CHAPTER 3 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction and Study Area ............................................................................................................................................3-1 

Land Use and Ecoregions.................................................................................................................................................3-1 

Land Use...................................................................................................................................................................3-1 

Ecoregions................................................................................................................................................................3-1 

Climate ..............................................................................................................................................................................3-2 

Tundra Ecoregion.....................................................................................................................................................3-2 

Subarctic Ecoregion .................................................................................................................................................3-2 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion..................................................................................................................................3-2 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion ..................................................................................................................................3-2 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion...................................................................................................................................3-2 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion....................................................................................................................................3-2 

Mediterranean Ecoregion.........................................................................................................................................3-3 

Marine Ecoregion.....................................................................................................................................................3-3 

Mountain Provinces .................................................................................................................................................3-3 

Air Quality ........................................................................................................................................................................3-3 

Visibility Protection in Mandatory Federal Class I Areas......................................................................................3-4 

Herbicide Drift .........................................................................................................................................................3-6 

Topography, Geology, Minerals, Oil, and Gas................................................................................................................3-6 

Tundra Ecoregion.....................................................................................................................................................3-6 

Subarctic Ecoregion .................................................................................................................................................3-7 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion....................................................................................................................................3-7 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion ..................................................................................................................................3-7 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion...................................................................................................................................3-7 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion..................................................................................................................................3-7 

Mediterranean Ecoregion.........................................................................................................................................3-7 

Marine Ecoregion.....................................................................................................................................................3-7 

Soil Resources...................................................................................................................................................................3-7 

Biological Soil Crusts ..............................................................................................................................................3-9 

Micro and Macroorganisms.....................................................................................................................................3-9 

Soil Erosion ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-10 

Soil Compaction.................................................................................................................................................... 3-10 

Water Resources and Quality ........................................................................................................................................ 3-11 

Water Resources.................................................................................................................................................... 3-11 

Water Quality ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-15 

Wetland and Riparian Areas.......................................................................................................................................... 3-18 

Vegetation...................................................................................................................................................................... 3-19 

Tundra Ecoregion.................................................................................................................................................. 3-19 

Subarctic Ecoregion .............................................................................................................................................. 3-20 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion................................................................................................................................. 3-20 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion ............................................................................................................................... 3-22 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion................................................................................................................................ 3-22 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion............................................................................................................................... 3-23 

Mediterranean Ecoregion...................................................................................................................................... 3-24 

Marine Ecoregion.................................................................................................................................................. 3-25 

Noxious Weeds and other Invasive Vegetation ................................................................................................... 3-25 

Vegetation Condition and Fire Regimes .............................................................................................................. 3-27 

Non-timber Forest Products.................................................................................................................................. 3-29 

Special Status Species........................................................................................................................................... 3-30 

Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms............................................................................................................................... 3-30 

Alaska and the Pacific Northwest......................................................................................................................... 3-30 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-i June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS 
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

The Arid Environment .......................................................................................................................................... 3-31 

The Upper Colorado River Basin ......................................................................................................................... 3-33 

California ............................................................................................................................................................... 3-34 

Missouri River Basin............................................................................................................................................. 3-34 

Special Status Species........................................................................................................................................... 3-35 

Wildlife Resources......................................................................................................................................................... 3-35 

Tundra Ecoregion.................................................................................................................................................. 3-36 

Subarctic Ecoregion .............................................................................................................................................. 3-37 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion................................................................................................................................. 3-38 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion ............................................................................................................................... 3-39 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion ................................................................................................................................ 3-40 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion............................................................................................................................... 3-41 

Mediterranean Ecoregion...................................................................................................................................... 3-41 

Marine Ecoregion.................................................................................................................................................. 3-42 

Special Status Species........................................................................................................................................... 3-43 

Livestock........................................................................................................................................................................ 3-43 

Wild Horses and Burros................................................................................................................................................. 3-44 

Paleontological and Cultural Resources........................................................................................................................ 3-44 

Paleontological Resources .................................................................................................................................... 3-44 

Cultural Resources ................................................................................................................................................ 3-45 

American Indian and Alaska Native Cultural Resources..................................................................................... 3-45 

European Settlement Resources............................................................................................................................ 3-54 

Important Plant Uses and Species Used by American Indians and Alaska Natives ........................................... 3-54 

Visual Resources............................................................................................................................................................ 3-56 

Wilderness and other Special Areas.............................................................................................................................. 3-56 

Recreation ...................................................................................................................................................................... 3-58 

Rights-of-way, Facilities, and Roads............................................................................................................................. 3-60 

Rights-of-way........................................................................................................................................................ 3-60 

Facilities and Roads............................................................................................................................................... 3-61 

Social and Economic Values......................................................................................................................................... 3-61 

Social/Demographic Environment........................................................................................................................ 3-61 

Economic Environment......................................................................................................................................... 3-62 

Revenues Generated by BLM Lands.................................................................................................................... 3-62 

Expenditures by the BLM..................................................................................................................................... 3-65 

Human Health and Safety.............................................................................................................................................. 3-69 

Background Health Risks...................................................................................................................................... 3-69 

Risks from Diseases.............................................................................................................................................. 3-70 

Risks from Injuries................................................................................................................................................ 3-70 

Risks from Cancer................................................................................................................................................. 3-71 

Risk from Using Herbicides on Public Lands...................................................................................................... 3-72 

Risk from Wildfire Control on Public Lands....................................................................................................... 3-72 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-ii June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

List of Tables 

3-1 Acres of Public Lands in 17 Western States and Percent of Lands in the the State Administered by 

the BLM..............................................................................................................................................................3-1 

3-2 National Ambient Air Quality Impact Significance Criteria.............................................................................3-4 

3-3 Counties within the Treatment Area that are Designated Nonattainment or Maintenance Areas for 

Various Pollutants ..............................................................................................................................................3-5 

3-4 Vegetation Classification System ................................................................................................................... 3-21 

3-5 Estimated Acres of Weed Infestations on Public Lands in 2000 ................................................................... 3-28 

3-6 Grazing Permits and Leases in Force and Active Animal Unit Months during Fiscal Year 2005 ............... 3-44 

3-7 Wild Horses and Burros on Public Lands in Fiscal Year 2005...................................................................... 3-45 

