© USIP 2015 • All rights reserved.

United States Institute of Peace • www.usip.org • Tel. 202.457.1700 • 

UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE

@usip

“Reliable and accurate 

data are essential to a 

complete understanding 

of conflict-related sexual 

violence, sexual violence 

by extremists, and the effectiveness of policies and 

initiatives to prevent, mitigate, 

and provide assistance to 

survivors of sexual violence.”

July 2015

Conflict and Extremist-Related 

Sexual Violence 

An International Security Threat

Kerry Crawford, Ed.

E-mail: crawfokf@jmu.edu

PEACEBRIEF187

Introduction

Conflict-related sexual violence destroys lives and destabilizes communities, making it an issue 

that concerns people of all genders. In June 2008, the United Nations Security Council recognized 

conflict-related sexual violence as a threat to international peace and security.1 Sexual violence is 

not inevitable in armed conflict, and it is not always used as a weapon. Over the past year or more, 

the use of sexual violence by violent extremist groups, particularly Daesh (or ISIL), has received 

more international attention, as the violence bears much resemblance to the use of sexual 

violence by other armed groups who have used it to further their interests and propagate fear. 

Summary

• The recent use of sexual violence by violent extremist groups, particularly Daesh (or ISIL), has 

received international attention. The violence resembles the use of sexual violence by state 

military forces and other armed groups in the past, who have used it to further their interests 

and propagate fear. 

• Scholars researching conflict-related sexual violence have begun to uncover the complex patterns of political, military, social, and economic factors that lead to—or effectively prevent—such 

violence. Policymakers and members of civil society can make use of these findings to develop 

policies that assist survivors and hold perpetrators accountable. 

• States and international organizations seeking to combat conflict-related sexual violence, 

including sexual violence committed by extremist groups, should seek out best practices among 

established and emerging political, legal, and operational initiatives.

• Efforts aimed at combating sexual violence should account for how women and men make 

sense of their own political and social identities, and the degree to which these understandings may inhibit or promote this particular form of violence. Strengthening international legal 

mechanisms to adjudicate perpetrators sends a strong message that sexual violence cannot 

continue with impunity. Domestic and international forces can receive training on dealing with 

sexual violence and give women the opportunity to serve in military and police institutions. 
© USIP 2015 • All rights reserved.

Conflict and Extremist-Related Sexual Violence 

page 2 • PB 187 • July 2015

Despite the graphic accounts of sexual violence that accompany discussions of ISIL’s tactics, 

as well as those of other armed groups in conflicts worldwide, it is important to acknowledge 

that there is significant diversity in the motivations, identities, and organizational structure of the 

groups and individuals that perpetrate sexual violence. Research shows that many armed groups 

do not use sexual violence as a weapon and some groups actively work to forbid combatants from 

perpetrating rape and other forms of sexualized violence.

Gender Inequality and the Economics of Sexual Violence

When considering the causes of conflict-related sexual violence—whether or not violent extremists are involved—it is important to reflect on the social, legal, and economic context in which 

armed actors and civilians live. Ideas about the proper status of women and attitudes regarding 

prescribed gender roles affect interpersonal, familial, and social relations on a daily basis, before, 

during, and after armed conflicts. Gender attitudes can manifest themselves in discrepancies 

between legal protections for women and men, as well as less physical security, fewer economic 

opportunities, and higher poverty rates for women than men. Scholars also have found a connection between the status of women within a state and that state’s propensity for violent conflict: 

States with high gender inequities take part more often in violence—such as initiating aggression 

in disputes with neighboring countries—than more gender equitable states.2

Through studies of armed groups and interviews with perpetrators of sexual violence, scholars 

researching conflict-related sexual violence have begun to uncover the complex patterns involving power, peer-driven affiliation, and gender inequalities that underlie it. Sexual violence, as well 

as other forms of physical insecurity for women (e.g., domestic abuse, marital rape, and forced 

marriage) are key indicators of gender inequality within a society. Gender attitudes that privilege 

limited or have violent notions of masculine norms also affect a country’s treatment of lesbian, gay, 

bisexual, transgender, and queer communities. As cases of violent extremism have arisen, scholars 

have begun to document how extremists use tactics of terror that rely on subjugating women and 

girls, including sexual slavery and child marriage.

Sexual violence also has economic dimensions that are important to examine. Recent cases of sexual 

violence in armed conflict and among violent extremist groups show that sexual violence can be associated with financial incentives. In Islamic State–run slave markets, women are sold into sexual slavery in 

exchange for a pack of cigarettes. The trafficking of women in armed conflict and their use as sex slaves 

and camp followers—to the financial and military profit of the violent extremists and armed groups 

who force them into it—is being documented daily. The violent commodification of women and girls is 

an essential element to the business of extremist groups in the Middle East and Africa. 

Responses to Sexual Violence

States and international organizations seeking to combat conflict-related sexual violence, including 

sexual violence committed by extremist groups, have several options available to them. International 

responses generally fall into three main categories: political responses, legal responses, and operational responses. 

Political Responses 

U.S. and foreign policymakers must consider how domestic and foreign policies affect the status of 

women. Policies aimed at eradicating the scourge of sexual violence need to account for gender 
© USIP 2015 • All rights reserved.

