries are continuing to utilise HCFC-22 as the 

predominant refrigerant in air conditioning applications. The refrigerant bank for unitary air 

conditioners is in excess of 1 million tonnes of HCFC-22. 

Water-heating heat pumps: Air-to-water heat pumps have experienced significant growth in Japan, 

Australia, China, and Europe during the last five years, especially owing to the government incentives 

in Europe and Japan, and in the USA in prior years. HCFC-22 is currently mainly used in Article 5 

countries. The HFC blends R-410A and R407C are currently used in European and other countries. 

R-744 heat pump water heaters were introduced to the market in Japan in 2001 and have seen a steady 

growth since then, again influenced by significant subsidies. HC-290 is being applied but its use in 
28 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Europe has decreased due to the introduction of the Pressure Equipment Directive. R-717 is mainly 

used for large capacity heat pump systems. 

Chillers: HCFC-22 has been phased out in new equipment in the developed countries, but is still used 

in Article 5 countries. Both HCFC-123 and HFC-134a are used in centrifugal chillers. HFC-134a 

and R-410A are the most common options in smaller systems with scroll and screw compressors; 

limited R-407C usage is dropping. The application of HCs and R-717 in chillers is less common and 

extremely rare as a fraction of the total in large chillers. 

Vehicle air conditioning: Today all new AC equipped passenger cars world-wide use HFC-134a; the 

transition from CFC-12 is complete for new systems, but not in old cars still in use especially in 

Article 5 countries. About one fifth of the total global refrigerant emissions are from Mobile Air 

Conditioning systems (about 60 percent if only HFC refrigerant emissions are considered); this 

includes the emissions in production, use, servicing, and end-of-life. Up to now, car manufacturers 

and suppliers have evaluated several refrigerant options for new car (and truck) air conditioning 

systems including R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf. These three options have GWPs below the 

EU threshold of 150 and can achieve fuel efficiency comparable to the existing HFC-134a systems 

with appropriate hardware and control development. The use of hydrocarbons or blends of 

hydrocarbons has also been considered but so far has not received support from vehicle manufacturers 

due to safety concerns. Most new bus or train air conditioning systems are currently equipped with 

the refrigerants HFC-134a or R-407C; fleet tests of R-744 systems in buses are ongoing. 

What is left to be achieved 

More than 100 refrigerants, including blends, are marketed at present, though approximately 20 

consitute the overwhelming majority on a global basis and even that quantity is expected to fall as 

users converge on preferred options over time. Refrigerant manufacturers are in process of 

developing new candidates while equipment manufacturers are testing, selecting, and qualifying new 

refrigerants as well as associated lubricants and other materials. The technological options for air 

conditioning and refrigeration are expected to evolve over the next several years as designers continue 

to replace HCFC-22 with non-ODS alternatives and focus on developing lower GWP alternatives for 

R-410A and R-407C. There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as 

replacements for HCFC-22. These include lower GWP HFC refrigerants (HFC-32, HFC-152a, HFC161, HFC-1234yf and other unsaturated fluorochemicals, as well as blends of them), HC-290 and R744. HC-290 and some of the HFC refrigerants are flammable and will need to be applied in 

accordance with an appropriate safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40, which establishes maximum 

charge levels and ventilation requirements. 

Several commercial chains have made good progress on the containment of refrigerant in supermarket 

systems. Indirect systems are the most effective option for emissions reductions and, in Europe, are 

gaining market share in new centralised systems for supermarkets. Technical development of 

alternatives in industrial refrigeration is expected to emphasise R-717 and R-744 in the near future. A 

significant amount of research, development and testing will be required before unsaturated HFCs can 

be deployed in large industrial systems, and even then their high refrigerant price will be an 

impediment to adoption. In heat pumps for water heating, further development of the lower GWP 

options is expected. In transport refrigeration, a rapid phase-out of remaining HCFCs due to the 

relatively short life span of intermodal containers, railcars and road vehicles (10-15 years) and marine 

vessels (< 25 years) is expected. Depending on the CO2 emissions associated with the electricity 

production and the energy efficiency of the systems, there is a large potential to reduce CO2 emissions 

generated by fossil fuel operated heating systems by replacing them with heat pumps. The decision 

which refrigerant will be eventually selected for vehicle air conditioning will be made based on 

additional considerations along with the Global Warming Potential of the current alternative options 

(R-744, HFC-152a, and HFC-1234yf); these include regulatory approval, costs, system reliability, 

safety, heat pump capability and servicing. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 29

World-wide, a significant amount of installed refrigeration equipment still uses CFCs and HCFCs. As 

a consequence, service demand for CFCs and HCFCs will continue. Refrigerant demand for service 

needs can be minimised by preventive service, containment, recovery, and recycling. Management of 

the CFC and HCFC banks in developing countries is an important issue. A critical step to address the 

refrigerant conservation topics above is thorough training of installers and service technicians, 

together with certification and regulation. Countries where programs have been successful have had 

comprehensive regulations requiring recovery and recycling, or destruction of refrigerant. 

The way forward 

The overarching climate change issue as well as changing refrigerant options for refrigeration and air 

conditioning will continue to advance innovations in this type of equipment. Many of the lower GWP 

refrigerant options are flammable, which increases the need to advance charge reduction technologies. 

HFCs and non-fluorochemical options are increasingly used in most sectors, with emphasis on 

optimising system efficiency (COP) and reducing emissions of high-GWP refrigerants. A high degree 

of containment applies to all future refrigerant applications, either for decreasing climate impact or for 

safety reasons. The competitive market is likely to result in refrigerant options for all common 

applications and either specialty products or equipment adaptation to accommodate new refrigerants 

for all applications, but the initial indications are that reduced efficiency is likely in several key uses. 

It is worth noting that manufacturing for refrigeration, air-conditioning, and heat pump equipment for 

export is increasing and is expected to increase further in Article 5 countries. 

In domestic refrigeration, and to a lesser extent in commercial stand-alone equipment, an emerging 

trend is conversion from HFC-134a to HC-600a. Non-Article 5 countries completed the conversion 

from ODS refrigerants in domestic refrigeration approximately 15 years ago; older equipment now 

approaches the equipment useful lifetime; this results in non-Article 5 countries having a vanishing 

ODS refrigerant demand. The service demand for ODS refrigerants for domestic refrigeration in 

Article 5 countries is expected to remain strong for more than 10 years as a result of their later 

conversion to non-ODS refrigerants. In commercial stand-alone equipment in Article 5 countries, the 

use of HCs is expected to increase. For two-temperature centralised systems, R-744 is an option for 

the lower temperature level; in the near future, there will be the choice for the medium-temperature 

level for new low GWP HFCs on the one hand and R-744 or HCs on the other. 

In industrial refrigeration, there are substantial banks of CFCs in Article 5 countries and HCFCs in 

both non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries that need addressing. Article 5 countries moving away 

from HCFCs (HCFC-22) might transfer to saturated HFCs, unsaturated HFCs if proven for use in 

industrial systems, to R-717 and R-744, or to other not-in-kind solutions. In transport refrigeration, 

HFCs will replace HCFCs and become a dominant refrigerant on passenger vessels and on small ships 

of all categories. The industry is working towards the use of non-fluorinated refrigerants in marine 

containers, trailers (R-744) and trucks (R-290); both are currently in the development and testing 

stage. In air-to-air air conditioning and heat pumps, HFCs, HFC blends and HC-290 are the most 

likely near-term refrigerants to replace HCFC-22 in most air conditioning applications. Contrary to 

non-Article 5 countries, the demand for service refrigerants in most Article 5 countries will consist of 

HCFC-22 and HFC-based service blends; this tendency is driven by long equipment life and is also 

due to the costs of the field conversion to alternative refrigerants. In heat pumps for water heating, 

HFC-32 or unsaturated HFCs such as HFC-1234yf or blends with this refrigerant will be studied for 

future use by taking into account the performance, costs and the necessary safety regulations in 

relation to their mild flammability. 

The front running candidate among global car manufacturers for future vehicle air conditioning 

systems seems to be HFC-1234yf. One manufacturer has announced the intention to introduce this 

refrigerant in car serial production in 2013. OEMs indicate that they will design HFC-1234yf MAC 

systems in such a way that these systems can safely be used with HFC-134a refrigerant as well. 

2010 TEAP Assessment Report 31

3 Executive Summaries of all TOCs 

3.1 Chemical Technical Options Committee (CTOC) 

3.1.1 Process Agents 

In the last four years more than seventy process agent applications have been reviewed by the CTOC 

(see annex 1). Parties have approved 17 process agent uses, which are added to Table A. Also, 12 

uses have been deleted from Table A as processes were abandoned or modified, often (but not always) 

as a result of MLF projects (Decisions XIX/15 and XXI/3). 

As late as 2009, nominations for process agent status were still being received as Parties became 

aware of activities of their chemical industry sectors in which controlled substances were used. 

Reporting of emissions to Table B has been less than complete. 

A better standard of reporting of emissions needs to be achieved so that Table B gives a more reliable 

picture of emissions arising from process agent uses. When the CTOC and MLF will produce a joint 

report in 2011 according to the Decision XXI/3 (5), further deletions from Table A and a more 

complete update on phase-outs or suggestions for phase-outs could be possible. 

A list of Parties with approved process agent uses could be provided to the Ozone Secretariat, so that 

requests for information could be targeted and followed up, rather than including such requests in 

global communications. 

3.1.2 Laboratory and Analytical Uses 

There are very few identified uses of ODS in laboratory and analytical procedures in non-Article 5 

countries. Some use continues in several Article 5 countries. 

Advice by experts is required, together with modest financial support for alternatives that have 

already been identified to be trialled in Article 5 countries, alongside current procedures that involve 

ODS. New standard methods need to be developed. 

Advice delivered by experts to practitioners at laboratory level is most valuable. It can be augmented 

by national or regional meetings, by provision of advice through electronic means, and via 

information transfer involving ozone officers. It would be helpful to the phase-out for the Ozone 

Secretariat and experts identified by the CTOC to work with national and international standards 

bodies to establish new standard methods of analysis that do not use ODS. TEAP and the CTOC will 

keep Parties informed of advances on these fronts. 

3.1.3 Feedstocks 

An extensive listing of known use of ODSs as feedstocks has been compiled. By using volumes 

suggested by members of the CTOC and following guidelines for emission calculations suggested by 

the IPCC for the UNFCCC, estimates of emissions from these feedstocks have been generated. 

The volumes used in the report have been built up from expert knowledge and cannot be verified 

directly. There is poor reporting of use of ODSs as feedstocks. Also, at the current time, the majority 

of the production from ODS feedstocks is for HFCs whose production is not reported to a public 

source of data. To improve the estimate of use and emissions, it will be necessary to identify more 

complete public sources or for all Parties to report feedstock usage. In addition, the IPCC guidelines 

to not well represent actual emissions during use of ODS as feedstock. Expert opinion suggests that 
32 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

the IPCC guidelines are maximal values and actual emissions may be lower at well-managed 

facilities. Better emission mechanisms need to be considered. 

Developed countries, in their inventory reporting, report to UNFCCC emission data for HFCs. Thus, 

discussions with UNFCCC may assist in developing new estimated sources of data for HFC 

production (which may have utilized ODSs as feedstock in their preparation). The reporting of ODS 

volumes for each feedstock uses by Parties through the Ozone Secretariat may enable a more 

complete quantification of this activity. 

3.1.4 Solvents 

Over 90 % of ODS solvent uses based on the peak consumption of 1994-95 have been reduced by 

changing to not-in-kind technologies and conservation. The remaining less than 10% of the ODS 

market is shared by several in-kind solvent alternatives. 

The major challenge is the complete phase out of ODS solvents in Article 5 countries. Preferable 

alternatives have been identified and are generally available. Another hurdle to overcome is the 

economic impact on the small and medium size users who make up a major portion of the remaining 

ODS solvent market. 

Regulatory changes will continue to impact on the use of solvents. In some cases, this may require 

solvent and/or equipment change or a new cleaning process. New idea of the definition of low-GWP 

and high-GWP alternatives, which TEAP has proposed, may cause a profound effect on the use of 

solvent. 

3.1.5 Destruction Technologies 

In 2009, CTOC identified 176 destruction facilities in 27 countries including new technologies not 

listed in the 2002 Task Force Report. 

Recently several emerging technologies have been requested for evaluation. Following Decision 

XXI/10, they will be reviewed when technical details are made available. 

Periodic review of available destruction technologies will be necessary to provide updated technical 

guidelines for destruction of ozone depleting substances such as CFCs, halons and methyl bromide as 

well as for HFCs. 

3.1.6 Carbon Tetrachloride (CTC) Emissions and Opportunities for Reduction 

The TEAP/CTOC made a comprehensive review on CTC emissions, concluding that there is a 

significant discrepancy between reported emissions and the observed atmospheric concentrations 

under Decisions XVI/14 and XVIII/10. 

The studies have not yet been completed on the production and consumption of CTC with particular 

emphasis on feedstock uses with the goal to estimate emissions and try to reconcile them with values 

calculated by atmospheric scientists. 

No new information on CTC emission was obtained from CTOC activities through 2010. Further 

studies will be needed to improve and reconcile bottom-up and top-down calculations, to search for 

other unreported CTC emission sources, to critically analyse UNEP inventory data and to possibly 

further revise the atmospheric lifetime of CTC. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 33

3.2 Foams Technical Options Committee 

3.2.1 Introduction 

The foam sector is facing a period of greater uncertainty than it has done since the initial decision to 

phase-out CFCs in the early 1990s. Although a large proportion of the industry has previously settled 

on hydrocarbons as their blowing agent of choice, there are increasing pressures to improve the 

thermal performance of foams – particularly in the appliance sector. Coupled with this, there are 

pressures to limit future use of saturated hydrofluorocarbons (s-HFCs) and to phase these down where 

possible. Finally, there is the time-certain schedule for phasing out HCFC use in Article 5 countries, 

but substantial uncertainties about the optimal choice of alternatives. These three trends are placing 

unparalleled stresses on the sector and there is a significant divergence of opinion at this time about 

the most appropriate way forward. The following sections provide further background on the issues 

faced. 

3.2.2 Foam Market Dynamics 

Growth in thermal insulation foams continues to be driven by increasing energy efficiency 

requirements in appliances and buildings. Space constraints in the built environment (e.g. cavity 

dimensions) have driven dramatic shifts from fibrous products to foam products in some markets in 

order to meet the required thermal performance. However, fibre has largely maintained its share 

through growth in the residential refurbishment sector where cost is a prime issue. An additional 

downward trend on foam use in non-Article 5 countries has been the on-going shift of appliance and 

refrigerated equipment manufacture to other regions where costs of manufacture are lower. The latest 

extension of a graph for Western Europe shown in previous reports indicates that this combination of 

factors has led to only a small overall net shift to the overall foam/fibre balance despite the turbulence 

of individual sectors: 

66.5% 62.0% 59.5% 59.2%

32.0% 36.6% 39.2% 39.7%

1.5% 1.4% 1.3% 1.1%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1990 1995 2001 2008

Market Share

Year

Variation of Insulation by Product Type (1990-2008) in Western Europe

Other

Cellular polymer

Fibrous

Nonetheless, the same region saw overall growth in thermal insulation sales to the domestic and 

commercial building sector of over 20% in the period between 2001 and 2008 despite the impact of 
34 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

the global downturn in 2008, thereby driving demand for appropriate blowing agents. This is likely to 

be representative of other non-Article 5 regions responding to the parallel drivers of climate change 

policy and energy security. 

In Article 5 countries, the transformation in demand for thermal insulation has been even starker than 

for non-Article 5 countries in view of the increasing manufacturing base for global appliances and the 

recognition the building energy efficiency has a major contribution to make in combating climate 

change for Article 5 countries. As an example, the use of PU Spray Foam in China is understood to 

have grown to 70,000-80,000 tonnes, making it already the second largest market in the world for PU 

Spray Foam, with only the United States market larger. 

3.2.3 Transitional Status 

As at 2010, HCFC phase-out is virtually complete in all non-Article 5 countries, with XPS in North 

America being the last major sector to make the transition. In this instance, the technology choice has 

been saturated HFCs, reflecting the demanding product range and process requirements that the XPS 

industry has in the region. Experience from this transition has made the industry wary about 

committing to any further transitions in the medium term, since proving emerging alternatives in these 

applications will involve substantial further effort. As shown in the graph below, the main growth in 

blowing agent use between 2005 and 2008 had occurred with hydrocarbons, although there was also 

some additional use of HFCs. By contrast, only a very marginal further decline in HCFC use had 

taken place, highlighting the fact that the XPS sector in North America was not able to address its 

usage in the period to 2008, but was able to do so thereafter (see above). 

‐120000

‐100000

‐80000

‐60000

‐40000

‐20000

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

CFC HCFC HFC HC CFC HCFC HFC HC

Developed Developing

Changes in Blowing Agent Consumption (toones)

Changes in Blowing Agent Use by Type/Region

Changes in Blowing Agent Use 2001‐2005 compared with  2001‐2008

2001‐2005

2001‐2008

In Article 5 countries, the phase-out of remaining CFC use has been completed with the main 

replacement for these residual applications being HCFCs. Growth has also continued in hydrocarbon 

use, largely driven by a further increase in the appliance manufacturing base in these regions. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 35

Overall, the comparison between 2001-2005 and 2001-2008 time periods illustrates that the changes 

in the last four years have been relatively moderate compared with those of the previous four years. 

Although hydrocarbons continue to be the primary solution in non-Article 5 countries, there is 

pressure in some sectors to further optimise these solutions by blending. While cyclopentane 

continues to play an important role in optimising blend performance, other components such as 

unsaturated HFCs (u-HFCs or HFOs) and methyl formate are also being assessed at this time. Early 

work on unsaturated HFCs suggests that they deliver better thermal performance than their saturated 

counterparts, although toxicological work remains to be completed for those yet to be 

commercialised. In the interim, there is evidence that some enterprises manufacturing appliances in 

developing countries are already blending saturated HFCs with hydrocarbons to meet energy 

requirements. 

Decisions need to be made at short notice within HCFC Phase-out Management Plans (HPMPs) on 

the choice of alternative to HCFCs in Article 5 countries. The prioritisation of ‘worst first’ embodied 

within Decision XIX/6 puts a strong focus on dealing with HCFC-141b applications in the early 

phases of implementation. Nevertheless, some countries are finding it easier to manage their 

compliance issues by phasing the foam sector transitions according to the ease with which projects 

can be implemented and the magnitude of their impact. Shortfalls are then being made up from other 

sectors. 

3.2.4 Likely Future Scenarios 

In general terms, the future technology selections in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 countries 

continue to be uncertain. This makes it particularly difficult to forecast the precise blowing agent mix 

in the period to 2020 and the impact that this may have on bank composition at that time. 

As noted above, HCFC phase-out in Article 5 countries continues to be a serious source of unease. In 

several sectors, particularly in rigid PU foams, previously identified low-GWP alternatives to HCFCs 

have yet to be fully proven in the field. This is particularly important since many of the enterprises 

expected to take up these technologies are SMEs and have little, if any, internal capacity to optimise 

formulations. There is concern that measures to manage flammability for methyl formate may require 

system houses to reformulate with more compatible polyols for rigid foam applications in order to 

reduce the risk. However, in a limited number of cases it may be more productive to blend methyl 

formate in the isocyanate component to obtain the required foam properties whilst avoiding 

flammable blends.

There continues to be a need to characterise the performance of foams made from low-GWP 

alternatives in the range of applications envisaged. This is an on-going exercise, but is particularly 

important for technologies that do not have a significant history of use in non-Article 5 countries. The 

role of the Pilot Projects sponsored under the Multilateral Fund are especially relevant here and the 

work of UNDP on methyl formate, for example, has already cleared the way for wider use in the 

flexible moulded and integral skin sectors. 

In non-Article 5 countries, the primary future interest is in further improving energy efficiency. 

However, an additional pressure may arise from proposals to see the phase-down in use of saturated 

HFCs. Apart from initiatives signalled under the Montreal Protocol itself, there is growing interest in 

seeing such a measure as part of the re-cast F-Gas Regulation in Europe. This may serve to strengthen 

research efforts in non-Article 5 countries towards low-GWP solutions and, in particular, towards the 

intelligent use of blends. There may be added spin-offs for Article 5 countries from this work, but 

these are unlikely to emerge in time for incorporation within relevant HPMPs. 

For the immediate challenge of phasing out HCFC-reliance in Article 5 countries, there are a number 

of obstacles. The time pressure to resolve these only serves to add to the complexity of the situation 

and it may be that a number of unproven solutions need to be adopted in the short-term, with the 
36 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

potential downside risk to enterprises and investors alike. One of the consequences of this could be 

that enterprises choose to minimise their risks by choosing proven, but sub-optimal, technology 

solutions (e.g. high GWP or less energy efficient solutions) with the intent of making a second 

conversion when more appropriate solutions have become established. 

3.2.5 Banks, Emissions and Destruction 

The management of ODS banks in appliance foams is currently being addressed by a variety of 

regulatory and voluntary frameworks and using a range of fully automated, semi-automated and 

manual technologies. Although there is evidence to suggest that fully automated approaches provide 

the most comprehensive recovery potential, the relevant cost-abatement curves would suggest that 

some semi-automated processes will have a place in the on-going management of ODS banks, 

particularly in areas where population densities are low or investment is restricted. 

Efforts have been made to further characterise foam inventories in a number of regions. The flow of 

ODS-containing foams into the demolition waste stream from buildings is currently low and is likely 

to remain so for the next decade for most product types. Although the economics of recovery vary by 

region and are influenced by wider demolition waste management frameworks, even the most 

favourable circumstances lead to costs of above $100 per tonne CO2 saved on average. There will be a 

need for further innovation in the longer-term if recovery from this source is going to become 

economically feasible. 

