United States Institute of Peace • www.usip.org • Tel. 202.457.1700 • Fax. 202.429.6063

UNITED STates institute of peace

© USIP 2010 • All rights reserved.

“One Iraqi satellite channel 

used the term ‘resistance’ 66 

times during the monitoring 

period, each time in reference to those responsible 

for attacks on U.S. troops...

By examining the context 

surrounding each term, it is 

possible to see patterns of 

bias and the potential for 

incitement to violence.”

April 7, 2010 

Preventing Media Incitement to 

Violence in Iraq

Summary

•	 The monitoring of Iraqi media reveals that inflammatory coverage does not necessarily consist 

of a direct call to violence, but instead takes the form of indirect or coded terminology that still 

has dangerous potential to foment conflict. 

•	 Current regulatory and self-regulatory efforts designed to prevent media incitement to 

violence have, thus far, been insufficient.

•	 Lessons learned from post-conflict Bosnia, Kosovo and Sri Lanka can assist Iraqis in creating 

their own legal and self-regulatory mechanisms to limit inflammatory media coverage. 

•	 There are a wide range of measures to mitigate inflammatory media coverage, including 

targeted training for media and government officials, broad support for a professional code 

of conduct, a full review of existing legislation relating to incitement, and the creation of a 

lexicon of inflammatory terms with guidelines for the proper use of these terms.

Introduction

On September 25–26, 2009, USIP’s Center of Innovation for Media, Conflict and Peacebuilding 

assembled more than 50 Iraqi media managers, editors, government officials, academics and 

regulators in Istanbul, Turkey to discuss media incitement to violence in Iraq, as well as potential 

solutions for mitigating such inflammatory media coverage. The following summarizes the results 

from this conference.

Overview of Media Regulation and Self-Regulation

The first session of the conference provided an overview of the current media environment in Iraq. 

Presenters explained that the media’s legal regulatory framework provides limited guidance for 

the prevention of media incitement to violence. Since the Iraqi legislature has yet to act on the 

passage of new media laws, incitement remains partly under the purview of Baath era laws. For 

example, the penal code instituted in 1969 includes provisions that punish incitement to violence 

with life imprisonment. In 2003, the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) issued Order 14 that 

specifically banned media incitement to violence. This order still remains in effect; the authority to 

enforce it has fallen to the Iraqi prime minister’s office.

In 2005, the Iraqi constitution further authorized the Communications and Media Commission 

(CMC), as established by CPA Order 65, to regulate the media sector. The regulatory powers of 

the CMC include preventing incitement to violence relating to broadcast media, with certain 

Theo Dolan

E-mail: tdolan@usip.org

Phone: 202.429.4765

peaceBrieF16
© USIP 2010 • All rights reserved.

guidelines for print media during election campaigns. However, the CMC has failed to adequately 

regulate this area, largely due to attacks on CMC’s jurisdiction by the Iraqi government, ineffective 

enforcement capacity and efforts, lack of awareness of the CMC’s regulations, and vacancies in key 

management posts. These vacancies were filled in the fall of 2009 immediately before this Istanbul 

conference, making it the first public platform for the new CMC management. 

During this conference session, an Iraqi media manager noted that despite a limited range 

of supporting institutions, the Iraqi media have made progress in regulating its own sector. The 

presenter pointed to self-regulatory tools put in place in order to address biased and potentially 

inflammatory news coverage. For example, Iraqi editors, managers and journalists, with the 

support of the BBC World Service Trust and UNESCO, developed a self-regulatory code of conduct 

to serve as a moral and professional guide for audio and visual media in Iraq. With proper implementation by Iraqi media, this code could assist in combating hate speech while strengthening the 

media sector from within. 

What is Incitement?

The CMC actually formulated guidelines regarding incitement some time ago. The CMC’s Interim 

Broadcasting Program Code of Practice, promulgated in August 2004, specifically states that: 

“broadcasters themselves are responsible for the content of all material broadcast by them, 

whatever its source, and it is the responsibility of the broadcasters to ensure that their programs 

and services operate in compliance with the code.” 

The code goes further to clearly define incitement as: “broadcasting that 1) incites imminent (meaning close in time, immediate or impending) violence, ethnic or religious hatred, civil disorder or rioting 

among the people of Iraq and 2) carries the clear and immediate risk of causing such incitement.” 

Yet, many conference participants were unaware that the CMC had created these guidelines, 

and the new CMC management itself seemed to be unfamiliar with them. Other participants 

indicated that media incitement is a complex issue and very difficult to categorize. In fact, the 

“direct” incitement to violence identified by the CMC code does not cover a myriad of inflammatory language that could be considered “indirect” incitement. While this language might not lead 

directly to violence or intended to do so, indirect incitement can be extremely dangerous. 

