# Patent

## Title
Harnessing cell dynamics to engineer materials

## Abstract

The invention features synthetic materials and methods for inducing cell behavior. Matrix materials induce cell differentiation and cell manipulation based on mechanical and physical characteristics of the materials rather than chemical characteristics.

## Background
RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a national stage application, filed under 35 U.S.C. §371, of International Application No. PCT/US2010/030853, filed Apr. 13, 2010, which claims the benefit of provisional application U.S. Ser. No. 61/168,909, filed Apr. 13, 2009, the contents of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties.


GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
This invention was made with Government support under R37 DE013033 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention.


BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Over the recent decades, it has become apparent that cells receive information from their microenvironment. However, the mechanism(s) by which the information is conveyed has been elusive.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The invention is based on the discovery that stiffness of a composition encountered by cell triggers behavior of the cell, e.g., cell differentiation and cell traction. Another characteristic of the composition encountered, density of adhesion molecules, also influences cell behaviors such as differentiation and traction.
Accordingly, the invention features synthetic materials and methods for inducing cell behavior. Adhesion molecule presentation is coupled to biomaterial physical properties via cell mechanics, and the mechanics of both extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and cells regulate the steady state number of bound adhesion ligands. Mechano-sensitivity of cell-adhesion ligand bond formation is one means for cells to sense the stiffness of their micro-environment.
A method of inducing differentiation of a stem cell is carried out by contacting the stem cell with a 3-dimensional material comprising a pre-determined density of an adhesion molecule and a predetermined stiffness. The density of the adhesion molecule and/or the stiffness (elastic modulus) of the material determine a cell type into which the stem cell differentiates. For example, stiffness in the range of 22-45 kPA induces stem cells to differentiate into an osteogenic lineage.
A method of inducing molecular manipulation of a bioactive composition by a cell is carried out by contacting the cell with the composition in or on a matrix. The physical and/or mechanical characteristics of the matrix induce traction on the matrix by the cell, thereby mediating molecular manipulation of the composition. In one example, the bioactive composition is a prodrug (i.e., biologically inactive form) and traction on the matrix leads to transformation of the prodrug into an active form, i.e., biologically active form, of the drug.
Also within the invention are methods of capturing target cells based on their response to materials with varied stiffness and adhesion molecule density. These parameters are also useful to direct cells to manipulate materials and compositions at a nanoscale or microscale level to build complex structures or molecules.
Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from the claims. All references cited herein are incorporated by reference.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1A is a series of photographs showing in-situ staining of encapsulated mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) alkaline phosphatase activity (Fast blue) and neutral lipid accumulation (Oil Red O).
FIG. 1B is a series of photographs showing in-situ immunofluorescence staining of encapsulated cells for OCN (green) and LPL (red) presence. Nuclei are counterstained with Hoescht 33342 (blue).
FIG. 1C is a bar graph showing semi-quantitative densitometry of endpoint RT-PCR analysis of Osteocalcin (OCN; ) and Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL; ) expression in MSC cultured in 3D matrices with identical adhesion ligand density but varying rigidity and exposed to either DMEM or DMEM supplemented with induction media. Expression levels were normalized to expression of naive MSC.
FIGS. 1D-E are photomicrographs of MSC encapsulated into 3D alginate matrices with varying rigidity and constant (150 nM) RGD density, visualized by (D) DIC or (E) Alexa Fluor 568-Phalloidin staining Scale bars: (A), 100 μm, (B,D) 10 μm and (E), 5 μm. These figures show that matrix compliance alters MSC differentiation but not morphology in 3D matrices.
FIG. 2A is a bar graph showing FRET due to traction-mediated RGD clustering by MSC in 3D matrices of varying rigidity.
FIG. 2B is a bar graph showing calculated final distance d between RGD peptides on from different chains of alginate polymer in the same matrix as a function of E. (*p<0.01 versus other conditions, Tukey test).