Considerations will continue into the most appropriate strategies for ODS bank management in foams, 

with particular focus on ensuring that CFC capture from existing appliance-based banks is optimised 

before those opportunities are lost. This may involve the need to look at efficient ways of transferring 

existing technologies from non-Article 5 to Article 5 environments. The most appropriate funding 

mechanisms for such action are still under discussion, but these need to reach a conclusion soon if 

opportunities are going to be grasped. 

Although less emissive than the refrigeration and air conditioning sector, the foam sector continues to 

represent a substantial bank of long-lived ODS which provide opportunities for future management. 

Time pressures for management initiatives vary by sector, but ultimate policy decisions will depend 

on the emerging cost abatement curves on a wide range of other ozone layer protection and climate 

measures. It remains to be seen whether or not the recovery of ODS from buildings will become a 

viable option given the scattered nature of the sources involved and the efforts required for recovery. 

3.2.6 Specific Regional Messages 

Developed Countries 

3⁄4 The growth of appliance foams and blowing agent use will continue broadly with general 

economic drivers, since markets are largely saturated. However, there may continue to be 

shifts in manufacturing location which will influence regional blowing agent consumption 

trends. 

3⁄4 Hydrocarbons are now almost fully optimised for appliances, but the relentless drive for 

energy efficiency is encouraging more focus on cyclo-pentane as a component of blends 

and, beyond that, interest in unsaturated HFCs (HFOs), which themselves are showing better 

potential thermal performance than current liquid HFCs. It may be that there is some switch 

from hydrocarbons to HC/u-HFC blends in future as well as a possible switch in North 

America from liquid HFCs directly to unsaturated HFCs over time depending on the future 

HFC policy in the United States. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 37

3⁄4 The growth in blowing agents for construction applications is driven by energy efficiency in 

new and existing buildings; there has been a slow-down in the construction of new buildings 

because of global recession but retrofitting continues with spray foam and other foam 

products (boards, etc). Nevertheless, growth in the demand for insulation foams has been 

dramatic over the last ten years with changes in market share between foam and fibrous 

insulation, the requirement for increased thicknesses and a relatively buoyant construction 

market. 

3⁄4 Hydrocarbons are the dominant blowing agent in the construction sector, with the exception 

of spray foam where s-HFCs continue to dominate due to safety issues, although there is 

likely to be a further proliferation of blends – perhaps with u-HFCs (HFOs) and/or methyl 

formate – particularly where the thickness requirements for insulation are perceived to be 

becoming unmanageable. 

3⁄4 In extruded polystyrene, the long-term future for blowing agent selection is still unclear, 

with a significant range of technologies in current use. The emergence of u-HFCs (HFOs) 

may prove of interest as a replacement for gaseous HFCs, particularly as a component of 

blends. Pressure for transition is likely to be greater in Europe where the F-Gas Regulation 

is currently under review. However, in North America there are no further plans to make 

transitions in the next 10 years since the transfer to gaseous s-HFCs has only just been 

implemented. 

Developing Countries 

3⁄4 Economic growth rates in several key developing countries are likely to drive demand for 

appliances and other consumer goods over the coming years and these need to be reflected 

in the expected growth in demand for blowing agents. 

3⁄4 Since the appliance market is becoming largely a globalised market, future blowing agent 

selection is largely expected to follow the same patterns as in developed countries. 

3⁄4 Some appliance manufacturers have been or are considering moving from cyclopentane to 

blends of cyclopentane and HFCs to meet emerging energy efficiency standards and to 

better meet existing energy standards for products exported to developed countries. 

3⁄4 Focus on insulation materials for the construction market and, in particular, foam products 

varies substantially by developing country region, influenced primarily by climatic aspects 

and the ability to invest in infra-structure. 

3⁄4 There is evidence of considerable effort to refurbish existing dwellings in China and this has 

driven demand for PU spray foam as one of the most efficient technology options. 

Substantial growth in XPS has also been observed. 

3⁄4 There is much less clarity about the choice of blowing agent for the small/medium size 

enterprises in the construction sector and a variety of technology options (including preblended hydrocarbons, methyl formate,CO2(water), liquid s-HFCs and u-HFCs) could all be 

used to some degree. 

3⁄4 Although methyl formate has SNAP approval by the US EPA for PU spray foam 

applications, it is still not clear whether the market will view the flammability issues as 

sufficiently differentiated from hydrocarbons to drive uptake. There is likely to be some use 

of methyl formate in those integral skin applications where CO2(water) is not already 

established. 
38 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

3⁄4 Although commercialisation of the various u-HFCs (HFOs) under consideration is likely to 

occur slightly earlier than previously expected (perhaps 2013-2015), these technologies are 

still likely to be too late for the bulk of HCFC-141b transitions. Therefore two-step 

transitions may be necessary to take advantage of their properties. Since the investment 

costs are likely to be minimal for such technologies, a two-step strategy might be 

appropriate where the economics support it. 

3⁄4 Work on ‘three-stream’ technologies for spray foam (e.g. super-critical CO2 and gaseous uHFCs) may allow an earlier transition in some instances, although the investment 

implications are still being assessed. 

3.3 Halons Technical Options Committee 

3.3.1 Introduction 

The following sector summaries show that despite the introduction of new halon alternatives and the 

remarkable progress in switching to them, there is still an on-going need for halons. As such, halon 

recycling is becoming even more important to ensure that adequate stocks of halons are available to 

meet the future needs of the Parties. 

3.3.2 Global Production and Consumption Phase-out of Halons 

As of January 1, 2010, halon production and consumption, as defined by the Montreal Protocol, for 

fire protection ceased. Additionally, there has been no essential use halon production since 2000 (as 

authorized by Decision VIII/9). However, halon 1301 (CF3Br) continues to be produced in China and 

France for use as a feedstock in the manufacture of the pesticide Fipronil. The current total halon 

feedstock production quantities in these countries are not known to the HTOC, but have been 

increasing annually in China since 2005. 

Since 2006, nine Parties have reported a negative production of halons for fire protection, indicating 

that they have been destroying halons. In addition, the last two producers of halons for fire protection, 

China and the Republic of South Korea, reported no exports in 2008 or 2009. However, some halons 

may have been exported as fire extinguishers and/or fire extinguishing systems. Only eight Parties 

operating under Article 5 reported importing newly produced halons in 2008, down from sixteen in 

2006. The global trade in recycled halons is robust, but as would be expected, the trade in recycled 

halons by Article 5 Parties has been limited, since they were allowed to import newly produced halons 

through 2009. 

Now that there is no global production of halons for fire protection uses, management of the 

remaining stock becomes crucial for ensuring sufficient halons for applications that need them. 

3.3.3 Fire Protection Alternatives to Halon 

Since the 2006 Assessment, there have been some changes made to national and international fire 

protection standards that affect some of the measures of performance and guidelines for use of the 

alternative agents. Some harmonisation has taken place, new minimum concentrations recommended 

for certain re-ignition risks, and new procedures developed for determining safe personnel exposure to 

the alternatives. 

Alternatives based on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) continue to dominate the in-kind gaseous 

alternatives market for flooding applications, whereas alternatives based on hydrochlorofluorocarbon 

(HCFC)-123 are dominant for the much smaller in-kind streaming market. As yet, an alternative with 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 39

all of the beneficial characteristics of the halon it is attempting to replace has not yet been developed. 

Nevertheless, new agents and technologies continue to appear on the market for specific applications. 

Most recent are pyrotechnic products that generate nitrogen or mixtures of nitrogen and water vapour, 

and unsaturated hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs). 

The selection of the best fire protection method in the absence of halons is often a complex process. 

Either alternative gaseous fire extinguishing agents, so called in-kind alternatives, or not-in-kind 

alternatives may replace halon but the decision is driven by the details of the hazard being protected, 

the characteristics of the gaseous agent or alternative method, and the risk management philosophy of 

the user. 

3.3.4 Climate Considerations for Halons and Alternatives 

HFCs, HCFCs, and to a much lesser extent perfluorocarbons (PFCs) have been commercialized as 

replacements for halons. The development of these chemicals for use in fire and explosion 

suppression applications was instrumental in achieving the halon production phase-out mandated by 

the Montreal Protocol. In some applications, HFC based agents are the only alternatives for halons. 

The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) update of the Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change (IPCC) / TEAP Special Report on Ozone and Climate concludes that the greenhouse 

gas (GHG) reduction potential from fire protection is small due in part to the relatively low emission 

level and the significant shift to not-in-kind alternatives. Nevertheless, in 2009 and again in 2010 

amendments have been proposed that would add HFCs to the Montreal Protocol and slowly phase 

down their production. The Parties may wish to consider that any future HFC amendments or 

adjustments include provisions for fire protection uses that have no alternatives other than ozone 

depleting substances (ODSs) or the high global warming potential (GWP) HFCs. 

There are a few important fire protection applications such as crew bays of armoured vehicles where 

the only current options are to use recycled halon or a high GWP HFC. From a total environmental 

impact perspective, is it better to reuse an already produced, recycled halon or produce a high GWP 

HFC for the application? This is a challenge that the Parties may wish to consider. 

3.3.5 Global Halon 1211 and 1301 Banking 

Halon banking is a critical part of the management of halons. Halon Bank Programmes must be 

accessible to all halon users or the risk of accelerated atmospheric emissions will escalate as users 

find themselves with redundant stock. 

There has been an unanticipated lag in the establishment of halon banking and management 

programmes in Article 5 Parties globally. Halon banking operations can play a significant role in 

ensuring the quality and availability of recycled halon, in managing the halon use down to zero, and in 

assisting with emission data by providing regional estimates that should be more accurate than global 

estimates. National or regional banking schemes that maintain good records offer the opportunity to 

minimise the uncertainty in stored inventory and stock availability. Parties may wish to encourage 

such national halon banking schemes in order to ensure that needs considered critical by a Party are 

met. 

Numerous Parties have not implemented halon bank management programmes or are experiencing 

significant challenges with their programmes. Some of the impediments include lack of a focal point 

for halon management, insufficient infrastructure, segmentation of halon users such as the military 

and industry with no sharing of information or resources, users’ lack of awareness regarding 

environmental concerns, and lack of supportive policies. There are companies available globally that 

will purchase and “clean” cross-contaminated halons; however, in some Parties, because of a 
40 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

prohibition on halon exports, cross-contaminated halons are a financial liability and are reported to be 

vented to the atmosphere. 

3.3.6 Global Halon 2402 Banking 

Halon 2402 had been produced nearly exclusively in the former USSR, and at the time of production 

phase-out the bank of halon 2402 was very small and insufficient to support existing applications. As 

a consequence, the Parties allowed the Russian Federation to continue to produce limited quantities of 

halon 2402 from 1996 until the end of 2000 under the essential use process. 

The applications of halon 2402 are a special case because the equipment that uses it was almost 

exclusively manufactured in the former USSR until its dissolution and in the Russia Federation and 

the Ukraine afterwards. This equipment mainly comprises military equipment and civil aircraft that 

was sold within the former USSR, Eastern Europe, and South-East and East Asia. 

The Russian Federation and Ukraine, traditionally recognised as potential sources of halon 2402 for 

other Parties, still own a large installed capacity of halon 2402, but their markets are estimated as 

currently well balanced with no surplus available for outside customers. This is a problem for Parties 

whose installed base is very small and consequently bank of halon 2402 limited. Some of these Parties 

have managed to establish recycling and banking facilities with assistance from the GEF. It is also a 

problem for larger users, e.g., India, who traditionally relied on supplies from the Russian Federation 

and never established their own bank. Where possible such Parties are switching to other halons or 

alternatives. 

Emissions, transformation and consumption of halon 2402 by the Russian chemical industry as a 

process agent has substantially reduced the total bank of halon 2402, and new uses in non-traditional 

applications are a cause for concern to the HTOC. While there is no apparent shortage of recycled 

halon 2402 on a global basis, there are regional shortages today that Parties may wish to address. 

3.3.7 Global/Regional Supply and Demand Balance 

Based on a review of the situation in a large number of the Parties, with the exception of aviation, it 

has been concluded that generally halons have been replaced by substitutes for all new applications 

where halons were traditionally used. However, the demand for recycled halons remains high for 

existing applications in some Parties. Nevertheless, to date the Parties have not indicated to the Ozone 

Secretariat that they are unable to obtain halons to satisfy their needs, although some Parties have 

expressed cost concerns to HTOC members. The HTOC therefore concludes that current demand is 

being satisfied by the available supply, although the extent of continued needs indicates there may be 

global or regional problems in the future. 

3.3.8 Continued Reliance on Halons 

Halon production for fire protection purposes ceased at the end of 1993 in non-Article 5 Parties and at 

the end of 2009 in all Parties. However, many Parties have allowed recycled halons to be used to 

maintain and service existing equipment. This has permitted users to retain their initial equipment 

investment and allowed halons to continue to be used in applications where alternatives are not yet 

technically and/or economically viable. In particular, these include civil aviation, military uses, and 

legacy systems in oil and gas production in cold climates, aerosol fill rooms, grain silos, paper 

production and milk powder processing plants. 

Aviation applications of halon are among the most demanding uses of all three halons, and require 

every one of their beneficial characteristics, including dispersion and suppression at low temperatures, 

minimal toxic hazards to passengers and flight crew, and ground maintenance staff, and low weight 

and space requirements for the hardware. While alternative methods of fire suppression for ground-
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 41

based situations have been implemented, the status of halon in the civil aircraft sector must be viewed 

in three different contexts: existing aircraft, newly produced aircraft of existing models, and new 

models of aircraft. All of them continue to depend on halon for the majority of their fire protection 

applications. Given the anticipated 25–30 year lifespan of civil aircraft, this dependency is likely to 

continue well beyond the time when recycled halon is readily available, and the time available for 

making the transition to halon alternatives may be much less than many in the civil aviation industry 

realize. 

Another critical development since the last assessment report is the finding of contaminated halons 

making their way into the civil aviation industry as reported by the UK Civil Aviation Authority 

(CAA) to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) in 2009, raising concerns about the 

acceptability of the remaining banks of halons. 

The halon alternatives available for mainline civil aviation are essentially the same as those reported 

in the 2006 HTOC Assessment, with the exception that a “low GWP” unsaturated HBFC, known as 

3,3,3-trifluoro-2-bromo-prop-1-ene or 2-BTP is currently undergoing tests for suitability in hand-held 

extinguishers. 

As a follow on from the HTOC’s work with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) – 

reference Decision XXI/7 – the HTOC has continued its cooperation with ICAO in the development 

of a revised resolution, containing amended halon replacement dates agreed to by industry that was 

adopted at the ICAO 37th Assembly in September 2010 as Resolution A37/9. In addition to the ICAO 

halon replacement dates, the European Union introduced legislation in 2010 that has “cut-off dates” 

and “end dates” when all halon systems or extinguishers in a particular application – including civil 

aviation - must be decommissioned. 

Halons continue to be used worldwide by military organisations in many frontline applications where 

alternatives are not technically or economically feasible at this time. These include existing systems in 

crew and engine compartments of armoured fighting vehicles; engine nacelles, auxiliary power units, 

portable extinguishers, cargo bays, dry bays, and the fuel tank vapour space of certain military 

aircraft; and machinery spaces, fuel pump rooms, flammable liquid storage rooms, operational rooms, 

command centres and on flight decks of certain naval vessels. Nevertheless, the militaries of many 

Parties have devoted considerable effort and resources to reduce and eventually eliminate the use of 

halons wherever technically and economically feasible. Extensive research, development and testing 

have all but eliminated the need for halons in new equipment designs in armoured fighting vehicles, 

military aircraft, and naval vessels. For applications where an acceptable alternative has not yet been 

implemented, operational and maintenance procedures and training can and have been improved to 

minimize emissions and conserve the limited supplies of recyclable materials that are available. 

Supplies of halons from converted and decommissioned systems and extinguishers, both from within 

military organizations and from the open market, have been banked by many Parties to support their 

on-going military needs. 

Existing oil and gas pipelines and production facilities in inhospitable climates continue to use halons 

for fire suppression and explosion prevention. For new facilities, companies are now adopting an 

inherently safe design approach to avoid or minimise hazards such as the release of hydrocarbons. 

Where an inerting agent is still required in occupied spaces, halon has been replaced by HFC-23 or 

Fluoroketone (FK)-5-1-12, if temperatures permit, as part of the facility protection design. As HFC-23 

is the only alternative where very low temperatures are encountered, the question mentioned in 3.2.4 

is relevant, i.e., should such a high GWP agent be diverted from destruction to replace an existing, 

recycled halon? 

For other commercial/industrial applications, halons are no longer necessary and systems are 

gradually being decommissioned and replaced by systems agents using alternative agents. However, 

the cost to re-engineer systems to replace some legacy systems can be expensive and, in many cases, 

unless industry is mandated to do so, they rely on recycled halon from the halon bank to maintain the 

system. 
42 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

In its 2006 Assessment, the HTOC detailed the status of the use of halon and their alternatives on 

board Merchant ships. Essentially the situation now is unchanged other than less ships are dependent 

upon halon owing to decommissioning of ships in the intervening period. For those remaining ships 

that still require halons, the industry appears to have concluded that this problem, if not solved, is 

certainly manageable for the near future. 

3.3.9 Estimated Global Inventories of Halons 1211, 1301 and 2402 

The HTOC 2010 Assessment indicates that at the end of 2010 the global bank of halon 1301 is 

estimated at approximately 42,500 MT, halon 1211 at approximately 65,000 MT and halon 2402 at 

approximately 2,300 MT. From this assessment, the HTOC remains of the opinion that adequate 

global stocks of halon 1211 and halon 1301 currently exist to meet the future needs of all existing 

halon fire equipment until the end of their useful life. However, there remains concern about the 

availability of halon 2402 outside of the Russian Federation and the Ukraine to support existing uses 

in aircraft, military vehicles, and ships. Much of the bank of halon 2402, which was intended to 

service fire protection needs for existing applications, was consumed within the Russian Federation as 

a process agent several years ago. In addition, a new product that encapsulates halon 2402 in a paint 

matrix is being commercialized in the Russian Federation that would further deplete supplies of halon 

2402 to support existing uses. The HTOC is concerned that long-term, important users of halon 2402 

will not have enough halon 2402 to support their needs if the bank continues to get depleted through 

use in non-fire protection uses and/or in new products. 

Owners of existing halon fire equipment that would be considered as meeting the needs of one or 

more of the preceding categories would be prudent to ensure that their future needs will be met from 

their own secure stocks. Current and proposed regulatory programmes that require the recovery and 

destruction of halons will obviously eliminate future availability of halons as a source of supply for 

many needs. As adequate global supplies presently exist it would be unlikely that inadequate planning 

would serve as a reasonable basis for a future essential use nomination by a Party on behalf of an 

owner of a particularly important application for halons 1211, 1301 or halon 2402. 

3.3.10 Practices to Ensure Recycled Halon Purity 

The recent experience within Europe, where it was found that contaminated halons were making their 

way into the civil aviation industry, has highlighted the need for end users to be aware of the purity of 

any reclaimed or recycled halon that they purchase. With an impure halon the performance can range 

from poor or no fire extinguishing effectiveness to one where the impure agent may actually intensify 

the fire in the case where the impurity is a flammable material. Generally speaking, end users have to 

rely on the aftermarket supply chain to collect, process, test and certify that the halon agent is of 

acceptable purity, and it is this last step, relying on a supplier’s certification alone that can introduce 

risk with respect to agent purity. Thus it is important that a written purity certification is obtained from 

an internationally or nationally recognised testing laboratory that has tested the halon to 

internationally recognised standards, such as ISO, ASTM or GOST. 

3.3.11 Halon Emission Reduction Strategies 

Releasing halon into the atmosphere is fundamental to the process of flame extinction and enclosed 

space inertion. However, these necessary emissions only use a small proportion of the available 

supply of halon in any year. Most countries have discontinued system discharge testing and discharge 

of extinguishers for training purposes resulting in emission reductions in some cases of up to 90%. 

Additional and significant reductions of halon emissions can be realized by improving maintenance 

procedures, detection and control devices, etc., and through non-technical steps such as the 

development of Codes of Conduct, implementing Awareness Campaigns, workshops, and training, 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 43

policies, and legislating regulations and ensuring enforcement. Halon emissions reduction strategies 

are a combination of “responsible use” and political regulatory action. 

Good engineering practice dictates that, where possible, hazards should be designed out of facilities 

rather than simply providing protection against them. A combination of prevention, inherently safe 

design, minimisation of personnel exposure, passive protection, equipment duplication, detection, and 

manual intervention should be considered as well. Also, attention to maintenance programs and 

personnel training can add years to a halon bank by reduced emissions. 

Emission reductions can be achieved by implementing a comprehensive Awareness Campaign. This 

should address a description of halons and their uses, environmental concerns related to the ozone 

layer, key goals and deadlines in the Montreal Protocol, country-specific policy and regulations on 

ODS, recycling requirements, alternatives and options, points of contact in government and fire 

protection community, and answers to Frequently Asked Questions such as “what do I do with my 

halon 1211 extinguisher?” 

Avoidable halon releases account for greater halon emissions than those needed for fire protection and 

explosion prevention. Clearly such releases can be minimised. 

3.3.12 Destruction 

Since the 2006 Assessment, considerable interest has focused on the potential ozone and climate 

benefits from the avoided emissions of ODS still remaining in equipment, products, and stockpiles. 