To provide specific context, USIP-commissioned the Al Mirat Media Monitors Network to monitor how certain terms were used by Iraqi media over a 30-day period in June 2009. A representative sampling of the results revealed broader trends, including how TV channels used potentially 

inflammatory terms significantly more than print or radio media. 

One Iraqi satellite channel used the term “resistance” 66 times during the monitoring period, 

each time in reference to those responsible for attacks on U.S. troops. This same channel referred to 

“terrorist” attacks 36 times in which Iraqi civilians—but not U.S. troops—were killed. Another satellite TV station was recorded to have 62 uses of the word “martyr,” all related to the death of civilians, 

journalists or elected officials apparently considered by the channel to be innocent victims—but 

not for the deaths of Iraqi police or soldiers. By examining the context surrounding each term, it is 

possible to see patterns of bias and the potential for incitement to violence. 

International Case Studies

The final session featured case studies from three different countries that have recently experienced media incitement to violence. Each perspective took into account how the media sectors 

in each of the post-conflict countries were shaped by regulatory or self-regulatory efforts, or a 

Preventing Media Incitement to Violence in Iraq

page 2 • PB 16 • April 7, 2010
© USIP 2010 • All rights reserved.

combination of the two. Iraqi participants were then able to discuss with the presenters how the 

lessons learned from the international case studies could be applied to the Iraqi environment.

•	 Lindsay Ross, former executive director of the Commonwealth Press Union, presented a 

successful case of media self-regulation in Sri Lanka. Here, diverse media stakeholders in 

1997 sought to abolish defamation from the criminal code. After five contentious years, 

this was accomplished and, as a result, the Sri Lanka Press Institute was established in 

2003, along with the Press Complaints Commission of Sri Lanka. Despite a bitterly divided 

country that endured conflict in 2009, the self-regulatory bodies survive and continue 

to actively represent media interests. The key lessons learned in establishing a successful 

self-regulatory entity include: cooperation among all media, leadership and patience by 

members, prohibition of government funding sources for the body, and a universally 

accepted code of practice. 

•	 Dieter Loraine, a director at Albany Associates and a former deputy director general of the 

Communications Regulatory Agency in Bosnia, noted that the Bosnian media sector in 

which he worked has some similarities to the Iraqi media sector: the media industry was 

fragmented, broadcasters were run by political parties and media legislation was lacking. 

Over a period of 10 years, the Bosnian regulatory authority gained the trust of the media, 

government and public by licensing all broadcasters while securing broad agreement to a 

code of conduct and working with the government to establish broadcast policy. Loraine 

also detailed the creation of a Bosnian press council to self-police the print sector. Success 

was attributed to three factors: involving the editors, publishers and associations at an early 

stage, drafting a code that was adopted by the industry itself and including all relevant 

stakeholders as members of the press council. 

•	 Naile Krasniqi, the chief executive officer of the Independent Media Commission (IMC) in 

Kosovo, discussed how, as an independent regulator of broadcast media akin to the CMC, 

she deals with media that violate the applicable code of conduct. She mentioned that 

Kosovo is a particularly didactic example for Iraq, given its ethnic and religious mix. Few 

incidents of incitement have occurred in recent years because of the strong regulatory 

framework put in place in Kosovo. Also, the IMC has weeded out potentially problematic 

stations during the licensing process, and has taken steps to encourage compliance. Krasniqi encouraged Iraqi participants to advocate for a strong regulatory framework, for the 

CMC to adopt regulations in accordance with international best practices, and for the CMC 

to communicate its rules effectively to licensees and the public.

Working Group Action Points 

The participants broke into working groups on the last day of the conference to discuss and reach 

consensus on attainable action points. 

Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) Action Points

The KRG participants first recommended the executive authority should attempt to re-activate 

relevant laws preventing media incitement. Subsequently, the general prosecutor will hold 

accountable those who violate these laws. Second, government relations with the media should 

extend beyond regulation, in part through the government’s provision of training, support 

and grants. The legislative authorities must establish an independent High Board for the Press, 

composed of media representatives, the high judicial council, parliament, government and the 

Preventing Media Incitement to Violence in Iraq

page 3 • PB 16 • April 7, 2010
© USIP 2010 • All rights reserved.

bar association. Finally, civil society actors should build media capacity and professionalism by 

adopting and implementing a well-crafted code of ethics. 

National Government Action Points

National government officials presented four action points designed to significantly improve the 

Iraqi media environment. First, the existing criminal law should undergo an extensive review to 

ensure that it is sufficient. This review will culminate in a report prepared by the Legal Committee 

of the Iraqi Parliament. Second, the government should officially support the adoption of a selfregulatory code of professional conduct. Also, the government should support the CMC in its efforts to perform its duties as set out in CPA Order 65, meaning that this independent body (and not 

a government ministry) should regulate and license communications in Iraq. Finally, participants 

identified the longer-term goal of preparing new legislation that better addresses incitement.

Print Media Action Points

The print media participants supported the formation of a press council comprised of media 

professionals, experts, legal experts, academics and representatives of civil society organizations. 