3-8 Interpreted Paleontological Sites on Public Lands......................................................................................... 3-46 

3-9 Cultural Resources on Public Lands............................................................................................................... 3-47 

3-10 Culture Areas, Prehistoric Occupation Periods, and Selected Common Site Types..................................... 3-48 

3-11 European Settlement Resource Types ............................................................................................................ 3-55 

3-12 Visual Resource Management Classes and Objectives and Appropriate Management Activities............... 3-58 

3-13 National Landscape Conservation System and Other Special Designation Areas on Public Lands as 

of September 2005........................................................................................................................................... 3-59 

3-14 Estimated Recreation Use of Public Lands during Fiscal Year 2005 ............................................................ 3-60 

3-15 Population, Age Distribution, and Race in the Western States and Alaska................................................... 3-63 

3-16 Percent Unemployment for Western U.S. and Alaska ................................................................................... 3-64 

3-17 Percent Employment by Industry in 2004 ...................................................................................................... 3-65 

3-18 Revenues Generated from Public Lands by Source for Fiscal Year 2005..................................................... 3-66 

3-19 Estimated Benefits to Local Economies by Recreation on Public Lands during Fiscal Year 2005 ............. 3-66 

3-20 Summary of BLM Jobs and Expenditures for the Management of the Lands and Resources Program

by Activity and Subactivity............................................................................................................................. 3-67 

3-21 BLM Wildland Fire Suppression Expenditures Fiscal Year 1998 through Fiscal Year 2005 ...................... 3-68 

3-22 BLM Action Fires Larger than 10,000 Acres during 1999 to 2005............................................................... 3-68 

3-23 Herbicide Uses and Costs for Vegetation Treatments on Public Lands during 2005 ................................... 3-69 

3-24 BLM Payments to States and Local Governments during Fiscal Year 2005 ................................................ 3-71 

3-25 Mortality Rates (per 100,000 Population) and Causes of Death by State 2002-2003................................... 3-72 

List of Figures 

3-1 Relationship between Area Occupied by Invasive Species and Time........................................................... 3-27 

List of Maps

3-1 Ecoregion Divisions........................................................................................................................................ 3-73 

3-2 Class I Areas.................................................................................................................................................... 3-75 

3-3 Oil and Gas Wells on Public Lands................................................................................................................ 3-77 

3-4 Soil Orders on Public Lands............................................................................................................................ 3-79 

3-5 Hydrologic Regions......................................................................................................................................... 3-81 

3-6 Wastershed Surface Water Quality on Public Lands ..................................................................................... 3-83 

3-7 General Groundwater Quality on Public Lands.............................................................................................. 3-85 

3-8 Vegetation Types and Ecoregions on Public Lands in Alaska....................................................................... 3-87 

3-9 Vegetation Types and Ecoregions on Public Lands in the Western U.S. ...................................................... 3-89 

3-10 Fire Regime Condition Classes on Public Lands........................................................................................... 3-91 

3-11 Native Areas of Western North America........................................................................................................ 3-93 

3-12 National Landscape Conservation System Areas........................................................................................... 3-95 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-iii June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

CHAPTER 3 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Introduction and Study Area 

This chapter describes the natural and socioeconomic 

environment of public lands in the western U.S., 

including Alaska, which would be affected by the 

alternatives under consideration. It focuses on resources 

that were identified in Chapter 1, and is useful in

understanding the environmental, cultural, and social 

consequences of the proposed program and alternatives. 

Land Use and Ecoregions 

Land Use 

The BLM manages nearly 261 million acres in the

western U.S. and Alaska. Public lands represent from

less than 0.1% of the total land area in some states to

over 67% of lands in Nevada (Table 3-1). 

Approximately 164 million acres of public lands are 

upland rangeland, of which approximately 161 million 

acres are open to livestock grazing. Other public uses on

rangeland include recreation, and oil, gas, and mineral

development. 

Another 55 million acres are forestland and woodland. 

Forestlands and woodlands are a source of timber and

other forest products, and are used for livestock grazing, 

recreational, and cultural purposes. 

Wetland and riparian areas total about 23 million acres 

and are primarily used for recreation and grazing. The 

remaining 19 million acres consist of barren mountains, 

mountaintops, glaciers, sand dunes, and playas. These 

areas are primarily used for recreation. 

Ecoregions 

Because this PEIS addresses a broad geographic region 

with a diverse range of biophysical characteristics, it is 

useful to subdivide this region into smaller, 

homogeneous areas for analysis. Where possible,

information on resources has been organized by 

ecoregions rather than by state boundaries. Ecoregions 

are geographic areas that are delineated and defined by 

similar climatic conditions, geomorphology, and soils 

(Bailey 1997, 2002). Since these factors are relatively

constant over time and strongly influence the ecology 

of vegetative communities, ecoregions may have

similar potentials and responses to disturbance (Clarke 

and Bryce 1997; Jensen et al. 1997). Ecoregions, 

therefore, provide a useful framework for organizing, 

interpreting, and predicting changes to vegetation 

following management treatments. 

TABLE 3-1 

Acres of Public Lands in 17 Western States and 

Percent of the State Administered by the BLM 

State 

Acres of 

BLM Land 

Percent of State Lands

Administered by the BLM

Alaska 85,468,616 23.5

Arizona 12,218,180 16.8

California 15,230,638 15.1

Colorado 8,363,916 12.6

Idaho 12,001,817 22.5

Montana 7,963,511 8.5

Nebraska 6,354 <0.1

Nevada 47,824,624 67.6

New Mexico 13,371,737 17.2 

North Dakota 58,837 0.1 

Oklahoma 2,136 <0.1

Oregon 16,135,761 26.0

South Dakota 274,437 0.6 

Texas 11,833 <0.1

Utah 22,858,179 42.1

Washington 408,580 0.9

Wyoming 18,366,584 29.3

Total 260,565,740 23.5

 Source: USDI BLM (2006c, d). Acreages are approximate and 

subject to change in response to land transfers. 