The recent introduction of carbon credits for ODS destruction creates a limited window of opportunity 

to increase ODS recovery at equipment end of life and to avoid potential emissions altogether by 

destroying unwanted material. Halons, more than some of the other ODS, are readily accessible for 

collection, storage, and disposal, making them very attractive for potential ODS destruction projects 

under a carbon credit protocol. However, owing to the continued global demand for halons in 

applications such as aviation, the HTOC has recommended that destruction as a final disposition 

option should be considered only if the halons are cross-contaminated and cannot be reclaimed to an 

acceptable purity. The global phase-out of halons has been planned based upon halons being 

reclaimed and reused until the end of the useful life of the systems they are employed in and until 

there are no longer any important uses. Early destruction of halons undermines the long-range plan set 

by the Parties, imposes significant financial burdens on users who invested in their halon systems, and 

puts at risk uses that generally have the potential for preventing significant loss of life in a fire 

scenario. 

There are also concerns that the availability of carbon credits for halon destruction may inadvertently 

lead to the wrong incentives – to actions that actually lead to more environmental harm and, worse, to 

potentially illegal activities, e.g., production simply for destruction credits since newly produced 

halon is technically indistinguishable from recycled halon. The Parties may wish to consider asking 

TEAP/HTOC to investigate the issues related to halon destruction further in order to better understand 

the full implications to the halon phase out under the Protocol, and the impacts to ozone layer 

recovery and climate protection. 

3.4 Medical Technical Options Committee 

3.4.1 Metered Dose Inhalers 

Global CFC use for MDIs 

The global use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to manufacture metered dose inhalers (MDIs) has 

decreased to about 2,300 tonnes in 2009 and is projected to decrease further to about 2,000 tonnes in 
44 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

2010. In 2009, Article 5 countries used about 1,700 tonnes and the Russian Federation and the United 

States used about 580 tonnes of CFCs for the manufacture of MDIs. The total CFC use by Article 5 

countries reduced by about 200 tonnes between 2008 and 2009, with some countries increasing (e.g. 

China) and others decreasing (e.g. India) consumption. There has been significant global progress in 

the transition of CFC MDIs to CFC-free inhalers, with substantial capacity to manufacture CFC-free 

inhalers. 

CFC stockpiles are available in Venezuela and the United States (total of about 951 tonnes of CFC-11 

and -12, with 367 tonnes of CFC-114 that may not be consumed). These may be enough to cover 

estimated CFC requirements for MDIs for 2010, 2011 and 2012. It could be possible to complete the 

phase-out of CFC MDIs with careful management of existing global CFC stockpiles without 

manufacture of new pharmaceutical-grade CFCs, except for China that can manufacture for its own 

needs and those of the Russian Federation. A cautious approach to CFC production is advisable since 

transition is moving quickly and CFC production that is surplus to actual needs ought to be avoided, 

as the excess would subsequently require costly destruction. 

Technically satisfactory alternatives are available 

It is now over 16 years since the first introduction of a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) MDI for the shortacting beta-agonist salbutamol in the United Kingdom in 1994. Technically satisfactory alternatives 

to CFC MDIs (HFC MDIs and dry powder inhalers (DPIs)) to treat asthma and chronic obstructive 

pulmonary disease (COPD) are now available in almost all countries worldwide. There are sufficient 

CFC-free alternatives available to cover all key classes of drugs used in the treatment of asthma and 

COPD. 

By 2010 every developed country had phased out the use of CFCs in MDIs, except the Russian 

Federation, which is yet to complete manufacturing conversion, and the United States, which is well 

advanced in its phase-out. Substantial global progress has continued in the development and launch 

of HFC MDIs and DPIs and now most companies based in non-Article 5 countries have completed 

their phase-out of CFC MDIs. 

Most developing countries are well advanced in their transition plans to phase out the use of CFCs. 

Despite initial challenges such as access to technology transfer and economic barriers, progress has 

been significant with a number of countries nearing completion of their transition to CFC-free 

inhalers faster than expected. CFC consumption by Article 5 countries is estimated to have peaked in 

2008 and 2009, and now appears to be decreasing. Current predictions are that most Article 5 

countries will have largely completed transition by about the end of 2012. A notable exception is 

China, which in recent years has shown increasing consumption of 15-30 per cent year on year, with 

current plans to complete the phase-out of CFC MDIs in 2016. 

A barrier for developing countries has been that replacement hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) MDIs 

manufactured by multinational companies in developed countries can be more expensive than CFC 

MDIs manufactured in developing countries, meaning that poor patients cannot afford them. 

However, there has been substantial progress in the development and marketing of affordable CFCfree MDIs, especially those manufactured in Article 5 countries. HFC MDIs are now becoming more 

competitively priced compared to CFC MDIs. As a consequence, there is now an adequate range of 

technically satisfactory and affordable CFC-free alternatives for CFC MDIs for beta-agonists (in 

particular, salbutamol) and inhaled corticosteroids (in particular, beclomethasone) available in many 

developing countries. Taking these issues into consideration, salbutamol and beclomethasone CFC 

MDIs can now be considered non-essential in most importing countries. 

Global HFC use for MDIs 

It is estimated that about 4,000 tonnes of HFCs are used to manufacture MDIs, accounting for a very 

small proportion of total HFC usage (estimated at 1-2 per cent). Based on current consumption and 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 45

projected growth rates of MDI use, annual consumption of HFCs for MDIs is estimated to be between 

7,000-10,500 tonnes by 2015. 

By moving from CFC MDIs to HFC MDIs and DPIs, not only have emissions of ozone depleting 

substances been eliminated, but there have also been benefits for climate change. According to rough 

estimates of carbon footprints of inhaler products, HFC MDIs have about 10 times less climate impact 

than CFC MDIs. DPIs have an even lower comparative climate impact, about 100 times less than 

CFC MDIs and 10 times less than HFC MDIs. 

Patient health considerations 

It is important to note that MDIs, DPIs and novel delivery systems play an important role in the 

treatment of asthma and COPD, and no single delivery system is considered universally acceptable for 

all patients. Healthcare professionals continue to consider that a range of therapeutic options is 

important. Any consideration of policy measures to control HFCs should carefully assess patient 

health implications with the goals of ensuring patient health and maintaining a range of therapeutic 

options. Each country has its own unique and complex makeup in terms of availability of medicines, 

overarching health care systems, and patient preferences. 

3.4.2 Pharmaceutical aerosol products other than MDIs 

Technically and economically feasible alternatives are available for all medical aerosol products. 

Other than MDIs, the manufacture of most CFC-containing medical aerosols in non-Article 5 

countries ceased around 1996, and in Article 5 countries would have ceased around the end of 2009. 

However, there are some countries that are yet to complete the conversion of CFC-based medical 

aerosols to alternatives. In 2009, Argentina (1.2 tonnes), China, Dominican Republic (24 tonnes), and 

Serbia (18.1 tonnes) were still consuming CFCs to manufacture medical aerosols. With the 2010 

phase-out date for CFCs in developing countries, any current CFC consumption for medical aerosols 

could only be sourced from existing stockpile. 

In China, some of the traditional Chinese aerosol manufacturers have encountered technical 

difficulties in their conversion to alternatives, with new formulations not meeting relevant quality 

standards. Government authorities are coordinating with the enterprises to resolve these technical 

issues. It is expected that, other than MDIs, full conversion of the medical aerosol sector in China 

will be completed in 2012. 

3.4.3 Sterilants 

The use of ethylene oxide (EO)/CFC blends for sterilization has been successfully phased out in nonArticle 5 countries and in many Article 5 countries. Although it is difficult to be certain, global total 

use of CFCs in 2010 for this application is believed to be close to zero. 

EO/hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) mixtures (10 per cent by weight EO in a mix of HCFC-124 and 

HCFC-22) are virtual drop-in replacements for the 12/88 mixture using CFC and were introduced as 

transitional products for sterilization in those countries that employed 12/88 extensively. Estimated 

global use of HCFCs in sterilization in 2010 is between about 500-700 metric tonnes, which amounts 

to less than 25 ODP tonnes worldwide. EO/HCFC use in non-Article 5 countries is estimated to be 

declining with regulatory restrictions being introduced. EO/HCFC use in Article 5 countries is 

estimated to be between about 200-400 tonnes. 

With the Montreal Protocol phase-out schedule for HCFCs for Article 5 countries, an orderly phaseout of HCFCs in sterilization uses is readily achievable in Article 5 countries. The useful lifetime of 

an EO/HCFC steriliser is about 20 years when well maintained. Therefore by 2030 current sterilisers 
46 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

should be ready for replacement with available alternative technologies that do not use ozonedepleting substances. Hospital procurement should take the HCFC phase-out, and the coming 

redundancy of EO/HCFC sterilization equipment, into consideration in making future investment 

decisions. 

There is a range of commercially available sterilization methods that can replace the use of ozonedepleting substances in this sector, including: heat (moist heat or dry heat), radiations, alkylating 

processes (such as EO, formaldehyde) and oxidative processes (including hydrogen peroxide vapour, 

hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, liquid peracetic acid, and ozone). Further sterilization methods are 

under investigation for commercialization. 

The provision of good quality health services requires effective sterilization of health care products to 

prevent transmission of infection. Sterilization requires strict application of the principles of quality 

management to ensure validation of the selected process and implementation of effective routine 

control; reliable equipment; and knowledge of materials compatibility. Validation of sterilization 

processes is important to ensure the attainment of sterility and to avoid materials compatibility 

problems. No sterilant or sterilization process is compatible with all potential products. 

3.5 Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee 

3.5.1 Mandate and report structure 

Under Decision XIX/20(2) taken at the Nineteenth Meeting of the Parties to the Protocol in 2007, the 

Parties requested the Assessment Panels to update their 2006 reports in 2010 and submit them to the 

Secretariat by 31 December 2010 for consideration by the Open-ended Working Group and by the 

Twenty Third Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, in 2011. 

As required under Decision XIX/20(2), the MBTOC 2010 Assessment reports on advances since 2006 

to replace Methyl Bromide (methyl bromide) used under Critical Use by non-Article 5 Parties and 

continued reduction in methyl bromide use in Article 5 countries to meet the required phase out 

schedule in 2015. It also reports on the situation of use for QPS presently exempt from controls under 

the Montreal protocol. It also shows trends in methyl bromide production and consumption in both 

Article 5 and non-Article 5 Parties, estimated levels of emissions of methyl bromide to the 

atmosphere, and strategies to reduce those emissions. 

3.5.2 The Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) 

As of December 2010, MBTOC had 39 members: 13 (33%) from Article 5 Parties and 26 (67%) from 

non-Article 5 Parties. Members come from 11 developing and 14 industrialised countries. In order to 

respond to the large number of tasks, TEAP subdivided MBTOC into three subcommittees in 2010: 

Soils (MBTOC-S), Structures and Commodities (MBTOC-SC) and Quarantine and Pre-Shipment 

(QPS). 

3.5.3 Methyl bromide control measures 

Methyl bromide was listed under the Montreal Protocol as a controlled ozone depleting substance in 

1992. Control schedules leading to phase-out were agreed in 1995 and 1997. There are a number of 

concerns apart from ozone depletion that have also led countries to impose severe restrictions on 

methyl bromide use. These concerns include, toxicity to humans and associated operator safety and 

public health, and detrimental effects on soil biodiversity. In some countries, pollution of surface and 

ground water by methyl bromide and its derived bromide ion are also concerns. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 47

The control measures, agreed by the Parties at their ninth Meeting in Montreal in September 1997, 

were for phase out by 1 January 2005 in non-Article 5 countries and for Parties operating under 

Article 5 of the Protocol (developing countries) a 20% cut in production and consumption, based on 

the average in 1995-98, from 1 January 2005 and phase out by 1 January 2015. Since 2003, nine nonArticle 5 Parties have applied for ‘critical uses’ after 2005 for non-QPS purposes under Article 2H of 

the Montreal Protocol. Of the initial 106 applications for 18,700 tonnes, the number has declined to 

36 applications for 1,453 tonnes in 2012. Use of methyl bromide under the ‘Critical Use’ provisions is 

available to Article 5 countries after 2015. 

Article 2H also provides exemptions for the amounts of methyl bromide used for QPS purposes. 

3.5.4 Production and consumption trends 

At the time of writing this report, all Parties had submitted data to the Ozone Secretariat for controlled 

uses in 2009. Some countries have revised or corrected their historical consumption data at certain 

times, and in consequence official figures and baselines have changed. In the few cases where data 

gaps exist, data from the previous year were assumed to apply to methyl bromide production or 

consumption. All tonnages are given in metric tonnes in this report. 

In 2009, global production for the methyl bromide uses controlled under the Protocol was 8,928 

tonnes, which represented 13% of the 1991 reported production data (66,430 tonnes). Less than 5% of 

production occurred in Article 5 countries. Methyl bromide production in Article 5 countries for 

controlled uses peaked in the year 2000 at 2,397 tonnes, falling to 29% of the baseline, 403 tonnes, in 

2009 (aggregate baseline for all Article 5 regions is 1,375 tonnes, i.e. average of 1995-98 production). 

Global consumption of methyl bromide for controlled uses was reported to be 64,420 tonnes in 1991 

and remained above 60,000 tonnes until 1998. Global consumption was estimated at 20,752 tonnes in 

2005 falling to about 8,148 tonnes in 2009. Historically, in non-Article 5 regions, about 91% of 

methyl bromide was used for pre-plant and about 9% for stored products and structures. The official 

aggregate baseline for non-Article 5 countries was about 56,083 tonnes in 1991. In 2005 (the first year 

of critical use provisions), this consumption had been reduced to 11,470 tonnes, representing 21% of 

the baseline. Since soil uses of methyl bromide have predominated historically, the reduction in 

consumption of methyl bromide for soil fumigation has been the major contributor to the overall 

reduction in global consumption of methyl bromide. Consumption of methyl bromide for structural 

and commodity purposes has also declined significantly. 

Many non-Article 5 countries have achieved complete phase out (Switzerland, New Zealand, 

countries of European Community). Israel and Japan have notified intention to phase out post 2011 

and 2012 respectively (for preplant soil uses). For the remaining uses phase-out or substantial 

reductions have occurred in most sectors. Several Article 5 Parties previously included among the 

largest users now report complete phase-out (i.e. Brazil, Turkey, Lebanon). Other Article 5 Parties 

have made very significant reductions in their consumption since 2005 and aggregate consumption is 

now at 28% of the baseline (72% has been replaced). 

In 2010, the Meetings of the Parties approved CUEs of 2,565 tonnes for use in 2011 and 1,534 tonnes 

for 2012 or about 3% of the non- Article 5 baseline. 

3.5.5 Consumption trends at national level 

In 1991 the USA, European Community, Israel and Japan used nearly 95% of the methyl bromide 

consumed in non-Article 5 countries. In 2007 the approved or licensed consumption for CUEs was 

reduced to 17%, 3% and 12% and 10% of the respective baselines. In 2009 permitted levels of 

consumption (for CUEs) in these four Parties was 11%, 0% and 8% and 4% of their respective 

baselines. 
48 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

The Article 5 consumption aggregate baseline is 15,870 tonnes (average of 1995-98), with peak 

consumption of more than 18,100 tonnes in 1998. Many Article 5 countries increased their methyl 

bromide use during the 1995 – 1998 time period. Total Article 5 consumption has been reduced to 

4,405 tonnes which is 28% of the baseline in 2009. A MBTOC survey of ozone offices, regional 

networks and national experts in 2010 provided information on the breakdown of methyl bromide 

uses in major methyl bromide-consuming countries. In 2009, an estimated 90% was used for soil and 

10% for commodities/structures, not including QPS, in Article 5 regions. 

The vast majority of Article 5 Parties achieved the national freeze level in 2002. In 2005, 94% of 

Article 5 parties (136 out of 144) either reported zero consumption or achieved the 20% reduction 

step by the required date; and in many cases they achieved this several years earlier than required by 

the Protocol. Presently, all Article 5 Parties are in compliance with this reduction step. Further, in 

2009, 90% of the Article 5 Parties (133 of 147 Parties) reported national consumption of less than 

50% of the national baseline. A large proportion (78%) of Article 5 Parties (115 Parties) reported 

zero methyl bromide consumption in 2009. 

3.5.6 Alternatives to methyl bromide 

MBTOC assumes that an alternative (Refer Decision IX/6 1(a)(ii)) demonstrated in one region of the 

world would be technically applicable in another unless there were obvious constraints to the contrary 

e.g., a very different climate or pest complex. Additionally, it is recognised that regulatory 

requirements, or other specific constraints may make an alternative available in one country but 

unavailable in another specific country or region. When evaluating CUNs, MBTOC accounts for the 

specific circumstances of each Party. 

MBTOC was able to identify alternatives for over 95% of controlled uses in 2009. Situations where 

no alternatives have been identified amount to less than 1,000 tonnes of methyl bromide. However 

these figures may be influenced by local regulatory restrictions on the alternatives for the remaining 

uses. Technically effective alternatives have not yet been identified by MBTOC for the following 

controlled uses of methyl bromide: 

• For pre-plant uses: Certain nursery plants 

• For post-harvest: stabilization of high-moisture fresh dates, cheese and cured pork products 

infested in storage in the USA, immovable museum artefacts (especially when attacked by 

fungi in some circumstances). 

At this time, technically feasible alternatives have also been identified for many QPS applications, but 

there are QPS uses or particular instances where such alternatives are not presently feasible. 

Further research or development, including refinement and extension of existing techniques is needed 

to address these areas. Additionally, the resolution of regulatory issues would also strongly contribute 

to the use of alternatives. 

3.5.7 Impact of registration on availability of alternatives 

MBTOC considers that technical alternatives exist for almost all remaining controlled uses of methyl 

bromide. However regulatory or economic barriers exist that limit the implementation of some key 

alternatives and this can affect the ability to completely phaseout methyl bromide in several nonArticle 5 countries. 

It should be noted that chemical alternatives in general, including methyl bromide, have issues related 

to their long-term suitability for use. In the EC, methyl bromide use was completely stopped (for all 

uses including QPS) in 2010, mainly due to health issues; in the USA and several other countries, 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 49

methyl bromide and most other fumigants are involved in a rigorous review that could affect future 

regulations over their use. 

In January 2011, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) proposed to eventually eliminate 

the previous approvals for the use of sulfuryl fluoride (SF) for foods and in food processing structures 

if there would be food contact. EPA’s sulfuryl fluoride human health risk assessment shows that, in 

some US locations, aggregate exposure from drinking water containing fluoride from natural 

background sources is already too high for certain identifiable subpopulations , in particular children 

under the age of 7. Although sulfuryl fluoride residues in food contribute only a very small portion of 

total exposure to fluoride, when combined with other fluoride exposure pathways, including drinking 

water and toothpaste, EPA has concluded that the tolerance (legal residue limits on food) no longer 

meets the safety standard under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) and the 

tolerances for sulfuryl fluoride should be withdrawn. The position of Australia is different: Australia 

reported that total Australian exposures to fluoride – including those from commodities treated with 

sulfuryl fluoride – do not exceed human health safety standards. Therefore approvals of sulfuryl 

fluoride in Australia will not change. 

Thus, consideration of the long-term sustainability of treatments adopted as alternatives to methyl 

bromide is still vitally important; both chemical and non-chemical alternatives should be considered 

for adoption for the short, medium term and longer term. 

3.5.8 Alternatives for soil treatments 

The reduction in consumption of methyl bromide for soil fumigation has been the major contributor to 

the overall reduction in global consumption of methyl bromide with amounts used falling 85% from 

about 57,400 tonnes in 1992 to approximately less than 6,500 tonnes in 2009, in non-Article 5 Parties 

and about 3,960 tonnes in Article 5 Parties. 

The main crops for which methyl bromide is still being used in non-Article 5 countries are strawberry 

fruit, nurseries for the production of propagation material for forests, and strawberries and 

ornamentals (cut flowers and bulbs) and to a lesser extent in vegetable crops such as cucurbits 

(melons and cucumbers), peppers, eggplants and tomatoes, in perennial fruit and vine crops 

(particularly replant). Some uses previously considered under the CUN process have been partially 

reclassified as QPS (e.g. forest nurseries). Crops still using methyl bromide in Article 5 Parties are 

similar (cucurbits, strawberry fruit, tomatoes and other vegetables), but use in nurseries is much 

smaller. 

Since the 2006 MBTOC Report, adoption of chemical and non chemical alternatives to replace methyl 

bromide as a pre-plant soil fumigant has shown significant progress, particularly due to improved 

performance of new formulations of existing chemical fumigants (1,3 D/Pic, Pic alone, metam 

sodium) and new fumigants (methyl iodide, dimethyl disulfide), but also due to increased uptake of 

non chemical alternatives i.e. grafted plants on resistant rootstocks. 

Since 2008, iodomethane (methyl iodide) has been registered in several countries (USA, New 

Zealand) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) in USA and others. On the other hand, some initially 

promising chemicals included in the 2006 assessment report have seen little further development, e.g. 

propargyl bromide, sodium azide, propylene oxide and are no longer regarded as potential alternatives 

to methyl bromide. Also, the world has seen an increase in regulations on alternatives, with tighter 

regulations on all fumigants in the US and a banning of many fumigants (Chloropicrin, Pic EC, 1,3-

D/Pic) in the EC. 
50 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Chemical alternatives 

The following fumigants are currently available in many regions and due to relative similar efficacy to 

methyl bromide are being adopted as alternatives. 

• Iodomethane or methyl iodide (MI), a liquid fumigant which has been recently tested on a 

wide range of crops by drip and shank-injection and found to be highly effective at 

controlling a wide range of soilborne pathogenic fungi, nematodes, and weeds. 

• Chloropicrin (trichloronitromethane) (Pic), which is effective for the control of soilborne 

fungi and some insects and has limited activity against weeds. Combination with virtually or 

totally impermeable films (VIF, TIF) is an effective strategy to reduce application rates 

keeping satisfactory efficacy. However, the increase in use of Pic in strawberry production in 

the USA and Israel and the move to in bed strip treatment of many fumigants following the 

phaseout of methyl bromide has resulted in increase in infestation with Macrophomina 

phaseolina. It is anticipated that other soil borne pathogens may emerge as well. 

