SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 

RELATING TO SURFACE-WATER QUALITY 

IN THE KENTUCKY RIVER BASIN, KENTUCKY

by Arthur D. Bradfield and Stephen D. Porter

Delmarva 

Peninsula

Lower Kansas

River Basin

I U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4051

1990
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

MANUEL LUJAN, JR., SECRETARY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Dallas L. Peck, Director

For additional information 

write to:

District Chief 

U.S. Geological Survey 

2301 Bradley Avenue 

Louisville, Kentucky 40217

Copies of this report may be 

purchased from:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Books and Open-File Reports 

Box 25425

Federal Center, Building 810 

Denver, Colorado 80225
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract................................................................ 1

Introduction............................................................ 1

Sources of biological data......................................... 5

Rationale for evaluations of biological data....................... 5

Biological characteristics of the Kentucky River basin.................. 7

Hydrologic Unit 05100201 - North Fork Kentucky River............... 7

Buckhorn Creek................................................ 7

Troublesome Creek............................................. 9

Carr Fork..................................................... 10

Laurel Fork of Quicksand Creek basin.......................... 11

North Fork Kentucky River..................................... 12

Hydrologic Unit 05100202 - Middle Fork Kentucky River.............. 13

Greasy Creek.................................................. 15

Cutshin Creek................................................. 15

Squabble Creek................................................ 16

Middle Fork Kentucky River.................................... 17

Hydrologic Unit 05100203 - South Fork Kentucky River............... 18

Goose Creek................................................... 20

Red Bird River................................................ 21

Sexton Creek.................................................. 22

Buck Creek.................................................... 22

South Fork Kentucky River..................................... 23

Hydrologic Unit 05100204 - the Kentucky River from the

South Fork Kentucky River to the confluence with the Red River.. 24 

Sturgeon Creek................................................ 24

Millers Creek and Ross Creek.................................. 26

Station Camp Creek............................................ 27

Red River basin............................................... 28

Mainstem of the Red River and tributaries..................... 28

Middle and South Forks Red River.............................. 30

Kentucky River mainstem from Beattyville

to Red River confluence.................................... 31

Hydrologic Unit 05100205 - the Kentucky River from the Red River

to the confluence with the Ohio River........................... 32

Silver Creek.................................................. 32

Jessamine Creek............................................... 34

Dix River basin............................................... 35

North Elkhorn Creek........................................... 37

South Elkhorn Creek........................................... 38

Eagle Creek................................................... 39

Kentucky River................................................ 40

Rare and endangered species in the Kentucky River basin................. 41

Summary................................................................. 42

References cited........................................................ 47

Additional references................................................... 55

iii
ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 1-7 Maps showing:

1. Hydrologic units of the Kentucky River basin............. 3

2. Physiographic regions of tho Kentucky River basin........ 4

3. Hydrologic Unit 05100201, N6rth Fork Kentucky River...... 8

4. Hydrologic Unit 05100202, Middle Fork Kentucky River..... 14

5. Hydrologic Unit 05100203, South Fork Kentucky River...... 19

6. Hydrologic Unit 05100204, the Kentucky River from the

South Fork Kentucky River to the confluence with the

the Red River......................................... 25

7. Hydrologic Unit 05100205, the Kentucky River from the

Red River to the confluence with the Ohio River....... 33

TABLES

Table 1. High quality Kentucky River streams based on the presence 

of species monitored by the Kentucky Academy of Science 

and the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission........... 43

iv
SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO SURFACE-WATER QUALITY 

IN THE KENTUCKY RIVER BASIN, KENTUCKY

by Arthur D. Bradfield and Stephen D. Porter

ABSTRACT

Kentucky River Basin, an area of approximately 7,000 square miles 

(18,100 square kilometers), is divided into five hydrologic units that drain 

the Eastern Coal Field, Knobs, and Bluegrass physiographic regions. Data on 

aquatic biological resources collected in these five units by Federal, State, 

and private institutions were compiled and reviewed in this investigation. 

This report contains qualitative assessments of biological conditions in the 

major streams for which data were available. Readers needing quantitative 

information should refer to the original publications. An extensive reference 

list of reports containing biological data from the Kentucky River basin is 

included.

The three hydrologic units drained by the North, Middle, and South Forks 

of the Kentucky River are in the Eastern Coal Field physiographic region. 

Many streams in these hydrologic units are affected by drainage from coal 

mines and oil and gas operations. Many of these streams support only the more 

tolerant forms of aquatic biota, but those in undisturbed basins still support 

viable aquatic communities.

The Kentucky River from the confluence of the three forks to the Red 

River is in the Knobs physiographic region. Oil and gas operations and pointsource discharges from municipalities have affected many streams in this part 

of the Kentucky River basin. The Red River, a Kentucky Wild River, supported 

a unique flora and fauna but is currently undergoing accelerated 

sedimentation. The Millers Creek drainage is affected by brines discharged 

from oil and gas operations, and some reaches support only halophilic algae 

and a few fish species.

The Kentucky River from the Red River to the Ohio River is in the 

Bluegrass physiographic region and is a set of impounded navigational pools 

formed by locks and dams. Sediment loads from agricultural sources and sewage 

effluent from rapidly growing urban centers have limited the aquatic biota in 

this part of the basin. Silver Creek and South Elkhorn Creek are particularly 

affected, and some aquatic communities are dominated by organisms tolerant of 

low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Biological data for Jessamine Creek, Dix 

River, North Elkhorn Creek, and Eagle Creek indicated adequate habitat and 

water quality for most commonly occurring aquatic organisms.

INTRODUCTION

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) began the National WaterQuality Assessment Program (NAWQA) in April 1986. This program was designed
to provide a nationally-consistent description of current water quality 

conditions. Additional goals of the program were to define trends in water 

quality and to relate past and present environmental conditions to land- and 

water-use practices.

As a part of the initial phases of the NAWQA program in which assessment 

concepts and approaches were being tested, a study of the Kentucky River was 

initiated. Historical biological data collected for the Kentucky River basin 

were compiled and evaluated so that recommendations for the final study design 

could be made. The purpose of this report is to present a summary of the 

biological investigations that relate to surface-water quality in the Kentucky 

River basin. A secondary purpose is to provide qualitative assessments of 

biological conditions in the major streams and factors that affect those 

conditions. The summary information presented in this report is based on data 

that were available from Federal, State, and private sources.

The Kentucky River basin is divided into five hydrologic units (fig. 1) 

that drain three distinct physiographic regions (fig. 2). The three 

hydrologic units drained by the North, Middle, and South Forks Kentucky River 

are in the Eastern Coal Field physiographic region. The Kentucky River system 

from the confluence of the three forks to the Red River drains the Knobs 

physiographic region. The Kentucky River from the Red River to the Ohio River 

drains the Bluegrass physiographic region.

Streams are host to a variety of plants and animals that are dependent 

upon each other for food (Hynes, 1970). At the base of aquatic food chains or

trophic structures are microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi,

phytoplankton (suspended algae) and periphyton (attached, or benthic algae). 

These organisms obtain energy through photosynthesis (autotrophic) or by 

assimilation of instream organic material (facultative heterotrophic). They 

enhance water quality by removing and sequestering nutrients, heavy metals and 

other constituents, in addition to contributing to reoxygenation. Algae 

provide food for benthic macroinvertebrates (aquatic insects, mussels, and 

crustaceans) which in turn are a basic food supply for many species of fish. 

The more complex the trophic structure of a stream or river, the more 

efficiently it can "process" instream organic material for higher life forms 

(Cummins, 1974; Cummins and Klug, 1979).

Water-quality issues addressed in the NAWQA Program encompass a wide 

range of alterations to stream environments that directly or indirectly affect 

aquatic biota. Increased nutrient loads, changes in organic and inorganic 

constituent concentrations, and sediment transported from disturbed land can 

reduce or eliminate populations of intolerant organisms by causing acute or 

chronic toxicity, by affecting available food supply, or by destroying their 

habitat.

Because of the complex interactions of aquatic biota, considerable 

insight regarding water-quality conditions can be obtained by examining the 

types of organisms inhabiting a particular stream or river. Trophic-structure 

complexity can be estimated by considering the total number of aquatic species 

in a stream (taxa richness) and the distribution of individuals among 

different taxonomic groups (diversity and evenness) (Kentucky Department for 

Environmental Protection, 1987; Ludwig and FLeynolds, 1988). In addition to 

these numerical measures of community structure, environmental requirements,
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i

Figure 2. Physiographic regions of the Kentucky River basin. 

(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1981)
tolerance to pollution of dominant species, and the presence of intolerant 

species are important considerations. Biological data, along with information 

on water chemistry and physical habitat conditions, provide an integrated 

approach for assessing and monitoring the status of aquatic environments.

Streams in the Kentucky River basin and their biological communities were 

subjectively ranked for this report, provided sufficient biologic data were 

available. Generally, the stream biota or water quality was considered "good" 

if the stream environment was suitable to support a diverse biological 

community or if the presence of rare or sensitive species had been documented. 

Conversely, stream biota or water quality was considered "poor" or "degraded" 

if the stream environment was unsuitable to support a diverse biological 

community, if biota was dominated by tolerant species, or if the habitat was 

no longer suitable for rare or sensitive species.

Sources of Biological Data

Biological data have been collected in the Kentucky River basin by 

Federal, State, and academic organizations for more than a century. Early 

investigations of aquatic organisms were reported by Rafinesque (1820), 

Woolman (1892) and Danglade (1922). Later studies by university graduate 

students (Giovannoli, 1926; and Neel, 1938) added to the limited historical 

data for the Kentucky River.

Most of the information reviewed in this report are from studies 

conducted by the Kentucky Division of Water (KDOW), the Kentucky Nature 

Preserves Commission (KNPC), the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife 

Resources (KDFWR), and the U.S. Geological Survey. Several notable research 

papers on specific groups of organisms were also reviewed and are included in 

the references. Of particular note are comprehensive works on the 

distribution of fish species (Burr and Warren, 1986; Kuehne, 1962a; Branson 

and Batch, 1974b, 1981a; Kuehne and Barbour, 1983, and Mills, 1988) and on the 

aquatic and wetland plants of Kentucky (Beal and Thieret, 1986).

Because the actual biological data are inherently more valuable than any 

single interpretation of the data, an extensive list of references is included 

in this report. References are divided into two lists: those that are 

actually cited in the report and additional references that contain biological 

data for streams in the Kentucky River Basin.

The authors express sincere appreciation to those who contributed to this 

report. We especially thank Ronald Cicerello and Richard Hannan of the 

Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Ron Houp and Lythia Metzmeier of the 

Kentucky Division of Water, and Jim Axon of the Kentucky Department of Fish 

and Wildlife Resources for supplying data and reviewing this report.

Rationale for Evaluations of Biological Data

Aquatic biological communities can provide valuable information for 

stream assessments. The abundance and distribution of aquatic species or
groups of taxa reflect intermediate to long-term changes in water-quality 

conditions, as well as influences of drainage basin physiography. Algal 

communities can reflect relatively short-term (days to months) changes in 

water quality and aquatic habitat. For example, streams affected by oil-field

brines frequently are dominated by halophilic ("salt-loving") diatoms, and

streams which receive discharges of sewage effluents are characterized by 

dense growths of algal taxa associated with nutrient enrichment. Streams 

subjected to organic enrichment are characterized by algae possessing 

heterotrophic capabilities (the ability to use reduced carbon compounds as an 

energy source).

Streams draining basins with substantial areas of land disturbance, such 

as surface mining or farming, often receive large amounts of sediment that 

reduce the diversity of aquatic habitat. The effects of sedimentation can be 

inferred by the dominance of epipelic (associated with sediments) algal taxa. 

Most undisturbed streams in eastern Kentucky are characterized by epilithic 

(attached to rocks) and epiphytic (attached to filamentous algae and aquatic 

plants) diatoms (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986; Harker and others, 1979).

Alterations of aquatic environments may also be detected by changes in 

the community composition of benthic macroinvertebrates. Streams with rocky 

substrata and well-oxygenated waters usually support communities dominated by 

aquatic insects such as Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and 

Trichoptera (caddisflies). A shift in dominance to more tolerant taxa such as 

Dipterans (midges) and Oligochaetes (worms) often occurs in response to 

increases in sedimentation or nutrient enrichment.

Macroinvertebrates are excellent indicators of intermediate to long-term 

changes (months to years) in environmental quality because of their relatively 

long and complex life histories (Pennak, 1989). The number of 

macroinvertebrate taxa is often reduced in streams characterized by poor water 

quality or limited habitat. In contrast, streams with exceptional water 

quality and diverse habitat generally support many macroinvertebrate taxa. 

Pelecypoda (freshwater mussels) are essentially non-motile and have long life 

spans and specific habitat requirements; consequently, they are very useful 

for determining long term environmental trends. The occurrence of Pelecypoda 

in the Kentucky River basin offers the potential for determining long-term

trends in bioaccumulation of toxic substances such as heavy metals,

pesticides, and other synthetic organic compounds.

The number and types of fish species are also an indication of 

environmental quality. For example, the number of darter species usually 

decreases in streams with degraded water quality and large amounts of sediment 

(Clay, 1975). Clean-water streams support a variety of sensitive taxa, 

including game species such as trout and muskellunge as well as nongame fish 

including certain darter and minnow species. In contrast, fish communities in 

polluted water are frequently limited to tolerant species such as carp, and 

mosquito fish (Gambusia sp.) Because of their ability to avoid localized or 

temporary water-quality perturbations, fish are often less reliable as 

indicators of local water quality than macroinvertebrates and algae. However, 

the analysis of fish tissue can reveal important ecological information 

regarding bioaccumulation of toxic substances, and bioassay investigations 

using species such as fathead minnows can address problems of wastewater 

effluent toxicity.
Troublesome Creek, a tributary to the North Fork Kentucky River. Buckhorn 

Creek has historically been affected by mining but it seemed to be recovering 

in 1973 and to be providing a limited fishery for black bass and rock bass 

(Jones, 1973). Sedimentation was noted to have subsided in 1973 but silt 

deposits were still prominent in some sections of the stream. Despite 

elevated concentrations of some water-quality constituents, Buckhorn Creek 

seems to be one of the largest relatively healthy aquatic systems in the 

Kentucky River drainage.