The public lands addressed in this PEIS lie within eight 

major physiographic regions, or ecoregion divisions: 

Tundra, Subarctic, Subtropical Steppe, Subtropical

Desert, Temperate Steppe, Temperate Desert,

Mediterranean, and Marine, including Mountain

Provinces (Map 3-1). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-1 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
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Climate 

Climate is the statistical distribution of atmospheric

conditions, as determined by the weather patterns that

result from long-term fluctuations in global atmospheric

and hydrologic cycles. Climatic patterns describe the 

annual distribution of energy and moisture, thus 

affecting the amount and seasonal distribution of 

temperature, precipitation, and winds. These factors

influence the composition and distribution of rangeland 

vegetation, as well as the formation and erosion of 

rangeland soils, and hydrological conditions. These 

factors also influence the distribution of wind-borne air 

pollutants, such as smoke from wildfires and prescribed

fires. 

The western U.S. experiences several broad climatic 

groups: polar, boreal, temperate, Mediterranean

highland, and dry. Polar and boreal climates dominate in 

Alaska, while a humid temperate climate is 

characteristic of the coastal areas of Washington,

Oregon, and northern California. The southern

California coast has a Mediterranean climate, while

mountainous areas have a highland climate. The rest of 

the western states east of the Cascade, Sierra Nevada, 

and Rocky mountains are characterized by a dry climate.

On a regional scale, temperature and precipitation vary

with latitude, elevation, distance from the oceans, and 

the position of mountain ranges with respect to

prevailing winds. The eight ecoregions found in the 

treatment area are based on the seasonality of 

precipitation, and on the degree of dryness or cold, and

depend largely on latitude and continental position. 

Tundra Ecoregion 

The climate of the westernmost and northernmost

portion of Alaska (including the Alaska Peninsula and 

Aleutian Islands), is typified by cold Arctic air masses.

The tundra climate has a very short, cool summer and a 

long, severe winter, with the warmest average monthly 

temperature between 50 °F and 32 °F (freezing).

Between 55 and 188 days per year typically have a daily

mean temperature above freezing. Annual precipitation 

is often less than 8 inches, but the climate is humid

because of the low potential evaporation. 

Subarctic Ecoregion 

The moist, boreal climate type demonstrates a large

seasonal temperature range. Winters dominate, with 

cool, short summers. Because average monthly 

temperatures are below freezing for up to 7 consecutive 

months, soil moisture freezes solidly to depths up to 14 

feet. Only a single month has an average temperature

above 50 °F. The limited precipitation (10 to 20 inches

annually) falls mainly during the short summer months, 

although thunderstorms are uncommon. 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion 

The western subtropical steppe borders deserts on both

the north and south, with the temperate steppe to the 

north and east. This ecoregion division has a hot 

semiarid climate where potential evaporation exceeds 

precipitation, and where all months have average

temperatures above freezing. Bright sunny days with

cool clear nights are typical. Precipitation ranges from 

10 to 20 inches per year, with a summertime peak due 

to thunderstorm activity. 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion 

South and west of the Arizona-New Mexico Mountains

is the subtropical desert climate. This region is not only 

very dry, but also has extreme maximum summer 

temperatures. In addition, both daytime solar and

nocturnal radiation are high, leading to extreme daily 

temperature variations. Annual precipitation is less than 

8 inches. 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion

Temperate steppes are areas with a semiarid continental

climatic regime, where evaporation usually exceeds 

precipitation. Seven or fewer months have an average

temperature above 50 °F. Winters are cold and dry, and

summers are warm to hot, with at least 1 month’s 

average temperature below freezing. 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion 

Temperate deserts are generally dry with wide 

temperature differences between summer and winter. In

the intermountain region between the Pacific coast and

Rocky Mountains, the temperate desert has a very

pronounced drought season and a short humid season. 

Most precipitation falls in winter, despite a small peak

in late spring. Eight or more months have an average 

temperature above 50 °F. Winter is relatively short, but 

with at least 1 month’s average temperature below 

freezing. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-2 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Mediterranean Ecoregion 

Most of California west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains 

and Mojave Desert is typified by alternate wet winters 

and dry summers, within a strong transition zone

between the dry desert and the wet coast. Mild 

temperatures dominate, with the coldest average 

monthly temperature between 65 °F and 27 °F. Most

precipitation occurs in winter, with the wettest month

receiving nearly 3 times the precipitation of the driest

summer month. 

Marine Ecoregion 

The temperate oceanic climate extends from southeast

Alaska down the Pacific Coast to southwestern Oregon. 

This climate receives abundant rainfall from maritime

air masses, with average temperatures moderated by the 

ocean. Although the warmest average monthly 

temperature is above 72 °F for at least 4 months, the 

average temperature is above 50 °F; the coldest month

averages just above 32 °F. Annual precipitation is high 

(40 to 80 inches per year), but significantly lower in 

summer. The relatively low temperatures reduce

evaporation, producing a very damp, humid climate with

substantial cloud cover. Mild winters and cool summers 

are typical. 

Mountain Provinces 

The mountainous portions of all eight ecoregion

divisions exhibit a highland climate, where site-specific 

conditions vary greatly, depending on altitude and 

exposure. Windward slopes typically have greater 

precipitation (and leeward slopes less precipitation) than 

the ecoregion division as a whole. Southern exposures 

also tend to be warmer than slopes with northern

exposures. Finally, the occurrence of mountain winds 

(up slope during the day, down slope at night) and

diurnal temperature inversions is greatest near 

mountains. 

Air Quality 

Because air pollution can directly pose health risks and 

cause significant welfare impacts to humans,

improvement of air quality in the U.S. is an important

regulatory goal. The Clean Air Act (originally passed in

1955 and amended several times since), establishes a 

mandate to reduce emissions of specific pollutants via 

uniform federal standards. Under the Act, the USEPA is

responsible for setting standards and approving state 

implementation plans (SIPs) to ensure that local 

agencies comply with the Act.

The standards set by the USEPA include primary and

secondary NAAQS for six pollutants, referred to as 

criteria pollutants, to protect public health and welfare. 

The criteria pollutants are sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen 

dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), 

lead (Pb), and particulate matter (PM). 