• 1,3-Dichloropropene (1,3-D), which is used as a nematicide and also provides effective 

control of insects and suppresses some weeds and pathogenic fungi. 1,3- D as a single 

application has no effect in controlling fungi or bacteria. As with chloropicrin, 1,3-D can be 

combined with virtually or totally impermeable films (VIF, TIF) with satisfactory efficacy. 

• Fumigants which are based on the generation of methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), e.g. dazomet, 

metam sodium and metam potassium, are highly effective at controlling a wide range of 

arthropods, soilborne fungi, nematodes and weeds, but are less effective against bacteria and 

root-knot nematodes. For this reason their use is often found in combination with other 

chemical treatments or IPM controls. The efficacy of MITC against fungal pathogens is 

variable, particularly against vascular wilts. 

• Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), which has been registered recently, appears to be highly 

efficient against various nematodes, including Meloidogyne spp, but is less effective on fungal 

pathogens. Again, DMDS is more effective when combined with VIF or TIF films. 

• Furfural, which has also been registered recently, appears to be highly efficient against 

nematode and fungi, particularly in golf courses. 

The future of soil disinfestation lies in combining available fumigants with other methods, or other 

fumigants and non fumigants chemical to obtain acceptable performance.

Non chemical alternatives 

• Solarisation, alone or combined with biofumigation or low doses of fumigants, has continued 

to gain wider adoption as a methyl bromide alternative in areas with sunny climates and 

where it suits the cropping season and the pest and disease complex (e.g. Morocco, Israel, 

Jordan, Brazil). 

• Steaming has been adopted for high value crops grown in protected agriculture e.g. 

greenhouses, as more cost-efficient systems are developed. 

• Biodisinfestation has been very effective on a limited scales where growers use high amounts 

of organic material and are committed to the techniques’ success (e.g. southern Spain). 

• Soilless culture is a rapidly expanding cropping practice worldwide, primarily for protected 

agriculture, which has offset the need for methyl bromide, especially in some flower crops, 

vegetables and for seedling production including forest seedlings. In particular, flotation 

systems, based on soilless substrates and hydroponics, have replaced the majority of the 

methyl bromide for tobacco seedling production worldwide. The adoption of this technique is 

currently expanding into vegetable production and some ornamentals. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 51

• Soil reduction (redox) potential, where wheat or rice bran are mixed in the soil, which is then 

flooded with the water and covered to maintain high temperatures and anaerobic conditions is 

widely used in Japan to control nematodes and fungi attacking tomatoes and strawberries. The 

process encourages generation of organic compounds such as acetic acid. When combined 

with solarisation it is efficient even in cooler regions such as the northern part of Japan. 

• Grafting, resistant rootstocks and resistant varieties are now commonly used to control 

soilborne diseases in vegetables, particularly tomatoes, cucurbits, peppers and eggplants in 

many countries. They are generally adopted as part of an integrated pest control system, or 

combined with an alternative fumigant or pesticide, and have led to the reduction or complete 

replacement of methyl bromide use in several sectors in different countries. 

Combination of chemical and non chemical alternatives 

The combination of chemical with a range of non-chemical alternatives continues to expand as 

effective strategies to overcome problems due to the narrow spectrum of activity of some single 

control methods. Soil solarisation and grafting vegetable crops onto resistant rootstocks for instance 

has proven to be a valuable non-chemical alternative. Similarly the efficacy of grafted plants can be 

greatly enhanced by combining it with biofumigation, green manures, and chemicals such as MITC 

generators, 1,3-D and non- fumigant nematicides. Combinations of fumigant alternatives (MI, 1,3-

D/Pic, MNa/Pic) with LPBF or relevant herbicides have been shown to be effective for nutsedge 

(Cyperus spp.), which is the key target pest for several CUNs. Finding alternatives for nursery 

industries is proving difficult as growers are uncertain of the risk of spread of diseases provided by the 

alternative products. Also, regulators often lack the data to determine if alternatives meet the quality 

standards (e.g. certification requirements), 

Crop specific strategies implemented both in non-Article 5 and Article 5 regions are discussed in 

detail in the 2010 Assessment Report. These include alternatives used for the major crops 

(strawberries, tomato, cucurbits, peppers, eggplants, forest, fruit and strawberries nurseries and 

ginger) using methyl bromide in specific climates, soil types and locations, as well as combinations of 

alternatives, application methods and others. 

3.5.9 Alternatives for treatment of post-harvest uses: food processing structures and 

durable commodities (non-QPS) 

Food processing structures that currently use methyl bromide include flour mills, bakeries and other 

food production and storage facilities. These structures are fumigated to control stored product (food) 

pests. 

Durable commodities are primarily foods (and sometimes non-food products) with low moisture 

content that, in the absence of pest attack, can be safely stored for long periods. The remaining 

durable commodities fumigated with methyl bromide in some non-QPS applications include milled 

rice, various dried fruits and nuts, rice, fresh market chestnuts, dry cure ham and cheese in storage 

houses. 

The main alternatives to the disinfestation of flour mills and food processing premises are sulfuryl 

fluoride (including combinations of SF and heat) and heat (as full site or spot heat treatments). Some 

pest control operators report that full control of structural pests in some food processing situations can 

be obtained without full site fumigation through a more vigorous application of IPM approaches. 

Other pest control operators report success using a combination of heat, phosphine and carbon 

dioxide. 

Phosphine fumigation has emerged as the leading treatment of infested commodities. Treatment of 

commodities with sulfuryl fluoride has also expanded to significant levels. 
52 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Regulatory considerations 

Many commercial companies have undertaken significant efforts and Parties to conduct research, 

apply for registration, and register alternatives to optimize their legal use. The cost of registration for 

a small market may be prohibitive. This can result in one Party having access to a technically 

effective alternative that is not available to other Parties. 

In the European Community and the United States, methyl bromide and most other fumigants are 

involved in a rigorous (re-) review that could affect future regulations over their use. As examples of 

this, several contact insecticides previously used to control stored food pests have been deregistered in 

the European Union. 

Additional registration issues arise where treatments will be used on food commodities or where 

treatments used in food processing buildings might transfer residues to food because the maximum 

residue limits (MRLs) for the residual chemicals must also be registered in importing countries. In 

recent years, some large methyl bromide-volume consuming countries have both published and 

revoked maximum residue levels for the residues of some methyl bromide alternatives in food 

commodities. 

As an example, in France, approval of the use of SF on fresh chestnuts has been withdrawn. The SF 

treatment resulted in a fluoride residue in chestnuts which exceeded the European Union 25 ppm 

MRL. 

Additionally, the US Environmental Protection Agency has recently proposed to phase in the 

deregistration of food uses for sulfuryl fluoride (SF) in the US. Adoption of SF has played a leading 

role in reductions in use of methyl bromide for stored product protection in the US. 

This situation does not only affect the use of SF on food commodities. Lack of maximum residue 

limits (MRLs) for fluorine residues resulting from the use of SF has been cited as a reason for the 

continuing need for methyl bromide in several critical use nominations. 

MBTOC also advises the Parties that environmental concerns about using sulfuryl fluoride amongst 

milling and food processing companies should not be underestimated as an obstacle to adoption of 

this methyl bromide alternative. 

Defining IPM and its elements

IPM is a sustainable pest risk management approach combining biological, cultural, physical and 

chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health, and environmental risks. Although a 

reduction in use of pest control chemicals in food processing, and using less toxic chemicals is a goal 

of most IPM practitioners, MBTOC notes that onward from this point there is a divergence in the 

definition on IPM. 

IPM is sometimes defined as not including full site chemical treatments, and also only including the 

very minimal or complete non-use of other pest control chemicals. 

On the other hand, some people define IPM as a means of minimizing chemical use, but also 

incorporate full-site or curative treatments as part of an IPM programs. These may involve fumigation 

or other processes. In the context of phasing out methyl bromide, IPM should be considered a 

required pre-requisite to the use of full site chemical treatments by methyl bromide and other 

fumigants. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 53

Given this divergence of definition, and to avoid confusion, MBTOC has placed information about 

full site treatments by fumigation or heat in the section on pest control in flour milling and food 

processing, whereas non-chemical IPM approaches and techniques are discussed in the extensive IPM 

section. 

Pest control alternatives in flour mills and food processing facilities

Alternatives most often used in the milling and food processing sectors are, heat treatment (full site or 

as spot heat (combined with the use of a further pest barrier method) and sulfuryl fluoride (SF), either 

alone or with the addition of supplemental heat in a combination treatment. 

Although concerns were reported with the use of each alternative, there were no reports indicating 

that any particular mill structure, type or conformation completely lacked a technically effective 

alternative treatment (while mindful that evidence from trials still does not indicate ideal efficacy of 

SF treatments in killing pest eggs). 

Pest control alternatives for commodities

The most commonly used alternatives for control of pests in stored commodities are phosphine and 

sulfuryl fluoride. 

Since the last Assessment Report in 2006, adoption of controlled atmosphere (CA) techniques has 

significantly increased and so this subject is covered in more detail, with its own section. The infested 

products are exposed to CA in airtight climate rooms equipped to handle variable sorts and quantities 

of products. The temperature, oxygen and humidity are controlled in each room within a specified 

range of parameters known to be lethal to the pest(s). The treatment normally requires 1 to 6 days, 

depending on the type infestation and product temperature. 

Since pest control of dates is a problem of several countries, and since there have been separate 

decisions of the Montreal Protocol concerning pest problems of high moisture dates. MBTOC has 

prepared a separate section on this issue in Chapter 5 of the Assessment Report. Parties, particularly 

Algeria and Tunisia, have discussed with deep concern the problem of controlling pests in highmoisture dates. Currently methyl bromide is used by several Parties to disinfest dates and prevent 

fermentation. In the United States, dates are included in a commodity CUN. 

Additionally, MBTOC has prepared two cautionary notes about the emergence of psocids in stored 

products and efforts needed to avoid and control pest resistance. 

3.5.10 Rate of adoption of alternatives 

Generally, time is required to allow the relevant industry to transition to available effective 

alternatives once these are identified. Since the critical use process commenced in 2005, most 

industries show a reduction in nominated quantity requested from that of the preceding year, 

reflecting progressive adoption of alternatives; while others have the same or similar quantities of 

methyl bromide nominated. Some CUNs show comparatively slow rates of adoption. Reviews show 

that in most instances the adoption rates varied between 10 and 25% per year. This includes Article 5 

countries that have adopted alternatives through investment projects, where the rate of adoption is on 

average between 20 and 25% per year. 

Analysis of the data indicates that by the end of 2009, 95% reduction of methyl bromide use or 

complete phase out of methyl bromide has occurred for tomato crops in Australia, Japan, New 

Zealand, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Belgium, and the UK; in strawberry fruit in Australia, Belgium, 

Greece, Japan, Portugal and Spain; and in peppers or eggplants in Australia, Greece, Israel, Malta, 

New Zealand, Spain and the UK. Reductions in the range of 40 - 80% have been made in the US and 

Israeli strawberry fruit industries and 70% in the US tomato industry since 2005. Israel has found 
54 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

transition difficult mainly because some formulations of alternatives are not registered and restrictions 

on the use of a key alternative, chloropicrin exist; also because of the occurrence of specific pests 

(Verticillium dahliae race 2, Orobanche spp.). Israel, however, recently informed Parties that it will 

no longer seek CUE’s post 2011. Regulatory restrictions in the US have also limited uptake of a 

leading alternative, 1,3-D in California but recent high adoption rates of methyl iodide and a 3 way 

treatment (chloropicrin, 1,3-D, metham sodium) have seen substantial reductions in methyl bromide 

use in the southeast of the USA. Japan will phase out all methyl bromide soil fumigation in 2013 with 

alternatives such as IPM and other chemicals. 

Many examples of successful phase-out or significant use reduction are available from Article 5 

countries including several previously included in the list of largest users (e.g. Turkey, Brazil, China, 

Zimbabwe, Kenya, Morocco and others). 

3.5.11 Alternatives to methyl bromide for quarantine and pre-shipment applications 

(exempted uses) 

Since the 2006 Assessment Report, significant work was conducted by a Quarantine and PreShipment Task Force (QPSTF) appointed by TEAP in response to Decision XX/6 and by MBTOC in 

response to Decision XXI/10. For quarantine and pre-shipment purposes, methyl bromide fumigation 

is currently often a preferred treatment for certain types of perishable and durable commodities in 

trade worldwide, as it has a well-established, successful reputation amongst regulatory authorities. 

However, in 2008 IPPC published recommendations for replacement or reduction of the use of methyl 

bromide as a phytosanitary measure. 

Although QPS uses are usually for commodities in trade, (soil uses for strawberry, deciduous and rose 

nurseries have been identified since the first CUE), some Parties have identified some methyl bromide 

soils uses as being quarantine uses. Alternatives to these uses are discussed in the chapter on soils. 

Usually quarantine treatments are only approved on a pest and product specific basis, and following 

bilateral negotiations. This process helps ensure safety against the incursion of harmful pests, but also 

often requires years to complete. For this and other reasons, replacing methyl bromide quarantine 

treatments can be a complex issue. Many non-methyl bromide quarantine treatments are, however, 

published in quarantine regulations, but they are often not the treatment of choice. Nevertheless, 

implementation of alternatives to methyl bromide for QPS has occurred since the 2006 MBTOC 

Assessment Report, and in response to Decision XXI/10 MBTOC has made initial estimates of 

amounts of methyl bromide used for QPS purposes that could be replaced with alternatives, for the 

major use categories. 

Article 2H exempts methyl bromide used for QPS treatments from phaseout. The European 

Community banned all uses of methyl bromide in its 27 member states including QPS, as of March 

2010. Other countries show significant reductions in their methyl bromide consumption for QPS; 

Brazil has announced that it will stop QPS use of methyl bromide in 2015. 

Global production of methyl bromide for QPS purposes in 2009 was 8,922 tonnes, increasing by 6.5% 

from the previous year. Although there are substantial variations in reported QPS production and 

consumption on a year-to-year basis, there is no obvious long term increase or decrease. Israel, USA 

and China together accounted for 94% of the global QPS production in 2009. 

Global QPS consumption was 11,256 tonnes in 2009, which was 26% more than in 2008 but close to 

the average for the past 11 years (11,197 tonnes). QPS consumption was reported to be 39% higher 

than non-QPS consumption in 2009, due to continued reduction in non-QPS consumption and 

increased QPS consumption from 2008 to 2009. MBTOC reports, however, indicate that non-QPS 

uses are higher than reported, as data on consumption does not match quantities exempted for CUE 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 55

uses, Parties also continue to use methyl bromide from pre 2005 stockpiles and leakage is occurring 

from QPS stocks to non-QPS uses. It should also be noted that consumption is different to actual use. 

Total Article 5 QPS consumption was 5,433 tonnes in 2009. Consumption of methyl bromide for 

QPS uses in Article 5 Parties shows an increasing trend over the past 10 years, while in non-Article 5 

Parties it has been decreasing. Among the Article 5 Parties, nine reported consumption of more than 

100 tonnes, accounting for 89% of the Article 5 QPS consumption in 2009. Total Non-Article 5 QPS 

consumption was 5,823 tonnes in 2009, which was 87% more than reported in 2008, largely due to an 

increase in Israel’s consumption. Five non-Article 5 Parties consumed more than 100 tonnes in 2009, 

accounting for 99% of the QPS consumption in non-Article 5 Parties. 

One hundred and fifty eight Parties (82%) either consumed less than 10 tonnes of QPS, or they 

reported zero or provided no report in 2009, or they had never reported consumption prior to 2009. 

Thirty Parties (16%) reported consumption of more than 10 tonnes in 2009 and of these, six reported 

consumption of more than 500 tonnes. 

A discrepancy of about 1,300 tonnes for non-Article 5 Parties over the period 2003-2007 has existed 

between total consumption as represented by methyl bromide actually used, estimated by ‘bottom-up’ 

analysis, and total consumption reported as per Article 7 data. This error has mainly been attributed 

to reported QPS methyl bromide consumption by the US under Article 7 and estimates of its annual 

actual use as a fumigant. At this time the fate of this surplus is unidentified, but could include 

accumulation of QPS-labeled stocks of methyl bromide. 

While there remain some data gaps and uncertainties, information supplied by the Parties allowed 

MBTOC to estimate that four uses consumed more than 70% of the methyl bromide used for QPS in 

2008: 1) Sawn timber and wood packaging material (ISPM-15); 2) Grains and similar foodstuffs; 3) 

Pre-plant soils use; and 4) Logs. On the basis of these estimates and currently available technologies 

to replace methyl bromide for QPS, MBTOC calculated that 31% to 47% of consumption in 2008 

these categories (or about 31% of global consumption) was immediately replaceable with available 

alternatives. Detailed descriptions of alternatives and their technical and economic feasibility are 

provided in Chapter 6 of the Assessment Report. 

MBTOC estimated that in Article 5 Parties that more than 60% of the methyl bromide used in sawn 

timber and wood packaging material could be replaced by heat or alternative fumigants; less than 10% 

of the methyl bromide used as a quarantine treatment in grains and similar foodstuffs could be 

replaced by alternative fumigants and controlled atmospheres, and 30-70% for pre-shipment 

treatments in grains and similar foodstuffs could be replaced by fumigants, protectants, controlled 

atmospheres and integrated systems; and 10-20% of the methyl bromide used in logs could be 

replaced by alternative fumigants, conversion to sawn timber (lumber), immersion, debarking and 

heat. There was no categorisation of methyl bromide as QPS used on soil in Article 5 Parties. 

In non-Article 5 Parties MBTOC estimated that more than 60-80% of the methyl bromide used in 

sawn timber and wood packaging material could be replaced by heat or non-wooden pallets; less than 

10% of the methyl bromide used as a quarantine treatment in grains and similar foodstuffs could be 

replaced by alternative fumigants and controlled atmospheres, and more than 80% for preshipment 

treatments in grains and similar foodstuffs could be replaced by fumigants, protectants, controlled 

atmospheres and integrated systems; about 50-95% of the methyl bromide used in soil could be 

replaced by alternative fumigants, provided the alternatives meet certification standards and a key 

alternative (methyl iodide/ Pic) was available; and 10-20% of the methyl bromide used in logs could 

be replaced by alternative fumigants, conversion to sawn timber (lumber), immersion, debarking and 

heat. 

For perishables, there are various approved treatments, depending on product and situation, including 

heat (as dry heat, steam, vapour heat or hot dipping), cold (sometimes combined with modified 
56 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

atmosphere), modified and controlled atmospheres, alternative fumigants, physical removal, chemical 

dips and irradiation. 

The technical and economic feasibility of alternatives to methyl bromide used for QPS in all countries 

mainly depend on the efficacy against quarantine pests of concern, the infrastructural capacity of the 

country, end-use customer requirements, phytosanitary agreements where relevant, and logistical 

requirements and regulatory approval for the use of the alternative. 

3.5.12 Progress in phasing-out methyl bromide in Article 5 Parties 

An analysis of progress in phasing-out methyl bromide in Article 5 Parties, remaining challenges and 

constraint to adoption of alternatives becomes more important as the 2015 deadline for complete 

phase out of methyl bromide in Article 5 Parties approaches. Phase out has been achieved mainly 

through MLF investment (or phase-out) projects and alternatives chosen generally follow those 

identified as successful through demonstration projects or research carried out in the same country or 

in regions with similar circumstances, including non-Article 5 countries. Costs, logistics and in some 

cases different resource availability may lead to preference for different alternatives in Article 5 

compared to non-Article 5 countries. 

The projects showed that for all locations and all crops or situations tested, one or more of the 

alternatives proved comparable to methyl bromide in their effectiveness in the control of pests and 

diseases targeted in the projects in these Article 5 countries. A demonstration and technical assistance 

project to identify alternatives for high moisture dates – which has been particularly difficult – is now 

underway, with phosphine and modified atmospheres (CO2) giving encouraging results. 

By December 2010 the Multilateral Fund (MLF) had approved a total of 373 methyl bromide projects 

in nearly 80 countries. This included 44 demonstration projects for evaluating and customising 

alternatives (now for the largest part finished); 126 initiatives for the preparation of new projects, 

awareness raising, data collection, policy development and others; and 113 investment projects for 

phasing-out methyl bromide (of which 41 are presently on-going). Additional methyl bromide 

phaseout activities have been funded directly by Article 5 countries and/or agricultural producers, 

bilateral assistance from some countries and the Global Environment Facility. 

MLF projects approved by December 2010 are scheduled to eliminate a total of 12,794 metric tonnes 

of methyl bromide in Article 5 countries, generally ahead of the 2015 deadline. Of these, 10,320 

tonnes had been replaced by December 2010. Phase out schedules agreed under the projects aim to 

replace methyl bromide at an average annual rate of about 22.5% per year, in a total of 4.4 years on 

average (range 3-6 years). This includes countries that are small, medium and large methyl bromide 

consumers. 

Projects have encouraged the combination of alternatives (chemical and non-chemical) as a 

sustainable, long term approach to replacing methyl bromide. This has often implied that growers and 

other users change their approach to crop production or pest control and may even have to make 

important changes in process management. Adapting the alternatives to the specific cropping 

environment and local conditions (including economic, social and cultural conditions) is essential to 

success. 

Early phase-out has brought by additional benefits to Article 5 Parties for example by improving 

production practices, making productive sectors more competitive in international markets and 

training large numbers of growers, technical staff and other key stakeholders. 