More recent data collected by the KNPC indicated that biological 

communities of Buckhorn Creek were relatively unaffected, although elevated 

specific conductance and sulfate concentrations were observed (Barker and 

others, 1979). Many species of benthic algae, including several uncommon 

diatoms and desmids, were supported by Buckhorn Creek. One hundred and six 

algal species, indicating favorable water-quality and microhabitat conditions, 

were identified during 1978. Diatom communities were dominated (94 percent 

relative abundance) by epilithic (attached to rocks) species associated with 

well-oxygenated lotic waters. The relative lack of epipelic (associated with 

sediments) species indicated that siltation was not a substantial problem. A 

total of 41 macroinvertebrate taxa were collected in 1978 which was viewed as 

similar to most other sites in the Kentucky River drainage, but lower than in 

collections from high-quality streams of eastern Kentucky. The fish of 

Buckhorn Creek have been well documented with a total of 42 species known for 

the drainage (Kuehne, 1962a, 1962b; Lotrich, 1973; Barker and others, 1979). 

Collections by KNPC revealed the presence of several darter species, including 

Percina copelandi and Etheostoma sagitta soilotum. The latter species is 

listed as being of special concern and warranting some level of protection 

(Warren and others, 1986). In addition, 12 cyprinid (minnow) species, 

indicative of good water quality and adequate habitat, were collected.

Intensive macroinvertebrate investigations were conducted by Phillippi 

(1984) in Buckhorn Creek and Clemmons Fork. Numerous taxa of Ephemeroptera, 

Plecoptera, Trichoptera, and Coleoptera were collected over a 3-year sampling 

period. Considering the amount of land disturbance in the North Fork Kentucky 

River basin, the Buckhorn Creek drainage is an important source for faunal 

recolonization of Troublesome Creek and other river systems downstream. 

Buckhorn Creek, including Clemmons Fork and Coles Fork, was recommended as an 

Outstanding Resource Water by the KNPC (Hannan and others, 1982). Additional 

biological information on Buckhorn Creek and Clemmons Fork is presented by 

Shearer and others (1977), Clayton (1984), Springer and Coltharp (1978), and 

Bush (1959).

Troublesome Creek

Troublesome Creek, a fifth-order stream, is the largest eastern tributary 

of the North Fork Kentucky River (fig. 3). Woolman (1892) described the 

conditions in Troublesome Creek as pristine. In recent years, however, 

extensive contour and deep mining in the basin, a mountain top removal 

project, and sewage effluents from Hindman, Kentucky have severely degraded 

the aquatic resources of this stream (Barker and others, 1979; Miller and 

others, [no date]). Elevated concentrations of chemical constituents, such as 

sulfate concentrations greater than 200 mg/L, indicate significant land-use
impacts. Aquatic communities were considered moderately diverse, but low 

total numbers suggest poor water quality or limited habitat.

As late as 1973, some reaches near the nouth of Troublesome Creek and 

Balls Fork, a major tributary, supported a viable fishery (Jones, 1973). Data

collected in 1978 by the KNPC indicated that 

throughout the Troublesome Creek drainage as

concentrations for some constituents and excessive turbidity. Benthic algae,

macroinvertebrate, and fish populations were

conditions had degraded 

indicated by elevated

moderately diverse but total

numbers of organisms were low (Barker and others, 1979).

Troublesome Creek supported 79 benthic algal species but the algal 

standing crop was described as sparse (Barker and others, 1979). Although 

diatom communities were dominated by species which are typically found in 

eastern Kentucky streams (e.g. Achnanthes minutissima). the occurrence of 

tolerant species of Nitzschia. Gomphonema. and Navicula possibly indicated 

moderate to high levels of sedimentation and nutrient or organic enrichment 

(Lowe, 1974). Bigh algal diversity noted in the KNPC study did not reflect

the extensive land disturbance in the basin, but rather was attributed to a

large number of species with sparse populations (Barker and others, 1979).

Degraded environmental conditions were also reflected in the benthic 

invertebrate community. Bigh sample diversity with low numbers of individual 

organisms has been documented in numerous studies of the effects of mining on 

aquatic biota. Generally the number of individuals of all taxa declined due 

to sedimentation and reduction of available habitat (Lotrich, 1973; Barker and 

others, 1979; Chadwick and Canton, 1984; Bradfield, 1986a and b). 

Macroinvertebrate samples collected by the KDFWR (Prather, 1985) included four 

species of Plecoptera; however, the community was dominated by Dipterans (24 

taxa). The predominance of Dipteran (fly larvae) taxa indicated that the 

macroinvertebrate community in Troublesome Creek was adversely affected by 

mining, primarily through sedimentation and reduction of benthic habitat. 

Members of the Plecoptera (stoneflies), aquatic insects usually prevalent in 

unaffected streams of eastern Kentucky, were not detected by KNPC during 1978. 

The presence of only 25 taxa of macroinvertebrates at the Troublesome Creek 

site was comparable to numbers of taxa observed at other sites affected by 

mining.

Despite the obvious effects on the stream from coal mining and domestic 

sewage, many species of fish, including 10 darter species and 12 cyprinds, 

have been collected during biological survey^ of Troublesome Creek (Lotrich, 

1973; Barker and others, 1979). Bowever, field observations generally 

indicated sparse populations of most species. Prather (1985) suggested that 

extensive sedimentation in pools limited the total number of individuals.

Carr Fork

Carr Fork originates in Knott County and flows southwesterly before 

joining the North Fork Kentucky River. Carr Fork Lake, an impoundment of the 

stream in Knott County, was classified as an oligotrophic reservoir prior to 

1984 (Kentucky Division of Water, 1984); however, the trophic status was 

revised to eutrophic in a later assessment as a result of increased abundance

10
The Kentucky River system drains three distinct physiographic regions 

(fig. 2) which have been subdivided into five hydrologic units (fig. 1). 

Flora and fauna in areas with different geology, stream gradient, and land-use 

patterns are not readily comparable and would not necessarily reflect 

differences in environmental quality. Undisturbed streams in different 

physiographic regions have water-quality conditions that reflect the geology 

of the area. For example, streams draining sandstones and shales have lower 

concentrations of some dissolved constituents than streams draining more 

soluble limestones. Many aquatic species have specific physiological 

requirements for dissolved constituents, such as calcium, that may not be met 

in a particular physiographic region. Consequently the absence of such taxa 

would not be indicative of poor environmental quality. Streams draining 

similar physical environments should support similar organisms and 

consequently provide for a more realistic comparison of water-quality 

conditions in the basin. Because environmental disturbances frequently affect 

the entire aquatic community, groups of organisms commonly sampled in water 

quality surveys will be discussed collectively. The following sections of 

this report contain discussions of available biological data obtained from 

streams that comprise the Kentucky River system.

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KENTUCKY RIVER BASIN

Hvdrologic Unit 05100201 - North Fork Kentucky River

The North Fork Kentucky River system drains Hydrologic Unit 05100201 

(fig. 3), an area of approximately 1,310 mi2 (3,390 km2 ) in the Eastern Coal 

Field. Streams discussed in this section of the report include Buckhorn 

Creek, Troublesome Creek, Carr Fork, Laurel Fork, and the North Fork Kentucky 

River mainstem. This area is'underlain by sandstone, siltstone, shale, and 

numerous coal beds. The topography is characterized by steep slopes and 

narrow valleys.

Mining of bituminous coal and the production of oil and gas are important 

land-use activities in the basin. When conducted improperly, these activities 

have resulted in severe degradation of aquatic environments (Branson and 

Batch, 1971, 1974a; Curtis, 1972, 1973; Dyer, 1982). Increased constituent 

concentrations and sediment loads transported to streams have resulted in the 

elimination of all but the most tolerant species of aquatic biota in localized 

areas. Brines improperly discharged from oil and gas operations continue to 

be a serious threat to streams in the Kentucky River basin (Kentucky Division 

of Water, 1986). Of the rivers draining the upper Kentucky River basin, the 

North Fork Kentucky River system seems to be the most degraded in terms of 

water quality, sedimentation, and the capacity to support diverse aquatic 

communities.

Buckhorn Creek

Buckhorn Creek is a fourth-order, moderately high gradient stream which 

originates in northwest Knott County and flows in a westerly direction to join
Beattyville

10 20 MILES

10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 3. Hydrologic Unit 05100201, North Fork Kentucky River.

8
of algae (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). Carr Fork Lake was noted to be 

undergoing accelerated sedimentation (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1986) and 

recreational uses were impaired due to water turbidity in 1982-83 (Kentucky 

Division of Water, 1984b). Extensive mining by strip, auger, and deep methods 

has occurred in the Carr Fork drainage. Contour strip mining, in 

approximately 40 percent of the basin, resulted in severe sedimentation 

problems in the Carr Fork Reservoir (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1986). 

According to Jones (1973), Carr Fork below the dam was polluted by acid-mine 

water, and excessive siltation was occurring upstream from the reservoir. 

High constituent concentrations and specific conductance values have been 

documented at several sites by Harker and others (1979) and the U.S. 

Geological Survey (1978-82).

The primary threat to aquatic biota of Carr Fork seemed to be loss of 

habitat due to sediment from mined lands. Data collected by the KNPC in 1978 

indicated a limited algal flora and a limited number of benthic invertebrate 

species compared to undisturbed drainages (Harker and others, 1979). The 

diatom community in Carr Fork was dominated by the epipelic genus Nitzchia 

which was an indication of environmental stress (Lowe, 1974).

Carr Fork supported a diverse fish fauna, although effects on the quality 

of the fishery were documented by Jones (1973). He also noted that acid-mine 

drainage and siltation were widespread problems. Carr Fork is a relatively 

low gradient stream with heavily silted pools. This was reflected in the 

dominance of Etheostoma flabellare. E. nigrum. and Percina maculata. darter 

species which are noted for their tolerance of turbid waters (Harker and 

others, 1979).

Unpublished macroinvertebrate data for Carr Fork upstream from Carr Fork 

Lake, Trace Fork, Defeated Creek, and the Carr Fork Lake tailwaters are 

available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville District.

Laurel Fork of the Quicksand Creek Basin

Laurel Fork, a third order stream, begins in northwest Knott County, and 

flows westward before joining Quicksand Creek. The Quicksand Creek drainage 

with the exception of Laurel Fork, has been affected by sedimentation from 

mining operations for a number of years (Jones, 1973; Miller and others, [no 

date]).

Investigations of aquatic biota in Laurel Fork during 1978 revealed 

diverse, productive communities associated with good water quality and habitat 

diversity. Although there was some mining in the Laurel Fork basin, waterquality data did not indicate elevated concentrations of constituents usually 

associated with streams draining disturbed lands (Dyer and Curtis, 1977; Dyer, 

1982). For example, sulfate concentrations during 1978 were less than 10 mg/L 

(Harker and others, 1979). Values for other chemical and physical 

characteristics were typical for eastern Kentucky streams draining basins with 

little land disturbance.

Benthic algal communities in the Laurel Fork basin were moderately 

diverse (Harker and others, 1979) and were dominated by filamentous green

11
algae and pennate diatoms which are associated with well-oxygenated waters. 

Low diatom diversity was attributable to large populations of Achnanthea 

minutissima. a typical Eastern Kentucky stream diatom (Barker and others, 

1979) rather than poor water quality. Several intolerant diatoms such as 

Cvmbella delicatula and Gomphonema rhombicum were common, and these are often 

indicative of good water quality (Barker and others, 1979). This study 

yielded the greatest number of macroinvertebrate species, including several 

intolerant species, observed by the KNPC in the Kentucky River basin. 

Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera 

(caddisflies) were particularly diverse. A total of 50 taxa were identified, 

reflecting abundant habitat and good water quality. Laurel Fork was 

recommended for consideration as a "refugium" for macroinvertebrates in the 

Quicksand Creek watershed. This "refugium" would provide a source of 

organisms for recolonization of degraded downstream areas (Barker and others, 

1979).

A total of 27 fish species, including eight darter species and numerous 

cyprinids, have been collected from the Laurel Fork basin (Jones, 1973; Barker 

and others, 1979). The stream was recommended as a "put-and-take" trout 

fishery and supported a "limited good quality" fishery for black bass and 

panfish (Jones, 1973). Although effects from mining were not apparent during 

1978, additional monitoring was recommended by KNPC to document potential 

effects of land-disturbance activities on the ichthyofauna (Barker and others, 

1979). No additional biological information was available for other stream 

reaches of the heavily mined Quicksand Creek drainage basin.

North Fork Kentucky River

Extensive mining has taken place over much of the North Fork basin and 

sediment loads have been a chronic problem. Jones (1973) noted that the 

effects of mining were evident in North Fork Kentucky River from Whitesburg to 

Jackson, but he did find some small tributary streams which were relatively 

unaffected. Water-quality data for the North Fork Kentucky River at Jackson 

(Kentucky Division of Water, 1986; U.S. Geological Survey, 1978-82) reflect 

the effects of drainage from mining operations and discharge from domestic 

sewage treatment facilities. Although there are several sites for which 

chemical water-quality data are available, biological data for the North Fork 

Kentucky River mainstern are limited.

