Nontimber Forest Products 

in the United States: 

Montreal Process Indicators 

as Measures of Current 

Conditions and Sustainability

Susan J. Alexander, Sonja N. Oswalt, and Marla R. Emery

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest 

Research Station

General Technical Report 

PNW-GTR-851

July 2011

DEPAR TMENT OF AGRICULT URE
Authors

Susan J. Alexander is the regional economist, U.S. Forest Service Alaska Region, 

PO Box 21628, Juneau, AK 99802, phone (907) 586-8809, fax (907) 586-7852. 

Sonja N. Oswalt is a forest resource analyst, Southern Research Station, Forest 

Inventory and Analysis, 4700 Old Kingston Pike, Knoxville, TN 37919. Marla 

R. Emery is a research geographer, Northern Research Station, 705 Spear Street, 

So., Burlington, VT 05403-6102.

Cover photograph by Susan J. Alexander.

The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service 

to a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, 

sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic 

information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income 

is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of 

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET 

Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write 

USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 

20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal 

opportunity provider and employer.
Abstract

Alexander, Susan J.; Oswalt, Sonja N.; Emery, Marla R. 2011. Nontimber forest 

products in the United States: Montreal Process indicators as measures of current 

conditions and sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-851. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station. 36 p.

The United States, in partnership with 11 other countries, participates in the 

Montreal Process. Each country assesses national progress toward the sustainable 

management of forest resources by using a set of criteria and indicators agreed on 

by all member countries. Several indicators focus on nontimber forest products 

(NTFPs). In the United States, permit and contract data from the U.S. Forest 

Service and the Bureau of Land Management, in addition to several other data 

sources, were used as a benchmark to assess harvest, value, employment, exports 

and imports, per capita consumption, and subsistence uses for many NTFPs. The 

retail value of commercial harvests of NTFPs from U.S. forest lands is estimated at 

$1.4 billion annually. Nontimber forest products in the United States are important 

to many people throughout the country for personal, cultural, and commercial uses, 

providing food security, beauty, connection to culture and tradition, and income.

Keywords: Nontimber forest products, sustainable forest management, 

subsistence.
Contents

1 Introduction

8 Annual Harvest of Nontimber Forest Products in the United States

8 Arts, Crafts, and Florals

10 Nursery and Landscape Uses

11 Edible Fruits, Nuts, Berries, and Sap

15 Grass, Hay, Alfalfa, and Other Forage

16 Herbal and Medicinal Plants

19 Christmas Trees

19 Hunting and Trapping

20 Value of Nontimber Forest Products Produced or Collected

23 Exports and Imports of Nontimber Forest Products

26 Total and Per Capita Consumption of Nontimber and 

Nonwood Forest Products

28 Area and Percentage of Forests Used for Subsistence Uses

31 Conclusions

32 Acknowledgments

32 Metric Equivalents

33 Literature Cited
1

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Introduction

Almost all ideas about sustainability put forward in the past two decades are consistent with the definition of sustainable development stated by the 1987 Brundtland 

Commission Report (WCED 1987) as “...development that meets the needs of the 

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own 

needs.”

The United States and 177 other nations that gathered at the Rio Earth Summit 

in 1992 agreed to take steps to advance sustainable development. Building on the 

forest principles adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit, different groups of countries 

joined together to reach consensus on ways to assess national progress toward the 

sustainable management of forest resources. Globally, nine international criteria 

and indicator processes involving 150 countries are underway (USDA FS 2004). 

The United States—in partnership with Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, 

Republic of Korea, Chile, Mexico, China, the Russian Federation, Uruguay, and 

Argentina—participates in the Montreal Process. These 12 countries contain more 

than 90 percent of the world’s temperate and boreal forests and 60 percent of all 

forests (USDA FS 2004). Each country assesses its own forests by using a set of 

criteria and indicators agreed on by all member countries. After each periodic 

review and report, the member countries reconvene to assess the success of the 

indicators, revising them as necessary.

Several indicators in the Montreal Process address issues and measurements of 

nonwood forest products (NWFPs). Indicators in the Montreal Process that focus 

on measurements of various aspects and characteristics of NWFPs can be found 

in two general areas, or criteria. One criterion that includes NWFPs focuses on 

productive capacity of forest ecosystems. The NWFP indicator in this criterion 

seeks to measure annual harvest of NWFPs nationwide. The other criterion that 

includes NWFPs examines the maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple 

socioeconomic benefits to meet the needs of societies. Several of the indicators in 

this criterion focus on value, consumption, international trade, employment, wages, 

and subsistence uses of NWFPs. Nonwood forest products include medicinal plants, 

food and forage species, floral and horticultural species, materials used in arts and 

crafts, and game animals and fur bearers. Fuelwood, posts and poles, and Christmas trees are wood products but are included in the U.S. NWFP indicator analyses 

because these products are frequently overlooked in conventional forest products 

analyses. When wood products such as posts and poles are included in an analysis 

of forest products other than commercial sawtimber and pulpwood, the collection of 

various products is referred to as nontimber forest products (NTFPs). The remainder of this document will discuss nontimber forest products (NTFPs), which include 
2

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

not only NWFPs such as medicinal plants, food and forage species, and so on, but 

also wood products including posts and poles, Christmas trees, and fuelwood.

Personal and commercial uses of many nontimber forest resources have been 

occurring for a very long time. Land managers report that some products, such as 

wild edible fungi, have seen increases in harvest and attention in the past couple of 

decades, particularly in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Smith et al. 2010). Data in 

this report indicate that permit and contract sales from harvest of NTFPs from U.S. 

Forest Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands from 1998 

to 2007 has been fairly constant in all categories. Harvest of medicinal plants in 

the United States has generated concern, prompting protective measures for many 

species. Foods from wild-harvested native plants and fungi provide a small share of 

foods consumed by Americans, but are often culturally significant and are becoming increasingly popular in restaurants and grocery stores. Native wild-harvested 

plants, fungi, and game animals have important cultural meaning for many people, 

in addition to providing food security in lean times. Native plant and animal parts 

used for decoration and art are as variable as their uses, from Christmas greens to 

antler and reed baskets. In the United States, large game animals are harvested for 

sport or subsistence. Over the past 20 years, harvests of common big game species 

have generally paralleled human population trends; the number of hunters and time 

devoted to hunting has increased. The numbers of small game hunters and migratory bird hunters has declined (Flather et al. 1999).

Duran1

 estimated that 8 out of 10 people collecting NTFPs from Forest Service 

lands in Oregon and Washington are gathering these products for personal use. 

Based on the authors’ collective experience and knowledge, it is probably true 

nationwide that most people who gather NTFPs do so for personal and subsistence 

use. As it is not possible to estimate personal use of NTFP on a broad scale, this 

analysis focuses on permit and contract data from federal lands and uses those data 

to estimate national commercial use. These permits and contracts from federal 

lands are assumed to be for commercial use, but are likely a combination of personal and commercial use. This is particularly true for products such as Christmas 

trees and firewood, for which there is a minimum charge for permits regardless of 

whether the use will be personal or commercial.

Very little data were available to assess NTFPs when the 2003 National Report 

on Sustainable Forests (USDA FS 2004) was written. Since the 2003 report was 

1 Duran, F.D. 2010. Personal communication. Natural resources forest products specialist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, 333 SW 

First Ave., Portland, OR 97208.

Nationwide, most 

people who gather 

nontimber forest 

products do so 

for personal and 

subsistence use.
3

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

published, Public Law 106-1132 was implemented. This legislation was passed by 

Congress in the 2000 Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations bill. The act, 

titled “Pilot Program of Charges and Fees for Harvest of Forest Botanical Products” 

for the National Forest System, is commonly referred to as “Section 339” of Public 

Law 106-113. The law defines forest botanical products as “any naturally occurring 

mushrooms, fungi, flowers, seeds, roots, bark, leaves, and any other vegetation (or 

portion thereof) that grow on National Forest System lands.” Section 339 directs 

the Secretary of Agriculture to develop and implement a pilot program to charge 

for forest botanical products through the establishment of appraisal methods and 

bidding procedures. The act also requires analysis regarding the sustainability of 

harvest levels and exempts personal, but not commercial, use from fees. The act 

was amended in 2003 so that fees are not only set by an appraisal process, but also 

require that a portion of fair market value and costs be recovered.3 This law has had 

a considerable impact on the development of appraisal methods and on commercial 

NTFP harvesting on USFS lands. As a result of this law, all USFS forests selling 

NTFPs are required to establish fair market values and develop minimum rates for 

individual products (Smith et al. 2010). Funds collected from the sale of NTFPs 

on USFS lands can be retained and used to manage NTFP programs on individual 

national forests. These requirements meant that many USFS districts expanded 

their NTFP sales programs. Both the BLM and the USFS track product sales in two 

general classes, “convertible” and “nonconvertible.” Convertible means the units of 

measure are in standard units used to measure wood volume, board feet or cubic feet 

of solid wood. Nonconvertible means the products either are not or cannot be measured by using wood volume measures. Nonconvertible products include Christmas 

trees, in addition to forest botanicals such as mushrooms or boughs. The USFS has 

tracked nonconvertible permit and contract data since 1998 (e.g., USDA FS 2007) 

and the BLM has tracked nonconvertible data even longer (e.g., USDI BLM 2007). 