FIG. 2C is a plot of response surface of the calculated bond density, Nb, based on FRET measurements of MSC in matrices where available RGD density and elastic modulus were varied in parallel. NRGD, the number of available RGD peptides per cell was calculated based on the cell and RGD concentration. Analysis of the response surface revealed significant effects of both RGD density and the interaction between RGD density and elastic modulus (2-way ANOVA; p<0.01).
FIG. 2D is a graph showing the curve of Nb versus E generated from FRET studies using matrices formed from various alginate polymers and crosslinking agents presenting a constant density (370 nM) of RGD. Error bars are SD for clustering and SEM for Nb measurements. The data shown in FIGS. 2A-D indicate that stem cells mechanically reorganize 3D matrices on the nanometer scale, leading to changes in the number of molecular cell-material bonds.
FIG. 3A is a series of photographs showing immunofluorescence analysis of α5 and αV integrins bound to ECM in MSC adherent to FN or VN coated glass.
FIG. 3B is a series of photographs showing localization of EGFP-α5-integrins or naked EGFP in MSC encapsulated into 3D matrices with varying rigidity presenting 150 nM RGD.
FIG. 3C is a bar graph showing quantification of integrin localization to the cell-matrix interface (*p<0.05, Holm-Bonferroni-test).
FIG. 3D is a line graph showing α5-integrin-RGD bond formation in matrices with varying stiffness presenting either 371 nM () or 7.4 μM () RGD-biotin (*p<0.01, two-tailed t-test).
FIG. 3E is a line graph showing αv-integrin binding to RGD presented by 2D substrates presenting 371 nM RGD. Data () were fit by a hyperbolic curve (—; E1/2=2.4 kPa, R2=0.87).
FIG. 3F is a series of photographs showing histological analysis of constructs at 1 week in MSC in RGD-modified 22 kPa matrices in which α5-RGD bonds were inhibited with function-blocking antibodies. In-situ staining of encapsulated cultured with function blocking α5-integrin antibodies for Alkaline Phosphatase activity (Fast blue) and neutral Lipid accumulation (Oil Red O). In-situ immunofluorescence staining of MSC for OCN (green) and LPL (red) presence. Nuclei are counterstained with Hoescht 33342 (blue). The data shown in FIGS. 3A-F indicate that matrix mechanics and dimensionality control the type of integrins bound to RGD.
FIG. 4A is a bar graph showing that enhancing acto-myosin mediated cell-traction forces by serum starving D1 MSC and then treating the cells with a high dose of serum immediately before measuring cell-RGD bonds (+) caused more bonds to form in 45 kPa matrices, whereas fewer bonds formed in 6 kPa matrices, compared to what was formed with untreated cells (−).
FIG. 4B is a line graph showing the curves of cell-RGD bond formation versus hydrogel elastic modulus E for NIH-3T3 fibroblasts and D1 MSC revealed that fibroblasts optimally formed bonds in 45 kPa matrices, whereas MSC formed bonds optimally at 22 kPa. The data shown in FIGS. 4A-B demonstrate cell phenotype-specific integrin-mediated adhesion to RGD-modified hydrogels.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Described herein are compositions and methods for engineering synthetic materials, pro-drugs and other macromolecules in-situ by harnessing and controlling cells' ability to mechanically reorganize them. The degree of cell-mediated processing is controlled by the mechanical properties of the macromolecule presented to the cells, as well as the physical constraints imposed on cells (e.g. whether the material is presented as a 2D surface compared to a 3D matrix). Cell-traction forces contribute to this processing and allow cells, e.g., stem cells, to reorganize a matrix into one that facilitates their osteogenic (bone) differentiation, and to use a specific receptor, α5-integrin, to ligate RGD peptides (which peptides do not normally bind this receptor when they are presented from a 2D material). Cell-mediated reorganization of the material was found to be different for different cell types, with certain characteristics of the template material facilitating receptor-mediated interaction of the material with stem cells but not fibroblasts.
Cell Sensing of Mechanical Parameters and Responses Thereto
The biphasic dependence of integrin-RGD bond number on matrix stiffness differs from the monotonic dependence of cell adhesion as a function of matrix stiffness observed in 2D studies. The biphasic sensing represents a more physiologically relevant response of cells to ECM stiffness in vivo. Integrin-mediated signaling and the number of cell-matrix bonds provides the basis for rational design criteria for selecting both the biological (e.g. the density of adhesion ligands) and biophysical properties of micro-environments to manipulate cell behavior in vitro and in vivo. A significant component of the effective matrix stiffness cells “feel” is determined by the resistance the cell encounters in reorganizing adhesion epitopes rather than the force they would have to exert to deform the underlying substrate, unless those epitopes are covalently coupled to it.
Harnessing Cell Dynamics to Process Macromolecules