The KDFWR conducted a study of the North Fork Kentucky River in 1982 to 

evaluate muskellunge populations and habitat conditions. Collections from 

several sites yielded 64 taxa of macroinvertebrates. Dipterans contributed 

the most species (17 taxa) followed by the Ephemeroptera (15) and Trichoptera 

(8). The Diptera species may have reflected degraded habitat conditions such 

as siltation of the substrate, because tributary streams with rocky substrates 

contained Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera as the predominant taxa. Bowever, a 

total of 45 species of fish were identified, many of which were considered to 

represent unaffected communities (Prather, 1985).

Data collected by the KDOW at a site on the North Fork Kentucky River at 

Jackson indicated sediment and nutrient/organic enrichment of the water. The 

effects of this enrichment generally were reflected in the biological

12
communities. Phytoplankton standing crop of 969 cells/mL and chlorophyll a. 

concentrations of 3.5 /*g/L were low when compared with other Kentucky streams. 

The plankton community was dominated by benthic pennate diatoms, including 

facultative nitrogen heterotrophs, epipelic and halophilic species. Based on 

data from artificial substrata, an attached algal biomass of 4,049 mg/m2 and a 

standing crop of 48 mg chlorophyll a/m2 were high which reflected nutrient 

enrichment. Sixteen taxa of invertebrates were collected on artificial 

substrata at this site during 1985. Several mayflies tolerant of siltation 

were identified, including species of Caenis and Tricorvthodes. Others such 

as Ochotrichia occurred in sufficient numbers to indicate nutrient enrichment 

(Kentucky Division of Water, 1986).

Williams (1975) documented nine species of freshwater mussels in the 

North Fork Kentucky River. Some of these species were probably represented by 

relic shells. The habitat for mussels had been reduced in the North Fork 

Kentucky River due to "drastic environmental changes that have occurred in the 

past 50 to 75 years" (Williams, 1975).

Hvdrologic Unit 05100202 - Middle Fork Kentucky River

Streams that contribute to the Middle Fork Kentucky River drain 

Hydrologic Unit 05100202 (fig. 4), an area of approximately 552 mi 2 

(1,430 km2 ). Streams discussed in this section of the report include Greasy 

Creek, Cutshin Creek, Squabble Creek, and the Middle Fork Kentucky River 

mainstem. This is the smallest hydrologic unit in the Kentucky River basin.

The Middle Fork Kentucky River basin is in the Eastern Coal Field, an 

area underlain by sandstone, siltstone, shale, and interbedded coal beds. 

Surface waters are moderately hard with low buffering capacity. Primary landuse includes coal mining, oil and gas production, silviculture, and a limited 

amount of agriculture. Although these land-use practices have affected many 

streams in this hydrologic unit, effects on water quality and aquatic biota do 

not appear to be as severe as those in the North Fork Kentucky River Basin.

Buckhorn Lake, a mesotrophic reservoir (Kentucky Division of Water, 

1986), is on the Middle Fork Kentucky River. Built in 1961, the lake 

occupies approximately 1,200 acres (486 hectares) and is operated by the U.S. 

Corps of Engineers primarily as a flood control reservoir (Prather, 1985). 

Algal blooms have been observed in the headwater area of Buckhorn Lake as a 

probable result of nutrient loads discharged into the Middle Fork from the 

Hyden wastewater treatment plant (Kentucky Division of Water, 1984a). The 

Middle Fork below Buckhorn Lake benefits from low-flow augmentation and 

reduced sediment loads. A survey of biological and water-quality conditions 

of the Middle Fork before and after the dam was constructed was reported by 

Turner (1967). Unpublished macroinvertebrate data for the Middle Fork 

Kentucky River at three sites upstream from Buckhorn Lake and from the 

tailwaters are available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville 

District.

13
V r 37°30/

05100202

Mclnto^h Creek 

83' 15'

Wooten Creek

Polls Creek

83°15'

10

10

i

20 MILES

20 KILOMETERS

Figure 4. Hydrologic Unit 05100202, Middle Fork Kentucky River.

14
Greasy Creek

Greasy Creek, a fourth-order stream, begins in Harlan County and flows 

northwesterly to join the Middle Fork Kentucky River near Hoskinston, 

Kentucky. Water quality of Greasy Creek was reported as excellent by Jones 

(1973); however, a study conducted by KNPC in 1978 indicated conditions had 

degraded (Harker and others, 1979). Although water-quality analyses did not 

reveal elevated constituent concentrations, turbid waters and silt deposits 

had been observed, warranting further monitoring of Greasy Creek. Biological 

investigations revealed diverse, productive aquatic communities during the 

late 1970's; however, these resources may have been adversely affected by 

recent changes in land use such as increased mining activities.

The benthic algal flora of Greasy Creek was moderately diverse in 1978, 

and samples contained a large variety of desmids (nine species) and diatoms. 

A total of 77 algal species were identified. While the predominant diatoms in 

the community (Cymbella delicatula. Achnanthes pseudolinearis. Gomphonema 

olivaceoides var. hutchinsoniana) were regarded by KNPC as characteristic of 

high-quality water (Harker and others, 1979), other species were more 

characteristic of streams that have slightly acidic pH conditions and 

increased sediment deposition.

The macroinvertebrate community in Greasy Creek was moderately diverse, 

and 36 taxa were represented. Most species were recognized as typical eastern 

Kentucky macroinvertebrates which tolerate a wide variety of environmental 

conditions. Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Trichoptera, as well as other 

major insect groups were well represented in the community.

The ichthyofauna described by Turner (1967) and Jones (1973) appeared to 

be unchanged as of 1978. Harker and others (1979) cited Greasy Creek as 

supporting one of the most diverse ichthyofaunas in the Kentucky River basin. 

Thirty-two species, including 10 darter species and numerous cyprinids, were 

collected during 1978. These species indicated good water quality and habitat 

availability. Although most accounts indicate Greasy Creek to be a high 

quality stream, the KNPC expects the quality of the Greasy Creek fishery to 

deteriorate because of "rapidly expanding watershed perturbations" (Kentucky 

Nature Preserves Commission, written commun., 1988).

Greasy Creek is an important source for faunal recolonization of 

downstream areas adversely affected by land-use activities. Greasy Creek was 

recommended as an Outstanding Resource Water which would provide a muskellunge 

habitat for spawning and a small-mouth bass and rock bass habitat and fishery 

(Hannan and others, 1982).

Cutshin Creek

Cutshin Creek, a high-gradient third-order stream, begins in southeastern 

Leslie County and flows northwesterly before joining the Middle Fork Kentucky 

River north of Hyden, Kentucky. Cutshin Creek, the largest tributary to the 

Middle Fork, is a source of sediment and water of poor quality to the Middle 

Fork Kentucky River (Jones, 1973; Harker and others, 1979). More than 30

15
percent of the Cutshin Creek basin had been surface mined by 1969. Cutshin 

Creek has been subjected to recurring fish kills from oil drilling and mining 

operations initiated during the early to mid-1^80's (Kentucky Division of 

Water, 1986). Reclamation of disturbed lands yill help to prevent further 

degradation of this resource (Miller and other|s, [no date]).

Data collected on Cutshin Creek by KNPC in 1978 indicated that the stream 

was affected by mine drainage. Elevated concentrations of sulfate, magnesium, 

sodium, and calcium were observed during low-flow conditions. Habitat 

conditions did not appear to be seriously affected at the KNPC sampling site. 

It was assumed that the high-gradient of the stream prohibited the deposition 

of sediment (Barker and others, 1979). Aquatic communities were reported as 

diverse, but were dominated by taxa which can withstand a wide range of 

environmental conditions.

The benthic algal community was characterized by 88 taxa, consisting of 

both common high-quality stream species and epipelic taxa associated with 

sediments (Barker and others, 1979). Diatom diversity was high, but the 

diatom community was dominated by taxa which exhibited a broad range of 

tolerance to a variety of environmental factors.

The macroinvertebrate community consisted of 34 taxa, and most aquatic

insect groups were represented in the samples. Diversity was high and most

organisms were recognized as typical of streams in Kentucky (Barker and 

others, 1979).

Woolman (1892) reported 20 species of fish from the lower reaches of 

Cutshin Creek. Jones (1973) reported 32 species, including eight darter 

species, from four sites in Cutshin Creek. In contrast, Barker and others 

(1979) collected 12 species including five darters during 1978. Although KNPC 

stated that the available data did not suggest degradation of the ichthyofauna 

in recent years, the number of fish species reported by KNPC was substantially 

less than that reported in 1973.

i Squabble Creek

Squabble Creek is a moderate gradient, third-order stream that originates 

in eastern Perry County and joins the Middle Fork Kentucky River about 4 miles 

(6.4 km) below Buckhorn Lake. Because of its location, this stream is an 

important source of aquatic flora and fauna to the Middle Fork downstream of 

Buckhorn Lake. Squabble Creek is affected by drainage from old strip mines 

and discharges from two small sewage treatment plants (Barker and others, 

1979).

Water-quality data for Squabble Creek exhibited elevated concentrations 

of constituents such as sulfate associated with mining (Barker and others, 

1979, Dyer and Curtis, 1977). The effects of sewage effluent were indicated 

by elevated nutrient concentrations. Flocculent masses and iron ochre seeps 

were also observed (Barker and others, 1979). Biological investigations of 

Squabble Creek supported available water-quality data, and indicated 

environmental stresses due to poor water quality or reduced habitat.

16
The benthic algal assemblage contained 82 taxa. Blue-green and green 

algae were common, and filamentous growths were apparently restricted to rocks 

near the sewage outfall (Marker and others, 1979). The diatom flora in this 

stream was among the most diverse observed in the Kentucky River basin; 

however, this was attributed to the occurrence of numerous pollution-tolerant 

species such as Nitzschia palea. N. intermedia. and Navicula synggetjrica). 

Sparse populations of intolerant and facultative forms were observed in the 

KNPC collections. Based upon KNPC interpretation of algal data, the water 

quality of Squabble Creek was degraded.

Thirty-nine taxa of macroinvertebrates were collected by KNPC during 

1978. Species diversity was considered moderate (Marker and others, 1979). 

The community consisted of typical stream taxa; however, no intolerant forms 

were noted. It was stated that siltation and channelization of the stream bed 

were the primary factors affecting the macroinvertebrate fauna at the sampled 

site.

Twenty species of fish, including five darter species, rainbow trout, and 

carp, were collected from Squabble Creek by Marker and others (1979). The 

majority of the game and commercial fishes were represented by juveniles. 

Impacts to fish populations were difficult to evaluate at this site due to its 

proximity to the Middle Fork Kentucky River. It seemed likely that some of 

the species collected by the KNPC might have migrated from the Middle Fork 

Kentucky River. Squabble Creek provides spawning and feeding sites for many 

migratory fish species that are effectively blocked from upstream reaches by 

the Buckhorn Lake dam.

Middle Fork Kentucky River

The Middle Fork Kentucky River begins in southern Leslie County, is 

joined by Beech Fork and Greasy Creek, and flows northward to join the North 

Fork Kentucky River near Beattyville, Kentucky. Primary factors affecting 

aquatic biota of the Middle Fork are the large amounts of sediment moving 

through the drainage as a result of mining and point-source discharges from 

municipalities.

A total of 62 taxa of invertebrates were collected from three sites in a 

study by the KDFWR, with Cheumatopsyche sp. being the dominant aquatic insect. 

Numerous Asiatic clams, Corbicula fluminea. were also collected (Prather, 

1985). High diversity values in samples collected from headwater sites 

indicated little degradation of upstream reaches. Lower diversity values from 

samples collected at downstream stations may have been due to the influence of 

tributary streams affected by mining operations. Differences in habitat 

conditions due to sedimentation might have explained changes in benthic 

community structure at downstream sites.

Limited data on fish species at two sites on the Middle Fork is provided 

by Jones (1973). Sections of the river supported populations of rock and 

smallmouth bass. The tailwaters of Buckhorn Lake supported a trout fishery. 

Recent data on aquatic fauna and flora of the Middle Fork have been collected 

by Prather (1985) and the Kentucky Division of Water (1986).

17
A total of 45 species of fish were collected from the Middle Fork at 

three sites in 1982 and 1983 as part of an investigation of muskellunge 

streams in Kentucky (Prather, 1985). The most numerous species from the

drainage were golden redhorse, gizzard shad, longear sunfish, and freshwater

drum. The dominance of these species was probably due to increased stream 

size.

The Middle Fork Kentucky River above Buckhorn Lake supported few muskie 

due to shallow stream depth and restrictions to upstream migration as a result 

of the dam. Better habitat existed from below the dam to the mouth of the 

Middle Fork (Prather, 1985). The American brook lamprey, a species listed as 

being of special concern by KAS-KNPC was collected from the Middle Fork 

Kentucky River (Warren and others, 1986). This section of the river was 

recommended as an Outstanding Resource Water (Hannan and others, 1982).

Data collected by the KDOW at a site near Tallega indicated productive 

biological communities, although limited sedimentation and nutrient enrichment 

might have been occurring. Samples collected in 1985 showed a low 

phytoplankton standing crop (350 cells/mL) and a low chlorophyll a 

concentration (2.2 A*g/L). However, species diversity values were reported as 

high. Algal species identified from plankton samples consisted largely of 

dislodged benthic diatoms, which is typical of shallow streams and explained 

the high diversity observed at this site. P :riphyton biomass (1750 mg/m2 ) 

and standing crop (3.6 mg chlorophyll a/m2 ) were lower than in many other 

streams in eastern Kentucky. The benthic algal community was moderately 

diverse. Fifty two diatom taxa were identified from artificial substrates, 

and samples were dominated by typical epiphytic and epilithic stream diatoms.

