The Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Directorate 

(202) 707-5080 (phone) • (866) 550-0442 (fax) • law@loc.gov • http://www.law.gov

Regulation of Artificial 

Intelligence in Selected 

Jurisdictions

January 2019
This report is provided for reference purposes only. 

It does not constitute legal advice and does not represent the official 

opinion of the United States Government. The information provided 

reflects research undertaken as of the date of writing. 

It has not been updated.
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Contents

Comparative Summary ............................................................................................................................ 1 

Jenny Gesley

International and Regional Approaches ............................................................................................... 6

Tariq Ahmad & Jenny Gesley

The Americas and the Caribbean ......................................................................................................... 16

Brazil .......................................................................................................................................................... 16 

Eduardo Soares

Canada ....................................................................................................................................................... 18 

Tariq Ahmad

Jamaica ....................................................................................................................................................... 24 

Ruth Levush

Mexico ........................................................................................................................................................ 25 

Gustavo Guerra

United States ............................................................................................................................................. 27 

James Martin

East/South Asia and the Pacific ............................................................................................................ 31

Australia .................................................................................................................................................... 31 

Kelly Buchanan

China .......................................................................................................................................................... 36 

Laney Zhang

India ........................................................................................................................................................... 40 

Tariq Ahmad

Indonesia ................................................................................................................................................... 47 

Kelly Buchanan

Japan .......................................................................................................................................................... 47 

Sayuri Umeda

Malaysia .................................................................................................................................................... 49 

Kelly Buchanan

New Zealand ............................................................................................................................................ 50 

Kelly Buchanan

Pakistan ..................................................................................................................................................... 55 

Tariq Ahmad

Singapore ................................................................................................................................................... 55 

Laney Zhang

South Korea ............................................................................................................................................... 59 

Sayuri Umeda
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Taiwan ....................................................................................................................................................... 61 

Laney Zhang

Europe and Central Asia ........................................................................................................................ 63

European Union ....................................................................................................................................... 63 

Jenny Gesley

Austria ....................................................................................................................................................... 68 

Jenny Gesley

Belarus ....................................................................................................................................................... 71 

Astghik Grigoryan 

Belgium ...................................................................................................................................................... 72 

Nicolas Boring

Czech Republic ......................................................................................................................................... 73 

Astghik Grigoryan 

Denmark .................................................................................................................................................... 74 

Elin Hofverberg

Estonia ....................................................................................................................................................... 76 

Astghik Grigoryan 

Finland ....................................................................................................................................................... 78 

Elin Hofverberg

France ......................................................................................................................................................... 79 

Nicolas Boring

Germany .................................................................................................................................................... 83 

Jenny Gesley

Hungary .................................................................................................................................................... 87 

Astghik Grigoryan

Iceland........................................................................................................................................................ 88 

Elin Hofverberg

Ireland ........................................................................................................................................................ 89 

Clare Feikert-Ahalt

Italy ............................................................................................................................................................ 90 

Dante Figueroa 

Jersey .......................................................................................................................................................... 93 

Clare Feikert-Ahalt

Kazakhstan ................................................................................................................................................ 93 

Astghik Grigoryan

Latvia ......................................................................................................................................................... 94 

Astghik Grigoryan

Lithuania ................................................................................................................................................... 94 

Astghik Grigoryan

Luxembourg.............................................................................................................................................. 95 

Nicolas Boring

Malta .......................................................................................................................................................... 95 

Clare Feikert-Ahalt

Netherlands............................................................................................................................................... 96 

Jenny Gesley
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Norway ...................................................................................................................................................... 98 

Elin Hofverberg

Poland ........................................................................................................................................................ 99 

Astghik Grigoryan

Portugal ................................................................................................................................................... 100 

Eduardo Soares

Russia ....................................................................................................................................................... 102 

Astghik Grigoryan

Slovenia ................................................................................................................................................... 106 

Astghik Grigoryan

Spain ........................................................................................................................................................ 106 

Graciela Rodriguez-Ferrand

Sweden .................................................................................................................................................... 109 

Elin Hofverberg

Switzerland ............................................................................................................................................. 112 

Jenny Gesley

United Kingdom .................................................................................................................................... 114 

Clare Feikert-Ahalt

Middle East and North Africa ............................................................................................................ 119

Bahrain ..................................................................................................................................................... 119 

George Sadek

Egypt ........................................................................................................................................................ 119 

George Sadek

Israel ......................................................................................................................................................... 119 

Ruth Levush

Oman ....................................................................................................................................................... 123 

George Sadek

Qatar ........................................................................................................................................................ 123 

George Sadek

Saudi Arabia ........................................................................................................................................... 124 

George Sadek

Tunisia ..................................................................................................................................................... 125 

George Sadek

United Arab Emirates ............................................................................................................................ 126 

George Sadek 

Sub-Saharan Africa ............................................................................................................................... 129

Ghana ....................................................................................................................................................... 129 

Hanibal Goitom

Kenya ....................................................................................................................................................... 129 

Hanibal Goitom

Nigeria ..................................................................................................................................................... 130 

Hanibal Goitom
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Sierra Leone ............................................................................................................................................ 131 

Hanibal Goitom

South Africa ............................................................................................................................................ 131 

Hanibal Goitom

Uganda .................................................................................................................................................... 131 

Hanibal Goitom

Zambia ..................................................................................................................................................... 131 

Hanibal Goitom

Zimbabwe ............................................................................................................................................... 131 

Hanibal Goitom

Illustrations

Map 1: National AI Strategies .................................................................................................................. 3 

Map 2: Testing of Autonomous Vehicles ................................................................................................ 4 

Map 3: Position on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems ................................................................ 5 
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Comparative Summary

This report examines the emerging regulatory and policy landscape surrounding artificial 

intelligence (AI) in jurisdictions around the world and in the European Union (EU). In addition, 

a survey of international organizations describes the approach that United Nations (UN) agencies 

and regional organizations have taken towards AI. As the regulation of AI is still in its infancy, 

guidelines, ethics codes, and actions by and statements from governments and their agencies on 

AI are also addressed. While the country surveys look at various legal issues, including data 

protection and privacy, transparency, human oversight, surveillance, public administration and 

services, autonomous vehicles, and lethal autonomous weapons systems, the most advanced 

regulations were found in the area of autonomous vehicles, in particular for the testing of 

such vehicles. 

The Oxford Dictionary defines AI as “the theory and development of computer systems able to 

perform tasks normally requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech 

recognition, decision-making, and translation between languages.” The majority of surveyed 

jurisdictions see AI in a positive light and aspire to become leaders in the field. Many countries 

have therefore developed or are in the process of developing national AI or digital strategies and 

action plans. Canada was the first country to launch such a national AI strategy in 2017. The 

strategies and action plans highlight, among others things, the need to develop ethical and legal 

frameworks to ensure that AI is developed and applied based on the country’s values and 

fundamental rights. Many countries have established specific commissions to look into these 

issues. However, with the exception of the EU, no jurisdiction has yet published such specific 

ethical or legal frameworks for AI. In December 2018, an expert group of the European 

Commission released draft AI ethics guidelines that set out a framework for designing trustworthy 

AI. South Korea in 2008 enacted a general law on the “intelligent robot industry” that, among 

other things, authorized the government to enact and promulgate a charter on intelligent robot 

ethics. However, it appears that no such charter has yet been enacted.

Some countries have taken the first steps to use AI in the area of justice. In Portugal, a legal 

assistance tool will be launched that conducts research on the requests made and learns from them. 

In the future, it might be used to predict the probability of success of a judicial process. Likewise, 

in France the Courts of Appeals of Rennes and Douai tested predictive justice software on various 

appeals cases in 2017. 

Many of the surveyed countries are contracting parties to the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road 

Traffic, an international agreement with the objective to “facilitate international road traffic and to 

increase road safety through the adoption of uniform traffic rules.” A 2016 amendment to the 

Convention on Road Traffic removed legal obstacles for the contracting parties to allow 

transferring driving tasks to automated technologies. Countries that have enacted regulations to 

allow for the testing of autonomous vehicles on public roads generally require that a human driver 

be present in the car who can take over the driving functions if necessary. As an exception, the 

Netherlands and Lithuania have passed legislation that allows the experimental use of self-driving 

vehicles without a human driver present in the car on public roads. Israel passed a regulation and 

a directive for experimentation in autonomous vehicles. Authorization to conduct experiments in 

autonomous vehicles requires, among others, a review by a professional committee. Spain, Qatar, 
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and the United Arab Emirates authorize the testing without a human driver present on a case-bycase basis, but have not enacted specific legislation. New Zealand, unlike other countries, has no 

specific legal requirement for vehicles to have drivers. However, the government has not received 

any formal requests to test autonomous vehicles on public roads. In Singapore and the Province of 

Ontario, Canada, it is up to the discretion of the responsible authority to approve driverless testing. 

Other testing requirements for autonomous vehicles may include insurance, the transmission of 

certain data to the government, or accident recorders in the vehicle. Finland allows the testing of 

autonomous vehicles, but one political party has suggested forbidding nonautonomous vehicles as 

a long-term goal. 

With regard to lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS), countries regularly meet in the 

Governmental Group of Experts (GGE) of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons 

(CCW) to discuss the applicability of international humanitarian law norms to LAWS. The 

majority of countries agree that meaningful human control is necessary for LAWS. Countries 

either support the adoption of a new, legally-binding treaty to ban the use of LAWS; support the 

adoption of a political declaration as a middle ground to develop a shared understanding of the 

challenges posed by LAWS; oppose the adoption of a treaty as basic principles remain ill-defined; 

or think that no action is necessary at this point.

The following visuals give an overview of the different positions and actions that countries have 

taken with regard to national AI strategies and actions plans, autonomous vehicles, and LAWS. 
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International and Regional Approaches

I. International Measures 

A. United Nations Law and Policy 

1. UNICRI and Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics

In early 2015, the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) 

established a center on AI and robotics to “help focus expertise on Artificial Intelligence (AI) 

throughout the UN in a single agency.”1 With the support of the Municipality of the Hague and 

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, UNICRI “signed the host country agreement 

for the opening of its Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in The Hague, the Netherlands, 

in September 2017.” 2 This Centre is focused on “understanding and addressing the risks and 

benefits of AI and robotics from the perspective of crime and security through awareness-raising, 

education, exchange of information, and harmonization of stakeholders.”3 UNICRI has developed 

a “large international network of stakeholders with whom it collaborates, including the 

International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), the International Telecommunications 

Union (ITU), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the Foundation for 

Responsible Robotics, the World Economic Forum, Centre for Future Intelligence, and many 

more.”4 According to the UNICRI website,

[d]uring the 71st session of the United Nations General Assembly, on 29 September 2016, 

the Director of UNICRI, Ms. Cindy J. Smith, announced that UNICRI was in the process 

of opening of the first Centre on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics within the United 

Nations system. She explained that “The aim of the Centre is to enhance understanding of 

the risk-benefit duality of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics through improved 

coordination, knowledge collection and dissemination, awareness-raising and outreach 

activities. The Centre will open in The Hague, The Netherlands. The main outcome of the 

above initiative will be that all stakeholders, including policy makers and governmental 

officials, possess improved knowledge and understanding of both the risks and benefits of 

such technologies and that they commence discussion on these risks and potential solutions 

in an appropriate and balanced manner.”5

 1 AI Policy – United Nations, FUTURE OF LIFE INSTITUTE, https://futureoflife.org/ai-policy-united-nations/ (last 

visited Jan. 4, 2019), archived at https://perma.cc/9CZ2-ETNX.

2 Centre on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, UNICRI, http://www.unicri.it/topics/ai_robotics/centre/ (last visited 

Dec. 10, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/475Y-ZZ6N. 

3 Id. 

4 Id.

5 The Hague, The Netherlands UNICRI Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, UNICRI, http://www.unicri. 

it/in_focus/on/UNICRI_Centre_Artificial_Robotics (last visited Dec. 10, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/ 

RCN7-92BL. 
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In October 2015, during the 70th Session of the UN General Assembly, UNICRI held a side event 

titled “Rising to the Challenges of International Security and the Emergence of Artificial 

Intelligence” that took place in United Nations Headquarters, New York.6

2. International Telecommunication Union

The ITU is a specialized agency of the UN for information and communication technologies, and 

“has become one of the key UN platforms for exploring the impact of AI.”7 The ITU website 

states that it “will provide a neutral platform for government, industry and academia to build a 

common understanding of the capabilities of emerging AI technologies and consequent needs for 

technical standardization and policy guidance.”8 The Future of Life Institute (FLI) notes that

ITU organized the event, “AI for Good Global Summit” in 2017 and 2018, which was 

billed as “the leading United Nations platform for dialogue on AI.” The Summits have 

focused on strategies to ensure trusted, safe and inclusive development of AI technologies 

and equitable access to their benefits. Teams at the Summits highlighted the ability of AI 

to help to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through abilities such as 

mapping poverty and aid with natural disasters using satellite imagery, and helping achieve 

Universal Health Coverage.

ITU also has a Focus Group on Machine Learning for Future Networks including

5G intended to draft technical reports and specifications for machine learning for 

future networks.9

B. Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons and Lethal Autonomous Weapons 

Systems 

1. CCW Informal Meeting of Experts (2013–2016)

The Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons 

Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (usually 

referred to as the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, CCW) with three annexed 

Protocols was adopted on October 10, 1980, and entered into force on December 2, 1983.10

According to the UN Office at Geneva (UNOG),

[t]he purpose of the Convention is to ban or restrict the use of specific types of weapons 

that are considered to cause unnecessary or unjustifiable suffering to combatants or to 

affect civilians indiscriminately. The structure of the CCW – a chapeau Convention and 

 6 AI Policy – United Nations, supra note 1. 

7 Id.

8 Artificial Intelligence, ITU, https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/AI/ Pages/default.aspx (last visited Dec. 10, 2018),

archived at https://perma.cc/MMQ3-DNTA. 

9 AI Policy – United Nations, supra note 1.

10 The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, THE UNITED NATIONS OFFICE AT GENEVA (UNOG), 

https://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/4F0DEF093B4860B4C1257180004B1B30?OpenDocument

(last visited Dec. 28, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/7RG3-PCUX. 
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annexed Protocols – was adopted in this manner to ensure future flexibility. The 

Convention itself contains only general provisions. All prohibitions or restrictions on the 

use of specific weapons or weapon systems are the object of the Protocols annexed to 

the Convention.11

In the last few years, the CCW Meeting of High Contracting Parties has held meetings to discuss 

LAWS. In 2013, the CCW Meeting of State Parties decided that the “Chairperson will convene in 

2014 an informal Meeting of Experts to discuss the questions related to emerging technologies in 

the area of [LAWS].”12 The first informal Meeting of Experts was held in 2014 and it included 

sessions on the technical, ethical and sociological, legal, and operational and military aspects of 

LAWS.13 According to one journal article,

[i]n the session on legal aspects, States examined whether LAWS could, at the current state 

of technology (or people’s lay understanding of technology), comply with existing 

international law, in particular international humanitarian law (IHL), including the 1949 

Geneva Conventions, the Martens Clause, and customary international law. States and 

legal experts stressed that any development and use of LAWS would need to comply with 

IHL and there were divergent views regarding whether it would be possible for LAWS to 

comply with the rules, especially given the current state of technology.14

Two informal Meetings of Experts were also held in 201515 and 2016. 16 The 2015 Meeting 

“intended to build upon the work from the previous year by delving deeper into the issues 

surrounding the legal, technical, ethical, and operational and military aspects of LAWS. The legal 

weapons review process was discussed in the session devoted to challenges to IHL due to 

increasing degrees of autonomy.”17

Approximately eighty countries attended the three informal CCW meetings on LAWS at the UN 

in Geneva, “together with key UN agencies, the International Committee of the Red Cross, and 

the Campaign to Stop Killer Robots. These meetings helped increase awareness and understanding 

 11 Id.

12 Background on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems in the CCW, UNOG, https://www.unog.ch/80256 

EE600585943/(httpPages)/8FA3C2562A60FF81C1257CE600393DF6?OpenDocument (last visited Dec. 17, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/UV9C-EP3T. 

13 U.N. CCW, 2014 Sess., U.N. Doc. CCW/MSP/2014/3 (June 11, 2014), https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/ 

doc/UNDOC/GEN/G14/048/96/pdf/G1404896.pdf?OpenElement, archived at https://perma.cc/2C2R-NY3X. 

14 Michael W. Meier, Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (Laws): Conducting a Comprehensive Weapons Review, 

30 TEMP. INT’L & COMP. L.J. 119, 121 (2016), https://sites.temple.edu/ticlj/files/2017/02/30.1.Meier-TICLJ.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/PP8G-ULAU. 

15 U.N. CCW, 2015 Sess., U.N. Doc. CCW/MSP/2015/3 (June 2, 2015), https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/ 

UNDOC/GEN/G15/111/60/pdf/G1511160.pdf?OpenElement, archived at https://perma.cc/PV85-NHJP. 

16 2016 Meeting of Experts on LAWS, UNOG, https://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/37D511 

89AC4FB6E1C1257F4D004CAFB2?OpenDocument (last visited Dec. 17, 2018), archived at

https://perma.cc/38GB-TFPC. 

17 Meier, supra note 14, at 122. 
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of the ethical, human rights, legal, operational, proliferation, technical, and other challenges posed 

by these weapons.”18

2. CCW Group of Governmental Experts Meetings (2017–2018)

Building on the three informal sessions, at the 2016 Fifth CCW Review Conference, presided over 

by Ambassador Tehmina Janjua of Pakistan, the High Contracting Parties decided to establish a 

Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) on LAWS to meet in 2017 with a “mandate to assess 

questions related to emerging technologies in the area of lethal autonomous weapons systems. The 

GGE was chaired by Ambassador Amandeep Singh Gill of India.”19

At their 2017 Meeting,20 the High Contracting Parties to the CCW agreed that the GGE on LAWS 

would meet again in 201821 for a duration of ten days in Geneva, and that meeting took place April 

9–13, 2018. A second meeting was held August 27–31, 2018. Ambassador Amandeep Singh Gill 

of India chaired both meetings. The following “overarching issues” were discussed during the 

2018 meetings:

1. Characterization of the systems under consideration in order to promote a common 

understanding on concepts and characteristics relevant to the objectives and purposes 

of the CCW;

2. Further consideration of the human element in the use of lethal force; aspects of 

human-machine interaction in the development, deployment and use of emerging 

technologies in the area of lethal autonomous weapons systems;

3. Review of potential military applications of related technologies in the context of the 

Group’s work;

4. Possible options for addressing the humanitarian and international security challenges 

posed by emerging technologies in the area of LAWS in the context of the objectives 

and purposes of the Convention without prejudging policy outcomes and taking into 

account past, present and future proposals.22

Certain states and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have expressed frustration that, despite 

five years of work on AWS and calls for urgent action on this issue, there has been little progress. 

However, it appears momentum has been growing for “negotiations on a legally binding 

 18 Human Rights Watch, Statement to the UN General Assembly First Committee on Disarmament and International 

Security (Oct. 10, 2017), https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/10/statement-un-general-assembly-first-committeedisarmament-and-international-security, archived at https://perma.cc/T7KQ-CK3Q.

19 Background on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems in the CCW, supra note 12.

20 2017 Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), UNOG, https://www. 

unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/F027DAA4966EB9C7C12580CD0039D7B5 (last visited Dec. 17, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/V224-228X. 

21 2018 Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), UNOG, https://www. 

unog.ch/__80256ee600585943.nsf/(httpPages)/7c335e71dfcb29d1c1258243003e8724?OpenDocument&ExpandSec

tion=7 (last visited Dec. 17, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/7CQ7-W5SF. 

22 Id.; U.N. CCW, Geneva, 9–13 April 2018 and 27–31 August 2018, U.N. Doc. CCW/GGE.1/2018/3 (Oct. 23, 

2018), https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/20092911F6495FA7C125830E003F9A5B/ 

$file/CCW_GGE.1_2018_3_final.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/C5Z3-Q9T4. 
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instrument to prevent the development and use of LAWS.”23 According to Amnesty International, 

“[t]he majority of states at the last CCW meeting in April 2018 emphasized the importance of 

retaining human control over weapons systems and the use of force, and expressed support for 

developing new international law on lethal autonomous weapons systems.”24 Twenty-six of these 

states called for a total ban (including Austria, Brazil, and Egypt) and China has also called for a 

“new CCW protocol to prohibit the use of fully autonomous weapons systems.”25

However, a number of states “oppose creating legally binding prohibitions, including governments 

who are already known to be developing autonomous weapons systems, such as France, Israel, 

Russia, South Korea, the US, and the UK.”26 According to the NGO Reaching Critical Will, “[t]he 

Non-Aligned Movement,[27] the largest bloc of states operating in the UN, has called for a legally 

binding instrument stipulating prohibitions and regulations of AWS. Austria, Brazil, and Chile 

collectively tabled a recommendation for a new CCW mandate ‘to negotiate a legally-binding 

instrument to ensure meaningful human control over the critical functions’ of weapon systems.”28

In a September 2018 report Reaching Critical Will notes that

[a] few others, mostly European states, expressed their interest in other mechanisms, such 

as a political declaration proposed by France and Germany. They envision a declaration to 

be a good vehicle to outline principles for the development and use of AWS, such as the 

necessity of human control in the use of force and the importance of human accountability. 

Some also suggested the development of a code of conduct on the development and use of 

AWS could be useful in this context.29

The August 2018 meeting ended with states agreeing on the conclusions and recommendations 

from the meeting rather than a decision on starting to negotiate a treaty.30 These included possible 

guiding principles, characterization of the systems under consideration, the human element in the 

use of lethal force, a review of potential military applications of related technologies, and the 

possible options for addressing the humanitarian and international security challenges related to 

 23 Ray Acheson, Reaching Critical Will, Mind the Downward Spiral, CCW REPORT Vol. 6, No. 11 (Sept. 4, 2018), 

http://reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament-fora/ccw/2018/laws/ccwreport/12930-ccw-report-vol-6-no-11, archived 

at https://perma.cc/4CNZ-YQZR.

24 UN: Decisive Action Needed to Ban Killer Robots – Before It’s Too Late, AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL (Aug. 27, 

2018), https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/08/un-decisive-action-needed-to-ban-killer-robots-before-itstoo-late/, archived at https://perma.cc/78XB-CFHK. 

25 Id.

26 Id.

27 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, MINISTRY OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, MEMBERS AND OTHER PARTICIPANTS OF NAM

MOVEMENT, https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/pdf/Members-and-other-participants.pdf (last visited Jan. 4, 2019), 

archived at https://perma.cc/DZ3V-ZLMK. 

28 Ray Acheson, Reaching Critical Will, New Law Needed Now, CCW REPORT Vol. 6, No. 9 (Aug. 30, 2018), 

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament-fora/ccw/2018/laws/ccwreport/12927-ccw-report-vol-6-no-9, 

archived at https://perma.cc/GG5X-VKLU. 

29 Acheson, Mind the Downward Spiral, supra note 23. 

30 Id.
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LAWS.31 A decision was made to continue the GGE’s work in 2019, and at the CCW’s Annual 

Meeting it was decided to meet on March 25–29, 2019, and August 20–21, 2019.32

C. General Assembly 

The First Committee of the General Assembly “deals with disarmament, global challenges and 

threats to peace that affect the international community and seeks out solutions to the challenges 

in the international security regime.”33 On October 26, 2018, the First Committee held a meeting 

where delegates weighed “potential risks to international security posed by such new technologies 

as militarized drones” and “exchanged views today on ways to control these lethal autonomous 

weapons.”34 Moreover, “[d]uring the debate, many delegates expressed support for the Group of 

Governmental Experts on lethal autonomous weapons systems. Some called on the Group to find 

ways towards a common understanding and precise definitions of such weapons.”35

In October 2017, the UN held a joint meeting of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 

and the Economic and Financial Committee (Second Committee) to “consider the role and impact 

of AI on sustainable development.”36

D. International Human Rights 

1. Human Rights Council

In 2017, two reports were submitted to the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) that discussed 

the implications of AI technologies on human rights.37 On May 5, 2017, a report38 from the Office 

 31 U.N. Doc. CCW/GGE.1/2018/3, supra note 22. 

32 U.N. CCW, Geneva, 21–23 Nov. 2018, U.N. Doc. CCWW/MSP/2018/... (Nov. 2018), https://www.unog.ch/ 

80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/5A2AB60BAADB6712C125835B004327A5/$file/CCW_MSP_2018_CRP.1_as

+submittedfromgDocRev.1CleanforWebsiterevEdits5December2018Final.pdf (advance copy), archived at

https://perma.cc/229P-QNYV. 

33 Disarmament and International Security (First Committee), GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE UNITED NATIONS, 

http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/ (last visited Dec. 17, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/46RZ-DJ4U. 

34 First Committee Weighs Potential Risks of New Technologies as Members Exchange Views on How to Control 

Lethal Autonomous Weapons, Cyberattacks, UNITED NATIONS (Oct. 26, 2018), https://www.un.org/press/en/ 

2018/gadis3611.doc.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/R5AR-ZLKY. 

35 Id.

36 Looking to Future, UN to Consider How Artificial Intelligence Could Help Achieve Economic Growth and Reduce 

Inequalities, UNITED NATIONS (Oct. 9, 2017), https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/10/lookingto-future-un-to-consider-how-artificial-intelligence-could-help-achieve-economic-growth-and-reduce-inequalities/,

archived at https://perma.cc/9WGH-TSVT. 

37 Daniel Cullen, Why Artificial Intelligence Is Already a Human Rights Issue, OXFORD HUMAN RIGHTS HUB (Jan. 

31, 2018), http://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/why-artificial-intelligence-is-already-a-human-rights-issue/, archived at

https://perma.cc/A5T3-LF64. 

38 UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC), Thirty-fifth Session, 6–23 June 2017, U.N. Doc. A/HRC/35/9 (May 5, 

2017), https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G17/219/52/PDF/G1721952.pdf?OpenElement, 

archived at https://perma.cc/V84G-ABVH. 
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of the High Commissioner for Human Rights on the topic of “ways to bridge the gender digital 

divide from a human rights perspective” made reference to “algorithmic discrimination and bias, 

and the potential for AI to drive improvements in women’s health.” 39 A report from the 

Independent Expert on the rights of older persons40 “addressed the opportunities and challenges 

of robotics, artificial intelligence and automation in the care of older persons.”41

2. Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion 

and Expression

On October 2018, David Kaye, the UN Special Rapporteur for the promotion and protection of the 

right to freedom of opinion and expression, released his report on the implications of AI 

technologies for human rights.42 The report43 was submitted to the UN General Assembly on 

August 29, 2018,44 and presented to the Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee at the UN 

General Assembly on October 22, 2018.45 According to European Digital Rights,

[t]he text focuses in particular on freedom of expression and opinion, privacy and nondiscrimination. In the report, the UN Special Rapporteur David Kaye first clarifies what he 

understands by artificial intelligence and what using AI entails for the current digital 

environment, debunking several myths. He then provides an overview of all potential 

human rights affected by relevant technological developments, before laying down a 

framework for a human rights-based approach to these new technologies.46

The report examines the impact of AI on the “information environment, and proposes a human 

rights framework for the design and use of technologies comprising AI by states and 

private actors.”47

 39 Cullen, supra note 37.

40 UNHRC, Thirty-fifth Session, 11–29 September 2017, U.N. Doc. A/HRC/36/48 (July 21, 2017), 

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G17/219/52/PDF/G1721952.pdf?OpenElement, archived at 

https://perma.cc/TC8K-LN5F. 

41 Cullen, supra note 37.

42 UN Special Rapporteur Analyses AI’s Impact on Human Rights, EUROPEAN DIGITAL RIGHTS (EDRI) (Nov. 7, 

2018), https://edri.org/un-special-rapporteur-report-artificial-intelligence-impact-human-rights/, archived at

https://perma.cc/PX7A-Q5G4.

43 U.N. General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection 

of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, U.N. Doc. A/73/348 (Aug. 29, 2018), https://freedex.org/wpcontent/blogs.dir/2015/files/2018/10/AI-and-FOE-GA.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/MZK9-DVV4. 

44 EDRI, supra note 42.

45 Prof. Kaye Reports on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights at UN General Assembly, UCI LAW (Oct. 25, 

2018), https://www.law.uci.edu/news/in-the-news/2018/Kaye-UN-AI.html, archived at https://perma.cc/M7RHTRQT. 

46 UN Special Rapporteur Analyses AI’s Impact on Human Rights, EDRI (Nov. 7, 2018), https://edri.org/un-specialrapporteur-report-artificial-intelligence-impact-human-rights/, archived at https://perma.cc/PX7A-Q5G4. 

47 Report of the Special Rapporteur to the General Assembly on AI and its Impact on Freedom of Opinion and 

Expression, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/ 

FreedomOpinion/Pages/ReportGA73.aspx (last visited Dec. 31, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/YJ6P-GFHT. 
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E. Amendments to the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic 

On March 23, 2016, amendments to the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic entered into 

force that removed legal obstacles for the contracting parties to allow transferring driving tasks to 

the vehicle itself, provided that the technologies used are in conformity with UN vehicle 

regulations or can be overridden or switched off by the driver.48 The Vienna Convention on Road 

Traffic is an international agreement currently with seventy-eight contracting parties, among them 

the major car-manufacturing countries.49 Two of the major world powers, the United States and 

China, are not parties to the agreement.50 According to its Preamble, the Convention “desires to 

facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety through the adoption of uniform 

traffic rules.” Originally, article 8 of the Convention required that “[e]very driver shall at all times 

be able to control his vehicle.” In addition, on October 9, 2018, the UN Economic Commission for 

Europe’s Global Forum on Road Traffic Safety adopted a “non-binding legal resolution serving as 

a guide for the contracting parties to the 1949 and 1968 Conventions on Road Traffic in relation 

to the safe deployment of highly and fully automated vehicles in road traffic.”51

II. Regional Measures

A. Organization of American States

In a 2018 report, the Organization of American States (OAS) called on the banking sector in Latin 

America and the Caribbean to “[p]rioritize the development of capacities using emerging digital 

technologies, such as Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and related (such as cognitive computing 

and Machine Learning), which have an important potential in the optimization of resources 

destined for detection and prevention.” 52 It found that “49% of banking entities are still not 

implementing tools, controls or processes using Emerging Digital Technologies, such as Big Data, 

Machine Learning or Artificial Intelligence. These are all very important for prevention of cyberattacks or defining suspect patterns associated with fraud, among other detection capabilities.”53

 48 Convention on Road Traffic, Nov. 8, 1968, 1042 U.N.T.S. 15705, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/ 

trans/conventn/Conv_road_traffic_EN.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/JNG9-ZJNE; U.N. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 

COUNCIL, ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE (UNECE), INLAND TRANSPORT COMMITTEE, WORKING PARTY ON 

ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY, Report of the Sixty-Eighth Session of the Working Party on Road Traffic Safety 5, 9 (Apr. 

17, 2014), http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2014/wp1/ECE-TRANS-WP1-145e.pdf, archived at 

http://perma.cc/P4LT-YW5N. 

49 UN Transport Agreements and Conventions. Convention on Road Traffic, of 8 November 8, 1968, UNECE, 

http://www.unece.org/trans/maps/un-transport-agreements-and-conventions-08.html (last visited Dec. 21, 2018), 

archived at http://perma.cc/3A6G-SXM2. 

50 Id.

51 Press Release, UNECE, UNECE Adopts Resolution on the Deployment of Highly and Fully Automated Vehicles 

in Road Traffic (Oct. 9, 2018), http://www.unece.org/info/media/presscurrent-press-h/transport/2018/unece-adoptsresolution-on-the-deployment-of-highly-and-fully-automated-vehicles-in-road-traffic/doc.html, archived at 

http://perma.cc/V8WP-VZKP. 

52 OAS, STATE OF CYBERSECURITY IN THE BANKING SECTOR IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 146 (2018), 

http://www.oas.org/es/sms/cicte/sectorbancarioeng.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/3EM2-5B6Y. 

53 Id. at 8.
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B. Council of Europe 

On December 4, 2018, the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice of the Council of 

Europe (CoE)—an international organization focused on human rights and comprised of fortyseven European countries—adopted the European Ethical Charter on the Use of Artificial 

Intelligence in Judicial Systems and Their Environment (European Ethical Charter). 54 The 

European Ethical Charter sets out five ethical principles and is intended to serve as a guideline 

for policy makers, legislators, and justice professionals when dealing with AI. In addition, the 

document provides a comprehensive overview of the current use of AI in judicial systems in CoE 

Member States, with a focus on processing judicial decisions and data, as well as a review of the 

different uses of AI in European judicial systems in light of the principles set out in the European 

Ethical Charter. The principles that should be observed are as follows:

• Respect for fundamental rights during the design and implementation of AI

• Nondiscrimination

• Quality and security when processing judicial decisions and data

• Transparency, impartiality, and fairness

• “Under user control”55

In addition, the Committee of Experts on Human Rights Dimensions of Automated Data 

Processing and Different Forms of Artificial Intelligence (MSI-AUT) of the CoE has published 

several draft documents on the implications of the use of AI for human rights. The studies and 

recommendations provide guidance for future standard-setting and encourage CoE Member States 

to implement the guidance when dealing with legislative issues in this field and to take all 

necessary measures to ensure that private actors respect human rights when designing and 

developing AI. So far, the MSI-AUT has made the following documents available:

 54 European Ethical Charter on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Judicial Systems and Their Environment 

(Dec. 3/4, 2018), European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ)(2018)14, https://rm.coe.int/ethicalcharter-en-for-publication-4-december-2018/16808f699c, archived at http://perma.cc/76QM-XTDA. 

55 Id. at 2.
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• A Study of the Implications of Advanced Digital Technologies (Including AI Systems) for the 

Concept of Responsibility Within a Human Rights Framework56

• Draft Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Human Rights 

Impacts of Algorithmic Systems57

• Draft Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on the Manipulative Capabilities of 

Algorithmic Processes58

 56 MSI-AUT, A Study of the Implications of Advanced Digital Technologies (Including AI Systems) for the 

Concept of Responsibility Within a Human Rights Framework (Nov. 9, 2018), MSI-AUT(2018)05, 

https://rm.coe.int/draft-study-of-the-implications-of-advanced-digital-technologies-inclu/16808ef255, archived at

http://perma.cc/85HA-SCNG. 

57 MSI-AUT, DRAFT RECOMMENDATION OF THE COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS TO MEMBER STATES ON HUMAN RIGHTS 

IMPACTS OF ALGORITHMIC SYSTEMS, Nov. 12, 2018, MSI-AUT(2018)06, https://rm.coe.int/draft-recommendationon-human-rights-impacts-of-algorithmic-systems/16808ef256, archived at http://perma.cc/F2HQ-2YK2.

58 MSI-AUT, DRAFT DECLARATION OF THE COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS ON THE MANIPULATIVE CAPABILITIES OF 

ALGORITHMIC PROCESSES, Nov. 16, 2018, MSI-AUT(2018)07, https://rm.coe.int/draft-declaration-on-themanipulative-capabilities-of-algorithmic-proc/16808ef257, archived at http://perma.cc/72ND-8C8S. 
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The Americas and the Caribbean

Brazil

During the 2018 discussions of the GGE on LAWS that was established in 2016 during the Fifth 

Review of the UN Conference of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain 

Conventional Weapons, Brazil issued a joint statement along with Austria and Chile, which 

proposed to establish an open-ended GGE to negotiate a legally binding instrument to ensure 

meaningful human control over critical functions in LAWS.

1

I. Data Protection Law 

On August 14, 2018, Brazil enacted Law No. 13,709, the General Data Protection Law (Lei Geral 

de Proteção de Dados), which aims to give more security to consumers of technology.2

 Article 1 

of the Law provides for the processing of personal data, including digital media, by either a natural 

person or a public or private legal entity, for the purpose of protecting a person’s fundamental 

rights of freedom, privacy, and free development of personality.3

The protection of personal data is based on respect for privacy; informational self-determination; 

freedom of expression, information, communication, and opinion; the inviolability of intimacy, 

honor, and image; economic and technological development and innovation; free enterprise, free 

competition, and consumer protection; and human rights, free development of personality, dignity, 

and the exercise of citizenship by natural persons.4

II. Trade Negotiations

The Brazilian arm of the International Chamber of Commerce and the UN Conference on Trade 

and Development signed an agreement to work together to harness the power of cutting-edge 

technologies such as AI and blockchain to enhance and improve trade. 5 With the growing 

 1 Submission by Austria, Brazil, and Chile to the Group of Governmental Experts of the High Contracting Parties to 

the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, Proposal for a Mandate to Negotiate a Legally-binding 

Instrument that Addresses the Legal, Humanitarian and Ethical Concerns Posed by Emerging Technologies in the 

Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), U.N. Doc. CCW/ GGE.2/2018/WP.7 (Aug. 30, 2018),

https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/3BDD5F 681113EECEC12582FE0038B22F/$file/ 

2018_GGE+LAWS_August_Working+paper_Austria_Brazil_Chile.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/N8XUM7YR.

2 Lei No. 13,709, de 14 de Agosto de 2018, http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2015-2018/2018/Lei/ 

L13709.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/JY54-JZQL. 

3 Id. art. 1.

4 Id. art. 2.

5 ICC Brazil and UNCTAD Sign Deal to Harness Technology and International Trade, UNCTAD (Apr. 16, 2018), 

https://unctad.org/en/pages/newsdetails.aspx?OriginalVersionID=1722, archived at https://perma.cc/ ML9B-VBQB. 
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complexity of international trade agreements, the purpose of the use of AI is to reduce such 

complexity and help representatives of less favored nations achieve better results.6 

III. Fraud Detection

The impossibility of inspecting all customs operations and identifying all fraud led the Brazilian 

Federal Revenue Service to establish partnerships with Brazilian universities to start making use 

of AI to detect such practices.7 The idea is to develop a system to help customs officers identify 

suspicious customs operations, and to develop a product and foreign exporter information system 

to help importers in the registration and classification of their products and 

corresponding exporters.8

IV. Corruption Fight

The Ministry of Transparency and Controller General’s Office (Ministério da Transparência e 

Controladoria-Geral da União, CGU) implemented a system to find evidence of deviations in the 

performance of public servants. The software uses machine-learning features, an AI technique that 

feeds data, presents criteria, and checks if the results of the analyses performed by the machine are 

within the expected range. 9 Another system created by the CGU to combat irregularities is 

intended to oversee contracts and suppliers. The tool analyzes the risks, including not only 

corruption, but also other problems such as failures to comply with an agreement.10

V. Criminal Investigation

The Public Prosecutor’s Office of the State of Rio de Janeiro has decided to invest in advanced 

technologies to expedite investigations and prevent crimes from going unpunished. 11 The 

investment is geared towards data science and AI to collect, store, and analyze large volumes of 

 6 Trade Negotiations: Next Frontier for Artificial Intelligence, UNCTAD (June 18, 2018), https://unctad.org/en/ 

pages/newsdetails.aspx?OriginalVersionID=1782, archived at https://perma.cc/2C98-889N. 

7 Luciano A. Digiampietri et al., Uses of Artificial Intelligence in the Brazilian Customs Fraud Detection System, in 

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 9TH ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON DIGITAL GOVERNMENT RESEARCH,

PARTNERSHIPS FOR PUBLIC INNOVATION 181–87, DG.O 2008 (Montreal, Canada, May 18–21, 2008), https://www. 

researchgate.net/publication/220268016_Uses_of_artificial_intelligence_in_the_Brazilian_customs_fraud_detection_syste

m, archived at https://perma.cc/U3V3-4NXR. 

8 Id.

9 Orgãos Públicos Usam Inteligência Artificial para Combater Corrupção, TECNOLOGIA – IG (Aug. 3, 2018), 

https://tecnologia.ig.com.br/2018-08-03/inteligencia-artificial-contra-a-corrupcao.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/V9KQ-K6AF. 

10 Id.

11 MPRJ Aposta em Inteligência Artificial para Agilizar Investigações no Rio, G1 (Oct. 1, 2018), https://g1.globo. 

com/rj/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2018/10/01/mp-aposta-em-inteligencia-artificial-para-agilizar-investigacoes-norj.ghtml, archived at https://perma.cc/MYB5-99TW. 
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information.12 The system allows information from different sources and bodies to be collected 

and also allows a series of real-time data to be collected from suspected criminals.13

Canada

I. Background

Canada’s approach to AI appears to be focused on funding research as opposed to developing 

regulations and governance structures.14 Canada has the “second largest tech sector outside Silicon 

Valley” and is considered a global leader in the field of AI.15 In 2017, estimates indicated that 

funding raised by Canadian AI companies would “exceed US$250 million, representing an almost 

two-fold increase from the previous record historical high of US$143 million in 2015.”16

Deloitte’s AI practice published a recent report that raised the concern that Canada is falling behind 

in respect to demand and actually adopting the technology, stating, “[w]hile Canada’s AI startup 

environment and talent pool is relatively strong, it’s the other component of a leading AI 

economy—the need for robust demand—that is of greatest concern.”17 One report by The Logic

found that Canadian firms have been filing fewer AI patents each year since 2016 despite large 

government investment.18

II. Pan-Canadian AI Strategy

In the 2017 Budget, the Canadian federal government provided CA$125 million (about US$93.3 

million) to launch the Pan-Canadian Artificial Intelligence Strategy.19 This made Canada the first 

country to release a national strategy for AI, although the strategy is primarily focused on research 

 12 Id.

13 Id.

14 Jesse Hirsh, The Policy Deficit Behind Canadian Artificial Intelligence, CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL 

GOVERNANCE INNOVATION (Feb. 13, 2018), https://www.cigionline.org/articles/policy-deficit-behind-canadianartificial-intelligence, archived at https://perma.cc/CD3R-LWPY. See also Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Canada, 

THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA (Feb. 6, 2006), https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/artificialintelligence (last updated Nov. 13, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/5FDM-VNVV. 

15 Carole J. Piovesan et al., Artificial Intelligence: The Year in Review, MCCARTHY TÉTRAULT (Jan. 16, 2018), 

https://www.mccarthy.ca/en/insights/blogs/cyberlex/artificial-intelligence-year-review, archived at

https://perma.cc/4GE6-7LBW. 

16 Id.

17 DELOITTE, CANADA’S AI IMPERATIVE: FROM PREDICTIONS TO PROSPERITY (2018), https://www.canada175.ca/ 

en/reports/ai-imperative, archived at https://perma.cc/D2YS-3ZM7. 

18 Canada Falling Behind in Global Race for Artificial Intelligence Patents, THE LOGIC (Dec. 10, 2018), 

https://thelogic.co/news/exclusive/canada-falling-behind-in-global-race-for-artificial-intelligence-patents/, archived 

at https://perma.cc/A9KW-B5KY. 

19 GOVERNMENT OF CANADA, BUILDING A STRONG MIDDLE CLASS, #BUDGET2017, at 104 (Tabled [presented] in the 

House of Commons by the Honourable William Francis Morneau, P.C., M.P. Minister of Finance, Mar. 22, 2017), 

https://www.budget.gc.ca/2017/docs/plan/budget-2017-en.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/5CEU-B3QB.
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and talent.20 The strategy is being led by the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), 

a nonprofit, private institute of advanced study that is partly government funded, in collaboration 

with “three newly established AI institutes”—the Alberta Machine Intelligence Institute (Amii) in 

Edmonton, Mila in Montreal, and the Vector Institute in Toronto.21 The strategy is intended to 

further build on Canada’s AI research-based ecosystem22 by pursuing four major goals:

• To increase the number of outstanding artificial intelligence researchers and skilled 

graduates in Canada.

• To establish interconnected nodes of scientific excellence in Canada’s three major 

centres for artificial intelligence in Edmonton, Montreal and Toronto.

• To develop global thought leadership on the economic, ethical, policy and legal 

implications of advances in artificial intelligence.

• To support a national research community on artificial intelligence.23

The CIFAR AI and Society Program “examines the policy and ethical implications of AI.”24

III. Regulatory Framework and Proposed Changes

A. Automated Vehicles

In Canada, motor vehicle transportation is a “shared responsibility between federal, provincial and 

territorial governments.” 25 Provinces and territories have jurisdiction over “approving and 

overseeing trials of automated vehicles that take place within their jurisdiction.”26 Two provinces 

have enacted changes to allow testing for automated vehicles. On January 1, 2016, Ontario’s 

Ministry of Transportation launched a pilot to allow the testing of automated vehicles though the 

promulgation of a regulation under Ontario’s Highway Traffic Act.27 The Ontario government 

 20 Ganesh Bell, Why Countries Need to Work Together on AI, WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM (Sept. 16, 2018), 

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/09/learning-from-one-another-a-look-at-national-ai-policy-frameworks/, 

archived at https://perma.cc/D5PN-TJHY.