Permit and contract data from the USFS and BLM can serve as a benchmark to 

assess harvests and values for many NTFPs. Information about game animals and 

fur bearer populations and harvest is collected by state and federal agencies, and 

summaries are available in response to periodic reviews required by the U.S. Forest 

and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (e.g., Flather et al. 2009). 

United States international trade data can be used to track general trade trends for 

2 U.S. Laws, Statutes, etc.; Public Law 106-113, div. B, Sec. 1000(a) (3) [title III, Sec. 

339]. Pilot Program of Charges and Fees for Harvest of Forest Botanical Products. Act 

of Nov. 29, 1999. Page 113 Stat. 1535, 1501A-119-200; 16 U.S.C. 528.

3 U.S. Laws, Statutes, etc.; Public Law 108-108, Sec. 335. Act of Nov. 10, 2003. Page 

117 Stat. 1312.
4

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

some wild-harvested plants and fungi. Some case studies have examined issues surrounding employment and wages in NTFP commercial industries (e.g., Alexander 

et al. 2002, Love et al. 1998). In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau’s County Business 

Patterns data reported 2,098 employees with an annual payroll of $71,657,000 in the 

industry code 1132, forest nurseries and gathering of forest products. The average 

annual income in this category is $34,155 (U.S. Census Bureau, County Business 

Patterns, at http://www.census.gov/econ/cbp/. [6/08/2011]).

Access to subsistence resources for particular U.S. populations is guaranteed 

by three canons of law—federal treaty commitments, the Alaska National Interest 

Land Conservation Act (Public Law 96-487, Dec. 2, 1980), and the Hawaii state 

constitution. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game’s Subsistence Division 

has collected quantitative data on fish and wildlife species and volumes harvested 

for subsistence for more than a quarter century. Additional data on subsistence 

activities in the state are produced by the federal agencies that comprise the Federal 

Subsistence Board. Outside Alaska, quantitative data are largely unavailable. Treaties between American Indian tribes and the federal government, and related case 

laws, sometimes address potential subsistence takes for selected species. Qualitative evidence of subsistence activities by diverse U.S. populations are found in the 

academic and grey literature on regional and ethnic cultures, human health, and 

rural and community development, as well as in the popular media. Regulations 

governing uses of public lands, and data on area of private lands subject to trespass 

law or under exclusive lease for recreational purposes, provide proxies for the 

subsistence potential of forested lands.

For the purposes of the 2010 National Report on Sustainable Forests, sales of 

permits and contracts for NTFPs from federal land in the United States were summarized in nine categories: (1) nursery and landscaping uses; (2) arts, crafts, and 

floral uses; (3) regeneration and silvicultural uses; (4) edible fruits, nuts, berries, 

and sap; (5) grass, hay, alfalfa, and forage; (6) herbs and medicinals; (7) fuelwood; 

(8) posts and poles; and (9) Christmas trees. 

Table 1 lists the products included in nursery and landscaping uses, for both the 

USFS and BLM. The category called “softwood and hardwood nonconvertible” is 

used by some national forests to classify their NTFP sales, but it is very difficult to 

tell exactly what those products are. As we know they are tree species, the units of 

measure can be used to make some assumptions about what general products they 

might be. Tree species products sold by the piece are likely transplants and so were 

included in nursery uses. Tree species products sold by weight, volume, or by the 

acre are likely to be boughs or leaves and so were included in the arts and crafts 

classification. 

Access to subsistence 

resources for particular 

U.S. populations is 

guaranteed by three 

canons of law—federal 

treaty commitments, 

the Alaska National 

Interest Land Conservation Act, and 

the Hawaii state 

constitution.
5

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Table 2 lists the products included in arts, crafts, and floral uses. This is a very 

broad category and could potentially include some wood products, which is why 

softwood and hardwood nonconvertible data are included. Specialty wood can be 

used for carving, birdhouses, walking sticks, picture frames, and a wide variety of 

other arts and crafts.

Table 1—Products included in nursery and landscape 

uses from U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) permit and contract databases

Product Units Agency

Aquatic plants Ton USFS

Bulbs Pound USFS

Cacti Each/piece USFS

Other plant Each/piece USFS

Softwood and hardwood NC Each/piece USFS

Transplants Each USFS

Cacti Each BLM

Ornamentals Each BLM

Transplants Each BLM

Yucca Each BLM

Note: NC = nonconvertible, meaning not convertible to standard wood volume 

measurements.

Table 2—Products included in arts, crafts, and floral 

uses from U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) permit and contract databases 

Product Units Agency

Bark Pound USFS

Cones dry Bushel USFS

Foliage Ton USFS

Limbs and boughs Ton USFS

Moss and mistletoe Pound USFS

Needles Cubic feet USFS

Other plant Ton USFS

Other plant Acre USFS

Softwood and hardwood NC Ton USFS

Softwood and hardwood NC Cubic feet USFS

Softwood NC PAM USFS

Vines Pound USFS

Alder sticks ccf BLM

Burls and miscellaneous Pound BLM

Foliage Pound BLM

Limbs and boughs Pound BLM

Moss and mistletoe Pound BLM

Note: NC = nonconvertible, meaning not convertible to standard wood volume 

measurements; PAM = per-acre material; ccf = 100 cubic feet.
6

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

Table 3 lists the products included in regeneration and silvicultural uses. 

Softwood tree species products sold by the bushel or gallon were assumed to be 

cones or seeds, as the USFS sells tree sap by the tap. Some of these products could 

be florals, such as leaves or branches, but it is not possible to tell for sure.

Table 4 lists the products included in edible fruits, nuts, berries, and sap. Some 

of the unit measurements were converted for ease in data analysis. For example, 

both agencies sell permits and contracts for fruits and berries by the pound and the 

ton. The Forest Service sells fungi and mushroom permits by both the pound and 

the ton, although pounds is a more common unit for commercial sales of wild edible 

fungi. Recently, the Forest Service began selling fungi by the gallon.

Table 3—Products included in regeneration and 

silvicultural uses from U.S. Forest Service (USFS) 

and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) permit and 

contract databases 

Product Units Agency

Cones green Bushel USFS

Nuts and seed Pound USFS

Other plant Bushel USFS

Softwood NC Bushel USFS

Softwood NC Gallon USFS

Cones green and seed Bushel BLM

Native seed Pound BLM

Note: NC = nonconvertible, meaning not convertible to standard wood 

volume measurements.

Table 4—Products included in edible fruits, nuts, 

berries, and sap from U.S. Forest Service (USFS) 

and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) permit and 

contract databases

Product Units Agency

Ferns Acre USFS

Fruits and berries Ton USFS

Fungi and mushrooms Ton USFS

Tree sap Taps USFS

Pinyon cones and seed Bushel BLM

Fruits and berries Pound BLM

Fungi and mushrooms Pound BLM

Pinyon nuts Pound BLM
7

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Federal rangelands are an important source of forage and probably constitute 

more supply than is represented by their proportion of the total land base. Table 5 

lists the products included in grass, hay, alfalfa, and forage. Table 6 lists products 

in the herbs and medicinals category. Amounts of herbs and medicinals reported 

in permit sales from both agencies are also likely underrepresentative of the total 

volumes removed from federal lands.

Table 5—Products included in grass, hay, alfalfa, 

and forage from U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) permit and 

contract databases

Product Units Agency

Grass, hay, and forage Ton USFS

Grass, forage, and alfalfa Ton BLM

Table 6—Products included in herbs and medicinals 

from U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) permit and contract databases

Product Units Agency

Herbs Pound USFS

Roots Pound USFS

Wildflowers Pound USFS

Herbs and medicinals Pound BLM

Federal lands, particularly in the Western United States, constitute an important 

source of fuelwood, and posts and poles, and probably represent more supply than 

is depicted by their proportion of the total land base. Table 7 lists the various units 

by which posts and poles are sold. Posts and poles are used in variety of ways, and 

some uses are regionally specific. For example, round roof beams (poles) called 

vigas are used in traditional adobe homes in the Southwest.