Cells apply dynamic forces to materials or devices (e.g. actomyosin mediated contractility applied by mammalian cells). These forces are harnessed to process devices and molecules in-situ.
Such macromolecular devices or drugs are useful for a biomedical or industrial application involving cells (either eukaryote or prokaryote). The manner and degree of processing by cells is determined by their phenotype, but can be modulated by controlling the mechanical properties of the template device or material. Hence, simple template materials which can be manufactured easily are transformed by the cells into functionally complex in-situ structures, macromolecules, and drugs. For example, prodrugs are processed into active drugs by cell manipulation of the prodrug associated with a matrix material. These materials function in a manner specific to a target cell type.
The dimensionality of the adhesion substrate has so been shown to change cell fate, with more physiologically relevant 3D materials facilitating cell signaling programs which most closely match what occurs in vivo. Matrix rigidity regulates stem cell lineage specification in 3D—however, this does not correlate significantly with changes in cell morphology (FIGS. 1A-E).
Changes in cell shape per se may not explain changes in gene expression. Mechanical and physical properties of a matrix encountered by a cell regulate cells' ability to reorganize the molecular receptor-matrix interface using motor proteins (e.g. Myosin II). These protein motors exert traction on the matrix through integrin receptors that are coupled to the cytoskeleton. Cells in 3D do indeed reorganize the matrix on the nanometer scale, and this reorganization correlates with substantial changes in the number of ligated adhesion receptors (FIGS. 2A-D). Hence, cells have the ability to create a new material by mechanical nanopatterning, and manipulating stem cells' ability to do this by altering matrix rigidity determines whether the stem cells commit to a particular lineage.
In the past, the structure of nanoengineered materials is determined during the initial manufacturing process, often by costly methods such as lithography. Such methods are not only costly, but are often poorly suited to scale-up and thus may not be useful for engineering materials large enough to be useful for clinical applications. Moreover, because the ability of these nanoengineered materials to influence the fate of cells and organ systems depends on their maintaining a given nanoscale structure or pattern, they must be designed to resist any structural or biochemical changes in-situ.
Because of proven advantages of nanoengineered materials in controlling cell-fate, it would be advantageous to provide a material that can be processed, in a favorable way (e.g. to increase functionality) in-situ. Because the structure and function of the material are determined in part by cells, this strategy is useful to create materials that are targeted to a specific type of cell (e.g. mitotic cancer cells, stem cells). As an example, stem cells and fibroblasts have a differential ability to mechanically modify hydrogels presenting the RGD peptide. As shown in (FIGS. 4A-B), stem cells optimally form integrin-RGD bonds in 22 kPa hydrogels, whereas fibroblasts form bonds optimally at 45 kPa. In softer hydrogels (6 kPa), stem cells form significant bond numbers, whereas fibroblasts display very limited bond formation. These data demonstrate a simple yet powerful way to design “phenotype specific” materials. In contrast to earlier reports, incorporating material components that are labile to the action of enzymes produced by specific cells, the strategy described here is used for constructive, rather than destructive, modification of the material.
Cell-Mediated Construction
Cells receive mechanical information from compositions that they physically encounter. In turn, the cells manipulate their environment based on the signals they receive from the compositions. Cells detect nanometer scale topograph of materials with which they come into contact and then manipulate/engineer those materials. Thus, the methods involve providing to cells of interest (e.g., stem cells) the building blocks from which the cells build structures or macromolecular assemblies (e.g., drugs). The building blocks are tailored to be in a correct mechanical range (e.g., not too stiff, not too soft) and to comprise a suitable density of receptors for a target cell type to allow cell-mediated manipulations. Certain cell types respond to and manipulate materials within specific ranges (elastic modulus) of stiffness and comprising a preferred range of receptors or ligands with which the cells form bonds. In this manner, the traction forces exerted by cells make compositions that are more complex than compositions constructed by conventional nanoscale manufacturing techniques such as lithography.
Cell Targetting