21 Growing Canada’s Advantage in Artificial Intelligence, DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE CANADA (Mar. 30, 2017), 

https://www.fin.gc.ca/n17/17-026-eng.asp, archived at https://perma.cc/KTB4-HS3U. 

22 Pan-Canadian Artificial Intelligence Strategy, INVEST IN CANADA, https://www.investcanada.ca/why-invest/pancanadian-artificial-intelligence-strategy (last visited Nov. 16, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/X9KM-BQ6X.

23 Pan-Canadian Artificial Intelligence Strategy, CANADIAN INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH (CIFAR), 

https://www.cifar.ca/ai/pan-canadian-artificial-intelligence-strategy, archived at https://perma.cc/E5PF-LDL2. 

24 Tim Dutton, Artificial Intelligence Strategies, MEDIUM (June 28, 2018), https://medium.com/politics-ai/anoverview-of-national-ai-strategies-2a70ec6edfd, archived at https://perma.cc/5Z4W-45UB. See also AI & Society, 

CIFAR, https://www.cifar.ca/ai/ai-society, archived at https://perma.cc/J53B-ZAEN. 

25 TRANSPORT CANADA, TESTING HIGHLY AUTOMATED VEHICLES IN CANADA: GUIDELINES FOR TRIAL 

ORGANIZATIONS (May 16, 2018), https://www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/road/safety-standards-vehicles-tires-child-carseats/testing-highly-automated-vehicles-canada.html, archived at https://perma.cc/DK3X-HG7B. 

26 Id.

27 Pilot Project – Automated Vehicles, O. Reg. 306/15, https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/r15306, archived at

https://perma.cc/TT6F-UPLB. 
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“requires prior approval to test vehicles under the pilot project.”28 One of the requirements of the 

Ontario’s Automated Vehicle Pilot Program is that “[t]he driver must remain in the driver's seat of 

the vehicle at all times and monitor the vehicle’s operation, unless approved for driverless 

testing.”29 On April 18, 2018, assent was granted to Bill No. 165, amending the Québec Highway 

Safety Code to similarly allow a testing pilot for automated vehicles.30 The first pilot project for 

autonomous buses and minibuses was authorized by an order of the Minister of Transport, 

Sustainable Mobility and Transport Electrification.31 The order requires that “A driver must be 

able to immediately take over the driving of the vehicle should the need arise.”32

The federal Senate Committee on Transport and Communications released a report in January 

2018, which found that “Canada is ill-prepared for the fast-approaching future of transportation.”33

The report set out sixteen recommendations, including developing a coordinated national 

strategy. The strategy would “allow the government to prevent potential harms. Strong 

cybersecurity measures will be necessary to maintain public safety and confidence, and rigorous 

oversight is required to ensure personal information gleaned from connected and automated 

vehicles is securely held and not exploited.”34

B. Privacy and Transparency Challenges 

There are a number of laws at the federal and provincial levels in Canada that relate to the 

protection of personal information. The Personal Information Protection and Electronic 

 28 MCCARTHY TÉTRAULT, FROM CHATBOTS TO SELF-DRIVING CARS: THE LEGAL RISKS OF ADOPTING ARTIFICIAL 

INTELLIGENCE IN YOUR BUSINESS 14 (Sept. 2018), https://www.mccarthy.ca/sites/default/files/2018-09/McT_ 

The%20Art_of_Artificial_Intelligence_WHITEPAPER_EN_SEPT2018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/X88NN7G5; Automated Vehicles – Driving Innovation in Ontario, ONTARIO’S MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION, 

http://www.mto.gov.on.ca/english/vehicles/automated-vehicles.shtml, archived at https://perma.cc/UA8P-VNN3. 

29 Automated Vehicles - Driving Innovation in Ontario, ONTARIO’S MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION, 

http://www.mto.gov.on.ca/english/vehicles/automated-vehicles.shtml, archived at https://perma.cc/UA8P-VNN3; 

According to Ontario’s Ministry of Transportation, for driverless testing, “full human oversight of the vehicle’s 

functionality is required while it is operating on a public roadway. The overseer can be a passenger onboard the 

vehicle or someone monitoring the vehicle remotely, and must be capable of intervening during the vehicle’s 

operation to bring it to a safe stop if necessary.” 

30 Bill 165 (2018, chapter 7) An Act to Amend the Highway Safety Code and Other Provisions, http://www2.public 

ationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=1&file=103461.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/2FA2-A34F; Québec to Recognize and Regulate Autonomous Vehicles, GOWLING WLG (Apr. 30, 

2018), https://gowlingwlg.com/en/insights-resources/articles/2018/quebec-to-recognize-regulate-autonomousvehicles/, archived at https://perma.cc/2GW2-EZVE. 

31 Autonomous Bus and Minibus Pilot Project, CQLR c C-24.2, r 37.01, https://www.canlii.org/en/qc/ 

laws/regu/cqlr-c-c-24.2-r-37.01/latest/cqlr-c-c-24.2-r-37.01.html, archived at https://perma.cc/7Q6S-2HML. 

32 Id. § 15.

33 STANDING SENATE COMMITTEE ON TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS, DRIVING CHANGE: TECHNOLOGY AND 

THE FUTURE OF THE AUTOMATED VEHICLE 9 (Jan. 2018), https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/421/TRCM/ 

Reports/COM_RPT_TRCM_AutomatedVehicles_e.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/4347-F95D. 

34 Press Release, Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications, Federal Government Must Pave 

the Way for the Future of Transportation (Jan. 29, 2018), https://sencanada.ca/en/info-page/parl-42-1/trcm-drivingchange/ (click on “News Release”), archived at https://perma.cc/Q4Y9-NHXK. 
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Documents Act (PIPEDA) is a federal privacy law that is applicable to the private sector.35 At a 

February 2017 appearance before the House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to 

Information, Privacy and Ethics, the Privacy Commissioner of Canada stated that 

[c]onsent has always been considered a foundational element of PIPEDA. Legally, 

organizations must obtain consent to collect, use and disclose an individual’s personal 

information, subject to a list of specific exceptions. But obtaining meaningful consent has 

become increasingly challenging in the age of big data, the Internet of Things, artificial 

intelligence and robotics.36

The Standing Committee released a report on February 28, 2018, that included recommendations 

to update PIPEDA.37 The report is said to be “heavily influenced by the direction set in the 

European Union General Data Protection Regulation.”38 It expressed concerns over transparency 

of AI decision-making (“users have little information about how they work, the data they collect 

and how they are used”39), and the risk of algorithms using personal information to “perpetuate 

prejudices or discriminatory practices.”40 One of the key recommendations of the report was that 

“the Government of Canada consider implementing measures to improve 

algorithmic transparency.”41

On May 24, 2018, the Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada published two guidance 

documents, one on obtaining meaningful consent and the other on inappropriate data practices, to 

help organizations ensure they comply with their privacy obligations in the digital age. On 

announcing the publications, the Commissioner stated that, “[d]uring an extensive public 

consultation, we heard very clearly that the increasingly complex digital environment—with 

 35 Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, S.C. 2000, c. 5, as amended, http://lawslois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/P-8.6/FullText.html, archived at https://perma.cc/KY5R-7YEM. 

36 Appearance before the Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics (ETHI) on the Study of 

the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), OFFICE OF THE PRIVACY 

COMMISSIONER OF CANADA (Feb. 16, 2017), https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/advice-toparliament/2017/parl_20170216/, archived at https://perma.cc/6VQX-Y6LW. 

37 STANDING COMMITTEE ON ACCESS TO INFORMATION, PRIVACY AND ETHICS, TOWARDS PRIVACY BY DESIGN:

REVIEW OF THE PERSONAL INFORMATION PROTECTION AND ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS ACT (Feb. 2018), 

http://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/421/ETHI/Reports/RP9690701/ethirp12/ethirp12-e.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/WVL5-5TPT. 

38 Charles S. Morgan et al., Parliamentary Committee Recommends Substantial Revisions to PIPEDA – Part 2 –

Consent, MCCARTHY TÉTRAULT (Mar. 28, 2018), https://www.mccarthy.ca/en/insights/blogs/cyberlex/ 

parliamentary-committee-recommends-substantial-revisions-pipeda-part-2-consent, archived at

https://perma.cc/8SUR-DNR8. 

39 STANDING COMMITTEE ON ACCESS TO INFORMATION, PRIVACY AND ETHICS, supra note 37, at 23.

40 Id.

41 Id. at 25. The report defines “algorithmic transparency” as “when users have complete information about the 

workings of the artificial intelligence programs behind the websites they visit, the data they collect and how they 

are used.”
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technological innovations such as big data, the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence—is 

posing challenges for privacy protection and the consent model.”42

C. Directive on Automated Decision-Making for Federal Institutions

According to the government of Canada, it is “increasingly looking to utilize technology and 

automated systems to make, or assist in making, administrative decisions to improve service 

delivery.” 43 Under the authority of the Financial Administration Act, the Treasury Board of 

Canada issued a Directive on Automated Decision-Making, which took effect on November 26, 

2018.44 According to the Cyberjustice Laboratory of the University of Montreal,

[the Directive] outlines the responsibilities of federal institutions using AI-automated 

decision systems. Supporting a host of policies in the federal public administration, the 

Directive aims at helping to better understand and better ensure an ethical and responsible 

implementation of AI. Compliance with its requirements is expected from all federal 

institutions by no later than April 1, 2020.45

The Directive applies to the use of automated decision systems that “provide external services and 

recommendations about a particular client, or whether an application should be approved or 

denied.”46 The Directive provides for a questionnaire, called an Algorithmic Impact Assessment, 

“designed to help [federal institutions] assess and mitigate the risks associated with deploying an 

automated decision system,” 47 which should be “completed prior to the production of any 

Automated Decision System to be used in federal administration.”48

 42 Press Release, Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada, Privacy Commissioner Issues New Guidance to 

Help Address Consent Challenges in the Digital Age (May 24, 2018), https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-news/newsand-announcements/2018/nr-c_180524/, archived at https://perma.cc/E9WC-F9AD. 

43 How Should I Implement an Automated Decision System? (Draft), GOVERNMENT OF CANADA DIGITAL 

PLAYBOOK, https://canada-ca.github.io/digital-playbook-guide-numerique/views-vues/automated-decisionautomatise/en/automated-decision.html (last visited Dec. 18, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/H6TP-UL9K. 

44 See Treasury Board Directive on Automated Decision-Making (In Development - v.2.5), 

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1LdciG-UYeokx3U7ZzRng3u4T3IHrBXXk9JddjjueQok/edit#, archived at

https://perma.cc/N66K-BNMJ.

45 Canada Treasury Board’s Directive on Automated Decision-Making, CYBERJUSTICE LABORATORY (Nov. 25, 

2018), https://www.cyberjustice.ca/actualites/2018/11/25/canada-treasury-boards-directive-on-automated-decisionmaking/, archived at https://perma.cc/VJL9-TENB. 

46 Id.

47 Algorithmic Impact Assessment (v0.2), GOVERNMENT OF CANADA DIGITAL PLAYBOOK, https://canadaca.github.io/digital-playbook-guide-numerique/views-vues/automated-decision-automatise/en/algorithmic-impactassessment.html (last visited Dec. 18, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/R4MM-B3W6. 

48 Canada Treasury Board’s Directive on Automated Decision-Making, supra note 45.
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IV. International Cooperation 

A. G7 Discussions

A 2018 report by Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada states that, in the 

context of 2018 G7 Presidency, 

[i]n March 2018, Innovation Ministers expressed a shared vision of human-centric artificial 

intelligence for innovation and economic growth, and released a statement that confirms 

the need to safeguard privacy. This vision was also expressed by Leaders in their Common 

Vision Statement on Artificial Intelligence, and the G7 Leaders’ Statement released in 

June 2018.49

On June 7, 2018, the governments of Canada and France released a joint statement on AI calling 

for “the creation of an international study group that can become a global point of reference for 

understanding and sharing research results on artificial intelligence issues and best practices.”50

The statement stated that Canada and France “wish to promote a vision of human-centric artificial 

intelligence grounded in human rights, inclusion, diversity, innovation and economic growth.”51

The two countries established a task force “in order to make recommendations on the scope, 

governance and implementation of the international study group. By the end of the year, the task 

force will submit a report on the implementation of the international study group, whose results 

will be shared within the G7.”52

On October 17, 2018, the Minister of Innovation, Science and Economic Development announced 

that he would host a G7 Multi-stakeholder Conference on Artificial Intelligence on December 6, 

2018.53 During the conference, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau further discussed the International 

Panel on Artificial Intelligence and also announced an “investment of up to nearly [Can]$230 

million for the AI-Powered Supply Chains Supercluster (SCALE.AI) based in Quebec.”54

 49 INNOVATION, SCIENCE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CANADA, THIRD UPDATE REPORT ON DEVELOPMENTS IN 

DATA PROTECTION LAW IN CANADA: REPORT TO THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION (June 2018), https://www.ic.gc.ca/ 

eic/site/113.nsf/eng/h_07662.html, archived at https://perma.cc/LV4K-X2L6. See also Annex B: G7 Innovation 

Ministers’ Statement on Artificial Intelligence, https://g7.gc.ca/en/g7-presidency/themes/ preparing-jobs-future/g7-

ministerial-meeting/chairs-summary/annex-b/, archived at https://perma.cc/C5UU-LB3W. 

50 Canada-France Statement on Artificial Intelligence (July 6, 2018), http://international.gc.ca/world-monde/ 

international_relations-relations_internationales/europe/2018-06-07-france_ai-ia_france.aspx?lang=eng, archived at 

https://perma.cc/VH9F-LPN6. 

51 Id.

52 Id.

53 Canada to Host Landmark G7 Conference on Artificial Intelligence, INNOVATION, SCIENCE AND ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT CANADA (Oct. 17, 2018), https://www.canada.ca/en/innovation-science-economic-develop 

ment/news/2018/10/canada-to-host-landmark-g7-conference-on-artificial-intelligence.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/MF79-ARRF. 

54 Prime Minister Announces Investment in Artificial Intelligence to Create Over 16,000 Jobs for Canadians, PRIME 

MINISTER OF CANADA (Dec. 6, 2018), https://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/2018/12/06/prime-minister-announces-investmentartificial-intelligence-create-over-16000-jobs, archived at https://perma.cc/K9JY-WCM9. 
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B. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

At the 2017 meeting of the GGE on LAWS, Canada stated that it was “committed to maintaining 

appropriate human involvement in use of military capabilities that can exert lethal force.”55 At the 

2018 GGE meeting Canada was “supportive of developing key Transparency and ConfidenceBuilding Measures and looks forward to exploring these and other such ideas here.”56

Jamaica

The Jamaican Government has reportedly been “looking to position Jamaica to take advantage of 

the benefits of artificial intelligence (AI) in boosting economic growth and job creation.” 57

According to Science, Energy and Technology Minister Andrew Wheatley, there have been 

ongoing discussion involving the Ministry, the Jamaica Information Technology and Services 

Alliance, the Jamaica Computer Society, and the Business Process Industry Association of Jamaica 

on how AI can best be utilized to benefit the country. In Minister Wheatley’s opinion, “while AI 

poses a potential threat to traditional call center operations in the business process outsourcing 

(BPO) sector, it presents opportunities in the high-skill areas of programming and development.”58

He therefore called for increasing the number of computer science graduates from Jamaican 

educational institutions, so that Jamaica “can take advantage of the clear opportunities that will 

come from the new demand for highly skilled programmers.”59

No specific regulations related to aspects of AI technology applications were located.

 55 Hayley Evans, Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems at the First and Second U.N. GGE Meetings, LAWFARE

(Apr. 9, 2018), https://www.lawfareblog.com/lethal-autonomous-weapons-systems-first-and-second-un-ggemeetings, archived at https://perma.cc/PR4G-YLBS. 

56 Canada: Opening Statement, CCW States Parties GGE on LAWS Second Meeting, Apr. 9–13, 2018, Geneva, 

Switzerland, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/86612887B010EB33C12582720056 

F0C6/$file/2018_LAWSGeneralExchange_Canada.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/DG5H-ECAP. 

57 Gov’t Set Sights on Artificial Intelligence to Push Growth, JAMAICA OBSERVER (June 24, 2017), http://www.ja 

maicaobserver.com/news/gov-8217-t-set-sights-on-artificial-intelligence-to-push-growth_102830?profile=1373, 

archived at https://perma.cc/B3TH-JMHL.

58 Id.

59 Id.
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Mexico 

I. National AI Strategy and Directorate

In March 2018, the Mexican government announced the adoption of a strategy on AI. 60 The 

strategy provided for the creation of a Directorate on Artificial Intelligence tasked with the 

development of a framework aimed at fostering a multi-sector dialogue on AI.61

The Directorate was created in April 2018, within Mexico’s Commission for the Development of 

Electronic Government, which “seeks to support Federal Public Administration agencies in the 

development, adoption and use of Artificial Intelligence for the design, implementation and 

evaluation of public programs, policies and services.”62

In November 2018, the Mexican government published a document that includes general 

principles for the development and use of systems based on AI in Mexico’s federal government.63

Some of the most salient principles are as follows:

• Monitor and evaluate the impacts of AI systems in order to ensure that they achieve the 

expected results

• Promote transparency, by explaining to the users that interact with AI systems the decision 

process taken by such systems, the expected benefits as well as the potential risks derived from 

using such systems

• Protect privacy, by incorporating mechanisms of control and consent for the use of personal 

data during the design of AI systems 

• Foster equality, by reducing risks of discriminatory biases derived from the utilized data

• Due process, by allowing individuals to dispute decisions made by AI systems64

 60 Enrique Zapata, Estrategia de Inteligencia Artificial MX 2018 [Artificial Intelligence Strategy MX 2018], MÉXICO 

DIGITAL (Mar. 22, 2018), https://www.gob.mx/mexicodigital/articulos/estrategia-de-inteligencia-artificial-mx-2018, 

archived at https://perma.cc/USA6-C4P2. 

61 Id.

62 Press release, Presidencia de la Republica, The Government has Promoted the Digitalization of Services to Offer a 

Simple, Efficient and Inexpensive Service: Eduardo Sánchez Hernández (May 18, 2018), https://www.gob.mx/ 

presidencia/prensa/the-government-has-promoted-the-digitalization-of-services-to-offer-a-simple-efficient-andinexpensive-service-eduardo-sanchez-hernandez?idiom=en, archived at https://perma.cc/NMT8-PRRG. 

63 INNOVA MX, COMPILADO DE COMENTARIOS DE LA CONSULTA PUBLICA REFERENTE A LOS PRINCIPIOS Y GUÍA DE 

ANÁLISIS DE IMPACTO PARA EL DESARROLLO Y USO DE SISTEMAS BASADAS EN INTELIGENCIA ARTIFICIAL EN LA 

ADMINISTRACION PUBLICA FEDERAL [COMPILED COMMENTS FROM THE PUBLIC CONSULTATION REGARDING 

PRINCIPLES AND IMPACT ANALYSIS GUIDE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF SYSTEMS BASED ON ARTIFICIAL 

INTELLIGENCE IN THE FEDERAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION] (Nov. 2018), https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/ 

attachment/file/415644/Consolidado_Comentarios_Consulta_IA__1_.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/SP6WQDGT.

64 Id.
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The presidential administration that adopted this strategy and its guiding principles ended on 

November 30, 2018. No information could be located on whether the new administration (which 

commenced on December 1, 2018) will continue with this strategy and its principles, or initiate a 

similar effort. 

II. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

According to information provided by the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, the 

Mexican government has expressed its opposition to LAWS, as follows: 

On 16 October 2017, the Permanent Mission to the United Nations of Mexico partnered 

with the International Committee for Robot Arms Control, Human Rights Watch, 

Seguridad Humana en Latinoamérica y el Caribe and the Campaign to Stop Killer Robots 

to host a panel discussion entitled “Pathways to Banning Fully Autonomous Weapons” as 

part of the First Committee side event series for the 72nd Session General Assembly. 

Ambassador Juan Sandoval Mendiolea, Deputy Permanent Representative of Mexico to 

the United Nations, introduced the discussion by noting that Mexico has joined other states 

in calling for a ban on lethal autonomous weapons systems, also known as fully 

autonomous weapons. . . . Ambassador Mendiolea stressed the importance of continued 

research and education on these weapons systems and their possible dangers.65

III. Autonomous Vehicles

A recent study on autonomous vehicles (AV) readiness states that, as of 2018, Mexico has a 

number of obstacles to adopting this technology: 

AV adoption in Mexico currently faces a range of barriers, with a lack of specific 

regulations, no active tests and little industrial activity. . . . On policy and legislation, it 

scores low on both AV-specific and general variables, with no apparent regulations on AV 

testing on public roads and very limited testing so far. The country’s current economic and 

political condition creates barriers for taking actions in order to adopt AV in the near future. 

It gets the lowest scores on industry partnerships, research and development AV hubs, 

patents and investments and the research has found no AV technology company 

headquarters . . . . On infrastructure, Mexico’s roads receive a slightly below average rating 

for road quality, but lower scores on other variables. There are no active AV tests, 

contributing to its low rating on consumer acceptance.66

 65 Pathways to Banning Fully Autonomous Weapons, UNITED NATIONS OFFICE FOR DISARMAMENT AFFAIRS (Oct. 

23, 2017), https://www.un.org/disarmament/update/pathways-to-banning-fully-autonomous-weapons/ (emphasis 

added), archived at https://perma.cc/FBQ6-N7LV. 

66 Mexico, in KPMG INTERNATIONAL, AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES READINESS INDEX: ASSESSING COUNTRIES’

OPENNESS AND PREPAREDNESS FOR AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES 35 (Jan. 2018), https://home.kpmg.com/ 

content/dam/kpmg/co/images/2018/01/GM-TL-Carros%20aut%C3%B3nomos.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/Q3RD-SZH4.
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United States

United States lawmakers and regulators have mainly pursued AI in the area of autonomous or selfdriving vehicles. The Department of Transportation is investigating what elements must be 

considered in drafting regulations for the use of such vehicles, including multi-vehicle convoys, 

and several states have adopted legislation and regulations allowing for the testing of 

autonomous vehicles. In addition, recent federal legislation has tasked part of the Department of 

Defense with the responsibility of crafting policies for the development and deployment of AI 

systems as they concern national defense. 

I. Federal Legislation and Regulatory Action

In the 115th Congress, thirty-nine bills have been introduced that have the phrase “artificial 

intelligence” in the text of the bill.67 Four of these bills have been enacted into law. Section 238 

of the John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 directs the 

Department of Defense to undertake several activities regarding AI.68 Subsection (b) requires the 

Secretary of Defense to appoint a coordinator who will oversee and direct the activities of the 

Department “relating to the development and demonstration of artificial intelligence and machine 

learning.” Subsection (g) provides the following definition of AI:

(g) ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE DEFINED—In this section, the term “artificial 

intelligence” includes the following:

(1) Any artificial system that performs tasks under varying and 

unpredictable circumstance without significant human oversight, or that 

can learn from experience and improve performance when exposed to 

data sets.

(2) An artificial system developed in computer software, physical 

hardware, or other context that solves tasks requiring human-like 

perception, cognition, planning, learning, communication, or 

physical action.

(3) An artificial system designed to think or act like a human,

Including cognitive architectures and neural networks.

(4) A set of techniques, including machine learning, that is designed 

to approximate a cognitive task.

(5) An artificial system designed to act rationally, including an 

intelligent software agent or embodied robot that achieves goals using 

perception, planning, reasoning, learning, communicating, decision 

making, and acting.

Subsection (f) instructs the Secretary of Defense to “delineate a definition of the term ‘artificial 

intelligence’ for use within the Department” no later than one year after the law’s enactment. 

 67 Results of bill text only search on Congress.gov using the phrase “artificial intelligence” on November 13, 2018. 

68 John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, Pub. L. 115-232, § 238, 132 Stat. 1658

(2018), https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/hr5515/BILLS-115hr5515enr.pdf. 
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In 2018, Congress also advised the Federal Aviation Administration, in language inserted into the 

FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018, to periodically review, with industry and academic experts, the 

state of AI in aviation and take steps, as needed, to address new developments.69

In 2015, Congress included language in the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (FAST 

ACT) directing the Department of Transportation to fund research on the application of 

autonomous vehicles in developing and improving traffic patterns on highways.70

The United States Department of Transportation has solicited requests for comments for proposed 

studies of automated driving systems. One such request, issued by the Federal Highway 

Administration, asked for comments on “a range of issues related to assessing the infrastructure 

requirements and standards that may be necessary for enabling safe and efficient operations of 

ADS [Automated Driving Systems].”71

Another request for comment, issued by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 

concerned possible barriers created by existing Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards to the 

testing of autonomous vehicles, especially those with nontraditional interior design elements such 

as vehicles that do not have steering wheels.72

II. State Legislation and Regulatory Action

In 2011, Nevada adopted the first legislation concerning the testing of autonomous vehicles.73 The 

specific law defines autonomous vehicle as restricted to the operation of “the motor vehicle 

without active control or monitoring of a human operator.”74 The law also sets forth requirements 

for the testing of such vehicles,75 and directs that regulations be issued governing their operation.76

 69 FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018, Pub. L. 115-254, § 548, 132 Stat. 3186, https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/ 

hr302/BILLS-115hr302enr.pdf.

70 Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act, Pub. L. 114-94, § 6004, 129 Stat. 1312, 1562 (2015), 

https://www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ94/PLAW-114publ94.pdf. 

71 Request for Information, 83 Fed. Reg. 2719 (Jan. 18, 2018), https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2018-01-

18/pdf/2018-00784.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/GC38-GY7H. 

72 Request for Comment, 83 Fed. Reg. 2607 (Jan. 18, 2018), https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2018-01-

18/pdf/2018-00671.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/684F-U6M4. 

73 Bryant Walker Smith, Autonomous Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States, 1 TEX. A&M L. REV. 411, 

501 (2014). 

74 NEV. REV. STAT. § 482A.025 (2010, 2016 Supp.), https://www.leg.state.nv.us/NRS/NRS-482A.html#NR 

S482ASec025 (last visited Nov. 23, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/65GR-QPES. 

75 NEV. REV. STAT. §482A.070 (2010, 2016 Supp.), https://www.leg.state.nv.us/NRS/NRS-482A.html#NRS4 

82ASec070 (last visited Nov. 23, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/32U7-QP86. 

76 NEV. REV. STAT. § 482A.
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In 2012, Florida adopted similar legislation providing for the testing and operation of autonomous 

vehicles.77 California also adopted legislation on the subject in 2012.78 

According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, roughly 60% of states have adopted 

some form of legislation concerning autonomous vehicles.79

In some states, provisions for testing autonomous vehicles have been adopted through executive 

order or administrative regulation. In Arizona, the governor issued executive orders directing state 

agencies to devise regulations for the testing of autonomous vehicles.80 This order was modified 

in 2018 after a pedestrian was fatally injured by an autonomous vehicle.81 In this incident the 

National Transportation Safety Board found that a combination of the disabling of the vehicle’s 

automatic braking system and a failure to warn the on-board human operator of the presence of an 

unknown object led to the crash.82 

Nevada began to issue regulations for the operation of autonomous vehicles in 2012.83 California 

adopted regulations for the testing of autonomous vehicles in 2014. 84 The Division of Motor 

Vehicles adopted regulations for deployment of autonomous vehicles in 2018.85

 77 FLA. STAT. § 316.85 (2019), http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL= 

0300-0399/0316/Sections/0316.85.html (last visited Nov 23, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/2J26-AUD7. This 

section references FLA. STAT. § 316.003(3) (2019) for a definition of “autonomous vehicle.” 

78 CAL. VEH. § 38750 (West 2014), https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?law 

Code=VEH§ionNum=38750 (last visited Nov. 23, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/L77L-EE4E. 

79 Autonomous Vehicle: Self-Driving Vehicles Enacted Legislation, NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE 

LEGISLATURES (Nov. 7, 2018), http://www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/autonomous-vehicles-self-drivingvehicles-enacted-legislation.aspx, archived at https://perma.cc/42XZ-GD6B. 

80 Exec. Order No. 2015-09, Aug. 25, 2015, 22 Ariz. Admin. Reg. 87 (Jan. 15, 2016), https://apps.azsos. 

gov/public_services/register/2016/3/26_governor_EO.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RQ7Z-FDNR. 

81 See Ryan Randazzo, Arizona Governor Doug Ducey Suspends Testing of Uber Self-Driving Cars, AZCENTRAL

(Mar. 26, 2016), https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe-breaking/2018/03/26/doug-ducey-uber-selfdriving-cars-program-suspended-arizona/460915002/, archived at https://perma.cc/25GJ-XDY8. 

82 NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD, PRELIMINARY REPORT: HIGHWAY HWY18MH010 (undated; 

released May 24, 2018), https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/HWY18MH010-prelim.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/K7NL-R9SX.

83 NAC 482A (rev. Dec. 2017), https://www.leg.state.nv.us/NAC/NAC-482A.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/BB42-AFTN.

84 CAL. CODE REGS. tit. 13, art. 3.7, https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Browse/Home/California/California 

CodeofRegulations?guid=I2C7E6D928F844151A40CEAA8D7BC189E&originationContext=documenttoc&transiti

onType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default), archived at https://perma.cc/BYH3-256R. 

85 CAL. CODE REGS. tit. 13, art. 3.8, 

https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Browse/Home/California/CaliforniaCodeofRegulations?guid=IC2F61D9B8C8742

F78925B5494B4C57B1&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default),

archived at https://perma.cc/FT5M-3G32.
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According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, as of April 2017, twenty-eight states 

had introduced some form of regulations for autonomous vehicles.86

III. Other Government Actions Related to AI

A. Government Reports

The following are high-level federal government reports related to AI prepared by the current and 

previous administrations:

• EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT, NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL,

COMMITTEE ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE OF ARTIFICIAL 

INTELLIGENCE (2016), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/whitehouse_ 

files/microsites/ostp/NSTC/preparing_for_the_future_of_ai.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

4RCY-PUS4. This report summarizes the status of AI in American society, economy, and 

government. It looks at specific applications, such as transportation and war fighting, and 

makes nonbinding recommendations.

• WHITE HOUSE OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY, SUMMARY OF THE WHITE HOUSE 

SUMMIT ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRY (2018), 

https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Summary-Report-of-WhiteHouse-AI-Summit.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/Z7N7-24JE. This report reviews the 

Trump administration’s regulatory and policy approach to AI.

B. Position on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

At the 2018 meeting of the GGE on LAWS, established under the Convention on Certain 

Conventional Weapons, the representatives of the United States argued that at this point it is too 

early for LAWS to be banned under the Convention. The delegation also presented its position that 

at this time it is not necessary to create a definition of LAWS, and that such systems should not be 

stigmatized, but instead their use should be viewed within the framework of the current laws 

of war.87

 86 Ben Husch & Anne Teigen, Regulating Autonomous Vehicles, 25(13) LEGIS BRIEF (National Conference of State 

Legislatures, Apr. 2017), http://www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/regulating-autonomous-vehicles.aspx, 

archived at https://perma.cc/HR4Q-KVRC.

87 United States Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, Statement by Shawn Steene to Meeting of the 

Group of Governmental Experts to the CCW on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS) (Aug. 27, 2018), 

https://geneva.usmission.gov/2018/08/27/meeting-of-the-group-of-governmental-experts-of-the-high-contractingparties-to-the-ccw-on-lethal-autonomous-weapons-systems/, archived at https://perma.cc/Y2Y4-XXBV. An 

extensive review of the positions presented by the US and UK delegations can be found in Hayley Evans, Too Early 

for a Ban: The U.S. and U.K. Positions on Autonomous Weapons Systems, LAWFARE (Apr. 13, 2018, 3:00 PM), 

https://www.lawfareblog.com/too-early-ban-us-and-uk-positions-lethal-autonomous-weapons-systems, archived at 

https://perma.cc/BS9H-XGPM. 
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East/South Asia and the Pacific

Australia

I. Use of Artificial Intelligence in Australia

According to a news article published in January 2018, a survey of Australian senior executives 

and IT decision-makers found that “almost nine in 10 business leaders at large Australian 

businesses having deployed artificial intelligence (AI) technologies within their organisations in 

some form,” with “[f]ifty-one percent of Australian organisations . . . deploying AI in the context 

of machine learning, 48 percent . . . looking at automated reasoning, 47 percent at robotics, 44 

percent at knowledge representation, and 39 percent Natural Language Processing.”1

In terms of the public sector, the Australian government signed a deal with IBM in July 2018 for 

the company to “provide a $1 billion five-year technology service to accelerate the uptake of 

blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI) and quantum computing in the public sector.”2 The deal was 

led by the Digital Transformation Agency, which was formally established as a separate agency in 

October 2016 to “guide, oversee and drive the Government’s ambitious digital and ICT agendas.”3

The federal government aims to be one of the top three digital governments in the world by 2025.4

II. Federal Government Investment and AI Framework Development

The 2018–19 Australian federal government budget included an AU$29.9 million (about US$21.7 

million) funding package over four years “to develop the artificial intelligence and machine 

learning capabilities of Australian businesses and workers.”5 The package is comprised of four 

elements:6 development of AI skills through the funding of postgraduate scholarships and the 

 1 Gina Baldassare, Nine in 10 Large Australian Businesses Have Deployed Artificial Intelligence Tech, Survey 

Finds, STARTUP DAILY (Jan. 28, 2018), http://www.startupdaily.net/2018/01/nine-10-large-australian-businessesdeployed-artificial-inteliigence-technology-report-finds/, archived at https://perma.cc/XW87-WRLR. 

2 Tom Burton, Australian Government and IBM Sign $1 Billion Deal for Blockchain, AI Technologies, SMART 

COMPANY (July 9, 2018), https://www.smartcompany.com.au/technology/emerging-technology/australiangovernment-ibm-1-billion-deal-blockchain-ai/, archived at https://perma.cc/US3W-4N6N. See also Press Release, 

Hon Michael Keenan MP, Big Benefits for Government in New IBM Deal (July 5, 2018), https://ministers.pmc.gov. 

au/keenan/2018/big-benefits-government-new-ibm-deal, archived at https://perma.cc/5SJV-NUKY. 

3 Press Release, Hon Angus Taylor MP, New Digital Agency Establishes Agenda (Oct. 28, 2016), https://ministers. 

pmc.gov.au/taylor/2016/new-digital-agency-establishes-agenda, archived at https://perma.cc/5LVL-SES8. 

4 See Speech Transcript, Hon Michael Keenan MP, Delivering Australia’s Digital Future (Address to the Australian 

Information Industry Association, Canberra, June 13, 2018), https://ministers.pmc.gov.au/keenan/2018/deliveringaustralias-digital-future, archived at https://perma.cc/V2HX-YJF9. 

5 Press Release, Michaelia Cash, Budget 2018 – New Opportunities and Jobs for Australian Industry (May 8, 2018), 

https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/cash/media-releases/budget-2018-new-opportunities-and-jobsaustralian-industry, archived at https://perma.cc/Y3HD-A8TP. 

6 See Commonwealth of Australia, Official Committee Hansard, Senate Economics Legislation Committee, 

Estimates Hearing (Narelle Luchetti), at 12–13 (May 31, 2018), https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/ 

committees/estimate/b8d34ed6-7783-4e86-b92b-cf2d2a8c30d2/toc_pdf/Economics%20Legislation%20Committee_ 
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“development of online resources to engage students and support teachers to deliver AI content in 

the Australian curriculum”; 7 development of a Technology Roadmap to “inform government 

investment in artificial intelligence by identifying global opportunities in both artificial 

intelligence and machine learning, and any barriers to adoption in Australia”;8 development of a 

national AI Ethics Framework and Standards Framework to address ethics for adopting such 

technologies in Australia;9 and AU$25 million in funding for a Cooperative Research Centers 

Program project area, which will focus specifically on AI.10

In the area of ethics and human rights implications of AI, the Office of the Australian Information 

Commissioner published the Guide to Data Analytics and the Australian Privacy Principles in 

March 2018.11 In addition, the Australian Human Rights Commission discussed AI in a July 2018 

issues paper on human rights and technology12 that asks “how Australian law should protect 

human rights in the development and use of new technologies.”13 The issues paper was published 

at the commencement of a major three-year project on this topic, which will see a discussion paper 

published in early 2019 and final recommendations delivered in late 2019. A website has been 

established in order to provide information on the project and engage the public through 

consultation processes.14

 

2018_05_31_6156_Official.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf#search=%22committees/estimate/b8d34ed6-7783-

4e86-b92b-cf2d2a8c30d2/0001%22, archived at https://perma.cc/6GR3-WHGL. 

7 Id. at 12. See also Support for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM), DEPARTMENT OF 

EDUCATION AND TRAINING, https://www.education.gov.au/support-science-technology-engineering-andmathematics (last updated Oct. 15, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/Y5ZT-Z36Y. 

8 Senate Economics Legislation Committee, supra note 6, at 13.

9 Id. See also Industry 4.0, DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRY, INNOVATION AND SCIENCE, https://www.industry.gov. 

au/funding-and-incentives/manufacturing/industry-40 (last updated Aug. 14, 2018), archived at

https://perma.cc/SGF5-A8UP. 

10 Senate Economics Legislation Committee, supra note 6, at 13. See also DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRY, INNOVATION 

AND SCIENCE, FACTSHEET: ADDITIONAL FUNDING FOR CRC PROJECTS IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (undated), 

https://www.business.gov.au/-/media/Business/CRC/Cooperative-research-centres-projects-factsheet-artificialintelligence-PDF.pdf?la=en&hash=087AD41AFC84DDA6AA8996C60E38C03F38491A67 (last visited Nov. 8, 

2018), archived at https://perma.cc/P2R5-RF3J. See generally Cooperative Research Centres (CRC) Program, 

BUSINESS.GOV.AU, https://www.business.gov.au/assistance/cooperative-research-centres-programme (last updated 

Oct. 8, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/M2ZA-HJ5T; Cooperative Research Centres Projects (CRC-P) Grants, 

BUSINESS.GOV.AU, https://www.business.gov.au/assistance/cooperative-research-centres-programme/cooperativeresearch-centres-projects-crc-ps (last updated Sept. 13, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/HKA7-HPF3. 

11 Guide to Data Analytics and the Australian Privacy Principles, OFFICE OF THE AUSTRALIAN INFORMATION 

COMMISSIONER (Mar. 2018), https://www.oaic.gov.au/agencies-and-organisations/guides/guide-to-data-analyticsand-the-australian-privacy-principles, archived at https://perma.cc/KJ93-HQMF. 

12 AUSTRALIAN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION, HUMAN RIGHTS AND TECHNOLOGY ISSUES PAPER (July 2018), 

https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/document/publication/AHRC-Human-Rights-Tech-IP.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/4B8R-4CSA. 

13 Protecting Human Rights in the Era of Artificial Intelligence, AUSTRALIAN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION (July 24, 

2018), https://www.humanrights.gov.au/news/stories/protecting-human-rights-era-artificial-intelligence, archived at 

https://perma.cc/SVE7-YZ5L. 

14 Homepage, HUMAN RIGHTS AND TECHNOLOGY, https://tech.humanrights.gov.au/ (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/T7VR-6PS8. 
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III. Government Actions in Particular Areas 

A. Autonomous Vehicles

In May 2017, the National Transport Commission (NTC) published the Guidelines for Trials of 

Automated Vehicles in Australia.

15 It subsequently also developed national enforcement guidelines 

to clarify how the concepts, contained in the Australian Road Rules, of “control” and “proper 

control” should apply to vehicles with automated functions.16

To date, three Australian states have enacted legislation related to enabling trials of autonomous 

vehicles.17 Although each of the laws differ in approach, they include approval processes and 

insurance requirements related to conducting trials, as well as covering safety management plans 

and data collection.18 Other jurisdictions also have projects or initiatives associated with testing 

cooperative and automated vehicles.19

In May 2018, the NTC published a policy paper that recommended national legislative reform to

 15 NATIONAL TRANSPORT COMMISSION (NTC), GUIDELINES FOR TRIALS OF AUTOMATED VEHICLES IN AUSTRALIA

(2017), https://www.ntc.gov.au/Media/Reports/(00F4B0A0-55E9-17E7-BF15-D70F4725A938).pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/2UYY-4HFE. 

16 NTC, NATIONAL ENFORCEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AUTOMATED VEHICLES (Nov. 2017), https://www.ntc.gov.au/ 

Media/Reports/(10EB8512-5852-575D-96E9-CA20497EB1FC).pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/AU3G-CKHB. 

17 Motor Vehicles (Trials of Automotive Technologies) Amendment Act 2016 (SA), https://www.legislation.sa. 

gov.au/LZ/V/A/2016/MOTOR VEHICLES (TRIALS OF NEW AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGIES) AMEND 

MENT ACT 2016_10/2016.10.UN.PDF, archived at https://perma.cc/3BCM-82DN; Transport Legislation 

Amendment (Automated Vehicle Trials and Innovation) Act 2017 (NSW), https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/~/pdf/ 

view/act/2017/41/whole, archived at https://perma.cc/4ZLT-CQM7; Road Safety (Automated Vehicles) Act 2018 

(Vic), http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubStatbook.nsf/51dea49770555ea6 

ca256da4001b90cd/6EADABCAD6531AB7CA2582410010E08A/$FILE/18-008aa%20authorised.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/XD8V-6PBY.

18 See Alex Maschmedt & Rebecca Searle, Driverless Vehicle Trial Legislation – State-by-State, KING & WOOD 

MALLESONS (Feb. 28, 2018), https://www.kwm.com/en/au/knowledge/insights/driverless-vehicle-trial-legislationnsw-vic-sa-20180227, archived at https://perma.cc/G8KH-ALF7. 

19 See The CAVI Project, QUEENSLAND GOVERNMENT, https://www.qld.gov.au/transport/projects/cavi/cavi-project

(last updated Aug. 10, 2017), archived at https://perma.cc/A5GA-NHWL; Press Release, Rita Saffioti & Dave 

Kelly, Perth One of Three Cities in the World to Trial New Driverless Cars (Nov. 29, 2017), https://www.media 

statements.wa.gov.au/Pages/McGowan/2017/11/Perth-one-of-three-cities-in-the-world-to-trial-new-driverlesscars.aspx, archived at https://perma.cc/KF6Z-ZJ2M; CANdrive – Automated Vehicle Trial, ACT GOVERNMENT,

https://www.business.act.gov.au/resources_and_networks/candrive-automated-vehicle-trial (last updated July 30, 

2018), archived at https://perma.cc/LUL2-TAZ5. 
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• provide clarity about the situations when an automated driving system (ADS), rather 

than a human driver, may drive a vehicle[;]

• ensure there is a legal entity that can be held responsible for the ADS when it is 

operating[; and]

• establish any new legal obligations that may be required for users of 

automated vehicles[.]20

The reforms are part of a broader national reform program that “aims to put end-to-end regulation 

in place by 2020 to support the safe commercial deployment and operation of automated vehicles 

at all levels of automation.”21 As part of this work, in 2018 the NTC also published a Regulation 

Impact Statement (RIS) that “details the legislative options to underpin the safety assurance system 

to support the safe, commercial deployment and operation of automated vehicles at all levels of 

automation.”22 It has also released discussion papers on regulating government access to C-ITS 

(Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems) and automated vehicle data, and on motor accident 

injury insurance and automated vehicles.23

B. Autonomous Weapons Systems

A 2015 inquiry by the Senate Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Committee on the potential use 

by the Australian Defence Force of unmanned air, maritime, and land platforms resulted in 

recommendations that included 

that the Australian Defence Force acquire armed unmanned platforms when the capability 

requirement exists and the Australian Government make a policy statement regarding their 

use. This policy statement will:

• affirm that armed unmanned platforms will be used in accordance with 

international law;

• commit that armed unmanned platforms will only be operated by the Australian 

Defence Force personnel; and

• include appropriate transparency measures governing the use of armed 

unmanned platforms.24

 20 NTC, CHANGING DRIVING LAWS TO SUPPORT AUTOMATED VEHICLES: POLICY PAPER 1 (May 2018), 

https://www.ntc.gov.au/Media/Reports/(B77C6E3A-D085-F8B1-520D-E4F3DCDFFF6F).pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/3BU8-B4RC.

21 Id.

22 Automated Vehicles in Australia, NTC, https://www.ntc.gov.au/roads/technology/automated-vehicles-in-australia/

(last updated Nov. 15, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/3Q4M-YGFT. 