Table 7—Posts and poles in U.S. Forest Service 

(USFS) and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 

permit and contract databases

Product Units Agency

Posts and poles mbf USFS

Posts and poles ccf USFS

Posts and poles Linear foot USFS

Posts and poles Each/piece USFS

Posts and poles Acre USFS

Posts and poles ccf BLM

Note: mbf = thousand board feet, ccf = 100 cubic feet.
8

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

In most cases, the data presented in this report are only for permits and contracts sold by the USFS and BLM. These data do not include personal use harvests 

on federal, state, or private lands. The data collected by the USFS and BLM regarding permit and contract sales for what they call “nonconvertible products” are part 

of each agency’s national data collection system. Information on the methods used 

by the American Herbal Products Association for collecting data related to medicinal products, and methods used to collect data for the National Woodland Owner 

Survey, may be found in the documents listed in “Literature Cited.”

Annual Harvest of Nontimber Forest Products 

in the United States

Many of the numbers reported here list “permitted harvest quantities” and refer to 

the amount of material that permits issued by the USFS and the BLM allow permit 

holders to collect. Actual harvest quantities may differ widely from the reported 

permitted quantities because individuals may collect more or less than the quantities allowed by the permits (Muir et al. 2006). However, the quantities reported here 

offer the best available assessment of harvests on public lands. 

Arts, Crafts, and Florals

Nonwood forest products have been collected for arts, crafts, and floral uses for 

millennia, and run the gamut from wood pieces collected for carvings and walking 

sticks, to grasses, reeds, and sedges collected for basket making, to grapevines 

collected for wreaths, to conks and berries collected for dyes (Pilz et al. 2006). 

Permitted harvest quantities of arts, crafts, and floral products on public lands 

totaled over 620,000 (fresh weight) tons in 2007 (table 8). Of all the products in this 

category (see table 2), foliage, and limbs and boughs, comprise the largest amount 

of removals by weight in tons, every year (fig. 1). Most of the permitted harvests in 

this category in 2007 occurred in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions. 

Statewide comparisons of permitted harvests, normalized by the area of USFS 

and BLM forest land in the state, indicate that the largest number of permitted 

harvests for arts, crafts, and floral products came from Washington (157 pounds per 

thousand acres), Oregon (132 pounds per thousand acres), Florida (79 pounds per 

thousand acres), and North Carolina (73 pounds per thousand acres). Other states 

permitted harvests of less than 10 pounds per thousand acres. 

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don), noble fir (Abies procera

Rehder), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), grand fir (Abies 

grandis (Douglas ex D. Don) Lindl.), incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) 

Florin), redwood (Sequoia Endl.), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursh), 

bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata (Douglas ex Hook.) D. Dietr.), Oregon ash 

Permitted harvest 

quantities of arts, 

crafts, and floral 

products on public 

lands totaled over 

620,000 (fresh weight) 

tons in 2007.
9

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

(Fraxinus latifolia Benth.), red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.), and common beargrass 

(Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.) are all notable species on the Pacific Coast that 

are used for arts and crafts purposes, particularly holiday crafts and decorations. 

In the Southern United States, ferns, palms, moss, Galax spp., and grape vines 

contribute to the global fresh and dried floral industry (Alexander et al. 2002). A 

study of mosses and liverworts in the Pacific Northwest and Appalachian regions 

of the United States suggested that domestic sales of moss ranged between 770 

and 37,000 tons (air dried) per year over a 6-year period (Muir 2004). When 

international sales were added in, moss sales quantities were estimated to average 

between 960 and 41,000 tons (air dried) per year over a 6-year period (Muir 

2004). Arts and crafts produced from nontimber sources include baskets, wreaths, 

Christmas greens, Native American ceremonial masks, Appalachian dolls, 

furniture (e.g., cane chairs), birdhouses, bowls, and innumerable other possibilities 

(Alexander et al. 2002).

Nonwood forest product collection on public land is just a portion of total, 

nationwide collection. An estimated 727,000 private landowners also collect 

NWFPs from their own properties for decorative use, according to 2006 surveys, 

although the volume of their harvests is unknown (Butler 2008). 

Figure 1—Bags of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa C. Lawson var. ponderosa) cones gathered in 

central Oregon for arts, crafts, and floral markets. 

Susan J. Alexander
10

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

Nursery and Landscape Uses

Permitted harvests of plants for nursery and landscape uses on public land in 2007 

equaled about 766,645 individual plants plus 329 tons of other materials (seeds, etc.; 

table 9). The largest permitted harvest quantity of individual specimens for nursery 

and landscape uses came from Washington, followed by Oregon and North Carolina 

(table 9). The largest permitted harvest quantity of specimens measured in pounds 

came from Alaska, followed by Arizona (table 9).

Table 8—Quantity of nonwood forest products, fuelwood, and posts and poles harvested on U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management land in 2007 by product category, unit of measure, and region

 All

Alaska and	 	 Pacific	 Rocky	 	 United

Product category Unit Hawaii North Coast Mountain South States

Arts, crafts, and floral Bushels 0 130 66,522 2,235 1,335 70,222

 Pounds 4,200 5,600 3,199,993 58,368 173,963 3,442,125

 Tons 0 1,307 499,796 119,646 24 620,773

Christmas trees Each 0 2,054 48,347 100,773 100 151,274

Lineal foot 0 0 55,553 39,205 0 94,758

Edible fruits, nuts, berries, Acres 0 0 0 329 0 329 

and sap

 Bushels 0 0 0 250 0 250

 Pounds 0 200 1,395,205 25,359 193,800 1,614,565

Syrup taps 0 10,686 0 0 0 10,686

Fuelwood ccf 0 17,407 1,547 4,185 12,662 35,800

 Cords 199 270 169,899 247,069 254 417,692

Grass, hay, and alfalfa Pounds 0 1,500 4,264,452 0 0 4,265,952

Forage Tons 0 429 0 42 10 480

Herbs and medicinals Pounds 0 0 5,665 95,700 0 101,365

Nursery and landscape Each 0 2,853 696,050 32,009 35,733 766,645

 Pounds 0 600 25,048 36 5 25,689

 Tons 0 0 0 201 115 316

Posts and poles ccf 0 2,270 33 2,751 227 5,281

 Each 0 60 383,589 1,291,772 9,198 1,684,618

Lineal foot 0 0 43,412 282,900 0 326,312

Regeneration and silviculture Bushels 0 0 2,260 5,367 0 7,627

ccf 0 0 8 0 0 8

 Each 0 0 21,015 250 0 21,265

 Pounds 0 0 211,430 36,113 0 247,543

 Tons 0 0 110,811 55 7 110,873

Note: ccf = 100 cubic feet.

Permitted harvests 

of plants for nursery 

and landscape uses 

on public land in 2007 

equaled about 766,645 

individual plants plus 

329 tons of other 

materials.
11

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Table 9—Quantity of permitted nursery and 

landscape specimen harvests on U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management land 

by state in 2007

State Number of specimensa Pounds

Arizona 0 230,000

Alaska 2,111 402,680

California 197 6,667

Colorado 4,145 36

Florida 200 0

Georgia 2,770 0

Idaho 7,597 0

Kentucky 0 5

Michigan 40 200

Minnesota 476 0

Mississippi 1,700 0

Montana 7,651 0

North Carolina 22,459 0

New Mexico 7,000 0

Nevada 3 0

Oregon 39,034 1,581

South Dakota 1,825 0

Tennessee 8,604 0

Utah 730 0

Washington 656,819 16,800

Wisconsin 2,337 400

Wyoming 947 0

 Total 766,645 658,369

a Number of specimens means one bush, one transplant, etc.

Edible Fruits, Nuts, Berries, and Sap

Edible fruits, nuts, berries, and sap (fig. 2) are among the top-ranked NWFP 

exports from the United States according to the U.S. International Trade Commission (2008). The USFS and BLM keep records of permits and contracts issued for 

harvests on their respective land and provide some insight into harvest quantities. 

Approximations based on contract and permit data are estimates only as they represent the volume of permitted harvest rather than actual harvest. In addition, based 

on the proportion of public to private land in the United States, it is not unreasonable to estimate that harvests on USFS lands probably represent about 20 to 30 

percent of total national supply, whereas harvests on BLM land probably represent 

between 2 to 15 percent of total national supply. 

Approximately 1.6 million pounds and an additional 250 bushels of edible 

fruits, nuts, berries, and sap were permitted for harvest on USFS land in 2007; 

nearly double the quantity permitted for harvest on federal public land in 1998 

(table 8; fig. 3). Permitted harvests of edible plants on public lands were highest in 
12

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

Figure 2—Alaska wild berry products. 

Jerry Smith

Figure 3—Quantity of edible fruits, nuts, berries, and sap permitted for harvest on U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management land combined, by year.