A critical issue in designing drugs or biomedical devices is to specifically target certain cell types but not others. Another critical issue is the need to balance functional complexity required for biological performance with simplicity that will allow devices and drugs to be produced at low cost. The present invention addresses both issues through a general method to engineer synthetic materials, pro-drugs and other macromolecules in-situ by controlling cells' ability to mechanically reorganize them. The degree of cell-mediated processing depends on the phenotype of the cell reorganizing the material, and can also be tuned by controlling the mechanical properties of the macromolecule, This will allow simple, scalable template materials to be used to design cell-phenotype specific devices and drugs.
The methods utilize specifically tailored 3-dimensional materials to capture rare cell types from a patient's circulation to be used in clinical diagnoses (e.g. memory T cells, cancer cells, fetal cells shed into the mother's circulation). Materials are designed with certain degrees of stiffness and receptor or ligand densities for tissue regeneration. Three-dimensional materials characterized by specific ranges of stiffness and density are also used for ex vivo isolation and propagation of specific cell types (e.g. adult stem cells) from a heterogeneous population. For example, stem cells are induced to differentiate into a specific cell lineage depending upon the 3-D structure, stiffness, and density of adhesion molecule encountered.
Other materials, e.g., 2-D materials, select a certain cell type in a heterogenous population. In contrast, the 3-D materials comprising specific ranges of physical characteristics (e.g., stiffness) and adhesion molecule densities drive cell fate. Such material-mediated instruction of cells to differentiate along a predetermined cell lineage has been demonstrated using homogenous populations (e.g., clonal) cells rather than heterogenous populations (which include differentiated cells in addition to as yet non-differentiated cells).
Cell fate is determined by elastic modulus and receptor-ligand bond density rather than shape. The number of receptor/ligand bonds (local concentration) formed between a cell and the cell “instructive” material affects cell differentiation/cell fate.
Methods to engineer a nanoscale structure of materials that the cells contact are carried out by harnessing mechanical forces exerted onto the material by the cells. A material, pro-drug or other macromolecule intended for medical or other purposes is fabricated, such that some of the processing required for the ultimate function of the material is performed in-situ by cells. Cells modify the material in a mechanical manner (e.g. through cell-traction forces exerted by integrins, or intracellular motor proteins).
The material upon which the cells act must present molecules, e.g., the peptide sequence—RGD—that binds to the components of the cell that exert force. The material/macromolecule must be malleable enough to be reorganized by cell-traction forces. Further, the template material must be biocompatible. Considering these limited requirements, any biocompatible polymer or polymer-based drugs, natural or synthetically derived, is suitable for these methods. Exemplary matrix compositions include polymer matrices that comprise three-dimensional alginate hydrogels. “Alginate” as that term is used here, refers to any number of derivatives of alginic acid (e.g., calcium or sodium alginate). See e.g. PCT/U.S. Ser. No. 97/16890 filed Sep. 19, 1997, for further description of the use of alginate polymers. The alginate polymers used in the examples here have a molecular weight of 250 kDa, and are crosslinked with calcium sulfate to control their rigidity. In one case, alginate polymers modified by oxidation (“alginate dialdehyde”), crosslinked with a multifunctional hydrazide, were used in parallel with calcium-alginate to demonstrate that the number of integrin-ligand bonds depends on the rigidity of the matrix and not on calcium (FIG. 2.D).
The biomaterial is optionally combined with cells prior to implantation, or may be introduced into the body and allowed to interact with cells there. As demonstrated in Example 2, the approach is useful to engineer materials that selectively interact with stem cells but not other cell types (e.g. fibroblasts), likely because of the different traction-forces these different cell types exert onto polymers.
Selective Cell Capture
Some approaches to selectively target cell populations rely on specific molecular structures (e.g. surface antigens) presented by cells, rather than dynamic behaviors that allow cells to manipulate materials—typically requiring expensive processing techniques. Harnessing cell dynamics to engineer materials in a phenotype specific manner is especially useful to capture rare cell populations that may be useful for diagnostic purposes. Simple template materials or macromolecules are used to capture cells such as metastatic cancer cells, fetal cells shed into the mother's circulation, or memory T cells. Materials selectively interact with certain cell types may thereby identifying and capturing them. Captured cells cultivated and need for basic studies or drug development (e.g. mesenchymal stem cells). The cell capture methods are used as an alternative to fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACs) technologies, e.g. in situations in which surface antigens required for FACs sorting are not identified or for which antibodies have not been produced.