23 Id.

24 SENATE FOREIGN AFFAIRS, DEFENCE AND TRADE REFERENCES COMMITTEE, USE OF UNMANNED AIR, MARITIME 

AND LAND PLATFORMS BY THE AUSTRALIAN DEFENCE FORCE xi (June 2015), https://www.aph.gov.au/Parlia 

mentary_Business/ Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/Defence_Unmanned_Platform/ 

~/media/Committees/fadt_ctte/Defence_Unmanned_Platform/report.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/F8AZ-SFPS. 
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The government’s response to this recommendation included a statement that,

[i]f the Government decides to acquire armed unmanned systems, Defence will develop 

policy and doctrine concerning their use. All Australian Defence capabilities, including 

unmanned platforms, will continue to be operated in accordance with Australian domestic 

law and consistent with Australia’s international legal obligations (in particular the 

provisions of the law of armed conflict).25

At the international level, Australia’s statements at meetings of the GGE on LAWS have included 

the following:

As a party to Additional Protocol I, Australia fully supports and adheres to the obligation 

to undertake a review of any new weapon, means or method of warfare to determine 

whether its employment would, in some or all circumstances, be prohibited by International 

Humanitarian Law or other international law by which Australia is bound.

We recognise the potential complexity of reviewing weapons systems that include 

increasingly automated functions and look forward to discussing this further. The 

complexity of weapons reviews is destined to increase as artificial intelligence and machine 

learning evolves. However, Australia remains committed to the existing legal framework 

for reviewing new weapons under Article 36 of Additional Protocol I.26 [November 2017]

We recognise the potential value which autonomy brings to military and civilian 

technologies. Systems with advanced artificial intelligence and enhanced autonomous 

functions are becoming increasingly more prevalent in both contexts. In particular, we 

understand that militaries throughout the world are incorporating ever more automation 

into their systems. This is not new or surprising. We welcome discussions on how such 

technological advances in weapon systems will comply with International Humanitarian 

Law (IHL), increase precision, and support commanders fulfil their obligations to IHL on 

the battlefield.27 [April 2018]

In March 2018, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, in a letter to a group of AI experts who had called 

on the government to take a “firm global stand” against LAWS that remove meaningful human 

control,28 stated that the government “considers it would be premature to support a pre-emptive 

ban on autonomous weapons systems” and that it “will continue to develop its policies on artificial 

 25 Australian Government Response to the Senate Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Use 

of Unmanned Air, Maritime, and Land Platforms by the Australian Defence Force 1 (Mar. 2016), https://www.aph. 

gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=874c22d0-55f8-4bc6-8c41-a4bd23061846, archived at https://perma.cc/CF57-

7JLQ. 

26 Australian Statement – General Exchange of Views, LAWS GGE 13-17 November 2017, Australian Permanent 

Mission and Consulate General, Geneva, https://geneva.mission.gov.au/gene/Statement783.html, archived at 

https://perma.cc/U5XZ-48XR. 

27 Australian Statement – General Exchange of Views, LAWS GGE April 2018), Australian Permanent Mission and 

Consulate General, Geneva, https://geneva.mission.gov.au/gene/Statement798.html, archived at 

https://perma.cc/J7FQ-7YVB. 

28 George Nott, Bishop Delivers Blow to Killer Robot Campaign, COMPUTERWORLD (Mar. 29, 2018),

https://www.computerworld.com.au/article/635515/bishop-delivers-blow-killer-robot-campaign/, archived at

https://perma.cc/T5NT-APAN. 
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intelligence and LAWS within the framework of [its] international obligations, especially 

international law.”29

China

I. National AI Strategies

A. Long-Term AI Development Plan

On July 20, 2017, China’s State Council released the Next Generation Artificial Intelligence 

Development Plan (Development Plan).30 The Development Plan sets forth long-term strategic 

goals for AI development in China, concluding in 2030. It contains “guarantee measures,” such as 

developing a regulatory system and strengthening intellectual property protection, in promoting 

AI development.

The Development Plan is comprised of three stages, concluding in 2020, 2025, and 2030, 

respectively, and sets forth goals concerning building a regulatory framework and ethics 

framework for each stage, as follows:

• By 2020, China’s overall technology and application of AI would catch up with the globally 

advanced levels. AI ethical norms, policies, and laws and regulations would be initially 

established in some areas.

• By 2025, China would achieve major breakthroughs in basic AI theories, and become worldleading in some technologies and applications. AI legal, ethical, and policy systems would be 

initially established, and AI security assessment and control capabilities would be achieved.

• By 2030, China’s AI theories, technologies, and applications would achieve world-leading 

levels, making China the world’s primary AI innovation center. AI legal, ethical, and policy 

systems would be further improved.31

The Development Plan proposes to “form an institutional arrangement to adapt to the development 

of AI, build an open and inclusive international environment, and reinforce the social foundation 

of AI development.”32 The specific guarantee measures in this regard include the following:

 29 Letter, Julie Bishop, Minister for Foreign Affairs, to Toby Walsh, Scientia Professor of Artificial Intelligence, 

School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales (Mar. 1, 2018), https://www.cse. 

unsw.edu.au/~tw/ciair/julie.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/E63N-9DT2. 

30 State Council, Notice of Issuing New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan (Guo Fa [2017] No. 35, 

July 8, 2017), http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2017-07/20/content_5211996.htm (in Chinese), archived at

https://perma.cc/57XZ-JLRW, English translation by Graham Webster et al., Aug. 1, 2017, available at

https://www.newamerica.org/cybersecurity-initiative/digichina/blog/full-translation-chinas-new-generationartificial-intelligence-development-plan-2017/, archived at https://perma.cc/Q2LS-2547. 

31 Id. Part II, item (3). 

32 Id. Part V.
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• Developing regulatory and ethical frameworks: This measure aims to strengthen research on 

legal, ethical, and social issues related to AI, and establish regulatory and ethical frameworks 

to ensure the healthy development of AI. Specifically, China would conduct research on legal 

issues related to AI applications, including confirmation of civil and criminal responsibility, 

protection of privacy and property, and information security utilization.33

• Providing tax incentives for AI enterprises: The aim of this key policy is to support the 

development of AI enterprises by providing tax incentives and research and development 

deductions to high-tech enterprises.34

• Formulating technical standards: This would see the formulation of technical standards 

concerning, for example, network security and privacy protection. Chinese AI enterprises 

would be encouraged to participate in or lead the development of international AI standards.35

• Strengthening the protection of intellectual property (IP): This would promote the IP protection 

of AI innovations and promote usage of new AI technology by establishing AI public 

patent pools.36

• Establishing the AI security supervision and evaluation system: the intent is to build an early 

warning mechanism of AI security monitoring and an open and transparent AI supervision 

system. China would promote self-discipline of the AI industry and enterprises, and increase 

punishments for data abuse, violations of personal privacy, and unethical activities in 

this regard.37

B. Three-Year Action Plan (2018–2020)

To implement the first stage of the Development Plan, in December 2017, China’s Ministry of 

Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) issued the Three-Year Action Plan for Promoting 

Development of a New Generation Artificial Intelligence Industry (Action Plan).38

According to the Action Plan, China would focus on the following seven fields in the three years 

from 2018–2020: 

• Intelligent network vehicles 

• Intelligent service robots 

 33 Id. Part V, item (1).

34 Id. Part V, item (2).

35 Id. Part V, item (3).

36 Id.

37 Id. Part V, item (4).

38 Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Three-Year Action Plan for Promoting Development of a New 

Generation Artificial Intelligence Industry (2018–2020) (Gong Xin Bu Ke [2017] No. 315, Dec. 14, 2017), 

http://www.miit.gov.cn/n1146295/n1652858/n1652930/n3757016/c5960820/content.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/DU5D-DW47; English translation by Paul Triolo et al., Jan. 26, 2018, available at

https://www.newamerica.org/cybersecurity-initiative/digichina/blog/translation-chinese-government-outlines-aiambitions-through-2020/, archived at https://perma.cc/68CA-G3HL. 
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• Intelligent unmanned aerial vehicles

• Medical imaging diagnosis systems

• Video image identification systems

• Intelligent voice interactive systems

• Intelligent translation systems39

The Action Plan also proposes carrying out research on AI-relevant policies, laws, and regulations 

as a method for creating a good environment for the healthy development of the AI industry, 

although it does not elaborate any specific measures.40

II. Autonomous Vehicles

On April 11, 2018, the MIIT, the Ministry of Public Security (MPS), and the Ministry of Transport 

(MOT) jointly issued a set of trial rules that pave the way for road testing of autonomous vehicles 

in China (National Rules).41 The National Rules, which took effect on May 1, 2018, contain 

requirements for test vehicles and test drivers.42 The Rules also specify the testing procedures. For 

example, a test driver must always sit in the driver’s seat of the test vehicle during the test, monitor 

the status of the test vehicle and the driving environment, and get ready to take over the vehicle 

anytime.43 Local authorities at the provincial level will formulate implementation rules applicable 

in their own areas.44

According to the National Rules, a temporary license plate is required for road testing of 

autonomous vehicles.45 As of October 2018, at least eight cities, including Beijing, Shanghai, 

Shenzhen, and Chongqing, had published their local rules and started issuing temporary license 

plates for the road testing of autonomous vehicles in their areas.46

 39 Id. Part II. 

40 Id. Part VI, item (5).

41 Zhineng Wanglian Qiche Daolu Ceshi Guanli Guifan [Administrative Rules on Intelligent and Connected Vehicle 

Road Testing (Trial)] (MIIT, MPS & MOT, Apr. 11, 2018, effective May 1, 2018), http://www.miit.gov.cn/ 

n1146295/n1652858/n1652930/n3757018/c6128243/content.html, archived at https://perma.cc/HQ3R-X79N. 

42 Id. arts. 6 & 7.

43 Id. art. 18.

44 Id. art. 4.

45 Id. art. 13.

46 Chen Xiaotong, Zidong Jiashi Mingnian Kepao Gaosu, Beijing Zidong Jiashi Fazhan Lingpao Quanguo

[Autonomous Vehicles Allowed on Highways from Next Year, Beijing Leading the Country in Autonomous Driving], 

LEIPHONE (Oct. 23, 2018), https://www.leiphone.com/news/201810/PuctiHzojQTpjvoh.html, archived at 

https://perma.cc/23QC-28B2. 
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III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS)

On April 13, 2018, China’s delegation to the UN GGE on LAWS reportedly announced China’s 

desire to negotiate and conclude a new protocol for the Convention on Certain Conventional 

Weapons to ban the use of fully autonomous lethal weapons systems.47

China’s latest position paper for the GGE, dated April 11, 2018, indicates China believes that, at 

present, LAWS still lacks a clear and agreed definition and many countries believe such weapon 

systems do not exist.48 China therefore supports reaching an agreement on the specific definition 

of LAWS. It called on “all countries to exercise precaution, and to refrain, in particular, from any 

indiscriminate use against civilians.”49 The position paper also states that it is necessary, “when 

exploring LAWS-related legal issues, to have full consideration of the applicability of general legal 

norms to LAWS.” 50 Concerning emerging technologies such as AI, China “believes that the 

impact of emerging technologies deserve objective, impartial and full discussion.”51 It states that 

“[u]ntil such discussions have been done, there should not be any pre-set premises or prejudged 

outcome which may impede the development of AI technology.”52

 

IV. Facial Recognition

China is reportedly building a video surveillance system with cutting-edge technologies such as 

facial recognition. According to the 2018 annual report of the United States CongressionalExecutive Commission on China, as of 2017, the system consisted of twenty million cameras with 

many having facial recognition capabilities. In addition to fighting crime, a primary function of 

the system is to maintain social stability, such as preventing protests and demonstrations.53 The 

country aims to complete a nationwide facial recognition and surveillance network by 2020 with 

“100 percent surveillance and facial recognition coverage and total unification of its existing 

databases across the country.”54

 47 Elsa Kania, China’s Strategic Ambiguity and Shifting Approach to Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, 

LAWFARE (Apr. 17, 2018), https://www.lawfareblog.com/chinas-strategic-ambiguity-and-shifting-approach-lethalautonomous-weapons-systems, archived at https://perma.cc/GJF4-UNLU. 

48 Position Paper Submitted by China to the Group of Governmental Experts of the High Contracting Parties to the 

Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to 

Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, CCW/GGE.1/2018/WP.7 (Apr. 11, 2018), 

https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/E42AE83BDB3525D0C125826C0040B262/$file/CCW_G

GE.1_2018_WP.7.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/3L44-U7BT. 

49 Id.

50 Id.

51 Id.

52 Id.

53 CONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVE COMMISSION ON CHINA 2018 ANNUAL REPORT 229 (2018), https://www.cecc.gov/ 

sites/chinacommission.house.gov/files/Annual%20Report%202018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/TR4L-YQAP. 

54 Id. at 11 (quoting China Aims for Near-Total Surveillance, Including in People’s Homes, RADIO FREE ASIA (Apr. 

30, 2018)). 
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During 2018, the MPS was reportedly developing a facial recognition database “with the power to 

identify any one of its 1.3 billion citizens within three seconds,” in conjunction with a security 

company based in Shanghai.55 According to the news report, the database can be connected to 

surveillance camera networks and will use cloud facilities to connect with data storage and 

processing centers distributed across the country.56

In cities such as Shenzhen, in Guangdong Province, the traffic police have introduced facial 

recognition technology and LED screens to shame and deter jaywalkers. Cameras on the streets 

capture images of people illegally crossing the road and the facial recognition software then 

identifies the citizens by comparing their images against a database. Photos of those people 

alongside their family names and part of their ID numbers are displayed on screens.57 In addition, 

in early 2018 it was reported that police officers in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, were using glasses 

with facial-recognition software to help search for wanted criminals.58

India

I. Background

According to a report published by the Brookings Institution, the Indian AI industry “has seen 

growth in this period [2012–2017], with a total of $150 million invested in more than 400 

companies over the past five years. Most of these investments have come in the last two years, 

when investment nearly doubled from $44 million in 2016 to $77 million in 2017.”59

India currently has no laws or government-issued guidelines regulating AI. Instead, the 

government developed a number of national strategies or road maps related to AI in 2018.60

 55 Stephen Chen, China to Build Giant Facial Recognition Database to Identify Any Citizen Within Seconds, SOUTH 

CHINA MORNING POST (Oct. 12, 2017; updated Sept. 24, 2018), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/ 

article/2115094/china-build-giant-facial-recognition-database-identify-any, archived at https://perma.cc/TXQ6-

RZRR.

56 Id.

57 Christina Zhao, Jaywalking in China: Facial Recognition Surveillance Will Soon Fine Citizens via Text Message, 

NEWSWEEK (Mar. 27, 2018), https://www.newsweek.com/jaywalking-china-facial-recognition-surveillance-willsoon-fine-citizens-text-861401, archived at https://perma.cc/S5BU-5KK6. 

58 Kinling Lo, In China, These Facial-Recognition Glasses Are Helping Police to Catch Criminals, SOUTH CHINA 

MORNING POST (Feb. 7, 2018), https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2132395/chinese-police-scansuspects-using-facial-recognition-glasses, archived at https://perma.cc/7C6S-UNXP. 

59 Shamika Ravi & Puneeth Nagaraj, Harnessing the Future of AI in India, BROOKINGS (Oct. 18, 2018), 

https://www.brookings.edu/research/harnessing-the-future-of-ai-in-india/, archived at https://perma.cc/Z6EC-SYZ4. 

60 Amber Sinha et al., AI in India: A Policy Agenda, THE CENTRE FOR INTERNET AND SOCIETY (CIS) (Sept. 5, 2018), 

https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/ai-in-india-a-policy-agenda, archived at https://perma.cc/XC62-

PLNY. 
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II. National Initiatives

A. Report of the Artificial Intelligence Task Force

On August 24, 2017, the Ministry of Industry and Commerce constituted an eighteen-member 

Task Force on AI for India’s Economic Transformation,61 which is made up of experts, academics, 

and researchers/industry leaders, with the participation of governmental bodies/ministries (such as 

the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog), Ministry of Electronics and 

Information Technology, Department of Science and Technology, Unique Identification Authority 

of India, and Defence Research and Development Organization).62 The task force completed its 

report in January 2018.63

The task force’s report looked at the “use of AI along with its major challenges, and possible 

solutions for each sector.”64 It examined ten sectors, referred to as “domains of relevance to India.” 

These sectors were: Manufacturing, FinTech, Agriculture, Healthcare, Technology for the 

Differently-abled, National Security, Environment, Public Utility Services, Retail and Customer 

Relationship, and Education.65 The task force made several recommendations to the government: 

Noting that ‘AI should be seen as a scalable problem solver in India rather than only as a 

booster of economic growth’, the Task Force recommends: (a) the creation of an interministerial National AI mission to coordinate AI-related activities in India; (b) enabling 

the setting up of digital data banks, marketplaces and exchanges to ensure availability of 

cross-industry data and information; (c) participating in the elaboration of operation 

standards for AI-based systems; (d) putting in place enabling policies to encourage and 

facilitate the development and deployment of AI-based products (such as data policies 

regarding ownership, sharing rights and usage, as well as tax incentives to support 

innovation); (e) elaborating an AI education strategy to develop human resources with 

necessary skills; (f) supporting reskilling of the current workforce; (g) participating in the 

international policy discussion on the governance of AI technologies; and (h) leveraging 

 61 Press Release, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Commerce and Industry Minister Sets Up Task Force on 

Artificial Intelligence for Economic Transformation (Aug. 25, 2017), http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx? 

relid=170231, archived at https://perma.cc/M5EA-8X9H; Homepage, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TASK FORCE, 

https://www.aitf.org.in/ (last visited Dec. 11, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/36HQ-6E2L. 

62 NISHITH DESAI ASSOCIATES, THE FUTURE IS HERE: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ROBOTICS 15 (May 2018), 

http://www.nishithdesai.com/fileadmin/user_upload/pdfs/Research_Papers/Artificial_Intelligence_ 

and_Robotics.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/87M5-UVGH. 

63 THE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TASK FORCE, REPORT OF THE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TASK FORCE (Mar. 21, 

2018), http://dipp.nic.in/sites/default/files/Report_of_Task_Force_on_ArtificialIntelligence_20March2018_2.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/7FS9-NYQX. See also Press Release, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Finalisation 

of National Artificial Intelligence Mission (Aug. 25, 2017), http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx? 

relid=181007, archived at https://perma.cc/XN9E-P453.

64 Elonnai Hickok et al., The AI Task Force Report – The First Steps Towards India’s AI Framework, CIS (June 27, 

2018), https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/the-ai-task-force-report-the-first-steps-towards-indias-aiframework, archived at https://perma.cc/4R4D-GG3S. 

65 Id.
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bilateral partnership on the development of AI solutions for social and economic problems 

and for sharing best practices in regulation.66

B. NITI Aayog Discussion Paper on a National AI Strategy 

On February 1, 2018, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley stated that the government think-tank NITI 

Aayog “would lead the national programme on AI” and that “[the government is set to support 

startups and centres of excellence with respect to AI training and research activities.”67

The Committee of Secretaries held a meeting on February, 8, 2018, and tasked NITI Aayog with 

formulating a National Strategy Plan for AI “in consultation with Ministries and Departments 

concerned, academia and private sector.”68 On June 4, 2018, NITI Aayog published a discussion 

paper on a National Strategy on Artificial Intelligence.69 The discussion paper states that “[t]he 

strategy should strive to leverage AI for economic growth, social development and inclusive 

growth.”70 It identified five sectors that could have the most social impact and which should be 

focused on: Healthcare, Agriculture, Education, Smart Cities/Infrastructure, Smart Mobility, and 

Transportation.71 Experts have noted that the proposed strategy stands out due to its “focus on the 

social sector.”72

The discussion paper provides over thirty policy recommendations, including to “invest in 

scientific research, encourage reskilling and training, accelerate the adoption of AI across the value 

chain, and promote ethics, privacy, and security in AI.”73 Tim Dutton, an AI policy researcher, 

provides a summary of some of these policy recommendations:

Its flagship initiative is a two-tiered integrated strategy to boost research in AI. First, new 

Centres of Research Excellence in AI (COREs) will focus on fundamental research. 

Second, the COREs will act as technology feeders for the International Centres for 

Transformational AI (ICTAIs), which will focus on creating AI-based applications in 

domains of societal importance. In the report, NITI Aayong identifies healthcare, 

agriculture, education, smart cities, and smart mobility as the priority sectors that will 

 66 India: Government-appointed Task Force Issues Recommendations on AI, GIP DIGITAL WATCH (Mar. 30, 2018), 

https://dig.watch/updates/india-government-appointed-task-force-issues-recommendations-ai, archived at

https://perma.cc/F2GU-R23E. 

67 Why We Need to Have Regulation and Legislation on AI and Quick, THE INDIAN EXPRESS (July 31, 2018), 

https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/opinion-technology/why-we-need-to-have-regulation-and-legislationon-artificial-intelligence-quick-5151401/, archived at https://perma.cc/4DHU-9WJW. 

68 Press Release, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, supra note 61. 

69 NITI AAYOG, DISCUSSION PAPER: NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (June 2018), 

http://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/NationalStrategy-for-AI-Discussion-Paper.pdf, archived 

at https://perma.cc/N7UE-SBLP. 

70 Id. at 40. 

71 Id.

72 Ravi & Nagaraj, supra note 59. 

73 Tim Dutton, Artificial Intelligence Strategies, MEDIUM (June 28, 2018), https://medium.com/politics-ai/anoverview-of-national-ai-strategies-2a70ec6edfd, archived at https://perma.cc/5Z4W-45UB.
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benefit the most socially from applying AI. The report also recommends setting up a 

consortium of Ethics Councils at each CORE and ICTAI, developing sector specific 

guidelines on privacy, security, and ethics, creating a National AI Marketplace to increase 

market discovery and reduce time and cost of collecting data, and a number of initiatives 

to help the overall workforce acquire skills. Strategically, the government wants to 

establish India as an “AI Garage,” meaning that if a company can deploy an AI in India, it 

will then be applicable to the rest of the developing world.74

C. Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology Committees

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has established four committees to help 

encourage research in AI. They are headed by “directors of Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), 

Nasscom and eminent researchers”75 and include the following:

i. Committee on platforms and data for AI,

ii. Committee on leveraging AI for identifying National Missions in key sectors,

iii. Committee on mapping technological capabilities, key policy enablers, skilling, reskilling and R&D

iv. Committee on cybersecurity, safety, legal and ethical issues.76

The four committees are “presently studying AI in context of citizen centric services; data 

platforms; skilling, reskilling and R&D; and legal, regulatory and cybersecurity perspectives.”77

D. AI and Defense 

In February 2018, the government of India established a multi-stakeholder task force (“comprising 

the Government, Services, Academia, Industry, Professionals and Start-ups”) to study the strategic 

and national security implications of AI for India. The task force submitted its report to the 

Minister of Defense on June 30, 2018. The report is said to include 

recommendations relating to making India a significant power of AI in defence, 

specifically in the area of aviation, naval, land systems, cyber, nuclear and biological 

warfare including both defensive and offensive needs including counter AI needs; 

recommendations for policy and institutional interventions required to regulate and 

encourage robust AI based technologies for defence sector; working with start-

 74 Id.

75 Digital India: IT Ministry Set Up Four Committees to Encourage AI Research, LIVEMINT (Feb. 10, 2018), 

https://www.livemint.com/Politics/h2NthxiA7u5VhiDJqfTjcM/Digital-India-IT-ministry-set-up-four-committees-toencoura.html, archived at https://perma.cc/7VWU-HM6L. 

76 Press Release, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, supra note 61.

77 Vidushi Marda, Artificial Intelligence Policy in India: A Framework for Engaging the Limits of Data-driven 

Decision-making, 376(2133) PHIL. TRANS. A (Royal Society Pub., Nov. 28, 2018), 

http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/ roypta/376/2133/20180087.full.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/VGN4-N9DE. 
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ups/commercial industry and recommendations for appropriate strategies of working with 

start ups.78

Ambassador Amandeep Singh Gill of India was chair of both the 2017 and 2018 meetings of the 

GGE on LAWS. India’s position on LAWS79 is that the Convention on Certain Conventional 

Weapons is the “relevant forum to address the issue of the possible expansion of the autonomous 

dimension of lethal weapons systems,” 80 and it “advised for balancing the lethality of these 

weapons with military necessity—adopting a wait-and-watch approach to how the 

conversation evolves.”81

III. Regulatory Framework and Proposed Changes

A. Privacy Challenges

India currently does not have a comprehensive legal framework for data protection. On July 27, 

2018, the government of India’s Committee of Experts (also known as the Justice B.N. Srikrishna 

Committee) released a Draft Protection of Personal Data Bill82 along with an accompanying report 

titled A Free and Fair Digital Economy Protecting Privacy, Empowering Indians.

83 The Bill, like 

the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation, establishes a set of rights but does not appear to 

include rights to protect against automated decision-making.84 According to an analysis by the 

Centre for Internet and Society, “the Bill creates a framework to address harms arising out of AI, 

but does not empower the individual to decide how their data is processed and remains silent on 

 78 Press Release, Ministry of Defence, Artificial Intelligence (Aug. 1, 2018), http://pib.nic.in/newsite/Print 

Release.aspx?relid=181324, archived at https://perma.cc/R6W8-WBAJ; Press Release, Ministry of Defence, AI 

Task Force Hands Over Final Report to RM (June 30, 2018), http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx? 

relid=180322, archived at https://perma.cc/5GCW-M3Q5. 

79 See R. SHASHANK REDDY, INDIA AND THE CHALLENGE OF AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS 7 (Carnegie Endowment for 

International Peace, June 2016), https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CEIP_CP275_Reddy_final.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/4R3L-ANUX. 

80 Statement by Commodore Nishant Kumar, Director (Military Affairs), Ministry of External Affairs, Government of 

India During the First Session of the Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) on Lethal Autonomous Weapons 

Systems (LAWS) Held in Geneva on April 9, 2018, PERMANENT MISSION OF INDIA TO CONFERENCE ON 

DISARMAMENT, http://meaindia.nic.in/cdgeneva/?6850?003, archived at https://perma.cc/DPS9-QLW4. 

81 Bedavyasa Mohanty, Amidst Calls for a Ban, India Leads the Debate on Lethal Autonomous Weapons, OBSERVER 

RESEARCHER FOUNDATION (ORF) (Nov. 29, 2017), https://www.orfonline.org/research/amidst-calls-ban-indialeads-debate-lethal-autonomous-weapons/, archived at https://perma.cc/ND39-SG79. 

82 Personal Data Protection Bill, 2018, 

http://meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/Personal_Data_Protection_Bill,2018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/GN5KNJNG. 

83 COMMITTEE OF EXPERTS UNDER THE CHAIRMANSHIP OF JUSTICE B.N. SRIKRISHNA, A FREE AND FAIR DIGITAL 

ECONOMY PROTECTING PRIVACY, EMPOWERING INDIANS (2018), http://meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/Data_ 

Protection_Committee_Report.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/URX5-YQF6. 

84 Amber Sinha & Elonnai Hickok, The Srikrishna Committee Data Protection Bill and Artificial Intelligence in 

India, CIS (Sept. 3, 2018), https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/the-srikrishna-committee-data-protectionbill-and-artificial-intelligence-in-india, archived at https://perma.cc/Z88N-7VMS. 
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the issue of ‘black box’ algorithms” and is “focused on placing the responsibility on companies to 

prevent harm.”85

The Committee’s report states that

[t]he second group of rights relate to the right to object to automated decision-making and 

to access the logic behind it. In our view, these rights, again a response by the EU to 

emerging challenges from Big Data and AI, have a legitimate rationale. They are aimed at 

curbing harms due to prejudice and discrimination in output data owing to evaluative 

determinations without human review. The solution provided by this right is to simply 

involve a step of human review, which is not per se immune from prejudice. This is a 

change pertaining to the operational structure of an organisation. Such a change may be 

necessitated, provided it is carefully tailored to specific organisations and the nature of 

their processing activity. This, in our view, is better achieved through an accountability 

framework which requires certain data fiduciaries, which may be making evaluative 

decisions through automated means, to set up processes that weed out discrimination. This 

is a constituent element of privacy by design which should be implemented by entities 

proactively, audited periodically and monitored by the DPA in case there are examples of 

unlawful processing. At the same time, such a model does not entirely denude the 

individual of agency. If discrimination has ensued as a result of per se lawful, yet 

discriminatory automated processing, individuals are always at liberty to go to courts for 

breach of fiduciary duties. Thus, the interests underlying such rights, can be more 

efficaciously achieved by an ex ante accountability model.86

B. Automated Vehicles

The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India lists legislative subjects that are in the exclusive 

or concurrent jurisdiction of the central government or state governments. The regulation of motor 

vehicles in India appears to be under the concurrent jurisdiction of both the central and state 

governments.87 Motor vehicle road safety is regulated by the central level by the Motor Vehicles 

Act88 and the Central Motor Vehicle Rules.89 State governments have their own laws and policies. 

The current Motor Vehicle Act does not appear to allow for automated vehicles (AVs) or AV 

testing. However, amending legislation, which was passed in the Lok Sabha (lower house of 

Parliament) on April 10, 2017, but is still pending before the upper house chamber, the Rajya 

Sabha, includes an exemption that may allow testing of AVs: 

 85 Id. 

86 COMMITTEE OF EXPERTS UNDER THE CHAIRMANSHIP OF JUSTICE B.N. SRIKRISHNA, supra note at 83, at 74-5.

87 Legislative subject no. 35, “Mechanically propelled vehicles,” is on the concurrent list of the Constitution of 

India. (INDIA CONST. Seventh Sched., List III—Concurrent List, Item 35, https://www.india.gov.in/sites/ 

upload_files/npi/files/coi-eng-schedules_1-12.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/7LKA-PXMU.)

88 Motor Vehicles Act, No. 59 of 1988, http://www.tn.gov.in/sta/Mvact1988.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/ZZY9-EZJQ

89 Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, http://www.tn.gov.in/sta/Cmvr1989.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/X9T3-

LP8F.
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Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act and subject to such conditions as may be 

prescribed by the Central Government, in order to promote innovation and research and 

development in the fields of vehicular engineering, mechanically propelled vehicles and 

transportation in general, the Central Government may exempt certain types of 

mechanically propelled vehicles from the application of the provisions of this Act.90

At the end of July 2018, the Minister of Road Transport and Highways was reported to have said 

that “[w]e won’t allow driverless cars in India. I am very clear on this. We won’t allow any 

technology that takes away jobs. In a country where you have unemployment, you can’t have a 

technology that ends up taking people’s jobs.”91

IV. AI and Facial Recognition 

State police forces across India are working with private companies to deploy AI-assisted facial or 

image recognition algorithms and predictive policing tools to detect and prevent crimes.92

 90 Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Bill, 2017, Bill No. 214-C of 2016, § 3 (inserting new § 2B), http://164.100. 

47.4/BillsTexts/LSBillTexts/PassedLoksabha/214C_2016_LS_Eng.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/DTX8-B8NN.

91 Moushumi Das Gupta, Won’t Allow Driverless Cars that Take Away Jobs: Nitin Gadkari, HINDUSTAN TIMES

(July 25, 2017), https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/won-t-allow-driverless-cars-that-take-away-jobs-saysunion-minister-nitin-gadkari/story-JCDjBMoDQ4yzXrWv3ltxsK.html, archived at https://perma.cc/F3NC-D3L3. 

92 ARINDRAJIT BASU & ELONNAI HICKOK, CIS, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE GOVERNANCE SECTOR IN INDIA 3-7 

(Working Draft), https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/ai-and-governance-case-study-pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 

2018), archived at https://perma.cc/RZ35-PFCJ; Abhishek Baxi, Law Enforcement Agencies in India Are Using 

Artificial Intelligence to Nab Criminals – Here’s How, FORBES (Sept. 28, 2018), https://www.forbes.com/sites/ 

baxiabhishek/2018/09/28/law-enforcement-agencies-in-india-are-using-artificial-intelligence-to-nab-criminalsheres-how/#fce76d241d31, archived at https://perma.cc/93LW-TDEG; John R. Quain, Crime-predicting A.I. Isn’t 

Science Fiction. It’s About to Roll Out in India, DIGITAL TRENDS (Apr. 11, 2018), https://www.digitaltrends.com/ 

cool-tech/could-ai-based-surveillance-predict-crime-before-it-happens/, archived at https://perma.cc/R76Z-AHPU; 

Smita Sinha, How Staqu’s AI-Powered Smart Glasses Can Help Cops Identify Criminals in a Crowd, ANALYTICS 

INDIA MAGAZINE (May 31, 2018), https://www.analyticsindiamag.com/how-staqus-ai-powered-smart-glasses-canhelp-cops-identify-criminals-in-a-crowd/, archived at https://perma.cc/B27C-XZHC.
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Indonesia

Indonesian entities are reportedly leaders in the adoption of AI in the ASEAN region, with a recent 

survey showing that nearly 25% of organizations have done so.93 In October 2018, Indonesia’s 

first AI research center was launched.94 The government itself is using AI, such as in its approach 

to combatting hoaxes and false information online.95

The government reportedly produced a digital strategy in 2017, with a focus on supporting small 

and medium enterprises to be “digitally empowered.”96

In August 2018, the President of Indonesia stated that the country’s automotive sector needed to 

take note of developments in the global automotive industry, including the challenges arising from 

the disruption of technology such as autonomous vehicles and online transportation applications. 

With reference to autonomous vehicles, he stated that “we might have to redefine a car.”97 There 

are currently no specific laws or regulations related to autonomous vehicles in Indonesia.98

Japan 

The Strategic Council for AI Technology was established in April 2016 at the behest of Japanese 

Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, to develop research and development goals and a roadmap for the 

industrialization of AI. Comprised of representatives from academia, industry, and government,99

 93 Ai Lei Tao, Indonesia Leads ASEAN Region in AI Adoption, COMPUTER WEEKLY (July 12, 2018),

https://www.computerweekly.com/news/252444634/Indonesia-leads-ASEAN-region-in-AI-adoption, archived at 

https://perma.cc/D2WA-NAQU; Kesavan Loganthan, Indonesia Welcomes AI as It Embraces Digital Disruption,

TECHINASIA (Oct. 19, 2018), https://www.techinasia.com/indonesia-ai-digital-disruption, archived at 

https://perma.cc/5G35-8K8V. 

94 Joint Effort Drives Indonesia’s First AI Research Center, TEMPO.CO (Oct. 27, 2018), https://en.tempo.co/ 

read/news/2018/10/27/310922922/Joint-Effort-Drives-Indonesias-First-AI-Research-Center, archived at

https://perma.cc/Z24L-EB3S. 

95 Government Deploys Artificial Intelligence to Combat Internet Hoaxes, JAKARTA POST (Jan. 31, 2018),

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/01/31/govt-deploys-artificial-intelligence-to-combat-internethoaxes.html, archived at https://perma.cc/4H8A-62R5. 

96 Lis Sutjiati, Indonesia’s Digital Economy Will Thrive as Small Business Come Online, Says Gov’t, TECHINASIA

(Nov. 3, 2017), https://www.techinasia.com/indonesias-digital-economy-thrive-small-businesses-online-govt-plan, 

archived at https://perma.cc/4XHC-XTD2; Transformation Towards Indonesia’s Digital-Savvy MSMEs, 

ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS, https://asean.org/transformation-towards-indonesias-digital-savvymsmes/ (last visited Nov. 19, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/3HHS-NHCW. 

97 We Must Follow the Development of Global Automotive Industry, SEKRETARIAT KABINET REPUBLIC INDONESIA

(Aug. 2, 2018), http://setkab.go.id/en/we-must-follow-the-development-of-global-automotive-industry/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/9V8P-787A. 

98 See BAKER MCKENZIE, GLOBAL DRIVERLESS VEHICLE SURVEY 2018, at 107–11 (Mar. 2018), https://www.baker 

mckenzie.com/-/media/files/insight/publications/2018/03/global-driverless-vehicle-survey-2018/mm_global_ 

driverlessvehiclesurvey2018_mar2018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/SZA5-XU89. 

99 人工知能技術戦略会議 [Strategic Council for AI Technology], CABINET OFFICE, http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/ 

tyousakai/jinkochino/ (last visited Oct. 23, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/3K6H-KG8Z. 
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the Strategic Council released its Artificial Intelligence Technology Strategy in March 2017.100 

According to the Strategy, the Council acts as a control tower and manages five national research 

and development institutions that are under the jurisdictions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and 

Communications (MIC); the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology 

(MEXT); and the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) in order to promote research 

and development of AI technology. In addition to the three ministries, the Council coordinates 

with ministries that possess big data and have jurisdiction over industries that utilize AI, such as 

the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program of the Cabinet Office; the Ministry 

of Health, Labour and Welfare; the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; and 

the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, to promote the utilization and application of 

AI technology. 101 The Council has also formulated industrialization roadmaps for the three 

prioritized areas of “productivity,” “health, medical care, and welfare,” and “mobility.”102 The 

Strategy also states that national institutions would develop infrastructure technology, foster 

skilled human resources, maintain public data, and support start-ups. 103 In August 2018, the 

Council issued an implementation plan for the strategy.104

According to a news article, the government is drafting a comprehensive rule on medical devices 

that utilize AI. The rule would prescribe that the ultimate responsibility for diagnosis remains with 

medical doctors and set safety standards for approval by the government.105

As a reference for private businesses, METI has formulated Contract Guidance on Utilization of 

AI and Data to summarize the issues and factors to be considered when businesses draft a contract 

on the development and utilization of AI-based software.106 The Guidance suggests a new contract 

model that recognizes the importance of AI-related developers’ expertise and compensates them 

for it.107

 100 STRATEGIC COUNCIL FOR AI TECHNOLOGY, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY (Mar. 31, 2017), 

http://www.nedo.go.jp/content/100865202.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/Z59H-ZR3M. 

101 Id. at 3.

102 Id. at 4.

103 Id. at 8.

104 STRATEGIC COUNCIL FOR AI TECHNOLOGY, IMPLEMENTATION PLAN OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TECHNOLOGY 

STRATEGY (Aug. 17, 2018), http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/tyousakai/jinkochino/keikaku.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/M8CZ-R29M. 

105 政府、AI 医療に包括ルール 「医師に最終責任」規定へ [Government, Comprehensive Rule for AI 

Healthcare, Prescribe “Medical Doctor Ultimately Responsible”], NIKKEI (June 26, 2018), https://www.nikkei. 

com/article/DGXMZO32207330V20C18A6MM8000/ (registration required).

106 Press Release, METI, METI Formulates “Contract Guidance on Utilization of AI and Data” (June 15, 2018), 

http://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2018/0615_002.html, archived at https://perma.cc/JM9U-ENS9. The AI 

guidance is available at http://www.meti.go.jp/press/2018/06/20180615001/20180615001-3.pdf (in Japanese), 

archived at https://perma.cc/HZ9J-7QQA. 

107 See Japan to Set Ground Rules for Sharing AI’s Riches, NIKKEI ASIAN REVIEW (Dec. 27, 2017), 

https://asia.nikkei. com/Politics/Japan-to-set-ground-rules-for-sharing-AI-s-riches2, archived at

https://perma.cc/A4L7-W2DL. 
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Regarding the regulation of self-driving cars, the government has discussed changes to various 

laws to prepare for their utilization by 2020.108 Testing of self-driving cars has been allowed in 

certain conditions.109 In June 2017, the National Police Agency issued circular that allowed testing 

of remote control autonomous driving system upon permission.110 The MLIT issued a report on 

an existing law concerning civil responsibility for traffic accidents involving self-driving cars in 

March 2018.111

Malaysia

In October 2017, the Malaysian government announced plans to develop a National AI Framework 

as an expansion of the existing National Big Data Analytics Framework.112 The development of 

the framework will be led by the Malaysia Digital Economy Corporation. The government also 

stated that it would establish the Digital Transformation Acceleration Programme (D-TAP) and 

introduce a “Cloud First” strategy, in addition to its existing Malaysia Tech Entrepreneur 

Programme (M-TEP).113

In March 2018, the “Deputy Minister of International Trade and Industry (MITI) officiated the 

Towards Autonomous Technologies Conference 2018, a collaborative efforts [sic] between MIDA 

(Malaysian Investment Development Authority), CREST (Collaborative Research in Engineering, 

Science and Technology) and DRB-HICOM University held at the MIDA headquarters.”114 The 

Deputy Minister stated Malaysia has “notable local companies and universities that have initiated 

 108 STRATEGIC HEADQUARTERS FOR THE PROMOTION OF AN ADVANCED INFORMATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS 

NETWORK SOCIETY, 自動運転に係る制度整備大綱 [OUTLINE OF PREPARATION OF SYSTEM CONCERNING 

AUTOMATIC OPERATION] 12 (Apr. 17, 2018), https://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/it2/kettei/pdf/20180413/auto_ 

drive.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/JG2T-3SP3. 

109 National Police Agency, 自動走行システムに関する公道実証実験のためのガイドライン [Guidelines for 

Testing for Automated Driving System on Public Roads] (May 2016), 

https://www.npa.go.jp/koutsuu/kikaku/gaideline.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RLP5-BJBA. 

110 National Police Agency, 遠 隔 型 自 動 運 転 シ ス テ ム の 公 道 実 証 実 験 に 係 る 道 路 使 用 許 可 の

申 請 に 対 す る 取 扱 い の 基 準 [Standards of Handling Application for Permission of Road Usage for Testing 

of Remote Control Autonomous Driving System on Public Roads] (June 2017), http://www.autonomouscar.pref.aichi.jp/application/files/6615/2179/2604/74390936afeef469e578a07d14ec99b5.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/T7E5-UMK5. 

111 MLIT, 自動運転における損害賠償責任に関する研究会 に関する研究会報告書 [STUDY GROUP 

CONCERNING COMPENSATION FOR DAMAGES CAUSED BY SELF-DRIVING CARS REPORT (Mar. 2018), http://www. 

mlit.go.jp/common/001226365.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/9TF6-ZR5W. 

112 Priyankar Bhunia, Plans for Cloud-First Strategy and National AI Framework Revealed at 29th MSC Malaysia 

Implementation Council Meeting, OPENGOV ASIA (Oct. 28, 2017), https://www.opengovasia.com/plans-for-cloudfirst-strategy-and-national-ai-framework-revealed-at-29th-msc-malaysia-implementation-council-meeting/, archived 

at https://perma.cc/4T3J-MLJ7. 

113 Azura Abas, Najib Unveils Malaysia’s Digital ‘To-Do-List’ to Propel Digital Initiatives, NEW STRAITS TIMES

(Oct. 19, 2017), https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2017/10/292784/najib-unveils-malaysias-digital-do-listpropel-digital-initiatives, archived at https://perma.cc/VV7Q-HGHP. 

114 Press Release, Malaysian Investment Development Authority, Embracing Future Innovations: Companies Need 

to Align with the Dynamic Ecosystem of the Automotive Industry (Mar. 21, 2018), http://www.mida.gov.my/home/ 

5977/news/embracing-future-innovations-/, archived at https://perma.cc/U92R-2D6N. 
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several development projects related to autonomous vehicles and its related technologies.”115

There are currently no specific laws or regulations related to autonomous vehicles in Malaysia.116

In November 2018, it was reported that the Malaysian government “will seek Japan’s assistance 

on investment in the artificial intelligence (AI) industry in the quest to take its technologies to a 

more advanced level.”117

New Zealand

I. Use of Artificial Intelligence in New Zealand

A number of businesses and other organizations in New Zealand are currently using and 

developing AI in different sectors, including agriculture,118 legal services, and retail, according to 

one website that examines the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the country.

119

Within government, the Ministry of Primary Industries has worked with Customs New Zealand; 

the Inland Revenue Department; and the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, as 

well as a private IT company, “to find out whether AI has the potential to make it easier for 

businesses to interact with government in a multi-agency context.”120 The AI Proof of Concept 

was partly inspired by the “opportunities presented by the Better Rules Initiative,” which

showcased “Human and Machine-consumable Rules” as a key component for the digital 

transformation of government. Better Rules worked across several government agencies to 

explore the ideas and practice of turning legislation into machine-consumable ‘digital 

 115 Id.

116 See BAKER MCKENZIE, GLOBAL DRIVERLESS VEHICLE SURVEY 2018, at 127–33 (Mar. 2018), https://www.baker 

mckenzie.com/-/media/files/insight/publications/2018/03/global-driverless-vehicle-survey-2018/mm_global_ 

driverlessvehiclesurvey2018_mar2018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/SZA5-XU89.

117 Malaysia Hopes to Tap Japan’s Expertise in AI Investment, MALAY MAIL (Nov. 7, 2018), https://www.malay 

mail.com/s/1690988/malaysia-hopes-to-tap-japans-expertise-in-ai-investment, archived at https://perma.cc/XA5GX6TD.