Particulate matter (PM) is a generic term for a broad

class of chemically and physically diverse substances 

that exist as discrete particles over a wide range of 

sizes. For regulatory purposes, PM is sub-classified by

the particle’s aerodynamic diameter. PM10 includes all 

PM with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns or 

less and is referred to as inhalable PM. PM2.5 includes 

all PM with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or 

less, called fine PM, and is by definition a subset of 

PM10. Studies have shown more serious health effects 

associated with PM2.5; therefore, the USEPA 

promulgated more stringent standards for this class of

PM. 

The NAAQS are listed in Table 3-2. The primary 

NAAQS protect the health of sensitive individuals, and 

the secondary NAAQS protect the general welfare of 

the public. Different averaging periods are established 

for the criteria pollutants based on their potential health 

and welfare effects. The NAAQS are enforced by 

states, which in some cases have adopted additional or 

more stringent standards. 

All areas of the nation have been classified based on

their status with regard to attaining the NAAQS. An 

area is designated by the USEPA as being in attainment

for a criteria pollutant if ambient concentrations of that 

pollutant are below the NAAQS, or being in 

nonattainment if criteria pollutant concentrations 

violate the NAAQS. Once nonattainment areas comply

with the NAAQS, they are designated as maintenance

areas. Areas that are classified as nonattainment must 

implement a plan to reduce ambient concentrations 

below the NAAQS. Areas where insufficient data are

available to determine attainment status are designated 

as unclassified, and are treated as attainment areas for 

regulatory purposes. 

The Clean Air Act also provides for the prevention of

significant deterioration (PSD) of air quality, especially 

in areas of the country where the air quality is much

better than standards. In Class I areas, only a

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-3 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-2 

National Ambient Air Quality Impact Significance Criteria (μg/m3

)

NAAQS PSD Increments2

Pollutant Averaging Period1

Primary Secondary Class I Class II 

NO2 Annual 100 100 2.5 25

1-hour 40,000 NA NA NA CO 8-hour 10,000 NA NA NA

24-hour 150 150 8 30 PM10 Annual NA NA 4 17

24-hour 35 35 NA NA PM2.5 Annual 15 15 NA NA

3-hour NA 1,300 25 512

24-hour 365 NA 5 91 SO2

Annual 80 NA 2 20

Lead Quarter 1.5 1.5 NA NA

1-hour3 235 235 NA NA O3 8-hour3 157 157 NA NA 1

 Annual standards are never to be exceeded. Short-term standards (those other than annual or quarterly) are not to be exceeded more 

than once per year, except for O3, PM10, and PM2.5 standards. For O3, the expected number of days with ozone levels above the

standard is not to be exceeded more than once per calendar year. For PM10, the standard is attained when the 99th percentile

concentration for the year is less than the standard. For PM2.5, the standard is attained when the 98th percentile concentration for the

year is less than the standard. 2

 Prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) increments are the maximum amounts of pollutants allowed above a specified baseline 

concentration. Class I areas are predominantly large national parks and wilderness areas as of August 7, 1977. 3

 The 1-hour NAAQS will no longer apply to an area 1 year after the effective date of the designation of that area for the 8-hour ozone

NAAQS. The effective designation date for most areas is June 15, 2004. 

NA = Not applicable.

very small amount or increment of air quality

deterioration is permissible. Class I areas include 

specified national parks, wilderness areas, and certain 

Indian reservations (Map 3-2). Mandatory Class I

areas, which include large national parks and

wilderness areas that were in existence on August 7, 

1977, are a subset of Class I areas that may not be 

redesignated, and are subject to visibility protection 

regulations. All areas that have not been designated 

Class I are considered Class II areas. The PSD permit

provisions of the Clean Air Act only apply to

stationary sources of air pollution and do not include

prescribed fire, which is defined as a temporary 

source. Some states, however, have regulations to

restrict intrusions of smoke from prescribed burning 

that might adversely impact visibility within

mandatory federal Class I and other smoke-sensitive

areas. 

Detailed knowledge of the existing air quality for the 

area covered by this PEIS is limited to available 

monitoring sites for criteria pollutants. In the 

undeveloped regions of public lands, ambient

pollutant levels are expected to be low, and probably 

negligible in remote areas. In general, locations

experiencing high ambient pollutant levels in the 

treatment area are areas with commercial and

industrial land use (areas with mills, power plants, 

etc.), and local population centers (areas with

automobile exhaust, residential heating, etc.). 

Table 3-3 lists counties with public lands that are

designated as nonattainment or maintenance areas for 

each criteria pollutant. PM10, O3, and NO2

concentrations are expected to be higher near 

industrial areas and cities where there are significant

combustion sources and vehicles. High SO2

concentrations occur primarily near coal-fired power

plants, smelters, and refineries. 

Visibility Protection in Mandatory

Federal Class I Areas 

Under the Clean Air Act, Congress created the Grand

Canyon Visibility and Transport Commission 

(GCVTC). The GCVTC was comprised of eight 

western states, six tribal agencies, and four federal

land management agencies, and was charged with

assessing the current scientific information on

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-4 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-3 