Similarly, this approach may be combined in vivo (or clinically) with other approaches commonly used to manipulate cells or tissues with polymers (e.g. growth factor delivery) to create complex devices that facilitate regeneration of functional tissues by coordinating timing with which biomolecules interact with the correct cells. Finally, with respect to macromolecular drugs that operate inside cells, intracellular machinery that operates in a mechanical manner (e.g. vesicle transport along cytoskeletal components), particularly when it operates differently between different cell types, may be used to selectively process drugs to target some cell types (e.g. cancer cells, CD-8 T-cells primed against host antigens as in inflammatory diseases) but not others.
Clinical Applications
Certain cells “pull” harder, i.e., exert greater cell traction, on a matrix material than others. For example, fibroblasts pull harder on the matrix. Use of a relatively soft matrix recruits stem cells and excludes fibroblasts. In another example, metastatic cancer cells pull harder on a matrix compared to other cell types. Thus, a relatively stiff matrix selectively captures metastatic cells. In some cases, a matrix material is seeded with (pre-populated) with a select cell population and then administered to a patient. The physical/mechanical characteristics of the matrix material excludes undesirable cells that may infiltrate.
A relatively pliant (less stiff) matrix is chosen for certain clinical situations. To promote healing of a bone injury, the matrix material is manufactured to induce stem cells to populate. Similarly, a matrix designed to promote nerve regeneration induces population of Schwann cells and minimizes formation of scar tissue undesirable. More stiff matrix material is desirable for dentistry/orthopedics. In such cases, a membrane comprises a matrix material is placed over a defect to mediate guided tissue or bone generation and deflect cells that cause fibrosis or scar formation. Therapeutic applications include cosmetic use to reduce/minimize dermatological scar formation associated with cosmetic surgery. For cardiac/vascular applications, the material gives preference to endothelial cells versus inflammatory cells, e.g., stents are coated with such a matrix. Other clinical situations in which matrix materials that minimize scar formation are useful include liver regeneration, kidney surgery, and implants for articulating joints such as implants for knee, hip, shoulder, elbow repair and replacement. In each case, selectivity is mediated by mechanical rather than chemical attributes of the matrix material, thereby affording the methods safety advantages compared to chemical interventions.
EXAMPLE 1
Matrix Mechanics and Cell Traction Regulate Integrin-adhesion Ligand Bond Formation by Mesenchymal Stem Cells in 3D Micro-environments
The phenotype of a variety of tissue cell types, including mesenchymal cells (MSCs), is affected to the mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Prior to the invention, the biophysical mechanism behind this observation was incompletely understood. As described herein, one important means for cells to sense matrix stiffness is through mechanically-dependent changes in integrin-adhesion ligand bond formation.
RGD bond formation was evalusted in MSCs encapsulated into 3D alginate hydrogels modified with adhesion peptides (G4RGDASSKY) using a non-invasive FRET technique. The number of RGD-integrin bonds depended on matrix compliance in a biphasic manner that was independent of the specific type of alginate polymer or crosslinking molecule. A second FRET assay to assess the degree of matrix reorganization by cells, along with live-cell imaging of GFP-tagged α5-integrins, revealed that bond formation correlated with both mechanical reorganization of the matrix by cells and the localization of α5-integrins to the cell-matrix interface. Bond formation, along with intracellular integrin localization and matrix reorganization, was decoupled from matrix mechanics in the presence of drugs that inhibit cell traction forces. The biphasic dependence of integrin-RGD bond number on matrix stiffness found in this 3D study differs from the monophasic dependence of cell adhesion as a function of matrix stiffness derived from 2D studies, and represents a more physiologically relevant response of cells to ECM stiffness in vivo. The data indicated that integrin-mediated signaling and the number of cell-matrix bonds are important for selecting both the biological (e.g. the density of adhesion ligands) and biophysical properties of materials (micro-environmnent) to target cells and manipulate (e.g., induce differentiation of) stem cells in vitro and in vivo.
EXAMPLE 2
Control of Mesenchymal Stem Cell Lineage Specification and Specific Integrin Ligation by Matrix Mechanics