118 For further information on developments in the agricultural sector, see, e.g., Five Tech Trends Shaping 

Agriculture, FONTERRA (Aug. 6, 2018), https://www.fonterra.com/nz/en/our-stories/articles/five-tech-trendsshaping-agriculture.html, archived at https://perma.cc/FR2B-97NP; Peter Wren-Hilton, Global Thinking Sets up 

New Zealand Agtech Startups for Outsized Impact, AGFUNDER NEWS (Feb. 15, 2018), https://agfundernews.com/ 

global-thinking-new-zealand-agtech.html/, archived at https://perma.cc/RR8L-PG9F; Showcasing NZ Agtech –

Bringing Automation and Robotics to the Farm, SILICON VALLEY ROBOTICS (Apr. 23, 2016), https://svrobo.org/ 

showcasing-nz-agtech-bringing-automation-and-robotics-to-the-farm/, archived at https://perma.cc/N7LJ-YGUY. 

119 Organisations Using Artificial Intelligence in New Zealand, THOUGHT EXPERIMENT, https://thoughtexperiment. 

co.nz/thought-experiment-home-page/organisations-using-artificial-intelligence-in-new-zealand/ (last visited Nov. 

14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/485J-3GP7. 

120 Trialling Artificial Intelligence as a Way to Navigate Government Information, MINISTRY OF BUSINESS,

INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT (MBIE) (Oct. 19, 2018), https://www.mbie.govt.nz/about/whats-happening/ 

news/2018/trialling-artificial-intelligence-as-a-way-to-navigate-government-information, archived at

https://perma.cc/JPY4-QGFD. 
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rules’. This process found opportunities for government in machine consumable legislation 

to capture benefits from new technologies – such as artificial intelligence.121

The use of AI to assist digital navigation across government websites was demonstrated among 

other initiatives at a digital showcase in November 2018.122

II. Government Initiatives Related to AI

In 2013, the New Zealand government established Callaghan Innovation, a government entity that 

supports businesses through the provision of innovation and research and development services, 

and that seeks to “enhance the operation of New Zealand’s innovation ecosystem.”123 In March 

2018, it published a white paper on AI,124 which “predicts how AI will affect [New Zealand’s] 

agriculture, digital, energy and health sectors within the next few years. It details how different AI 

technologies will disrupt each sector in waves and showcases local examples of AIpowered businesses.”125

Subsequently, in May 2018, a report commissioned by the AI Forum New Zealand was launched 

by the New Zealand government.126 The report provides the “first current-state snapshot of New 

Zealand’s AI landscape, touching on the emerging uses of AI.”127 Established in 2017, the AI 

Forum is a nonprofit, nongovernmental organization funded by its members that “brings together 

New Zealand’s community of artificial intelligence technology innovators, end users, investor 

groups, regulators, researchers, educators, entrepreneurs and interested public to work together to 

find ways to use AI to help enable a prosperous, inclusive and thriving future for our nation.”128

Upon launching the report, the government stated that it would develop an action plan and ethical 

framework regarding AI. As a first step, it would formalize the government’s relationship with the 

interdisciplinary Centre for Law and Policy in Emerging Technologies, which is a collaboration 

 121 Id.

122 Seamless Services to Business and Citizens Thanks to Government Working Collaboratively, MBIE (Nov. 13, 

2018), https://www.mbie.govt.nz/about/whats-happening/news/2018/seamless-services-to-business-and-citizensthanks-to-government-working-collaboratively, archived at https://perma.cc/EW2C-43JA. 

123 About Us, CALLAGHAN INNOVATION, https://www.callaghaninnovation.govt.nz/about-us (last updated Sept. 5, 

2018), archived at https://perma.cc/C6Q7-SW6J. 

124 CALLAGHAN INNOVATION, THINKING AHEAD: INNOVATION THROUGH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (Mar. 2018), 

https://www.callaghaninnovation.govt.nz/sites/all/files/ai-whitepaper.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/4ENKCHDR. 

125 Waves of AI Disruption for Key New Zealand Business Sectors, CALLAGHAN INNOVATION (Mar. 26, 2018),

https://www.callaghaninnovation.govt.nz/news-and-events/ai-whitepaper, archived at https://perma.cc/U36J-QLLR. 

126 AI FORUM NEW ZEALAND, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: SHAPING A FUTURE NEW ZEALAND (May 2018), 

https://aiforum.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AI-Report-2018_web-version.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/B9PG-LVGA. 

127 Press Release, Clare Curran, Government Will Move Quickly on AI Action Plan (May 2, 2018), https://www.bee 

hive.govt.nz/release/government-will-move-quickly-ai-action-plan, archived at https://perma.cc/T89U-U3ZE. 

128 About, AI FORUM NEW ZEALAND, https://aiforum.org.nz/about/ (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/7G8G-BEDK. 
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between Otago University and the New Zealand Law Foundation.129 In early 2017, the Centre 

commenced a three-year project “to evaluate legal and policy implications of artificial intelligence 

(AI) for New Zealand.”130 This project will investigate two key topics: predictive AI technologies 

in the criminal justice system and AI and employment.131

In the area of data analysis and technology, the government announced in May 2018 that it would 

undertake a project to “assess how government agencies use algorithms to analyse people’s data, 

to ensure transparency and fairness in decisions that affect citizens.”132 It further stated that New 

Zealand “is leading the work with the UK, Israel, Estonia, South Korea, Canada and Uruguay 

working together to consider how digital technology impacts fundamental human rights and to 

share best practice about ways to tackle challenges.”133

The government has also appointed and funded a Data Futures Partnership, which aims to “[c]reate 

a competitive advantage by positioning New Zealand as a high-value, strongly inclusive, hightrust, and high-control data-sharing ecosystem.”134 The group has published a draft document, A 

Path to Social Licence: Guidelines for Trusted Data Use,

135 as part of its “wider work programme 

to maximise the benefits of data for the public, companies, government agencies, and nongovernmental organisations.”136

Other initiatives include the Principles for Safe and Effective Use of Data and Analytics, published 

in 2018 by the Privacy Commissioner and Government Chief Data Steward (who is the chief 

executive of Stats NZ), which are “intended to help agencies, and guide our thinking to data 

analytics activities, including algorithmic decision-making.”137 Individual government agencies 

 129 New Zealand Law Foundation Centre for Law and Emerging Technologies, UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO,

https://www.otago.ac.nz/law/research/emergingtechnologies/ (last visited Nov. 15, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/6FSH-3GEX. See also John Gibb, Chance to Lead Ethical Use of AI, OTAGO DAILY TIMES (May 8, 

2018), https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/campus/university-of-otago/chance-lead-ethical-use-ai, archived at

https://perma.cc/YZB8-ZTFC. 

130 Artificial Intelligence and Law in New Zealand, UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO, http://www.cs.otago.ac.nz/research/ 

ai/AI-Law/ (last visited Nov. 15, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/FCF3-XFQF. 

131 Id. See also Major New Otago Study to Tackle Artificial Intelligence Law and Policy, UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO

(Jan. 19, 2017), https://www.otago.ac.nz/news/news/otago633498.html, archived at https://perma.cc/3UMM-9H88. 

132 Press Release, Clare Curran & James Shaw, Government to Undertake Urgent Algorithm Stocktake (May 23, 

2018), https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/government-undertake-urgent-algorithm-stocktake, archived at 

https://perma.cc/N4WZ-NHCC. See also Claire Lord, Algorithm Review Underway to Increase Transparency and 

Accountability, Data.GOVT.NZ (July 18, 2018), https://www.data.govt.nz/blog/algorithm-review-underway-toincrease-transparency-and-accountability/. 

133 Press Release, Government to Undertake Urgent Algorithm Stocktake, supra note 132.

134 Research, TRUSTED DATA, https://trusteddata.co.nz/research/ (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/2JCS-C5Q6. 

135 DATA FUTURES PARTNERSHIP, A PATH TO SOCIAL LICENCE: GUIDELINES FOR TRUSTED DATA USE (Aug. 2017), 

https://trusteddata.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Background-Trusted-Data.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/V5B6-PDWF. 

136 Research, TRUSTED DATA, supra note 134.

137 Principles for the Safe and Effective Use of Data and Analytics, OFFICE OF THE PRIVACY COMMISSIONER (May 

16, 2018), https://www.privacy.org.nz/news-and-publications/guidance-resources/principles-for-the-safe-and-
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have also developed, or are in the process of developing, resources and policies related to privacy, 

human rights, and ethical impacts of using personal information and digital data tools, including 

the Ministry of Social Development138 and the Social Investment Agency.139

III. Government Statements on Particular Technologies 

A. Autonomous Vehicles

The government has not received any formal requests to test autonomous vehicles on public roads; 

however it states that

[t]here are no obvious legal barriers to the deployment of autonomous vehicles for testing 

in New Zealand. Unlike some countries, NZ law has no explicit requirement for a driver to 

be present. However, autonomous vehicles could raise issues about who is at fault if they 

were to crash.140

The government’s Intelligent Transport Systems Technology Action Plan 2014–18 includes the 

following action:

The Ministry of Transport, in conjunction with the NZ Transport Agency, will review 

transport legislation to clarify the legality of testing driverless cars in New Zealand. This 

will specifically consider the issues of liability associated with testing, but will not consider 

liability for general use.141

It further states as follows:

Internationally there is a great deal of thought being given to what laws will be necessary 

for the general operation of driverless vehicles. Their widespread operation will pose 

complex legal challenges, especially to determine liability in the event of any accident. It 

is not proposed that the New Zealand government will explicitly look at these legal issues 

at this time. Rather, the government will continue to monitor international developments 

 

effective-use-of-data-and-analytics-guidance/, archived at https://perma.cc/A3FU-CMKV?type=image. See also

Data Leadership, STATS NZ (May 16, 2018), https://www.stats.govt.nz/about-us/data-leadership/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/2HW2-BPX3. 

138 Using Personal Data Responsibly, MINISTRY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, https://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msdand-our-work/work-programmes/initiatives/phrae/index.html (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/E4CR-KCG9. 

139 Data Protection and Use, SOCIAL INVESTMENT AGENCY, https://sia.govt.nz/our-work/yoursay/data-protectionand-use (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/TNN6-BUVM. 

140 Autonomous Including Driverless Vehicles, MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT, https://www.transport.govt.nz/multimodal/technology/specific-transport-technologies/road-vehicle/autonomous-vehicles/ (last updated Oct. 7, 2016), 

archived at https://perma.cc/FAM4-CQZ3. 

141 NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY ACTION PLAN 2014–18:

TRANSPORT IN THE DIGITAL AGE 25 (May 2014), https://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/OurWork/Documents/ITS-technology-action-plan-2014.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/UXY4-CXCE. 
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and draw on this knowledge once international thinking has developed further and it is 

clearer if or when these vehicles will be commercially available.142

B. Autonomous Weapons Systems

The New Zealand government participates in the GGE on LAWS, which was established in 2016 

at a conference of High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional 

Weapons. 143 At the April 2018 meeting of the GGE, New Zealand made various statements, 

including that 

[i]n New Zealand’s case, and in accordance with our AP1 [Additional Protocol (I) to the 

Geneva Conventions] obligations, each emerging capability will be reviewed by New 

Zealand Defence Force using a multi-disciplinary approach and a determination by the 

Director of Defence Legal Services to ensure it is compliant with IHL [international 

humanitarian law]. Meaningful human control will be a contextual part of that assessment, 

alongside the cardinal points of IHL. We are looking at our framework for weapons reviews 

through the lens of emerging technologies and are interested in similar work being 

undertaken by others.144

It further stated that, in its view,

the ability to exercise human control is critical to whether a weapon would be able to 

comply with International Humanitarian Law as well as other requirements, such as Rules 

of Engagement. As articulated by the ICRC [International Committee of the Red Cross] 

and others, the challenge before us now is to determine the kind of human control that is 

considered necessary for partially autonomous weapons systems.145

Separate from the government, the AI Forum signed the Lethal Autonomous Weapons Pledge in 

mid-2018.146 This Pledge calls “upon governments and government leaders to create a future with 

strong international norms, regulations and laws against lethal autonomous weapons” and states 

 142 Id.

143 See 2017 Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), UNITED NATIONS 

OFFICE AT GENEVA, https://unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/F027DAA4966EB9C7C12580CD0039 

D7B5?OpenDocument (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/PY2C-XVMW; 2018 Group of 

Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (Laws), UNITED NATIONS OFFICE AT GENEVA,

https://unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/7C335E71DFCB29D1C1258243003E8724?OpenDocument (last 

visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/9NSH-AD77. 

144 GGE on LAWS, Agenda Item 6(d), Statement by Katy Donnelly, Deputy Permanent Representative (New 

Zealand) to the Conference on Disarmament, Geneva, at 2 (Apr. 13, 2018), 

https://unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/1180CDB066905100C125827200586183/$file/2018_ 

LAWS6d_New+Zealand.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/XP5S-FCRR. 

145 GGE on LAWS, Agenda Item 6(b), Statement by Katy Donnelly, Deputy Permanent Representative (New 

Zealand) to the Conference on Disarmament, Geneva, at 1, Apr. 11, 2018, 

https://unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/4A54EE38E2F8223AC12582720057E761/$file/2018_ 

LAWS6b_New+Zealand.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/4CUE-ZAS3. 

146 Ben Reid, More National AI Strategies, Lethal Autonomous Weapons Pledge, AI FORUM NEW ZEALAND (July 

26, 2018), https://aiforum.org.nz/2018/07/26/more-national-ai-strategies-lethal-autonomous-weapons-pledge/, 

archived at https://perma.cc/K5PQ-29TY. 
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that signatories will not participate in or support the development, manufacture, trade, or use of 

such weapons.147

Pakistan

In April 2018, the government of Pakistan allocated 1.1 billion rupees (about US$7.9 million) for 

a period of three years for artificial intelligence projects in six universities, under the supervision 

of the Higher Education Commission (HEC).

148 According to one news report, “[s]ix public sector 

universities have been picked out for setting up nine labs to carry out research in the field of AI.”149

During the 2017 and 2018 meetings of the GGE on LAWS, Pakistan was part of a group of 

countries that expressed their support for a “prohibition on the development, production, and use 

of AWS”150 and for a “legally binding instrument on LAWS.”151 During the 2018 GGE meeting, 

Pakistan stated that, “[p]ending the negotiation and conclusion of a legally binding Protocol, the 

states currently developing such weapons should place a moratorium on their production.”152

Singapore

I. AI Singapore Program

In May 2017, Singapore established a national AI program, “AI Singapore,” with funding of 

SG$150 million (about US$109 million) to catalyze, synergize, and boost Singapore’s AI 

capabilities. According to the website of AI Singapore,

 147 Lethal Autonomous Weapons Pledge, FUTURE OF LIFE INSTITUTE, https://futureoflife.org/lethal-autonomousweapons-pledge/ (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/A6QX-B67V. 

148 Shazma Khan, Govt Allocates Rs1.1bn for Artificial Intelligence Projects in Pakistan, BUSINESS RECORDER (Apr. 

23, 2018), https://www.brecorder.com/2018/04/23/413562/govt-allocates-rs1-1bn-for-artificial-intelligence-projectsin-pakistan/, archived at https://perma.cc/6UX3-L7BG

149 Id.

150 Ray Acheson, Do Killer Robots Dream of Eating Sheep?, 5(4) CCW REPORT (Nov. 16, 2017), 

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament-fora/ccw/2017/laws/ccwreport/12215-ccw-report-vol-5-no-4, 

archived at https://perma.cc/8L9M-BEY2; Statement by Pakistan, Second Session of the CCW GGE on LAWS 

(Apr. 9–13, 2018), https://www.unog.ch/ 

80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/8D3985AC41854006C1258272005837D9/$file/2018_LAWS6b_Pakistan.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/DW3E-WA75. 

151 Hayley Evans, Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems at the First and Second U.N. GGE Meetings, LAWFARE

(Apr. 9, 2018), https://www.lawfareblog.com/lethal-autonomous-weapons-systems-first-and-second-un-ggemeetings, archived at https://perma.cc/PR4G-YLBS.

152 Statement by Ambassador Farukh Amil, Permanent Representative of Pakistan, Second Session of the CCW 

GGE on LAWS (Aug. 27–31, 2018), 

https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/F76B74E9D3B22E98C12582F80059906F/$file/2018_GG

E+LAWS+2_6a_Pakistan.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/K9FT-5WPH. 
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AI Singapore will bring together all Singapore-based research institutions and the vibrant 

ecosystem of AI start-ups and companies developing AI products, to grow the knowledge, 

create the tools and develop the talent to power Singapore’s AI efforts. It is driven by a 

government-wide partnership comprising National Research Foundation (NRF), the Smart 

Nation and Digital Government Office, the Economic Development Board, the Infocomm 

Media Development Authority, SGInnovate, and the Integrated Health Information 

Systems. NRF will invest up to $150 million over five years in AI Singapore.153

II. Discussion Paper on AI and Personal Data

On June 5, 2018, Singapore’s Personal Data Protection Commission (PDPC) published the 

Discussion Paper on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Personal Data — Fostering Responsible 

Development and Adoption of AI (Discussion Paper). 154 The Discussion Paper presents the 

PDPC’s “preliminary analysis of some of the issues pertinent to the commercial development and 

adoption of AI solutions.”155 According to the PDPC, the objective of the Discussion Paper is to 

propose an accountability-based framework for discussing ethical, governance, and consumerprotection issues related to the commercial deployment of AI in a systematic and 

structured manner.156

The Discussion Paper sets forth the following two principles for responsible AI:

(i) Decisions made by or with the assistance of AI should be explainable, transparent and 

fair so that affected individuals will have trust and confidence in these decisions.

. . . 

(ii) AI systems, robots and decisions made using AI should be human-centric.157 

The Discussion Paper is intended to spark discussion on promoting the responsible development 

and adoption of AI solutions and mitigating potential risks and negative impacts. The PDPC 

invited organizations in Singapore to adapt the document for their internal use, and encouraged 

trade associations and chambers, professional bodies and societies, and interest groups to adapt the 

proposed framework for their sectors in the form of voluntary codes of practice.158

 153 AI Singapore, NATIONAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION, https://www.nrf.gov.sg/programmes/artificial-intelligence-rd-programme (last updated Nov. 7, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/BS78-E64C. 

154 PDPC, DISCUSSION PAPER ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) AND PERSONAL DATA — FOSTERING RESPONSIBLE 

DEVELOPMENT AND ADOPTION OF AI (June 5, 2018), https://www.pdpc.gov.sg/-/media/Files/PDPC/PDFFiles/Resource-for-Organisation/AI/Discussion-Paper-on-AI-and-PD---050618.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/7AML-2CT8. 

155 Id. at 2.

156 Id.

157 Id. at 5–6.

158 Id. at 14.
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III. Advisory Council on the Ethical Use of AI and Data

On August 30, 2018, Singapore announced the full composition of the Advisory Council on the 

Ethical Use of AI and Data, to advise and work with the relevant government authority on the 

responsible development and deployment of AI.159

The Advisory Council is comprised of eleven members from diverse backgrounds, including 

international leaders in AI such as Google, Microsoft, and Alibaba; advocates of social and 

consumer interests; and leaders of local companies who are keen to make use of AI.160

According to the official government statement on the composition of the Advisory Council, the 

Council will assist the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA) in engaging the 

following stakeholders on issues that support the development of AI governance capabilities 

and frameworks:

• Ethics boards of commercial enterprises on ethical and related issues arising from private 

sector use of AI and data 

• Consumer representatives on consumer expectations and acceptance of the use of AI

• Members of the private capital community on the need to incorporate ethical considerations in 

their investment decisions into businesses which develop or adopt AI161

The Advisory Council is tasked with assisting the government in developing ethics standards and 

reference governance frameworks, and publishing advisory guidelines, practical guides, and codes 

of practice for voluntary adoption by the industry.162

IV. Government-Funded Research Program on Governance of AI and Data Use

In June 2018, the Singaporean government awarded SG$4.5 million (about US$3.27 million) to 

the Singapore Management University (SMU) School of Law to set up a five-year research 

program on the governance of AI and data use. This program seeks to advance discourse in ethical, 

legal, policy, and governance issues arising from AI and data use.163 According to the speech of 

Singapore’s Minister for Communications and Information announcing the award, the 

research program 

 159 Press Release, Infocomm Media Development Authority, Composition of the Advisory Council on the Ethical 

Use of Artificial Intelligence (“AI”) and Data (Aug. 30, 2018), https://www.imda.gov.sg/about/newsroom/mediareleases/2018/composition-of-the-advisory-council-on-the-ethical-use-of-ai-and-data, archived at

https://perma.cc/EH4A-2SNB. 

160 Id. 

161 Id.

162 Id.

163 Speech by Mr. S. Iswaran, Minister for Communications and Information, at Innovfest Unbound 2018 (June 5, 

2018), https://www.mci.gov.sg/pressroom/news-and-stories/pressroom/2018/6/speech-by-mr-s-iswaran-at-theinnovfest-unbound-2018-on-5-june-2018, archived at https://perma.cc/ZC9B-QUEN. 
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will enable Singapore to drive thought leadership on these issues and serve as a center for 

knowledge exchange with international experts. The program will adopt an international 

perspective and track international developments in these specific research areas.164

In September 2018, the SMU launched a new Centre for AI and Data Governance with the SG$4.5 

million in funding.165

V. Autonomous Vehicles

To regulate trials of autonomous motor vehicles and pave the way for the development of

automated vehicle technology in Singapore, an amendment to the Road Traffic Act was passed on 

February 7, 2017, and assented to by the President on March 13, 2017.166

The revised Road Traffic Act includes definitions of “automated vehicle technology,” 

“autonomous motor vehicle,” and “autonomous system,” as follows:

“automated vehicle technology” means any particular technology that —

(a) relates to the design, construction or use of autonomous motor vehicles; or 

(b) otherwise relates to advances in the design or construction of autonomous 

motor vehicles; 

“autonomous motor vehicle” means a motor vehicle equipped wholly or substantially with 

an autonomous system (also commonly known as a driverless vehicle), and includes a 

trailer drawn by such a motor vehicle; 

“autonomous system”, for a motor vehicle, means a system that enables the operation of 

the motor vehicle without the active physical control of, or monitoring by, a 

human operator[.]167

The revised Act confers powers on the Minister for Transport to make rules concerning trials and 

use of autonomous vehicles.168 Among other things, persons authorized to undertake such trials or 

carry out such use will be required to obtain liability insurance for the entire duration of the trial 

or use, or to deposit a security with the Land Transport Authority.169 Such persons will also be 

 164 Id.

165 SMU Leverages Multi-Disciplinary Expertise, Launches Centre for AI and Data Governance, SMU (Sept. 24, 

2018), https://law.smu.edu.sg/news/2018/09/24/smu-leverages-multi-disciplinary-expertise-launches-centre-ai-anddata-governance, archived at https://perma.cc/NR68-39AA. 

166 Road Traffic Act (Cap. 276) (Ordinance 26 of 1961, revised Dec. 31, 2004, version in force Aug. 31, 2018), 

https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/RTA1961?ValidDate=20180831&ViewType=Pdf&_=20181012232618, archived at

https://perma.cc/QAA3-PC83. See Max Ng & Amira Nabila Budiyano, New Regulations to Address Automated 

Vehicle Technology, LEXOLOGY (Apr. 10, 2017), https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=64a38d35-6b97-

48a5-91ff-9a59817ac955, archived at https://perma.cc/E8HG-4536. 

167 Road Traffic Act (Cap. 276) s 2(1).

168 Id. s 6C(1)(a).

169 Id. s 6C(1)(b).
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required to publish a notice about the trial or use, before the trial or use starts, in a manner that will 

secure adequate publicity.170

Under the Road Traffic (Autonomous Motor Vehicles) Rules 2017, in granting an authorization 

for trials or use of autonomous vehicles, the Land Transport Authority may impose conditions as 

it thinks fit, including requiring a qualified safety driver to be seated in an autonomous motor 

vehicle to monitor the operation of the vehicle and to take over operation of the vehicle 

if necessary.171

South Korea

South Korea has an advanced robotics industry. In 2008, the National Assembly enacted the 

Intelligent Robot Development and Promotion Act to establish and promote a policy on the 

sustainable development of the intelligent robot industry.172 An intelligent robot is defined by the 

Act as “a mechanical device that perceives the external environment for itself, discerns 

circumstances, and moves voluntarily.” 173 The government formulated national plans for the 

development and distribution of intelligent robots in 2009 and 2014 based on the law.174

The Act states that the government “may enact and promulgate the charter on intelligent robot 

ethics.”175 The Act defines the “charter on intelligent robot ethics” as

a code of conduct established for persons involved in the development, manufacture, and 

use of intelligent robots in order to prevent various kinds of harmful or adverse effects, 

such as destruction of social order, that may arise from the development of functions and 

intelligence of intelligent robots, and to ensure intelligent robots contribute to enhancing 

the quality of life of human beings.176 

It appears that the code has not yet been enacted.177 

 170 Id. s 6C(1)(c).

171 Road Traffic (Autonomous Motor Vehicles) Rules 2017 (in force from Aug. 24, 2017) r 9(2)(b), 

https://sso.agc.gov.sg/SL/RTA1961-S464-2017?DocDate=20170823&ViewType=Pdf&_=20181121124123, 

archived at https://perma.cc/S3JC-K2TL. 

172 Intelligent Robots Development and Promotion Act, Act No. 9014, Mar. 28, 2008, as amended by Act No. 

13744, Jan. 6, 2016, art. 1, http://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=39153&lang=ENG, archived at

https://perma.cc/77RC-WBMN. 

173 Id. art. 2(1).

174 Id. art. 5; see also Sang-mo Kim, Policy Directions for S. Korea’s Robot Industry, BUSINESS KOREA (Aug. 17, 

2018), http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=24394, archived at https://perma.cc/ME5Z3YN7. 

175 Intelligent Robots Development and Promotion Act art. 18(1).

176 Id. art. 2(2).

177 Myung-hyon Noh, [비즈워치포럼]비윤리적 로봇, 책임은 누가? [[Bizwatch Forum] Unethical Robots, Who Is 

Responsible?], BUSINESS WATCH (July 30, 2018), http://news.bizwatch.co.kr/article/industry/2018/07/24/0029 (in 

Korean), archived at https://perma.cc/4396-DFGT. 
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I. Robotics and AI

In 2016, the South Korean government planned to put 500 billion won (US$440 million) toward 

expanding the country’s robotics industry, 178 including the promotion of research and 

development into autonomous vehicles and social robots for healthcare.179

In February 2018, the government released a new development strategy for the intelligent robot 

industry along with four action plans. The action plans call for accelerating market expansion with 

collaborative robots and service robots while enhancing the industry’s supply and demand 

capabilities. The government provides a training program for postgraduate-level AI and robot 

convergence experts in cooperation with colleges.180 

II. AI Promotion Policy

The South Korean governments funds many efforts toward the development of the AI industry. In 

2016, the MSIP released a report titled Mid- to Long-term Plan in Preparation for the Intelligent 

Information Society.

181 The plan called for large-scale government investment to strengthen the 

country’s research and development in AI and for legal and ethical reforms for the intelligent 

information society, among other things.182 

In January 2018, the South Korean government issued a report prepared jointly by six 

governmental entities outlining policies to promote technological development. AI is one of the 

targeted areas in the report. According to the report, the government plans to support early 

commercialization of self-driving vehicles and intelligent robots, among other things.183

 178 Alex Beall, Competition in South Korea’s Collaborative Robots Industry Heats Up, ROBOT REPORT (Sept. 22, 

2017), https://www.therobotreport.com/competition-south-koreas-collaborative-robots-industry-heats/, archived at

https://perma.cc/4BU8-ZP36. 

179 John Edwards, South Korea Robots Sector Gets a Government Boost, RBR (Nov. 28, 2016), 

https://www.robotics businessreview.com/manufacturing/south-korea-robots-sector-gets-government-boost/, 

archived at https://perma.cc/8GWA-RPYZ. 

180 Sang-mo Kim, Policy Directions for S. Korea’s Robot Industry, BUSINESS KOREA (Aug. 17, 2018), 

http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=24394, archived at https://perma.cc/545Y-NVVH; 

Jin-young Cho, S. Korea to Promote Collaborative Robotics for Manufacturing Field, BUSINESS KOREA (Feb. 8, 

2018), http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=20497, archived at https://perma.cc/473R24FR. 

181 MSIP, MID- TO LONG-TERM MASTER PLAN IN PREPARATION FOR THE INTELLIGENT INFORMATION SOCIETY:

MANAGING THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (2016), http://english.msip.go.kr/cms/english/pl/policies2/ 

__icsFiles/afieldfile/2017/07/20/Master Plan for the intelligent information society.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/93VV-6P74.

182 Id. at 56.

183 Hee Woong Yoon et al., South Korean Government Launches a New Strategy to Promote Innovative Growth, 

LUS LABORIS (Feb. 12, 2018), https://theword.iuslaboris.com/hrlaw/insights/south-korean-government-launches-anew-strategy-to-promote-innovative-growth/, archived at https://perma.cc/SRR7-WHUR. 
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On May 15, 2018, the Presidential Committee on the Fourth Industrial Revolution (PCFIR)184

finalized a research and development strategy to support the plan to invest 2.2 trillion won (about 

US$1.95 billion) in public-sector AI projects over the next five years, to develop AI technology 

and nurture 5,000 AI specialists.185

III. Autonomous Car Development

South Korea has developed K-City, an unpopulated city for autonomous vehicle testing based on 

5G mobile networks. Testing of autonomous vehicles has been conducted at K-City.186

Taiwan

I. Taiwan AI Action Plan

On January 18, 2018, Taiwan announced a four-year “Taiwan AI Action Plan” (2018–2021).187

Under the Plan, Taiwan’s Executive Yuan will allocate an annual budget of up to 10 billion New 

Taiwan dollar (about US$324 million) to develop Taiwan’s AI industry.188

The Plan outlines five initiatives: cultivating talent, developing Taiwan’s niche AI, incubating 

local AI start-ups, reconciling laws for AI development, and introducing AI technologies to 

industries. 189 Aiming to allow more flexibility for AI development in Taiwan, legislation 

encouraging innovation in financial technology and easing employment restrictions on foreign 

skilled workers has been passed, and more bills are under consideration, including on information 

security and government procurement.190

 184 About PCFIR, PCFIR, https://www.4th-ir.go.kr/home/en (last visited Nov. 20, 2018), archived at

https://perma.cc/79BE-5KRU. 

185 Won-changYoun, Korean Gov. to Invest 2.2 Tril. Won in AI by 2022, BUSINESS KOREA (May 16, 2018), 

http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=22291, archived at https://perma.cc/B9WM-MPFE. 

186 Juan Pedro Tomás, South Korea Completes Works in K-City Autonomous Driving Testing Zone, ENTERPRISE IOT

INSIGHTS (Dec. 12, 2018), https://enterpriseiotinsights.com/20181212/connected-cars-2/south-korea-completesworks-kcity-autonomous-driving-testing-zone, archived at https://perma.cc/73MB-LSZL. 

187 Press Release, Executive Yuan, Xingzhengyuan Tongguo “Taiwan AI Xingdong Jihua,” Taiwan Maixiang 

Jianduan Zhihui Guojia [Executive Yuan Passed “AI Taiwan Action Plan,” Taiwan Moves to Cutting-Edge Smart 

Country] (Jan. 18, 2018), https://www.ey.gov.tw/File/52E248317FCF71AD?A=C, archived at

https://perma.cc/SH8N-4329.

188 Id.; Cabinet Plans to Develop the Nation’s AI Industry, AI TAIWAN, https://ai.taiwan.gov.tw/news/cabinet-plansto-develop-the-nations-ai-industry/ (last visited Nov. 30, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/M2N8-BKNA. 

189 Id.

190 Test Fields and Regulatory Co-creation, AI TAIWAN, https://ai.taiwan.gov.tw/actionplan/test-fields-andregulatory-co-creation/ (last visited Nov. 30, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/9BCY-4FU9. 
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II. Autonomous Vehicles

On November 30, 2018, the Legislative Yuan passed the Act for Unmanned Vehicle Technology 

Innovative Experiments, which was enacted by the President on December 19, 2018.

191 The Act 

has not yet entered into force; the date of enforcement will be decided by the Executive Yuan.192

The Act exempts developers from certain legal restrictions when testing unmanned vehicles for a 

prescribed period of time. “Unmanned vehicles” governed by the Act include land vehicles, 

aircraft, ships, or any combination thereof, that are remotely controlled or capable of autonomous 

operations by surveying their surroundings, determining their position, and determining the 

best route.193

 191 Wuren Zaiju Chuanxin Shiyan Tiaoli [Act for Unmanned Vehicle Technology Innovative Experiments] 

(promulgated Dec. 19, 2018), https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=J0030147, archived at

https://perma.cc/BUN9-VBMY. 

192 Id. art. 24. 

193 Id.
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Europe and Central Asia

European Union

I. General Data Protection Regulation 

On May 25, 2018, the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) took effect.1 It applies 

directly in all EU Member States without any implementing legislation needed.2 Among other 

rights, the GDPR guarantees individuals the right to have a decision based solely on automated 

processing (an algorithm) be made or reviewed by a natural person instead of a computer.3

II. European Parliament’s Resolution on Civil Law Rules on Robotics

On February 16, 2017, the European Parliament adopted a legislative initiative resolution in which 

it recommended a range of legislative and nonlegislative initiatives in the field of robotics and AI 

to the European Commission.4 Among other things, it called on the European Commission to adopt 

a proposal for a legislative instrument providing civil law rules on the liability of robots and AI, 

“to propose common Union definitions of cyber physical systems, autonomous systems, smart 

autonomous robots and their subcategories,” establish criteria for the classification of robots that 

would need to be registered, establish a designated EU Agency for Robotics and Artificial 

Intelligence, and propose a charter consisting of a code of conduct for robotics engineers, a code 

for research ethics committees when reviewing robotics protocols, and model licenses for 

designers.5 It also asked the Commission to consider “creating a specific legal status for robots in 

the long run, so that at least the most sophisticated autonomous robots could be established as 

having the status of electronic persons responsible for making good any damage they may cause, 

and possibly applying electronic personality to cases where robots make autonomous decisions or 

otherwise interact with third parties independently.”6

The European Commission in its follow-up to the resolution agreed that it was necessary to 

“examine whether and how to adapt civil law liability rules to the needs of the digital economy” 

 1 Regulation 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural 

Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and Repealing 

Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) (GDPR), 2016 O.J. (L 119) 1, http://eur-lex. europa 

eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679&from=EN, archived at http://perma.cc/UWW3-KFMH.

2 Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), art. 288, para. 2, 2016 O.J. 

(C 202) 1, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:12016E/TXT&from=EN, archived at

http://perma.cc/HAV7-5CT5. 

3 GDPR, art. 22.

4 European Parliament Resolution of 16 February 2017 with Recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law 

Rules on Robotics (2015/2103(INL), doc. no. P8_TA(2017)0051, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do? 

type=TA&reference=P8-TA-2017-0051&language=EN&ring=A8-2017-0005, archived at http://perma.cc/VEG4-

GZGR.

5 Id.

6 Id. para. 59.
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and stated that it intended to work with the European Parliament and the EU Member States on an 

EU response. 7 Among other things, it plans to evaluate the Product Liability Directive 8 and 

explore risk-based liability regimes.9 It stated that more examination is necessary in order to decide 

whether and what kind of definitions are needed for regulatory purposes. 10 It rejected the 

recommendation by the European Parliament to establish a new European Agency for Robotics 

and AI and proposed expert group discussions with EU Member States, industry, and 

standardizers instead.11

III. European Commission Actions

In April 2018, the European Commission published its communication “Artificial Intelligence for 

Europe” (Communication) in which it outlined the EU’s approach to taking advantage of the 

opportunities offered by AI and addressing the challenges posed by it.12 From 2014–2017, the EU 

invested €1.1 billion (about US$1.26 billion) in AI-related research and innovation under the 

Horizon 2020 research and innovation program. 13 Among other things, the Communication 

emphasizes that the EU has to ensure that no one is left behind in the digital transformation and 

that AI is developed and applied based on the EU’s values and fundamental rights.14 It is also 

reviewing existing rules on safety and civil law liability.15 The Commission published a followup communication and a coordinated plan that built on the original Communication in 

December 2018.16

 7 Follow up to the European Parliament Resolution of 16 February 2017 on Civil Law Rules on Robotics, at 2, 

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2014_2019/plmrep/COMMITTEES/JURI/DV/2017/11-20/A8-0005-

2017_EN.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/GF5J-45DA. 

8 Council Directive 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 on the Approximation of the Laws, Regulations and Administrative 

Provisions of the Member States Concerning Liability for Defective Products, 1985 O.J. (L 210) 29, https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:31985L0374&from=EN, archived at http://perma.cc/ 

VT8M-RUCK. 

9 Follow up to the European Parliament Resolution of 16 February 2017 on Civil Law Rules on Robotics, supra 

note 7, at 2.

10 Id. at 3.

11 Id. at 8.

12 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the 

European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Artificial Intelligence for Europe, 

COM (2018) 237 final (Apr. 25, 2018), at 3, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX: 

52018DC0237&from=EN, archived at http://perma.cc/FB52-HPK3. 

13 Id. at 6. 

14 Id. at 4.

15 Id. at 16.

16 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the 

European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Coordinated Plan on Artificial 

Intelligence, COM (2018) 795 final (Dec. 7, 2018), https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_ 

id=56018, archived at http://perma.cc/NT7P-NTJ3; Annex to the Communication from the Commission to the 

European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the 

Committee of the Regions. Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence, COM (2018) 795 final (Dec. 7, 2018), 

https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=56017, archived at http://perma.cc/9TE3-7HEQ. 
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On December 18, 2018, the High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence (AI HLEG)—

fifty-two experts from academia, civil society, and industry appointed by the Commission17—

released draft AI ethics guidelines, which set out a framework for designing trustworthy AI.18

According to the guidelines, trustworthy AI must “respect fundamental rights, applicable 

regulation and core principles and values, ensuring an “ethical purpose,” and “be technically robust 

and reliable since, even with good intentions, a lack of technological mastery can cause 

unintentional harm.”19 Stakeholders were allowed to submit comments until January 18, 2019.

20

A final version is slated to be published in March 2019.21

The AI HLEG also proposed an updated definition of AI,

22 defining it as follows:

Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to systems designed by humans that, given a complex 

goal, act in the physical or digital world by perceiving their environment, interpreting the 

collected structured or unstructured data, reasoning on the knowledge derived from this 

data and deciding the best action(s) to take (according to pre-defined parameters) to achieve 

the given goal. AI systems can also be designed to learn to adapt their behaviour by 

analysing how the environment is affected by their previous actions. 

As a scientific discipline, AI includes several approaches and techniques, such as machine 

learning (of which deep learning and reinforcement learning are specific examples), 

machine reasoning (which includes planning, scheduling, knowledge representation and 

reasoning, search, and optimization), and robotics (which includes control, perception, 

sensors and actuators, as well as the integration of all other techniques into cyberphysical systems).23

Furthermore, the European Commission established a Robotics and Artificial Intelligence Unit 

whose mission is the 

development of a competitive industry in robotics and Artificial Intelligence in Europe 

including industrial and service robots as well as the growing field of autonomous systems 

spanning from drones and driverless vehicles to cognitive vision and computing. The Unit 

 17 High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence, EUROPEAN COMMISSION, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-singlemarket/en/high-level-expert-group-artificial-intelligence (last updated Oct. 29, 2018), archived at

http://perma.cc/4RHT-N4A7.

18 HIGH-LEVEL EXPERT GROUP ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE [AI HLEG], DRAFT ETHICS GUIDELINES FOR 

TRUSTWORTHY AI (Dec. 18, 2018), https://ec.europa.eu/futurium/en/system/files/ged/ai_hleg_draft_ethics_ 

guidelines_18_december.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/DYK4-7E5S. 

19 Id. at i. 

20 Have Your Say: European Expert Group Seeks Feedback on Draft Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy Artificial 

Intelligence, EUROPEAN COMMISSION, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/have-your-say-europeanexpert-group-seeks-feedback-draft-ethics-guidelines-trustworthy (last visited Dec. 18, 2018), archived at 

http://perma.cc/E2RQ-ND4M. 

21 DRAFT ETHICS GUIDELINES FOR TRUSTWORTHY AI, supra note 18, at i.

22 AI HLEG, A DEFINITION OF AI: MAIN CAPABILITIES AND SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES (Dec. 18, 2018), 

https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=56341, archived at http://perma.cc/8VUQ-AWAJ. 

23 Id. at 4.
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supports also the wide uptake and best use of robotics and Artificial Intelligence in all 

industrial and societal fields.24

Furthermore, it “follows the Ethical and Legal issues related to robots and autonomous systems 

such as liability and . . . the aspects related to the impact of automation and robotics on jobs and 

work environment.”25

On June 18, 2018, the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) and the European 

Commission held a stakeholder summit on AI with a wide range of participants.26 They discussed 

legal and ethical challenges, the socioeconomic impact, and the industrial competitiveness of AI.

IV. Declaration of Cooperation on Artificial Intelligence

On April 10, 2018, twenty-four EU Member States 27 and Norway signed the Declaration of 

Cooperation on Artificial Intelligence to develop a European approach to AI.28 Romania, Greece, 

and Cyprus joined the initiative in May 2018, and Croatia in July 2018.29 In the Declaration, the 

signatories agreed to cooperate on 

• [b]oosting Europe’s technology and industrial capacity in AI and its uptake, including 

better access to public sector data; these are essential conditions to influence AI 

development, fuelling innovative business models and creating economic growth and 

new qualified jobs;

• [a]ddressing socio-economic challenges, such as the transformation of the labour 

markets and modernising Europe’s education and training systems, including 

upskilling & reskilling EU citizens; [and]

• [e]nsuring an adequate legal and ethical framework, building on EU fundamental rights 

and values, including privacy and protection of personal data, as well as principles such 

as transparency and accountability.30

 24 Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (Unit A.1), EUROPEAN COMMISSION, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-singlemarket/en/content/robotics-and-artificial-intelligence-unit-a1 (last visited Nov. 19, 2018), archived at 

http://perma.cc/JJ3D-VNGK. 

25 Id.

26 AI Europe / Stakeholder Summit, EESC (June 18, 2018), https://www.eesc.europa.eu/en/agenda/our-events/ 

events/ ai-europe-stakeholder-summit?_cldee=Y2NqbXVsbGVyQGtwbm1haWwubmw%3d&recipientid=contact418703e1eed3e511bb64005056a05070-be6e28a0f92045fd8a0c34cea92a9638&esid=f7a166c8-965d-e811-8113-

005056a043ea&urlid=4, archived at http://perma.cc/T6JC-XXWU. 

27 The countries are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, 

Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, 

Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

28 Declaration: Cooperation on AI, Apr. 10, 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/communities/sites/jrccties/files/2018 

aideclarationatdigitaldaydocxpdf.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/F6U4-NV4C. 

29 EU Member States Sign Up to Cooperate on Artificial Intelligence, EUROPEAN COMMISSION (Apr. 10, 2018), 

https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/eu-member-states-sign-cooperate-artificial-intelligence, archived 

at http://perma.cc/VZ7X-RTS7. 

30 Declaration: Cooperation on AI, supra note 28.
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V. European Supervisory Authorities’ Report

On September 5, 2018, the European Supervisory Authorities (ESAs)31 published a joint report on 

the results of the monitoring exercise on “automation in financial advice.”32 The report concluded 

that no immediate action is necessary, because there are currently only a limited number of firms 

involved in automation in financial advice and the identified risks have not materialized. The ESAs 

plan to carry out a new monitoring exercise if development of the market and market risks 

warrant it.33

VI. Connected and Automated Vehicles

In 2016, the European Commission published a communication on intelligent transport systems.34

It proposed, inter alia, the adoption of a legal framework at the EU level by 2018 developed 

through learning by experience.35 In 2018, the Commission published another communication 

that outlined the EU strategy to enable the EU and its Member States to “be a leader in delivering 

safe, efficient, socially responsible and environmentally friendly driverless mobility for EU 

citizens.”36 The 2018 Communication is accompanied by two legislative proposals to implement 

that objective, one for a revision of the General Safety Regulation,37 and one for a proposal for 

amendments to the directive on road infrastructure safety.38 With regard to intelligent transport 

 31 The ESAs consist of the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA), the European Banking Authority 

(EBA), and the European Insurance and Occupational Pension Authority (EIOPA).

32 JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE EUROPEAN SUPERVISORY AUTHORITIES, JOINT COMMITTEE REPORT ON THE RESULTS OF 

THE MONITORING EXERCISE ON ‘AUTOMATION IN FINANCIAL ADVICE’, JC 2018-29 (Sept. 5, 2018), https://esas-jointcommittee.europa.eu/Publications/Reports/JC 2018 29 - JC Report on automation in financial advice.pdf, archived 

at http://perma.cc/4NDF-4J5T. 

33 Id. at 4, para. 5.

34 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the 

European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A European Strategy on Cooperative 

Intelligent Transport Systems, a Milestone Towards Cooperative, Connected and Automated Mobility, COM (2016) 

766 final (Nov. 30, 2016), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52016DC0 

766&from=EN, archived at http://perma.cc/6HY6-4SST. 