In December of 2010, all Article 5 Parties had reported consumption of methyl bromide for controlled 

uses to the Ozone Secretariat and all Parties were in full compliance with Montreal Protocol 

commitments. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 57

3.5.13 Economic criteria 

The purpose of the economics chapter is to provide the framework within which decisions on the 

economic feasibility of Critical Use Nominations (CUNs) are made, and to survey the existing 

literature to provide an overview of economic information relating to alternatives as a guide to what is 

known about the economic impact of the methyl bromide phase-out. A review of the existing 

literature shows that there are three main methodological approaches that have been used to determine 

economic outcomes from adoption of alternatives to methyl bromide. These include: 

• Articles that report only the changed (increased) costs of using methyl bromide alternatives; 

• Articles that use some form of partial budgeting technique 

• Articles that report the sector-wide or even economy-wide impact of the use of methyl 

bromide alternatives 

The variation in the means of assessing economics highlights the fact that little research has been 

done to increase understanding of the actual impacts of the methyl bromide phase-out. The existing 

literature is narrow in the sense that it relates primarily to the USA and a narrow range of methyl 

bromide uses. Economic data is available in some Article 5 countries that are implementing MLF 

projects but the MBTOC economic group did not assess these data. 

TEAP/MBTOC have been asked to assess the economic feasibility of Critical Use Nominations. 

However, although Decision Ex. I/4 lays out the general scope of work for Parties and TEAP, 

guidance concerning economic feasibility benchmarks is lacking. 

The review in this Assessment Report has shown that much work is still needed to gain a better 

understanding of the true impacts of the methyl bromide phase-out. While the literature that has been 

reviewed here provides a useful starting point to the types of analysis that is required, it needs to be 

extended to countries outside of the USA (especially in Article 5 countries) and to a wider range of 

methyl bromide uses. 

3.5.14 Emissions from methyl bromide use and their reduction 

Estimates of the proportion of methyl bromide used that is released into the atmosphere vary widely 

due to differences in usage pattern; the condition and nature of the fumigated materials; the degree of 

gas tightness; and local environmental conditions Under current usage patterns, the proportions of 

applied methyl bromide eventually emitted to the atmosphere are estimated by MBTOC to be 46 – 

91%, 85 - 98%, 76 – 88% and 90 - 98% of applied dosage for soil, perishable commodities, durable 

commodities and structural treatments respectively. These figures, weighted for proportion of use and 

particular treatments, correspond to a range of 59 - 91% overall emission from agricultural and related 

uses, with a mean estimate of overall emissions of 75%, 17,041 tonnes based on estimated use of 

22,860 tonnes in 2009. 

Emission volume release and release rate to the atmosphere during soil fumigation depend on a large 

number of key factors. Of these, the type of surface covering and condition; period of time that a 

surface covering is present; soil conditions during fumigation; methyl bromide injection depth and 

rate; and whether the soil is strip or broadacre fumigated are considered to have the greatest effect on 

emissions. 

Studies under field conditions in diverse regions, together with the large scale adoption of Low 

Permeability Barrier Films (LPBF), have confirmed that such films allow for conventional methyl 

bromide dosage rates to be reduced. Typically equivalent effectiveness is achieved with 25 –50% less 

methyl bromide dosage applied under LPBF compared with normal polyethylene containment films. 
58 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

The use of low permeability barrier films (VIF or equivalent) is compulsory in the European Union 

(EC Regulation 2037/2000). In other regions LPBF films are considered technically feasible for bed 

fumigation. However, in the State of California in the US a regulation currently prevents 

implementation of VIF with methyl bromide (California Code of Regulations Title 3 Section 6450(e). 

This regulation resulted from concerns of possible worker exposure to methyl bromide when the film 

is removed or when seedlings are planted due to altered flux rates of methyl bromide. 

For QPS treatments, Decisions VII/5(c) and XI/13(7) urge Parties to minimize use and emissions of 

methyl bromide through containment and recovery and recycling methodologies to the extent 

possible. There has been limited research into the development of recovery and recycling systems for 

methyl bromide. There are now several examples of recovery equipment in current commercial use. 

All these units use are based on absorption of used methyl bromide on activated carbon. Some are 

designed for recycling of the recaptured methyl bromide while others include a destruction step to 

eliminate the sorbed methyl bromide, thus minimising emissions. There is increasing adoption of 

these systems, though this has been driven by considerations other than ozone layer protection, e.g. 

occupational safety issues or local air quality. In the absence of regulations, companies reported they 

would not invest in the systems, because their competitors (who had not made the investment) would 

then have a cost advantage. 

3.6 Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps TOC 

3.6.1 Refrigerants 

More than 60 new refrigerants were introduced for use either in new equipment or as service fluids (to 

maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 assessment report. Significant focus is on 

alternatives, including blend components, offering lower global warming potentials (GWPs) to 

address climate change. That pursuit forces more attention than in the past on flammable or lowflammability candidates. Most of the new refrigerants are blends containing hydrofluorocarbons 

(HFCs) or in some cases blends of HFCs and hydrocarbons (HCs), the latter typically added to 

achieve miscibility with compressor lubricants to facilitate lubricant return to compressors. 

Additional refrigerants including blend components still are being developed to enable completion of 

scheduled phase-outs of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). They include unsaturated 

fluorochemicals with primary focus on unsaturated HFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), 

also identified as hydrofluoro-olefin (HFO) and hydrochlorofluoro-olefin (HCFO) compounds. 

Considerable effort continues for examination of broader use of ammonia, carbon dioxide, and HCs. 

Research continues to increase and improve the physical, safety, and environmental data for 

refrigerants, to enable screening, and to optimise equipment performance. 

The report updates and expands summary data for assessment of the new refrigerants as well as 

comparison to refrigerants already retired or being replaced as ODSs or for other environmental, 

performance, or safety reasons. The environmental data included are consistent with the 2010 WMO 

Scientific Assessment supplemented with additional data, to fill voids, from other consensus 

assessments and published studies. 

The new assessment updates the tabular data summaries from prior assessments. The revised data 

reflect consensus assessments and published scientific and engineering literature where possible. The 

summaries address refrigerant designations, chemical formulae, normal boiling point (NBP), critical 

temperature (Tc), occupational exposure limits, lower flammability limit (LFL), safety classification, 

atmospheric lifetime (tatm), ozone depletion potential (ODP), global warming potential (GWP), and 

control status. The updated chapter also summarises the ODP and GWP values prescribed for 

regulatory reporting. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 59

The status of data for the thermophysical properties of refrigerants, which include both 

thermodynamic properties (such as density, pressure, enthalpy, entropy, and heat capacity) and 

transport properties (such as viscosity and thermal conductivity), is generally good for the most 

common and alternative refrigerants. Data gaps exist, however, for the thermodynamic and transport 

properties of blends and less-common fluids as well as for the transport properties of many fluids (but 

especially so for blends and for some of the new unsaturated fluorochemicals and blends containing 

them). The data situation for the less-common fluids is more variable; there is a need to collect and 

evaluate the data for such candidates. Significant research still is needed, but is not expected to retard 

scheduled ODS phase-outs. 

A major uncertainty for all of the refrigerants is the influence of lubricants on properties. The 

working fluid in most systems is actually a mixture of the refrigerant and the lubricant carried over 

from the compressor(s). Research on refrigerant-lubricant mixtures is continuing. The need for 

further studies is driven by the introduction of new refrigerants, by the great variety of lubricants in 

use and being introduced, and by the often highly proprietary nature of the chemical structures of the 

lubricant and/or additives. 

This chapter summarises data for refrigerants and specifically those addressed in subsequent sections 

of this assessment report. It discusses thermophysical (both thermodynamic and transport) properties 

as well as heat transfer, compatibility, and safety data. 

This chapter does not address the suitability, advantages, and drawbacks of individual refrigerants or 

refrigerant groups for specific applications; such discussion is addressed for specific applications 

where relevant in subsequent chapters. 

The updated chapter reviews the status heat transfer and compatibility data for refrigerants. It 

recommends further research of: 

 test data for shell-side boiling and condensation of zeotropic mixtures 

 local heat transfer data determined at specific values of vapour quality 

 microchannel heat exchanger refrigerant-side heat transfer data including flow 

distribution effects 

 effects of lubricants on heat transfer, especially for ammonia, carbon dioxide, 

hydrocarbons, unsaturated HCFCs, and unsaturated HFCs 

 more accurate evaporation and condensation data for hydrocarbons for both plain tube 

and enhanced tubes 

 inside-tube condensation heat transfer data for carbon dioxide at low temperatures such as 

–20 °C 

 heat transfer correlations for carbon dioxide supercritical heat rejection and two-phase 

evaporation 

3.6.2 Domestic Refrigeration 

Conversion of new domestic refrigerator production to non-ODS refrigerants is essentially complete. 

Broad-based refrigerant alternatives continue to be HC-600a and HFC-134a. In 2008, 36% of 

production units used HC-600a or a binary blend of HC-600a and HC-290; 63% used HFC-134a. The 

remaining 1% used regionally available refrigerants, such as HFC-152a. Second generation non-ODS 

refrigerant conversion from HFC-134a to HC-600a is complete in Japan and has begun in the United 

States and other countries. Significant extension of this second generation conversion is expected 

over the next decade. By 2020 it is estimated that three-fourths of refrigerant demand for new 

refrigerator production will be for HC-600a and one-fourth will be for HC-134a. No new 
60 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

technologies have surfaced which are cost and efficiency competitive with current vapor-compression 

technology. 

Service conversion to non-ODS refrigerants has significantly lagged original equipment conversion. 

The distributed, individual-proprietor character of the service industry resists coordinated refrigerant 

management efforts. Field service procedures typically use originally specified refrigerants. NonArticle 5 countries completed new production conversion from ODS refrigerants approximately 15 

years ago. This time span is approaching the useful equipment lifetime so service of ODS refrigerant 

containing products is transitioning to a sunset issue in these countries. Service demand for ODS 

refrigerants in Article 5 countries is expected to remain strong for more than ten years as a result of 

their later conversion to non-ODS refrigerants. Unless there is governmental intervention, service 

demand for CFC-12 refrigerant is expected to continue. 

Enhanced product energy efficiency provides benefit to reduced global warming during the use phase 

of the refrigerator life cycle. Existing state-of-the-art models contain multiple, mature efficiency 

improvement options. Extension of these to all global products would yield significant benefits, but 

realization will be constrained by capital funds availability. 

In 2006 the global domestic refrigerant bank was estimated to be 153,000 tonnes consisting of 40% 

CFC-12, 54% HFC-134a and 6% HC-600a. The bank is equally divided between non-Article 5 and 

Article 5 countries. An estimated 71% of residual CFCs reside in Article 5 countries. Annual 

emissions from this bank were estimated to be 6.8%. The majority of domestic refrigerators never 

require sealed system service. Consequently, emissions are dominated by end-of-life product 

disposition; inferring legacy product emission management may be the largest opportunity for 

emission avoidance. 

3.6.3 Commercial Refrigeration 

Commercial refrigeration comprises three different families of systems: centralized systems installed 

in supermarkets, condensing units installed mainly in small shops and stand-alone units installed in all 

types of shops. The refrigerant choices depend on the levels of conservation temperatures and the type 

of systems. 

The number of supermarkets worldwide is estimated to 280,000 in 2006 covering a wide span of sales 

areas varying from 400 m2 to 20,000 m2. The populations, in 2006, of vending machines and other 

stand-alone equipment are evaluated to 20.5 and 32 million units, respectively, and condensing units 

are estimated to 34 million units. In 2006, the refrigerant bank was estimated at 340,000 tonnes and 

was distributed as follows: 46% in centralised systems, 47% in condensing units, and 7% in standalone equipment. The estimated sharing of refrigerant per type is about 15% CFCs which are still in 

use in Article 5 countries, 62% HCFCs the dominant refrigerant bank and still for many years, and 

23% HFCs which have been introduced in new equipment in Europe and Japan as of 2000. 

Stand-alone Equipment: HFC-134a fulfils most technical constraints in terms of reliability and 

energy performance for stand-alone equipment. When GWP of HFC-134a is considered prohibitive 

in relation to HFC emissions (country regulation or company policy), hydrocarbon refrigerants 

(isobutane and propane, i.e. HC-600a and HC-290) or CO2 (R-744) are the current alternative 

solutions, presenting in most of the cases the same technical reliability and energy performance as 

HFC-134a. In the near future, unsaturated HFCs such as HFC-1234yf could be considered as an 

adapted solution, since the retrofit from HFC-134a to this new refrigerant is expected being rather 

simple, even if long term reliability has to be assessed. Energy efficiency standards are being issued 

or revisited in order to lower energy consumption of various types of stand-alone equipment. 

Condensing Units: Their cooling capacities vary from 5 to 20 kW mostly at medium temperature. 

The refrigerant charge varies from 1 to 5 kg for HCFCs or HFCs and also HCs. HCFC-22 is still the 

most used refrigerant in the U.S. and in all Article 5 countries. For new systems, R-404A is the 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 61

leading choice for cost reasons; the condensing units using the refrigerant R-404A are cheaper 

compared to HFC-134a units of the same cooling capacity because of smaller compressor. 

Nevertheless in hot climate and for medium temperature applications, HFC-134a is used due to its 

better energy performances at high ambient temperatures. 

Supermarket systems: The size of centralized systems can vary from refrigerating capacities of about 

20 kW to more than 1 MW related to the size of the supermarket. Refrigerant charges range from 40 

up to 1500 kg per installation. The dominant refrigerant used in centralized systems is still HCFC-22. 

In Europe, new systems have been mainly charged with R-404A, but HFC-134a, ammonia (R-717), 

HCs and R-744 have been tested in many stores. R-744 is now considered off the shelf solution by the 

two major European manufacturers. Several designs have been experimented in hundreds of stores: 

distributed systems, indirect systems, cascade systems. Those designs have been developed in order to 

reduce the refrigerant charge to use more easily flammable or toxic refrigerants, or to limit the charge 

of high GWP HFCs. At the low temperature level the use of R-744 appears as an interesting option in 

terms of GWP, energy efficiency and even costs especially when HFCs are highly taxed. At the 

medium level temperature, the search for the best option is still ongoing. In the near term, servicing of 

current HCFC-22 may pose a problem due to possible shortage of this refrigerant. Several HFC 

blends are proposed to retrofit HCFC-22 installations with or without oil change, but those retrofit 

blends have not gained until now a significant momentum. 

3.6.4 Industrial Systems 

Industrial systems are characterised primarily by the size of the equipment and the temperature range 

covered by the sector. This includes industrial cooling, industrial heat pumps and industrial airconditioning. Industrial systems have special design requirements, including the need for 

uninterrupted service, which are not typically provided by traditional HVAC practices. Rankine cycle 

electrical generation systems using relevant fluids are also considered in the industrial systems 

chapter. 

R-717 is the most common refrigerant in industrial systems, although with significant regional 

variations around the world. Where R-717 is not acceptable for toxicity reasons, R-744 has been 

used, either in cascade with a smaller R-717 plant, in cascade with a fluorocarbon or rejecting heat 

direct to atmosphere in a high pressure (“transcritical”) system. In some cases, for example freezers 

or IT equipment cooling, R-744 offers additional advantages in performance or efficiency which merit 

selection ahead of any other refrigerant without consideration of toxicity or environment. 

There is also a significant bank of HCFC refrigerant in industrial systems, particularly HCFC-22. 

Individual system charge can be high – in some cases several tonnes of refrigerant. These systems 

tend to have longer life than commercial equipment, often lasting over 20 years, but leakage rates can 

be high, particularly in older plants. A “drop-in” blend for replacing HCFC-22 in flooded industrial 

systems has not been developed; the common replacement blends used in commercial refrigeration 

such as R-407A or R-422D are difficult or impossible to use in large industrial systems. The cost of 

these blends is also a significant barrier to their use. 

HFCs have not been widely used in large industrial systems. Where they have been adopted it is 

generally in low charge systems in order to reduce the financial consequences of refrigerant loss. It is 

very unlikely that unsaturated HFC refrigerants, whether single compounds or blends, will be adopted 

for use in industrial systems because in addition to cost considerations the risk of refrigerant 

decomposition due to the presence of contaminants is too great. HFC-245fa and HFC-134a have also 

been used in power generation units, utilising the Rankine cycle, although these systems are not yet 

widely available on the market. 
62 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Users of HCFCs in smaller industrial systems are now faced with the choice of whether to switch to 

HFCs and face a possible phase-down, or to change to R-717 or R-744 and deal with the change in 

operating practices that those refrigerants would require. 

3.6.5 Transport Refrigeration 

Transport refrigeration includes transport of chilled or frozen products by means of road vehicles, 

railcars, intermodal containers, and small insulated containers (less than 2 m3

) and boxes. It also 

includes use of refrigeration and air conditioning on merchant, naval and fishing vessels above 100 

gross tonnes (GT) (about over 24 m in length). 

Transport refrigeration is a niche market in terms of refrigerant banks compared to other sectors. 

There are about 4,000,000 road transport refrigeration units, and about 950,000 marine container units 

in operation today, to mention the largest segments in terms of fleet size. Most equipment has a 

refrigerant charge below 6 kg. Although refrigerant charge can reach several tons aboard large 

vessels, their fleet is relatively small. There are approx. 150,000 marine vessels above 100 GT in the 

world fleet; thereof small and medium size vessels have the largest share. 

The equipment lifetime is usually between 10 and 15 years for intermodal containers, railcars and 

road vehicles, and 20 to 25 years for equipment aboard marine vessels. 

The vapor compression cycle is the technology used predominantly in transport refrigeration 

equipment. CFC and HCFC refrigerants can be found in older equipment. HCFC-22 has a low share 

in intermodal containers and road equipment, but a high share in railcars (declining market) and a 

very high share in marine vessels, where it remains to be the dominant refrigerant. The CFC and 

HCFC banks have been decreasing. Retrofit options to R-502 include R-408A, R-402A and R-404A. 

Virtually all new systems utilize HFC refrigerants (HFC-134a, R-404A). Non-fluorinated refrigerants 

have been commercialized to a small extent aboard marine vessels (R-717, R-744), and tested in 

marine containers, trailers (R-744) and trucks (R-290). A wider application of these refrigerants in 

practice has not been possible so far because of various technical constraints. There is no practical 

experience with HFC-1234yf and other low-GWP candidate fluids in transport refrigeration. 

Although hydrocarbons are technically feasible and may even outperform HFC systems, flammability 

makes people concerned about their use. Where they do not exist, standards need to be developed to 

address the safety concerns. 

Carbon dioxide (R-744) is one of a few promising solutions in transport refrigeration. While direct 

emissions of R-744 are negligible, indirect emissions of R-744 may be comparable to HFCs 

depending on the climate where the vehicle is operated. Aboard marine vessels, because operation 

under high ambient temperatures is commonly required, R-774 use has been limited to low 

temperature stages of cascade or indirect system applications. 

Due to safety concerns, use of ammonia (R-717) has been limited to indirect and cascade systems on 

larger ships which do not carry passengers but professional crew only. HFC refrigerants will continue 

to be used on passenger vessels, and on small ships of all categories. Ammonia has not been used in 

road vehicle and container transport in vapour compression cycles. 

The transport industry is working to reduce the overall CO2 emissions. The refrigerant type can 

influence both direct and indirect equivalent CO2 emission of a vehicle. Refrigerant charge reduction, 

refrigerant leakage rate minimization (for example use of hermetic/semi-hermetic compressors instead 

of open drive), and the use of low-GWP refrigerants influence the direct contribution. Design changes 

that would improve the energy efficiency can reduce the indirect contribution. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 63

Transition of power supply systems from traditional diesel engines to alternative propulsion systems 

(hybrid, electric, etc.) will influence refrigerantion system change and the choice of low-GWP 

refrigerants in the future. 

As in other refrigeration sectors, research and development of other not-in-kind systems, such as 

magnetic or acoustic refrigeration, remains in the laboratory prototype stage. Absorption and 

adsorption systems with water are under development. 

3.6.6 Air-to-air air conditioners and heat pumps 

On a global basis, air conditioners for cooling and heating (including air-to-air heat pumps) ranging in 

size from 2.0 kW to 420 kW comprise a significant segment of the air conditioning market (the 

majority are less than 35kW). Nearly all air conditioners and heat pumps manufactured prior to 2000 

used HCFC-22 as their working fluid. The installed base of units in 2008 represented an estimated 

HCFC-22 bank exceeding one million metric-tonnes. Approximately 85% of the installed population 

uses HCFC-22. In 2008, HFC demand globally represented approximately 32% of the total refrigerant 

demand for these categories of products. Most Article 5 countries are continuing to utilise HCFC-22 

as the predominant refrigerant in air conditioning applications. 

Options for new Equipment

HFC refrigerant blends R-410A and R-407C are the dominant alternatives being used to replace 

HCFC-22 in air-conditioners. HC-290 is also being used to replace HCFC-22 in products having low 

refrigerant charges. 

Air conditioners using R-410A and R-407C are widely available in most non-Article 5 countries. 

Also, equipment using R-410A and R-407C is being manufactured in some Article 5 countries; 

especially in China where a large export market has created demand for these products. However, 

these units are typically not sold in the domestic market because of their higher cost. 

There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as replacements for HCFC-22 

and the high GWP HFCs (R-410A and R-407C). These refrigerants include lower GWP HFC 

refrigerants, HC-290 and R-744. HC-290 and some of the HFC refrigerants are flammable and will 

need to be applied in accordance with an appropriate safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40, which 

establishes maximum charge levels and ventilation requirements. 

A number of moderate and low GWP HFC refrigerants are being considered for use in air 

conditioners. These include: HFC-32, HFC-152a, HFC-161, HFC-1234yf and blends of HFC-1234yf 

with other refrigerants. 