0

400

800

1,200

1,600

2,000

Edible fruits, nuts, berries, and sap 

(thousand pounds) 

Year

1998199920002001200220032004200520062007
13

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

the Pacific Coast, at 1.4 million pounds, or about 3 pounds for every 100 acres of 

public (USFS and BLM) forest land. This increase in permitted harvests may have 

been more a response to increased focus and permitting requirements from federal 

land managers rather than an actual doubling of demand or harvest. Although data 

on the volume of NWFPs harvested on private land is lacking, a 2006 survey of 

U.S. private forest landowners indicated that, of an estimated 10 million private 

landowners nationwide (excluding Alaska, Hawaii, western Oklahoma, and west 

Texas), 10 percent collected edible plants (Butler 2008). 

Mushrooms are a well-known edible forest 

product, particularly in the Pacific Coast States (fig. 

4). In fact, 90 percent of the permitted quantity of 

edible plants recorded on Pacific Coast public land 

in 2007 were mushrooms and other fungi. Oregon 

and Washington ranked as the primary states for 

harvesting of wild mushrooms and fungi on public 

land in 2007 (table 10). Matsutake (Tricholoma

spp.), morels (Morchella spp.), chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.), hedgehogs (Hydnum repandum), 

boletes (Boletus edulis), and various truffles rank 

among the most important mushrooms harvested 

in the Pacific Northwest (Pilz and Molina 2002). 

Figure 4—Morel mushrooms (Morchella spp.) in central Oregon.

Table 10—Quantity of 

permitted mushroom and 

fungus harvests on U.S. 

Forest Service and Bureau 

of Land Management land 

by state in 2007

State Pounds

Arizona 25

California 42,196

Colorado 1,083

Idaho 4,875

Montana 18,301

Oregon 712,992

Vermont 200

Washington 494,688

 Total 1,274,360

Susan J. Alexander

Oregon and Washington 

ranked as the primary 

states for harvesting of 

wild mushrooms and 

fungi on public land 

in 2007.
14

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

Wild blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) are one of the top-ranked U.S. NWFP 

exports and are primarily harvested and sold in the northeast, specifically in the 

state of Maine. Wild lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton) are 

not planted varieties but are plants managed in situ in commercial operations 

through the removal of competing vegetation. Therefore, although wild blueberries 

are NWFPs, they are also cultivated commodities, making them difficult to 

classify, and even more difficult to track from the standpoint of long-term forest 

sustainability. Wild blueberry harvest has fluctuated according to consumer 

demand and available supply since 1998, but has remained relatively stable through 

the last decade. The wild blueberry season ended in 2007 with an overall increase 

in harvest of 23 percent over 1998 levels (fig. 5).

Figure 5—Quantity of wild blueberries harvested in the United States by year. (Source: USDA 

NASS, noncitrus fruits and nuts summary, various issues.)

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0

Wild blueberries harvested

(thousand pounds) 

Year

1998199920002001200220032004200520062007

Maple syrup represents a large NWFP industry in the North region, primarily 

the northeastern states from Ohio through Maine. In 2007, 1.3 million gallons of 

maple syrup from over 7 million taps were produced in the United States (USDA 

NASS 2007). Only a little more than 10,000 (about one half of one percent) of those 

taps were permitted taps on public land. Maple production has remained stable in 

the United States since 1998, and currently only a small proportion of the available resource is being used for syrup production. At the state level, Vermont is 

the leading producer of maple syrup, followed by Maine and New York. Although 

Vermont’s production has nearly doubled over the last decade, production in Maine 

and New York has remained fairly stable (fig. 6). 
15

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Grass, Hay, Alfalfa, and Other Forage

Permits purchased on BLM and USFS land for forage plants were included here 

even though some forage sales may occur outside of forested lands. It is not 

possible to separate permits issued for forest-dwelling grass species versus rangedwelling grass species. The use of native grasses as forage is a significant aspect of 

public forest-land management in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions 

(Alexander et al. 2002). Alfalfa, hay, and grass permits were lumped together 

for this analysis, although some grasses (e.g., beargrass; not actually a grass but 

often lumped in with grasses in the data) are also used as arts, crafts, and floral 

products. The data available did not allow for the separation of various grasses 

in many cases. Permitted harvests of alfalfa, hay, and grass were highest in the 

Pacific Coast region, at over 2,000 tons. Permitted harvest quantities on public 

land have remained fairly stable since the late 1990s and early 2000s (fig. 7). The 

spike in 2004 is due to the sale of beargrass,4

 which is typically used in the arts 

industry. Much of the alfalfa, hay, and grass grown on private land is considered an 

agricultural commodity rather than a NWFP and is therefore outside the scope of 

this report. 

Figure 6—Maple syrup production by state and year. (Source: USDA NASS.)

4 Duran, F.D. 2009. Personal communication. Natural resources forest products specialist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, 333 SW 

First Ave., Portland, OR 97204. Maple syrup production (thousand gallons)

Vermont

Maine

New York

Wisconsin

Michigan

Ohio

Pennsylvania

New Hampshire

Massachusetts

Connecticut

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Year

1998199920002001200220032004200520062007
16

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

Herbal and Medicinal Plants

The American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) is currently one of the best 

sources for information regarding the use of NWFPs for medicinal use in the 

United States. The AHPA collects information by survey, therefore, respondent 

participation determines the strength and reliability of their data (American Herbal 

Products Association 2007). Seventeen of the 22 medicinal plants studied by AHPA 

from 2004 through 2005 were wild harvested. Harvests of medicinal plants occur 

throughout the country, although the temperate forests of the Eastern United States 

supply larger quantities of medicinal plant species. Of the 22 different species 

recorded by AHPA (2007), 16 occur in the South, 14 occur in the North, 10 occur 

in the Rocky Mountain region, and 2 occur on the Pacific Coast (table 11). There 

was not enough data available to state with certainty which specific states within 

regions harvested particular medicinal species from wild (not wild-cultivated) 

stock. According to AHPA, saw palmetto (Serenoa repens (Bartram) Small) fruit 

was the most harvested medicinal plant in terms of dry weight (tons). The 2005 

reported wild harvest of saw palmetto berries reached 2,893 tons—nearly double 

the 2004 reported volume and five times the quantity reported in 1999 (540 tons, 

American Herbal Products Association 2007). The AHPA attributes the increase to 

fluctuating berry prices and supplies (American Herbal Products Association 2007). 

The berries harvested from this plant are used in the United States and elsewhere as 

Figure 7—Quantity of alfalfa, forage, grass, and hay permitted for harvest on U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management land combined, by year.

20,000

16,000

12,000

8,000

4,000

0

Alfalfa, forage, grass, and hay (U.S. tons)

Year

199920002001200220032004200520062007

Harvests of medicinal 

plants occur throughout 

the country, although 

the temperate forests 

of the Eastern United 

States supply larger 

quantities of medicinal 

plant species.
17

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Table 11—Average annual harvest of plant species wild-harvested for herbal or medicinal purposes by 

plant part used and region in which the species occurs, 1997 to 2005

Annual

Latin name Common name Plant part harvesta Region(s)

Actaea racemosa L. Black baneberry, black cohosh Root, rhizome 259,617 South, North

Aletris farinosa L. White colicroot Root 1,019 South, North

Aristolochia serpentaria L. Virginia snakeroot Root 149 South, North

Arnica spp. Arnica Whole plant 21 Allb

Caulophyllum thalictroides Blue cohosh Root 6,460 South, North, Rocky 

(L.) Michx. Mountain

Chamaelirium luteum (L.) Fairywand, false unicorn Root 4,529 South, North

A. Gray

Cypripedium spp. Lady’s slipper Whole plant 58 Allb

Dioscorea villosa L. Wild yam Tuber 42,400 South, North, Rocky 

 Mountain

Echinacea angustifolia DC. Blacksamson echinacea Root 50,054 South, Rocky Mountain

Echinacea angustifolia Blacksamson echinacea Herb 2,419 South, Rocky Mountain

Echinacea pallid (Nutt.) Nutt. Pale purple coneflower Root 9,753 South, North, Rocky 

 Mountain

Echinacea pallida Pale purple coneflower Herb 6 South, North, Rocky

 Mountain

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Eastern purple coneflower Root 1,365 South, North, Rocky

Moench Mountain

Echinacea purpurea Eastern purple coneflower Herb 18,843 South, North, Rocky

 Mountain

Frangula purshiana (DC.) Cascara buckthorn Bark 197,317 Pacific Coast

Cooper

Hydrastis canadensis L. Goldenseal Root, rhizome 78,699 South, North

Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal Leaf 28,029 South, North

Ligusticum porteri J.M. Porter’s licorice-root, osha Root 3,459 Rocky Mountain

Coult. & Rose

Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Fernleaf biscuitroot Root 502 Pacific Coast, Rocky

Mathias & Constance Mountain

Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot Root 28,798 South, North, Rocky 

 Mountain

Serenoa repens Saw palmetto Fruit 2,636,429 South

Trillium erectum L. Red trillium, bethroot Whole plant 1,234 South, North

Ulmus rubra Slippery elm Bark 189,208 South, North, Rocky 

 Mountain

Usnea spp. Beard lichen Whole plant 1,094 Allb

a Average annual wild harvest (pounds dry weight) 1997 to 2005.

b Distribution is species-dependent.