Counties within the Treatment Area that are Designated Nonattainment or 

Maintenance Areas for Various Pollutants 

Pollutant State Nonattainment Maintenance

Arizona Cochise*, Gila*, Maricopa*, Pima*, Pinal*, 

Santa Cruz*, Yuma* Gila*, Mohave*

California 

Fresno*, Imperial*, Inyo*, Kern*, Kings*, 

Madera*, Mono*, Riverside*, San Bernardino, 

Stanislaus*, Tulare* 

Kern*, Mono* 

Colorado Prowers*

Adams*, Arapahoe*, Archuleta*, Boulder*, 

Broomfield, Denver, Douglas, Freemont*, Jefferson, 

Pitkin*, Routt*, San Miguel* 

Idaho Bannock*, Bonner, Power*, Shoshone* Ada* 

Montana Missoula*, Rosebud*, Silver Bow* None 

Nevada Clark*, Washoe* None

New Mexico Dona Ana* None 

Oregon Jackson*, Lake*, Lane* Josephine*, Klamath*

Utah Salt Lake, Utah None 

Washington Yakima* None

PM10

Wyoming Sheridan* None

Arizona Cochise*, Gila*, Pinal* Greenlee*, Pima* 

Montana Lewis and Clark*, Yellowstone* None 

Nevada None White Pine*

New Mexico None Grant*

SO2

Utah Salt Lake*, Tooele* None 

NO2 None None None

Alaska None Fairbanks North Star*

Arizona Maricopa* Pima*

California Los Angeles*, Riverside*, San Bernardino* 

Butte*, El Dorado*, Fresno*, Kern*, Napa*, 

Placer*, San Diego*, Solano*, Sonoma*, 

Stanislaus*, Yolo* 

Colorado None Boulder*, El Paso*, Jefferson*, Larimer*, Teller* 

Idaho None Ada*

Montana Missoula* Cascade*, Yellowstone*

Nevada None Carson City*, Douglas*, Washoe* 

New Mexico None Bernalillo 

Oregon Marion*, Polk* Clackamas*, Jackson*, Josephine*, Klamath*, 

Lane*, Washington* 

Utah Utah* Salt Lake

CO 

Washington Spokane* Yakima*

Arizona Maricopa* None

California 

Butte, El Dorado*, Fresno*, Imperial, Kern*, 

Kings, Napa*, Placer*, Riverside*, San 

Bernardino*, San Diego*, Solano*, Sonoma*, 

Stanislaus, Tulare, Yolo 

Kern*, Monterey, San Benito, San Diego 

Colorado None Boulder*, Jefferson

Nevada Washoe Clark*, King*, Pierce*, Snohomish*, Yakima* 

New Mexico Dona Ana* None 

Oregon Marion*, Polk* Clackamas*, Washington*

Ozone 

Utah None Salt Lake

Lead Montana Lewis and Clark* None 

* Only a portion of the county is in nonattainment or maintenance for the pollutant. 

Notes: States that are not listed for a particular pollutant do not have counties within the treatment area that are also within 

nonattainment or maintenance areas for that pollutant. 

Source: USEPA Green Book available at http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/greenbk/. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-5 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

visibility impacts and making recommendations for 

addressing regional haze in the western U.S (GCVTC

1996). The GCVTC signed and submitted more than 70

recommendations to the USEPA indicating that 

visibility impairment was caused by a wide variety of

sources and pollutants, and that a comprehensive 

strategy was needed to remedy regional haze (Grand

Canyon Visibility Transport Commission 1996). Based 

on the findings and recommendations from the 

GCVTC, the USEPA established regional haze 

regulations, and encouraged states to coordinate their 

implementation efforts through regional planning

organizations. 

The Western Regional Air Partnership (WRAP) was 

established in 1997 as a successor to the GCVTC. The 

WRAP is a voluntary organization comprised of 13

western governors (Alaska, Arizona, California, 

Colorado, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, New Mexico, 

Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and

Wyoming), 11 tribal leaders, and 2 federal departments 

(USDA and USDI).

In the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act, the U.S. 

Congress directed the USEPA to develop regional haze

regulations to achieve the national visibility goal of “the

prevention of any future, and the remedying of any 

existing impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I 

federal areas, which impairment results from manmade 

air pollution.” 

The USEPA promulgated the Regional Haze Rule in 

1999 to improve visibility in 156 mandatory federal

Class I national parks and wilderness areas where

visibility is an important value (USEPA 1999a). 

Improvement in visibility must be made every 10 years 

for the 20% most impaired (haziest) days, and there 

must be no degradation for the 20% best (clearest) days, 

until the national visibility goal is reached in 2064. 

State implementation plans and tribal implementation

plans (TIPs) outline how reasonable progress towards 

this goal will be achieved and demonstrated. Section

308 of the Regional Haze Rule provides nationally 

applicable provisions of the rule in the development of

SIPs and TIPs, which address regional haze. 

Herbicide Drift 

Aerial and ground application of herbicides may 

transport herbicides through drift, allowing airborne 

herbicides to move beyond the intended target. The 

primary factors that influence drift are droplet size,

wind speed, humidity, formulation of the herbicide, 

height of emission, equipment and application

techniques, and the size of the area treated with the 

herbicide. The factor that has the greatest influence on 

downwind movement is droplet size. Procedures that

can be employed to reduce drift include: 1) using a 

lower spray nozzle height, 2) using the lower end of the

pressure range, 3) increasing the spray nozzle size, 4)

using drift-reducing nozzles, 5) using drift control

additives, and 6) using sprayer shields (Hofman and

Solseng 2001). Additionally, several university 

extension service agencies provide assistance regarding

SOPs to minimize herbicide spray drift (Dexter 1993, 

Hofman and Solseng 2001). 

Topography, Geology, 

Minerals, Oil, and Gas 

The diversity in the landscape of the treatment areas 

reflects differences in geologic processes and the effects

of climate, which have been shaping the land over a

long period of time. 

In 2005, on-shore public lands produced about 40% of 

the nation’s coal, about 11% of its natural gas, and

about 5% of its oil (USDI BLM 2006c). In FY 2005, 

the BLM administered over 54,000 oil and gas leases, 

of which approximately 21,000 leases were producing. 

BLM geothermal resources produced over 34

megawatt-hours of electric power. Information

pertaining to mineral, oil, and gas resources, presented

below, was gathered from the Mineral Resources 

Program, a section of the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS). 

Tundra Ecoregion 

The Tundra Ecoregion is rich in minerals, oil, and gas. 

Metallic minerals including silver, lead, and zinc are

found throughout the North Slope region of Alaska. To

the south, along the western coast of Alaska, are 

significant concentrations of gold. The Northern Alaska

physiographic province accounts for almost half of the 

oil and more than half of the undiscovered conventional 

gas assessed on onshore federal lands. Oil and coal 

resources extracted in Alaska are predominantly from

the Tundra Ecoregion (i.e., North Slope). As of 2005, 

Alaska accounted for 17% of the crude oil discovered in

the U.S. (Energy Information Administration 2006). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-6 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Subarctic Ecoregion 

Gold is the most dominant mineral extracted in this 

ecoregion. Other mineral operations include copper 

mining, and production of aggregate (e.g., construction 

sand, gravel, and crushed stone). There are limited

discoveries of coal, gas, and oil resources in the central 

portion of Alaska. 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion 

Raw, non-fuel minerals extracted throughout this

ecoregion include aggregate, gypsum, limestone, trona, 

shale, and stone. Metallic minerals, predominantly

silver and gold, are extracted in the southern portions of 

this ecoregion. There is very little oil and gas found in

this ecoregion. However, coalfields located in the

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion extend into this ecoregion, 

and are found throughout southwest Wyoming and 

central and southwest Utah.