HFC-32 is a class A2L flammable HFC having a GWP of 675, which is approximately 30% that of R410A. R-410A systems can be redesigned for HFC-32 with minor modifications. However, because 

of its A2L flammability rating it will need to be applied using a safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-

40. 

HFC-152a is an A3 flammable low GWP HFC having thermodynamic characteristics similar to HFC134a. While it has been evaluated as an alternative to HCFC-22, it is unlikely to be commercialized 

in unitary air conditioning applications because its low density and flammability result in significantly 

increased system costs. 

HFC-161 is a flammable low GWP refrigerant, which is being evaluated as a low GWP alternative to 

HCFC-22. Like all flammable refrigerants, it would need to be applied using appropriate safety 

standards. 
64 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Pure HFC-1234yf is not likely to be used as a replacement for HCFC-22 in air conditioners because of 

its low volumetric capacity. However, HFC-1234yf can be blended with other non-ODP refrigerants 

to arrive at thermodynamic properties similar to either HCFC-22 or R-410A. Blends of this type are 

under development, but are not commercially available. 

Hydrocarbon refrigerants are also low GWP alternatives to HCFCs and HFCs for low charge 

applications. The most frequently used hydrocarbon refrigerant in air conditioning applications is 

HC-290. The high flammability of HC-290 limits its use to lower charge applications. Therefore all 

flammable refrigerants need to be applied using an applicable safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-

40, which addresses the design requirements and charge limits for flammable refrigerants. Several 

manufacturers in China and India are now introducing low charge HC-290 split air conditioners. 

R-744, CO2, offers a number of desirable properties as a refrigerant. However, R-744 has a low 

critical point temperature, which results in significant efficiency losses when it is applied at the 

typical indoor and outdoor air temperatures of air-to-air air conditioning applications; particularly in 

high ambient climates. However, a number of cycle enhancements and component additions can be 

made to improve the efficiency of R-744 systems. While the addition of efficiency enhancing 

components can improve the efficiency of R-744 systems, they also substantially increase the system 

cost. In order for R-744 systems to become commercially viable, cost effective mitigation of the 

efficiency issue will be required. 

High Ambient Considerations

In the near term, regions with hot climates should be able to rely on the refrigerants and technologies 

that are currently commercially available to replace HCFC-22 (R-407C, R-410A and HC-290). 

However, when replacing HCFC-22 products with those using R-410A or R-407C the application 

engineer may need to take special consideration of the reduced capacity at the design ambient 

temperature when sizing the equipment for the design cooling load. When replacing HCFC-22 in low 

charge applications (small split, window and portable room air conditioners), the system designer may 

want to consider the use of HC-290. In the longer-term products using HFC-32, new low and medium 

GWP HFC blends and HC-290 are the preferable options for high ambient air conditioning 

applications. R-744 is not a preferred option for high ambient air conditioning applications because its 

very low critical temperature results in significant performance degradation during high ambient 

operation. 

3.6.7 Water heating heat pumps 

Heat pumps are classified by heat source (air, water, or ground) and heat sink (air, water), resulting in 

designations such as “air to water” (air source, water sink) heat pumps. This chapter covers only 

systems where water is the sink. The products for industrial process heating are covered in chapter 5 

“Industrial systems”. Air-to-air heat pumps are covered in chapter 7 (Air-to-air air conditioners and 

heat pumps). 

Heat pump water heaters are designed especially for heating service hot water (including domestic 

water) to a temperature between 55 and 90 oC. 

Space heating heat pumps heat water for distribution to air handling units, radiators, or under-floor 

panels. The required water temperature depends on the type of emitter, low temperature application 

ranging from 25 to 35°C for under floor heating, for moderate temperature application such as air 

handling units around 45 °C, for high temperature application such as radiant heating 55 to 60°C and 

for very high temperature application as high as 65 to 80°C such as for the fossil fuel boiler 

replacement market. The required warm water temperature affects the selection of the refrigerant. 

Heat pump systems are more efficient at lower sink temperatures, but each product must fulfill the 

required operating temperature.
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 65

Air-to-water heat pumps have experienced significant growth in Japan, Europe, China, and Australia 

during the last five years. 

Efficient heat pumps can reduce global warming impact compared with fossil fuel burning systems 

significantly. The reduction depends on the efficiency level of the heat pump and the carbon emission 

per kWh of the electricity generation. The tendency of decarbonisation of electricity strengthens this 

positive effect year by year. Also the efficiency levels of the heat pumps are improving year by year. 

However, heat pumps tend to be higher in cost than fossil fuel systems because they employ 

complicated refrigerant circuits, larger heat exchangers and other special features. Government 

support programmes in Europe and Japan to promote heat pump systems have resulted in a rapid 

growth of heat pump system sales in recent years. More than 1 million air-to-water heat pumps were 

sold worldwide in 2008. Predictions of sales show very large growths in USA, Japan, China and 

Europe. 

Current refrigerant options for new heat pumps 

HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C and R-410A are currently used for new water heating and space 

heating heat pumps to replace HCFC-22, R-407C with limited product redesign and R-410A for 

completely redesigned products. 

HC-290 has properties similar to those of HCFC-22 apart from flammability. Until 2004 almost half 

of the heat pumps sold in the EU used HC-290. Use in Europe has declined due to introduction of 

Pressure Equipment Directive. 

Development of R-744 heat pumps started around 1990. R-744 heat pump water heaters were 

introduced to the market in Japan in 2001, with heat pumps for heating of bath or sanitary water as the 

main application. The market for heat pump water heaters in Japan is steadily growing based on 

government and utility incentives. 

Although the current market for space heating heat pumps for commercial buildings with combined 

radiator and air heating systems is limited, R-744 is consider to be a promising refrigerant. 

R-717 is a non-ODS refrigerant and has a very low GWP, but it has higher toxicity and lower 

flammability characteristics. R-717 is used mainly for large capacity systems. 

Future Refrigerant Options for New heat pumps 

HFC-32 has a lower GWP of one third of R-410A. Heat pump with HFC-32 can achieve lower charge 

than heat pumps with R-410A. HFC-32 has a low flammability with a low burning velocity. 

HFC-1234yf is similar in thermophysical properties to HFC-134a. For water heating and space 

heating heat pumps using HCFC-22, R-410A, R-407C, significant design changes would be required 

to optimize for HFC-1234yf. HFC-1234yf has low flammability with a low burning velocity. Due to 

the GWP value it has high potential in applications in systems that currently use HFC-134a. As 

sample supply of these refrigerants is very limited, it is too early to judge whether any of these 

chemicals will be commercialized and will show acceptable performance in heat pump systems. 

Future refrigerants options for new heat pumps include current options R-410A, HFC-134a, HC-290, 

HC 600a, R-744, and R-717 as well as HFC-32 and new refrigerants. 

Since the numbers of heat pumps covered by this chapter still are limited, the refrigerant bank is 

relatively small. Accordingly, the refrigerant emissions are low compared to other products. On the 

other hand, heat pumps will increase in quantity leading to higher net refrigerant requirements and 

emissions in future. However, it is important to emphasize that there is a large potential to reduce 
66 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

CO2 emission generated by fossil fuel combustion systems by replacing them with heat pump 

systems. 

3.6.8 Chillers 

Chillers predominantly are used for comfort air conditioning in commercial buildings and building 

complexes. They are coupled with chilled water distribution and air handling/air distribution systems. 

Chillers also are used for cooling in commercial and industrial facilities such as data processing and 

communications centers, electronics fabrication, and molding 

Air-cooled chillers in capacities up to 1800 kW represent approximately 80 % of the annual unit 

production in chillers using positive displacement compressors (reciprocating piston, scroll, and 

screw). HFC-134a and R-410A are the most common refrigerants with the phase-out of HCFC-22. 

R-407C has been used as a transition refrigerant. Some chillers are available with R-717 or 

hydrocarbon refrigerants – primarily HC-290, HC-600a, or HC-1270 Such chillers are manufactured 

in small quantities compared to HFC-134a and R-410A chillers of similar capacities and require 

attention to flammability, and for R-717 also toxicity concerns, as reflected in safety codes and 

regulations. Chillers employing R-744 as the refrigerant are being marketed. 

For water-cooled chillers, both positive displacement compressors and centrifugal compressors are 

used. Positive displacement water cooled chillers employ the same refrigerants as the air-cooled 

versions. Centrifugal chillers are dominant above 2 MW. Centrifugal chillers are provided with 

HCFC-123 or HFC-134a refrigerants though extremely limited use is made of HFC-245fa. 

HCFC-123 offers an efficient, very-low GWP option for centrifugal chillers. Under terms of the 

Montreal Protocol, use of HCFC-123 in new equipment will end in most developed countries by 2020 

and by 2030 in Article 5 countries. 

Existing chillers employing CFC refrigerants are being replaced slowly by new chillers using HCFC123 or HFC-134a. Today’s new chillers use 25-50% less electricity than the CFC chillers produced 

decades ago, so the savings in energy costs often justify replacement of aging CFC chillers. R-717 is 

not suitable for use in centrifugal chillers as its use would require four or more stages or, in very large 

capacities, a switch to axial compressor designs. 

A continuing trend in chiller development is to improve both full-load and seasonal energy efficiency 

to address both energy-related global warming impacts and operating costs. A number of methods are 

used to achieve higher seasonal efficiencies. These include multistage compression with interstage 

economizers, use of multiple compressors to accommodate part-load conditions, continuous 

unloading capabilities for screw compressors, enhanced electronic controls, variable-speed 

compressor drives, and optimal sequencing of multiple chillers to maximize overall efficiency. 

Refrigerants suggested as alternatives to ODS or high-GWP refrigerants in chillers include R-717, 

hydrocarbons, R-744, R-718, HFC-32, and new low-GWP refrigerants such as HFC-1234yf. Chillers 

using R-718 as refrigerant carry a cost premium over conventional systems because of their larger 

physical size and the complexity of their compressor technology, often entailing axial compressor 

designs operating under high vacuum. HFC-1234yf and other low- or ultra-low GWP refrigerants are 

too new to allow assessment of their suitability for use in chillers at this time, though that is likely to 

change in subsequent assessments. 

Absorption chillers using working pairs ammonia-water (primarily in small capacities) or waterlithium bromide (generally in large capacities) are an alternative to chillers employing the vapourcompression cycle. They are particularly suitable for applications where surplus heat can be 

recovered. Other not-in-kind technologies in the research stage, such as thermoacoustic or 

magnetocaloric technologies, still are not ready for commercialization and may not be found suitable 

or competitive. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 67

Of particular note for both ozone depletion and global climate change, chillers as a group incur very 

low release rates for refrigerants. The environmental impact of chillers is dominated by the energyrelated global warming associated with their energy consumption over their operating life (typically 

20 years and sometimes longer than 40 years). Refrigerant emissions, with their direct global warming 

contributions, are a small fraction of the total global warming impact of chillers except for regions 

with very low carbon intensity for power generation. 

3.6.9 Vehicle air conditioning 

Today all new passenger cars worldwide sold with air conditioning systems are using HFC-134a and 

the transition from CFC-12 is complete. About one fifth of the total global refrigerant emissions are 

from MACs (about 60 percent if only HFC refrigerant emissions are considered) including the 

emissions in production, use, servicing, and end-of-life. In the USA, 19% of the fleet of passenger 

vehicles is still using CFC-12 refrigerant based on recent survey results. The European Union has in 

place legislation for cars and light trucks banning the use of refrigerants with GWP>150 [e.g.; HFC134a] in new-type vehicles from 2011 and all new vehicles from 2017. There are limited replacement 

refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) less than 150. Other countries will probably 

follow the regulatory direction of the EU or provide incentives to reduce the usage of HFC-134a in 

vehicles. 

For MAC systems, the use of hydrocarbons or blends of hydrocarbons as a refrigerant has been 

investigated but has so far not received support from vehicle manufacturers as a possible alternative 

technology due to safety concerns. In Australia and the North America, hydrocarbon refrigerants 

have been introduced as drop-in refrigerants to replace CFC-12 (which is illegal in the USA and in 

some Australian states). These same refrigerants are used to a lesser extent for a replacement of HFC134a. 

Up to now, car manufacturers and suppliers have evaluated three refrigerant options for new car and 

truck air conditioning systems, R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf. All three have GWPs below the 

EU threshold of 150 and can achieve fuel efficiency comparable to existing HFC-134a systems. The 

CO2 equivalent impact of direct emissions from the refrigerant over the vehicle lifetime is much less 

than the impact related to the energy required to operate the system. The energy required to operate 

the MACs results in increased CO2 vehicle tail pipe emissions. Therefore, MAC systems designed to 

provide efficient cooling performance have become the major environmental goal. With the usage of 

appropriate controls and components, all three refrigerant options have been demonstrated to be 

comparable to HFC-134a with respect to cooling performance and total CO2 equivalents of MAC 

systems. 

Hence, the global warming impact is almost identical for all three refrigerant options when considered 

on a global basis. Adoption of any of the refrigerant choices would therefore be of similar 

environmental benefit. The decision of which refrigerant to choose will have to be made based on 

other considerations, such as regulatory approval, cost, system reliability, safety, heat pump 

capability, suitability for hybrid electric vehicles, and servicing. 

The emerging global car manufacturers’ refrigerant choice for future car air conditioning systems 

seems to be HFC-1234yf and one manufacturer has announced the intention to introduce this 

refrigerant in car serial production in 2013. Currently, hurdles exist (miscibility with oil, stability 

problems in the presence of small amounts of water and air in the air conditioning system, mixing 

with HFC-134a, additional costs) that will require resolution prior to the commercial implementation 

of HFC-1234yf as refrigerant for car air conditioning. OEM’s indicate that they will design HFC1234yf MAC systems in such a way that these systems can safely be used with the refrigerant HFC134a as well. This will affect the worldwide transition from HFC-134a to HFC-1234yf for MAC 

systems. 
68 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

The development status of other refrigeration technologies, like sorption or thermoelectric systems, 

are still far away from serial production and presently show very poor price competitiveness and poor 

system performance and efficiency. 

The rapid evolution of hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles with electrically driven 

compressors introduces new challenges for any new alternative refrigerant. 

At present, no regulation exists that controls the use of fluorinated greenhouse gases as refrigerants 

for MAC systems in buses and trains. It is likely that the choice of refrigerant of passenger car air 

conditioning systems will influence the choice of refrigerant for air conditioning systems in buses and 

trains. 

Worldwide, approximate 50% of the bus and train fleet is still equipped with HCFC-22 systems. The 

rest use mostly HFC-134a or R-407C systems. Most new bus or train air conditioning systems are 

equipped with the refrigerants HFC-134a or R-407C. The only reported low GWP refrigerant 

activities are on-going fleet tests of R-744 systems in buses. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 69

4 TEAP and TOC Membership Information 

4.1 Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Disclosure of Interests 

Status January 2011 

Dr. Stephen O. Andersen 

(Panel Co-chair) 

P.O. Box 257 

2317 North Road 

Barnard, Vermont 05031-0257 

U.S.A. 

T 1 802-234-5251 

E-mail: SOliverAndersen@aol.com 

Dr. Stephen O. Andersen is Co-chair of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel since 1989 and 

member of the Scientific Assessment Panel. He chaired and co-chaired the Solvents TOC from 1989 to 1995; 

co-chaired the first Methyl Bromide Scientific and Technical Assessment; and chaired or co-chaired TEAP Task 

Forces on process agents, HCFCs, HFCs and PFCs, collection-recovery-storage, destruction, and other topics. 

He was a member of the Steering Committee to the “IPCC/TEAP Special Report Safeguarding the Ozone Layer 

and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons” and author for 

other IPCC reports. When he retired from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency September 1, 2009, he 

was Director of Strategic Climate Projects in the Climate Protection Partnerships Division and before that 

Deputy Director of the Stratospheric Protection Division. He was EPA Liaison to the U.S. Department of 

Defense (U.S. DoD) on Climate and Stratospheric Ozone Protection. He created EPA’s first voluntary 

partnerships including accelerated ODS phase-out agreements in food packaging foam, mobile AC, and 

electronics and aerospace solvent applications; helped organise the Halon Alternatives Research Corporation 

(HARC), the Industry Cooperative for Ozone Layer Protection (ICOLP) and the World Semiconductor Council 

PFC Partnership; and created the US EPA Stratospheric Ozone and Climate Protection Awards. 

Dr. Andersen is now Director of Research, Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development (IGSD); 

Senior Fellow at the Program on Governance for Sustainable Development, Bren School, University of 

California, Santa Barbara; and is a member of the Advisory Board of the Association of Climate Change 

Officers (ACCO) and member of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for 

Global Change. As Director of Research for the IGSD, Dr. Andersen focuses on governance strategies that 

promote cost-effective, sustainable, fast-action technologies to protect climate that can be implemented in an 

effective, transparent, and verifiable way. He is also President of Future Generations Consulting Corporation. 

Dr. Andersen is an occasional consultant to UNEP on investment choices that minimize climate and other 

impacts when replacing ozone-depleting and high-GWP substances and has consulted to the Natural Resources 

Defense Council (NRDC) on strategies to reduce and eliminate HFC emissions. Stephen is currently an unpaid 

member of the International Advisory Committee for the Basil Convention projects “Pilot Destruction of Ozone 

Depleting Substances (ODS) and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Legal Analysis of Feasibility of 

Transboundary Movements within Central American Countries” and “Feasibility Assessment and Preparation of 

the Destruction Banks of ODS and POPs in Central America.” 

 Since retiring from EPA, Stephen has been an invited speaker sponsored by the Institute for Governance and 

Sustainable Development, State of California, University of Michigan, Vermont Law School, Scripps Institution 

of Oceanography, the Smithsonian Institution, the Mobile Air Conditioning Society, UNEP, the Government of 

India, the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI), and Princeton University. In some cases, he has 

been paid an honorarium. 

Prior to joining EPA he was a professor at University of Hawaii and College of the Atlantic and an employee of 

NGOs including the Environmental Law Institute, the Consumer Energy Council, and the Sierra Club. He was 

also an unpaid member of the Board of Directors of the Natural Resources Council of Maine, which is an 

affiliate of the National Wildlife Federation. 

With K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen is author of “Protecting the Ozone Layer: The United Nations History,” 

(Earthscan 2002); with Durwood Zaelke author of “Industry Genius: Inventions and People Protecting the 

Climate and Fragile Ozone Layer,” (Greenleaf 2003); and with K. Madhava Sarma and Kristen N. Taddonio is 
70 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

author of “Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change,” (Earthscan 2007). With 

Guus J.M. Velders, John S. Daniel, David W. Fahey, and Mack McFarland, is author of “The Importance of the 

Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate,” (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 20 

March 2007) and “The Large Contribution of Projected HFC Emissions To Future Climate Forcing,” (PNAS, 7 

July 2009). With Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Veerabhadran Ramanathan and Donald 

Kaniaru is author of “Reducing Abrupt Climate Change Risk Using the Montreal Protocol and other Regulatory 

Actions to Complement Cuts in CO2 Emissions,” (PNAS, 12 October 2009). With Stella Papasavva is author of 

“GREEN-MAC-LCCP©; Life-Cycle Climate Performance Metric for Mobile Air Conditioning Technology 

Choice,” Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, American Institute of Chemical Engineering, and with 

Deborah J. Luecken, Robert L. Waterland, Stella Papasavva, Kristen N. Taddonio, William T. Hutzell, and John 

P. Rugh is author of “Ozone and TFA Impacts in North America from Degradation of 2,3,3,3-

Tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf), A Potential Greenhouse Gas Replacement,” Environ. Sci. Technol., 2010, 

44 (1), pp 343–348. 

Stephen Andersen earned his M.S. and Ph.D. in Agricultural and Natural Resources Economics from the 

University of California Berkeley, where in 1974 he co-authored the first assessment of the impact of 

stratospheric ozone depletion on agricultural crops. As an undergraduate, Stephen studied business 

administration. 

Stephen’s spouse, Dr. Janet Andersen, retired from the U.S. EPA Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic 

Substances where she had been Director of the division that registers bio-pesticides, including potential 

substitutes for methyl bromide. Drs. Andersen have no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to 

ODSs and do not own stocks in companies producing ODSs or alternatives and substitutes to ODSs. Janet is an 

occasional consultant to companies pursuing natural pesticides, including products that may help phaseout 

methyl bromide. Prior to September 2009, the U.S. EPA made in-kind contributions of wages, travel, 

communication, and other expenses and the U.S. DoD sponsored some travel. From September 2009 through 

October 2010, Stephen sponsored the travel and other expenses of participation in TEAP and Montreal Protocol 

meetings. Travel for continued participation on TEAP is sponsored by IGSD. 

Mr. Paul Ashford 

(Foams TOC Co-chair) 

Principal Consultant 

Caleb Management Services 

The Old Dairy, Woodend Farm Cromhall, 

Wotton-under-Edge 

Gloucestershire, GL12 8AA 

United Kingdom 

T 44 1454 269 330 

F 44 1454 269 197 

M 44 7774 110 814 

Paul Ashford has been the Co-chair of the Rigid and Flexible Foams Technical Options Committee and member 

of the TEAP since 1998. He is the owner and managing director of Caleb Management Services Ltd., a 

consulting company working in the chemical regulatory and sustainability arenas. Largely as a result of Mr. 

Ashford’s own background and expertise in the high GWP gases sector (ODS and their replacements), 

approximately 15-20% of the company’s turnover relates specifically to this sector. 

Past and current projects include assisting the US EPA in engaging with the foam sector on ODS phase-out 

issues, preparing publications on the foam sector for UNEP DTIE, providing advice to UNDP on the climate 

implications of ODS phase-out and ODS bank management including a review of the co-funding options that 

might be available, assisting with the climate impact evaluation of HCFC phase-out management plans and the 

peer review of documentation prepared by UNIDO on the same subject. Paul has also assisted the UN 

Multilateral Fund Secretariat in the development of approaches for assessing the climate impact of technology 

transitions. 