35 Id. at 11, para. 3.7.

36 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the 

European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Europe on the Move. Sustainable 

Mobility for Europe: Safe, Connected, and Clean, COM (2018) 293 final (May 17, 2018), at 17, https://eurlex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:0e8b694e-59b5-11e8-ab41-01aa75ed71a1.0003.02/DOC_1&format=PDF,

archived at http://perma.cc/QBZ9-EMPD.

37 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Type-Approval Requirements for 

Motor Vehicles and Their Trailers, and Systems, Components and Separate Technical Units Intended for Such 

Vehicles, as Regards Their General Safety and the Protection of Vehicle Occupants and Vulnerable Road Users, 

Amending Regulation (EU) 2018/... and Repealing Regulations (EC) No 78/2009, (EC) No 79/2009 and (EC) No 

661/2009 (General Safety Regulation), COM (2018) 286 final (May 17, 2018), https://eurlex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:f7e29905-59b7-11e8-ab41-01aa75ed71a1.0003.02/DOC_1&format=PDF, 

archived at http://perma.cc/6UX7-T2RV. 

38 Id. at 2; Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Amending Directive 2008/96/EC 

on Road Infrastructure Safety Management, COM (2018) 274 final, https://eur-
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systems, the Commission published a decision in December 2018 which sets out an updated 

working program to achieve the objectives of the 2010 Directive on Intelligent 

Transport Systems.39

VII. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

In the August 2018 meeting of the GGE LAWS, the EU stated that it “considers it worthwhile to 

review more regularly and systematically the fast-paced developments in the area of emerging 

technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), providing an opportunity to technical experts 

to share information on autonomous technologies relevant for our work.”40 The EU emphasized 

that it is necessary that “humans remain in control of the development, deployment and use with 

regard to possible military applications of emerging technologies, including AI, and prevent the 

creation and use of harmful applications.”41

Austria

I. Government Statements and Actions

The Austrian government in its 2017–2022 government program stated that “new digital 

technologies like AI, robotics, and blockchain will have unforeseeable effects on our society.”42 It 

envisages the use of AI in public administration and therefore wants to establish a legal framework 

in order to “use innovative, new business models and technologies for the development of society 

while simultaneously safeguarding the data autonomy/sovereignty of citizens and consumers.”43

In 2017, the Austrian Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation, and Technology (BMVIT) 

established the Austrian Council for Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (Österreichischer Rat für 

 

lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:cc6ab6e7-59d2-11e8-ab41-01aa75ed71a1.0003.02/DOC_1&format=PDF, 

archived at http://perma.cc/8F7T-UWFC. 

39 Commission Decision Updating the Working Programme in Relation to the Actions under Article 6(3) of Directive 

2010/40/EU, C (2018) 8264 final (Dec. 11, 2018), https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/legislation/ 

c20188264_en.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/H7S5-6HNE; Directive 2010/40/EU on the Framework for the 

Deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems, 2010 O.J. (L 207) 1, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ 

EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32010L0040&from=EN, archived at http://perma.cc/Q6XT-X4YP.

40 European External Action Service (EEAS), Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons – Group of 

Governmental Experts – Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems. EU Statement Group of Governmental Experts 

Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Geneva, 27–31 August 2018, 

https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/49763/convention-certain-conventional-weapons-groupgovernmental-experts-lethal-autonomous-weapons_en, archived at http://perma.cc/H7FL-W7DZ. 

41 Id.

42 Zusammen. Für unser Österreich. Regierungsprogramm 2017–2022 [Together. For Our Austria. Government 

Program 2017–2022], at 75, https://www.bundeskanzleramt.gv.at/documents/131008/569203/Regierungs 

programm_2017–2022.pdf/b2fe3f65-5a04-47b6-913d-2fe512ff4ce6, archived at http://perma.cc/K8AQ-VM4Z

(translation by author).

43 Id. at 81 (translation by author).
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Robotik und künstliche Intelligenz). 44 The Council consists of nine experts from research, 

academia, and business. The inaugural meeting took place on October 24, 2017. Its primary 

mandate is to assist the BMVIT in developing an AI and robotics strategy, but it is also authorized 

to independently address essential technological, economic, social, and legal questions in this area, 

and issue recommendations.45 The process for developing a federal AI strategy under the auspices 

of the BMVIT with participation from the Federal Ministry for Digital and Economic Affairs 

(BMDW) is slated to be concluded in the third quarter of 2019.46 The full strategy will be based 

on the White Paper published by the Austrian Council for Robotics and Artificial Intelligence47

and the Artificial Intelligence Mission Austria 2030.

48

II. Autonomous Vehicles

In 2016, Austria amended its Motor Vehicles Act to allow the use of automated or networked 

vehicle systems. 49 These systems may be used if they are either permitted or fulfill certain 

conditions established by regulation for test purposes. However, the law provides that the driver 

must remain responsible to take over the driving functions if necessary.50 Autonomous vehicles 

 44 Österreichischer Rat für Robotik und künstliche Intelligenz [Austrian Council for Robotics and Artificial 

Intelligence], Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie [BMVIT] [Austrian Federal Ministry 

for Transport, Innovation, and Technology], https://www.bmvit.gv.at/innovation/forschungspolitik/robotikrat.html

(last visited Nov. 15, 2018), archived at http://perma.cc/7YXD-49V9. 

45 Id.

46 Anfragebeantwortung durch den Bundesminister für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie Ing. Norbert Hofer zu 

der schriftlichen Anfrage (1101/J) der Abgeordneten Stephanie Cox, BA, Kolleginnen und Kollegen an den 

Bundesminister für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie betreffend „AI Strategie und neue Datenpolitik für 

Österreich“ [Answer from the Federal Minister for Transport, Innovation, and Technology Engineer Nobert Hofer to 

the Written Request (1101/J) of the Representative Stephanie COX, BA, Colleagues to the Federal Minister for 

Transport, Innovation, and Technology re “AI Strategy and New Data Policy for Austria”], no. 1087/AB (Aug. 21, 

2018), at 4, https://www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXVI/AB/AB_01087/imfname_707510.pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/T6SJ-AFCE. 

47 ÖSTERREICHISCHER RAT FÜR ROBOTIK UND KÜNSTLICHE INTELLIGENZ [AUSTRIAN COUNCIL FOR ROBOTICS AND 

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE], DIE ZUKUNFT ÖSTERREICHS MIT ROBOTIK UND KÜNSTLICHER INTELLIGENZ POSITIV 

GESTALTEN. WHITE PAPER DES ÖSTERREICHISCHEN RATS FÜR ROBOTIK UND KÜNSTLICHE INTELLIGENZ [CREATING A 

POSITIVE FUTURE FOR AUSTRIA WITH ROBOTICS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. WHITE PAPER OF THE [AUSTRIAN 

COUNCIL FOR ROBOTICS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (Nov. 2018), https://www.acrai.at/images/download/ 

ACRAI_whitebook_online_2018.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/TF56-NX38. 

48 BMVIT & BMDV, AIM AT 2030. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE MISSION AUSTRIA 2030, https://www.bmvit.gv.at/ 

innovation/publikationen/ikt/downloads/aimat_ua.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/LJ45-YCF6. 

49 Bundesgesetz über das Kraftfahrwesen [Kraftfahrgesetz 1967] [KFG 1967] [Motor Vehicles Act 1967], June 23, 

1967, BUNDESGESETZBLATT [BGBL.] [FEDERAL LAW GAZETTE] 1968, no. 267, as amended, § 102, paras. 3a, 3b, 

http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung/Bundesnormen/20009740/AutomatFahrV, Fassung vom 09.11.2018.pdf

archived at http://perma.cc/2FRR-4RMD; Verordnung des Bundesministers für Verkehr, Innovation und 

Technologie über Rahmenbedingungen für automatisiertes Fahren [Automatisiertes Fahren Verordnung] 

[AutomatFahrV] [Regulation on Automated Driving], BGBL. II 2016, No. 402, as amended, https://www.ris.bka. 

gv.at/GeltendeFassung/Bundesnormen/20009740/AutomatFahrV, Fassung vom 09.11.2018.pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/8JWZ-FNL6. 

50 Motor Vehicles Act 1967, § 102, para. 3b, sentence 2.
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may only be tested on the road if they have car insurance and transmit certain data to the BMVIT.51

Test drives on public roads may only be conducted after the vehicles have been tested sufficiently 

in advance.52 The results of the tests must be transmitted to the BMVIT after the end of the trial 

period.53 Information on critical situations, accidents, and their causes must be reported without 

undue delay.54 In addition, all test vehicles with automated or networked systems must be equipped 

with an accident data recorder that must be activated during all test drives.55

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems

At the April 2018 meeting of the GGE of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on 

Conventional Weapons (CCW), Austria stated it believes that LAWS require a clear regulation 

and that it is in favor of “establishing a legally binding instrument in order to prohibit lethal 

autonomous weapon systems that are not under meaningful human control.”56 Austria emphasized 

that “meaningful human control over critical functions” of LAWS must be maintained.57

In August 2018, Austria, together with Brazil and Chile, submitted a proposal to the GGE for a 

new CCW mandate to “negotiate a legally-binding instrument to ensure meaningful human control 

over the critical functions” of weapons systems.58

 51 Regulation on Automated Driving, § 1, para. 3.

52 Id. § 1, para. 4.

53 Id. § 1, para. 6. 

54 Id.

55 Id. § 5.

56 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed 

to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects. Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal 

Autonomous Weapon Systems. General Exchange of Views. Statement Austria. Ambassador Thomas Hajnocz 

(Apr. 9–13, 2018), https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/AA0367088499C566C1258278004 

D54CD/$file/2018_LAWSGeneralExchang_Austria.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/AN5U-KLU5. 

57 Id.

58 Proposal for a Mandate to Negotiate a Legally-binding Instrument that Addresses the Legal, Humanitarian and 

Ethical Concerns Posed by Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS). 

Submitted by Austria, Brazil and Chile, U.N. Doc. CCW/GGE.2/2018/WP.7 (Aug. 30, 2018), https://www.unog.ch/ 

80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/3BDD5F681113EECEC12582FE0038B22F/$file/2018_GGE+LAWS_August_

Working+paper_Austria_Brazil_Chile.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/VES9-GUSM. 
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Belarus

I. High Technologies Park

The government of Belarus has adopted the State Program for the Development of the Digital 

Economy and the Information Society for 2016–2020.59 The goal of the program is to “improve 

conditions that facilitate the transformation of human activities under the influence of ICT, 

including the formation of a digital economy, the development of an information society and the 

improvement of e-government.” In line with the priorities of the Program, the President issued a 

Decree on the Development of the Digital Economy—the main legislation governing AI in 

Belarus.

60 The Decree specifies the functions and the areas of activities for the High Technologies 

Park (HTP). In particular, point 1 of the Decree specifies that the Park must conduct activities in 

the area of AI and engage in the creation of autonomous vehicles. 

The HTP was established by the government of Belarus to stimulate development of high-tech, 

IT-intensive technologies. The Park operates under special tax and legal regimes, and allows 

foreign entities to be registered in Belarus in order to obtain tax benefits. Since 2015, HTP-resident 

companies have been allowed to become involved in new science-intensive activities. Presently, 

any company engaged in IT and related industries (micro-, opto- and nanoelectronics;

mechatronics; telecommunications; radar ranging; radio navigation; and wireless communication), 

information protection, and establishment of data processing centers may apply for residency 

within the HTP and benefit from the tax incentives and other advantages it provides. HTP-resident 

companies may work and provide services in the field of information system analysis, designing,

and software development (IT consulting, audit, national information networks maintenance, 

database development, and corporate information systems implementation and support).61

II. Autonomous Vehicles

According to the state news agency Belarusian Telegraph Agency, President Lukashenko has 

expressed his support for the development of driverless vehicles in Belarus. 62 On February 2018 

 59 Postanovlenije Soveta Ministrov Respubliki Belarus ob Utverzhdenii Gosudarstvennoj Programi Razvitija 

Ekonomiki I Tsifrofogo Obshestva na 2016-2020 Godi [Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of 

Belarus on Approval of the State Program for the Development of the Digital Economy and the Information Society

for 2016–2020], No. 235, Mar. 23, 2016, http://www.pravo.by/document/?guid=3871&p0=C21600235, archived at 

https://perma.cc/9G3U-5U5F.

60 Dekret Presidenta Belarus ot 27 Dekabrja 2017 goda or Razvitii Tsifrovoj Ekonomiki [Decree of the President of 

Belarus of 27 December 2017 concerning Development of the Digital Economy], http://pravo.by/document/?guid= 

12551&p0=Pd1700008&p1=1&p5=0, archived at https://perma.cc/V8LJ-B3LK.

61 Obshhaja Informacija o HTP [General Information about HTP], HTP BELARUS, http://www.park.by/topicabout_htp/ (last visited Dec. 11, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/HUT3-5LVN.

62 Lukashenko Supports Idea of Creating Conditions for Driverless Vehicles in Belarus, BELARUSIAN TELEGRAPH 

AGENCY, BELTA (Mar. 13, 2017), https://eng.belta.by/president/view/lukashenko-supports-idea-of-creatingconditions-for-driverless-vehicles-in-belarus-99412-2017/, archived at https://perma.cc/NR5D-LQPT.
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it was announced that a high-tech company, a resident of the HTP, will set a site for autonomous 

vehicle test driving on the territory of the Park.63

Belgium

I. Introduction

Overall, with the exception of autonomous vehicles and lethal autonomous weapons systems, the 

Belgian government has not been very active on issues related to AI so far. This may change in 

the near future, however, as both chambers of the Belgian Parliament currently have working 

groups studying AI questions. Members of the Chamber of Representatives proposed the creation 

of an “inclusive and sustainable robo-digital agenda” in July 2017,64 and the working group to 

design this agenda started meeting in January 2018.65 Similarly, the Senate created a working 

group to write a report on “the fallout, opportunities, potentialities and risks of a digital ‘intelligent 

society’.”66 This working group has been meeting and conducting hearings since July 2018.67

Additionally, Belgium is an observing member of the International Organization for 

Standardization’s technical committee on AI.68

II. Autonomous Vehicles

The Belgian government has adopted policies to encourage the development of autonomous 

vehicles. In 2016, it published a “Code of Good Practices” to guide companies and institutions 

 63 Belarus’ Hi-Tech Park New Resident Company to Set Up Self-driving Vehicle Test Site, BELARUS (Feb. 16, 2018),

https://www.belarus.by/en/business/business-news/belarus-hi-tech-park-new-resident-company-to-set-up-selfdriving-vehicle-test-site_i_0000074788.html, archived at https://perma.cc/79FF-532K.

64 Chambre des représentants de Belgique [Belgian Chamber of Representatives], Proposition de resolution relative 

à la création d’un agenda robonumérique inclusif et durable [Proposal for a Resolution Regarding the Creation of an 

Inclusive and Sustainable Robo-Digital Agenda] (July 27, 2017), http://www.lachambre.be/doc/flwb/pdf/54/ 

2643/54k2643001.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/E98J-R4NA. 

65 Gilles Vanden Burre, Première réunion du groupe de travail sur l’agenda robonumérique au Parlement [First 

Meeting of the Working Group on a Robo-Digital Agenda in Parliament], GILLESVANDENBURRE.BE (Jan. 18, 2018), 

https://gillesvandenburre.be/2018/01/18/premiere-reunion-groupe-de-travail-lagenda-robonumerique-parlement/, 

archived at https://perma.cc/H4JQ-CA6R. 

66 Sénat de Belgique [Belgian Senate], Demande d’établissement d’un rapport d’information relatif à la necessaire 

collaboration entre l’État fédéral et les entités fédérées en ce qui concerne les retombées, les opportunités, les 

potentialités et les risques de la « société intelligente » numérique [Request for the Drafting of an Information 

Report on the Necessary Collaboration Between the Federal Government and the Federated Entities With Regards to 

the Fallout, Opportunities, Potentialities and Risks of a Digital “Intelligent Society”], S. 6-413, May 24, 2018, 

https://www.senate.be/www/webdriver?MItabObj=pdf&MIcolObj=pdf&MInamObj=pdfid&MItypeObj=application

/pdf&MIvalObj=100663911, archived at https://perma.cc/VJ62-PZYV. 

67 Sénat de Belgique [Belgian Senate], Fiche du Dossier [Case File], S. 6-413, http://www.senate.be/www/?MIval 

=/dossier&LEG=6&NR=413&LANG=fr (last visited Nov. 21, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/RZ38-3ZVB. 

68 Participation: ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 42 Artificial Intelligence, INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR 

STANDARDIZATION, https://www.iso.org/committee/6794475.html?view=participation (last visited Nov. 23, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/4W7M-SZDY.
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that wish to test autonomous vehicles in Belgium, particularly with respect to security standards.69 

This document was directly inspired by the British document, The Pathway to Driverless Cars: A 

Code of Practice for Testing, published the previous year.70 In March 2018, the Traffic Code was 

amended to allow autonomous vehicles to be tested on Belgian roads, subject to 

government approval.71

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

In July 2018, the Belgian Parliament adopted a resolution to prohibit the use of LAWS by Belgian 

armed forces.72 This measure was criticized by some opposition parties as not going far enough, 

as it allows Belgium to continue research into LAWS.73 At the international level, Belgium has 

expressed opposition to the idea of creating a new international treaty on LAWS.74

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic introduced amendments to the Act on Surface Communication aimed at the 

regulation of autonomous vehicles. According to the amendments autonomous vehicles will be 

allowed on the roads of Czech Republic provided a capable driver is present in the car.75 The draft 

bill enhanced the definition of “driver” to include a stand-by driver in an autonomous vehicle and 

also introduced safety standards for operating autonomous vehicles.76

 69 SERVICE PUBLIC FÉDÉRAL MOBILITÉ ET TRANSPORTS [FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE FOR MOBILITY AND 

TRANSPORTATION], VÉHICULES AUTONOMES: CODE DE BONNES PRATIQUES D’EXPÉRIMENTATION EN BELGIQUE 

[AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES: CODE OF GOOD PRACTICES FOR EXPERIMENTING IN BELGIUM] (Sept. 2016), 

https://mobilit.belgium.be/sites/default/files/resources/files/code_of_practice_fr_2016_09.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/9B7C-Z7CE. 

70 Id. at 2.

71 Arrêté royal du 18 mars 2018 relatif aux essais avec des véhicules automatisés [Royal Order of 18 March 2018 

Regarding Tests of Automatized Vehicles], http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi/article_body.pl?language=fr& 

caller=summary&pub_date=18-04-19&numac=2018011160, archived at https://perma.cc/BP5U-EB4S. 

72 Chambre des représentants de Belgique [Belgian Chamber of Representatives], Résolution visant à interdire 

l’utilisation, par la Défense belge, de robots tueurs et de drones armés [Resolution for the Purpose of Prohibiting the 

Use, by the Belgian Defense, of Killer Robots and Armed Drones], July 19, 2018, http://www.lachambre.be/FLWB/ 

pdf/54/3203/54K3203005.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/N77D-SVMF. 

73 La Défense ne pourra pas utiliser de robots-tueurs [The Defense Department Will Not be Able to Use Killer 

Robots], LA LIBRE (July 4, 2018), http://www.lalibre.be/actu/belgique/la-defense-ne-pourra-pas-utiliser-de-robotstueurs-5b3c96bc5532692547e326b4, archived at https://perma.cc/5HYT-SQ6S. 

74 CAMPAIGN TO STOP KILLER ROBOTS, REPORT ON ACTIVITIES – CONVENTION ON CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS 

GROUP OF GOVERNMENTAL EXPERTS MEETING ON LETHAL AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS SYSTEMS 8 (June 28, 2018), 

https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/KRC_ReportCCWX_Apr2018_UPLOADED.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/2M7K-SLGD.

75 Mezi Poslance Míří První Zákon, Který Reší Provoz Samořiditelných Aut [Among the MPs, the First Law, Which 

Deals With the Operation of Self-Driving Cars Is Introduced], ZDOPRAVY.CZ, https://zdopravy.cz/mezi-poslancemiri-prvni-zakon-ktery-resi-provoz-samoriditelnych-aut-12269/, archived at https://perma.cc/YMP2-2HUF

76 Id. 
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Denmark

I. National Strategy 

Denmark announced a digital strategy in 2018.77 It includes spending on a National Center for 

Research in Digital Technologies (Nationalt Center for Forskning i Digitale Teknologier).78 The 

following six areas were specifically mentioned as priorities: 

1. Digital hub for a strengthened growing environment, 

2. Digital lift for small and medium sized businesses

3. Digital fluency for all [focusing on primary education]

4. Data that drives growth of the businesses

5. Agile regulation of businesses 

6. Increased IT-security for business79

Denmark invested DKK 750 million (about US$115 million) in 2018, and will invest DKK 125 

million (about US$19 million) annually until 2025 to fund initiatives connected to these goals.80

The initial sum includes an extra start-up amount, aimed at establishing a number of new 

initiatives.81 Possible initiatives include changed tax provisions to allow for greater deductions for 

investment in technology.82 Examples of changes to regulations include rules that enable new 

business models.83 According to the government the purpose behind the new business models is 

to test new areas, as is done today in the fields of driverless transport and within FinTech.84 The 

success of the initiatives also relies on other factors such as increased spending on small businesses 

in general, enabled by the guarantee agreement with the European Investment Fund and 

Vækstfonden (Danish Growth Fund) of DKK 1.6 million (about US$245,000). 85 In addition 

Denmark is increasing its spending on research. In 2018 it will spend DKK 80 million (about 

US$12 million) on “digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), big data, Internet of 

Things, IT-security, etc.” 86 Danish efforts to use AI in the welfare sector—for example, in 

 77 ERHVERVSMINISTERIET, STRATEGI FOR DANMARKS DIGITALE VÆKST [STRATEGY FOR DIGITAL GROWTH] (Jan. 

2018), https://em.dk/media/9127/strategi-for-danmarks-digitale-vaekst_online.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

6T5C-577P; Ny strategi skal gøre Danmark til digital frontløber (Jan. 30, 2018), ERHVERVSMINISTERIET,

https://em.dk/nyhedsarkiv/2018/januar/ny-strategi-skal-goere-danmark-til-digital-frontloeber/, archived at

https://perma.cc/9USR-3WYE. 

78 ERHVERVSMINISTERIET, STRATEGI FOR DANMARKS DIGITALE VÆKST, supra note 77. 

79 Id. at 7 (translation by author). 

80 Id. at 10.

81 Id. 

82 Id. at 26.

83 Id. at 10.

84 Id. 

85 Id. at 30.

86 Press Release, Uddannelses og Forskningsministeriet, Forskning i nye teknologiske muligheder og kunstig 

intelligens (Oct. 11, 2018 ), https://ufm.dk/aktuelt/pressemeddelelser/2018/filer/notat-forskning-i-nye-teknologiskemuligheder-og-kunstig-intelligens.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/GE63-3TBG. 
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targeting child welfare benefits fraud—has been criticized as potentially threatening to privacy and 

other important values.87

The Nordic countries have also joined together in a number of collaborative responses to AI, 

including together with the Baltic States.88 

II. Autonomous Vehicles

Danish law provides for testing of driverless cars.89 The current trial term is from 2017 to 2020.90

The Vejdirektoratet (Danish Road Directorate) has issued a binding Guide on driverless cars.91

Applications for testing are determined by the Færdselsstyrelsen (Danish Road Safety Agency).92

Denmark has also tested driverless buses.93 Denmark has tested autonomous vehicles in perfect 

weather and in rainy weather.94 While the results were positive for operation in clear weather, the 

autonomous vehicles tested in rainy weather had a success rate of 69–92%.95 A majority of Danes 

believe autonomous vehicles will be driving on the roads by 2030.96

 87 Jacob Mchangama & Hin-Yan Liu, The Welfare State Is Committing Suicide by Artificial Intelligence, FOREIGN 

POLICY (Dec. 25, 2018), https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/12/25/the-welfare-state-is-committing-suicide-by-artificialintelligence/, archived at https://perma.cc/2LZP-EPSS. 

88 Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers & Government of Sweden, AI in the Nordic-Baltic Region, May 14, 

2018, https://www.regeringen.se/49a602/globalassets/regeringen/dokument/naringsdepartementet/20180514_nmr_ 

deklaration-slutlig-webb.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RT92-BWN7; Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers 

for Digitalization, The Nordic-Baltic Region: A Digital Frontrunner (Apr. 25, 2017), https://www.norden.org/ 

en/declaration/nordic-baltic-region-digital-frontrunner, archived at https://perma.cc/SUL2-XZT4; Press Release, 

Regeringskansliet, Sverige ska leda AI-samarbete i Norden och Baltikum (May 14, 2018), https://www.regeringen. 

se/pressmeddelanden/2018/05/sverige-ska-leda-ai-samarbete-i-norden-och-baltikum/, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

6FPK-DSSB.

89 § 92f BEKENDTGØRELSE AF FÆRDSELSLOVEN [VEHICLES ACT] (LBK nr 1324 af 21/11/2018), https://www.rets 

information.dk/forms/R0710.aspx?id=204976, archived at https://perma.cc/2DDJ-2BAT; BEKENDTGØRELSE OM 

ASSESSORER I FORBINDELSE MED FORSØG MED SELVKØRENDE MOTORKØRETØJER (BEK 789 af 16/06/2017), 

https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=192104, archived at https://perma.cc/9A2H-F5NM. 

90 Id.

91 Vejdirektoratet, Vejledning til ansøgning om forsøg med selvkørende motorkøretøjer [Guidelines for Application 

for Testing of Self-driving Vehicles] (June 29, 2017), http://www.vejdirektoratet.dk/DA/viden_og_data/temaer/ 

Selvkoerendebiler/Documents/Vejledning til ansøgning om forsøg med selvkørende biler.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/SZ9F-HET6. 

92 Id. at 2. 

93 Danmarks første førerløse bus i rute var en passagersucces, MOVIA (Oct. 15, 2018), https://www.moviatrafik.dk/ 

presse/presse-og-nyheder/danmarks-foerste-foererloese-bus-i-rute-var-en-passagersucces, archived at

https://perma.cc/HR8B-RVTY. 

94 Selvkørende biler, VEJDIREKTORATET (Aug. 15, 2018), http://www.vejdirektoratet.dk/DA/viden_og_data/temaer/ 

Selvkoerendebiler/Sider/default.aspx, archived at https://perma.cc/26MR-8LG5. 

95 Id. 

96 Id.
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III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems 

Denmark has not passed any legislation banning LAWS. The Danish Defense has published a 

report that addresses the issues connected to autonomous weapons and international law. 97 It 

concluded that current developments have increased the demand for lawyers within the military.98

Denmark participated in the United Nations Office at Geneva meetings on LAWS in 2015.99 The 

Danish Ambassador for Disarmament announced at the meeting that “all use of force—including 

lethal autonomous weapons systems—must be in compliance with international humanitarian law, 

i.e. the fundamental rules of distinction, proportionality, and precaution in attack. And all use of 

force must remain under ‘meaningful human control’.”100 Human Rights Watch has criticized 

Denmark for not doing more on the issue.101

Estonia

I. AI Strategy 

On March 27, 2018, the government of Estonia announced its intention to formulate an AI 

strategy. 102 It stated that it would assemble a cross-sectoral group of experts to develop the 

strategy. The group would also prepare a bill that will allow the use of “kratts,” i.e., fully 

autonomous information systems, in all areas of life and ensure legal clarity as well as the required 

supervision. It is expected that the bill will be ready to be presented in Parliament during 2019. 

The following challenging legal issues with respect to AI are among the questions being 

considered by the group of experts:

• The cause and effect relations with regard to algorithms. Marten Kaevats, Adviser of the 

Strategy Unit of the Government Office, stated, “[f]rom a legal perspective, this is a 

 97 FORSVARET, INTRODUKTION TIL FOLKERET [INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW] (Heidi Güntelberg ed., 

2014), http://www.fak.dk/publikationer/Documents/Introduktion-til-folkeret.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/X48PHLMN. 

98 Id. at 214. 

99 General Statement by Susanne Rumohr Haekkerup, Ambassador for Disarmament, Non-proliferation and Arms 

Control, Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, Informal Meetings of Experts on Lethal Autonomous 

Weapons Systems, 13–17 April 2015, Denmark, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/ 

C5B8B0A4AD379822C1257E26005D7D20/$file/2015_LAWS_MX_Denmark.pdf (last visited Dec. 21, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/Z58Z-9HVX. 

100 Id. 

101 Mary Wareham, ‘Stop Killer Robots’-kampagne: Danmark var savnet ved mødet om ‘dræber-robotter’, HUMAN 

RIGHTS WATCH (Dec. 5, 2017), https://www.hrw.org/da/news/2017/12/05/312359, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

DK8R-UBVW.

102 Press Release, Government Office, Republic of Estonia, Estonia will Have an Artificial Intelligence Strategy 

(Mar. 27, 2018), https://www.riigikantselei.ee/en/news/estonia-will-have-artificial-intelligence-strategy, archived at

https://perma.cc/7H6F-UQ9Q.
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complicated area, as the algorithms of an AI act as a ‘black box’—even the creator of the 

artificial intelligence is not always sure why the algorithm made a certain decision.”103

• Responsibilities and liabilities in the implementation of the systems without human 

interference. In a more recent article, Kaevats stated, “[a] year into the public debate over 

algorithmic-liability law (a.k.a. the Kratt law), opinion leans toward avoiding sector-based 

regulation, opting for general algorithmic liability instead. The biggest conversation starter is 

the idea of giving algorithms a separate legal status, similar to companies.”104

In addition to the ethical, moral, and philosophical debate over AI liability, the group of experts is 

also working on enforcement issues.105

II. Autonomous Vehicles

On August 16, 2016, the government of Estonia created an expert group on self-driving vehicles 

aiming at developing policies, studies, and a legal framework for autonomous vehicles. In 

February 2017 the group recommended test driving of autonomous vehicles on Estonian roads. 

On March 2, 2017, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications announced that testing 

of autonomous vehicles is allowed on the roads of Estonia, provided the driver is present in the car 

to take control of the vehicle if needed. The testing right for Estonia’s public roads applies to selfdriving vehicles classified as level SAE 2 or SAE 3 vehicles according to the classification of the 

International Society of Automotive Engineers. The main requirement regarding these vehicles is 

that they should have either a driver present in the car or controlling the car remotely. The expert 

group is working towards developing liability, insurance, privacy, and ethics regulations 

concerning autonomous vehicles. It is also envisaged that the government will allow testing of 

vehicles with a higher degree of autonomy (SAE 4 or SAE 5) in the near future.106

 103 Id.

104 Marten Kaevats, AI and the Kratt Momentum, INVEST IN ESTONIA (Sept. 2018), https://investinestonia.com/aiand-the-kratt-momentum/ (footnote in original omitted), archived at https://perma.cc/XQ4A-ZA68.

105 Id.

106 Press Release, Republic of Estonia Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communication, Estonia Allowing a 

Number of Self-Driving Cars on the Streets Starting Today (Mar. 3, 2017), https://www.mkm.ee/en/news/estoniaallowing-number-self-driving-cars-streets-starting-today, archived at https://perma.cc/763D-4XQT.
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Finland

I. National Agenda

Finland wants to become a leading country in AI.107 To that end the Ministry of Economic Affairs 

and Employment has declared that “[l]egislation should naturally also support the change.”108

Finland has yet to adopt ethical rules on the use of AI. Finnish Kela (the Finnish Insurance System) 

is involved in creating ethical rules for AI based on the ethics challenge of Finland’s AI 

program.109 Ethical guidelines are part of the national program for AI.110 AI Finland also provides 

a draft ethical guideline on its webpage.111 In addition, Kela is taking part in Institute of Electrical 

and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standards Association’s Ethics Certification Program for 

Autonomous and Intelligent Systems (ECPAIS).112

As noted above, the Nordic countries have also joined together in a number of collaborative 

responses to AI, including together with the Baltic States.113 

 107 Press Release, Arbets- och näringsministeriet, Minister Lintilä: Finland ska bli ett ledande land inom tillämpning 

av artificiell intelligens (May 18, 2017), https://tem.fi/sv/artikel/-/asset_publisher/ministeri-lintila-suomestatekoalyn-soveltamisen-karkimaa, archived at https://perma.cc/XUA7-234P. 

108 MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC AFFAIRS AND EMPLOYMENT, FINLAND’S AGE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, No.

47/2017, at 17, http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/160391/TEMrap_47_2017_verkko 

julkaisu.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/TL4M-S8QQ. 

109 Press Release, Kela, Ethical Principles for AI are Being Defined, with Kela in Central Role (Nov. 30, 2018), 

https://www.kela.fi/web/en/press-releases/-/asset_publisher/LgL2IQBbkg98/content/ethical-principles-for-ai-arebeing-defined-with-kela-in-central-role, archived at https://perma.cc/82YB-AMCS. 

110 Id.; see also Ethics Challenge, AI FINLAND, https://www.tekoalyaika.fi/en/background/ethics/ (last visited Dec. 

18, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/S5QZ-LYRX. 

111 AI FINLAND, EXAMPLES OF THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, https://www.tekoalyaika.fi/ 

wp-content/uploads/2018/09/esimerkkeja_tekoalyn_eettisista_periaatteista_en-1.pdf (last visited Dec. 18, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/NT9T-HHC6.

112 Id.; see also Press Release, IEEE, IEEE Launches Ethics Certification Program for Autonomous and Intelligent 

Systems (Oct. 2, 2018), https://standards.ieee.org/news/2018/ieee-launches-ecpais.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/3WBR-VJ6U. 

113 Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers & Government of Sweden, AI in the Nordic-Baltic Region, May 14, 

2018, https://www.regeringen.se/49a602/globalassets/regeringen/dokument/naringsdepartementet/20180514_nmr_ 

deklaration-slutlig-webb.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RT92-BWN7; Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers 

for Digitalization, The Nordic-Baltic Region: A Digital Frontrunner (Apr. 25, 2017), https://www.norden.org/ 

en/declaration/nordic-baltic-region-digital-frontrunner, archived at https://perma.cc/SUL2-XZT4; Press Release, 

Regeringskansliet, Sverige ska leda AI-samarbete i Norden och Baltikum (May 14, 2018), https://www.regeringen. 

se/pressmeddelanden/2018/05/sverige-ska-leda-ai-samarbete-i-norden-och-baltikum/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/6FPK-DSSB.
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II. Autonomous Vehicles 

Finland allows for testing of driverless cars. Scania is testing semi-autonomous technology in its 

trucks in Finland with a driver in the car.114 Finland is part of the Artic Challenge testing of 

driverless cars under wintery conditions.115 The Political Party SFP in Finland has proposed the 

adoption of policies that would make Finland the first country in the world not only to welcome 

autonomous cars, but also to forbid nonautonomous cars.116

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

Finland has not issued an official position on lethal autonomous weapons. Finland took part in the 

2015 UNOG expert panel on LAWS, where they welcomed more work on whether LAWS is 

compatible with the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons framework.117

France

I. Introduction

According to technology commentators, France has some of the world’s best mathematics and 

engineering schools, and some of the world’s leading data scientists and AI researchers come from 

the country.118 While many of these French-trained researchers and engineers go on to work in the 

United States and elsewhere, France is nevertheless said to have one of the strongest AI ecosystems 

in Europe, alongside Germany and the United Kingdom.119 Indeed, “AI companies from these top 

three countries make up more than half of the European AI company total.”120 

 114 Scania testar självkörande lastbilar i Finland, NYTEKNIK (Mar. 7, 2018), https://www.nyteknik.se/fordon/scaniatestar-sjalvkorande-lastbilar-i-finland-6902896, archived at https://perma.cc/C36W-5L2U. 

115 Hur hålls en förarlös bil på en snöig väg? De första mellanresultaten från projektet som undersöker 

automatiseringen av vägtrafiken i vinterförhållanden, LIIKENNEVIRASTO/TRAFIKVERKET (Oct. 9, 2018), 

https://www.liikennevirasto.fi/web/sv/-/hur-halls-en-forarlos-bil-pa-en-snoig-vag-de-forsta-mellanresultaten-franprojektet-som-undersoker-automatiseringen-av-vagtrafiken-i-vinterforhallande, archived at https://perma.cc/FA9UDVSJ. 

116 Motion 19 – Automatiserad trafik och självkörande bilar, SFP (Nov. 27, 2018), https://sfp.fi/politik/beslutpolitiska-program/partidagsbeslut/partidagen-2016-i-abo/motion-19-automatiserad-trafik-och-sjalvkorande-bilar/, 

archived at https://perma.cc/5XTR-4BSW. 

117 Statement by Finland at the Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional 

Weapons 2 (Nov. 12, 2015), https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/43811AA71321CD 

F9C1257F0F00383E96/$file/finland.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/BN6R-HD2A. 

118 Romain Dillet, France Wants to Become an Artificial Intelligence Hub, TECHCRUNCH (Mar. 29, 2018), 

https://techcrunch.com/2018/03/29/france-wants-to-become-an-artificial-intelligence-hub/, archived at

https://perma.cc/GV9J-DEHE. 

119 Id.

120 Artificial Intelligence in France, EXPORT.GOV (Apr. 3, 2018), https://www.export.gov/article?id=ArtificialIntelligence-in-France, archived at https://perma.cc/NR98-GQVH. 
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French President Emmanuel Macron has made it one of his government’s priorities to build on 

these assets and make France a world leader in AI. In this spirit, he has promised to allocate €1.5 

billion (approximately US$1.7 billion) in public funding to AI by 2022 “in a bid to reverse a brain 

drain and catch up with the dominant US and Chinese tech giants.”121 In parallel, the French 

government has deployed some efforts towards anticipating the regulatory challenges related 

to AI. 

Additionally, the French government has been experimenting with using AI for certain aspects of 

governance. In particular, the Courts of Appeals of Rennes and Douai tested predictive justice 

software on various appeals cases in 2017.122

France is a participating member of the International Organization for Standardization’s technical 

committee on AI.123

II. CNIL Report

A 2016 law tasked the Commission Nationale de l’Informatique et des Libertés (National 

Commission on Computer Technology and Civil Liberties, CNIL) with studying the societal and 

ethical stakes related to new digital technologies.124 As part of this mission, the CNIL produced a 

report on “the ethical stakes of algorithms and artificial intelligence” in December 2017.125 This 

report points to six broad ethical issues surrounding AI:

• Will human free-will and responsibility be eroded if decision-making is increasingly delegated 

to machines and software?

• The voluntary or accidental inclusion of bias and discrimination in AI.

• As AI fosters the segmentation of solutions (customized for each unique individual profiles), 

how does that affect the collective logic of certain essential features of our society, such as 

democratic pluralism and the idea of risk mutualization?

 121 Mathien Rosemain & Michel Rose, France to Spend $1.8 Billion on AI to Compete with U.S., China, REUTERS

(Mar. 29, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-tech/france-to-spend-1-8-billion-on-ai-to-compete-withu-s-china-idUSKBN1H51XP, archived at https://perma.cc/5VNR-KE5D. 

122 CEPEJ, EUROPEAN ETHICAL CHARTER ON THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN JUDICIAL SYSTEMS AND 

THEIR ENVIRONMENT 34 (CEPEJ(2018)14, Dec. 3, 2018), https://rm.coe.int/ethical-charter-en-for-publication-4-

december-2018/16808f699c, archived at https://perma.cc/7XP4-SWK6; Philippe Rozec & Louise Thiebaut, 

Intelligence artificielle : les limites de la justice predictive [Artificial Intelligence: The Limits of Predictive Justice], 

LES ECHOS (Nov. 2, 2017), https://www.lesechos.fr/idees-debats/cercle/030810043202-intelligence-artificielle-leslimites-de-la-justice-predictive-2126908.php, archived at https://perma.cc/K2WM-3399. 

123 Participation: ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 42 Artificial Intelligence, INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR 

STANDARDIZATION, https://www.iso.org/committee/6794475.html?view=participation (last visited Nov. 23, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/4W7M-SZDY.

124 Loi No. 2016-1321 du 7 octobre 2016 pour une République numérique [Law No. 2016-1321 of 7 October 2016 

for a Digital Republic], art. 59, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000033202746 

&dateTexte=&categorieLien=id, archived at https://perma.cc/A82Q-2M7W. 

125 COMMISSION NATIONALE DE L'INFORMATIQUE ET DES LIBERTÉS (CNIL), COMMENT PERMETTRE À L’HOMME DE 

GARDER LA MAIN? [HOW TO KEEP MANKIND IN CONTROL?] (Dec. 2017), https://www.cnil.fr/sites/default/files/ 

atoms/files/cnil_rapport_garder_la_main_web.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/B3KD-63B5. 
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• How to balance the benefits of big data with the necessity of protecting individual privacy.

• How to select the data used to feed AI machine learning, balancing quality, quantity, and 

pertinence to the purpose being pursued.

• How the development of autonomous AI, as well as the blurring of the line between humans 

and machines, put into question the very meaning of human identity.126

To deal with these challenges, the CNIL report suggests two general principles and six concrete 

recommendations. The two principles are that of loyalty (loyauté, which can also be translated as 

“faithfulness”) and vigilance/reflexivity.127 The first principle refers to the idea that algorithms 

should not betray the interests of its users—not just as consumers but more broadly as citizens and 

members of communities or other groups whose interests may be affected by the algorithm.128 

The second principle refers to the idea that the constant evolution and unpredictability of AI 

requires methodical, deliberative, and regular re-examination by all stakeholders.129 The CNIL’s 

six concrete recommendations include the following:

• The ethical education of all involved in the development and use of AI

• Further efforts to make algorithms understandable by their users

• To design algorithms to serve human freedom and to counteract the “black box” effect

• To create a national body to audit algorithms

• To encourage research on ethical AI and launch great national research project geared towards 

the general interest

• To reinforce ethics compliance bodies within corporations130

III. Other Government Reports

In 2017, the government established a task force to develop strategies to boost France’s leadership 

in the field of AI, including two working groups on how to manage the economic, social, ethical, 

national sovereignty, and national security implications of AI.

131 The resulting report covered 

several themes, including the importance of AI serving “autonomous individual development, 

necessary for a functioning democratic society,” improving transparency, and giving individuals 

more control over their private data.

132

 126 Id. at 5, 26–42.

127 Id. at 5.

128 Id. at 48-50.

129 Id. at 50.

130 Id. at 54-60.

131 FRANCE I.A. [FRANCE A.I.], RAPPORT DE SYNTHÈSE [SYNTHESIS REPORT] (Mar. 21, 2017), http://cache.media. 

enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/file/Actus/86/1/Conclusions_Groupes_Travail_ France_IA_738861.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/2YEU-JRUZ. 

132 Id. at 254-55.
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Another government mission, commissioned by the French prime minister and led by member of 

Parliament and mathematician Cédric Villani, worked from September 2017 to March 2018 to 

study policy options for AI in France. This mission presented its findings in a March 2018 

conference entitled “AI for Humanity,” which was held at the Collège de France, one of France’s 

premier research institutions.133 President Macron made a speech during this conference, in which 

he outlined France’s ambition and strategy with regard to AI.134 The President’s speech, and the 

Villani Mission’s report, included considerations on aspects of AI that may need a legislative or 

regulatory framework. Among other considerations, the Villani Mission’s report discussed the 

necessity of “opening the Black Box” (better understanding why an algorithm comes to a certain 

conclusion), implementing ethics by design, considering collective rights to data, continued human 

control over AI, promoting equality, and ensuring that everyone can benefit from AI.135

At the international level, France recently joined Canada to create an expert International Panel on 

Artificial Intelligence to “support and guide the responsible adoption of artificial intelligence, 

centered on the respect for human rights, inclusion, diversity, innovation and economic growth.”136

IV. Autonomous Vehicles

France has expressed the ambition of taking a major role in the development of autonomous 

vehicles, with an emphasis on safety. According to a policy paper published in May 2018, the 

French government’s strategy includes a progressive approach to experimenting with autonomous 

vehicles, special attention to road security and cybersecurity risks, close cooperation between 

public authorities and the car industry to develop a regulatory framework, and European 

cooperation.137 In the spirit of the latter point, France entered into a joint endeavor with Germany 

and Luxembourg to create a cross-border, digital test bed for automated and connected driving.138

 133 Artificial Intelligence: “Making France a Leader”, GOUVERNEMENT.FR (Mar. 30, 2018), https://www.gouverne 

ment.fr/en/artificial-intelligence-making-france-a-leader, archived at https://perma.cc/B8UT-VY3K.