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion 

Minerals predominantly extracted from the western

portion of this ecoregion are construction aggregate 

including construction sand, gravel, and crushed stone. 

Metallic minerals (e.g., gold, silver, and copper) 

dominate the central and eastern portion of this region. 

Gypsum is prominent in southern Nevada. Limited oil 

and gas reserves are located in southern Arizona and 

southwest New Mexico. No coalfields are found in this 

ecoregion. 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion

Construction aggregate (including crushed stone and

common clay) is the dominant mineral extracted

throughout the southern and central sections of this 

ecoregion. While industrial minerals within this region 

are predominantly extracted for construction purposes, 

Wyoming contains the world’s largest source of trona. 

Trona is the principal ore from which soda ash is

produced. Metallic minerals and precious stones (i.e., 

gems) are extracted throughout the northern and

northeastern portions of the ecoregion. 

There are significant deposits of coal concentrated

throughout the Colorado Plateau extending into the 

Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. Significant oil

reserves are located throughout the region (Map 3-3). 

The Powder River Basin and the Wyoming Thrust Belt

provinces of the Rocky Mountains and Northern Great

Plains regions have the second largest concentrations 

(behind Alaska) of undiscovered conventional oil and 

gas, respectively, assessed on federal lands (Gautier et

al. 1998; U.S. Departments of Interior, Agriculture, and

Energy 2003). 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion 

Construction aggregate and metallic minerals dominate 

the nonfuel minerals extracted in this ecoregion. In 

addition, potash accounts for a significant portion of 

minerals mined in New Mexico. The Carlsbad Potash

District (in New Mexico) is the largest potashproducing area in the U.S. (Energy Information

Administration 2001). There are extensive coalfields

throughout northern Arizona and New Mexico. These 

fields extend up into the Colorado Plateau. No oil or 

natural gas reserves have been located in this ecoregion. 

Mediterranean Ecoregion 

Industrial minerals such as aggregate, limestone, and 

shale dominate mineral extraction throughout this 

ecoregion. There is no coal mining within this

ecoregion, although oil and natural gas extraction is 

predominant in the San Joaquin, Ventura/Santa 

Barbara, Los Angeles, and Santa Maria regions. 

Marine Ecoregion 

Metallic minerals such as gold, silver, aluminum, lead, 

and zinc are mined in southeast Alaska and in 

Washington. In western Oregon, aggregate is the most

dominant mineral extracted. There are no significant

oil, natural gas, or coal resources within this region. 

Soil Resources 

Soils in the treatment area are diverse and range from 

the arid, saline soils of the southwest, to the clayey

glaciated soils of Montana, to the cold, wet permafrost

soils of Alaska. Soils are the result of complex

interactions between parent material (geology), climate,

topography, organisms, and time (Brady and Weil 

1999). Soils are classified by the degree of development

into distinct layers or horizons and their prevailing

physical and chemical properties (Fanning and Fanning 

1989). Similar soil types are grouped together into soil

orders based on defining characteristics, such as organic 

matter and clay content, amount of mineral weathering, 

water and temperature regimes, or other characteristics 

that give soil unique properties, such as the presence of 

volcanic ash or permafrost (Jenny 1980). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-7 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Eleven soil orders are represented on public lands in the 

western U.S. and Alaska (Map 3-4). Because soils 

develop under local conditions of climate, parent

material, and vegetation, each ecoregion may contain 

several or all of the soil orders as a result of various 

combinations of local soil forming factors. Soils are

organized here by soil order rather than by ecoregion. 

Aridisols are found on over 40% of public lands (105

million acres). They occur across wide parts of the

western U.S. in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, central

Wyoming, southern Idaho, and southern California. 

These soils are characterized by an extreme water 

deficiency. They are light colored soils, are low in 

organic matter, and may have subsurface accumulations

of soluble materials, such as calcium carbonate, silica,

gypsum, soluble salts, and exchangeable sodium. 

Vegetation on these soils includes scattered desert

shrubs and short bunchgrasses, which are important

resources for livestock. Aridisols are generally not very 

productive without irrigation, and may be prone to 

salinity buildup. Surface mineral deposits often form

physical crusts that impede water infiltration. 

Gelisols occur on over 27% of public lands (71 million 

acres), almost exclusively in the tundra regions of 

Alaska. They are underlain by permanently frozen

ground (permafrost). Some gelisols in wet

environments have developed large accumulations of

organic matter, particularly in areas of bogs and

wetlands. Soil forming processes take place very slowly

above the permafrost in the active layer that thaws 

seasonally. These soils support tundra vegetation of 

lichens, grasses, and low shrubs that grow during the 

brief summers. Plant productivity is low and limited by 

the extremely short growing season of the northern

latitudes, low levels of solar radiation, and poor water 

drainage. Bare rock is also common in Alaska, 

comprising nearly 8 million acres. 

Mollisols occur on about 15% of public lands (40 

million acres). They are found in much of North and

South Dakota and northern Montana, as well as in 

eastern Oregon, Washington, and Idaho where they 

have developed from basalt and loess parent materials. 

These soils typically support grasslands and are mineral

soils with thick, dark-colored surface horizons rich in

organic matter from the dense root systems of prairie 

grasses. They are one of the most productive soils on

public lands, and their high organic matter content helps

reduce the risk of groundwater contamination by 

herbicides. Mollisols extend from upland areas to the

prairie grasslands, where they are most abundant. 

Mollisols support a variety of plant communities, 

including grasslands, chaparral-mountain shrub, and

forests. Since they have developed primarily under 

grassland vegetation, mollisols have been used 

extensively for livestock grazing. 

Entisols occur on about 9% of public lands (23 million

acres). Entisols occur extensively in eastern Montana,

western Colorado, South Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, and 

central California. They are young, weakly developed

mineral soils that lack significant profile development 

(soil horizons) and are often found in lower elevation, 

arid and semiarid environments supporting desert shrub 

and sagebrush communities. Entisols can include recent

alluvium, sands, soils on steep slopes, and shallow soils. 