Source: American Herbal Products Association (2007).
18

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

an herbal supplement for men. Saw palmetto grows in the southern coastal plain of 

the United States from Texas through Florida.

The top six commodities in terms of harvest volume following saw palmetto 

include cascara bark (Frangula purshiana (DC.) Cooper), slippery elm bark (Ulmus 

rubra Muhl.), black cohosh root (black baneberry; Actaea racemosa L.), Echinacea

spp. herbs and roots, goldenseal leaves and roots (Hydrastis canadensis L.), and 

wild yam tubers (Dioscorea villosa L.) (table 11). In 2005, these species accounted 

for 97 percent of dried, wild-harvested medicinal plants recorded in the AHPA 

survey (not including American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), which was not 

addressed in the AHPA survey, or saw palmetto). 

American ginseng (fig. 8) is one of the most well-known and frequently studied 

medicinal plants in the United States. According to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

records collected over the last three decades (1978–2006), approximately 2.7 

million pounds of ginseng have been harvested from eastern hardwood forests. 

Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, Virginia, and Indiana comprise the top five 

ginseng producing states for the three decades. Kentucky was the largest producer 

during that period, with a total harvest of 489,000 pounds of dried root (18 percent 

of total ginseng harvest). In 2006, 25 percent of the total ginseng harvest came from 

Kentucky forests, and 70 percent of the total came from the combined states of 

Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, and West Virginia.

Figure 8—A young wild-simulated woods-grown American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) plant 

from a hardwood forest in southern Wisconsin.

Susan J. Alexander

American ginseng is 

one of the most wellknown and frequently 

studied medicinal 

plants in the United 

States.
19

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Christmas Trees

According to the National Christmas Tree Association (NCTA), 25 to 30 million 

live trees are sold yearly in the United States (NCTA 2009). The overwhelming 

majority of Christmas trees sold in lots or stores come from farms where trees are 

planted, grown, harvested, and replanted just as any other agricultural crop; therefore, it is difficult to separate out trees wild-harvested for use as Christmas trees 

from trees commercially grown for that purpose. A small proportion of live trees 

are harvested from public land each year. Permits issued on national forests for 

Christmas tree harvest have declined steadily since 1998. In the Pacific Northwest, 

and probably elsewhere, the vast majority of Christmas tree permits sold by the Forest Service are for personal use (see footnote 1). In 2006, slightly more than 50,000 

permits and contracts were issued for Christmas tree collection—an increase of 20 

percent from 2005, but a decrease of 71 percent since 1998. Christmas tree permitted harvests have declined on BLM land, also. The number of Christmas trees 

permitted for harvest on BLM land decreased from 27,709 trees in 1998 to 13,866 

trees in 2007. Most of the wild-harvested Christmas trees coming from publicly 

owned land are harvested in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions.

Hunting and Trapping

Wildlife-related activities, including hunting and trapping (fig. 9), constitute a 

billion-dollar industry in the United States. Big game like deer (Odocoileus spp.) 

and elk (Cervus canadensis Erxleben) draw the largest number of hunters (and 

revenues), followed by small game like squirrels (Sciurillus spp.) and rabbits 

(Sylvilagus spp.), and migratory waterfowl (USFWS 2006). The most widely 

pursued big game in the United States include deer, wild turkey (Meleagris 

gallopavo L.), elk, and bear (Ursus spp.), whereas the most widely pursued small 

game include rabbit and hare (Lepus spp.), squirrel, pheasant (Phasianus colchicus

L.), grouse (various spp.), and quail (various spp.) (USDI and USDOC 2006). 

The majority of hunting (82 percent) occurs on privately owned land (USDI and 

USDOC 2006), which makes tracking national harvest levels difficult, despite state 

requirements for hunting permits, and limits on harvest quantities.

The USDA Forest Service recently completed a report on “Population and 

Harvest Trends of Big Game and Small Game Species” (Flather et al. 2009) as a followup to the 2000 Resources Planning Act assessment (Flather et al. 1999). Results 

from voluntary-response surveys summarized in Flather et al. (2009) indicate 

that between 1975 and 2000, wild turkey harvests rose 375 percent. Deer harvests 

increased by 4.9 million animals in 45 responding states. The opposite was true 

for small game harvests. Flather et al. (2009) reported that all small game species 

studied showed declines in harvest quantities. Hare, northern bobwhite (Colinus 
20

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

virginianus), and cottontail rabbit harvests experienced the largest declines, with 

reductions of 86, 75, and 69 percent, respectively (Flather et al. 2009).

Despite the popularity of hunting big game species, the latest studies of big 

game populations show substantial increases in populations since the mid-1970s 

(Flather et al. 2009). Specifically, wild turkey populations have increased 730 

percent, and deer populations have increased by more than 14 million animals in 

31 reporting states since the mid-1970s (Flather et al. 2009). Few states reported 

on small game populations, making statistical analysis and interpretation of those 

numbers highly variable and insufficient for trend analysis (Flather et al. 2009).

Value of Nontimber Forest Products 

Produced or Collected

An examination of permit and contract sales of NTFPs from USFS and BLM land 

from 1998 to 2007 shows that value, and by inference harvest, in all the categories 

has been relatively steady, with some fluctuations. These fluctuations would be 

expected with products that fruit better in some years than others, such as fungi or 

pine nuts. Table 12 illustrates the revenue received by the USFS and the BLM for 

NTFP sales from 1998 to 2007 (adjusted to 2007 dollars).

Figure 9—Big game hunters in northwestern Alaska.

Susan J. Alexander

Value, and by inference 

harvest, of nontimber 

forest products in the 

United States has been 

relatively steady from 

1998 to 2007.
21

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Although there are detailed rules for how the USFS and BLM determine the 

amount charged for permits and contracts for commercial harvest of NTFPs, a 

general rule of thumb that works for estimates of value is that permit and contract 

values for both agencies represent about 10 percent of first point-of-sales value, or 

shed value. Shed value is the price received by the harvester when they sell their 

wild-harvested product to a buyer. For example, wild edible fungi harvesters in 

the Pacific Northwest usually sell their mushrooms to buyers who set up buying 

stations in rural areas, or even in the forests where the harvest is taking place. The 

price the mushroom harvesters receive is the shed value. Using this fairly accurate 

estimate of what portion of shed value is represented by the permit and contracts 

sales value is the first step in calculating national values for NTFPs in the United 

States.

The next step is to figure out how much of the national supply is derived from 

USFS and BLM lands. In most cases, it was assumed that USFS sales represent 

20 percent of supply nationwide, and BLM 2 percent, based on the proportion 

of forested land nationwide for each agency. These data are only for permits and 

contracts sold by the USFS and BLM and do not include personal use harvests. 

The assumptions about proportion of supply each agency represents are intended 

to account for commercial harvest from all other forest lands in the United States.

By expanding the permit and contract values to shed values (using the 10 

percent estimate), and then expanding the sales from federal land into an estimate 

of supply from all forested lands, you get to an estimate of first point-of-sales 

value nationwide. The national first point-of-sales value estimates are illustrated 

in table 13.

Table 12—Receipts for wild-harvested nontimber forest products from U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of 

Land Management permits and contracts, 1998 to 2007 

Product category 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Thousand 2007 U.S. dollars

Landscaping 786 638 502.2 478 431 382 333 327 262 269

Crafts and floral 1,056 914 738.6 983 1,128 1,095 1,050 816 839 1,334

Regeneration seed and cones 50 21 41.4 41 104 50 30 45 27 31

Edible fruits, nuts, and sap 494 334 364 489 400 428 524 426 334 406

Grass and forage 175 164 197 225 226 228 209 310 242 244

Herbs and medicinals 6 15 17 3 26 27 21 18 14 16

 Subtotal 2,567 2,086 1,860 2,220 2,314 2,210 2,178 1,943 1,719 2,301

Fuelwood 3,994 3,639 3,109 3,111 3,105 3,070 3,011 2,878 2,938 3,311

Posts and poles 900 648 678 354 315 399 296 353 284 260

Christmas trees 2,054 1,675 1,753 1,832 1,677 1,704 1,479 1,560 1,275 1,282

Totala 9,517 8,049 7,400 7,515 7,413 7,381 6,963 6,734 6,217 7,154

a Totals may be off due to rounding. 
22

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

These are very rough estimates because they are based on federal permit and 

contract sales, and the actual value may be quite different. There are several reasons 

the estimates could be low. One significant reason is that harvest of NTFPs from 

federal lands does not always occur with a permit or contract. Muir et al. (2006) 

estimated the quantity and value of moss harvest from forests in two regions in the 

United States by using USFS permit and contract data, comparing that information 

to export data, and surveying moss dealers. They found that annual moss values 

alone could range from US$6 million to $165 million (in nominal values). Moss is 

included in the crafts and floral category in tables 12 and 13. These estimates by 

Muir et al. are not first point-of-sales prices, but they do illustrate the difficulty in 

using USFS and BLM permit and contract data alone, as in table 12, to estimate 

total values for resources that are often harvested without a permit or contract, 

or harvested with no need for any documentation, and sold through complex 

commodity chains that often combine wild-harvested and agriculturally grown 

commodities.