134 Id.; Speech, Emmanuel Macron, AI for Humanity (College of France, Paris, Mar. 29, 2018), http://www.elysee. 

fr/declarations/article/transcription-du-discours-du-president-de-la-republique-emmanuel-macron-sur-l-intelligenceartificielle/ (in French), archived at https://perma.cc/T2B9-YPMA. See also CÉDRIC VILLANI, DONNER UN SENS À 

L’INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE [FOR A MEANINGFUL ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE] (Mar. 2018), https://www.aifor 

humanity.fr/pdfs/9782111457089_Rapport_Villani_accessible.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/QTC5-DPW6, 

English version available at https://www.aiforhumanity.fr/pdfs/MissionVillani_ Report_ENG-VF.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/G9YS-DCXH.

135 VILLANI, supra note 134, at 15–17 & 112–147.

136 France and Canada Create New Expert International Panel on Artificial Intelligence, GOUVERNEMENT.FR

(French government website) (Dec. 7, 2018), https://www.gouvernement.fr/en/france-and-canada-create-newexpert-international-panel-on-artificial-intelligence, archived at https://perma.cc/J95F-C9PR. 

137 RÉPUBLIQUE FRANÇAISE [FRENCH REPUBLIC], DÉVELOPPEMENT DES VÉHICULES AUTONOMES, ORIENTATIONS 

STRATÉGIQUES POUR L’ACTION PUBLIQUE [DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES, STRATEGIC ORIENTATIONS 

FOR PUBLIC ACTION] 8 (May 2018), https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/90p%20VDEF.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/8GHC-6TCZ. 

138 FRANCO-GERMAN-LUXEMBURGISH COOPERATION ON AUTOMATED AND CONNECTED DRIVING: CONCEPT FOR THE 

CROSS-BORDER DIGITAL TEST BED (May 8, 2018), https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/2018-

05-08 Concept Digital Test Bed GER FRA LUX.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/BK6Y-9HQT. 
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Furthermore, beginning January 1, 2019, the French government has been able to authorize level 

4 autonomous vehicles on public roads for testing purposes.139

V. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

A 2013 French initiative has led to annual international discussions on LAWS within the

framework of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons.140 President Macron declared in 

an interview that he is “dead against” the deployment of LAWS. 141 However, the French 

government has only proposed the adoption of a nonbinding declaration to curtail LAWS, and is 

opposed to the idea of a new international treaty on the issue.142

Germany

The German Federal Government aims to make Germany “a leading centre for AI . . . through 

pursuit of a speedy and comprehensive transfer of research findings to applications and the 

modernisation of administration,” and aspires to make “AI made in Germany” a globally 

recognized quality mark.143 Its priorities are to expand AI research, transfer research findings and 

AI methods to businesses, support innovation competitions, create incentives for start-ups, develop 

international and European frameworks for AI in the labor market, fund and attract international 

scientists and talent, use AI in public administration, make data available and usable, revise the 

regulatory framework to ensure legal certainty if necessary, set standards, network on a national 

and international level, and engage in dialogue with different stakeholders. 

 139 Décret n° 2018-211 du 28 mars 2018 relatif à l’expérimentation de véhicules à délégation de conduite sur les 

voies publiques [Decree No. 2018-211 of 28 March 2018 Regarding Experimentation of Delegated Driving Vehicles 

on Public Roads], art. 9, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000036750342&date 

Texte=&categorieLien=id, archived at https://perma.cc/JF4J-4U3A. 

140 Presentation and Position of France, MISSION PERMANENTE DE LA FRANCE AUPRÈS DE LA CONFÉRENCE DU 

DÉSARMEMENT À GENÈVE [PERMANENT REPRESENTATION OF FRANCE TO THE CONFERENCE ON DISARMAMENT IN 

GENEVA] (Aug. 3, 2016), https://cd-geneve.delegfrance.org/Presentation-and-position-of-France-1160, archived at

https://perma.cc/6XD3-U82R. 

141 Nicholas Thompson, Emmanuel Macron Talks to Wired About France’s AI Strategy, WIRED.COM (Mar. 31, 

2018), https://www.wired.com/story/emmanuel-macron-talks-to-wired-about-frances-ai-strategy/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/DA6U-J2F8. 

142 Armes : Il faut négocier un traité d’interdiction des armes létales autonomes [Weapons: We Must Negotiate a 

Treaty to Ban Lethal Autonomous Weapons], HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH (Aug. 27, 2018), https://www.hrw.org/fr/ 

news/2018/08/27/armes-il-faut-negocier-un-traite-dinterdiction-des-armes-letales-autonomes, archived at

https://perma.cc/JC23-3BFB; CAMPAIGN TO STOP KILLER ROBOTS, REPORT ON ACTIVITIES, supra note 74, at 8.

143 Bundesregierung [Federal Government], Eckpunkte der Bundesregierung für eine Strategie Künstliche 

Intelligenz [Key Points for a Federal Government Strategy on Artificial Intelligence] (July 18, 2018), at 1, no. 1a,

https://www. bmbf.de/files/180718 Eckpunkte_KI-Strategie final Layout.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/8PFKHP2Z, English translation available at https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/E/key-points-for-federalgovernment-strategy-on-artificial-intelligence.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4, archived at http://perma.cc/5MSP5NPF. 
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I. National Agendas and Strategies

In August 2014 and 2016 respectively, the German government published its Digital Agenda 

2014–2017, which sets out guiding principles for its digital policy and highlights a number of key 

fields of action, and the Digital Strategy 2025.144 Among other things, two big data competence 

centers were established. In the implementation report, the government points out that artificial 

intelligence (AI) and machine learning provide the essential tools to deal with big data.145

Since 2016, Germany has organized an annual digital summit, which brings together 

representatives from business, academia, and society and serves as a “central platform for 

cooperation on shaping a forward-looking policy framework for the digital transformation.”146 The 

Digital Summit 2018 will focus on AI as one of the “hot topics” of digitalization. According to the 

website, the Digital Summit 2018 aims to “help Germany to take advantage of the great 

opportunities offered by artificial intelligence whilst correctly assessing the risks and helping to 

ensure that human beings stay at the heart of a technically and legally secure and ethically 

responsible use of AI.”147

In July 2018, the German government published key points for an Artificial Intelligence Strategy 

(AI Strategy) (Strategie Künstliche Intelligenz).148 The complete AI Strategy was published at the 

end of November 2018 and publicly presented at the Digital Summit 2018 in December.149 It forms 

part of the overall digital strategy and the digital agenda. The AI Strategy states that AI technology 

must be build “upon the basis of European values, such as the inviolability of human dignity, 

respect for privacy and the principle of equality.”150 Among other things, the government strives 

to “raise awareness among developers and users of AI technology about the ethical and legal limits 

 144 BUNDESREGIERUNG [FEDERAL GOVERNMENT], DIGITALE AGENDA 2014–2017 [DIGITAL AGENDA 2014–2017] 

(Aug. 2014), https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Digitale-Welt/digitale-agenda.pdf?__blob= 

publicationFile&v=3, archived at http://perma.cc/6ZAA-DDM3; FEDERAL MINISTRY FOR ECONOMIC AFFAIRS 

AND ENERGY, DIGITAL STRATEGY 2025 (Apr. 2016), https://www.de.digital/DIGITAL/Redaktion/EN/Publikation/ 

digital-strategy-2025.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=9, archived at http://perma.cc/93XR-GZJJ.

145 Bundesregierung [Federal Government], Legislaturbericht. Digitale Agenda 2014–2017 [Legislative Report. 

Digital Agenda 2014–2017] at 32 (May 2017), http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/downloads/DE/publikationen/ 

themen/moderne-verwaltung/legislaturbericht-digitale-agenda-2014-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4, 

archived at http://perma.cc/EQD9-XLJW. 

146 Digital Summit: Shaping the Digital Transformation Together, BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR WIRTSCHAFT UND 

ENERGIE [FEDERAL MINISTRY FOR ECONOMIC AFFAIRS AND ENERGY], https://www.de.digital/DIGITAL/ 

Navigation/EN/Digital-Summit/digital-summit.html (last visited Nov. 15, 2018), archived at http://perma.cc/A8SGEBUV. 

147 Id.

148 Key Points for a Federal Government Strategy on Artificial Intelligence, supra note 143.

149 Bundesregierung [Federal Government], Strategie Künstliche Intelligenz der Bundesregierung [AI Strategy of the 

Federal Government] (Nov. 2018), https://www.ki-strategiedeutschland.de/home.html?file=files/downloads/Nationale_KI-Strategie.pdf (in German), archived at

http://perma.cc/4WVT-U652. 

150 Key Points for a Federal Government Strategy on Artificial Intelligence, supra note 143, no. 1b.
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of the use of artificial intelligence and to examine whether the regulatory framework needs to be 

further developed in order for it to guarantee a high level of legal certainty.”151

II. Data Ethics Commission

On September 5, 2018, the newly created German Data Ethics Commission held its inaugural 

meeting. 152 The Data Ethics Commission is composed of sixteen experts from the fields of 

medicine, law, computer science, statistics, economics, theology, ethics, and journalism. It is 

independent, but receives organizational support from the Federal Ministry of the Interior, 

Building and Community (BMI) and the Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection 

(BMJV). The Commission is tasked with proposing ethical guidelines for data policy, algorithms, 

artificial intelligence, and digital innovation, and providing recommendations and regulatory 

proposals to the German government.153

With regard to the German government’s AI Strategy, the Data Ethics Commission recommended 

adding one additional objective and one additional area of action. 154 It suggested including 

“upholding the ethical and legal principles based on our liberal democracy throughout the entire 

process of developing and applying artificial intelligence” and “promoting the ability of 

individuals and society as a whole to understand and reflect critically in the 

information society.”155

III. Autonomous Vehicles

On December 13, 2016, an act implementing an amendment to the Vienna Convention on Road 

Traffic, an international treaty, entered into force in Germany, which allowed the transfer of 

driving tasks to vehicles themselves. 156 This amendment to the Vienna Convention concerns 

technical requirements for automated driving systems. Furthermore, in June 2017, Germany 

amended its Road Traffic Act to allow drivers to transfer control of the vehicle to highly or fully 

 151 Id. no. 1l.

152 Press Release, Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building, and Community [BMI], Data Ethics Commission Goes 

to Work (Sept. 5, 2018), https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/pressemitteilungen/EN/2018/data-ethicscommission. html, archived at http://perma.cc/P9ZJ-MNNM. 

153 BMI & BMJV, THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT’S KEY QUESTIONS TO THE DATA ETHICS COMMISSION (June 5, 

2018), https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/downloads/EN/themen/it-digital-policy/key-questions-Data-Ethicscommission.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4, archived at http://perma.cc/H97L-G7BB. 

154 Data Ethics Commission, Recommendations of the Data Ethics Commission for the Federal Government’s 

Strategy on Artificial Intelligence (Oct. 9, 2018), https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/downloads/EN/themen/itdigital-policy/recommendations-data-ethics-commission.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3, archived at 

http://perma.cc/7J6U-KARU. 

155 Id. at 3 & 4.

156 Gesetz zur Änderung der Artikel 8 und 39 des Übereinkommens vom 8. November 1968 über den 

Straßenverkehr [Act to Amend Articles 8 and 39 of the Convention on Road Traffic of November 8, 1968], Dec. 7, 

2016, BUNDESGESETZBLATT [BGBL.] [FEDERAL LAW GAZETTE] II at 1306, http://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/ 

start.xav? startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jumpTo=bgbl216s1306.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/Y6GG-TY4S; 

Convention on Road Traffic, Nov. 8, 1968, 1042 U.N.T.S. 15705, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/ 

conventn/Conv_ road_traffic_EN.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/E9U8-PSKB. 
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automated driving systems and for those vehicles to be used on public roads.157 The driver remains 

obligated to take over the driving functions from the automated driving system without undue 

delay if the driving system tells him to do so or if the driver realizes or should have realized that 

the conditions for using an automated driving system are no longer fulfilled.158 In addition, a 

“black box” in the car must record whether the vehicle is controlled by the driver or by the driving 

system.159 The amendment also raised the maximum amount that a victim is allowed to recover 

for driving accidents involving such automated driving systems to €10 million (about US$11.3 

million) for personal injury or death and to €2 million (about US$2.3 million) for 

property damage.160

In addition, an Ethics Commission on Automated and Connected Driving was set up by the 

German Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure.161 The Ethics Commission is 

made up of fourteen academics and experts from ethics, law, and technology. In August 2017, it 

published its report, which sets out twenty ethical guidelines for the programming of automated 

driving systems with a focus on safety, human dignity, personal freedom of choice, and data 

autonomy.162 Guideline number 4, for example, states that 

[t]he purpose of all governmental and political regulatory decisions is thus to promote the 

free development and the protection of individuals. In a free society, the way in which 

technology is statutorily fleshed out is such that a balance is struck between maximum 

personal freedom of choice in a general regime of development and the freedom of others 

and their safety.163

IV. Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems 

The German government in its coalition agreement stated that it “rejects autonomous weapon 

systems devoid of human control” and called for a global ban.164 At the meeting of the GGE on 

 157 Achtes Gesetz zur Änderung des Straßenverkehrsgesetzes [Eighth Act to Amend the Road Traffic Act], June 16, 

2017, BGBL. I at 1648, http://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jumpTo= 

bgbl117s1648.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/4DJK-SKMU; Straßenverkehrsgesetz [StVG] [Road Traffic Act], 

Mar. 5, 2003, BGBL. I at 310, 919, as amended, § 1a, http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/stvg/StVG.pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/25XG-7BYQ. 

158 Road Traffic Act, § 1b.

159 Id. § 63a.

160 Id. § 12, para. 1.

161 Press Release, Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure [BMVI], Ethics Commission on 

Automated Driving Presents Report (Aug. 28, 2017), https://www.bmvi.de/SharedDocs/EN/PressRelease/2017/084-

ethic-commission-report-automated-driving.html, archived at http://perma.cc/RLQ8-EWLL. 

162 BMVI, ETHICS COMMISSION. AUTOMATED AND CONNECTED DRIVING. REPORT (June 2017), https://www.bmvi. 

de/SharedDocs/EN/publications/report-ethics-commission.pdf?__blob=publicationFile, archived at

http://perma.cc/C3BK-R5BA. 

163 Id. at 10.

164 Ein neuer Aufbruch für Europa. Eine neue Dynamik für Deutschland. Ein neuer Zusammenhalt für unser Land. 

Koalitionsvertrag zwischen CDU, CSU und SPD. 19. Legislaturperiode [A New Departure for Europe. A New 

Dynamic for Germany. A New Solidarity for Our Country. Coalition Agreement between CDU, CSU, and SPD. 
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LAWS it proposed, together with France, to adopt a political declaration to “affirm that State 

parties share the conviction that humans should continue to be able to make ultimate decisions 

with regard to the use of lethal force and should continue to exert sufficient control over lethal 

weapons systems they use.”165

Hungary

I. AI Coalition

The Hungary Ministry of Information and Technology announced the establishment of the 

Artificial Intelligence Coalition on October 9, 2018.166 The Coalition is comprised of seventy 

members—representatives of Hungarian and international companies, universities, scientific 

workshops, and professional and administrative organizations. The goals of the coalition are to

• create the framework for cooperation in the AI area;

• serve as a reference point for the international AI community; and

• define the directions and the framework for AI-based development.167

The Coalition also aims to contribute to the development of an AI strategy, including assessing the 

socioeconomic impacts of AI.168

Hungary has not yet enacted any AI-related regulations. 

II. Autonomous Vehicles

On October 31, 2018, Hungary’s Minister of Transportation announced that Hungary was a leader 

in research and development of infrastructure for autonomous driving cars in Europe. The Minister 

also mentioned that Hungary is developing a “globally unique” test environment, which includes 

a self-driving vehicle test track in Zalaegerszeg, in western Hungary.169

 

19th Legislative Period], at 147, https://www.cdu.de/system/tdf/media/dokumente/koalitionsvertrag_2018. 

pdf?file=1, archived at http://perma.cc/WB46-7KXU.

165 Meeting of the Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems. Statement by France 

and Germany (under Agenda Item “General Exchange of Views”) (Apr. 9–13, 2018), https://www.unog.ch/ 

80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/895931D082ECE219C12582720056F12F/$file/2018_LAWSGeneralExchange_

Germany-France.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/2FQB-W8FX. 

166 Press Release, Ministry of Information and Technology, Megalakult a Mesterséges Intelligencia Koalíció [The 

Artificial Intelligence Coalition was Formed] (Oct. 9, 2018), http://www.kormany.hu/hu/innovacios-es-technologiaiminiszterium/hirek/megalakult-a-mesterseges-intelligencia-koalicio, archived at https://perma.cc/4D3E-HEZJ. 

167 Id.

168 Id.

169 Hungary Is a European Hub for R&D of Self-driving Cars, ABOUT HUNGARY (Oct. 31, 2018), http://about 

hungary.hu/news-in-brief/hungary-is-a-european-hub-for-rd-of-self-driving-cars/, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

L6BG-KG93.
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Iceland

I. General

The Icelandic Prime Minister addressed the issue of AI at the Global Positive Forum in 2018, 

stating that it is important that AI serve all and not just the few.170 Iceland is also the home to an 

independent institute that focuses on AI, the Icelandic Institute for Intelligent Machines 

(IIIM/Vitvélastofnun Íslands).171 The Institute has issued a recommended ethics policy to be used 

when conducting research and development on AI.

172

As noted above, the Nordic countries have also joined together in a number of collaborative 

responses to AI, including together with the Baltic States.173 

II. Autonomous Vehicles 

In 2016, the Icelandic Road and Coastal Administration (Vegagerðin) issued a report on selfdriving cars in Iceland.174 It concluded that the greatest variable risk in connection with selfdriving cars in Iceland is the Icelandic weather.175 At the time of publication there had been no 

convincing technological solutions to the risks associated with the weather.176 Iceland’s readiness 

to adopt autonomous vehicles has also been reviewed by the European Commission,177 which 

concluded that Icelandic weather was a problem and that the Icelandic infrastructure might need 

 170 Prime Minister’s Address at Global Positive Forum “Iceland: A Positive Model in Action,” GOVERNMENT 

OFFICES OF ICELAND (Nov. 20, 2018), https://www.government.is/news/article/2018/11/20/Prime-Ministers-addressat-Global-Positive-Forum-Iceland-a-positive-model-in-action-/, archived at https://perma.cc/XY9H-N39H. 

171 IIIM, http://www.iiim.is/, archived at https://perma.cc/5WY8-J3W6.

172 IIIM Ethics Policy, ICELANDIC INSTITUTE FOR INTELLIGENT MACHINES, http://www.iiim.is/ethics-policy/3/ (last 

visited Dec. 21, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/9XHQ-P4EA.

173 Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers & Government of Sweden, AI in the Nordic-Baltic Region, May 14, 

2018, https://www.regeringen.se/49a602/globalassets/regeringen/dokument/naringsdepartementet/20180514_nmr_ 

deklaration-slutlig-webb.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RT92-BWN7; Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers 

for Digitalization, The Nordic-Baltic Region: A Digital Frontrunner (Apr. 25, 2017), https://www.norden.org/ 

en/declaration/nordic-baltic-region-digital-frontrunner, archived at https://perma.cc/SUL2-XZT4; Press Release, 

Regeringskansliet, Sverige ska leda AI-samarbete i Norden och Baltikum (May 14, 2018), https://www.regeringen. 

se/pressmeddelanden/2018/05/sverige-ska-leda-ai-samarbete-i-norden-och-baltikum/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/6FPK-DSSB.

174 SJÁLFAKANDI BÍLAR, RÝNI AÐSTÆÐNA Á ÍSLANDI, VEGAGERÐIN (Jan. 2016), https://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/ 

default/files/project/documents/Sj%C3%A1lfakandi%20b%C3%ADlar.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/7S5SHXQV. 

175 Id. at ¶ 5.2. 

176 Id.

177 Readiness Assessment for Autonomous Vehicles in Iceland, EUROPEAN COMMISSION, https://trimis.ec.europa. 

eu/project/readiness-assessment-autonomous-vehicles-iceland (last visited Dec. 18, 2018), archived at

https://perma.cc/X98F-LYPG. 
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to be altered to accommodate autonomous vehicles.178 It was further suggested that autonomous 

testing by Volvo conducted in Gothenburg should be followed closely.179

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems 

Iceland does not have an active military. The Icelandic Parliament passed a resolution in 2016 to 

work towards the ban of LAWS.

180

Ireland

Ireland has been referred to multiple times in news reports as the “AI Island.” 181 The emergence 

of Ireland as a hub for the development of AI technology appears to be a natural evolution of the 

booming technology industry that is already established in the country, where several major 

technology businesses have their headquarters. Reports have noted that “much of Ireland’s 

prowess in AI in recent years is down to the maturing and upskilling of tech companies in 

Ireland,”182 rather than to the development of a strategy aiming to encourage the development of 

the AI industry. 

Ireland signed the EU Declaration on Artificial Intelligence on April 10, 2018. While there is 

currently no strategy solely dedicated to AI, Ireland notes that the Enterprise Strategy will cover 

developments in AI, and it revised its ICT Research Priority Areas for the period 2018–2023 to 

include AI.

183

 178 Id. (under the “Results” tab). 

179 Id. 

180 Þingsályktun um stuðning Íslands við að koma á alþjóðlegu banni við framleiðslu og beitingu sjálfvirkra og 

sjálfstýrðra vígvéla [] (Þingskjal 1486 — 68. mál. Nr. 45/145), https://www.althingi.is/altext/145/s/1486.html, 

archived at https://perma.cc/GTG7-EZR8; see also Arnhildur Hálfdánardóttir, Ísland beiti sér gegn drápsvélum, 

RUV (2015), http://www.ruv.is/frett/island-beiti-ser-gegn-drapsvelum, archived at https://perma.cc/AHK4-LDQS. 

181 John Kennedy, Why Ireland is the AI Island, SILICON REPUBLIC (Oct. 3, 2017), https://www.siliconrepublic.com/ 

machines/ai-island-ireland-ida-infographic, archived at https://perma.cc/L3VW-QCEQ. 

182 Id. See also Chris Horn, Ireland Needs a National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence, THE IRISH TIMES (June 28, 

2018), https://www.irishtimes.com/business/innovation/ireland-needs-a-national-strategy-for-artificial-intelligence1.3545739, archived at https://perma.cc/N9YP-UX7E. 

183 Minister Breen to Sign EU Declaration on Artificial Intelligence Aimed at Harnessing Opportunities for Ireland 

in the Sector, DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS, ENTERPRISE AND INNOVATION (Apr. 10, 2018), https://dbei.gov.ie/en/ 

News-And-Events/Department-News/2018/April/10042018.html, archived at https://perma.cc/9TR3-S26N. 
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Italy

I. AI in Italy

While other developed countries have a large number of startups exploring AI projects (e.g. as of 

April 2018, the US had 1,393, EU 769, China 383, and Israel 362), Italy reportedly has only 

twenty-two such initiatives.184 At the EU level, AI projects are being developed in the energy, 

automotive, construction, agriculture, public administration, and infrastructure areas, among 

others. In this context, AI experts in Italy have highlighted the need for the country to deepen its 

commitment to pan-European AI initiatives by creating or diversifying government, social, and 

investment programs that would allow access to the larger EU market for Italy-based AI 

projects.185 Also, experts note that Italy should put into place stronger conditions to attract foreign 

AI researchers and entrepreneurs.186

In July 2018, a group of higher education institutions created the Artificial Intelligence and 

Intelligent Systems Lab, with the aim of strengthening the country’s “basic and applied research 

in AI, support the country’s ICT industry by promoting technology transfer from research to 

entrepreneurship, and promote the adoption of AI solutions in the public administration.”187

In addition, the Italian Association for Artificial Intelligence, established in 1988, has about nine 

hundred members from academia, the government, and private companies, and holds an annual 

conference. 188 The Association’s areas of work are knowledge representation and reasoning,

machine learning, deep learning, optimization, planning, ontologies, robotics, natural language 

processing, and multi-agent systems.189 In particular, the Association has favored projects aimed at

• promoting innovative procurement to integrate AI solutions in public services,

• creating pilot projects for the use of AI in the public sector,

• fostering research and education, and 

• creating synergies with research institutions to promote the development of AI solutions for 

the public administration.190

 184 Netti Enrico, Intelligenza Artificiale, Europa Indietro [Artificial Intelligence, Europe Back], IL SOLE 24 ORE

(July 10, 2018), https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/tecnologie/2018-07-10/intelligenza-artificiale-europa-indietro112436.shtml, archived at https://perma.cc/A4JJ-883M.

185 Id. 

186 Id.

187 Tim Dutton, An Overview of National AI Strategies, MEDIUM (July 13, 2018), https://medium.com/politics-ai/anoverview-of-national-ai-strategies-2a70ec6edfd, archived at https://perma.cc/56DX-7CGD.

188 EUROPEAN COMMISSION, THE EUROPEAN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE LANDSCAPE (Apr. 18, 2018), 

https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/european-artificial-intelligence-landscape, archived at 

https://perma.cc/WPE4-U8MH.

189 Id. at 3. 

190 Id. at 17. 
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II. White Book on AI

In March 2018, the Agency for Digital Italy published a White Book on Artificial Intelligence that 

describes the current status of AI in Italy, calls on all stakeholders to improve access to AI in 

Europe and Italy, proposes a new common culture for innovation in public services, and sets forth 

challenges related to AI for the Three-Year Plan for Information Technology in the Public 

Administration, published in 2017.191 These challenges include 

• potential areas of application of AI initiatives; 

• ethical and technological challenges; 

• AI competency of government agencies; 

• data storage and sharing; 

• development of an appropriate legal framework for AI; and 

• promotion of key principles for advancing AI initiatives, including human dignity 

and equality.192

In particular, the White Book states the government’s interest in facilitating the adoption of AI 

strategies and approaches at public agencies in order to provide the general public with faster and 

more efficient services in, among others, the areas of public health, education, the judicial system, 

and public security.193

The White Book recognizes the need to update the legal and regulatory framework for AI in Italy, 

balancing public and private interests, as well as abiding by the principle of transparency of 

administrative acts, protection of privacy and copyright, fostering accountability, and establishing 

an effective system of social control for the protection of the fundamental rights of the person.194

The White Book includes ten recommendations for consideration by the government, including 

the creation of a “National Competence Center and a Trans-disciplinary Center on AI,” a national 

platform to promote the collection of annotated data, and measures to disseminate AI-related skills 

through the public administration.195

 191 AGENZIA PER L’ITALIA DIGITALE [AGENCY FOR DIGITAL ITALY], LIBRO BIANCO SULL’INTELLIGENZA 

ARTIFICIALE AL SERVIZIO DEL CITTADINO [WHITE BOOK ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AT THE SERVICE OF THE 

CITIZEN] (Mar. 2018), https://ia.italia.it/assets/librobianco.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/R8HM-LABV.

192 Id.

193 Id. at 9.

194 Id. at 11.

195 Dutton, supra note 187. See also LIBRO BIANCO SULL’INTELLIGENZA ARTIFICIALE AL SERVIZIO DEL CITTADINO 

supra note 191, at 72–74. 
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III. Development of a National AI Strategy

On September 13, 2018, the Italian government published a call for expressions of interest to 

become part of a group of high-level experts that will prepare a National Strategy on AI (the 

Group).196 The Group will be entrusted with the preparation of the National Strategy, with the aim 

of “developing policies and tools on the various issues related to the development and adoption of 

IA [AI] systems,” focusing on the following objectives:

• Improving research and coordination in the field of AI 

• Encouraging public and private investment in AI

• Attracting talent and entrepreneurial initiatives in the field of AI 

• Encouraging the development of the data-economy, with particular focus on the circulation of 

non-personal data according to the highest standards of interoperability and cybersecurity 

• Reviewing the existing legislative and regulatory framework applicable to products and 

services related to AI 

• Analyzing and evaluating the socioeconomic impacts likely to be caused by the widespread 

adoption of AI-based systems, and elaborating on the tools to mitigate these impacts197

The call for expressions of interest in becoming a member of the Group states that the National 

Strategy will be the subject of public consultation.198

IV. Autonomous Vehicles

Concerning self-driving cars in Italy, a Ministerial Decree of 2018 199 provides that the 

experimentation or testing of autonomous vehicles on a protected site or public streets must be 

performed by a human driver (supervisor) possessing certain specific qualifications, including 

among others, having possessed a driver’s license for at least five years concerning the specific 

vehicle under testing, and other requirements related to accreditation in another EU country and 

 196 Press Release, Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico [Ministry for Economic Development], Intelligenza 

Artificiale: Call per Esperti [Artificial Intelligence: Call for Experts] (Sept. 13, 2018), https://www.sviluppo 

economico.gov.it/index.php/it/intelligenza-artificiale-call, archived at https://perma.cc/N6V6-TVLK.

197 Id.

198 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Avviso Pubblico per la Manifestazione d’Interesse per la Selezione di 30 

Componenti del Gruppo di Esperti di Alto Livello per l’Elaborazione della Strategia Nazionale sull’Intelligenza 

Artificiale [Public Call for the Expression of Interest for the Selection of 30 Members of the Group of High-Level 

Experts for the Preparation of the National Strategy of Artificial Intelligence] (Sept. 13, 2018), http://www.sviluppo 

economico.gov.it/images/stories/documenti/Avviso-manifestazione-interesse-ia-2018-ultima-versione.pdf, archived 

at https://perma.cc/H4WF-NEFZ.

199 Decreto 28 Febbraio 2018 Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti, Modalita’ Attuative e Strumenti 

Operativi della Sperimentazione su Strada delle Soluzioni di Smart Road e di Guida Connessa e Automatica [Decree 

of February 28, 2018, Ministry of Infrastructure and Transportation, Implementing Modalities and Operative Tools 

of Road Testing of Solutions on Smart Road and of Connected and Automatic Guide], GAZZETTA UFFICIALE [G.U.]

[OFFICIAL GAZETTE] No. 90 (Apr. 18, 2018), http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2018/04/18/18A02619/sg, 

archived at https://perma.cc/GZ7H-7GEQ. 
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training in a third country where such vehicles operate for a specified minimum number of 

miles.200 In particular, the regulations require that the human driver be in a condition to promptly 

switch between the automatic and manual operation of the vehicle, and vice versa.201 

Jersey

The government of Jersey has stated that AI poses both a threat and opportunity to its jurisdiction, 

particularly with regard to its significant financial sector. Responsibility for digital matters lies 

with the Economic Development Minister, and the government has stated that it is “providing 

increased focus on the tech industry.”202 

Jersey has not issued a large volume of reports regarding the use of AI within its boundaries. The 

Strategic Review by Jersey Finance considered the use of AI within the financial services sector, 

but did not cover developments in depth.203

Kazakhstan

On January 31, 2017, the President of Kazakhstan announced five priority points for the third stage 

of the country’s modernization. 204 The first point of the program envisages accelerated 

technological modernization. The following steps are planned under this point: 

• Cultivate new industries created with the use of digital technologies and develop the country’s 

prospective sectors such as 3D-printing, e-commerce, mobile banking, and digital services

• Significantly increase the productivity of labor through widespread introduction of automation, 

robotics, AI, and exchange of “big data”205

The realization of this agenda will be aided by the implementation of the following projects in the 

AI sector:

 200 Id. art. 10(1).

201 Id. art. 10(2).

202 Political Responsibility for Digital Industry, GOV.JE (Sept. 18, 2018), https://www.gov.je/news/2018/pages/ 

politicaldigital.aspx, archived at https://perma.cc/2S9D-V9CQ. 

203 JERSEY FINANCE, FOCUSING ON THE FUTURE: STRATEGIC REVIEW REFRESH 2017 (2017), https://www.jersey 

finance.je/media/PDF-Publications/Jersey-Finance-Strategic-Review.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/66TN-AT2F. 

See also Written Question to the Chief Minister by Deputy M.R. Higgins of St. Helier, July 18, 2017, https://states 

assembly.gov.je/assemblyquestions/2017/(437)dep higgins to cm re studies into the impact of artificial intelligence 

and fintech on employment in financial services.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/EM4R-53UY. 

204 Speech, President Nursultan Nazarbayev, State of the Nation Address, Third Modernization of Kazakhstan: 

Global Competitiveness (Jan. 31, 2017), http://www.akorda.kz/en/addresses/addresses_of_president/the-presidentof-kazakhstan-nursultan-nazarbayevs-address-to-the-nation-of-kazakhstan-january-31-2017, archived at 

https://perma.cc/L8ZB-5R6W.

205 Id.
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• Creation of an international technopark of IT start-ups (Astana Hub)

• Creation of model factories based on Industry 4.0 technologies 

• Development of open platforms (Open API), Big Data, and AI

• Development of telecommunications infrastructure, including broadband internet access

• Implementation of Smart City components206

It is envisaged that the following IT and research centers will be the flagships for the development 

of AI in Kazakhstan: 

• Nazarbayev University

• Astana International Financial Centre 

• Astana International Technology Park of IT Startups

Additionally, Alatau Park of Innovative Technologies will undergo substantial reforms.207

Latvia

Following the successful implementation of an AI-powered virtual assistant pilot project by the 

Latvian Enterprise Register, in June 2018 the government of Latvia announced plans to enhance 

the integration of AI in the e-services provided by government agencies. According to the Ministry 

of Environment and Regional Development, the government intends to develop a uniform AI 

platform for the provision of e-services in the public administration sector.208

Lithuania

I. Innovation Program

Lithuania does not have stand-alone AI strategy or legislation. However, some of the elements of 

AI can be found in the Resolution of the Government of 2013 on the Lithuanian Innovation 

Development Program for 2014–2020.209 The goal of the Program is to “[mobilize] the state 

 206 Digital Kazakhstan: Current State of Affairs and Prospects for Future, PRIME MINISTER OF KAZAKHSTAN (Mar. 

10, 2018), https://primeminister.kz/en/news/all/tsifrovoi-kazahstan-realii-i-perspektivi-16155, archived at

https://perma.cc/Z89U-2UWU.

207 Id.

208 EUR 990,000 to be Spent on Integration of AI in Public e-Services in Latvia, THE BALTIC COURSE (June 14, 

2018), http://www.baltic-course.com/eng/good_for_business/?doc=140741, archived at https://perma.cc/YM65-

UAC4.

209 THE LITHUANIAN INNOVATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME 2014–2020, Approved by Resolution of of the 

Government of the Republic of Lithuania on December 18, 2013, http://eimin.lrv.lt/uploads/eimin/documents/ 

files/Lietuvos inovacijų plėtros programa_patvirtinta 2013 12 18_EN.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/PC43-7H9Q.
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resources for the improvement of Lithuania’s innovativeness and development of competitive 

economy based on high level knowledge, high technologies, qualified human resources and 

smart specialisation.”

II. Autonomous Vehicles

On December 7, 2017, Lithuania adopted a law that allows operation of self-driving cars without 

a driver being present. According to the Minister of Economy, “[t]he main goal of the law is to 

allow such a vehicle to come to Lithuania and be tested in Lithuania.”210

Luxembourg

Luxembourg aims to fully participate in the development of AI, as illustrated by the Grand Duchy’s 

cooperation with France and Germany for testing autonomous vehicles,211 and its partnership with 

the technology firm Nvidia for training and education in AI.212 Luxembourg also participates in 

the International Organization for Standardization’s technical committee on AI.213

Malta

Malta recently established a task force to create a national strategy for AI, aiming to push Malta 

forward as a leading nation in the development of this technology. According to the Maltese 

Parliamentary Secretary for Financial Services, Digital Economy and Innovation, the country’s 

objectives are

to dialogue with stakeholders, to build awareness of the key topics and issues that will 

inform a national AI Framework, consult on a policy that considers for ethically aligned, 

transparent and socially responsible AI, identify regulatory and fiscal measures to 

 210 The Lithuanian Parliament on Thursday Opened Up the Country’s Roads to Driverless Autonomous Vehicles, 

DELFI (Dec. 8, 2017), https://en.delfi.lt/lithuania/politics/parliament-opens-lithuanias-roads-to-driverlessautonomous-vehicles.d?id=76583023, archived at https://perma.cc/NV4F-NZFZ.

211 FRANCO-GERMAN-LUXEMBURGISH COOPERATION ON AUTOMATED AND CONNECTED DRIVING: CONCEPT FOR THE 

CROSS-BORDER DIGITAL TEST BED (May 8, 2018), https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/2018-

05-08 Concept Digital Test Bed GER FRA LUX.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/BK6Y-9HQT.

212 Jonas Mercier, Le Luxembourg s’allie à Nvidia autour de l’IA [Luxembourg Allies Itself with Nvidia on AI], 

PAPERJAM (July 4, 2018), http://paperjam.lu/news/le-luxembourg-sallie-a-nvidia-autour-de-lia, archived at 

https://perma.cc/G5J7-4833.

213 Le Luxembourg rejoint la communauté internationale des experts en intelligence artificielle [Luxembourg Joins 

the International Community of Experts on Artificial Intelligence], PORTAIL-QUALITE.LU (Jan. 11, 2018), 

https://portail-qualite.public.lu/fr/actualites/normes-normalisation/2018/lux-experts-intelligence-artificielle.html, 

archived at https://perma.cc/SWX8-QCDN; Participation: ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 42 Artificial Intelligence, 

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, https://www.iso.org/committee/6794475.html?view= 

participation (last visited Nov. 23, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/4W7M-SZDY. 
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strengthen Malta’s appeal as a hub for foreign investment in this sector, and identify the 

underlying skill base and infrastructure needed to support AI.214

The task force is under the responsibility of the Malta Digital Innovation Authority. In addition to 

developing a national strategy, the task force will also draft regulations to govern the development 

of AI, and is establishing a pilot program to consider a citizenship test for robots.215

Netherlands216

I. Government Statements and Actions

Following proposals from several ministers, the Dutch government decided to “commission more 

research into the societal effects of technological developments and to establish an inter-ministerial 

working group to study this issue.”217 Dutch Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations Kajsa 

Ollongren has also requested a legal study into how the use of algorithms may affect human 

rights.218 A group of experts will evaluate the results and propose possible solutions. Furthermore, 

the Dutch government plans to study decision-making algorithms in general and how existing legal 

frameworks apply to them.219

The Dutch government also plans to request an advisory opinion from the Scientific Council for 

Government Policy (WRR) on the impact of AI on public values.220 Finally, the Council for Public 

Administration (ROB) was instructed to “investigate the opportunities and threats presented by 

digitalization for the functioning of modern democratic societies and to set out a framework for 

action for public administration.”221

II. Dutch Financial Market Authority

On March 15, 2018, the Dutch Financial Market Authority (Autoriteit Financiële Markten, AFM) 

released two publications, one on automated advisory services for various financial products 

 214 Press Release, Parliamentary Secretariat for Financial Services, Digital Economy and Innovation, Launch of 

Malta.ai – the Maltese Government’s Vision on Artificial Intelligence (Nov. 1, 2018), https://www.gov.mt/en/ 

Government/Press%20Releases/Pages/2018/November/01/PR182351en.aspx, archived at https://perma.cc/457CEUKB. 

215 Homepage, MALTA.AI, https://malta.ai/ (last visited Nov. 14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/8PWK-FKQJ. 

216 At present there are no Law Library of Congress research staff members versed in Dutch. This survey of the law 

of the Netherlands has been prepared by the author’s reliance on practiced legal research methods and on the basis 

of relevant legal resources, chiefly in English, currently available in the Law Library and online.

217 Press Release, Government of the Netherlands, Cabinet to Investigate Societal Impact of New Technologies 

(Mar. 9, 2018), https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2018/03/09/cabinet-to-investigate-societal-impact-of-newtechnologies, archived at http://perma.cc/HFP4-HJ22. 

218 Id.

219 Id.

220 Id.

221 Id.
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(“robo advice”)222 and the other on automated and semi-automated portfolio management.223 The 

two publications clarify how current financial laws and regulations apply to these fields. They 

point out that the laws do not make a distinction between automated and human financial 

advice/portfolio management and that the same duty of care standards apply; they are technology 

neutral. However, the publications highlight a few points that need special attention, in particular 

the areas of data protection and privacy laws. The AFM also supervises the degree of process, IT 

control, and quality of the algorithms.224 Algorithms must be designed in a way to prevent personal 

preferences and take the client’s interests into account.225 Systems must be tested and monitored 

on a regular basis.226

III. Dutch Police

In August 2018, the police of the East Netherlands announced that it was developing a chatbot 

named “Wout” to offer people more possibilities to report cases to the police.227 At the beginning, 

Wout will only be available on Facebook Messenger and later expand to all kinds of social media 

services. The chatbot will start out with a selected set of questions and answers, but will be trained 

to learn from conversations and handle any type of question in the future. It is slated to be launched 

in the third quarter of 2019.228

IV. Autonomous Vehicles

In October 2018, an amendment to the Dutch Road Traffic Act was published in the Official 

Gazette that allows the experimental use of self-driving vehicles without a human driver present 

in the car on public roads.229 Companies must apply for a permit with the Dutch Vehicle Authority 

(Dienst Wegverkeer, RDW). A permit is issued for three years.230

 222 AFM, THE AFM’S VIEW ON ROBO ADVICE. OPPORTUNITIES, DUTY OF CARE AND POINTS OF ATTENTION (Mar. 15, 

2018), https://www.afm.nl/~/profmedia/files/onderwerpen/roboadvies-sav/view-robo-advice.pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/23T9-HCP5.

223 AFM, GUIDANCE ON THE DUTY OF CARE IN (SEMI)AUTOMATED PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT (Mar. 15, 2018), 

https://www.afm.nl/~/profmedia/files/onderwerpen/roboadvies-sav/guidance-duty-care.pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/L5X8-HY2X.

224 AFM, THE AFM’S VIEW ON ROBO ADVICE, supra note 222, at 23, para. 5.2.

225 AFM, GUIDANCE, supra note 223, at 12, para. 2.1.1.

226 Id. at 13, paras. 2.1.3, 2.1.4.

227 Pim Lindemann, Politie Oost-Nederland krijgt hulp van chat-robot Wout [The East-Netherlands Police Are

Getting Help From Chatbot Wout], DE GELDERLANDER (Aug. 4, 2018), https://www.gelderlander.nl/home/politieoost-nederland-krijgt-hulp-van-chat-robot-wout~a3de02a5/, archived at http://perma.cc/3TWM-Z7MM. 

228 Id.

229 Wet tot wijziging van de Wegenverkeerswet 1994 in verband met mogelijk maken van experimenten met 

geautomatiseerde systemen in motorrijtuigen [Act to Amend the Road Traffic Act 1994 in Connection With Making 

the Experimental Use of Automated Motor Vehicle Systems Possible], Sept. 26, 2018, STAATSBLAD VAN HET 

KONINKRIJK DER NEDERLANDEN [STB.] [OFFICIAL GAZETTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS] 2018, no. 347, 

https://zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl/stb-2018-347.html, archived at http://perma.cc/7DT5-B4J9. The Road 

Traffic Act has not yet been updated.

230 Id. art. 149ab, para. 1.
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V. Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems

In April 2015, the Dutch Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Defense requested an advisory report 

on legal, ethical, and policy issues with regard to LAWS from the Advisory Council on 

International Affairs (AIV) and the Advisory Committee on Issues of Public International Law 

(CAVV).231 The report, which was published in October 2015, concluded that meaningful human 

control is required in the deployment of autonomous weapon systems. The Dutch government 

concurs with this view.232 It therefore proposed, among other things, to establish a GGE at the 

2015 annual meeting of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) to study this 

issue.233 The Dutch government emphasizes that it rejects the development of fully autonomous 

weapon systems without any human control.234

Norway

I. National Agenda

Norway has adopted a national digital agenda, which includes a focus on AI investments.235 In the 

agenda the government presents how Norway can best utilize the possibilities of AI and modern 

technology.236 In addition Norway signed onto the EU collaboration on AI as part of Digital Day 

2018.237 Norwegian government agencies also use AI in their operations.238

 231 AIV & CAVV, Autonomous Weapon Systems: The Need for Meaningful Human Control (AIV Report No. 97, 

CAVV Report No. 26, Oct. 2015), https://aiv-advies.nl/download/606cb3b1-a800-4f8a-936f-af61ac991dd0.pdf, 

archived at http://perma.cc/55UL-PKXX. 

232 Government Response to AIV/CAVV Advisory Report No. 97, Autonomous Weapon Systems: The Need for 

Meaningful Human Control, AIV (Mar. 2, 2016), https://aiv-advies.nl/8gr/publications/advisory-reports/ 

autonomous-weapon-systems-the-need-for-meaningful-human-control#government-responses, archived at

http://perma.cc/J37M-UQ33. 