Middle Fork Kentucky River supported an adequate distribution of 

functional groups of macroinvertebrates, which indicates a variety of habitats 

in the stream (R. Houp, Kentucky Division of Water, oral commun., 1987). The 

benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage on artificial substrates was represented 

by 15 taxa. The benthic macroinvertebrates included species such as Caenis 

and Tricorvthodes that are tolerant of siltation, but which typically live in 

well-oxygenated waters.

The Middle Fork Kentucky River near Athol supported a commercial mussel 

bed at the turn of the century according to Williams (1975). Eighteen species 

of freshwater mussels were documented during his investigation of the Middle 

Fork, some of which might have been represented by relic shells (Williams, 

1975). No beds were large enough to have commercial value. A large riffle 

area at the U.S. Geological Survey gaging station near Tallega supported some 

macrophyte beds and seemed to be a good freshwater mussel habitat. Additional 

biological information on the Middle Fork Kentucky River are presented by 

Branson and Batch (1984).

Hvdrologic Unit 05100203 - South Fork Kentucky River

The South Fork Kentucky River system drains Hydrologic Unit 05100203 

(fig. 5), an area of approximately 741 mi2 (1,920 km2 ). Similar to the North 

and Middle Fork basins, the South Fork Kentucky River basin lies in the 

Eastern Coal Field which is underlain by sandstone, siltstone, shale, and coal

18
37°

83°30'

 T~

10

10 20 MILES

20 KILOMETERS

Figure 5. Hydrologic Unit 05100203, South Fork Kentucky River.

19
beds. Land use is similar to the other two basins, and coal mining and oil 

and gas production are the primary industries. Major tributaries to the South 

Fork Kentucky River discussed in this section include Goose Creek, Collins 

Fork, Red Bird River, Buck Creek, Sexton Creek, and the South Fork Kentucky 

River mainstern.

Goose Creek

Goose Creek, a moderate-gradient fourth-order stream, begins in Clay 

County and joins the Red Bird River at Oneida, Kentucky to form the South Fork 

Kentucky River. Major tributaries to Goose Creek include Collins Fork and 

Little Goose Creek. The upper reaches of Goose Creek seem to have good water 

quality and support diverse aquatic communities. The lower half of Goose 

Creek is affected by acid-mine drainage and sediment from Horse Creek and 

Little Goose Creek (Barker and others, 1979). These conditions and the 

presence of sediment deposits were noted in earlier investigations (Jones, 

1973). Jones stated that Collins Fork was relatively unaffected and provided 

cold water and long deep pools for smallmouth bass, rock bass, and 

muskellunge.

Mine drainage in the past severely affected the fish of lower Goose Creek 

(Turner, 1958). Several fish kills attributable to coal-mining discharges 

occurred at Goose Creek during the period 1969-73, and pH values ranged from 

4.2 to 5.1 over much of the stream's length during 1969 (Brewer, 1980). 

Water-quality conditions seem to have improved in the basin according to 

recent investigations, however the effects of siltation are still apparent.

Data collected in 1982 by the KDFWR indicated that Sexton Creek, Goose 

Creek, and Collins Fork were "high quality muskellunge streams." 

Macroinvertebrate fauna were diverse but were dominated by species of 

Cheumatopsyche. Isonychia. and Stenonema. These taxa were common in most 

Kentucky streams which illustrated their wide range of tolerance to moderate 

pollution. The muskellunge habitat of Little Goose Creek had been eliminated 

due to sedimentation in most of the pools (Jones and Stephens, 1984).

An upstream site on Goose Creek was sampled twice in 1978 by the KNPC 

(Harker and others, 1979). Water-quality analyses performed during the study 

indicated good water quality. Benthic algal communities were diverse, and 

contained several environmentally sensitive species. Eighty algal species 

were identified during the study and many species of desmid algae were 

reported. The diatom flora was moderately diverse and dominated by Cymbella 

deliculata (45 percent relative abundance) and Achnanthes pseudolinearis (16

percent). These taxa were generally abundant 

Kentucky streams (Harker and others, 1979).

in high quality, eastern

A total of 44 macroinvertebrate taxa were collected from Goose Creek and 

Ephemeroptera contained the most species. Wide fluctuations in species 

diversity and density of organisms were noted in this study, which might have 

indicated environmental stress due to siltation or localized habitat 

disturbance (Harker and others, 1979).

20
Twenty six fish species, including eight darter species, were collected 

in Goose Creek during 1978. These collections compared favorably with those 

of Jones (1973), Turner (1958), and Woolman (1892) and might have indicated 

relatively stable conditions. The collection of the northern brook lamprey, 

Ichthvomvzon fosser. was apparently the first record of this non-parasitic 

lamprey from the Kentucky River system (Harker and others, 1979).

The Goose Creek drainage is an important stream in the South Fork 

Kentucky River system. It provides a source of organisms for recolonization 

of invertebrate communities and some of the last muskellunge habitat in the 

basin. Goose Creek and Collins Fork were identified as Sport Fishery 

Resources by the KDFWR and consequently were recommended as Outstanding 

Resource Water (Hannan and others, 1982). Protection from the effects of 

mining operations and the discharge of treated sewage from Manchester are 

goals to improve conditions in the Goose Creek basin (Miller and others, [no 

date]).

Red Bird River

The Red Bird River, a fifth-order moderate-gradient stream, is the 

largest tributary to the South Fork, and it drains the area east of the Goose 

Creek drainage in the upper part of the South Fork basin.

Biological investigations indicated some effects from sediment in the 

headwater area of the Red Bird River, but the biological quality improved in 

downstream reaches. Metzmeier (1987) reported low phytoplankton chlorophyll a 

concentrations of 0.5 to 1.8 /ig/L and a standing crop of 535 to 2400 cells/mL 

in the Red Bird River during 1985. This seemed to be typical for small 

eastern Kentucky streams. Predominant algal taxa included Achnanthes and 

Nitzschia species and other benthic diatoms. Fewer sensitive species, such as 

Achnanthes deflexa and Cymbella delicatula. were observed at headwater sites 

than at sites in the lower reaches of Red Bird River. During the early 

1970's, the stream was reported to be affected to a limited extent by silt 

from strip mines in the headwaters (Jones, 1973). The fishery was diverse and 

contained a total of 42 species. Fishing was considered good from the mouth 

upstream to Sugar Creek, and fishing pressure was described as heavy. Jones 

cited abundant fish food in the river in the form of benthic invertebrates.

Forty-four macroinvertebrate taxa were documented by Jones and Stephens 

(1984). High macroinvertebrate density was noted, particularly during summer. 

All major insect groups were represented. The Red Bird River did provide some 

habitat for muskellunge, but it had the lowest catch rate of the five streams 

yielding muskellunge in the South Fork Kentucky River basin (Jones and 

Stephens, 1984). This stream, from the confluence with Sugar Creek to the 

mouth, was designated as a Sport Fishery Resource and recommended as an 

Outstanding Resource Water (Hannan and others, 1982). Additional fisheries 

data on the Red Bird River are presented by Clayton (1984).

21
Sexton Creek

Sexton Creek was studied in several fishery investigations (Jones, 1973; 

Brewer, 1980; Jones and Stephens, 1984). Fish populations were reported to be 

adversely affected by acid-mine drainage during the early 1970's (Jones, 

1973). Fish kills in Sexton Creek attributable to coal-mining discharges 

during the early 1970*s were also reported by Brewer (1980).

Water quality and habitat availability of Sexton Creek seemed to have 

improved during the past 10 years. A total of 42 macroinvertebrate taxa were 

collected from Sexton Creek during 1982 (Jones and Stephens, 1984). Samples 

collected during spring were high in diversity but contained relatively few 

individuals. The opposite was true during summer when samples contained large 

numbers of common taxa. At least in lower reaches, the effects of mining on 

stream quality have been reduced since 1982 because Sexton Creek was reported 

to have one of the highest densities of muskellunge of all South Fork Kentucky 

River streams (Jones and Stephens, 1984). Because of valuable habitat for 

muskellunge and golden redhorse, Sexton Creek was recommended as an 

Outstanding Resource Water by the KNPC (Hann^n and others, 1982).

Buck Creek

Buck Creek, a fourth-order stream, begins in Owsley County and flows 

northeast to join the South Fork Kentucky River near Booneville. Barker and 

others (1979) reported that concentrations of sulfate and magnesium seemed to 

be elevated relative to undisturbed streams in the area as reported by Dyer 

(1982). Otherwise, water-quality constituents and properties indicated 

reasonably good water quality. Seventy-eight benthic algal species were 

identified from Buck Creek during 1978. Diatom diversity was moderately low 

because of the dominance of Achnanthes mlnutisslma. which is a common 

characteristic of many eastern Kentucky streams. Many epipelic (associated 

with sediments) taxa were present but not particularly abundant. Most 

dominant species were considered tolerant to a wide range of water-quality 

conditions.

The macroinvertebrate community was represented by all major insect 

groups. Ephemeropterans contained the most species, but several species of 

Trichoptera and Plecoptera were also present. Although only 37 taxa were 

collected, the community exhibited high diversity and evenness values, 

possibly indicating good water quality and adequate habitat. The effects of 

past and present surface mining on stream macroinvertebrates were not clearly 

definable with the data available (Harker and others, 1979).

Fish collected from Buck Creek were typical for most eastern Kentucky 

drainages. Nineteen species, including eight darter species, were collected. 

Etheostoma sagitta spilotum (arrow darter), which was listed as being of 

special concern (Warren and others, 1986), was collected from Buck Creek. 

Extreme turbidity was present following a rainstorm at the time of sampling, 

indicating that sedimentation from surface mines or agricultural lands could 

pose a threat to aquatic resources.

22
South Fork Kentucky River

The South Fork Kentucky River begins with the confluence of the Red Bird 

River and Goose Creek at Oneida, Kentucky. It then flows north for 

approximately 40 miles (64 km) to join the Kentucky River at Beattyville.

Water-quality and biological data were collected at two sites on the 

South Fork by the KDFWR in 1982 (Jones and Stephens, 1984). Specific 

conductance values tended to increase at downstream sites, a common phenomenon 

in most river systems. Phytoplankton diversity and taxa richness increased 

from upstream to downstream sampling sites (Metzmeier, 1987). In contrast, 

invertebrate taxa richness and diversity consistently decreased, indicating a 

compounding of environmental effects as tributaries with poor water quality 

and large sediment loads joined the South Fork mainstream. Summer 

macroinvertebrate samples were dominated by common, more pollution tolerant 

mayfly taxa (Isonvchia. Baetis. Stenonema) and the caddisfly, Cheumatopsyche.

The South Fork Kentucky River at Booneville is sampled routinely by the 

KDOW. This site is affected by sedimentation from land-disturbance activities 

and nutrient enrichment resulting from numerous sewage treatment effluent 

discharges. Limited agriculture in flood-plain areas also contributes 

sediment and nutrients. Phytoplankton and periphyton chlorophyll a 

concentrations (5 /*g/L and 8 mg/m2 , respectively) were lower than in many 

eastern Kentucky streams (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). This might have 

been due to shading by riparian vegetation. The plankton community was 

dominated by centric diatoms and benthic pennate diatoms, likely indicative of 

higher nutrient concentrations and a more lentic environment. The periphyton 

community on artificial substrata was dominated by Melosira varians and 

Achnanthes linearis. These are common species which can tolerate a wide range 

of water-quality conditions (Lowe, 1974).

Benthic invertebrate community structure appeared to indicate a lack of 

habitat and impaired water-quality conditions. Only 11 taxa of invertebrates 

were collected on artificial substrata which was the lowest number collected 

at tributary sites sampled by the KDOW (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). 

Half of these taxa were Dipteran larvae, possibly indicating greater sediment 

deposition than at upstream sites with higher stream gradients. Williams 

(1975) documented 17 species of freshwater mussels in the South Fork Kentucky 

River, although some taxa might have been represented by relic shells.

Because the South Fork Kentucky River below the confluence of Goose Creek 

and Red Bird River still provided some muskellunge habitat, this section to 

the mouth was recommended as an Outstanding Resource Water by the KNPC. 

(Hannan and others, 1982). Additional biological information on the South 

Fork Kentucky River are presented by Branson and Batch (1983) and Molloy 

(1988).

23
Hydrologic Unit 05100204 - the Kentucky River from the South Fork 

Kentucky River to the Confluence with the Red River

Hydrologic Unit 05100204 (fig. 6), encompasses approximately 1070 mi2 

(2,770 km2 ) of the Knobs physiographic region. The Knobs are erosional 

remnants of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian formations. Differential 

weathering properties of rocks in the Knobs region result in sandy limestone 

and sandstone caprock over softer shales, providing for sharp contrast in 

relief. Streams draining this hydrologic unit include the Kentucky River 

below its confluence with the South Fork, Station Camp Creek, and the Red 

River drainage. The unique geology of the Knobs region of the Kentucky basin 

separates the Eastern Coal Field from the Bluegrass Region. Recreational 

centers include Red River Gorge, the Red River Wild River Segment, and Natural 

Bridge State Park.

Land-use effects on aquatic resources relate primarily to brines from oil 

and gas operations and sedimentation from mining. Pollution from non-point 

agricultural sources is more of a problem in this region than in the steeper 

terrain of the Eastern Coal Field because of increased farming of wider 

floodplains. Sewage effluents contributed by the major urban centers also 

tend to have more detrimental effects on water quality in this area because of 

the low velocity. Streams discussed in this section include Sturgeon Creek, 

Ross Creek, Millers Creek, Station Camp Creekj Middle and South Forks of the 

Red River, Red River, and the Kentucky River from Beattyville, Kentucky to the 

Red River confluence.