Conflict and Extremist-Related Sexual Violence 

page 3 • PB 187 • July 2015

attitudes and gender norms, as they inform the context in which armed actors develop and employ 

various forms of violence. Global efforts to eliminate sexual violence in conflict must also be conscious of the broader political, economic, and social environment. To what extent does a country 

consider gender equality when crafting public policies? In what ways are the lived experiences of 

women substantively different from those of men, and how are certain communities or identities 

privileged over others? Finally, international efforts aimed at combating sexual violence should account for how women and men make sense of their own political and social identities and the degree 

to which these understandings may inhibit or promote this particular form of violence. 

Legal Responses

With the increased recognition of rape and sexual violence as crimes against humanity and war 

crimes, precedents have been established to hold perpetrators accountable. Mechanisms such as 

the International Criminal Court (ICC), as well as ad hoc and hybrid tribunals, have strengthened legal language surrounding sexual violence and shaped international law relating to sexual violence 

in conflict. Adjudication in national courts under extraterritorial jurisdiction remains a viable option 

to try perpetrators for crimes against internal law. With the acceptance of sexual violence as a violation of international norms, ensuring support for survivors by documenting their stories, collecting 

evidence, and prosecuting those responsible demonstrates a strong commitment to ending 

impunity and promoting justice. As sexual violence occurs in times of peace as well as in times of 

conflict, local and national-level measures must be taken to break down stigmas associated with 

reporting these crimes and strengthen legal systems to prosecute and end impunity. 

Strengthening international legal mechanisms to adjudicate perpetrators sends a strong 

message that sexual violence cannot continue with impunity. Judges, prosecutors, and police must 

be trained to gather evidence and prosecute crimes effectively without shaming and retraumatizing victims. In addition to strong accountability measures, ongoing physical and psychosocial 

health care for survivors must continue. Ensuring that local and national systems remove stigmas 

associated with reporting sexual violence for both men and women, and strengthening judicial 

mechanisms for prosecuting perpetrators, will support survivors in their healing and demonstrate 

commitment to ending sexual violence.

State police and militaries—or state militias—must not themselves perpetrate sexual violence. 

This means carefully recruiting personnel, perhaps including questions about beliefs about gender 

equality in the recruitment process, but it also means taking punitive measures against personnel 

that perpetuate sexual violence.

Operational Responses

As first responders, military or police personnel must be well equipped and trained to deal with 

issues arising from conflict-related sexual violence. First responders may also be foreign trainers; 

proper gender training should include scenario training in handling survivors of sexual violence. 

For example, international forces training Iraqi and Afghani police and military personnel should 

include gender awareness and modules for protection against sexual violence in their curriculum, 

along with training for first responses to sexual violence. Including women in domestic police and 

military forces may enable survivors of sexual violence, both male and female, to feel more at ease 

in reporting their traumatic experiences. It is imperative that policies are in place to ensure that 

both domestic and international forces receive proper training on sexual violence and that women 

are given the opportunity to serve in diverse roles in military and police institutions. 
© USIP 2015 • All rights reserved.

USIP provides the analysis, training, and 

tools that prevent and end conflicts, 

promotes stability, and professionalizes 

the field of peacebuilding.

For media inquiries, contact the office 

of Public Affairs and Communications, 

202.429.4725

Conflict and Extremist-Related Sexual Violence 

page 4 • PB 187 • July 2015

2301 Constitution Ave.

Washington, DC 20037

202.457.1700

2301 Constitution Ave., NW

Washington, D.C. 20037

2301 Constitution Ave.

Washington, DC 20037

202.457.1700

Conclusion

Reliable and accurate data are essential to a complete understanding of conflict-related sexual 

violence, sexual violence by extremists, and the effectiveness of policies and initiatives to prevent, 

mitigate, and provide assistance to survivors of sexual violence. Rigorous studies on the causes 

of, variation in, and better responses to conflict-related sexual violence and sexual violence by 

extremists require support from academic institutions as well as funding from government and 

civil society organizations. The benefits of a deeper understanding of the problem far outweigh 

any financial costs. Policymakers and members of civil society, in turn, must make better use of 

the findings generated by researchers who study sexual violence in war, and further engage in 

constructive dialogue in pursuit of their common goals of assisting survivors and holding perpetrators accountable. 

Notes

1. See UN Security Council Resolution 1820 (2008).

2. Valerie Hudson and Patricia Leidl, The Hillary Doctrine: Sex & American Foreign Policy (New York: 

Columbia University Press, 2015).

About This Brief

This Brief was prepared by 

members of the Missing Peace 

Young Scholar Network and 

supported through the partnership 

between USIP; Human Rights 

Center, UC-Berkeley Law; PRIO; 

and WIIS. Formed in 2013, the 

network comprises early-career 

researchers from a wide range of 

academic backgrounds committed 

to understanding and ending sexual 

violence in war. Members have 

met annually at USIP, most recently 

for a workshop in June 2015, to 

examine the current state of our 

knowledge and identify paths for 

future research on sexual violence in 

war. Kerry Crawford, Nicole Gerring, 

Sabrina Karim, Chloé Lewis, Clemence Pinaud, and Caroline Sarkis— 

network members—collaborated 

to write this Peace Brief based 

on insights from their research on 

topics related to sexual violence. 

Dr. Kerry Crawford is an assistant 

professor of political science at 

James Madison University.