233 Id.

234 Id.

235 Meldinger til Stortignet [Meld. St.] 27 (2015–2016) Digital Agenda for Norge — IKT for en enklere hverdag og 

økt produktivitet (Report from Government to Parliament), https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/fe3e34 

b866034b82b9c623c5cec39823/no/pdfs/stm201520160027000dddpdfs.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/6S55-

72GZ; see also the Norwegian Board of Technology’s (Parliamentary Advisor) report on AI and its possible uses in 

Norway, TEKNOLOGIRÅDET, KUNSTIG INTELLIGENS – MULIGHETER, UTFODRINGER O GEN PLAN FOR NORGE (Sept. 

2018), https://teknologiradet.no/wp-content/uploads/sites/105/2018/09/Rapport-Kunstig-intelligens-ogmaskinlaering-til-nett.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/6DMR-HT93. 

236 Meld. St. 27 (2015–2016) Digital Agenda for Norge — IKT for en enklere hverdag og økt produktivitet, supra 

note 235, at 11. 

237 Randi Bjørhei, Europeisk erklæring om kunstig intelligens, LOVDATA (Apr. 11, 2018), https://lovdata.no/ 

artikkel/europeisk_erklaering_om_kunstig_intelligens/2117, archived at https://perma.cc/XSN4-GFPX. 

238 Proposjon til Stortinget [Prop.] 1 S (2018–2019) [Budget Bill for Fiscal Year 2019], https://www.regjeringen.no/ 

contentassets/e166b6e0a392456a9f0e84eecea2472f/no/pdfs/prp201820190001hoddddpdfs.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/E6V4-G3QS. 
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As noted above, the Nordic countries have also joined together in a number of collaborative 

responses to AI, including together with the Baltic States.239 

II. Autonomous Vehicles 

The testing of self-driving cars in Norway is regulated by law.240 The purpose of the law is to 

enable the testing of self-driving technology while also factoring in traffic safety and 

privacy protection.241

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons System 

Norway has issued a number of statements on LAWS, but has yet to adopt an outright policy.242

Speaking more generally on LAWS at the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons meeting 

in 2016, the Norwegian representative declared that it “is necessary to ensure that the basic rules 

and principles of international law are upheld.”243

Poland

I. AI Strategy

Poland’s Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport has presented the Operational Program for 

Digital Poland 2014–2020. 244The aim of the Program is to strengthen digital foundations for 

national development, including common “access to a high-speed Internet, effective and userfriendly public e-services and a continuously rising level of digital competences of the society.”245

The Polish government initiated the development of an AI strategy in 2018 in line with the 

priorities outlined in the Operational Program for Digital Poland. In addition, a roundtable 

 239 Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers & Government of Sweden, AI in the Nordic-Baltic Region, May 14, 

2018, https://www.regeringen.se/49a602/globalassets/regeringen/dokument/naringsdepartementet/20180514_nmr_ 

deklaration-slutlig-webb.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RT92-BWN7; Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers 

for Digitalization, The Nordic-Baltic Region: A Digital Frontrunner (Apr. 25, 2017), https://www.norden.org/ 

en/declaration/nordic-baltic-region-digital-frontrunner, archived at https://perma.cc/SUL2-XZT4; Press Release, 

Regeringskansliet, Sverige ska leda AI-samarbete i Norden och Baltikum (May 14, 2018), https://www.regeringen. 

se/pressmeddelanden/2018/05/sverige-ska-leda-ai-samarbete-i-norden-och-baltikum/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/6FPK-DSSB.

240 LOV OM UTPRØVING AV SELVKJØRENDE KJØRETØY [ACT ON TESTING OF SELF-DRIVING VEHICLES] (LOV 2017-

12-15-112), https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2017-12-15-112, archived at https://perma.cc/8CB3-LYBZ. 

241 Id. 1 §.

242 UNOG, CCW Meeting of Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons, 13–16 May 2014, General Statement by 

Norway, http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/D47349EE647EB6BBC1257CD7005DA52D/$file/ 

Norway_MX_LAWS_2014.pdf (last visited Dec. 21, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/TP8W-UYTT. 

243 Id. at 2. 

244 OPERATIONAL PROGRAMME, DIGITAL POLAND 2014–2020, https://www.polskacyfrowa.gov.pl/media/10410/ 

POPC_eng_1632015.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/Y56B-ZFJ5.

245 Id.
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discussion regarding AI and the strategy was held with the participation of the Vice-President of 

the Council of Ministers, the Minister of Science and Higher Education, the Deputy Minister of 

Digital Affairs, and representatives of the scientific community and supporting institutions, 

including the director of the National Center for Research and Development.246 It is anticipated 

that once the strategy is developed, Polish businesses will be better placed to obtain state and 

EU funding.247

Poland has not yet developed specific legislation to address AI. 

II. Autonomous Vehicles

On January 11, 2018, the Polish Sejm adopted the Law on Electromobility and Alternative 

Fuels.248 Article 65K of the Law defines autonomous vehicle as “a vehicle, equipped with systems 

that control the movement of the vehicle and enables its motion without driver intervention, which 

can take control of the vehicle at any time”249 The Law also stipulates that conducting research of 

autonomous vehicles for transit of transportation purposes is allowed, provided that the safety 

conditions are met and mandatory permits are obtained. 250 A designated stand-by driver must be 

present in the vehicle during the test drive.251

Portugal

I. New General Regulation on Data Protection 

As noted in the European Union survey, the European Parliament and the Council of the European 

Union approved a new general regulation on the protection of individuals with regard to the

processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data on April 27, 2016.252 The 

regulation was created to protect citizens from the processing of personal data on a large scale by 

 246 Krzysztof Suwar, Rewolucyjny Plan dla Polski. Powstaje Pierwsza w Kraju Strategia Rozwoju Sztucznej 

Inteligencji [A Revolutionary Plan for Poland. The First Strategy of the Development of Artificial Intelligence is 

Being Created in Poland], MONEY.PL (May 21, 2018), https://www.money.pl/gospodarka/wiadomosci/artykul/ 

rewolucyjny-plan-dla-polski-powstaje,205,0,2406605.html, archived at https://perma.cc/6PCT-LPEL.

247 Poland to Invest in Artificial Intelligence, POLAND IN (Sept. 6, 2018), https://polandin.com/38866891/poland-toinvest-in-artificial-intelligence, archived at https://perma.cc/P7V6-WKZJ.

248 Ustawa z Dnia 11 Stycznia 2018 r. o Elektromobilności i Paliwach Alternatywnych [Law on Electromobility and 

Alternative Fuels], http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20180000317/T/D20180317L.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/98YP-3WJU.

249 Id. art. 65K. 

250 Id. art. 651.1, 651.2.

251 Id. art. 65n.

252 Regulation 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of 

Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and 

Repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) (GDPR), 2016 O.J. (L 119) 1, http://eur-lex. 

europa eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679&from=EN, archived at https://perma.cc/3BV7-

SSER.
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large companies and information society services.253 It entered into force in the European Union on 

May 25, 2018.254 Portugal has yet to transpose the new regulation into its domestic legal system.255

Portuguese news sources have noted that the new rules should boost consumer and business 

confidence.256 With the new general regulation, it becomes possible to ask a company to reveal 

all the data it has about a person, erase this data, and review some decisions made by software.257 

Concerns over the protection of digital data and the impact of AI on workers are among the main 

concerns of several Portuguese companies who would otherwise invest in the area.258 

II. AI and the Law

Portugal is taking the first steps to use AI in the area of justice.259 A legal assistance tool adapted 

to the Portuguese reality that conducts research on the requests made and learns from them will 

soon be launched in the country.260 Some have speculated that, in the future, with the use of the 

same technology, it will be possible to launch a tool that predicts the probability of success of a 

judicial process with the use of AI for the analysis of a repository of judgments issued by the EU

with more than three hundred thousand decisions of the Portuguese High Courts.261

III. Health, Urban Mobility, Education, and Land Use

Portugal is using more AI in several projects to analyze data from the public administration in 

order to find hidden information and create solutions in the areas of health, education, urban 

mobility, and land use and planning.262 All initiatives result from cooperation between scientific 

 253 Regulameto Geral de Proteção de Dados – O que Precisa de Saber, PPLWARE (May 25, 2018), https://pplware. 

sapo.pt/informacao/regulamento-geral-de-protecao-de-dados-o-que-precisa-de-saber/, archived at

https://perma.cc/4JSL-UFWZ. 

254 Id.

255 Perguntas Frequentes (FAQs), COMISSÃO NACIONAL DE PROTECÇÃO DE DADOS, https://www.cnpd.pt/bin/faqs/ 

faqs.htm. 

256 Id.

257 Karla Pequenino, Investigadores Receiam Impacto de Regras de Privacidade na Inteligência Artificial, PÚBLICO

(May 24, 2018), https://www.publico.pt/2018/05/24/tecnologia/noticia/academicos-receiam-que-novas-regras-deprivacidade-europeias-atrasem-a-inteligencia-artificial-1830138, archived at https://perma.cc/FWC2-2WRY. 

258 Karla Pequenino, Protecção de Dados Preocupa Empresas Portuguesas a Investir em Inteligência Artificial, 

PÚBLICO (Oct. 9, 2018), https://www.publico.pt/2018/10/09/tecnologia/noticia/portugal-relatorio-inteligenciaartificial-abaixo-media-europeia-1846720, archived at https://perma.cc/CZ87-WQAB. 

259 Mariana Oliveira, Como a Tecnologia Está a Revolucionar o Mundo do Direito, PÚBLICO (Nov. 1, 2018), 

https://www.publico.pt/2018/11/01/sociedade/noticia/justica-artificial-tecnologia-revolucionar-mundo-direito1849618, archived at https://perma.cc/447S-WX6K. 

260 Id.

261 Id.

262 Karla Pequenino, Governo Financia Inteligência Artificial na Saúde, Mobilidade e Educação, PÚBLICO (Oct. 24, 

2018), https://www.publico.pt/2018/10/24/tecnologia/noticia/governo-inteligencia-artificial-dados-administracaopublica-1848718, archived at https://perma.cc/Q2J6-GXEQ.
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institutions and entities of the public administration that are being developed under the innovation 

axis of the National Digital Competencies Initiative, which the government established in 2017 to 

increase digital skills in the country.263

Russia

In 2017, President Putin expressed his opinion that the country that masters AI first will become 

the “ruler of the world.”264 Russia’s efforts in the development of AI infrastructure focus on 

upgrading the country’s capabilities in the area of defense. 

I. Action Plan

In March 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Education and Science and Russian 

Academy of Sciences hosted a conference titled Artificial Intelligence—Problems and Their 

Solutions. The outcome of the conference was a ten-point action plan for the development of AI 

technologies in Russia265 that included the following:

1. Establishing a Big Data Consortium with the aim of unifying the efforts of leading scientific, 

educational, and industrial organizations in creating and implementing AI technologies. 

2. Gaining automation expertise: The Academy of Sciences, in conjunction with the Ministry of 

Defense, Ministry of Education and Science, and the Ministry of Industry and Trade, “should 

intensify efforts to establish a Fund for Analytical Algorithms and Programs to provide 

expertise on automated systems” for different purposes.266

3. Creating a state system for AI training and education: The Ministry of Education and Science, 

jointly with the Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Defense, should prepare proposals for 

the creation of a state system of education and re-education of specialists in the area of AI. 

4. Building an AI laboratory at the Era science, technology, and research campus: The Ministry 

of Defense, jointly with the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations, Moscow State 

University, and the Informatics and Development research center, should create a laboratory 

for AI advanced software and technical solutions at the Era campus in the City of Anapa, where 

the “military and the private sector can work together on breakthrough technologies such as 

 263 Id.

264 ‘Whoever Leads in AI Will Rule the World’: Putin to Russian Children on Knowledge Day, RUSSIA TODAY (Sept. 

1, 2017), https://www.rt.com/news/401731-ai-rule-world-putin/, archived at https://perma.cc/2ST6-YHDL.

265 Konferentsia “Iskusstvenij Intellect: Problemi I Puti Ikh Reshenia” – 2018” [Conference: “Artificial 

Intelligence: Problems and Their Solutions” – 2018], MINISTRY OF DEFENSE OF RUSSIA, http://mil.ru/conferences/ 

is-intellekt.htm (last visited Nov. 9, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/5BSH-JHFX.

266 Samuel Bendett, Here’s How the Russian Military Is Organizing to Develop AI, DEFENSE ONE (July 20, 2018), 

https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2018/07/russian-militarys-ai-development-roadmap/149900/, archived at

https://perma.cc/GEN4-E7RV.
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AI, robotics, automation and other fields.”267 The campus is scheduled to be completed in 

2020. The Russian military is already sending personnel from its science and technology 

detachments to start work there.268

5. Establishing a National Center for Artificial Intelligence: The Academy of Sciences, jointly 

with the Foundation for Advanced Research, should prepare a proposal for the creation of the 

National Center for Artificial Intelligence. The Center would assist in the development of 

scientific potential, development of innovative infrastructure in the area of AI technologies, 

and realization of the results of theoretical research and feasible projects in the area of AI. 

6. Monitoring global AI development: The Ministry of Defense, jointly with the Ministry of 

Education and Science, should monitor and assess recent developments and engage in allencompassing studies in the area of AI.

7. Holding AI war games: The Ministry of Defense should organize and carry out a series of war 

games with a broad spectrum of scenarios, defining the influence of AI models on the changing

character of military operations at different levels—tactical, operational, and strategic. 

8. Checking for AI Compliance: The Foundation for Advanced Research, jointly with the 

Academy of Science, Ministry of Defense, and Federal Agency of Scientific Organizations,

should prepare a proposal for creating on the territory of the Russian Federation a system for 

evaluating the compliance of AI technologies with standards. 

9. Discussing AI proposals at domestic military forums: The above-mentioned proposals should 

be considered by “interested federal executive bodies” during the international militarytechnical forum “Army—2018” and National Security Week, held in August 2018.

10. Holding an annual AI conference: The Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Defense, and 

Ministry of Education and Science should hold an annual AI conference.269

II. Institutional Arrangements

The Russian Federation has not yet enacted legislation or regulations governing AI. At present, 

the Ministry of Defense is the main government agency coordinating or setting policy priorities 

for issues concerning AI. Other relevant government agencies are the Ministry of Education and 

Science and the Ministry of Industry and Trade. The Academy of Sciences and Moscow State 

University are the institutional partners of the government in the development of AI technologies. 

In 2012, the government enacted a law that created the Foundation for Advanced Research,270 with 

the aim of promoting the development and creation of innovative technologies and producing high-

 267 Id. 

268 Id.

269 Id.

270 FEDERALJNIJ ZAKON OT 16 OKTJABRJA 2012G, N174-FZ O FONDE PERSPEKTIVNIX ISSLEDOVANIJ [FEDERAL LAW 

AS OF OCTOBER 16, 2012 N174-RF ABOUT THE FOUNDATION FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH], https://fpi.gov.ru/ 
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tech military products for special and dual use. The Foundation operates under the auspices of the 

Russian Military-Industrial Commission, which is overseen by the President of the Russian 

Federation.271 According the Action Plan, the Foundation acts as a clearing and incubation house 

for innovative technologies, including those relating to AI. 

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems 

In line with the government’s approach of strengthening the military through the development of 

AI technologies, Russia expressed an ambition to develop lethal autonomous weapons. The Head 

of General Staff of the Russian Army has stated, “[c]ertainly, every military conflict has its own 

distinctive features. The main features of future conflicts will be the widespread use of highprecision and other types of weapons, including robotic ones. The objects of the economy and the 

government system of the enemy will be destroyed first.”272 Additionally, Russia, along with the 

United States, blocked a proposed treaty banning LAWS at a meeting of parties to the Convention 

on Certain Conventional Weapons.273 Russia has previously expressed in a written statement its 

opinion that the following grounds support not having such a ban:

• There is currently no clear definition of LAWS, and “the lack of working samples of such 

weapons systems remains the main problem in the discussion on LAWS.”274

• The difficulty of making a clear distinction between civilian and military developments of 

autonomous systems based on the same technologies.275

Consequently, Russia sees the future discussions being focused on harmonization of the basic 

principles of LAWS along with defining certain concepts with regard to LAWS: “Further work on 

key aspects of such weapons which relate to the notions of ‘autonomy,’ ‘critical functions,’

‘meaningful human control,’ ‘predictability,’ etc., will depend on the definition of LAWS.”276

 

about/documents/federalyniy_zakon_ot_16_oktyabrya_2012_g_n_174_fz_o_fonde_perspektivnih_issledovaniy, 

archived at https://perma.cc/RW7B-EXY8.

271 Osnovnaja Informacija [General Information], FOND PERSPECITVNIX ISSLEDOVANIJ [FOUNDATION FOR 

ADVANCED RESEARCH], https://fpi.gov.ru/about/obshtaya_informatsiya (last visited Dec. 11, 2018), archived at

https://perma.cc/NX5F-7KNH.

272 Ispol’zovanie Robotov i Shirokoe Primenenie Vysokotochnogo Oruzhija Stanut Osnovnymi Osobennostjami Vojn 

Budushhego – Nachal’nik Genshtaba Rossijskoj Armii [The Use of Robots and the Widespread Use of Precision 

Weapons Will Be the Main Features of Future Wars – Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Army], INTERFAKS,

ABN, AGENSTVO BOENNIX NOVOSTEJ [INTERFAX, MNA, MILITARY NEWS AGENCY] (Mar. 24, 2018),

http://www.militarynews.ru/ story.asp?rid=1&nid=476975, archived at https://perma.cc/B2VZ-D5EE.

273 Handful of Countries – Including the US and Russia – Hamper Discussions to Ban Killer Robots at UN, FUTURE 

OF LIFE INSTITUTE (Nov. 26, 2018), https://futureoflife.org/2018/11/26/handful-of-countries-including-the-us-andrussia-hamper-discussions-to-ban-killer-robots-at-un/, archived at https://perma.cc/4X4A-JVLD.

274 Submission of the Russian Federation to the GGE of the High Contracting Parties to the CCW, Examination of 

Various Dimensions of Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, in the Context 

of the Objectives and Purposes of the Convention, UN Doc No. CCW/GGE.1/2017/WP.8 (Nov. 10, 2017), available 

at https://admin.govexec.com/media/ russia.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/B9WW-2DYW.

275 Id.

276 Id.
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IV. Autonomous Vehicles

Driverless cars have been produced in Russia since 2016 by the largest national internet company 

Yandex and several startups. State-owned car manufacturers, known for the poor quality of their 

cars, are practically absent from the autonomous vehicle market. Major foreign car manufacturers, 

such as Scania, Volvo, Toyota, and Audi, have expressed interest in testing their autonomous 

vehicles in traditionally difficult Russian driving conditions.277

Industry experts predict that by the year 2025 there will be around 20,000 driverless cars on 

Russian roads.278 However, the production and use of autonomous vehicles is not regulated. The 

State Duma (Russian legislature) did not include laws regulating driverless cars in its legislative 

agenda, and in September 2018 one of the Duma leaders stated that parliamentarians are going to 

legislate on “other problems of the transportation infrastructure and highway construction, which 

are more important.”279 

The first nationwide regulation in this field was issued by the Cabinet of Ministers of the Russian 

Federation in November 2018 and only addresses testing.280 Specifically, the regulation requires 

experiments in the test use of highly automated vehicles on public roads in two Russian regions 

between December 1, 2018, and March 1, 2022. The government has designated a national 

research laboratory to review test applications from the owners of driverless cars and coordinate 

testing. Reports for the government summarizing the test results and proposing further 

developments, including recommendations for technical requirements and standards for the 

practical use of autonomous vehicles, must be submitted by March 2020 and again in 2022.281

 277 New Legislation Set to Regulate Russia’s Burgeoning Driverless Car Market, THE BELL (Nov. 10, 2018), 

https://thebell.io/en/new-legislation-set-to-regulate-russia-s-burgeoning-driverless-car-market/, archived at

https://perma.cc/PE62-TRZ9. 

278 Elena Botoroeva, There Will Be 11 Million Driverless Cars in Russia in 25 Years, PARLAMENTSKAIA GAZETA

(Nov. 12, 2018), https://www.pnp.ru/social/v-rossii-cherez-25-let-budet-11-mln-bespilotnykh-avto-schitayut-vrosstandarte.html (in Russian), archived at https://perma.cc/5WUQ-N2ZQ. 

279 Ivan Buranov, Transportation Ministry Proposes Amendments to the Vienna Convention, KOMMERSANT.RU

(Sept. 8, 2018), https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3736763?from=doc_vrez (in Russian), archived at

https://perma.cc/6CT2-W3DY. 

280 Government of the Russian Federation, Regulation No. 1415 of Nov. 26, 2018, on Conducting an Experiment in 

the Test Use of Highly Automated Vehicles on Public Roads, http://government.ru/docs/34831/ (in Russian), 

archived at https://perma.cc/T89Q-LQF2. 

281 Id.
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Slovenia

Some of the elements of an AI development strategy and priorities can be found in Digital 

Transformation of Slovenia, a report prepared by the Ministry of Public Administration.282 The 

report proposes the creation of a machine-readable National Open Data Portal, which would be a 

clearinghouse for government data.283

In the Digital Transformation report, the government also indicated its support for connected 

automated driving (CAD) and stated that it has started preparatory activities relating to cooperative 

systems.284 C-Roads Slovenia is a pilot project involving the introduction of cooperative systems 

to transfer vehicle-to-vehicle, vehicle-to-infrastructure, and infrastructure-to-vehicle information 

in real time. According to the government, these systems can significantly improve the efficiency 

of the transportation system, the safety of all road users, and the comfort of mobility. 

In early October 2016, the C-Roads platform became operational. The platform integrates state 

institutions and road operators from eleven EU Member States. The platform coordinates activities 

for the implementation of cooperative intelligent transport systems (C-ITS) in Europe.285

Spain

I. Artificial Intelligence Activities

Spain has a number of AI research organizations, hosted in computer science programs run by 

universities and other academic institutions.286 Leading AI research entities include the Asociación 

Espanola de Inteligencia Artificial (Spanish AI Association, AEPIA) and the Instituto de 

Investigación en Inteligencia Artificial (Artificial Intelligence Research Institute, IIIA) hosted in 

the Autonomous University of Barcelona (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona). These entities 

are active participants in both national and international efforts to support and promote research 

and development in AI.287

 282 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OF SLOVENIA, REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA, DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION OF 

SLOVENIA (Jan. 2018), http://www.mju.gov.si/fileadmin/mju.gov.si/pageuploads/SOJ/2017/digitalna_preobrazba_ 

brosura/Slovenian_Digital_Transformation_January_2018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/2X3A-GP8P.

283 Id. at 21.

284 Id. 

285 Id.

286 EUROPEAN COMMISSION, THE EUROPEAN AI LANDSCAPE: WORKSHOP REPORT 22–23 (Apr. 18, 2018), 

https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/european-artificial-intelligence-landscape, archived at 

https://perma.cc/56V7-WKDV. 

287 Id. at 23. See generally ASOCIACIÓN ESPANOLA DE INTELIGENCIA ARTIFICIAL (AEPIA) [SPANISH AI

ASSOCIATION], http://www.aepia.org/aepia/, archived at https://perma.cc/UJ74-JV7X, and INSTITUTO DE 

INVESTIGACIÓN EN INTELIGENCIA ARTIFICIAL (IIIA) [ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE], 

https://www.iiia.csic.es/es, archived at https://perma.cc/38B7-3KF6. 
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II. Government Initiatives

As part of the Digital Strategy for a Smart Spain 2025, in November 2017 the Secretary of State 

for the Information Technology Society and the Digital Agenda created a working group of experts 

to develop official guidelines on AI. 288 The group includes businesspeople, professors, and 

government officials who are reputable and well-known experts in their respective areas 

of knowledge.289

The findings of the working group will be published in the Libro Blanco de Inteligencia Artificial

(White Book on Artificial Intelligence, WBAI), which is aimed at addressing the social, legal, and 

ethical implications of the use of AI and big data in the private and public sectors as well as the 

Spanish society in general.290

The WBAI working group was expected to have a draft completed by May 2018.291 The WBAI 

recommendations will be the basis for a code of ethics and a legal framework on the use of AI data 

in the public administration as well as a related code of good practices for companies, to be 

prepared by the government.292

In August 2018, the working group submitted a draft of the WBAI to the new Spanish government 

headed by Pedro Sanchez. 293 Although the working group, created by the previous Spanish 

government, has not been dissolved, the deadline for the WBAI publication is not clear, as there 

has been no official announcement in this regard.294 

In addition, Spain signed the EU Cooperation Agreement on Artificial Intelligence on April 10, 

2018. 295 The agreement aims to promote Europe’s technology and industrial capacity in AI, 

address the challenge that AI poses to the labor market and education and training systems in the 

 288 Grupo de Sabios Creara Libro Blanco de Inteligencia Artificial y Big Data [Experts Group Will Create a White 

Book on AI and Big Data], DIARIO PERSPECTIVA (Nov. 14, 2017), https://diarioperspectiva.com/grupo-sabioscreara-libro-blanco-la-inteligencia-artificial-big-data-espana/, archived at https://perma.cc/N9R2-AFZH.

289 Id.

290 Id.

291 Id.

292 Id.

293 El Gobierno de Sanchez Retrasa Estrategia Espanola de Inteligencia Artificial [The Government of Sanchez 

Delays the Spanish Strategy on AI], EL ESPANOL (Oct. 25, 2018), https://www.elespanol.com/economia/ 

20181025/gobierno-sanchez-retrasa-estrategia-espanola-inteligencia-artificial/347966537_0.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/9CBA-HMEC. 

294 Id.

295 Espana Firma un Acuerdo de Cooperación en Inteligencia Artificial Junto a Otros 24 Estados de la Unión 

Europea [Spain Signs a Cooperation Agreement on AI with Other 24 European Union Countries], 

ESMARTCITY.ES (Apr. 11, 2018), https://www.esmartcity.es/2018/04/11/espana-acuerdo-cooperacion-inteligenciaartificial-junto-24-estados-union-europea, archived at https://perma.cc/R65K-2ALK. 
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EU, and devise the appropriate AI legal and ethical framework, taking into consideration the EU 

fundamental rights of privacy and the protection of personal data.296

III. Autonomous Vehicles

Although Spain has not enacted any legislation or regulations on autonomous vehicles, the General 

Directorate of Traffic has authorized the testing of autonomous vehicles since 2015.297

IV. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

The government of Spain has declared that its armed forces do not have and are not planning to 

develop LAWS or weapons based on AI. 298 The Spanish government is not financing any research 

project on LAWS. It shares the concerns of other countries about the development of robotic 

weapons that would operate without human intervention.299 This concern is mainly based on the 

consequences to human rights and international humanitarian laws. The government further 

supports the adoption of a general international legal framework aimed at preventing an arms race 

with respect to LAWS. 300 The Spanish government supports the issuance of the Political 

Declaration and politically binding Code of Conduct that would include transparency measures to 

monitor this process as well as the establishment of a Committee of Experts who will be 

responsible of the evaluation of new developments in the technology involving these weapons.301

 296 European Declaration on Cooperation in Artificial Intelligence, Apr. 10, 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/ 

communities/community/digitranscope-digital-transformation-and-governance-human-society/document/eudeclaration, archived at https://perma.cc/3G7K-SGZG.

297 DIRECCIÓN NACIONAL DE TRÁFICO, MINISTERIO DEL INTERIOR TRÁFICO ESTABLECE EL MARCO PARA LA 

REALIZACIÓN DE PRUEBAS CON VEHÍCULOS DE CONDUCCIÓN AUTOMATIZADA EN VÍAS ABIERTAS A LA 

CIRCULACIÓN, NOTA DE PRENSA [TRAFFIC ESTABLISHES THE FRAMEWORK FOR CONDUCTING TESTS OF AUTOMATED 

VEHICLES ON OPEN TRACKS] (Nov. 16, 2015), http://www.dgt.es/Galerias/prensa/2015/11/NP-pruebas-vehiculosconduccion-automatizada.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/LDH9-27QT. 

298 Las Fuerzas Armadas Españolas No Tendrán Su Propio «Robot Asesino» [The Spanish Armed Forces Will Not 

Have Their Own Killer Robot], ABC (Aug. 31, 2015), https://www.abc.es/espana/20150831/abci-robots-asesinosespana-201508301912.html, archived at https://perma.cc/AAQ7-2SJL. 

299 Respuesta del Gobierno [Government Answer], Pregunta Escrita Senado [Written Question Senate] 684/77289, 

June 17, 2015, http://www.senado.es/web/expedientdocblobservlet?legis=10&id=190036, archived at 

https://perma.cc/Z4UU-N92H.

300 Id.

301 Convención sobre Ciertas Armas Convencionales, Grupo de Expertos Gubernamentales sobre Sistemas de Armas 

Autónomas Letales, Intervención del Embajador de Espana, Julio Herraiz, Delegado ante la Conferencia de 

Desarme, Geneva, Apr. 9, 2018 [Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, Group of Government Experts on 

LAWS, Statement by the Spanish Ambassador, Julio Herraiz, Delegate to the Disarmament Conference, Apr. 9, 

2018], https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/072ED40378F79CFBC125827200575723/$file/ 

2018_LAWSGeneralExchange_Spain.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/FF6P-DPF6.
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Sweden

I. General 

Sweden is a member of the European Union and therefore the General Data Protection Regulation 

(GDPR) on privacy has applied directly since May 2018.302 Regulation of AI has also been viewed 

as a task for the entire EU to address jointly, which is why Sweden has supported a position that 

the European Commission should consider this.303 Sweden has also signed on to the Declaration 

on Cooperation on AI as part of Digital Day in 2018.304 Despite arguing for an EU approach to AI, 

the Swedish government and Swedish universities as well as philanthropist are investing in AI.

305

II. National Strategy 

Sweden has developed a National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence.306 The goal is to become a 

leader in new digital opportunities.307 This means creating “the enabling conditions” for such 

digital advances to aid Swedish competitiveness and welfare.308 According to the government, as 

presented in the National Strategy, this includes investing in research and higher education.309 The 

government also recommends joint projects between the private and public sectors.310 Moreover, 

a number of Swedish agencies are looking to use AI to advance their missions. For example, the

Swedish Bolagsverket (Swedish Companies Registration Office) wants to use AI to focus on 

companies that are more likely to be used for criminal activities.311

 302 See EU survey in this report. 

303 See Regeringskansliet, Faktapromemoria 2017/18:FPM96, Meddelande om artificiell intelligens för Europa (May 

30, 2018), http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/fakta-pm-om-eu-forslag/meddelande-omartificiell-intelligens-for-europa_H506FPM96, archived at https://perma.cc/MH7K-2GG7. 

304 Press Release, European Commission, EU Member States Sign Up to Cooperate on Artificial Intelligence (Apr. 

10, 2018), https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/eu-member-states-sign-cooperate-artificialintelligence, archived at https://perma.cc/TY4B-4AJ8. 

305 See Parliamentary Minutes referencing Wallenberg Investment, Riksdagens Protokoll 2017/18:47, Dec 11, 2017, 

http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/protokoll/protokoll-20171847-mandagen-den-11-

december_H50947, archived at https://perma.cc/2U49-VXHZ. 

306 GOVERNMENT OFFICES OF SWEDEN, NATIONAL APPROACH TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (2018), 

https://www.regeringen.se/4aa638/contentassets/a6488ccebc6f418e9ada18bae40bb71f/national-approach-toartificial-intelligence.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/4Q6E-VU78. 

307 Id. at 1. 

308 Id. at 4.

309 Id. at 6. 

310 Id. at 7. 

311 BOLAGSVERKET, AD 212/2018 SLUTRAPPORT EKOBROTTSUPPDRAG 7 (Dec. 14, 2018), http://bolagsverket.se/ 

polopoly_fs/1.17813!/bolagsverket-slutrapport-ekobrott.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/9KN8-XT6C. 
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As noted above, the Nordic countries have also joined together in a number of collaborative 

responses to AI, including together with the Baltic States.312 

III. Local Authorities’ Use of Artificial Intelligence 

A number of local authorities are looking to use AI to advance their missions. Sveriges Kommuner 

och Landsting (SKL) (the Swedish municipality and county council agency) has issued a report on 

the potential use of AI in health and well care settings.313 Other examples of AI use include its use 

in educational settings314 and in digital sobriety tests by Kontigocare.315 SKL also predicts that the 

use of robots and AI technology could be helpful for the county councils and regions in their goal 

to provide their residents with välfärd services (collective name for health services, public 

transportation, education, elder care, child care, water, roads, and other public utilities) in the near 

future.316 Studies have also been completed to review the usefulness of AI technology in Swedish 

industry and enterprise.317

IV. Self-driving Vehicles 

The Swedish government has issued a government report on self-driving cars in order to “analyze 

what rule changes are needed for an introduction of driver-supported technology and wholly or 

 312 Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers & Government of Sweden, AI in the Nordic-Baltic Region, May 14, 

2018, https://www.regeringen.se/49a602/globalassets/regeringen/dokument/naringsdepartementet/20180514_nmr_ 

deklaration-slutlig-webb.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RT92-BWN7; Declaration, Nordic Council of Ministers 

for Digitalization, The Nordic-Baltic Region: A Digital Frontrunner (Apr. 25, 2017), https://www.norden.org/ 

en/declaration/nordic-baltic-region-digital-frontrunner, archived at https://perma.cc/SUL2-XZT4; Press Release, 

Regeringskansliet, Sverige ska leda AI-samarbete i Norden och Baltikum (May 14, 2018), https://www.regeringen. 

se/pressmeddelanden/2018/05/sverige-ska-leda-ai-samarbete-i-norden-och-baltikum/, archived at 

https://perma.cc/6FPK-DSSB.

313 SVERIGES KOMMUNER OCH LANDSTING, ARTIFICIELL INTELLIGENS: MÖJLIGHETER FÖR VÄLFÄRDEN (2017),

https://skl.se/download/18.1284479015a26d3e16d5373/1486739509125/Artificiell+intelligens.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/JJ3Y-LRBC.

314 Mark Scott, Sweden Tries to Make Digital Lightning Strike Twice, POLITICO (Oct. 9, 2018), https://www.politico. 

eu/article/sweden-education-system-digital-revamp-coding-stockholm-school/, archived at https://perma.cc/9RZPVSWN. 

315 KONTIGOCARE, https://www.kontigocare.com/ (last visited Jan. 7, 2019), archived at https://perma.cc/3EYPCRXK. 

316 Automation, robotar och AI i välfärden, SVERIGES KOMMUNER OCH LANDSTING, https://skl.se/naringslivar 

betedigitalisering/digitalisering/nationellsamverkanstyrning/automationrobotarochartificiellintelligensai.15924.html

(last visited Jan. 7, 2019), archived at https://perma.cc/SLL5-DGJ4; SVERIGES KOMMUNER OCH LANDSTING,

AUTOMATISERING AV ARBETE – MÖJLIGHETER OCH UTMANINGAR FÖR KOMMUNCER, LANDSTING, OCH REGIONER 

(June 2018), https://webbutik.skl.se/bilder/artiklar/pdf/5408.pdf?issuusl=ignore, archived at https://perma.cc/Y64SVZCS. 

317 VINNOVA , ARTIFICIELL INTELLIGENS I SVENSKT NÄRINGSLIV OCH SAMHÄLLE – ANALYS AV UTVECKLING OCH 

POTENTIAL (VR 2018:08) (May 2018), https://www.vinnova.se/contentassets/55b18cf1169a4a4f8340a5 

960b32fa82/vr_18_08.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/K4ZR-KMWD. 
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partially self-driving vehicles on the road.” 318 One of the issues will be for producers of 

autonomous vehicles to prove how safe the technology is to justify putting it on the roads.319

Current legislation allows for the testing of self-driving cars following a permission system.320 A 

physical driver must be present inside or outside the car. 321 Permits are awarded by the 

Transportstyrelsen (Swedish Transport Agency).322 In addition, Transportstyrelsen has issued its 

own rules.323 The rules include the information that must be contained in an application.324 It also 

provides that the results of the test must be reported to the Transportstyrelsen when completed.

325

In addition, if tests are run for more than a year, annual reports must be submitted.326 According 

to media reports, a total of three companies have been approved to test self-driving technology in 

Sweden: Nobina Technology AB, Amobility AB, and Volvo Cars. 327 An additional four 

companies have applications pending.328

V. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

Sweden has not publicly called for a ban on the use of LAWS. However, it addressed the issue in 

the United Nations both in 2016 and 2018.329 Swedish-based think tank Sipri published a report 

 318 Statens Offentliga Utredningar [SOU] 2 [Government Report] 018:16 Vägen till självkörande bilar, at 1, 

https://data.riksdagen.se/fil/DC763114-69A0-4899-B027-2DFD936C5D38, archived at https://perma.cc/5D5U7254 (translation by author). 

319 Id. at 155. 

320 4 § Förordning om försöksverksamhet med självkörande fordon [Regulation on Trial Activity with Autonomous 

Vehicles] (2017:309), https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/ 

forordning-2017309-om-forsoksverksamhet-med_sfs-2017-309, archived at https://perma.cc/ZWC4-BJZE. 

321 Id. at § 7. 

322 Id. 5 §. 

323 Transportstyrelsens föreskrifter och allmänna råd om tillstånd att bedriva försök med självkörande fordon 

[Regulations and Public Advisory on Permits to Commit Trials with Autnomous Vehicles] (TSFS 2017:92), 

https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/sv/Regler/ts-foreskrifter-i-nummerordning/2017/?RuleNumber=2017: 

92&RulePrefix=TSFS, archived at https://perma.cc/AVL5-FNAH.

324 Id. 4 §.

325 Id. 9 §. 

326 Id.

327 Julia Brzezinska, Här är företagen som testar självkörande bilar i Sverige, AUTO MOTOR & SPORT (Nov. 14, 

2018), https://www.mestmotor.se/automotorsport/artiklar/artiklar/20181114/har-ar-foretagen-som-testarsjalvkorande-bilar-i-sverige/, archived at https://perma.cc/VM5A-RWBV. 

328 Id. 

329 General Statement by Sweden at the 2016 CCW Meeting of Experts on LAWS, UNOG, https://www.unog.ch/ 

80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/1E243D02F4D06BEEC1257F9400420DA0/$file/2016_LAWS+MX_General 

Exchange_Statements_Sweden.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/S2CE-TXXV; General Statement by Sweden at the 

CCW GGE on LAWS, UNOG, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/12706C2B73502F 

13C125827400536FA9/$file/2018_LAWSGeneralExchange_Sweden.pdf (last visited Dec. 21, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/AE32-9EVJ.
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on LAWS, which found that Sweden uses Active Protection Systems (APSs) technology, including 

on armored vehicles.330

Members of Parliament have also presented motions (the first effort in passing a parliamentary 

bill) against LAWS and the military use of AI.

331

Switzerland

I. Strategy Digital Switzerland

In September 2018, Switzerland published its “Strategy Digital Switzerland,” which sets out goals 

for the coming two years.332 With regard to artificial intelligence (AI), the Federal Council, the 

Swiss government, plans to support initiatives in the cantons, cities, and municipalities in relation 

to smart cities333 and establish a working group on the subject of AI.334 The working group will 

facilitate knowledge and opinion sharing and represent Switzerland in international bodies. 

Furthermore, it is tasked with developing “recommendations for a transparent and responsible use 

of AI” by the middle of 2019.335

II. Parliamentary Interpellations and Motions

In Switzerland, several parliamentarians have submitted interpellations (formal requests) to the 

government to inquire what actions have been taken in the area of AI or to propose new initiatives. 

Among other things, they have requested the establishment of a Competence Center for AI in the 

Department of the Interior336 to develop a framework to use AI for public administration and have 

asked if the government was considering formulating a catalog of values for the digital world 

 330 VINCENT BOULANI & MAAIKE VERBRUGGEN, SIPRI, MAPPING THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMY IN WEAPON 

SYSTEMS 42, 125 & 128 (Nov. 2017), https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2017-11/siprireport_mapping_ 

the_development_ of_autonomy_in_weapon_systems_1117_1.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/7A2U-3E5C. 

331 Förbjud autonoma dödliga vapensystem och reglera utvecklingen av artificiell intelligens, Motion 2017/18:2655 

av Carl Schlyter (MP) (Oct. 13, 2017), http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/motion/forbjudautonoma-dodliga-vapensystem-och-reglera_H5022655, archived at https://perma.cc/Y5MW-HTSR. 

332 Bundesamt für Kommunikation [BAKOM] [Federal Office of Communications] [OFCOM], Strategie Digitale 

Schweiz [Strategy Digital Switzerland] (Sept. 2018), https://www.bakom.admin.ch/dam/bakom/de/bilder/bakom/ 

digitale_schweiz_und_internet/strategie_digitale_schweiz/strategie/Strategie digitale Schweiz.pdf.download. 

pdf/Strategie_DS_Digital_2-DE.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/YG3K-Q3L7. 

333 Id. at 28.

334 Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft [Swiss Confederation], Aktionsplan Digitale Schweiz [Action Plan Digital 

Switzerland], Sept. 5, 2018, at 26, para. 7.5, https://www.bakom.admin.ch/dam/bakom/de/dokumente/ 

informationsgesellschaft/strategie2018/AktionsplanDigitaleSchweiz.pdf.download.pdf/AktionsplanDigitaleSchweiz

_DE.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/CS26-A6KH. The Action Plans lists various measures to implement the 

Strategy Digital Switzerland.

335 Id.

336 Interpellation no. 18.4037, Kompetenzzentrum für künstliche Intelligenz in der Bundesverwaltung [Competence 

Center for AI Within the Federal Administration], Sept. 28, 2018, https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/suchecuria-vista/geschaeft?AffairId=20184037, archived at http://perma.cc/ZMX2-NJ7H. 
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(goodwill, tolerance, patience, balance, discretion, community spirit, willingness to help, and 

nondiscrimination), and if Switzerland was participating in international regulatory efforts of the 

digital world.337

Several other interpellations and motions have raised the issue of autonomous vehicles and 

liability, asking when Switzerland would amend its laws to allow their use. Three of the motions 

were adopted by the Swiss Federal Council.338 The revision of the Road Traffic Act is currently 

ongoing and the proposal is expected to be submitted to the Federal Council in the spring 

of 2019.339

III. Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems

At the meeting of the GGE on LAWS in April 2018, Switzerland proposed to adopt a political 

declaration to develop a shared understanding of the challenges posed by LAWS.340 Switzerland 

sees such a political declaration as a middle ground and proposes to address the following issues:

• the applicability and the centrality of ensuring respect for IHL [international 

humanitarian law] under all circumstances;

• states remain responsible for wrongful acts and that individual responsibility must 

be guaranteed;

• capture the emerging consensus around the fact that no weapon should be used without 

appropriate human control; and

 337 Interpellation no. 16.4131. Wie kann die Schweiz an der Forschung zu künstlicher Intelligenz teilnehmen, damit 

universelle moralische Werte in der digitalen Welt gut vertreten sind? [How Can Switzerland Participate in AI 

Research in Order to Have Universal Moral Values Represented in the Digital World?], Dec. 16, 2016, 

https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/suche-curia-vista/geschaeft?AffairId=20164131, archived at

http://perma.cc/8Y9C-25HM. 

338 Motion no. 17.3049. Digitalisierung. Weg frei für automatisierte und selbstfahrende Fahrzeuge [Digitalization. 

Pave the Way for Automated and Self-driving Vehicles], Mar. 2, 2017, https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/ 

suche-curia-vista/geschaeft?AffairId=20173049, archived at http://perma.cc/NDV5-L7QC; Motion no. 17.3191. 

Automatisierte Fahrzeuge. Möglichst schnell den rechtlichen Rahmen festlegen [Automated Vehicles. Establish a 

Legal Framework Fast], Mar. 16, 2017, https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/suche-curia-vista/geschaeft? 

AffairId=20173191, archived at http://perma.cc/FDB8-PCB3; Motion no. 17.4039. Gesetzliche Hürden zur 

Einführung von autonomen Fahrzeugen abschaffen [Abolish the Legal Obstacles to the Introduction of Autonomous 

Vehicles], Dec. 7, 2017, https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/suche-curia-vista/geschaeft?AffairId=20174039, 

archived at http://perma.cc/H9NM-APZK. 

339 17.4039. Motion grünliberale Fraktion. Gesetzliche Hürden zur Einführung von autonomen Fahrzeugen 

abschaffen [17.4039. Motion of the Green-liberal Parliamentary Group. Abolish Legal Obstacles to the Introduction 

of Autonomous Vehicles], Sept. 27, 2018, AMTLICHES BULLETIN [AB] [OFFICIAL BULLETIN] 2018 at 783, 

https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/amtliches-bulletin/amtliches-bulletin-die-verhandlungen?SubjectId=44422, 

archived at http://perma.cc/4YTJ-9XFX. 