Sturgeon Creek

Sturgeon Creek, a fifth-order stream, begins in eastern Jackson County 

and flows northeast before joining the Kentucky River immediately below Lock 

14. Little Sturgeon Creek is the main tributary. Sturgeon Creek forms part 

of the eastern boundary of the Daniel Boone National Forest.

Although mining practices in the Sturgeon Creek basin pose a potential 

threat to aquatic life, available data indicate that Sturgeon Creek is a high 

quality stream. This assessment is based on the occurrence of sensitive 

diatom species, diverse macroinvertebrate communities, and a large number of 

fish species. Because several fish species collected from Sturgeon Creek have 

been listed as being of special concern (Warren and others, 1986), it was 

recommended by both the KDFWR and KNPC for designation as an Outstanding 

Resource Water (Hannan and others 1982).

Data collected on Sturgeon Creek by the KNPC indicated the stream was 

somewhat impaired by surface mining (Marker and others, 1979). Primary 

effects on the aquatic biota were the result of elevated constituent 

concentrations and sedimentation. In contrast, Kornman (1985) reported that 

Sturgeon Creek was a high-quality stream and was recommended by KDFWR for 

designation as Outstanding Resource Waters on the merit of muskellunge habitat 

and fishery. Although the biological community of Sturgeon Creek seemed to be 

productive, Harker and others (1979) reported that large-scale land 

disturbances could have a detrimental effect on aquatic biota in the stream.

24
Creek

Lock 11

\

Clay City

Irvine

Lock 12 rj

Natural Bridge 

State Park\

05100204

Ky 715 

bridge

'11

So/

Lock 13

Lock 14

10

I

20 MILES

EXPLANATION

MAP 

NUMBER STREAM

1 Big Sinking Creek

2 Buck Lick Creek

3 Little Sinking Creek

4 Millers Creek

5 Rockbridge Fork

6 Ross Creek

7 Sand Lick Fork

8 South Fork Red River

9 Steer Fork

10 Stump Cave Branch

11 Swift Camp Creek

10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 6. Hydrologic Unit 05100204, the Kentucky River from the South Fork 

Kentucky River to the confluence with the Red River.
Sturgeon Creek supported a diverse flora and fauna during 1978. Although 

the total number of algal species observed was relatively low (44 taxa), 

diatom species such as Achnanthes oseudolinearis. Cvmbella deliculata. and 

Gomphonema rhombicum were present in sufficient numbers to indicate good water 

quality conditions. Forty one taxa of benthic macroinvertebrates were 

collected during this investigation, including members of the Plecoptera and 

Megaloptera (dobsonflies and fishflies) commonly found in small, cool 

woodland streams (Marker and others, 1979). Kornman (1985) reported 36 

macroinvertebrate taxa with samples dominated by dipterans, mayfly nymphs, and 

sphaeriid clams.

Jones (1973) stated that Sturgeon Creek was a high quality stream, 

providing habitat for a variety of sport fish including muskellunge and trout. 

Marker and others (1979) reported 27 fish species, including 11 darter 

species. The occurrence of Etheostoma sajzitta soilotum was noteworthy as this 

species was listed as being of special concern (Warren and others, 1986). 

Kornman (1985) reported 47 fish species from two sites in Sturgeon Creek and 

stated that 56 species were known from the Sturgeon Creek basin. He 

identified three Percina (darter) species which were listed as being of 

special concern (Warren and others, 1986). Additional biological data on 

Sturgeon Creek are reported by Gilbert (1887), Kuehne and Bailey (1961), and 

the Kentucky Division of Water (1981).

Millers Creek and ROBS Creek

Biological studies were conducted by KDOW in the Ross Creek and Millers 

Creek basins during the early 1980's as a result of environmental concerns 

regarding brine discharges from oil and gas operations. Streams in both 

basins had elevated specific conductance and elevated concentrations of 

chloride and barium.

Biological investigations of streams in the Millers Creek basin were 

conducted by the Kentucky Division of Water. Most streams surveyed were 

moderately to severely affected by brines from oil and gas operations. 

Chloride concentrations in the upper reaches generally exceeded 2,000 mg/L. 

A total of 162 algal species were identified from collections at 17 sites. 

Total taxa observed ranged from 20 species at severely affected sites to 100 

species at moderately affected sites. Halophilic (tolerant to brines) and 

epipelic (associated with sediments) species were common (Kentucky Division of 

Water, written commun., 1988).

Headwater areas of Big Sinking Creek, Little Sinking Creek, Billey Fork 

and Furnace Fork supported low densities of macroinvertebrate organisms. 

Samples contained 6 to 20 tolerant taxa such as Dipterans, Odonata, and 

Gastropoda. Members of the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera were 

generally absent in these reaches. These organisms are considered common in 

most eastern Kentucky streams (Harker and others, 1979). Diatom communities 

were dominated by halophilic taxa such as Cvmbella PUSilia and Nitzchia 

filiformis. Fish communities were severely affected by brines, and most 

streams supported less than 10 tolerant species (Mills, 1988). Two sampling 

sites on Big and Little Sinking Creek were apparently devoid of fish (Logan 

and others, in press).

26
Biological communities were also affected by brines in the lower reaches 

of Millers Creek, where chloride concentrations were greater than 1,000 mg/L. 

Small, relatively unaffected tributaries to Big Sinking Creek contained 

diverse, productive aquatic communities (Mills and Kentucky Division of Water, 

written commun., 1988). Background concentrations of chloride in streams not 

affected by brine discharges were typically less than 10 mg/L. It was 

apparent that high concentrations of constituents of brine-water discharges in 

this area of the Kentucky River basin were toxic to many indigenous aquatic 

organisms.

The flora and fauna of Buck Lick Creek and Ross Creek below the 

confluence with Buck Lick Creek were also severely degraded by brine 

discharges. Algal and macroinvertebrate communities were adversely affected 

and limited to taxa tolerant to elevated salinity. The fish fauna was 

eliminated in Buck Creek, and reduced numbers of taxa and individuals were 

noted in Ross Creek below Buck Lick Creek (Logan and others, 1983b).

Station Camp Creek

Station Camp Creek is a fifth-order stream formed by the confluence of 

War Fork and South Fork in Jackson County. It then flows northwest to join 

the Kentucky River at Irvine. Based upon published interpretations of 

available biological data, Station Camp Creek can be considered one of the 

largest high quality watersheds in the Kentucky River system. Algal 

communities were dominated by sensitive species, and the macroinvertebrate 

communities were diverse and contained numerous species of mayflies, 

stoneflies, and caddisflies. Fifty-five fish species have been identified in 

the basin, including a sizeable muskellunge population. Station Camp Creek, 

including War Fork and South Fork, were recommended as Outstanding Resource 

Waters (Hannan and others, 1982).

Macroinvertebrate collections contained all major groups of insects, 

mollusks, and crustaceans. A total of 69 taxa, including a diverse population 

of mayflies, were collected from Station Camp Creek (Kornman, 1985). This 

large number and diversity indicated abundant habitat and good water quality 

conditions at the time of sampling. Samples collected by the KDFWR, as part 

of a muskellunge streams investigation, contained 44 species of fish. These 

44 species plus species identified in other studies (Carter, 1970; Branson and 

Batch, 1974b; Kornman, 1985; Mills, 1988) brought the total of known fish 

species in the basin to at least 55.

The KDOW sampled two sites on Station Camp Creek during 1984 (Logan and 

others, in press). An average of 47 diatom taxa was identified. Collections 

were dominated by species associated with good water quality such as 

Achnanthes deflexa and Cymbella delicatula. Macroinvertebrate communities 

were diverse. Many species of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera were 

reported. Results were similar to those reported by Kornman (1985).

27
Villosa lienosa. considered of special concern (Warren and others, 1986) 

has been collected from the drainage. Limited data for South Fork Station 

Camp Creek are presented by KDOW (1981). Additional references regarding

biological studies in the Station Camp drainag 

others (1982).

3 are presented by Hannan and

Red River Basin

The Red River system drains much of Hydrologic Unit 05100204 east of the 

Kentucky River. Major tributaries include the Middle and South Forks of the 

Red River, Swift Camp Creek, and Lulbegrud Creek. The Red River from the 

State Highway 746 bridge to the State Highway 715 bridge has been designated 

as a Kentucky Wild River in accordance with Kentucky Revised Statute 146.230 

(Miller and others, 1980). The remaining sections provide habitat for 

muskellunge and were recommended as an Outstanding Resource Water (Hannan and 

others, 1982). Streams in this basin have been the subject of numerous 

biological investigations because of their unique aquatic environments 

(Kuehne, 1962a; Branson, 1970; Carter, 1970; Branson and Batch, 1974b, 1982b; 

Harker and others, 1979; and Houp, 1980). Hannan and others (1982) presented 

additional references on the Red River system.

Mainstern of the Red River and tributaries

The algal flora of the Red River above the confluence with the Middle 

Fork Red River is perhaps the most diverse in the Kentucky River basin. 

Harker and others (1979) reported 104 algal species, including several unusual 

desmid species. The diatom community was dominated by typical epilithic 

species characteristic of well-oxygenated waters. Although epipelic and

halophilic species were present in the diatom community, which might have

reflected upstream land disturbance, the community as a whole indicated

excellent water quality during the late 1970's Phytoplankton and periphyton

chlorophyll a and biomass were low (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986) which 

was typical for shaded, lower-order streams. The phytoplankton community was 

dominated by benthic diatom species (Kentucky Division of Water, written 

commun., 1988; Metzmeier, 1987) which was also viewed as typical. 

Phytoplankton and periphyton data at five sites in the Red River basin are 

discussed by Metzmeier (1987) and Molloy (1988), respectively.

Increases in the relative abundance of epipelic (associated with 

sediments) diatoms were observed during the mid-1980's which might have 

reflected upstream land disturbance. The absence of the red algae, Lemanea. 

formerly abundant in the upper reaches of the Red River, was attributed to a 

loss of rock substrate due to deposition of coarse sediments rather than 

adverse water quality (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986).

Macroinvertebrate collections in the Red River revealed diverse 

assemblages of aquatic insects and freshwater mussels (Harker and others, 

1979; Houp, 1980; Kornman, 1985; Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). 

Collections during 1978 included 43 taxa of macroinvertebrates (Harker and 

others, 1979) dominated by Ephemeropterans (mdyfly nymphs). All functional

28
groups of macroinvertebrates were well represented. Studies conducted by KDOW 

revealed additional species not reported by Barker and others (1979). The 

KDOW samples contained seven species of Ephemeroptera and eight species of 

Trichoptera, reflecting an abundance of clean, rocky substrate and good water 

quality (R. Boup, Kentucky Division of Water, oral commun., 1988). Fifteen 

species of freshwater mussels were reported from the Wild River section of the 

Red River by Houp (1980). Although the entire mussel community seemed to have 

been eliminated by the effects of sedimentation during the early 1980's 

(Kentucky Division of Water, 1986), recent collections revealed 19 live 

species of mussels in the Wild River segment and downstream in 1988 

(R. Cicerello, Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, written comm., 1988).

The ichthyofauna of the Red River has been thoroughly investigated 

(Branson and Batch, 1974b; Brewer, 1980; Barker and others, 1979). Kornman 

(1985) reported that 85 species have been identified from the entire Red River 

basin. Barker and others (1979) reported 20 species, including seven darter 

species, from the Red River upstream of the confluence with the Middle Fork 

Red River. Sampling conducted by KDOW revealed similar results during the 

late 1970's and early 1980's; however, a reduction in numbers of fish species, 

particularly darters, was observed during 1985. This was also attributed to 

loss of habitat as a result of sedimentation (Kentucky Division of Water, 

1986).

Kornman (1985) reported 31 species of fish, including 10 darter species, 

from 17 low-order tributaries to the Red River upstream of the confluence with 

the Middle Fork Red River. The occurrence of Etheostoma sagitta spilotum in 

Rockbridge Fork (Greenberg and Steigerwald, 1981; and Kornman, 1985) was 

noteworthy because it had been listed as being of special concern (Warren and 

others, 1986). Swift Camp Creek, a high quality tributary to the Red River, 

was recommended as an Outstanding Resource Water by the KNPC based upon the 

occurrence of listed fish species and good water quality (Bannan and others, 

1982). Definitive studies of aquatic biota of the Swift Camp Creek drainage 

have not been conducted. Considering the recent loss of habitat in the Red 

River as a result of sedimentation, these relatively unaffected tributary 

streams provide important sources for the reestablishment of intolerant fauna.

Bioassay studies revealed acute toxicity to fathead minnows in the Red 

River near Bazel Green particularly during the fall of 1986. A review of 

water-quality data from the Environmental Protection Agency's water quality 

data storage and retrieval system STORET (1979-1985) revealed that detectable 

levels of dieldrin, DDT, chlordane, and heavy metals were measured in fishtissue samples. Some toxicity to fathead minnows was documented during 1986 

and 1987 at the ambient monitoring station at Clay City (Kentucky Division of 

Water, written commun., 1988). Bowever, analyses of biological communities in 

this reach of the Red River generally indicated good water quality and habitat 

availability.

Biological data on downstream reaches of the Red River near Clay City 

were reported by Bannan and others (1984), Metzmeier (1987), and Molloy 

(1988). Water-quality conditions were substantially improved from those 

observed upstream in the Middle and South Forks, although chloride 

concentrations were somewhat elevated. The algal community was relatively 

diverse and 84 species were reported, including the rare red alga, Thorea 

ramosissima. The diatom community was dominated by Achnanthes deflexa var.

29
alpestris (- A.. pseudolineraris) during July 1983, indicative of good water 

quality. Samples collected during October were dominated by more tolerant 

taxa (Hannan and others, 1984).