This council should be independent and professional, and follow the implementation of ethical 

codes, investigate complaints from the public, media professionals and the government. During 

elections periods, the Iraqi Independent High Electoral Commission and CMC should put together 

an educational and training program that focuses on reducing occurrences of media incitement to 

violence. Media professionals should endorse a campaign aimed at reducing media incitement by 

barring the publication of inflammatory speeches and avoiding the use of biased or inflammatory 

content on publicly funded broadcasting systems.

Broadcast Media Action Points

The broadcast media action points dealt with self-regulatory measures directed at the media 

sector. Each organization should put together a list of expressions, language, and images that are 

potentially dangerous, and should pledge to avoid using these items. Each organization should 

commit to additional training geared towards familiarizing staff with editorial policies regarding 

incitement to violence; staff members should at least be familiar with CMC’s Code of Conduct. 

Finally, the media sector should commit to broadcasting programs that respect the ethnic, cultural 

and religious diversity of Iraq.

Communications and Media Commission (CMC) Action Points 

CMC delegates noted three points that would improve cooperation with media outlets, as well as 

the CMC’s effectiveness. First, the CMC should hold a conference to discuss the Code of Conduct 

for broadcast media and address broadcast license conditions, especially each outlet’s role in 

preventing incitement to violence. Concurrently, in order to allow the enforcement of these 

standards, the CMC should continue the ongoing process of issuing temporary licenses to unlicensed broadcasters while carrying out comprehensive monitoring and reporting. This will inform 

the long-term licensing process, as the CMC will only award such licenses to media outlets that 

have complied with the Code of Conduct. Finally, the CMC called for the support of international 

organizations, the Iraqi media and the Iraqi parliament. The parliament should move quickly to 

ratify the CMC law that has been before it since 2007. This law would allow the CMC to function 

properly as the independent regulator, without government interference. 

Preventing Media Incitement to Violence in Iraq

page 4 • PB 16 • April 7, 2010
© USIP 2010 • All rights reserved.

United States 

Institute of Peace

1200 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036

202.457.1700

www.usip.org

About This Brief

Iraqi media stakeholders have 

identified media incitement 

to violence as a crucial issue, 

especially during election periods. 

As a result, USIP’s Center of 

Innovation for Media, Conflict and 

Peacebuilding convened a conference on September 25-26, 2009 

to explore the complex issue and 

to identify specific action points 

for mitigating inflammatory coverage in Iraq. This brief documents 

the findings of that conference. 

The event was managed by Theo 

Dolan, program officer with the 

Center of Innovation for Media, 

Conflict and Peacebuilding and 

the author of this report, along 

with partners at a business consultant firm, Albany Associates, and 

USIP staff in Iraq.

USIP provides the analysis, training and 

tools that prevent and end conflicts, 

promotes stability and professionalizes 

the field of peacebuilding.

For media inquiries, contact the office 

of Public Affairs and Communications, 

202.429.4725

Next Steps

In advance of the national elections on March 7, 2010, USIP’s Center of Innovation for Media, 

Conflict and Peacebuilding and its Iraqi partners took action by developing the “User Guidelines 

for Preventing Media Incitement to Violence: Elections Edition,” a list of inflammatory terms 

commonly found in Iraqi media during election cycles. The guidelines include definitions of the 

inflammatory terms and suggested alternative uses. The resource, created by Iraqi media, was 

distributed to media outlets and government offices prior to the election day. For more information on these guidelines, please visit http://www.usip.org/resources/user-guidelines-preventingmedia-incitement-violence-in-iraq-elections-edition

Going forward in collaboration with Iraqi and international partners, USIP’s Center of Innovation 

will continue to implement the action points developed at the Istanbul conference. Among the 

center’s planned activities are:

•	 Extensive guidelines for Preventing Media Incitement to Violence—Recognizing the threat 

of indirect media incitement, an Iraqi panel will study the current usage of language in 

the media to determine key areas of imbalance and excess that could incite violence. This 

analysis would lead to the creation of an Arabic-language lexicon of potentially inflammatory terms and specific guidelines for the professional use of these terms in broader 

contexts, beyond elections. 

•	 Media Leadership Dialog—The center will continue to identify leaders in the media industry to engage in dialogs regarding how to promote media self-regulation in Iraq. 

•	 Citizen Monitoring Network—To help fill a gap in media monitoring capacity, the center will 

identify a number of USIP-trained Iraqi facilitators who can be mobilized specifically to track 

media incitement to violence during times of heightened tension such as elections. The 

network would be designed to complement monitoring efforts led by the CMC.

•	 Training of the CMC—The center and its partners will seek to collaborate with the CMC in 

developing a training program tailored specifically for the regulatory body regarding the 

prevention of media incitement to violence.

Preventing Media Incitement to Violence in Iraq

page 5 • PB 16 • April 7, 2010