Table 14 illustrates the value at the wholesale level of wild-harvested nontimber 

resources in the United States, based on the two steps outlined previously; that 

USFS and BLM sales receipts are 10 percent of first point-of-sales value, and that 

USFS sales represent approximately 20 to 30 percent and BLM sales represent 

approximately 2 to 15 percent of total supply based on proportions of U.S. forested 

land area. The third step in calculating wholesale values is to assume that first 

point-of-sales value is 40 percent of wholesale price (from http://www.ers.usda.gov/

Data/ [ 8/20/08]). 

Table 13—First point-of-sales value of wild-harvested nontimber resources in the United States, assuming 

U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) sales receipts are 10 percent of first point-ofsales value, and that Forest Service sales represent approximately 20 to 30 percent and BLM sales represent 

approximately 2 to 15 percent of total supply

Product category 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Million 2007 U.S. dollars

Landscaping 35.7 29.0 22.9 21.8 19.6 17.3 15.1 14.9 11.9 12.2

Crafts and floral 48.0 41.6 33.6 44.7 51.3 49.8 48.2 37.1 38.2 60.6

Regeneration seeds and cones 2.3 1.0 1.9 1.9 4.7 2.3 1.3 2.0 1.2 1.4

Edible fruits, nuts, and sap 22.5 15.2 16.5 22.2 18.2 19.4 23.8 19.4 15.2 18.5

Grass and forage 5.9 5.5 6.6 7.5 7.5 7.5 6.9 10.3 8.0 8.1

Herbs and medicinals 0.2 0.6 0.7 0.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.7

 Subtotal 114.6 92.9 82.1 98.1 102.5 97.7 96.5 84.5 75.2 101.6

Fuelwood 159.8 145.6 124.3 124.4 124.2 122.8 120.4 115.2 117.6 132.4

Posts and poles 36.0 25.9 27.1 14.2 12.6 15.9 11.8 14.1 11.4 10.4

Christmas trees 45.7 37.2 39.0 40.7 37.2 37.9 32.8 34.6 28.4 28.4

Total 356.1 301.6 272.6 277.5 276.6 274.3 261.6 248.4 232.4 272.9
23

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Table 14—Estimated wholesale value of wild-harvested nontimber resources in the United States, assuming 

U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) sales receipts are 10 percent of first point-ofsales value, that U.S. Forest Service sales represent approximately 20 to 30 percent and BLM sales represent 

approximately 2 to 15 percent of total supply, and that first point-of-sales value is 40 percent of wholesale 

price 

Product category 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Million 2007 U.S. dollars

Landscaping 89.3 72.6 57.1 54.3 49.0 43.4 37.9 37.2 29.8 30.6

Crafts and floral 120.1 103.8 83.9 111.7 128.2 124.4 120.4 92.7 95.3 151.6

Regeneration seeds and cones 5.7 2.4 4.7 4.7 11.9 5.6 3.4 5.1 3.1 3.5

Edible fruits, nuts, and sap 56.2 38.0 41.4 55.5 45.4 48.6 59.5 48.4 38.0 46.2

Grass and forage 14.6 13.7 16.4 18.7 18.8 19.0 17.5 25.9 20.2 20.4

Herbs and medicinals 0.6 1.7 1.9 0.4 3.0 3.0 2.4 2.0 1.5 1.8

 Subtotal 286.5 232.1 205.4 245.4 256.2 244.2 241.2 211.4 188.0 254.0

Fuelwood 399.4 363.9 310.9 311.1 310.5 307.0 301.1 287.8 293.8 331.1

Posts and poles 89.9 64.8 67.8 35.4 31.6 39.9 29.5 35.4 28.5 26.0

Christmas trees 114.2 93.1 97.4 101.7 93.1 94.7 82.1 86.6 70.9 71.2

Total 890.0 753.8 681.5 693.6 691.5 685.6 654.0 621.2 581.2 682.4

Under the assumption that retail values are double wholesale prices (a relatively 

conservative assumption, based on several sources, including http://en.allexperts.

com/q/General-Retail-Business-2223/Price-Markup-Wholesale-Retail.htm [9/30/10] 

and http://www.agweb.com/ [9/30/10]), all the values in table 14 can be multiplied 

by two to derive retail values.

In 2003, the estimated retail value for nonwood products harvested in the 

United States, not including imports, totaled $488 million in adjusted 2007 U.S. 

dollars. By 2007, the estimated retail value of nonwood products harvested in the 

United States rose to $508 million. If fuelwood, posts and poles, and Christmas 

trees are included, the retail value of NTFPs produced in the United States in 2007 

was $1,365 million.

Exports and Imports of Nontimber Forest Products

International trade is a significant driver of demand for NWFPs harvested in the 

United States. Many of the most common commercially harvested species are 

traded primarily to other countries, including wild edible fungi and wild-harvested 

floral greens. International prices are a primary determinant of domestic prices 

even for products consumed domestically. Since 1989, the United States has used 

the Harmonized Tariff Schedule to track the Nation’s exports and imports. All 

internationally traded goods are classified with a six-digit number. Each nation 

can then add four additional digits to track goods that are of special interest to that 

country. Export data can be used to help assess domestic harvest and total trade 

The retail value of 

nontimber forest 

products produced 

in the United States 

in 2007 was $1,365 

million.
24

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

with products for which little other data are available (Alexander et al. 2002). Moss 

can be used to illustrate issues in assessing NWFP harvest and exports. Muir et al. 

(2006) addressed questions about moss harvests from the Pacific Northwest and 

the Appalachian regions of the United States, and also tried to estimate the commercial value of moss harvests. The difference between moss harvests reflected 

in land management agency permit data and moss information from export data 

was considerable. Agencies (USFS and BLM) issued permits for moss from 1997 

to 2002 that averaged about 220,970 air-dry pounds per year, with average annual 

permit revenues of about $19,650. An examination of export permit data from 1998 

to 2003 showed that a mean of 10.1 to 40.5 million air-dry pounds per year are 

exported from the United States, with a mean annual value between US$6 million 

and $165 million (Muir et al. 2006). The value of moss and lichen exports has been 

steadily falling since 2003 (table 15), whereas imports have been holding steady (in 

adjusted prices) (table 16). Muir et al. stated that “the wide ranges in the estimates 

illustrate how little is known about the moss trade. In combination with lack of 

information about the size of the moss inventory, reaccumulation rates, and species 

and ecosystem functions potentially affected by harvest, ...policy makers and land 

managers lack critical information on which to base harvest regulations” (p. 212). 

The commercial moss industry is important economically in both the U.S. Pacific 

Table 15—Nonwood forest products in the Harmonized Tariff Schedule exported from the United States, 

2003 and 2007 

Product description 2003 2007 Primary destinations

Thousand 2007

U.S. dollars

Mosses and lichens 4,749 773 Canada, Mexico

Fresh, dried, dyed, bleached, impregnated, or 96,225 133,031 Europe, Canada 

otherwise prepared foliage, branches

Mushrooms and truffles, fresh, preserved, dried, 11,109 14,111 Canada, Europe, central America, Asia,

sliced, etc. Russia

Pecans, fresh or dried, in shell and shelled 83,205 187,346 Mexico, Asia, western Europe

Cranberries and other fruits, fresh, of the genus 11,905 32,323 United Kingdom, Canada, Cayman 

Vaccinium except blueberries Islands

Wild blueberries, fresh, frozen, preserved, dried, canned 41,555 48,198 Canada, western Europe, Asia, Mexico

Vanilla beans 6,531 2,710 Canada, France, Japan

Ginseng roots, cultivated, fresh or dried 16,427 13,640 China, Hong Kong, Canada, Taiwan

Ginseng roots, wild, fresh or dried 27,144 38,274 Hong Kong, China, Singapore

Maple sugar and maple syrup 8,865 8,410 Japan, Canada, Mexico

Pignolia (pine nuts), prepared or preserved NESOI 26 20 India, Costa Rica

Gum, wood or sulfate turpentine oils 4,679 4,886 France, Mexico, Taiwan

Essential oils of cedarwood, clove and nutmeg 7,573 5,405 Mexico, France, worldwide

Pine oil 7,980 11,699 United Kingdom, Mexico, United Arab 

 Emirates

Note: NESOI = not elsewhere specified or indicated.
25

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

Northwest and the Appalachian regions, contributing income and jobs. The authors 

suggested further research is needed on the resource and its response to harvest, 

harvester knowledge and potential education opportunities, moss cultivation, 

harvest and trade data collection, and collected moss characteristics. This same lack 

of knowledge has been noted about other wild-harvested nonwood products traded 

in commercial markets, such as floral greens and mushrooms. There are several 

site- and species-specific studies that have been done since 2003 to address these 

gaps (e.g., Ballard and Huntsinger 2006, Jones and Lynch 2007). The USFS Pacific 

Northwest Region does not sell lichen permits, and after a decade-long assessment of moss (see Peck 2006, Peck and Muir 2007, Peck and Muir 2008), only one 

national forest in the region sells moss permits (see footnote 1).