The macro invertebrate community exhibited high diversity and was 

dominated by Ephemeropterans and Dipterans. Thirty- five taxa were reported 

from quantitative samples collected during summer. Two freshwater mussel taxa 

* alatus and Tritogonia verrucosa) were collected, and relic shells

representing four other taxa were also collected. Three species of mussels 

not reported by Houp (1980) were identified during the 1984 study (Hannan and 

others, 1984).

Twenty- five species of fish, including 10 darter species, were collected 

by Hannan and others (1984). The occurrence of Ammnocrvtoa pellucida was 

noteworthy because it was listed as being of special concern in Kentucky 

(Warren and others, 1986).

Hatton Creek and Lulbegrud Creek, two third- order streams that join Red 

River below Clay City, were sampled by the KNPC (Harker and others, 1979; 

Hannan and others, 1984, respectively). Both streams were characterized by 

good water quality and diverse biological communities. Three species of live 

mussels were collected from Lulbegrud Creek. One species, Villosa lienosa was 

listed as being of special concern in Kentucky (Warren and others, 1986).

Middle and South Forks Red River

Biological and water-quality investigations of the Middle and South Forks 

of the Red River indicated that these streams Were affected by oil and gas 

production and coal mining in the basin. The Kentucky Division of Water 

(written commun., 1988) reported extremely high concentrations of chloride 

(1,500-10,000 mg/L), and specific conductance values (4,500-27,000 A»S/cm). 

The poor water quality affected the biological community structure at 

virtually all sampling sites in this part of the Red River basin.

Algal communities were dominated by halophilic species tolerant of high 

concentrations of dissolved salts. A total of 232 algal species were 

identified from samples collected at eight stations in the Middle and South 

Forks of the Red River basin (Kentucky Division of Water, written commun., 

1988). Although this number was rather large, only a few intolerant species 

were collected in the basin. The number of algal taxa ranged from 30 species 

at Stump Cave Branch (specific conductance - 27,000 pS/cm) to 135 species in 

the Middle Fork Red River (specific conductance - 591 /jS/cm). The 

predominance of Amphora delieatula. Cvmbella pusilla. and Mastogloia smithii 

was very unusual and indicated highly saline conditions.

Macroinvertebrate communities were also affected by brine (Kentucky 

Division of Water, written commun., 1988). Although 48 taxa were reported in 

this study, the number of species observed ranged from 2 at the most affected 

site to 25 in the Middle Fork Red River. Communities were dominated by 

tolerant Dipterans and Odonates (dragonflies and damselflies). The total 

number of individuals collected generally was low.

30
The ichthyofauna of the Middle and South Fork Red River was also severely 

affected by brine waters from oil and gas operations. Twenty nine species 

were reported from the basin. No fish were collected from the most affected 

sites (Sand Lick Creek and Stump Cave Branch), 11 to 12 species were collected 

from several sites in the South Fork, and 19 species were collected from the 

downstream sites on the Middle Fork Red River (Kentucky Division of Water, 

unpublished data). Although nine darter species were collected during this 

study, they were largely restricted to downstream areas in the basin where 

water quality had apparently improved.

Kentucky River Mainstern from Beattyvilie to Red River Confluence

The mainstem Kentucky River in Hydrologic Unit 05100204 is a seventhorder river extending from the confluence of the North, Middle, and South 

Forks of the Kentucky River near Beattyville, Kentucky, to the Red River 

confluence (fig. 6). Included in this section are Kentucky River navigational 

pools 11 though 14.

Biological communities from the Kentucky River at Heidelburg have been 

routinely sampled by the KDOW since 1978. The data collected at this site 

indicate that the aquatic communities and their habitats have been affected by 

land-use patterns. Biological collections described in the Kentucky Report to 

Congress (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986) indicated phytoplankton standing 

crop and chlorophyll a were consistently higher when compared with other 

biological monitoring stations. Blue-green algal blooms (Microcystis flosaquae. Anabaena sp.) were reported upstream from Lock 14, and attached algal 

biomass and standing crop were elevated. This was partially attributed to 

wastewater effluent discharges at Beattyville and the impounded nature of the 

river. Evaluation of benthic diatom assemblages collected since 1978 

indicated that the effects of oil and gas operations may have been most 

pronounced during the early to mid 1980's. More recent collections (1985-86) 

contained fewer halophilic (tolerant of brines) species, indicating a 

reduction in the amount of brines reaching streams.

Macroinvertebrate communities (on artificial substrata) have remained 

relatively consistent since the late 1970's. Habitat restrictions had 

apparently limited the invertebrate community to a greater extent than had 

poor water quality conditions (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). Qualitative 

macroinvertebrate collections from submerged substrata in soft sediments 

frequently included burrowing mayflies and dipterans, and mayfly, stonefly, 

and caddisfly larvae (Kentucky Division of Water, 1982). Sedimentation from 

upstream land disturbance at this slow moving, deep-water site had reduced 

benthic macroinvertebrate habitat. Historically, the river supported viable 

mussel populations (Danglade, 1922), but no mussel beds were observed in the 

Lock 14 pool by Williams (1975).

The ichthyofauna of the Lock 14 pool was typical of a large river 

(Kentucky Division of Water, 1982); the pool supports a sport fishery as well 

as a limited commercial fishery. Thirteen fish species were reported by 

Williams (1975) and 27 species were collected by Jones (1973) at two sites in 

the Lock 14 pool. Detectible levels of chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, and 

several heavy metals had been detected in fish tissue samples based on a

31
review of data in the STORET data base (1979-1981). Bioassay studies revealed 

acute toxicity to fathead minnows during the fall of 1986 and the spring and 

winter of 1987 at this site (Kentucky Division of Water, written commun., 

1988).

Williams (1975) reported 13 species of fislji at Lock 14, which was 

considerably less than the 20 to 22 species observed at Locks 11 through 13. 

This might have reflected large sediment loads that are transported by the 

Kentucky River and then deposited upstream from Lock 14. Paddlefish were only 

observed at Lock 11 during 1973. This apparently was one of the last published 

records of this unique species in the Kentucky River basin. Although no 

mussels were observed by Williams (1975) in the Lock 14 pool, four species were 

collected from the Lock 13 and Lock 11 pools and six species from the Lock 12 

pool. None of these mussel beds were large enough to be considered 

commercially valuable.

Hydrologic Unit 05100205 - the Kentucky River from the Red River to the

Confluence with the Ohio River

Hydrologic Unit 05100205 (fig. 7), is the largest in the Kentucky River 

basin, and it covers approximately 3,200 mi2 (8,290 km2 ). The north-central 

area of the basin is the Inner Bluegrass region, which is characterized by a 

gently rolling upland underlain by thick-bedded limestones. Surrounding this 

region is the Outer Bluegrass Region, an area of thin-bedded limestones that 

include inter-bedded shales. Streams discussed in this section include Silver 

Creek, Jessamine Creek, Dix River, Elkhorn Creek, Eagle Creek, and the Kentucky 

River mainstern.

Primary effects of land-use on aquatic biota in this hydrologic unit are 

related to sediment from agricultural sources and nutrient enrichment from 

wastewater treatment plant effluents. Sewage discharges from large population 

centers combined with the slow-moving, deep-wat<»r conditions in the lock 

systems account for the accelerated eutrophicatLon in some river segments.

Tributary streams to the Kentucky River in Hydrologic Unit 05100205 that 

were not evaluated because of extremely limited or no biological data include: 

Howards Creek, Boone Creek, Muddy Creek, Tate CJreek, Paint Lick Creek, Hickman 

Creek, Clear Creek, Glenns Creek, Benson Creek, Flat Creek, Cedar Creek, Severn 

Creek, Sixmile Creek, Drennon Creek, Big Twin Creek, Mill Creek, White Creek.

Silver Creek

The Silver Creek basin is in the Outer Bluegrass region and it flows 

northward through Madison County to join the Kentucky River. This fourthorder stream was once "one of the best streams in the drainage, supporting a 

good sport fishery for black and rock bass" (Jones, 1973). However, Jones 

calls attention to pollution from the Berea wastewater treatment plant. 

Bioassay studies conducted by KDOW indicated acute toxicity to fathead minnows 

in the effluent and the receiving stream below the plant (Kentucky Division of 

Water, written commun., 1988). Problems with low dissolved oxygen

32
Carrollton

White Creek 

Benson Creek

Knoblick Creek

West Hickrrvan Creek 5*

lie

Camp 

Herrington Lake

Danville

o 

Clacks

20 MILES

20 KILOMETERS

84

Figure 7. Hydrologic Unit 05100205, the Kentucky River from the Red River

to the confluence with the Ohio River.

33
concentrations and elevated levels of ammonia due to sewage effluent were also 

noted during the mid-1970's (Miller and others, [no date]).

Because of chronic pollution from the discharge of treated domestic 

wastewater and nutrient enrichment from agricultural runoff to Silver Creek, a 

more intensive investigation was conducted by the KDOW in 1982 (Logan and 

others, 1984). Water-quality violations were observed for undissociated 

hydrogen sulfide, phthalate esters, aluminum, mercury, and fecal coliform 

bacteria.

Habitats for aquatic organisms were reported to be abundant, although 

dense growths of filamentous algae, likely indicative of high nutrient levels, 

were present at all sampling sites (Logan and others, 1984). A total of 142 

taxa of attached algae were identified during the study and 80 to 90 taxa were 

present at a given sampling site. The algal community was dominated by taxa 

associated with nutrient enrichment and high tolerance to a wide variety of 

water-quality conditions.

Macroinvertebrate communities were diverse and characterized by many 

species. Samples were dominated by Chironomidae (31 taxa), Ephemeroptera (15 

taxa), and Plecoptera (5 taxa). The relatively rare caddisfly, Dibusa angata. 

was collected from Silver Creek upstream from the confluence with Kentucky 

River (Logan and others, 1984; Resh and Houp, 1986). Results from this 

investigation indicated abundant macroinvertebrate habitat and good water 

quality in this reach of Silver Creek despite localized elevated phosphorus 

concentrations downstream of the Berea wastewater treatment plant.

Eighteen species of fish, including four darter taxa, were identified 

during the KDOW study. Jones (1973) reported 10 additional fish species in 

Silver Creek near the mouth. Logan and others (1984) rated the fish 

communities in Silver Creek as fair upstream from Berea and good in downstream 

sections of the stream. Silver Creek provided habitat for smallmouth bass, 

and it was designated as a Sport Fishery Resource and was recommended as an 

Outstanding Resource Water (Hannan and others, 1982).

The quality of water in Silver Creek generally improved from the 

headwater reaches to its confluence with the Kentucky River. Acute toxicity 

and reduced biological diversity was observed upstream as a result of pointsource discharges in 1982 (Logan and others, 1984). Biological communities 

had partially recovered in downstream reaches based on the presence of 

relatively sensitive species; but nutrient enrichment from non-point source 

agricultural runoff was indicated by dense growths of filamentous algae. 

Additional biological data for Silver Creek are reported by Houp (1970), Crisp 

and Crisp (1974), and Wolfe and others, (1978).

Jessamine Creek

Jessamine Creek, a fourth-order stream, originates in north-central 

Jessamine County and flows in a southerly direction to join the Kentucky River 

near Wilmore. This stream was classified as an Outstanding Resource Water due 

to the presence of three species of bats (Mvoti|S grisescens. Mvotis sodalis. 

and Mvotis keenii) that inhabited the gorge (Hannan and others, 1982). The

34
first two species were recognized as endangered at the Federal level and 

Mvotis keenii was listed as being of special concern within Kentucky (Warren 

and others, 1986). Myotis grisescens relies on aquatic insect emergence for 

food; and any degradation of water quality in Jessamine Creek could affect 

their survival (Hannan and others, 1982).

Jones (1973) reported 23 fish species from Jessamine Creek and indicated 

that the stream supported bass and bluegill for sport fishing. Jessamine 

Creek and Town Fork (fig. 6) were reported to be degraded by effluents from 

wastewater treatment plants serving Wilmore and Nicholasville (Miller and 

others, [no date]). Bioassay studies conducted by the KDOW indicated acute 

toxicity to fathead minnows in the Nicholasville and Wilmore sewage effluents 

in Town Branch downstream from the Wilmore wastewater treatment plant.

A later survey of the fishes of Jessamine Creek and Town Branch indicated 

no substantial alteration of the fish fauna had occurred as of 1983 (Barton, 

1984). A total of 1,555 individuals, representing 26 species, were collected. 

Among the most abundant species were the minnows Campost-nmfl anomalum. 

Pimethales notatus. and Semotilus atromaculatus (30.5 percent, 14.8 percent, 

and 4.1 percent, respectively).

Although this stream drains one of the most scenic gorges in the Inner 

Bluegrass Region of the Kentucky drainage, no systematic biological survey has 

been conducted in the Jessamine Creek basin. Sources of pollution to 

Jessamine Creek are primarily agricultural runoff and municipal sewage 

effluent. Improvements in effluent quality are of major concern in the 

preservation of resources in the Jessamine Creek basin. Limited biological 

data for the Jessamine Creek system were reported by MacGregor (1973), Howell 

(1975), and Houp (1981).

Dix River Basin

The Dix River originates in west-central Rockcastle County and flows 

north approximately 85 miles (137 km) before joining the Kentucky River. The 

Dix River is a major sixth-order tributary to the Kentucky River, and it 

drains a large part of the Outer Bluegrass region in Hydrologic Unit 05100205. 

Herrington Lake, an impoundment of the lowest part of the Dix River, forms a 

eutrophic reservoir (Kentucky Division of Water, 1984a). Algal assays 

performed by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV, indicated that 

Herrington Lake was phosphorus limited (Kentucky Division of Water, 1984a). 