Additionally, Caleb has been involved in the quantification of ODS Banks in Foams in California (under 

contract to the California Air Resources Board) and in the United Kingdom (under contract to the Building 

Research Establishment). This work has extended to the validation of earlier work on banks in the EU-27 and 

the assessment of policy options for the European Commission (under contract to SKM Enviros). Paul Ashford 

was a member of the Working Group that supported the development of the ODS Protocol under the Climate 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 71

Action Reserve (CAR) and has also acted as an unpaid advisor to the development of the Voluntary Carbon 

Standard ‘Extension of Scope’ to include ODS destruction projects. Paul also acts as an occasional peer 

reviewer for ODS methodologies under the VCS programme. 

Paul co-chaired the TEAP Task Force on the Supplementary Report to the “IPCC/TEAP Special Report: 

Safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system: issues related to hydrofluorocarbons and 

perfluorocarbons” (2005), the Task Force on Foams End-of-Life Issues (2005) and the Task Force on Emissions 

Discrepancies (2006). He also co-chaired the TEAP Task Force Response to Decision XVIII/12 and coordinated the Interim and Phase 2 Reports of the Task Force for Decision XX/7 on the sound management of 

ODS Banks. He has most recently acted as co-chair of the Task Force in response to Decision XXII/10 on 

destruction project criteria. 

Paul gained a BSc. (Hons) in Chemistry at the University of Bristol in 1979. Until 1994, he worked in a variety 

of technical and commercial roles for BP Chemicals in a division that developed licensed foam technology 

using ODS and was responsible for the adoption of alternatives. He has over 25 years direct experience of foam 

related technical issues and has conducted numerous studies to characterise the foam sector and inform future 

policy development. His funding for TEAP activities, which includes some sponsorship of time, as well as 

coverage of travel and subsistence, is provided jointly under contract by the Department of Business, Innovation 

and Skills (BIS) and the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in the UK. 

Much of his earlier work on banks, emissions and foam end-of-life management, performed to inform both 

IPCC and TEAP processes was supported by the Alternative Flourocarbons Environmental Assessment Study 

(AFEAS) and the US EPA. 

Neither Paul, nor any of his family members hold and stock or have any proprietary interest in any company 

involved in the manufacture of ODS or ODS substitutes or in any company involved in the management of ODS 

Banks or similar waste streams. 

Prof. Mohamed Besri 

(MBTOC Co-chair) 

Department of Plant Pathology 

Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II 

Rabat 

Morocco 

E.mails: m.besri@iav.ac.ma, mohamedbesri@gmail.com 

T/F +212 537 778 364 

M +212 664 603 721 

Prof Mohamed Besri is Co-Chair of MBTOC since 2005, and member of MBTOC since 1996. Prof. Mohamed 

Besri, retired in July 2011 as Professor of Plant Pathology and Integrated Disease Management at the Hassan II 

Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Rabat, Morocco (HII IAVM), but he is still continuing all his 

previous activities (teaching, research, extension, national and international co-operation etc.) at the same 

Institute. Prof Besri is a visiting professor to many American, European and African universities. He is also 

member of various national and international associations and member of many executive committees and 

governing boards e.g. of the International Association for the Plant Protection Sciences (IAPPS) and of the 

International Association for Biological control (IOBC) and was Vice President and President of the Arab 

Society for Plant Protection. Prof. Besri was appointed by the Inter Academy Council (IAC) as member of the 

international study panel to write a report for the United Nations on "Realizing the promise and potential of 

African Agriculture: Science and technology strategies for improving agricultural productivity and food security 

in Africa" (www.interacademycouncil.net) and also as a member of an Ad Hoc Task Force to follow up the 

report recommendations. Prof. Besri is frequently invited as a speaker at national and international conferences 

dealing with methyl bromide and IPM and has authored or co authored many publications on alternatives to 

methyl bromide. Prof Besri has been awarded the medal of National merit by the King Mohamed VI for his 

contribution to the development of the Moroccan agriculture. Prof Besri is Academician, member of the 

Moroccan Academy of Sciences and technology. The HII IAVM has an interest in the topics of the Montreal 

Protocol because it houses specialists in Soil-borne Plant Pathogens. It advises the Ministry of Agriculture on 

all aspects of alternatives to Methyl Bromide. Prof. Besri has no proprietary interest in alternatives or 

substitutes to ODSs, does not own stock in companies producing ODS, alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. 

Prof. Besri works occasionally as a consultant to UNEP and UNIDO on matters related to the Montreal 

Protocol. Neither Prof. Besri’s spouse, business partner or dependant children, work for or consult for any 
72 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

organization, which has an interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol, nor do any of them have any 

proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, nor do any of them own stock in companies producing 

ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs or consult for organizations seeking to phase-out ODSs. Costs 

associated to travel, communication, and others related to participation in the TEAP, MBTOC, and relevant 

Montreal Protocol meetings, are paid by UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat. 

Mr. David Catchpole 

(Halons TOC Co-chair) 

Technical Consultant 

3601 C Street, Suite 822 

Anchorage 

Alaska 

U.S.A. 

T 1 907 868 3911 

Mr. David V. Catchpole, Co-Chair, Halons Technical Options Committee and Member, Technology and 

Economics Assessment Panel, works part time for Petrotechnical Resources Alaska (PRA), an Anchorage, 

Alaska based company that provides consulting services to oil companies in Alaska. From 1991 to 2004 he was 

a member of the HTOC. From 1970 until 1999, he was an employee of the BP group of companies, most 

recently BP Exploration Alaska, where he worked for nine years in the environmental department on 

alternatives to halon and on halon banking. Mr. Catchpole advises BP Exploration Alaska on fire protection and 

halon issues as his main activity for PRA. BP Exploration Alaska has an interest in the topics of the Montreal 

Protocol because it uses halon 1301 for explosion prevention and fire suppression in its enclosed oil and gas 

processing modules on the North Slope of Alaska. Mr. Catchpole has no proprietary interest in alternatives or 

substitutes to ODSs, does not own stock in companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, 

however his retirement portfolio contains stock in BP plc. Mr. Catchpole’s spouse does not work for or consult 

for any organization that has an interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol. His spouse has no proprietary 

interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, does not own stock in companies producing ODSs or alternatives 

or substitutes to ODSs and does not consult for organizations seeking to phase-out ODSs. Mr. Catchpole 

typically receives funding to support salary and travel to TEAP/TOC meetings from the Halon Alternatives 

Research Corporation, which is a not-for-profit industry coalition that in turn receives contributions for this 

funding from members. Current contributors are: BP Exploration Alaska, ConocoPhillips Alaska, DuPont, 

American Pacific, Firetrace, Halon Banking Systems, Wesco and Remtec. 

Prof. Dr. Biao Jiang 

(Chemicals TOC Co-chair) 

Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry (SIOC), 

Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) 

354 Fenglin Road 

Shanghai 200032 

The People’s Republic of China 

T 86 21 54925201 

F 86 21 64166128 

Dr. Biao Jiang, Co-chair of the Chemicals Technical Options Committee since 2005, is Professor of Chemistry 

of Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences and a member of editorial advisory 

board of Chemical Communication, Royal Society of Chemistry, United Kingdom. He received his PhD in 1988 

from Lanzhou University. After two years as postdoctoral research in the organometallic chemistry at SIOC, he 

spent three years as a visiting scientist working on the medicinal chemistry in DuPont-Merck Pharmaceutical 

Co., at the DuPont Experimental Station, Delaware, USA. In 1995, he returned to SIOC, where he is currently 

professor and was director from 2001 to 2009. Now he is a vice president of Shanghai Advanced Research 

Institute (SARI), Chinese Academy of Science. The research project of Professor Jiang’s group involves the 

development of new methodology in asymmetric synthesis, total synthesis of marine natural alkaloids and 

steroids, fluorine-containing bioactive molecular, as well as organic process research and development of green 

chemistry. He has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, and he does not own stock in 

companies producing ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. None of his family members have interest in 

matters before the Protocol. Cost of travel, communication and other expenses related to participation in the 

TEAP, CTOC, and relevant Montreal Protocol meetings are paid by UNEP. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 73

Dr. Sergey Kopylov 

(Halons TOC Co-chair) 

Head of Research Centre 

All Russian Research Institute for Fire Protection 

VNIIPO 

12, Balashikha 

Moscow Region 

T 7 495 521 9747 

F 7 495 521 4394 

Dr. Sergey Kopylov, Co-Chair, Halons Technical Options Committee and Member, Technology and Economics 

Assessment Panel, is the Head of the Scientific Centre of the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute for Fire 

Protection (VNIIPO). VNIIPO has an interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol as a body responsible for 

technical control of Montreal Protocol related issues in Russia. VNIIPO has no proprietary interest in 

alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, does not own or own stock in companies producing ODSs or alternatives or 

substitutes to ODSs. Dr. Kopylov works as a technical expert to the Russian government on matters related to 

the implementation of the Montreal Protocol. 

Dr. Kopylov's spouse does not work for or consult for any organization or company. Dr. Kopylov's spouse and 

children have no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, do not own or own stock in 

companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs and do not consult for organizations seeking 

to phase-out ODSs. Dr. Kopylov's travel to TEAP/HTOC meetings is paid for by UNEP's Ozone Secretariat. 

Dr. Lambert Kuijpers 

(Panel Co-chair, Refrigeration TOC Co-chair) 

Eindhoven Center for Sustainability, ECfS 

Technical University, Connector 1.15b 

Het Eeuwsel 6 

P.O. Box 513 

NL - 5600 MB Eindhoven 

The Netherlands 

T 31 40 247 4463 

F 31 49 247 6369 

H 31 77 354 6742 

Lambert Kuijpers, Co-chair of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel since 1992 and Co-chair of the 

Refrigeration, Air-conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee since 1989, works on a part-time 

basis for the Eindhoven Center for Sustainability, the Department “Technology for Sustainable Development” at 

the Technical University Eindhoven, The Netherlands. He co-chaired the TEAP Replenishment Task Forces 

since 1996 (the last is currently the 2011 TEAP Replenishment Task Force). He served on the Steering 

Committee to the “IPCC/TEAP Special Report “Safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system: 

issues related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons”. Dr. Kuijpers co-chaired the 2005 Task Force for 

the TEAP Supplementary Report to the IPCC/TEAP Special Report, the 2006 Task Force on Emissions 

Discrepancies and the 2007 Task Force on the Response to Decision XVIII/12. He co-ordinated the activities for 

the Task Force on Decision XX/8 and was involved in the work of the Task Force for Decision XX/7. He cochaired the Task Force for Decision XXI/9 in 2010. He was a Lead Author for both the Third and the Fourth 

IPCC Assessment Report. He also was a Co-author, contributor and reviewing member of the Ozone Science 

Assessment Panel in 2005-2006 and 2009-2010. As co-chair of the Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps TOC he 

was actively involved in the drafting, peer reviewing and final composition of all Assessment Reports, the last 

one being the 2010 Assessment Report. 

Until 1993, he worked for Philips Eindhoven (NL) in the development of refrigeration, air conditioning, and 

heat pump systems to use alternatives to ozone-depleting substances. He is financially supported (through the 

UNEP Ozone Secretariat) by the European Commission (and in certain years by some EU member state 

governments) for his activities related to the TEAP and the Refrigeration TOC. Dr. Kuijpers has no proprietary 

interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODS and does not own stock in companies producing ODS or 

alternatives or substitutes to ODS. He occasionally is a consultant to international organisations, such as the 

World Bank, UNIDO, UNEP DTIE and the Multilateral Fund. Dr. Kuijpers is a co-owner of the Re/genT BV 

Company, Netherlands, which he co-founded in 1993 and where he has a minority interest (this company is 
74 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

involved in the R&D of components and equipment for refrigeration, air-conditioning and heating). This implies 

that he has no influence in any business or management decisions taken within this company. 

In 2009 and 2010, Dr. Kuijpers was co-author of several papers on the impact of the CDM under the Kyoto 

Protocol on HFC-23 concentrations in the atmosphere. He was a keynote speaker and a paper author in 

conferences on ammonia refrigeration held in Ohrid, Macedonia. 

Ms. Bella Maranion 

(Senior Expert Member) 

Ms. Bella Maranion, Senior Expert Member, is a Program Analyst at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA). Ms. Maranion is a full time industry sector analyst and project manager in the USEPA's 

Stratospheric Protection Division, Washington, D.C. The USEPA has an interest in the topics of the Montreal 

Protocol because the Agency is responsible for implementing national regulations and policies to meet the US 

commitments under the Protocol. Ms. Maranion has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to 

ODSs or in companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, and does not consult for 

organizations seeking to phase-out ODSs. Ms. Maranion's spouse and dependent children have no proprietary 

interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs or companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to 

ODSs and do not consult for organizations seeking to phase-out ODSs. Ms. Maranion’s travel to meetings is 

paid for by the USEPA. 

Ms. Michelle Marcotte 

(MBTOC Co-chair) 

Marcotte Consulting Inc. 

(Marcotte Consulting Inc 

is a Canadian corporation; 

its President, Michelle Marcotte, 

is located at: 

10104 East Franklin Ave. 

Glenn Dale, Maryland 20769 

USA 

Ms Michelle Marcotte was a member of the 1992 Methyl Bromide Assessment and subsequently a member of 

the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee between 1992 and 2005; she was confirmed as Co-Chair in 

2005. Until 1993 she worked for MDS Nordion, a supplier of radiation processing equipment, which is an 

alternative to the use of methyl bromide in some commodity and quarantine situations. Since then, Ms Marcotte, 

through Marcotte Consulting, has provided consulting services to governments and agri-food companies in eight 

countries on agri-environmental issues, food technology, regulatory affairs, specialty chemicals such as 

disinfectants and radiation processing. Marcotte Consulting has an interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol 

because of its long time market development work in food irradiation, an alternative to some methyl bromide 

uses (particularly quarantine and postharvest commodities), and because of its interest in food processing, food 

safety and trade. In the field of methyl bromide alternatives, Ms Marcotte has published case studies for pest 

control in food processing facilities, for stored commodities, for alternatives for quarantine and for greenhouse 

use. She is a member of the Canada Industry-Government Methyl Bromide Working Group and the CanadaUSA Methyl Bromide Working Group; both organizations work to achieve phase out of methyl bromide in the 

agri-food sector. Marcotte has consulted to companies, industry associations, the International Atomic Energy 

Agency and USAID on irradiation as a methyl bromide alternative in food processing, quarantine and trade. She 

has also prepared consulting reports summarizing research in methyl bromide alternatives and case studies on 

food processing for US Environmental Protection Agency. 

Ms Marcotte has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, does not own stock in companies 

producing ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Ms Marcotte’s spouse is a consultant to the United States 

Department of Agriculture for quarantine issues and methyl bromide alternatives and is a member of MBTOC. 

He does not have proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODS and does not own stock in companies 

producing ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Marcotte receives a consulting contract from Government 

of Canada, Environment Canada, a Party to the Montreal Protocol that is committed to the phase out of methyl 

bromide. Ms Marcotte pays for travel to TEAP, MBTOC and Montreal Protocol meetings out of consultancy 

funds provided by the Canadian government, Environment Canada, to support her work on MBTOC. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 75

Prof. Dr. Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto 

(RTOC Co-chair) 

Maua Institute of Technology - IMT 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Praça Mauá 01 

Sao Caetano do Sul 

Sao Paulo - 09580-900 

Brazil 

T 55-11- 4239 3021 

e-mail: robertopeixoto@maua.br 

Prof. Dr. Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto, member of the RTOC, is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the 

Instituto Maua de Tecnologia – IMT (Maua Institute of Technology). Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto is a full time 

professor at the IMT campus in Sao Caetano do Sul, SP, Brazil. The IMT has an interest in the topics of the 

Montreal Protocol because it has undergraduate and graduate courses and research activities on refrigeration and 

air conditioning technologies, thermal sciences and energy and environment areas. Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto 

has no proprietary interest alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, does not own stock in companies producing ODS 

or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, does not consulting for organisations seeking to phase out ODSs. 

Roberto’s spouse has no interest in matters related to the Protocol. Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto works 

occasionally as a consultant to UNEP, and UNDP on matters related to the Montreal Protocol. Roberto A. 

Peixoto received a Bachelor of Science and a Master of Science in Naval Engineering from the University of 

Sao Paulo and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and Thermal Sciences from the University of Sao Paulo, 

Brazil. He is presently Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Maua Technological Institute (SP- Brazil), where 

he is teaching and co-ordinating studies and research in energy and environment area, and consultant to 

international institutions. 

Ms. Marta Pizano 

(Panel Co-chair, MBTOC Co-chair) 

Consultant 

Bogotá 

Colombia 

Ms. Marta Pizano is Co-Chair of TEAP since 2010, Co-Chair of MBTOC since 2005, and member of MBTOC 

since 1998. She presently chairs the MBTOC Quarantine and Preshipment (QPS) subcommittee. Ms. Pizano is a 

frequent consultant for the Montreal Protocol Implementing Agencies and has actively worked with methyl 

bromide users and other key stakeholders in many countries to identify and implement alternatives to methyl 

bromide. 

She consults mostly for the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), but occasionally 

also United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and 

the World Bank (WB). She has also assisted the Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund (MLF) in the preparation 

of studies relating to methyl bromide and other ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). All consultancies are 

conducted on a short-term assignment basis. Ms. Pizano has contributed to methyl bromide phase-out programs 

in over twenty Article 5 Parties around the world, assisting users with the adoption of sustainable alternatives 

and the implementation of IPM programs. She is frequently invited as a speaker at national and international 

conferences dealing with methyl bromide and has authored numerous publications on substitutes and 

alternatives to methyl bromide fumigation. 

Currently, she is a member of the International Advisory Committee and a consultant for the Basel Convention 

projects on “Destruction of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)” 

which is being developed by the Basel Convention Regional Centre for Central America and Mexico. 

Mr. Jose Pons Pons 

(MTOC Co-chair) 

Spray Química C.A 

La Victoria 

Venezuela 

Jose Pons, member of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and Co-chair of the Medical Technical 

Options Committee since 1991, is President of Spray Química C.A. . Spray Química had an interest in the topics 
76 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

of the Montreal Protocol because it used ODS in some of its aerosol products for industrial maintenance. Mr. 

Pons is president of the Venezuelan Chamber of Aerosols, CAVEA and has worked in ozone layer protection 

since 1989. He has participated in several TEAP Task Forces and on the Steering Committee to the 

“IPCC/TEAP Special Report Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to 

Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons”. Mr Pons has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to 

ODS, does not own stock in companies producing ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODS, does not have an 

interest in the outcome of essential use nominations, and does not consult for organisations seeking to phase out 

ODS. Mr Pons’s spouse has no interest in matters before the Protocol; she is also a manager/engineer at Spray 

Química. Mr Pons has worked occasionally as a project reviewer for the MLF and implementing agencies on 

matters related to the Montreal Protocol. Travel related to participation in the TEAP and MTOC, and relevant 

Protocol meetings, are paid by UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat. Spray Química makes in-kind contributions of wage, 

and miscellaneous and communication expenses. 

Dr. Ian J. Porter 

(MBTOC Co-chair) 

Consultant and Principal Research Scientist 

Primary Industries Research Victoria 

Department of Primary Industries 

Private Bag 15, Ferntree Gully Delivery Centre 3156, 

Victoria, Australia. 

T 61 3 9210 9222 

F 61 3 9800 3521 

M 61 (0) 417 544 080 

Email: ian.j.porter@dpi.vic.gov.au 

Dr Ian Porter is an Associate Professor with LaTrobe University and Principal Research Scientist with the 

Victorian Department of Primary Industries (DPI), but takes leave from this organisation to conduct Montreal 

Protocol duties. DPI has an interest in developing sustainable alternatives to methyl bromide and integrated pest 

management strategies for control of plant pathogens and pests, and issues related to biosecurity. He has been a 

member of a number of National Committees regulating ODS, has led the Australian research program on 

methyl bromide alternatives for soils since 1992 and has 29 years experience in researching sustainable methods 

for soil disinfestation of plant pathogens with over 250 research publications. He has been a member of 

MBTOC since 1997, chair of the Soils sub committee from 2001 and MBTOC Co-chair since 2005. Neither 

Ian, his wife or children have any proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, nor own stock in 

companies producing ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Dr Porter is presently leading national 

programs on integrated pest management and soil health in the Australian horticultural industries. He has acted 

as a key consultant for UNEP and UNIDO in developing programmes to assist China, Mexico and CEIT 

countries to replace methyl bromide. He regularly participates in workshops to assist countries with alternatives 

to methyl bromide and gives keynote addresses to international conferences on alternatives to methyl bromide in 

horticultural industries. He is presently funded by the European Commission through the Ozone Secretariat to 

support and attend MBTOC and TEAP activities and meetings. In kind contributions from the Victorian 

Department of Primary Industries and Australian Federal Government Research Funds have provided past 

support. 