Imports listed in this report focus on nontimber products from species native 

to North America, even if they have been domesticated elsewhere. Tables 15 and 

16 list values for NWFPs exported from and imported to the United States in 2003 

and 2007. The list includes nonwood products from native species growing wild 

in forests, forest openings, and woodlands; products from select native species 

Table 16—Nonwood forest products in the Harmonized Tariff Schedule imported into the United States, 2003 

and 2007 

Product description 2003 2007 Primary sources

Thousand 2007 U.S. dollars

Mosses and lichens 4,354 4,347 Mexico, Chile

Foliage, branches and grasses for ornamental purposes, 73,640 96,245 Central and South America, 

fresh, dried, dyed, or otherwise prepared western Europe, Asia, Africa

Truffles, fresh or dried 1,634 7,831 Europe

Mushrooms, fresh or dried 15,252 26,277 Canada, Asia, 

western Europe

Pecans, fresh or dried, in shell and shelled 98,112 147,267 Mexico

Pignolia (pine nuts), fresh, preserved, or dried, in shell 33,469 54,010 China, Spain, Turkey 

or shelled

Wild blueberries, fresh, frozen, dried, canned 53,824 109,392 Canada, Chile, China, Europe

Cranberries, fresh or frozen 30,956 49,205 Canada

Fruits of the genus Vaccinium, fresh, NESOI 258 332 Western Europe

Vanilla beans 325,333 42,690 Madagascar, Uganda, Indonesia

Ginseng roots, cultivated, fresh or dried, whole, cut, 13,904 15,473 China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Canada

crushed or powdered

Ginseng roots, wild, fresh or dried, whole, cut, 596 9,781 China, Hong Kong

crushed or powdered

Maple syrup, blended or not 91,990 141,924 Canada

Maple sugar NESOI 171 740 Canada

Essential oils of cedarwood 215 1,760 Canada, Switzerland, China

Gum, wood or sulfate turpentine oils 4,125 3,857 Canada, China, Brazil

Pine oil 775 2,069 China, Hong Kong

Note: NESOI = not elsewhere specified or indicated.
26

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

grown agriculturally; and select products from native species growing in nonforest 

environments, whether wild or domesticated. Some trade codes are so broad that 

it is impossible to describe trade in specific species. For example, fresh foliage and 

branches (HTC 0604.91.0000) covers many species, wild and domesticated, from 

forests and agricultural lands. Some codes may include products that are grown 

in agroforestry environments, intentionally sown but allowed to grow in wildsimulated environments, such as wild ginseng (HTC 1211.20.0040). Only a few 

wild-harvested NWFPs, such as fresh wild blueberries (HTC 0810.40.0024), have 

exclusive trade codes. The U.S. mushroom trade data since 2002 has split out the 

most commonly domesticated mushrooms, including the white button mushroom 

common in grocery stores (Agaricus spp.), wood ears (Auricularia spp.), and jelly 

fungus (Tremella spp.). Mushroom trade data in tables 15 and 16 do not include 

these domesticated species, and can be assumed to be highly influenced by wildharvested fungi such as morels (Morchella spp.), chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.), 

American matsutake (Tricholoma magivelare), and various truffle species.

The top four NWFPs that can be identified in trade data exported from the 

United States in both 2003 and in 2007 were pecans (Carya illinoinensis), foliage 

and branches, wild blueberries, and wild ginseng (table 15). Export values in all 

four product categories increased from 2003 to 2007. The top four NWFP imports 

from other countries into the United States in 2003 were vanilla beans (Vanilla

spp.), pecans, maple syrup products, and foliage and branches. The top four imports 

in 2007 were pecans, maple syrup products, wild blueberries, and foliage and 

braches (table 16). Vanilla beans come primarily from Madagascar, and imports of 

vanilla beans from that country have dropped precipitously since cyclone Hudda in 

2003 devastated Madagascar’s vanilla-growing regions. Import values for the other 

top imports increased between 2003 and 2007.

Total and Per Capita Consumption of 

Nontimber and Nonwood Forest Products

The purpose of estimating consumption of NWFPs is to illustrate the importance of 

forests as sources of products other than wood and wood products. Total consumption is estimated as domestic production plus imports, minus exports. Per capita 

consumption is the ratio of volume consumed and national population.

To calculate the impact of NWFP trade on total consumption, it was assumed 

the products in table 15 are representative of all NWFP exports, and table 16 

represents all NWFP imports. This is an imperfect assumption, as NWFPs may 

constitute parts of many export and import trade code data, but it is not possible to 

split NWFPs out of all categories. The United States is a net importer of NWFPs, as 

The top four nontimber 

forest products that 

can be identified in 

trade data exported 

from the United States 

in both 2003 and in 

2007 were pecans, 

foliage and branches, 

wild blueberries, and 

wild ginseng.
27

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

can be seen in table 17. The net value of U.S. NWFP trade (imports minus exports) 

is heavily influenced by vanilla, most of which is imported. The total wholesale 

values adjusted for trade reported in table 17 are wholesale values from table 14 

plus net trade.

Table 17—United States nonwood forest product trade, adjusted wholesale value 

Value description 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Million 2007 U.S. dollars

U.S. imports minus exports 275.2 225.1 75.3 108.3 60.6

Total wholesale value adjusted for trade 519.4 466.2 286.5 296.2 314.6

Total wholesale value adjusted for trade, plus firewood, 960.8 879.1 696.5 689.5 743.0

posts and poles, and Christmas trees

Table 18—United States population and per capita consumption of nonwood and nontimber forest products, 

adjusted for trade, in wholesale 2007 U.S. dollars

Population and consumption 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

U.S. population (millions) (http://factfinder.census.gov/) 290.4 293. 2 295. 9 298.8 301.6

Annual U.S. per capita consumption of nonwood forest products $1.79 $1.59 $0.97 $0.99 $1.04

Annual U.S. per capita consumption of nontimber forest products $3.31 $3.00 $2.35 $2.31 $2.46

Table 18 shows an estimate of per capita consumption of NWFPs and NTFPs 

in the United States. The estimates of per capita consumption are based on the 

total wholesale values reported in table 17, divided by population. The values for 

per capita consumption reported in table 18 should be considered a lower bound 

estimate as they do not include personal use, undocumented harvest, and certain 

products that cannot be differentiated in the trade data.

These consumption estimates are quite uncertain because error in any of 

several assumptions could strongly influence the result. Most of the products and 

species harvested are from specific regions of the United States. For example, moss 

harvests take place primarily in the Pacific Northwest and the Appalachian areas, 

and maple sap comes from the northeastern United States. However, demand and 

prices are set globally for internationally traded species and products, and U.S. supply generally has little to no influence on price. As domestic local markets develop, 

regional consumption of locally wild-harvested products, such as wild edible 

fungi, has become more common. Interest in personal health, sustainability, and 

connection to land has spurred increased demand for health and food products that 

have wild-harvested ingredients or some connection to wildness. Although it does 

fluctuate, international demand for significant cultural or traditional resources such 
28

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

as vanilla, matsutake mushrooms, or American ginseng, continues even during 

economic downturns. Trade in NWFPs has been a small but regionally important 

part of the U.S. economy for generations. International trade in species native to 

North America is subject to many different influences including globalization of 

labor markets, movement of processing to countries with competitive advantages, 

and changes in taste or style. International trade in NWFPs, in turn, influences 

sustainable forest practices (or the lack thereof) throughout the world.

Area and Percentage of Forests Used for 

Subsistence Uses

Throughout the United States, people from diverse ethnic backgrounds make use of 

subsistence resources for food, medicine, and other purposes (fig. 10). These activities have particular importance for indigenous peoples. Subsistence activities tend 

to be associated with poverty in the popular imagination. However, many who hunt, 

fish, trap, and gather to meet their basic needs regard these practices as a form of 

wealth, which frequently benefits not only the individual but also extended family 

and a larger community. 