The Herrington Lake dam probably mitigates the effects of non-point source 

(agricultural) sedimentation and nutrient enrichment occurring in the Dix 

River basin downstream. Hypolimnetic water released from Herrington Lake 

during summer results in the Dix River being cooler and less turbid than other 

major tributaries to the Kentucky River.

Copper Creek and Hanging Fork are the two major tributaries to the Dix 

River. Clarks Run, a tributary to the impounded portion of the Dix River, 

receives wastewater discharges from Danville. The Dix River was identified as 

an important sport fishery resource by the KDFWR, and was recommended as an 

Outstanding Resource Water by Hannan and others (1982). Brodhead Swamp, on 

the eastern edge of the basin, was identified as being an ecologically

35
important feature in the basin (Hannan and Lasetter, 1982). Fish 

investigations in the Dix River system were summarized by Brans on and Batch 

(1981a). They characterized the Dix River as being a "moderately depauperate 

river system, due to the absence of many fish species which occur in other 

segments of the Kentucky River."

Copper Creek, a fourth-order tributary stream to the Dix River, was 

sampled by the KNPC in 1983 during an investigation of the Kentucky oil shale 

region (Hannan and others, 1984). The stream seemed to be more affected by 

non-point source agricultural runoff than by oil and gas operations.

A total of 78 species of algae was collected from Copper Creek with 

diatoms accounting for the majority of taxa. Euplanktonic green algal taxa 

were common during summer low-flow conditions when Copper Creek was 

characterized by a series of slowly flowing pools. Diatom communities were 

dominated by Achnanthes minutissima. a common epilithic species (Lowe, 1974).

Although 50 macroinvertebrate taxa were identified during the study, the 

community was dominated by Chironomidae and Oligochaeta (Hannan and others, 

1984). The abundance of these organisms probably indicated organic and 

nutrient enrichment from agricultural sources. Field observations indicated 

heavy use of the stream by cattle, as well as large amounts of organic matter 

(Hannan and others, 1984).

Twenty-one species of fish were reported bv

The fish community was dominated by pollutionBatch (198la) reported an additional 11 species 

Copper Creek drainage.

Hannan and others (1984). 

tolerant species. Branson and 

at two other sites in the

The upper part of the Dix River above Copper Creek was sampled by Hannan 

and others (1984). A total of 88 algal species were identified from the Dix 

River. Algal communities were similar to those observed at the Copper Creek 

site. Euplanktonic species were common. The diatom community was dominated 

by Achnanthes minutissima.

Macroinvertebrate communities were dominated by Ephemeroptera (notably 

Caenis sp.) and Chironomidae. Although fewer taxa were identified at this 

upstream site, additional representatives of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and 

Trichoptera were observed. This indicates that environmental conditions in 

the upper Dix River may have been better than those in Copper Creek. Fish 

communities were similar to those observed in Copper Creek (Hannan and others, 

1984).

Jones (1973) presented fisheries data on the Dix River, Hanging Fork, 

Cedar Creek, and Knoblick Creek. He considered the Dix River to support good 

fisheries for several game species. Samples from three sites on the Dix River 

yielded from 14 to 18 species. Collections from three sites on Hanging Fork 

Creek contained 25 species, including five darter species. While only seven 

species were collected in Knoblick Creek, the banded sculpin was only 

collected from this stream (Jones, 1973). Cedar Creek supported 17 species, 

including four darter species.

The upper parts of the Dix River system (Dix River, Copper Creek) were 

affected by non-point source agricultural activities. Biological communities

36
were dominated by taxa which tolerate a wide range of water-quality 

conditions. Few sensitive species were collected. Fisheries investigations 

of Hanging Fork during the early 1970's revealed more sensitive species than 

were observed in upstream reaches of the Dix River system. Downstream 

portions of the system (Clarks Run) were adversely affected by point-source 

discharges from Danville. Acute toxicity to fathead minnows was documented in 

1986 and 1987, with particularly low survival in the summer of 1987 (Kentucky 

Division of Water, written commun., 1988). The presence of Herrington Lake 

Dam on the Dix River near its confluence with the Kentucky River influenced 

biological communities by preventing upstream fisheries migration. The dam 

also provided for cool, low-turbidity inflow to the Kentucky River during 

summer. Additional published data for streams in the Dix River system include 

Greeson (1963), Blankenship and Crockett (1971), and Branson and Batch 

(1981b). Unpublished biological data for streams in the Dix River system are 

available from the Kentucky Division of Water, Biological Branch.

North Elkhorn Creek

The Elkhorn Creek system originates in Fayette County, and flows 

northwest through Scott and Woodford Counties before merging in Franklin 

County (fig. 7). The mainstern of Elkhorn Creek then flows northward to join 

the Kentucky River approximately 10 miles (16 km) downstream from Frankfort. 

The Elkhorn Creek system is of particular importance to the Kentucky drainage. 

Some stream segments are recommended as Outstanding Resource Waters while 

others are among the most degraded streams in the Bluegrass region.

North Elkhorn Creek is an extremely popular recreational resource 

(Selhinger and Underwood, 1980) . This stream was recommended for inclusion as 

an Outstanding Resource Water because of viable populations of several 

organisms, including the freshwater mussels Leptodea leptodon and Simosonaias 

ambigua (Hannan and others, 1982). Data collected in 1968 by the KDFWR 

indicated good water quality and a stable biological environment; however, 

some industrial and domestic sewage pollution was noted (Laflin, 1970). 

Sewage effluent from the Georgetown wastewater treatment plant discharged into 

North Elkhorn Creek was toxic to fathead minnows in May of 1986 (Kentucky 

Division of Water, written commun., 1988). Acute toxicity was also observed 

in the receiving stream above and below the effluent discharge point.

North Elkhorn Creek supported a valuable sport fishery for smallmouth and 

rock bass (Jones, 1973). Because it provided habitat for smallmouth bass, 

North Elkhorn Creek was designated as a Sport Fishery Resource and recommended 

as an Outstanding Resource Water (Hannan and others, 1982). Biological 

monitoring of North Elkhorn Creek and its major tributaries by the KDOW is 

currently in progress (1989), particularly with regard to potential effects of 

industrial discharges on water quality. Laflin (1970) reported 

physicochemical and biological data from two locations in the North Elkhorn 

basin. Macroinvertebrate communities were dominated by Trichoptera and 

Coleoptera, although Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Diptera, and Gastropoda were 

common. Freshwater mussels were reported but not identified to species. 

Thirty five fish species were collected during a 2-year sampling period,

37
including five darter species. Additional biological information for North 

Elkhorn Creek and its tributaries is reported by Lachner and Jenkins (1967), 

Jones (1968), Heer (1974), Westerman (1980), Elkin (1984), and Taylor (1984)

South Elkhorn Creek

In sharp contrast to North Elkhorn Creek, South Elkhorn Creek is severely 

degraded by sewage effluent discharged into Town Branch by Lexington (Laflin, 

1970; Jones, 1973; Hannan and others, 1982; Kentucky Division of Water, 1986; 

and Miller and others, [no date]). Although both streams drain areas of 

similar geology, data collected by Laflin (1970) indicated the South Fork 

supported a different fauna from the North Fork and mainstern Elkhorn Creek.

Biological investigations of several sites in the South Elkhorn Creek 

drainage were conducted by the KDFWR in 1968 and 1969 (Laflin, 1970). Benthic 

invertebrate collections from South Elkhorn Creek below Town Branch were 

composed primarily of Tubifex worms which are characteristic of grossly 

polluted streams. Samples collected above Town Branch and from an area of 

recovery downstream on South Elkhorn Creek contained more insect taxa, but 

members of the Plecoptera and other insects intolerant of organic enrichment 

were reduced. A total of 28 fish species were collected from South Elkhorn 

Creek during 1968 and 1969 (Laflin, 1970). Fish populations below Town Branch 

were severely affected due to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen.

Water-quality and biological investigations were conducted at seven 

locations in the South Elkhorn Creek drainage during the summer of 1981 (Logan 

and others, 1983a). Results indicated degraded environmental conditions 

throughout the system. A total of 190 algal taxa were collected during the 

study, ranging from 62 taxa in Town Branch below the treatment plant to 112 

taxa at a downstream site. Algal communities at most sites were dominated by 

diatoms associated with nutrient enrichment (Nijtzschia palea. Gomohonema 

parvulum. Svnedra ulna). Benthic algal standing crop and biomass were 

elevated downstream from the wastewater treatment plant discharge, reflecting 

nutrient loading from the Lexington facility, as well as agricultural nonpoint sources. Algal communities had partially recovered in South Elkhorn 

Creek near its confluence with North Elkhorn Creek (Logan and others, 1983a).

Although 74 macroinvertebrate taxa were collected during the study, the 

number of species identified at the various sampling sites ranged from 18 to 

28. Benthic macroinvertebrate communities were dominated by Chironomidae, 

Gastropoda, and Isopoda at severely degraded sites. At upstream (control) 

sites, communities were dominated by Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera, and 

Trichoptera, indicating better water quality at those sites. 

Macroinvertebrate communities had partially recovered in South Elkhorn Creek 

near its confluence with North Elkhorn Creek. Live specimens of the 

freshwater mussel Lampsilis radiata luteola were collected at the most 

downstream site on South Elkhorn Creek. Relic shells, representing nine 

additional mussel taxa, were also observed indicating that a diverse mussel 

fauna once inhabited South Elkhorn Creek (Logan and others, 1983a).

A total of 23 fish species, including four darter species, were collected 

from South Elkhorn Creek. Darters only occurred at the control (upstream)

38
sites and at the most downstream sites. Fish communities at sites with 

degraded water quality were limited to less than five tolerant species.

Biological data collected by the KDOW on South Elkhorn Creek near Midway 

were similar to that reported by Logan and others (1983a). Data from STORE! 

(1984-1986) reyealed that phytoplankton chlorophyll a. (5-16 mg/L) and standing 

crop (3,500-10,000 cells/mL) were elevated relative to Kentucky streams of 

similar size. Periphyton chlorophyll a. (53 mg/m2 ) and ash-free dry weight 

(4,300 mg/m2 ) were high, which corresponded to high nutrient values typically 

observed at this station. Benthic algal assemblages were dominated by 

tolerant taxa (Gomphonema parvulum. Navicula luzonensis. Nitzschia palea) 

(Kentucky Division of Water, 1986).

Macroinvertebrate assemblages on artificial substrates were limited to 

one tolerant isopod species, Lirceus fontinalis. and this indicates toxicity 

to most species of macroinvertebrates (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). 

Bioassay investigations indicated consistent toxicity to fathead minnows, 

particularly during the summer of 1987 (Kentucky Division of Water, written 

commun., 1988). Additional biological data on South Elkhorn Creek are 

presented by Aliff (1973, 1977), Jones (1973), Small (1975), Birge and others 

(1975, 1977), Call (1976), Keyes (1976), and Taylor (1984).

Eagle Creek

Eagle Creek is the last major tributary to join the Kentucky River before 

it discharges into the Ohio River. Eagle Creek was recommended for inclusion 

as an Outstanding Resource Water by the KNPC (Hannan and others, 1982). 

Biological data are routinely collected by the KDOW at a site at Glencoe as 

part of a water quality monitoring network. Data from STORET (1984-1985) 

revealed that phytoplankton standing crop (5,000-25,000 cells/mL) and 

chlorophyll a (16-33 A*g/L) were higher at this site than at other sites. The 

community was dominated by Skeletonema potamos and other eutrophic species, 

resulting in low diversity and equitability values (Kentucky Department of 

Environmental Protection, 1986) for phytoplankton samples (Kentucky Division 

of Water, 1986). Periphyton chlorophyll a, biomass, and species composition 

were considered typical for Kentucky streams. Macroinvertebrate communities 

were dominated by Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera, which reflects 

good water quality and habitat conditions. Mussel collections yielded two 

species of unionid mussels, the Asiatic clam, Corbicula. and relic shells 

representing an additional eight species (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). 

Analysis of fish tissue from Eagle Creek revealed detectible concentrations of 

chlordane, PCB's, DDT, methoxychlor, and heavy metals. Bioassay 

investigations in Eagle Creek revealed toxicity to fathead minnows, 

particularly during the fall of 1986 and summer of 1987.

The major point-source discharge in the basin is the Owenton wastewater 

treatment plant, which discharges to Stevens Creek, an upstream tributary to 

Eagle Creek. Bioassay investigations revealed no toxicity to fathead minnows 

in the treatment plant effluents or in the receiving stream during July, 1986 

(Kentucky Division of Water, written commun., 1988). Additional information 

on the biota of Eagle Creek is presented in Horseman and Branson (1973) and 

Taylor (1981).

39
Kentucky River

The mainstem Kentucky River within Hydrologic Unit 05100205 consists of a 

series of navigational pools formed by Kentucky River Locks and Dams 1-10. 

With the exception of historical fisheries and freshwater mussel information 

presented by Williams (1975), biological data seem to be limited to three 

locations: Lock 7 pool near Camp Nelson, Lock 3 pool below Frankfort, and 

Lock 2 pool at Lockport. Sedimentation and nutrient enrichment from non-point 

agricultural sources, point-source discharges, and urban runoff affect 

biological communities in the Kentucky River.

Williams (1975) reported 17 to 22 fish species at Locks 5 through 10, but 

only 15 species at Lock 3, and 10 species at Locks 1 and 2. Most pools 

sampled by Williams (1975) supported from 10 to 15 species of freshwater 

mussels. Fewer taxa were reported from the pools at Locks 2, 3, and 6. Three 

mussel beds were observed that could be considered commercially valuable. 

These were in the pools of Locks 3, 5, and 8. Dominant species included 

Megalonaias gigantea. Ouadrula quadrula. and Ambjlema costata (Williams, 1975).