Hydrogels were formed by mixing RGD-modified alginate polymers with bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells to a final concentration of 2x107 cells/mL and 1-5 g alginate/100 mL. The concentration of RGD was 7.4 μmol/L, and the concentration of calcium-sulfate was varied from 6.25-50 mM to produce hydrogels. Thereafter, hydrogels were cultured in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with ascorbic acid, β-glycero-phosphate and dexamethasone. After the first day incubating in medium, these gels have elastic moduli E varying from 2.5-110 kPa. Media was exchanged every other day. After one week, hydrogel disks were either fixed in paraformaldehyde for histologic analysis, or dissolved in 50 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) in Dulbecco's Phosphate Buffered Saline (dPBS; pH 7.4) to form cell pellets, which were lysed into Trizol (for RNA extraction) or Radio Immunoprecipitation Assay (RIPA) buffer (for protein extraction). Fast blue, a stain for Alkaline Phosphatase activity (a biomarker of osteogenesis) and Oil Red O, a stain for neutral lipid accumulation (a biomarker for adipogenesis) were used to visualize cell differentiation. The greatest degree of osteogenic differentiation was observed in 22-45 kPa hydrogels. These stains were confirmed by immunofluorescence analysis of osteocalcin and lipoprotein lipase (markers for bone and fat, respectively), RT-PCR analysis of the RNA expression of these same markers, and Western Blot analysis of Runx2 and OCN, both biomarkers for osteogenesis, FIG. 1D. Although all these markers pointed to 22 kPa hydrogels as being optimal for bone differentiation, there was minimal change in cell morphology to correlate to gene or protein expression, FIGS. 1A-E).
Because there was no strong correlation between cell morphology and lineage specification, the cell-matrix interface was analyzed using spectroscopic techniques. These revealed that MSCs were reorganizing RGD presented by the alginate hydrogels in a very significant manner, and that the highest degree of reorganization correlated with the highest degree of osteogenic differentiation, FIGS. 2A-B. This reorganization, in turn, correlated with stem cells' ability to bind RGD using integrins, FIGS. 2C-D.
Cells reorganize the material, and this reorganization is related to their ability to form receptor-ligand bonds with adhesion epitopes (RGD) presented by the material, the specific receptors used to form these bonds were assessed. Typically, cells use αV-integrins, but not α5-integrins, to bind matrices that present RGD without the “synergy peptide” PHSRN (e.g. Vitronectin) whereas both receptors can be used to bind Fibronectin, which presents RGD along with PHSRN. MSCs behaved in this manner, FIG. 3A. However, in 3D but not 2D alginate hydrogels, these cells used α5-integrins to bind RGD presented without PHSRN. Moreover, the relationship between α5-integrin-RGD binding and matrix rigidity was very similar to the one between the total number of cell-RGD bonds and matrix rigidity measured with spectroscopic methods. Dimensionality and rigidity of the extracellular matrix alone were found to regulate both the total number and type of bound integrins. α5-integrin-RGD bond formation was crucial to osteogenic lineage specification in MSCs, as demonstrated by studies where cells were encapsulated into 22 kPa RGD-modified hydrogels after α5-integrin receptors were saturated with function blocking antibodies. Both histologic and Western analyses demonstrated a dose-dependent decrease in osteogenic differentiation resulting from anti-α5-integrin antibodies, (FIGS. 3A-F).
EXAMPLE 3
RGD-Modified Hydro Gels that Selectively Interact with Stem Cells Over Fibroblasts
Hydrogels were formed by mixing RGD-modified alginate polymers with bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells, or NIH-3T3 fibroblasts to a final concentration of 2x107 cells/mL and 1-5 g alginate/100 mL. The concentration of RGD was 150 nmol/L, and the concentration of calcium-sulfate was varied from 6.25-50 mM to produce hydrogels. The number of cell-RGD bonds was measured using a FRET technique. To manipulate the traction forces exerted by stem cells on the substrates, cells were serum starved for 12 hr, then immediately treated with a high concentration of serum (20 volume percent) immediately before encapsulating into alginate matrices. Cell-RGD bonds were measured 2 hr after cell encapsulation (FIGS. 4A-B).
Other Embodiments
The patent and scientific literature referred to herein establishes the knowledge that is available to those with skill in the art. All United States patents and published or unpublished United States patent applications cited herein are incorporated by reference. All published foreign patents and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference. All other published references, documents, manuscripts and scientific literature cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference.
While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.