Soil productivity ranges from very low in soils forming

in shifting sand or on steep rocky slopes to very high in

certain soils formed in recent alluvium. Productivity is

often limited by shallow soil depth, low water holding 

capacity, or inadequate available moisture, but these

soils do support rangeland vegetation and may support

trees in areas of higher precipitation. 

Alfisols occur on less than 2% of public lands (4 

million acres). They can be found throughout the 

mountains of western Montana and Wyoming and in

central Colorado and California. They are characterized

by subsurface clay accumulations and nutrient-enriched

subsoil. Alfisols commonly have a mixed vegetative 

cover and are productive for most crops, including 

commercial timber. 

Inceptisols also occur on less than 2% of public lands 

(4 million acres). Inceptisols are found in northern 

Idaho and parts of Washington, Oregon, and Montana,

as well as southwest Alaska. They are generally young

mineral soils, but have had more time to develop profile 

characteristics than Entisols. They principally occur in

very cool to warm, humid and subhumid regions and in

most physiographic conditions, and often support

coniferous and deciduous forests as well as rangeland 

vegetation. They may form in resistant rock or thin 

volcanic ash on steep mountain slopes or depressions, 

on top of mountain peaks, or next to rivers. Productivity 

is varied and may be high where moisture is adequate. 

The other soil orders represent less than 1% of public 

lands each (1 million acres or less), and therefore, will

not be discussed in detail. Andisols are soils that have 

formed on volcanic ash deposits. They have high 

amounts of volcanic glass and organic matter, giving 

them a light, fluffy texture. Histosols are organic soils 

that typically form in lowland areas with poor water 

drainage. While not extensive, Histisols are often

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-8 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

associated with riparian or wetland resources and can

be very important locally. 

Spodosols are highly leached, acid soils that typically

form on sandy soils under cold, humid conditions at 

high elevations. Ultisols are strongly acid mineral soils 

associated with advanced soil weathering and are low in

nutrients. Vertisols have large amounts of expanding

clay that causes them to have high shrinking and 

swelling characteristics. 

The concept of soil quality encompasses a soil’s 

capacity to function and to sustain plant and animal

productivity, air and water quality, and human health

(Soil Quality Institute 2001). It is a function of each

soil’s inherited properties (texture, type of minerals, 

depth) as well as more dynamic properties that can

change with management (porosity, infiltration, 

effective ground cover, and aggregate stability). The

ability of a soil to filter, buffer, degrade, immobilize,

and detoxify herbicides is a function of the soil quality. 

Management activities can result in changes in certain

soil properties such as soil porosity, organic matter, 

biological activity, and susceptibility to erosion. These 

changes in turn affect the fate of herbicides in soils. For 

example, disturbances that result in increased

susceptibility to erosion will affect the off-site

movement of certain herbicides that are designed to

bind to soil particles. Herbicides can alter soil organism

diversity and composition. Compaction or surface 

disturbance may affect soil activated herbicides from 

reaching the root zone of target plants. 

Biological Soil Crusts 

Biological soil crusts (also known as cryptogamic, 

microbiotic, cryptobiotic, or microphytic crusts) are 

commonly found in semiarid and arid environments. 

They provide important functions, such as improving 

soil stability and reducing erosion, fixing atmospheric

nitrogen and contributing nutrients to plants, and

assisting with plant growth (Belnap and Gardner 1993, 

Evans and Ehleringer 1993, Eldridge and Greene 1994, 

Belnap and Giliette 1998, Harper and Belnap 2001). 

Crusts are composed of a highly specialized

nonvascular plant community consisting of

cyanobacteria, green and brown algae, mosses, and

lichens, as well as liverworts, fungi, and bacteria 

(Belnap and Phillips 2001). Biological soil crusts

occupy open spaces between the sparse vegetation of 

the Great Basin, Colorado Plateau, Sonoran Desert, and

the inner Columbia Basin, and also occur in agricultural 

areas and native prairies, and in Alaska. 

Biological soil crusts can reach up to several inches in 

thickness and vary in terms of color, surface 

topography, and surficial coverage. Crusts generally 

cover all soil spaces not occupied by vascular plants,

which may be 70% or more in arid regions (Belnap

1994). They are well adapted to severe growing

conditions, but are influenced by disturbances such as 

compression from domestic livestock grazing, tourist 

activities (hiking, biking, and OHVs), mechanical

treatment and agricultural practices (extensive tillage 

and planting), application of herbicides, and military

activities (Peterjohn and Schlesinger 1990, Belnap 

1995, USGS 2004). Disturbance of biological crusts 

results in decreased soil organism diversity, nutrients, 

stability, and organic matter. Trampling may reduce the

number of crust organisms found on the surface and

increase runoff and the rate of soil loss without apparent 

damage to vegetation (Eldridge 1996). Burial of crusts 

by sediments kills non-mobile photosynthetic

components (mosses, lichens, and green algae) of the 

crust (Campbell 1979). Fires can cause severe damage

to biological crusts, but recovery is possible, depending 

on fire size and intensity. Shrub presence (particularly 

sagebrush) may increase fire intensity, thereby 

decreasing the likelihood of early vegetative or crust

recovery after a burn (USGS 2003). 

Micro and Macroorganisms 

Microorganisms help to break down and convert

organic remains into forms that can be used by plants. 

Microorganisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi, nitrogenfixing organisms, and certain types of bacteria assist

plant growth, suppress plant pathogens, and build soil 

structure. One of the main benefits of mycorrhizal fungi

is the improved uptake of nutrients (predominantly 

phosphorous) and water by plants (Allen 1991). Soil 

microorganisms are also important in the breakdown of

certain types of herbicides. 

Macroorganisms, such as insects, earthworms, and

small burrowing mammals, mix the soil and allow 

organic matter on the surface to become incorporated 

into the soil. These organisms are part of a food chain

that is essential to the cycling of nutrients within the 

soil. Soil microorganisms are also important in the 

breakdown of certain types of pesticides. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-9 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Soil Erosion 

Soil erosion is a concern throughout the western U.S. 

and Alaska, particularly in semiarid rangelands. The 

quantity of soil lost by water or wind erosion is 

influenced by climate, topography, soil properties, 

vegetative cover, and land use. While erosion occurs 

under natural conditions, rates of soil loss may be

accelerated if human activities are not carefully

managed. 