The KDOW currently monitors two stations on the Kentucky mainstem in 

Hydrologic Unit 05100205. Data collected at Camp Nelson (Lock 7 pool) and 

below Frankfort (Lock 3 pool) are summarized by the KDOW (1986).

Phytoplankton communities in the Kentucky Fiver at Camp Nelson were 

dominated by taxa associated with nutrient enrichment. Chlorophyll a 

(38 A*g/L) and algal standing crop (> 10,000 cells/mL) were elevated (Kentucky 

Division of Water, 1986 and Kentucky Division of Water, written commun., 

1988). In addition, periphyton chlorophyll a (36 mg/m2 ) and ash-free dry 

weight (6 g/m2 ) were elevated. Localized sources of nutrient enrichment 

included Hickman Creek, which received wastewater discharges from parts of 

Lexington and joins the Kentucky River upstream from Camp Nelson. Other 

sources included wastewater discharges and non-point source nutrient 

enrichment from agricultural sources.

Macroinvertebrate assemblages on artificial substrata were dominated by 

Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). Community 

structure was probably more influenced by available habitat-types than water 

quality.

Analyses of fish tissues revealed detectable concentrations of chlordane 

and heavy metals. Sources of these pollutants were unknown but were probably 

related to housing construction and light industry in the greater Lexington 

metropolitan area. Data from STORE! (1979-1981) revealed that concentrations 

of most organic compounds in fish tissues were near or below detection limits. 

Bioassay investigations revealed acute toxicity to fathead minnows, 

particularly during the fall of 1986 and the summer of 1987 (A. Westerman, 

Kentucky Division of Water, written commun., 1988). Bioassays of wastewater 

effluents from the West Hickman (Lexington) wastewater treatment plant 

revealed toxicity in the final effluent and in the receiving stream of West 

Hickman Creek. Additional biological data are reported for 10 sampling sites 

on West Hickman Creek by Heer (1974).

40
Phytoplankton communities in the Kentucky River near Frankfort (Lock 3 

pool) were dominated by centric diatoms associated with nutrient enrichment. 

Chlorophyll a was variable (3 to 42 A*g/L) and was influenced by differences in 

discharge and suspended solids on different sampling dates. Standing crop 

averaged 5,000 cells/mL (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986; Kentucky Division 

of Water, written commun., 1980) Periphyton chlorophyll a and ash-free dry 

weight were also variable, but generally high (>55 mg/m2 and >4 g/m2 , 

respectively). Dominant taxa on artificial substrates included Melosira 

varians and Cocconeis placentula var. euglvota. species which commonly occur 

in nutrient-rich waters.

Macroinvertebrate assemblages on artificial substrata were similar to 

those at the Camp Nelson station, and indicated similar water quality and 

habitat conditions. Yearly investigations since the early 1980's indicated a 

relatively stable environment in this section of the Kentucky River (Kentucky 

Division of Water, 1986).

Analyses of fish tissue indicated detectable levels of chlordane, aldrin, 

dieldrin, DDT, and heavy metals. Chlordane levels exceeded PDA action levels 

during 1984 (Kentucky Division of Water, 1986). Bioassay investigations 

revealed acute toxicity to fathead minnows during 1986 and 1987 (Kentucky 

Division of Water, written commun., 1988). Bioassay studies conducted on 

discharge from the Frankfort wastewater treatment plant revealed no acute 

toxicity in the effluent or in the Kentucky River below the discharge during 

the summer of 1985 (A. Westerman, Kentucky Division of Water, written commun., 

1988).

The U.S. Geological Survey collected limited biological data at the 

Kentucky River at Lock 2 from 1978 to 1982. Phytoplankton communities were 

dominated by centric diatoms, blue-green algae, and green algae (Order 

Chlorococcales). Periodic blue-green algal blooms had been observed in this 

reach of the river. In general, algal communities were similar to those 

reported by KDOW from the Kentucky River below Frankfort (Kentucky Division of 

Water, 1982 and 1984b).

RARE AND ENDANGERED SPECIES IN THE KENTUCKY RIVER BASIN

Pollution in any form is recognized as a potential threat to organisms 

inhabiting aquatic environments. Those species with little tolerance to 

changes in environmental conditions are quickly eliminated, often before the 

changes are noticed by man. Elimination of an indigenous species permanently 

changes the trophic structure of the affected ecosystem.

As a result of recent improvements in sampling techniques, advancements 

in taxonomy, and increased public awareness, it is now feasible to monitor 

aquatic systems for changes in biological community structure associated with 

pollution. This makes it possible to identify those species that are being 

adversely affected by pollution and, hopefully, take steps to prevent or at 

least to lessen such losses.

41
The need for protection of aquatic resources has been recognized by the 

Congress and has led to the passage of numerous environmental laws and 

regulations (Clean Water Act, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, 

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act). In Kentucky, surface water 

standards (401 Kentucky Administrative Regulations 5:031) have been enacted 

and agencies have been created to assess and monitor the biological integrity 

of Kentucky streams. The following information (table 1) was compiled by the 

KNPC. It identifies those streams in the Kentucky drainage in need of 

protection and lists some of the species currently being monitored by the 

Commission. It is not intended to be a complete listing of threatened or 

endangered species or a listing of high quality streams in the basin. 

Additional information on rare or endangered plants and animals in Kentucky is 

presented in Warren and others (1986).

SUMMARY

The Kentucky River basin, an area of approximately 7,000 mi2 (18,100 

km2 ), is divided into five hydrologic units that drain the Eastern Coal Field, 

Knobs, and Bluegrass physiographic regions. The diversity of aquatic habitat 

in the Kentucky River basin reflects differences in physiography of these 

regions. In addition to the natural variations in aquatic biota due to 

physiography, stream water quality and biota are often affected by man's 

activities, including land-use and waste-disposal practices. These 

differences in aquatic environments are often reflected in the structure and 

composition of biological communities. Biological data collected by Federal, 

State, and private institutions were used to evaluate environmental conditions 

of streams in the Kentucky River basin.

The three hydrologic units drained by the North, Middle, and South Forks 

Kentucky River are in the Eastern Coal Field, an area underlain by sandstone, 

siltstone, and shale with numerous interbedded coal seams. Mining of 

bituminous coal and the production of oil and gas are important land-use 

activities in this physiographic region. Water of poor quality and large 

amounts of sediment transported from disturbed land have severely altered many 

streams in this part of the Kentucky River basin.

The North Fork Kentucky River system seemed to be the most degraded with 

regard to water quality and the capacity of streams to support diverse 

biological communities. Buckhorn Creek and Laurel Fork were relatively 

unaffected by mining and supported numerous species of algae, benthic 

invertebrates, and fish. However, Troublesome Creek, Carr Fork, and most of 

Quicksand Creek were adversely affected by mine drainage and generally 

supported fewer, more tolerant species of aquatic organisms.

The Middle Fork Kentucky River system is also affected by mining and 

point and non-point source discharges. Most streams for which biological data 

were available seemed to be impaired by elevated constituent concentrations 

and loss of habitat due to sediment deposition. Greasy Creek supported 

diverse communities in the early 1970's and was considered an important 

fishery and source for faunal recolonization of more degraded downstream

42
Table l.--High quality Kentucky River basin streams based on the presence of spe

by the Kentucky Academy of Science and the Kentucky Nature Preserves Comm

(Hannan and others, 1982)

[Species listed below are fish species unless otherwise noted.]

Stream reach Remarks

Buckhorn Creek and tributaries upstream 

from the confluence with Troublesome Creek. 

(Breathitt and Knott counties)

Eagle Creek from the backwaters of the 

Kentucky River upstream to Clarks Creek. 

(Carroll, Gallatin, Grant, and Owen counties)

Elkhorn Creek from the mouth upstream on the 

North Fork to the US 25 highway bridge. 

(Franklin and Scott counties)

Middle Fork Kentucky River from Tallega 

upstream to Buckhorn Reservoir tailwaters. 

(Breathitt, Lee, and Perry counties)

Middle Fork Kentucky River from Buckhorn 

Reservoir upstream to headwaters (including 

(Harlan 

tributaries). 

and Leslie counties)

North Fork Kentucky River in the vicinity 

of Rock Lick Creek. 

(Breathitt and Lee counties)

Provides habitat for Etheostoma sag

Provides habitat for Simpsonaias am

Provides 

mussel).

habitat for Alasmidonta ma

mussel), Nocomis biguttatus. and Si

(freshwater mussel).

Provides habitat for Ammocrvpta pel

tippecanoe. Noturus stigmosus. and 

Provides habitat for Ammocrvpta pel

sagitta spilotum. Ichthvomvzon foss

Provides 

appendix.

habitat for Etheostoma mac

evides.
Table l.--High quality Kentucky River basin streams based on the presence of spec

by the Kentucky Academy of Science and the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission

(Hannan and others, 1982)

[Species listed below are fish species unless otherwise noted.]

Stream reach Remarks

Red River and most tributaries from State 

Highway 746 bridge downstream to Indian Creek. 

(Menifee, Powell, and Wolfe counties)

South Fork Kentucky River from the vicinity 

of Booneville upstream, including Sexton and 

Buffalo Creeks, to the headwaters on Goose 

Creek, including Laurel and Horse Creeks, and 

Red Bird River, including Big Creek. 

(Clay, Knox, Leslie, and Owsley counties).

Station Camp Creek from Red Lick Creek to the

(Estill 

headwaters.

and Jackson counties)

Sturgeon Creek from Brush Creek and 

Travellers Rest (Little Sturgeon Creek) 

downstream to the Kentucky River backwaters 

(Lee and Owsley counties)

Provides habitat for Alasmidonta mar

mussel) , Ammocrvpta oellucida. Clino

Lampetra appendix . and Simpsonaias a

mussel) .

Provides habitat for Ammocrvpta pell

tippecanoe . Ichthvomvzon fossor. Not

Percina evides . and Villosa lienosa 

mussel) .

Provides habitat for Villosa lienosa 

Provides 

mussel).

habitat for Etheostoma saei
reaches. Biological investigations of Cutshin Creek and Squabble Creek 

indicated environmental stresses due to poor water quality and reduced 

habitat. Headwater reaches of the Middle Fork Kentucky River and reaches 

below Buckhorn Dam were relatively unaffected by land uses in the basin.

The South Fork Kentucky River system did not seem to be as severely 

degraded as the other Forks, possibly due to less mining activity in this 

basin. Sections of Goose Creek, Red Bird River, Sexton Creek, and Buck Creek 

supported viable populations of algae, benthic invertebrates, and fish; 

however some local water quality problems were observed in each basin. Loss 

of habitat due to sediment transported from mined land appeared to be the 

primary threat to aquatic biota in the South Fork Kentucky River system.

The Kentucky River from the confluence of the three forks near 

Beattyville to the Red River drains the Knobs physiographic region. Land-use 

effects in this area of Kentucky are primarily related to discharges of brines 

from oil and gas operations and sediment from mining operations. Non-point 

agricultural runoff and discharges of sewage effluents are more significant in 

the Knobs than in the steeper terrain of the Eastern Coal Field.

The Millers Creek and Ross Creek drainages were severely degraded by 

brines and supported only a few tolerant species and few individuals. Many of 

the headwater reaches of these streams were devoid of fish. Sturgeon Creek 

and Station Camp Creek supported numerous species of aquatic organisms, some 

of which were recognized as being of special concern in Kentucky (Warren and 

others, 1986).

The Red River system drains much of this hydrologic unit east of the 

Kentucky River. Major tributaries include the Middle and South Forks of the 

Red River, Swift Camp Creek, and Lulbegrud Creek. The Red River from the 

State Highway 746 bridge to the State Highway 715 bridge has been designated 

as a Kentucky Wild River (Miller and others, 1980). A wide variety of waterquality conditions exist in this system. High quality streams that support 

diverse biological communities include the upper Red River, Swift Camp Creek, 

and Lulbegrud Creek. Streams affected by brine include reaches of the South 

and Middle Forks of the Red River.

The Kentucky River from the Red River to the confluence with the Ohio 

River drains the largest hydrologic unit in the Kentucky River basin. The 

north-central area of the basin lies in the Inner Bluegrass region, which is 

characterized by a gently rolling upland underlain by thick-bedded limestones. 

Surrounding this region is the Outer Bluegrass region, an area underlain by 

thin-bedded limestones that include inter-bedded shales.

Primary effects of land use on aquatic biota in this hydrologic unit are 

related to deposition of sediment from agricultural sources and nutrient 

enrichment from wastewater treatment plant effluents. Sewage discharges from 

large population centers combined with the slow, deep water conditions in the 

lock system of the Kentucky River account for the accelerated eutrophication 

of some river reaches.

The Kentucky River from the Red River confluence to the Ohio River is an 

impounded set of navigational pools. Heavy sediment loads from tributary 

streams and discharges from rapidly-growing urban centers have drastically

45
altered environmental conditions in the Kentucky River over the last 50 to 75 

years (Williams, 1975). Silver Creek and South Elkhorn Creek were severely 

degraded due to effluent discharged from the Berea and Lexington wastewater 

treatment plants. Biological data available for Jessamine Creek, the Dix 

River system, sections of North Elkhorn Creek, and Eagle Creek indicated 

adequate water quality and habitat for most commonly occurring aquatic 

organisms.

Although some streams in the basin continue to support diverse biological 

communities and have excellent water quality, many streams in the Kentucky 

River system have been altered to some extent by man's activities. Sediment 

transported from mined lands, oil and gas operations, agricultural lands, and 

construction sites has reduced the available habitat for many species. This 

increased sedimentation coupled with discharges from urban centers, nutrient 

enrichment from agricultural runoff, and brine associated with oil and gas 

production have affected water quality and habitat conditions and led to 

decreases in numbers of aquatic species and individuals in many Kentucky River 

basin streams.

46
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47
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62
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63