Mr. Miguel W. Quintero 

(FTOC Co-chair) 

Independent Consultant 

AK 1 # 78-10, IV-601 

Bogotá, Colombia 

T 0057 1 349 2325 

M 0057 31 426 37 857 

miquinte@gmail.com 

Mr. Miguel W. Quintero, Co-chair of the Foams Technical Options Committee since 2002, is an independent 

consultant in the area of polyurethane technology. He has been a professor at the Chemical Engineering 

Department at Universidad de los Andes in Bogota, Colombia, in the areas of polymer processing and transport 

phenomena from 2000 to 2006. Mr. Quintero worked over a 21 year period (1980 - 2000) for Dow Chemical at 

the Research & Development and Technical Service & Development Departments in the area of rigid 

polyurethane foam. In the period January 2007- October 2008, he returned to Dow Europe as Development 

Leader for Polyurethane Product Research, located in Freienbach, Switzerland. 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 77

As foam expert Mr. Quintero is a regular consultant for UNDP currently supporting the HPMP preparation 

process in Latin America. He is a member of the World Bank’s OORG advisory group in the area of foams and 

he is also an advisor of Espumlatex, a Colombian system house active in the local automotive, thermal 

insulation and polyurethane flexible foam markets. 

Costs associated with travel, communication, and others related to participation in the TEAP, FTOC and 

relevant Montreal Protocol meetings are paid by UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat. 

Mr. Quintero owns stock in The Dow Chemical Co., which is now or has previously been a producer of ozonedepleting substances and products made with or containing ozone depleting substances and their substitutes and 

alternatives. Mr. Quintero ́s spouse and dependent children have no proprietary interest in alternatives or 

substitutes to ODSs, do not own stock in companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, and 

do not consult for organizations seeking to phase-out ODSs. 

Dr. Ian D. Rae 

(Chemicals TOC Co-Chair) 

16 Bates Drive 

Williamstown, Vic 3016 

Australia 

T 0061 3 9397 3794 

F 0061 3 9397 3794 

Dr. Rae, Co-chair of the Chemicals Technical Options Committee since 2005, is an Honorary Professorial 

Fellow at the University of Melbourne, Australia, and a member of advisory bodies for several Australian 

government agencies dealing with chemical issues. He co-chaired the 2001 and 2004 Process Agent Task 

Forces. He was a member of the POPs Review Committee for the Stockholm Convention 2005-2009. On 

occasions, he acts as consultant to government agencies and to universities and companies and he has been an 

expert witness in a case involving alleged patent infringement involving HFC-134a and its lubricants. Neither he 

nor his wife owns stock in any company dealing with ozone depleting substances or their alternatives. He 

contributes the time for his own participation in TEAP activities. The Australian Government Department of the 

Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities finances the cost of travel and 

accommodation for Dr. Rae’s attendance at meetings of the CTOC, TEAP, OEWG and MOP. 

Dr. Helen Tope 

(MTOC Co-chair) 

Principal Consultant 

Energy International Australia 

Director, Planet Futures 

Unit 2, 9 Osborne Street 

Williamstown, Victoria 3016 

Australia 

T 61 3 9016 0435 

F 61 3 9012 7935 

M 61 414 563 474 

Helen Tope, co-chair Medical Technical Options Committee since 1995, is Principal Consultant of Energy 

International Australia and also Director of Planet Futures with whom she is an independent consultant 

providing strategic, policy and technical advice and facilitation services to government, industry and other nongovernmental organisations on climate change, ozone-depleting substances, and other environmental issues. Dr 

Tope’s business has an interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol because her potential clients are also 

interested in these topics. Dr Tope has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODS, does not own 

stock in companies producing ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODS, does not have an interest in the 

outcome of essential use nominations, and consults for organisations that support the Montreal Protocol in 

phasing out ODS. Dr Tope’s spouse, Mr. Michael Atkinson, is also her business partner, whose business has an 

interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol. During 2010, TEAP Co-Chair Dr. Stephen O. Andersen, Mr. 

Atkinson and Dr. Tope were unpaid advisors to a UNEP project on investment metrics for identifying 

technology that minimizes climate and other impacts when replacing ozone-depleting and high-GWP 

substances. In 2010 Dr Tope’s funding for travel to MTOC, TEAP and other meetings are provided from 

several sources. The Ozone Secretariat provides reimbursement for Dr Tope’s travel associated with the 

TEAP/MTOC mission to the Russian Federation on CFC MDI transition from funds granted to the Secretariat 

for this purpose by the Governments of Finland and Sweden and by pharmaceutical companies, JSC 
78 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Moschimpharmpreparaty and JSC Altayvitamin, in the Russian Federation. The Ozone Secretariat provides a 

grant for Dr Tope’s travel to the MTOC and TEAP meetings from funds granted to the Secretariat 

unconditionally by the International Pharmaceutical Aerosol Consortium (IPAC), which is a non-profit 

corporation. The Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 

provides funding for the cost of travel and accommodation for Dr Tope’s attendance of the OEWG-30. She 

makes considerable in-kind contributions of her time without compensation. 

Dr. Daniel P. Verdonik 

(Halons TOC Co-chair) 

Hughes Associates 

3610 Commerce Drive, STE 817 

Baltimore, MD 21227-1652 

U. S. A. 

T 1 443 253 7587 

F 1 410 737 8688 

Dr. Daniel P. Verdonik, co-Chair, Halons Technical Options Committee and Member, Technology and 

Economic Assessment Panel, is the Director, Environmental Programs, Hughes Associates, Inc. Dr. Verdonik is 

a full time, salaried employee at Hughes Associates, Inc., in Baltimore, MD and Arlington, VA providing 

consulting services in fire protection and environmental management. Hughes Associates, Inc. has an interest in 

the topics of the Montreal Protocol because it provides a wide range of fire protection research, design and 

consulting services to government and corporate clients, including work related to halons and halon alternatives. 

Hughes Associates, Inc. provides consulting services to organizations that may be affected positively or 

negatively by the phase-out of ODSs. Dr. Verdonik has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to 

ODSs, does not own stock in companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Dr. Verdonik 

is a share holder in Hughes Associates, Inc., which does not own stock in companies producing ODSs, or 

alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Dr. Verdonik currently provides consulting services through Hughes 

Associates, Inc. for the U.S. Army and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) on matters related 

to the Montreal Protocol and has previously provided services through Hughes Associates, Inc. to Implementing 

Agencies, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force and Chemtura (now DuPont). Dr. Verdonik’s spouse works for the 

USEPA, which has an interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol because the Agency is responsible for 

implementing national regulations and policies to meet the U.S. commitments under the Protocol. 

Dr. Verdonik’s spouse and dependent child have no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, 

do not own stock in companies producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, and do not consult for 

organizations seeking to phase-out ODSs. In the past, Hughes Associates, Inc. received funding to support Dr. 

Verdonik’s salary and travel to TEAP/HTOC/TSB meetings from UN organizations such as the MLF and 

UNEP, U.S. government organizations such as the U.S. Department of Defense, the USEPA, and the U.S. 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and non-governmental organizations such as the Halon 

Alternatives Research Corporation, which is a not-for-profit industry coalition that in turn receives contributions 

for this funding from members. Current funding to Hughes Associates, Inc. is from the U.S. Army and the 

HARC contributors BP Exploration Alaska, ConocoPhillips Alaska, DuPont, American Pacific, Firetrace, Halon 

Banking Systems, Wesco and Remtec. From time-to-time, Hughes Associates, Inc. may also provide its internal 

support for labour and travel for Dr. Verdonik to attend TEAP/HTOC/TSB meetings. 

Prof. Ashley Woodcock 

(MTOC Co-chair) 

North West Lung Centre 

South Manchester University Hospital Trust 

Manchester M23 9LT 

United Kingdom 

T 44 161 291 2398 

F 44 161 291 5020 

Prof. Ashley Woodcock, Co-chair of the Medical Technical Options Committee and Member of the Technology 

and Economic Assessment Panel, is a Respiratory physician at the University Hospital of South Manchester, and 

Head of the School of Translational Medicine for the University of Manchester. The Hospital and University 

have no direct interest in the topics of the Montreal Protocol. Prof. Woodcock has no proprietary interest in 

alternatives or substitutes to ODS, does not own stock in companies producing ODS or alternatives or 

substitutes to ODS, does not have an interest in the outcome of essential use nominations. Prof. Woodcock 

carries out unrelated consulting, research and educational lectures for pharmaceutical companies, all of which 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 79

are near completion of phase out of CFC MDIs. He advises companies on study design for new drugs, some of 

which have been ODS replacements. Prof. Woodcock’s spouse has no interest in matters before the Protocol. 

Prof. Woodcock does not work as a consultant to the UN, UNEP, MLF or Implementing Agencies. In the past, 

he has responded to requests for technical information on CFC MDI phase-out from the European Community 

and the United Kingdom Government. Travel and subsistence for meetings of TEAP, MTOC, OEWG, MOP 

meetings is paid from Hospital and University funds, and Prof. Woodcock’s employers allow leave of absence. 

Dr. Masaaki Yamabe 

(Chemicals TOC Co-chair) 

National Institute of Advanced Industrial 

Science and Technology (AIST) 

Onogawa 16-1 AIST West, Tsukuba 

Ibaraki 305-8569 

Japan 

T 0081 90 6011 6498 

F 0081 42 795 6498 

Mr. Masaaki Yamabe, Co-Chair of the Chemicals Technical Options Committee since 2005, is a research 

advisor of the Research Institute of Science for Safety and Sustainability at the National Institute of Advanced 

Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. He was a member of the Task Force on HCFCs in 2003, on 

the TEAP Legacy in 2007 and on the decision XX/8 in 2009. He co-chaired the 2004 Process Agent Task Force. 

He served as a Coordinating Lead Author (CLS) of Chapter 10 in the “IPCC/TEAP Special Report Safeguarding 

the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons” 

in 2005. He was a member of the Solvents TOC during 1990-1996. Until 1999, Mr. Yamabe was Director of 

Central Research of Asahi Glass Company, which previously produced CFCs, methyl chloroform, and carbon 

tetrachloride, and currently produces and distributes HCFC, carbon tetrachloride, and HFCs. He is the coinventor of HCFC-225, which is controlled under the Montreal Protocol as a transitional substance in the phaseout of ozone-depleting substances and is a substitute for CFC-113 in solvent and process agent applications. He 

owns stock in Asahi Glass Company that produces ozone-depleting substances and their substitutes. He also 

works for the Japan Industrial Conference for Ozone Layer and Climate Protection (JICOP) as a senior advisor. 

AIST, JICOP and Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) share the financing involved in the travel 

and accommodation for Mr. Yamabe’s attendance at the meetings of the CTOC, TEAP, OEWG and MOP. 

Prof. Dr. Shiqiu Zhang 

(Senior Expert) 

College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering (CESE) 

Director, Institute of Environment and Economy (IoEE) 

Peking University 

Beijing, 100871 

PR China 

T 86-10-62764974 

E-mail: zhangshq@pku.edu.cn; zsqces@yahoo.com.cn 

Dr. Shiqiu Zhang, Senior Expert Member of the TEAP, is a Professor on Environmental Economics and Policy, 

Director of Environment and Economy Institute and Deputy Dean of Environmental Science and Engineering of 

Peking University, China. She co-chaired the 2002, 2005, 2008, and 2011 Replenishment Task Forces. Dr. 

Zhang has no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, does not own stock in companies 

producing ODSs or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Dr. Zhang’s spouse works for the Longtop Group of 

China which is not related with ODS or alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. Dr. Zhang’s spouse and child have 

no proprietary interest in alternatives or substitutes to ODSs, do not own stock in companies producing ODSs or 

alternatives or substitutes to ODSs. The costs of travel, and other expenses related to participation in the TEAP 

and relevant Montreal Protocol meetings, are paid by UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat 
80 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

4.2 TEAP TOC Membership List Status January 2011 

Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) 

Co-chairs Affiliation Country 

Stephen O. Andersen Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development USA 

Lambert Kuijpers Technical University Eindhoven Netherlands 

Marta Pizano Consultant Colombia 

Senior Expert Members Affiliation Country 

Bella Maranion US Environmental Protection Agency USA 

Shiqiu Zhang Center of Environmental Sciences, Peking University China 

TOC Chairs Affiliation Country 

Paul Ashford Caleb Management Services UK 

Mohamed Besri Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II Morocco 

Biao Jiang Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry China 

David Catchpole Petrotechnical Resources Alaska UK 

Sergey Kopylov All Russian Research Institute for Fire Protection Russian Federation 

Michelle Marcotte Marcotte Consulting LLC and Marcotte Consulting Inc Canada 

Roberto de A. Peixoto Maua Technological Institute, IMT, Sao Paulo Brazil 

Jose Pons Pons Spray Quimica Venezuela 

Ian Porter Department of Primary Industries Australia 

Miguel Quintero Consultant Colombia 

Ian D. Rae University of Melbourne Australia 

Helen Tope Energy International Consultancy Australia 

Ashley Woodcock Wythenshawe Hospital Manchester UK 

Daniel Verdonik Hughes Associates USA 

Masaaki Yamabe National Inst. Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Japan 

TEAP Chemicals Technical Options Committee (CTOC)

Co-chairs Affiliation Country 

Biao Jiang Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry China 

Ian D. Rae University of Melbourne Australia 

Masaaki Yamabe National Inst. Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Japan 

 

Members Affiliation Country 

D. D. Arora The Energy and Research Institute India 

Steven Bernhardt Honeywell USA 

Olga Blinova Russian Scientific Center for Applied Chemistry Russia 

Jianxin Hu College of Environmental Sciences & Engineering, Peking 

University 

China 

Michael Kishimba University of Dar-es-Salaam Tanzania 

Abid Merchant Consultant USA 

Koichi Mizuno National Inst. Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Japan 

Keichi Ohnishi Asahi Glass Japan 

Claudia Paratori Coordinator Ozone Programme -CONAMA Chile 

Hans Porre Teijin Aramids Netherlands 

John Stemniski Consultant USA 

Fatemah Al-Shatti Kuwait Petroleum Corporation Kuwait 

Nee Sun Choong Kwet 

Yive (Robert) 

University of Mauritius Mauritius 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 81

TEAP Flexible and Rigid Foams Technical Options Committee (FTOC) 

Co-chairs Affiliation Country 

Paul Ashford Caleb Management Services UK 

Miguel Quintero Consultant Colombia 

Members Affiliation Country 

Terry Armitt Hennecke USA 

Chris Bloom Dow USA 

Roy Chowdhury Australia Urethane Systems Australia 

Kyoshi Hara JUFA Japan 

Mike Hayslett Maytag/AHAM USA 

Mike Jeffs ISOPA Belgium 

Candido Lomba ABRIPUR Brazil 

Yehia Lotfi Technocom Egypt 

Christoph Meurer Solvay Germany 

Francesca Pignagnoli Dow Italy 

Ulrich Schmidt Haltermann/Dow Germany 

Enshang Sheng Huntsman Co China 

Helen Walter-Terrinoni Dupont USA 

Tom Werkema Arkema USA 

Dave Williams Honeywell USA 

Allen Zhang Owens Corning China 

TEAP Halons Technical Options Committee (HTOC) 

Co-chairs Affiliation Country 

David V. Catchpole Petrotechnical Resources Alaska UK 

Sergey Kopylov All Russian Research Institute for Fire Protection Russian Federation 

Daniel P. Verdonik Hughes Associates USA 

 

Members 

Tareq K. Al-Awad King Abdullah II Design & Development Bureau Jordan 

Jamal Alfuzaie Kuwait Fire Department Kuwait 

Seunghwan (Charles) Choi Hanju Chemical Co., Ltd. South Korea 

Michelle M. Collins Consultant- EECO International USA 

Salomon Gomez Tecnofuego Venezuela 

Andrew Greig Protection Projects Inc South Africa 

Zhou Kaixuan CAAC-AAD PR China 

H. S. Kaprwan Consultant – Retired India 

Nikolai Kopylov All Russian Research Institute for Fire Protection Russian Federation 

David Liddy United Kingdom Ministry of Defence UK 

John J. O’Sullivan Bureau Veriitas UK 

Emma Palumbo Safety Hi-tech srl Italy 

Erik Pedersen Consultant – World Bank Denmark 

Donald Thomson Manitoba Hydro & MOPIA Canada 

Caroline Vuillin European Aviation Safety Agency France 

Robert T. Wickham Consultant-Wickham Associates USA 

Mitsuru Yagi Nohmi Bosai Ltd & Fire and Environment Prot. Network Japan 

Yong Meng Wah Singapore Civil Defence Force Singapore 

 

Consulting Experts 

Thomas Cortina Halon Alternatives Research Corporation USA 

Matsuo Ishiyama Nohmi Bosai Ltd & Fire and Environment Prot. Network Japan 

Steve McCormick United States Army USA 

John G. Owens 3M Company USA 

Mark L. Robin DuPont USA 

Joseph A. Senecal Kidde-Fenwal USA 

Ronald S. Sheinson Naval Research Laboratory – Department of the Navy USA 

Ronald Sibley Defense Supply Center, Richmond USA 
82 2010 TEAP Assessment Report

Medical Technical Options Committee (MTOC) 

Co-chairs Affiliation Country 

Jose Pons Pons Spray Quimica Venezuela 

Helen Tope Energy International Australia Australia 

Ashley Woodcock University Hospital of South Manchester UK 

Members Affiliation Country 

Emmanuel Addo-Yobo Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Ghana 

Paul Atkins Oriel Therapeutics Inc. USA 

Sidney Braman Rhode Island Hospital USA 

Nick Campbell Arkema SA France 

Hisbello Campos Centro de Referencia Prof. Helio Fraga, Ministry of Health Brazil 

Jorge Caneva Favaloro Foundation Argentina 

Christer Carling Private Consultant Sweden 

Guiliang Chen Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control China 

Antoine Haddad Chiesi Farmaceutici Italy 

Charles Hancock Charles O. Hancock Associates USA 

Eamonn Hoxey Johnson & Johnson UK 

Javaid Khan The Aga Khan University Pakistan 

Suzanne Leung 3M USA 

Nasser Mazhari Sina Darou Laboratories Company Iran 

Gerald McDonnell STERIS UK 

Hideo Mori Otsuka Pharmaceutical Company Japan 

Tunde Otulana Aerovance Inc. USA 

John Pritchard Philips Home Healthcare Solutions UK 

Rabbur Reza Beximco Pharmaceuticals Bangladesh 

Raj Singh The Chest Centre India 

Roland Stechert Boehringer Ingelheim Germany 

Ping Wang Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission China 

Adam Wanner University of Miami USA 

Kristine Whorlow National Asthma Council Australia Australia 

You Yizhong Journal of Aerosol Communication China 

TEAP Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) 

Co-chairs Affiliation Country 

Mohamed Besri Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II Morocco 

Michelle Marcotte Marcotte Consulting Canada 

Marta Pizano Consultant Colombia 

Ian Porter Department of Primary Industries Australia 

 

Members Affiliation Country 

Jonathan Banks Consultant Australia 

Tom Batchelor Touchdown Consulting Belgium 

Chris Bell Consultant UK 

Antonio Bello Centro de Ciencias Medioambientales Spain 

Fred Bergwerff Eco2, Netherlands The Netherlands 

Aocheng Cao Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences China 

Peter Caulkins US Environmental Protection Agency USA 

Ricardo Deang Consultant Philippines 

Patrick Ducom Consultant France 

Abraham Gamliel Agricultural Research Organisation Israel 

Raquel Ghini EMBRAPA Brasil 

Ken Glassey MAFF New Zealand 

Alfredo Gonzalez Fumigator Philippines 

Darka Hamel Inst. For Plant Protection in Ag. And Forestry Croatia 

George Lazarovits Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Canada 

Andrea Minuto CERSAA, Albenga Italy 

Takashi Misumi MAFF Japan 
2010 TEAP Assessment Report 83

David Okioga Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Kenya 

Christoph Reichmuth Humboldt University Germany 

Jordi Riudavets IRTA – Department of Plant Protection Spain 

John Sansone SCC Products USA 

Jim Schaub US Department of Agriculture USA 

Sally Schneider US Department of Agriculture USA 

JL Staphorst Plant Protection Research Institute South Africa 

Akio Tateya Japan Fumigation Technology Association Japan 

Robert Taylor Consultant UK 

James Turner Forest Research Institute (Scion) New Zealand 

Alejandro Valeiro Department of Agriculture Argentina 

Ken Vick Consultant USA 

Nick Vink University of Stellenbosch South Africa 

Janny Vos CABI International The Netherlands 

Chris Watson Consultant UK 

Jim Wells Environmental Solutions Group USA 

Eduardo Willink Ministerio de Agricultura Argentina 

Suat Yilmaz BATEM Horticulture Research Station Turkey 

TEAP Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee 

(RTOC) 

Co-chair Affiliation Country 

Lambert Kuijpers Technical University Eindhoven Netherlands 

Roberto de A. Peixoto Maua Technological Institute, IMT, Sao Paulo Brazil 

 

Members Affiliation Country 

Radhey S. Agarwal IIT New Delhi India 

James M. Calm Engineering Consultant USA 

Radim Cermak Ingersoll Rand Czech Rep. 

Guangming Chen Inst. For Refrigeration and Cryogenic Eng., Shanghai China 

Denis Clodic Ecole des Mines France 

Daniel Colbourne Consultant UK 

Sukumar Devotta Consultant India 

Martin Dieryckx Daikin Europe Belgium 

Dennis Dorman Trane USA 

Kenneth E. Hickman Consultant USA 

William Hill Consultant USA 

Martien Janssen Re/genT Netherlands 

Makoto Kaibara Panasonic, Research and Technology Japan 

Michael Kauffeld Fachhochschule Karlsruhe Germany 

Fred Keller Consultant USA 

Jürgen Köhler University of Braunschweig Germany 

Holger König Heat AG, Vienna Germany 

Edward J. McInerney Consultant USA 

Petter Nekså SINTEF Energy Research Norway 

Horace Nelson Consultant Jamaica 

Alexander C. Pachai Johnson Controls Denmark 

Andy Pearson Star Refrigeration Glasgow UK 

Per Henrik Pedersen Danish Technological Institute Denmark 

Sulkan Suladze Consultant Georgia 

Paulo Vodianitskaia Consultant Brazil