Research on subsistence suggests that it should be regarded as a process encompassing preharvest planning, postharvest sharing and any associated ceremonies 

or celebrations, in addition to the physical acts of hunting, fishing, trapping, and 

Figure 10—Picking pawpaw (Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal) fruits in northern Ohio.

Susan J. Alexander

International trade 

in nontimber forest 

products influences 

sustainable forest 

practices (or the lack 

thereof) throughout 

the world.
29

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

gathering (Emery and Pierce 2005). Subsistence processes can be central to the 

preservation of family and cultural traditions. The material resources provided 

by subsistence activities are valued for their unique qualities (e.g., taste and connections to place and the passage of the season), as well as the independence and 

autonomy they can confer (Emery and Pierce 2005). 

The number of subsistence practitioners in the United States is unknown. 

Alaska is the only place in the United States where regular and systematic data on 

subsistence activities are collected. In 2000, the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game’s Subsistence Division reported that 60 percent of rural households in Alaska 

harvest game and 83 percent harvest fish (Wolfe 2000). When gift-giving and 

sharing—principle traits of subsistence systems—are considered, nearly 86 percent 

of Alaskan households use game and 95 percent use fish. Research estimates total 

annual subsistence harvests by rural residents at the end of the 20th century at 

375 pounds of food per person (Wolfe 2001). That harvest breaks down as follows: roughly 60 percent, by usable weight, is fish, followed by land mammals (20 

percent), marine mammals (14 percent), birds (2 percent), shellfish (2 percent), and 

plants (2 percent). Among communities in south-central and southeastern Alaska, 

nearly 80 percent of the population participates in the harvest or use of plants and 

plant materials for subsistence, with annual per capita harvests ranging from scores 

of pounds to a high of nearly 600 pounds (Schroeder 2002) (fig. 11). Outside Alaska, 

Figure 11—Berry picker in a patch of lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) in northwestern Alaska. 

Susan J. Alexander
30

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

research into subsistence is fragmentary but suggests that rich traditions persist in 

regions including Appalachia (Emery et al. 2003, Hufford 2000), the Deep South 

(Brown et al. 1998, Forsyth et al. 1998), and the Southwest (Peña 1999, Raish 2000). 

Research is needed to characterize and quantify subsistence in these areas and in 

cities throughout the Nation. 

Areas and ownerships used for subsistence include both public and private 

lands. In general, access to subsistence resources on industrial and family forest 

lands appears to be declining owing to changes in land use that include increased 

posting against trespass for privacy and liability reasons and growing use of 

exclusive hunting leases (Butler 2008, Capozzi and Dawson 2001, Morrison et al. 

2002). As access to private lands diminishes, some subsistence harvesting may 

be increasing on public lands. Regulations such as season limits, bag limits, size 

limits, permit costs, and equipment restrictions apply on all land ownerships. Typically set based on assumptions about recreational uses, these regulations may also 

pose barriers to the legal pursuit of subsistence activities (Emery and Pierce 2005). 

Access on public lands may be limited further by management and administrative 

policies such as permit programs that do not accommodate subsistence needs. 

Within these broad contours, there is a great deal of variation in legal access to 

subsistence resources. In Alaska, the Alaska National Interest Land Conservation 

Act (Public Law 96-487 [Dec. 2, 1980]) provides for the subsistence use of federal 

forest resources by all rural Alaskans regardless of race or income, whereas the 

state of Alaska allows both rural and urban residents access to most state lands 

for subsistence harvest. The importance of subsistence in Alaska is suggested by 

ongoing controversies and legal actions surrounding allocation of fish and game 

resources to commercial, recreational, and subsistence users. A sweeping review of 

the federal subsistence program in Alaska was initiated by the Department of the 

Interior in October 2009. As of this writing, results from the review had not been 

announced. 

The Hawaii State Constitution protects the customary and traditional rights of 

Native Hawaiians, including subsistence use of marine and terrestrial resources 

and subsistence fishing, hunting, and gathering, which continue to be practiced by 

Native Hawaiians. However, the issue is controversial in the islands and has resulted 

in a number of court cases pitting traditional rights against private property rights. 

Some Native American tribes explicitly retain treaty rights to hunt, fish, 

trap, and gather on off-reservation lands in the United States. In addition, it has 

been argued that federal trust responsibilities and laws including the American 

Indian Religious Freedom Act and the National Historic Preservation Act extend 

this requirement for guaranteed access to culturally important natural resources 
31

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

to all federally recognized tribes and their members. The Native American Fish 

and Wildlife Society and its affiliate organizations were founded to safeguard the 

legal and ecological bases for practices that American Indians and Alaska Natives 

consider fundamental to their survival as peoples. In practice, Native American 

rights to subsistence resources often have been the focus of legal disputes, although 

several legal tests have upheld treaty rights to subsistence practices.5

In the Lower 48 States, the legal basis for access to subsistence resources 

outside federal Indian law is limited. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that subsistence use of forests occurs in all parts of the country and factors such as high 

unemployment and increasing food and fuel costs could potentially spur an increase 

in subsistence use of forests. Whether motivated by economic need, cultural 

preservation, or a combination of the two, subsistence hunting, fishing, trapping, 

and gathering persist and are vital to the material and social well-being of diverse 

peoples in the United States.

Conclusions

The harvest of NTFPs is a significant activity in the United States. The retail 

value of commercial harvests of NTFPs from U.S. forest lands is estimated at 

$1.4 billion annually. In the Northwestern United States, significant commercial 

products include evergreen boughs, floral greens, moss, and wild edible fungi. In 

the Northeastern United States, evergreen boughs, maple syrup, wild blueberries, 

and medicinal plants such as wild American ginseng are important to local economies. In the southwest, posts and poles, medicinal plants, and forage are important 

to local communities. Medicinal plants such as saw palmetto, floral greens such 

as galax, and pine needles for nursery applications are harvested for commercial 

use in the southeast. Nontimber forest products, including pecans, foliage, wild 

blueberries, wild ginseng, and wild edible fungi are exported from the United 

States to countries all over the world. It is generally believed that both legal and 

illegal harvest of medicinal plants in the United States has expanded considerably 

in the past 20 years, prompting protective measures for many species. Permit and 

contract sales of NTFPs from USFS and BLM lands from 1998 to 2007 indicate 

that harvests in all categories have been fairly constant in the past 10 years. Native 

plants and fungi constitute a small percentage of foods consumed by Americans 

but are often culturally significant. Native wild-harvested plants, fungi, and game 

5 Examples include Sohappy v. Smith, 302 F. Supp. 899 (D. Or. 1969); United States v. 

Washington, 384 F. Supp. 312 (W.D. Wash 1974; often referred to as the “Boldt Decision”); 

Lac Courte Oreilles Band v. Voigt, 700 F. 2d 341 (7th Cir. 1983); United States v. Washington, 157 F. 3d 630 (9th Cir. 1998); and Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians, 

526 U.S. 172 (1999).

Subsistence hunting, 

fishing, trapping, and 

gathering persist and 

are vital to the material 

and social well-being 

of diverse peoples in 

the United States.
32

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-851

are important in traditions and culture and can provide food security in lean times. 

Nontimber forest products in the United States are important to many people 

throughout the country for personal, cultural, and commercial uses, providing food 

security, beauty, connection to culture and tradition, and income. 

Acknowledgments

Helen (OJ) Kelly, USFS Washington office Financial Services, supplied a report 

derived from USFS national permit and contract data each year for several years. 

Pat Cunningham, a mathematical statistician with the USFS Pacific Northwest 

Research Station in Corvallis, Oregon, helped tremendously with cleaning and summarizing USFS permit and contract data. Sharon Cordell, timber sale accountant 

in the USFS Alaska Region, helped with interpreting the USFS data. Dick Watson, 

a forester in the national Operations Center with the BLM, supplied cleaned 

data reports from BLM permit and contract sales nationwide. The USFS Pacific 

Northwest Research Station provided funding to publish this report. We appreciate 

the thoughtful and helpful comments from reviewers, including Rebecca McLain 

with the Institute for Culture and Ecology in Portland, Oregon, Frank Duran with 

the USFS Pacific Northwest Region, in Portland, Oregon, and Michael McGuffin, 

president of the American Herbal Products Association, Silver Spring, Maryland. 

Numerous other people have provided advice, comments, and assistance. Any 

errors in this report are the sole responsibility of the authors.

Metric Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To get:

Acres 0.405 Hectares

Board feet 0.0024 Cubic meters

Cubic feet 0.0283 Cubic meters

Gallons 3.78 Liters

Pounds 454 Grams

Pounds 0.454 Kilograms

Tons 907 Kilograms

Tons 0.907 Tonnes or megagrams

Pounds per acre 1.12 Kilograms per hectare
33

Nontimber Forest Products in the United States: Montreal Process Indicators as Measures of Current Conditions and Sustainability

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