## Claims

1. A method of inducing differentiation of a population of stem cells into an osteogenic lineage comprising
contacting said stem cells with a 3-dimensional material, wherein the 3-dimensional material comprises alginate of a stiffness in the range of 22-45 kPa, and a density of adhesion molecules presented by the alginate of 150 nmol/L to 200 μmol/L, wherein said stem cells are encapsulated in the 3-dimensional material,
wherein said density and said stiffness induce the formation of sufficient bonds between said stem cells and said adhesion molecules, and wherein the number of such bonds formed between said stem cells and said adhesion molecules determines a cell type into which said stem cells differentiate; and
allowing said stem cells to bind to, and mechanically reorganize, said adhesion molecules, thereby inducing differentiation of said stem cells into an osteogenic lineage.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the stem cells comprise mesenchymal stem cells (MSC).

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the adhesion molecule interacts with an integrin protein on the stem cells.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the integrin protein comprises a5-integrin, av-integrin, or both a5-integrin and av-integrin.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the adhesion molecule comprises a peptide comprising the amino acid sequence of RGD or G4RGDDSSKY.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the adhesion molecule comprises a peptide comprising the amino acid sequence of RGD, PHSRN, or both RGD and PHSRN.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the adhesion molecule is present at a concentration of 200 μmol/L.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the differentiated stem cells comprise a higher level of OCN, Runx2, or both OCN and Runx2 compared to undifferentiated stem cells.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the 3-dimensional material comprises a stiffness of 45 kPA.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the 3-dimensional material comprises a stiffness of 22 kPA.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting step is performed in vivo.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting step is performed in vitro.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein the 3-dimensional material comprises an alginate hydrogel.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the alginate hydrogel is present at a concentration of 1-5 g alginate/100 mL.

15. The method of claim 13, wherein the alginate hydrogel comprises alginate polymers, and wherein the alginate polymers are crosslinked.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the alginate polymers are calcium crosslinked or covalently crosslinked.

17. The method of claim 1, further comprising implanting the 3-dimensional material into a subject in need thereof.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the contacting step occurs before the implanting step.

19. The method of claim 17, wherein the implanting step occurs before the contacting step.

20. The method of claim 19, wherein the 3-dimensional material selectively interacts with stem cells compared to other cell types.

21. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material is placed over a tissue defect in the subject and mediates tissue regeneration.

22. The method of claim 21, wherein the tissue is selected from the group consisting of skin, kidney, bone, liver, and nerve tissue.

23. The method of claim 21, wherein the tissue comprises an articulating joint.

24. The method of claim 23, wherein the articulating joint is selected from the group consisting of a knee joint, a hip joint, a shoulder joint, and an elbow joint.

25. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material deflects cells that cause fibrosis or scar formation.

26. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material promotes healing of a bone injury, promotes nerve regeneration, reduces or minimizes dermatological scar formation associated with cosmetic surgery, minimizes scar formation associated with liver regeneration, minimizes scar formation associated with kidney surgery, or minimizes scar formation associated with a joint implant.

27. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material is coated onto or part of an orthopedic device or implant.

28. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material is coated onto or part of a dentistry device.

29. The method of claim 27, wherein the orthopedic device or implant comprises a joint implant, and wherein the joint implant is selected from the group consisting of a knee implant, a hip implant, a shoulder implant, and an elbow implant.

30. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material is coated onto or part of a stent.

31. The method of claim 17, wherein the 3-dimensional material comprises 2×107 cells/mL of stem cells prior to implantation.

32. The method of claim 1, further comprising assessing the expression level of a marker of osteogenesis.

33. The method of claim 32, wherein the marker of osteogenesis is selected from the group consisting of ALP, OCN and Runx2.

34. The method of claim 32, wherein the expression level of a marker of osteogenesis is assessed by a method selected from the group consisting of immunofluorescence, RT-PCR, and Western blot analysis.