340 Swiss Confederation, GGE on LAWS 2018, Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, Exchange of 

General Views, Apr. 9, 2018, at 2, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/CDA07B933C0B 

0143C125827200572F23/$file/2018_LAWSGeneralExchange_Switzerland+(EN).pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/M3TP-FYNT. 
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• spell out a number of measures such as transparency, legal reviews, best practices, 

technical standards or other policy measures.341

United Kingdom 

I. Introduction

The government of the United Kingdom has stated that the country is “currently in the foothills of 

a new technological revolution. Artificial intelligence has the potential to be as transformative in 

our lifetimes as the steam-powered economy of the 19th century.” 342 The government has 

described AI as “a set of advanced general purpose digital technologies that enable machines to 

do highly complex tasks effectively.”343 The government has actively been encouraging, and 

funding, the development of the AI industry, and has produced a number of reports that consider 

the application and development of this technology. The discussion that follows provides a highlevel overview of some of the developments the UK is consulting on, and providing funding to, 

that involve AI. 

In early 2017, Prime Minister Theresa May launched a consultation for the “Modern Industrial 

Strategy,”344 which lead to the publication of a White Paper detailing the government’s policy on 

developing AI, including investments in science, research, and innovation in AI and robotics as 

one of its four grand challenges.345 The White Paper also announced an “Artificial Intelligence 

Sector Deal to boost the UK’s global position as a leader in developing AI technologies.”346 The 

government hopes to be able to capitalize on predictions that the GDP of the UK will increase by 

10.3%, the equivalent of £232 billion (approximately US$300 billion), as a result of the 

 341 Swiss Confederation, Agenda Item 6d) Possible Options for Addressing the Humanitarian and International 

Security Challenges Posed by Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems in the 

Context of the Objectives and Purposes of the Convention Without Prejudging Policy Outcomes and Taking Into 

Account Past, Present and Future Proposals, at 2, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/1 

C584CEA107C0F9DC12582FE003992CA/$file/2018_GGE+LAWS+2_6d_Switzerland.pdf, archived at

http://perma.cc/NJG3-YXFK. 

342 GOVERNMENT OFFICE FOR SCIENCE, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: OPPORTUNITIES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 

FUTURE OF DECISION MAKING (2015), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ 

uploads/attachment_data/file/566075/gs-16-19-artificial-intelligence-ai-report.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/HU7T-Y544. 

343 WENDY HALL & JÉRÔME PESENTI, GROWING THE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE INDUSTRY IN THE UK (Oct. 2017), 

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/652097/Growing_

the_artificial_intelligence_industry_in_the_UK.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/LYW8-G9A8. 

344 Press Release, Prime Minister’s Office, PM Unveils Plans for a Modern Industrial Strategy Fit for Global Britain 

(Jan. 22, 2017), https://www.gov.uk/government/news/pm-unveils-plans-for-a-modern-industrial-strategy-fit-forglobal-britain, archived at https://perma.cc/77T7-X9B5. 

345 HM GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRIAL STRATEGY: BUILDING A BRITAIN FIT FOR THE FUTURE (Cm. 9528, Nov. 2017), 

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/730048/industrialstrategy-white-paper-web-ready-a4-version.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/PQW7-2EKP. 

346 Id. at 199. 
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development of AI. 347 The 2017 budget provided funding to “industries of the future,” and 

included £75 million (approximately US$96 million) for AI.348 

The Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sports is the lead government department for the 

development of AI policy, with the Department for Business, Enterprise and Industrial Strategy 

also playing a significant role. In June 2017, the House of Lords established a select committee 

“to consider the economic, ethical and social implications of advances in artificial intelligence,”349

and shortly afterwards, in November 2017, the House of Commons conducted an inquiry to 

consider the use of algorithms in public business and decision making.350 The report concluded, 

and the government agreed, that the use of algorithms in decision making is a significant 

opportunity, but that the impact of such technology must be carefully monitored.351 

II. Current Application of Artificial Intelligence 

The UK is currently embracing the use of AI across public services in a variety of ways. It recently 

enacted laws to extend compulsory vehicle insurance to cover vehicles operated in automatic 

mode, making the insurer liable for any accidents caused by the vehicle when operated in this 

mode. It also enables the Secretary of State to make regulations to provide a uniform method to 

access electrical vehicle charging points.352 While enacted, the law has not yet been brought 

into force. 

The following list is a highlight of certain areas where AI is currently being used, or where its 

development is underway: 

• Google DeepMind is currently collaborating with the National Health Service (NHS), the 

universal health service provider in the UK, on the development of tools to analyze

eye scans.353

 347 BERTIE MÜLLER, THE AI LANDSCAPE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 9 (undated), http://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/ 

document.cfm?doc_id=50824 (last visited Dec. 3, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/EK9F-HH68. 

348 Autumn Budget 2017, HM TREASURY (Nov. 22, 2017), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/autumnbudget-2017-documents/autumn-budget-2017, archived at https://perma.cc/UE5R-ECUY. 

349 783 PARL. DEB. H.L. (5th ser.) (2017) 562, https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2017-06-29/debates/09a72b2f9261-4ab4-82e8-92f1c0758a87/LordsChamber, archived at https://perma.cc/7NMC-TXQN. 

350 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, Algorithms in Decision-Making (HC 351, May 2018), 

https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmsctech/351/351.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/A3JZ5VAX. 

351 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, Algorithms in Decision-Making: Government 

Response to the Committee’s Fourth Report 2 (HC 1544, Sept. 2018), https://publications.parliament.uk/ 

pa/cm201719/ cmselect/cmsctech/1544/1544.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/UY27-Q9QU. 

352 Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018, https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/18, archived at

https://perma.cc/UP44-NFPK. 

353 Laurie Points & Ed Potton, Artificial Intelligence and Automation in the UK 7 (House of Commons Library 

Briefing Paper No. 8152, Dec. 21, 2017), http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8152/CBP8152.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/8MFP-JFM4. See also Moorfields Announces Research Partnership, 
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• Development of military equipment that uses AI to scan the battlefield for enemy movements 

and flag dangers to soldiers.354

• Smart traffic lights are being used in some towns to aid in traffic management.355

• £30 million (approximately US$38 million) of funding has been allocated to test the use of AI 

in online digital skills courses.356

• Monetary grants have been provided to further education in the area of AI.357

• £84 million (approximately US$108 million) will be invested over the next four years in 

developments to make industry and public services safer and more productive.358

The government has created and funded the Centre for Data Ethics and Innovation as an advisory 

body to work with the government, regulators, and industry to lay the ethical foundations for the 

adoption of AI across the UK, 359 and “secure a framework which facilitates and encourages 

innovation but which also maintains vital public trust and confidence.”360 The government is also 

specifically reviewing the regulatory structure to allow driverless vehicles on the road by 2021.361

 

MOORFIELDS EYE HOSPITAL (July 3, 2016), https://www.moorfields.nhs.uk/news/moorfields-announces-researchpartnership, archived at https://perma.cc/3PA7-E8ZZ. 

354 Victoria Ward, Artificial Intelligence Weaponry Successfully Trialed on Mock Urban Battlefield, THE 

TELEGRAPH (Sept. 24, 2018), https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/24/artificial-intelligence-weaponrysuccessfully-trialled-mock/, archived at https://perma.cc/S7SG-NWKS. 

355 Cara McGoogan, AI Traffic Lights to End Rush Hour Jams in Milton Keynes, THE TELEGRAPH (May 2017), 

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2017/05/15/ai-traffic-lights-end-rush-hour-jams-milton-keynes/, archived 

at https://perma.cc/8KNM-YTWF. 

356 HM TREASURY, AUTUMN BUDGET 2017 ¶ 4.22(HC 587, Nov. 2017), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ 

government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/661583/autumn_budget_2017_print.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/G67G-R78W. 

357 Points & Potton, supra note 353, at 13.

358 Press Release, UK Space Agency et al., Funding for £84 Million for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research 

and Smart Energy Innovation Announced (Nov. 8, 2017), https://www.gov.uk/government/news/funding-for-84-

million-for-artificial-intelligence-and-robotics-research-and-smart-energy-innovation-announced, archived at 

https://perma.cc/C6UE-JANU. 

359 Centre for Data Ethics and Innovation Consultation, Consultation Outcome, DEPARTMENT FOR DIGITAL,

CULTURE, MEDIA & SPORT (Nov. 20, 2018), https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/consultation-on-thecentre-for-data-ethics-and-innovation/centre-for-data-ethics-and-innovation-consultation, archived at

https://perma.cc/Y43E-2UER. 

360 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, Algorithms in Decision-Making, supra note 350.

361 Autumn Budget 2017, supra note 348. See also LAW COMMISSION & SCOTTISH LAW COMMISSION, AUTOMATED 

VEHICLES: A JOINT PRELIMINARY CONSULTATION PAPER (Nov. 2018), https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/ 

lawcom-prod-storage-11jsxou24uy7q/uploads/2018/11/6.5066_LC_AV-Consultation-Paper-5-

November_061118_WEB-1.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/9GB4-CXL6. 
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III. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

The Ministry of Defence has stated that

the UK does not possess armed autonomous aircraft systems and it has no intention to 

develop them. The UK Government’s policy is clear that the operation of UK weapons will 

always be under human control as an absolute guarantee of human oversight, authority and 

accountability. Whilst weapon systems may operate in automatic modes there is always a 

person involved in setting appropriate parameters.362 

While the policy statement makes it clear that the UK does not possess such systems, nor intends 

to develop these systems, concerns have been raised about the UK’s definition of “lethal automated 

weapons.”363 A House of Lords report on AI noted that,

[w]ithout agreed definitions we could easily find ourselves stumbling through a semantic 

haze into dangerous territory. The Government’s definition of an autonomous system used 

by the military as one where it “is capable of understanding higher-level intent and 

direction” is clearly out of step with the definitions used by most other governments. This 

position limits both the extent to which the UK can meaningfully participate in 

international debates on autonomous weapons and its ability to take an active role as a 

moral and ethical leader on the global stage in this area. Fundamentally, it also hamstrings 

attempts to arrive at an internationally agreed definition.364

The committee recommended that the government realign the definition of autonomous weapons 

to a similar form as used by the rest of the world. 365 The government considered the 

recommendation, but stated that the Ministry of Defence has no plans to change the definition.366

 362 MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, DEVELOPMENT, CONCEPTS AND DOCTRINE CENTRE, UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

¶ 4.18, (Joint Doctrine Publication 0-32.2, Aug. 2017), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ govern 

ent/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/673940/doctrine_uk_uas_jdp_0_30_2.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/699E-7ZLC. 

363 The UK defines an Autonomous System as: “capable of understanding higher-level intent and direction. From 

this understanding and its perception of its environment, such a system is able to take appropriate action to bring 

about a desired state. It is capable of deciding a course of action, from a number of alternatives, without depending 

on human oversight and control, although these may still be present. Although the overall activity of an autonomous 

unmanned aircraft will be predictable, individual actions may not be.” Id. table 2.3. 

364 HOUSE OF LORDS SELECT COMMITTEE ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, AI IN THE UK: READY, WILLING AND 

ABLE? ¶ 345 (HL Paper 100, Apr. 2018), https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldai/100/100.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/253K-UBGG. 

365 Id. ¶ 61. 

366 GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO HOUSE OF LORDS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SELECT COMMITTEE’S REPORT ON AI IN 

THE UK: READY, WILLING AND ABLE? ¶ 99 (CM 9645, June 2018), https://www.parliament.uk/documents/lordscommittees/Artificial-Intelligence/AI-Government-Response2.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RBK2-9H2K. 
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A UK newspaper has recently reported that “the MoD and defence contractors are funding dozens 

of artificial intelligence programmes for use in conflict.”367 The Ministry of Defence responded 

to the report with a denial of the accusations: “There is no intent within the MOD to develop 

weapon systems that operate entirely without human input. Our weapons will always be under 

human control as an absolute guarantee of oversight, authority and accountability.”368

At the international level, the UK’s interpretation of what constitutes lethal automated weapons 

does not align with the definition of many other western nations and does not support a pre-emptive 

ban on such weapons systems. Instead, the UK wishes for further discussions on the development 

of these systems, and emphasizes that any such development requires the need for a human element 

to be present in its operation.369

 367 Jamie Doward, Britain Funds Research into Drones that Decide Who They Kill, Says Report, THE GUARDIAN

(Nov. 10, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/10/autonomous-drones-that-decide-who-they-killbritain-funds-research, archived at https://perma.cc/Z9NF-G2RJ. 

368 Anthony Cuthbertson, UK Government Developing Flying “Killer Robots”, Investigation Reveals, INDEPENDENT 

(Nov. 13, 2018), https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/drones-robots-uk-autonomousartificial-intelligence-ministry-defence-a8631211.html, archived at https://perma.cc/B2V8-URS7. 

369 Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Statement for the General Exchange of Views at the Meeting of the Group 

of Government Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, April 9, 2018, ¶ 9, https://www.unog.ch/ 

80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/271A66FCD9412E18C125827A003454CF/$file/2018_LAWSGeneralExchange

_UK.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/SHQ9-RTHF. 
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Middle East and North Africa

Bahrain

In October 2018, Microsoft Bahrain noted how vital AI is in the establishment of smart societies, 

mirroring the ambitions exhibited in the country’s planning document, Bahrain Vision 2030, at an 

event held in the Kingdom. Bahrain’s Information and Government Authority (IGA) organized the 

two-day event. The IGA operates under the patronage of Shaikh Mohammed bin Mubarak Al 

Khalifa, who is both the Deputy Prime Minister and Chairperson of the Supreme Committee for 

Information and Communication Technology.1 

Egypt 

In May 2018, the Egyptian National Telecom Authority hosted a forum exploring the potential 

interconnectivity of AI technologies with the Internet of Things (IoT).2 In December 2017, the 

Egyptian Authority of Financial Control announced that it would regulate the use of the AI 

technology to control financial transactions.3

Israel

I. Civilian Use of AI Technologies

A. Technology Development

According to a global study released in May 2018 by Asgard, a Berlin-based venture capital firm 

focused on AI, by far the country with the largest AI industry is the US (40%), followed by China 

(11%), Israel (11%), and the UK (7%). 4 Described as a “startup nation” with more start-up 

companies on a per capita basis than leading economies in the world,5 Israel’s AI economy has 

been rapidly developing.

 1 Microsoft Demonstrates Power of AI at Bahrain Forum, TRADE ARABIA (Oct. 8, 2018), http://www.trade 

arabia.com/news/IT_346027.html, archived at https://perma.cc/2JN6-5XPR.

2 Press Release, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Egypt Hosts Forum on Exploring 

Potential of Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things (May 6, 2018), http://www.mcit.gov.eg/Media_Center/ 

Latest_News/News/13868, archived at https://perma.cc/T6CZ-CHMN.

3 Egypt Sought to Use AI in the Field of Financial Control, AL-AIN (Dec. 18, 2017), https://al-ain.com/article/ 

egypt-employs-artificial-intelligence (in Arabic), archived at https://perma.cc/5GR8-BNK2.

4 Artificial Intelligence – A Strategy for European Startups, Recommendations for Policymakers, ASGARD (2018), 

https://asgard.vc/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Artificial-Intelligence-Strategy-for-Europe-2018.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/KG2U-R3XX.

5 DANIEL SENOR & SAUL SINGER, COUNCIL ON FOREIGN RELATIONS, START-UP NATION: THE STORY OF ISRAEL’S 

ECONOMIC MIRACLE (2009), https://www.cfr.org/book/start-nation, archived at https://perma.cc/K4MG-9J7H.
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According to the founder of one Israeli AI startup,

Israel’s Artificial Intelligence (AI) startup ecosystem has raised over $7.5 billion 

cumulatively and is undergoing explosive growth, characterized by a major influx of 

establishments and talent, forming what could be considered the global leader of AI over 

the next five years. Notwithstanding their absent national agenda and budget, Israel has 

already earmarked the largest AI exit to date (Mobileye — 15.3B) and boasts a substantial 

and growing cluster of startups utilizing and developing AI technologies.6

B. Policy Considerations

The preparedness of the Israeli government for AI was the subject of a June 2018 hearing before 

the Knesset (Israel’s parliament) Science Committee. Summarizing the views expressed at the 

hearing, Committee Chairman and Knesset Member (KM) Uri Maklev called upon the government 

to start reviewing various regulatory aspects of AI, including privacy and legal liability. He also 

urged the government to set deadlines for the development and use of AI systems in government 

offices to improve public service. Warning that without careful preparation Israel might face 

increased unemployment, he proposed that the government should develop educational training to 

enable more people to engage in the new technology.7

Possible AI technology applications in areas such as education, review of trademarks, reduction 

of vehicle accidents, etc., were further discussed at a November 2018 conference organized by the 

Knesset Parliamentary Oversight Coordination Unit.8

C. Autonomous Vehicles

Israeli law has not yet adopted a comprehensive regulation of autonomous vehicles. It has been 

suggested that such regulation might require extensive legislative changes in multiple areas of law, 

including safety requirements, licensing, payment to victims of car accidents, etc.9

 6 Daniel Singer, Israel’s Artificial Intelligence Landscape 2018, HACKER NOON (Aug. 29, 2018), https://hackernoon. 

com/israels-artificial-intelligence-landscape-2018-83cdd4f04281, archived at https://perma.cc/2YBJ-6FSJ.

7 Press Release, Knesset Science Committee, First Hearing on the Preparedness of the Government to AI (June 4, 

2008), https://m.knesset.gov.il/news/pressreleases/pages/press04.06.18ec.aspx# (in Hebrew), archived at

https://perma.cc/P2JM-VFDY.

8 Parliamentary Oversight Coordination Unit, Conference on Policy Implementation in the Era of Big Data (Nov. 6, 

2018), https://main.knesset.gov.il/Activity/Oversight/Pages/oversightdayworkplans2.aspx (in Hebrew), archived at 

https://perma.cc/S9JF-GP7B.

9 See Sigalit Ben Sason, The Way for Autonomous Vehicle Requires Legislative Changes, 40 ORECH HADIN [THE 

LAWYER] 88-89, http://www.israelbar.org.il/magazine/OrechHadin40/88/. 
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The Ministry of Transportation, however, has expressed its support for 

[a]dvancing new technologies and development of vehicle systems based on strategic 

vision for advancement of the Israeli industry and its transformation to a global 

development center and an object of attraction to entrepreneurs from all over the world.10

The Ministry specifically noted that,

[it] sees also importance in development of technologies and systems that are designed for 

autonomous vehicles in view of the great potential they [might] offer for improvement of 

road safety and minimizing casualties.11

The Ministry’s 2017 directive regulates licensing of experiments in: 

[v]ehicles Systems and features to be installed in vehicles that may interfere or influence 

on vehicle systems and performance with respect to control, safety, fuel consumption and 

air pollution including a form of connection to the communication interfaces of 

the vehicles.12

A flowchart 13 included in the directive illustrates the steps required to obtain a license for 

experimentation in autonomous vehicle in Israel, which includes examination of companies 

applications by a professional committee established for this purpose by the Ministry.14

A regulation issued in May 2018 by the Ministry of Transport and Road Safety further authorizes 

the National Traffic Controller to grant an exemption from requirements that apply to drivers under 

the Transportation Regulations15 for purpose of conducting an experiment in new technologies. A 

decision to grant an exemption from the regulations, accordingly, requires consultation with the 

licensing authority and with a police officer. It further requires evaluation of

the possible effects of the experiment on traffic, including the following considerations:

(1) ensuring the safety of users on the way during the experiment, including 

experiment participants;

 10 Ministry of Transportation, Approval of Experiments in Vehicles for Research and Development, Automated 

Technological Systems § 1(1) (Directive No. H-02-2017, Nov. 1, 2017), http://rishuy.mot.gov.il/he/vehicle/ 

maintenance/rules-gv (click on H-02-2017), archived at https://perma.cc/RFQ2-8ZJF.

11 Id. § 1(2).

12 Id.§ 4(1).

13 Id. at 5.

14 Id. § 5(2).

15 Transportation Regulations, 5761-1961, KOVETZ HATAKANOT [KT] [SUBSIDIARY LEGISLATION] 5761, No. 1128, 

p. 1425.
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(2) reducing the disturbance to the flow of traffic in ways that may be caused as a result of 

the experiment;

(3) responding to emergency events that may occur during the course of the experiment.16

Media reports indicate that authorization for experimenting autonomous cars has been granted to 

the Israeli company Mobileye and to the Russian company Yandex.17

II. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

Israel is reportedly one of several countries, including the US, China, South Korea, Russia, and 

the UK, that currently use and develop LAWS with decreasing levels of human control.18

Israel has developed and utilized various AI technologies for LAWS. Its Iron Dome defensive 

system has been successfully used in intercepting “incoming missiles or torpedoes faster than a 

human could react.”19

Israel has further developed a fully autonomous loitering munition (suicide drone) called the 

Harop, “which can dive-bomb radar signals without human direction . . . with lethal results on 

the battlefield.”20

A statement submitted by the Israeli mission to the GGE on LAWS of the Convention on Certain 

Conventional Weapons (CCW) on July 29, 2018, clarifies the Israeli position. Israel supports 

further in-depth discussions in consideration of any possible regulation of LAWS. Such 

 16 Transportation (Amendment No. 12) Regulations, 5778-2018, KT 5778, No. 8011, p. 2067.

17 See Dubi Ben Gedalia, View: Mobileye Automated Vehicle at a Test Drive in Jerusalem, GLOBES (May 17, 2018), 

https://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=1001236680, archived at https://perma.cc/J3HF-TATS; see also 

Meir Urbach, Yandex Received Approval to Conduct Autonomous Vehicle Experimentation in Israel, CALCALIST 

(Dec. 25, 2018), https://www.calcalist.co.il/internet/articles/0,7340,L-3752816,00.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/6LXB-PTQX.

18 Campaign to Stop Killer Robots, Briefing Note for the Convention on Conventional Weapons Group of 

Governmental Experts Meeting on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, Retaining Human Control of Weapons 

Systems (Apr. 9–13, 2018), https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/KRC_Briefing_ 

CCWApr2018.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/RCZ2-3UCC.

19 Ted Piccone, How Can International Law Regulate Autonomous Weapons?, BROOKINGS (Apr. 10, 2018), 

https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/04/10/how-can-international-law-regulate-autonomousweapons/, archived at https://perma.cc/4JMG-PTKE; see also Iron Dome Weapon System, RAYTHEON, 

https://www.raytheon.com/capabilities/products/irondome (last visited Nov. 19, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/S8BG-VVNR; Iron Dome Air Defence Missile System, ARMY TECHNOLOGY, https://www.armytechnology.com/projects/irondomeairdefencemi/ (last visited Nov. 19, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/D868-

PEL5.

20 Billy Perrigo, A Global Arms Race for Killer Robots Is Transforming the Battlefield, TIME (updated Apr. 9, 2018), 

http://time.com/5230567/killer-robots/, archived at https://perma.cc/Y5TH-YFHV; see also Harop Loitering 

Munitions UCAV System, AIR FORCE TECHNOLOGY, https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/harop 

loiteringmuniti/ (last visited Nov. 19, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/AA2X-BLLA.
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discussions, according to the statement, should not hamper progress in civilian research, 

development and use of autonomous technologies.21

The statement acknowledges that there are differences of opinion on the “definition or 

characterization of LAWS . . . and the appropriate type and level of human judgment throughout 

the various phases of the weapon’s life cycle, as well as the suitable terminology.” 22 Such 

differences, it suggests, may stem from “[t]he futuristic nature of the subject and its broad scope—

at this stage more is unknown than known and a prudent approach is necessary.”23

The statement calls for recognizing LAWS’ potential military and humanitarian advantages, 

including “better precision of targeting which would minimize collateral damage and reduce risk 

to combatants and non-combatants.”24

Clarifying the Israeli position that human judgment will always be an integral part of any process 

regarding LAWS throughout their life cycle, the statement also referenced Israel’s domestic 

process for legal review of new weapons. The statement called for further in-depth discussions, 

specifically on the various phases of human-machine interaction.25

Oman 

According to a December 2017 news report, the Omani Information Technology Authority 

announced that it had hosted a forum on AI and its impact on Omani society.26 In August 2018, 

the Authority organized a second forum on methods to develop, integrate, and regulate AI 

technology. The forum was sponsored by the Ministry of Transport and Communication.27

Qatar 

In May 2018, Qatar Computing Research Institute (QCRI), part of Hamad Bin Khalifa University, 

launched the QCRI Center for Artificial Intelligence. The Center’s main responsibility is to 

 21 Statement by Ofer Moreno Director, Arms Control Department, Strategic Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign 

Affairs, p. 2, at UN GGE Meeting on LAWS, Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, Aug. 29, 2018, 

https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/7A0E18215E16382DC125830400334DF6/$file/2018_GG

E+LAWS+2_6d_Israel.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/JCW5-9HT8.

22 Id.

23 Id.

24 Id.

25 Id. at 2–3.

26 Tech Talk Session Focuses on Artificial Intelligence, MUSCATDAILY.COM (Dec. 5, 2017), https://www.muscat 

daily.com/Archive/Oman/Tech-Talk-session-focuses-on-Artificial-Intelligence-55ir, archived at

https://perma.cc/F5BF-KR5G.

27 Forum Discusses Sustainability and Future of Artificial Intelligence, MUSCATDAILY.COM (Aug. 13, 2018), 

https://www.muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Forum-discusses-sustainability-and-future-of-Artificial-Intelligence5ajb, archived at https://perma.cc/KTU7-8QK6.
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integrate AI technology into all fields. The Center will also develop policy guidelines and 

regulations for the citizens of Qatar to use AI in a manner consistent with local cultural norms.28

In addition, a 2017 news report indicated that a French corporation, Navya, has joined the Smart 

Transport Company located in Doha, Qatar to introduce driverless electric vehicles for 

commercial use.29

Saudi Arabia 

I. Official Strategy 

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has no official AI strategy. However, it has announced that AI will 

be employed in efforts to achieve the goals outlined in KSA Vision 2030,

30 the Kingdom’s strategic 

planning document.31

II. AI Potential Investment 

In October 2017, the Public Investment Fund (PIF) announced that the Kingdom would invest 

US$100 billion in the field of AI; it also sponsored a conference on Artificial Intelligence and 

Robotics. Sophia, a “sentient” robot developed by Hanson Robotics of Hong Kong, attended the 

conference where she demonstrated her ability to track and recognize faces, and hold natural 

conversations with humans. 32 In October 2017, a former advisor of the Saudi Royal Court 

announced on his Twitter account that Sophia was being granted Saudi Arabian citizenship33 as “a 

symbolic gesture” to celebrate the beginning of work on NEOM, a US$500 billion “smart city” 

industrial zone sponsored by Crown Prince Mohamed bin Salaman.34

 28 Press Release, Qatar Foundation, QCRI to Launch Center for Artificial Intelligence (May 14, 2018), 

https://www.qf.org.qa/news/qcri-to-launch-center-for-artificial-intelligence, archived at https://perma.cc/L647-

HATM.

29 Driverless Electric Vehicles Set to Hit Qatar Roads This Year, QATAR TRIBUNE (Mar. 9, 2017), http://www.qatartribune.com/news-details/id/53290, archived at https://perma.cc/7F5H-J2ZR. 

30 Why the UAE and Saudi See Artificial Intelligence as an Investment in the Future, ARABIAN BUSINESS (Feb. 8, 

2018), https://www.arabianbusiness.com/technology/389533-why-the-uae-saudi-see-artificial-intelligence-as-aninvestment-in-the-future, archived at https://perma.cc/3HCL-8FTR.

31 Vision 2030, KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA, https://vision2030.gov.sa/en (last visited Nov. 20, 2018), archived at 

https://perma.cc/KB2L-94D5.

32 Press Release, Saudi Press Agency, The Future Investment Initiative Will Drive Global Thinking on the Future of 

Technology, Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (Oct. 3, 2017), https://www.spa.gov.sa/viewstory.php?lang=en 

&newsid=1673447, archived at https://perma.cc/3TT3-DN3D.

33 National Center for Communication of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (@CICSaudi), TWITTER (Oct. 25, 2017, 8:38 

AM), https://twitter.com/CICSaudi/status/923212096552218624/photo/1, archived at https://perma.cc/W452-

AYSU.

34 Id.; Saud al Qhtani Announces that the AI Robot Has Acquired Saudi Citizenship, MAAAL (Oct. 25, 2017), 

https://www.maaal.com/archives/20171025/98413 (in Arabic), archived at https://perma.cc/3JVB-5743. 
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The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is currently cooperating with foreign companies that specialize in 

the field of AI. During his visit to Riyadh, SAP CEO Bill McDermott welcomed the Kingdom’s 

plans to use AI to achieve Saudi Vision 2030 national development goals. He noted that the 

government of Saudi Arabia will use AI as a foundation for NEOM, the new industrial city project.

In collaboration with SAP, the Kingdom announced that it would invest 285 million Saudi Riyal 

(about US$76 million) to develop modern technologies in the field of AI.35 

III. Practical Implementation of AI: Religious Rituals 

In an attempt to use AI in different fields, including religious rituals, the Saudi Ministry of Haj and 

Umrah has published on its YouTube channel a video giving an insight into how pilgrims to Mecca 

will use AI in 2030. According to the Ministry, Muslims from around the world who intend to 

undertake Haj (the pilgrimage to Mecca) will have to apply through a mobile application, and 

within a few days, they will receive a box that contains an electronic card, a bracelet, and 

an earphone.36

Tunisia

In April 2018, in collaboration with UNESCO, the Tunisian government convened a workshop 

titled “National AI Strategy: Unlocking Tunisia’s Capabilities.”37 During the event, the Tunisian 

Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research announced the creation of a task force to 

develop a national AI strategy. The strategy is scheduled to be launched during the first quarter 

of 2019.38 

According to news reports the Tunisian representative at UNESCO has declared that the goal of 

the national AI strategy is to integrate AI into multiple industries and introduce AI in the services 

field as well. He added that an array of Tunisian scientists would contribute to the development of 

the national strategy. Furthermore, Tunisian investors and ministries will fund and facilitate 

the process.39 

 35 SAP CEO: Artificial Intelligence to Hasten Saudi Vision 2030, SAUDI GAZETTE (Feb. 14, 2018), http://saudi 

gazette.com.sa/article/528442/BUSINESS/SAP-CEO-Artificial-Intelligence-to-hasten-Saudi-Vision-2030, archived 

at https://perma.cc/6UWQ-5Q5M.

36 Artificial Intelligence to Change the Haj We Know, GULF NEWS (July 16, 2018), https://gulfnews.com/ 

news/gulf/saudi-arabia/artificial-intelligence-to-change-the-haj-we-know-1.2252269 (in Arabic), archived at

https://perma.cc/XW6S-2RSB.

37 National AI Strategy: Unlocking Tunisia’s Capabilities Potential, MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND 

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, http://www.anpr.tn/national-ai-strategy-unlocking-tunisias-capabilities-potential/ (last visited 

Dec. 14, 2018), archived at https://perma.cc/YV6L-UWAN.

38 See Tim Dutton, An Overview of National AI Strategies, MEDIUM (June 28, 2018), https://medium.com/politicsai/an-overview-of-national-ai-strategies-2a70ec6edfd, archived at https://perma.cc/C8TQ-N6T8.

39 Launching the Development of a National AI Strategy, AL-SABAH (Apr. 20, 2018), https://www.turess.com/ 

assabahnews/180819, archived at https://perma.cc/WC86-9HH7.
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The Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research stated that AI will play a vital part in 

the future of Tunisia and will be integrated into the field of information technology. He asserted 

the commitment of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research to fund and support 

projects related to AI, including the development of the national strategy. He also stated that the 

development of the strategy would facilitate the establishment of new labs for AI.40

In November 2018, the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research announced 

that it would collaborate with the Moroccan Ministry of Scientific Research to launch a joint 

scientific research lab. The lab will conduct scientific research in various areas, including AI, and 

will begin working in June 2019. Both governments stated that they would allocate the appropriate 

funding for the lab to operate for four years.41

United Arab Emirates

I. Official Strategy 

In October 2017, the government of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) established the UAE 

Strategy for Artificial Intelligence. Such strategy is the first of its kind among Arab countries. It 

encompasses the following objectives: (1) enhance government performance at all levels by 

employing a smart digital system that can overcome challenges; and (2) make the UAE the first 

country to use AI in the fields of transportation, health, renewable energy, water, education, the 

environment, and traffic.42

II. Establishment of a Ministry 

The UAE has also created a new ministry in the Cabinet called the Ministry for Artificial 

Intelligence. In October 2017, the President of the Union selected Omar bin Sultan Al-Olama as 

the first Minister of State for Artificial Intelligence. Al-Olama is in charge of using the latest AI 

technologies to enhance governmental performance. The cabinet has also established the Council 

of Artificial Intelligence, which will oversee the integration of AI into various governmental 

departments. The Council includes representatives from all nine emirates.43

 40 Id.

41 Ministry of Higher Education: Towards the Establishment a Joint Tunisian/Moroccan Scientific Lab, AL 

CHOUROUK (Nov. 8, 2018), https://www.turess.com/alchourouk/2025999, archived at https://perma.cc/S9VZ-7ZFX.

42 Mohamed Bin Rashid Launches UAE Artificial Intelligence Strategy, GULF NEWS (Oct. 16, 2017), 

https://gulfnews.com/news/uae/government/mohammad-bin-rashid-launches-uae-artificial-intelligence-strategy1.2106998, archived at https://perma.cc/4MXE-ZL9W.

43 Anna Zacharias, UAE Cabinet Forms Artificial Intelligence Council, THE NATIONAL (Mar. 5, 2018), 

https://www.thenational.ae/uae/uae-cabinet-forms-artificial-intelligence-council-1.710376, archived at

https://perma.cc/7MDV-MJSK.
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III. National Council of AI 

In March 2018, the Council of Artificial Intelligence met for the first time. The meeting focused 

on the best methods to integrate AI systems into the daily tasks of government. One of the main 

responsibilities of the Council is to promote the exchange of knowledge and experience related to 

AI with other countries as well as promote public awareness about AI. Additionally, the Council’s 

members discussed seven main objectives to achieve the UAE’s AI Strategy. Those objectives 

include the following: 

• Transforming the UAE into a leading global destination for AI

• Developing AI technology in both the private and government sectors

• Attracting prominent international AI scientists to work in the UAE

• Creating the appropriate infrastructure to transform the UAE into a global AI laboratory

• Forming policies and legislation for AI-based technologies and innovations44

IV. Practical Implementations of AI 

A. Traffic 

In its effort to implement AI technology in a variety of fields, including traffic and security, the 

Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) of the Emirate of Dubai announced that it would begin 

using an autonomous vehicle system by February 2018. The system will be operated in the Al 

Qudra Road District. Such an initiative is the first step to support the government of the Emirate 

of Dubai’s strategy to convert 25% of public transportation to driverless by 2030.45 In August 

2018, the Federal Authority for Standardization and Metrology announced that it would begin 

drafting safety regulations for the country’s autonomous vehicle system.46 The UAE recently 

embarked on Phase 4 of the Driverless Vehicles Project within the Sustainable City at Dubailand 

over a track extending 1250m, according to the Sustainable City’s website.47 The Khaleej Times

has reported that the RTA of Dubai will examine an electric driverless taxi at a residential area in 

 44 Adelle Geronimo, UAE AI Council Talks Future Vision and Strategy, TAHAWULTECH (Mar. 18, 2018), 

https://www.tahawultech.com/news/uae-ai-council-talks-strategy-and/, archived at https://perma.cc/76DZ-9GF4.

45 Mariam M. Al Serkal, Driverless Vehicles Will Start in This Area of Dubai, GULF NEWS (Jan. 22, 2018),

https://gulfnews.com/news/uae/transport/driverless-vehicles-will-start-in-this-area-of-dubai-1.2160927, archived at

https://perma.cc/76QH-3MRY.

46 UAE to Introduce Regulations for Self-driving Vehicles, THE NATIONAL (Aug. 12, 2017), https://www.thenational. 

ae/uae/transport/uae-to-introduce-regulations-for-self-driving-vehicles-1.619081, archived at

https://perma.cc/XG4H-9TLE.

47 RTA Operates a ‘Driverless Vehicle’ in Sustainable City, THE SUSTAINABLE CITY (Sept. 5, 2018), 

https://www.thesustainablecity.ae/2018/09/05/rta-operates-a-driverless-vehicle-in-sustainable-city/, archived at

https://perma.cc/2Q7G-NL67.
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the Dubai Silicon Oasis in December 2018. After a three-month trial phase, the RTA will decide 

in what areas such driverless taxis may operate.48

B. Security 

In addition, the Dubai Police Department has announced that a new system to identify wanted 

suspects was powered by the AI technology being used by the Department. The spokesperson for 

the Department stated that the new system assisted in catching 550 suspects in 2018.49

 48 Angel Tesorero, Driverless Taxis Will Be Running on Dubai Roads in December, KHALEEJ TIMES (Oct. 14, 2018),

https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/dubai/Driverless-taxis-will-be-running-on-Dubai-roads-next-month, archived 

at https://perma.cc/E8N8-79WH.

49 Artificial Intelligence Helps Dubai Police Arrest 550 Criminals, KHALEEJ TIMES (Oct. 6, 2018), 

https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/dubai/artificial-intelligence-helps-dubai-police-arrest-550-criminals, archived 

at https://perma.cc/T4A2-H9SM.
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Sub-Saharan Africa

Ghana

During the April 2018 meeting of the UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) 

GGE on LAWS, Ghana reportedly expressed “a desire to negotiate a new international law—a 

new treaty or CCW protocol—to address concerns over” LAWS.1

 Ghana is also in favor of a ban 

on fully autonomous weapons. 2 It expressed this view at the 2015 CCW meeting, stating

as follows:

Ghana is very much concerned about the possible use of lethal autonomous weapon 

systems at any time in the future, for the many reasons and fears that these Systems present 

to us by their very nature. It is obvious that proponents of these systems believe that they 

will not be the victims but others will. 

We need to avoid moving in this direction of self perfection to the promotion and 

preservation of human dignity for humanity as a whole. History confirms that today’s 

victim can become tomorrow’s perpetrator, especially, when we take into consideration the

ever increasing development and spread of technology. Won't we be heading towards a 

potential quagmire in the near future. 

In our view fully automated lethal systems must be proscribed before they are fully 

developed because of the concerns aforesaid and shared by a larger number of delegations 

represented here in this meeting.3

Kenya

In February 2018, the Kenya government announced that it had formed an eleven-member 

blockchain and AI task force, comprised of representatives from academia, research institutions, 

and the local technology sector, and directly accountable to the Cabinet Secretary for Information, 

Communications and Technology.

4 The task force “will provide the roadmap to contextualize on 

the application of these emerging technologies in the areas of financial inclusion, cybersecurity, 

land tilting [sic], election process, single digital identity and overall public service delivery.”5 The 

immediate goal of the task force is to “make recommendations on how the government can 

 1 CAMPAIGN TO STOP KILLER ROBOTS, REPORT ON ACTIVITIES: CONVENTION ON CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS GROUP 

OF GOVERNMENTAL EXPERTS MEETING ON LETHAL AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS SYSTEMS 7 (Apr. 2018), 

https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/KRC_ReportCCWX_Apr2018_UPLOADED.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/59HM-Y2ZZ. 

2 Id. at 8

3 Id. at 9. 

4 Kenya Govt Unveils 11 Member Blockchain & AI Taskforce Headed by Bitange Ndemo, THE KENYAN WALL 

STREET (Feb. 28, 2018), https://kenyanwallstreet.com/kenya-govt-unveils-11-member-blockchain-ai-taskforceheaded-by-bitange-ndemo/, archived at https://perma.cc/6NTP-C36M. 

5 Id. 
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leverage on the emerging technologies in the next five years, with other key milestones in 2027 

and 2032.”6

Nigeria 

Nigeria reportedly approved a robotics and AI agency in August 2018.7 Sources at the country’s 

Ministry of Science and Technology stated that the new agency “would leverage collaborations 

with international research bodies on robotics and AI” and enable “research and teachings in more 

complex technology skills to thousands of young people.”8 During the official inauguration of an 

inter-ministerial committee tasked with the establishment of the agency, Christopher Ogbonnaya 

Onu, the Minister of Science and Technology, noted that “there is no way Nigeria can achieve 

effective industrialization without investment in Robotics and Artificial Intelligence because it is 

critical to manufacturing, health care delivery and transportation.”9 A source from the office of the 

country’s president stated that “[t]he ultimate goal is to have an agency mandated solely on 

advancing our knowledge and usability of robots and AI across sectors in Nigeria. The idea is to 

leapfrog our growth.”10

Recent reporting indicates that investment in AI will be directed through the National Agency for 

Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI), an organization whose mission is to “establish 

and nurture appropriate and dynamic Science and Engineering Infrastructure-base for achieving 

home-initiated and home-sustained industrialization through the development of relevant 

processes, capital goods and equipment necessary for job creation, national economic well-being 

and progress.”11

 6 Id. 

7 Nwakaego Alajemba & Chinedu James, Nigeria to Set up New Agency for Robotics and Artificial Intelligence,

TEDGE NEWS (Aug. 6, 2018), https://itedgenews.ng/2018/08/06/nigeria-set-new-agency-robotics-artificialintelligence/, archived at https://perma.cc/H2MF-GS4B. 

8 Id.

9 Olusegun Shogbola, FG to Establish Two New Agencies, FEDERAL MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(Aug. 1, 2018), http://scienceandtech.gov.ng/2018/08/01/fg-to-establish-two-new-agencies/, archived at

https://perma.cc/79WG-GH33. 

10 Alajemba & James, supra note 7.

11 Olusegun Shogbola, Nigeria, UAE to Cooperate on Solar Energy, Artificial Intelligence, FEDERAL MINISTRY OF 

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (Oct. 24, 2018), http://scienceandtech.gov.ng/2018/10/24/nigeria-uae-to-cooperate-onsolar-energy-artificial-intelligence/, archived at https://perma.cc/GN67-8M8R; About Us, NATIONAL AGENCY FOR 

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING INFRASTRUCTURE, http://www.naseni.org/who-we-are.html (last visited Nov. 29, 2018), 

archived at https://perma.cc/D4FH-T4A9. 
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Sierra Leone

During the April 2018 meeting of the UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) 

GGE on LAWS, Sierra Leone was reportedly among thirty-two countries that expressed “a desire 

to negotiate a new international law—a new treaty or CCW protocol—to address concerns 

over” LAWS.12

South Africa

South Africa was one of thirty-two countries that expressed interest in negotiating a treaty to 

address concerns regarding LAWS during the April 2018 meeting of the UN CCW GGE 

on LAWS.13

Uganda

As it indicated during the April 2018 meeting of the UN CCW GGE on LAWS), Uganda is 

interested in negotiating a treaty on and in favor of an absolute ban on LAWS.14 

Zambia 

Zambia is in favor of negotiating “a new international law—a new treaty or CCW protocol—to 

address concerns over” LAWS.15

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe supports negotiating “a new international law—a new treaty or CCW protocol—to 

address concerns over” LAWS and is in favor of banning LAWS.16

The government of Zimbabwe reportedly recently signed a strategic partnership framework 

agreement with a Chinese company, CloudWalk (with the agreement backed by the Chinese 

government’s Belt and Road Initiative), to deploy facial recognition software in the capital 

Harrare, and to build a national facial database.17 The benefits sought by China and Zimbabwe 

 12 Id. at 7. 

13 Id. 

14 Id. at 8 & 9.

15 Id. at 8. 

16 Id. at 8 & 9. 

17 Shan Jie, China Exports Facial ID Technology to Zimbabwe, GLOBAL TIMES (Apr. 12, 2018), http://www.global 

times.cn/content/1097747.shtml, archived at https://perma.cc/M2UZ-WHN2; Arthur Gwagwa, Exporting 

Repression: China’s Artificial Intelligence Push into Africa, COUNCIL ON FOREIGN RELATIONS (Dec. 18, 2018), 
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from this deal were characterized by one source as follows: “Chinese AI companies get to train 

their algorithms on Africans to diversify their datasets and Zimbabwe gets to use cutting edge tech 

to monitor its population.”18 Yao Zhiqiang, CloudWalk’s CEO, explained the importance of places 

like Zimbabwe for the improvement of his company’s products as follows: “The differences 

between technologies tailored to an Asian face and those to a black one are relatively large, not 

only in terms of color, but also facial bones and features . . . . The machine learning needed to 

expand the technology’s capability would require sufficient data.”19

 

https://www.cfr.org/blog/exporting-repression-chinas-artificial-intelligence-push-africa, archived at

https://perma.cc/9PSA-B85M; Lynsey Chutel, China is Exporting Facial Recognition Software to Africa, Expanding 

its Vast Database, QUARTEZ AFRICA (May 25, 2018), https://qz.com/africa/1287675/china-is-exporting-facialrecognition-to-africa-ensuring-ai-dominance-through-diversity/, archived at https://perma.cc/AAR6-CSGK. 

18 Gwagwa, supra note 17.

19 Chutel, supra note 17.