Tundra lands in Alaska are susceptible to erosion if the 

thick vegetative mat overlying permafrost is disturbed

or removed. Trails quickly turn into widely braided ruts, 

especially in wetlands and at streambank crossings. The 

resulting gully erosion can rapidly erode substantial

quantities of previously frozen soils. Erosion from

aufeis (thick ice that builds ups as a result of repeated

overflow) and anchor ice is also a concern due to spring

breakup flood events leaving disturbed streamchannels. 

These events cause previously stable riparian areas to

form a long-lasting sequence of extensively braided

channels, especially in glacial soils. 

Rangelands are affected by all four types of water 

erosion⎯sheet, rill, gully, and streambank. Sheet

erosion is relatively uniform erosion from the entire soil

surface and is therefore often difficult to observe, while

rill erosion is initiated when water concentrates in small

channels as it runs off the soil. Sheet and rill erosion are 

capable of reducing the productivity of rangeland soils, 

but often go unnoticed. Gully and streambank erosion is 

far more visible, and may account for up to 75% of 

erosion in desert ecosystems (Hein 2002). Changes in

water flow patterns in arid areas resulting from 

thunderstorms and fire events can cause an increase in 

the size and frequency of runoff events and sediment

yield to local water sources (Water Science and

Technology Board and Board on Environmental Studies 

and Toxicology 2002). 

It is possible to control rates of soil erosion by

managing vegetation, plant residues, and soil

disturbance. Vegetative cover is the most significant

factor in controlling erosion because it intercepts 

precipitation, reduces rainfall impact, restricts overland

flow, and improves infiltration. Biological soil crusts

are particularly important for protecting the soil and 

controlling erosion in desert regions, but are easily 

disturbed by grazing and human activities. 

With a decrease in vegetative cover, the potential risk of

herbicides entering surface water and groundwater can

increase (Purdue Pesticide Program 2001). Herbicides 

can be transported by surface water runoff, potentially 

increasing the risk of direct injury to nontarget species, 

harming aquatic organisms in streams and ponds, and

leading to groundwater contamination (University of

Missouri Extension 1997). 

Differences in chemical solubility, adsorptive 

characteristics, volatility, and degradability, plus soil

properties that affect water movement, biological

activity, and chemical retention, affect the amount of a 

herbicide that may leach to groundwater. The speed at

which leaching of chemicals through soil occurs is 

dependent on the soil characteristics. Soil texture (sand, 

silt, and clay) affects the movement of water and

herbicides through soil. The coarser the soil, the faster

the movement of percolating water and the lower the 

opportunity for adsorption of dissolved chemicals. Soils 

with more clay and organic matter tend to hold water 

and dissolved chemicals longer. These soils also have 

far more surface area onto which herbicides can be

adsorbed (LaPrade 1992). 

Wind erosion is most common in arid and semiarid

regions where lack of soil moisture greatly reduces the

adhesive capability of soil (Brady and Weil 2002). In 

addition to moisture content, soil particle size (texture), 

mechanical stability of aggregates and clods, and

presence of vegetation also affect the ability of wind to

move soil. While wind erosion on rangelands is difficult

to quantify, the presence of natural vegetation on most

rangelands is generally sufficient to keep wind erosion

from becoming a serious problem. Most wind erosion

problems result from bare, exposed soils with weak or

degraded soil structure, such as along trails or on sand 

dunes or disturbed surfaces. Herbicides can be 

potentially transported by blowing soils after 

application. Herbicides bound to soil particles may be

moved offsite by wind erosion events. 

Soil Compaction 

Soil compaction occurs when moist or wet soil

aggregates are pressed together and the pore space 

between them is reduced. Compaction changes soil

structure, reduces the size and continuity of pores, and 

increases soil density. Wheel traffic, large animals,

vehicles, and people can cause soil compaction.

Generally, soils made up of particles of about the same

size compact less than soil with a variety of particle

sizes. Numerous rock fragments can create bridges that 

reduce compaction. Plant litter and roots, and soil

organic matter, structure, moisture, and texture all affect

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-10 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

a soil’s ability to resist compaction. In areas of

rangeland where compaction exists, compacted soil

extends generally less than 6 inches below the soil

surface, although it can be as deep as 2 feet under 

heavily used tracks and roads (USDA Natural Resource

Conservation Service 1996). Compaction becomes a 

problem when the increased soil density limits water 

infiltration, increases runoff and erosion, or limits plant

growth or nutrient cycling (Soil Quality Institute 2001). 

Water Resources and Quality 

Water Resources 

Water resources in the western U.S. and Alaska are 

important for fish and wildlife habitat and a variety of

human needs, such as domestic consumption, industrial 

activities, crop irrigation, livestock watering, and

recreation. Numerous legal and policy requirements 

have been established to manage water resources for 

these multiple needs, including the Clean Water Act, 

the Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act, and EO 

11988 (Floodplain Management). 

Water resources are classified as surface water or

groundwater. Surface water resources include rivers, 

streams, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and wetlands. Major 

river systems (e.g., Colorado, Columbia, Snake,

Missouri, Arkansas, Rio Grande, and Yukon rivers) and 

their tributaries are important sources of water in the 

western U.S and Alaska. 

The quantity and quality of surface water resources are

affected by precipitation, topography, soil type, 

vegetation, agricultural practices, urbanization, and 

general land use practices, especially for large tracts of

public land. The alteration of vegetative cover from

land use practices can have significant impacts on water 

infiltration, soil erosion, and stream sedimentation. 

The largest quantities of useable freshwater occur as

groundwater, which provides drinking water for more 

than 97% of the rural population without access to 

public-water supplies, and between 30 and 40% of the 

water used for agriculture (Alley et al. 1999). 

Groundwater is obtained primarily from wells that tap

into aquifers. Aquifers are layers of permeable rocks 

that are recharged with freshwater from precipitation 

that percolates through the unsaturated zone to the 

water table, typically in upland, mountainous areas. 

Recharge rates generally range from a tiny fraction to 

about one-half of the average annual precipitation. 

Streams are commonly a significant source of recharge

to groundwater downstream from mountain fronts and 

steep hillslopes in arid and semiarid areas. 

As shown on Map 3-5, nine hydrologic regions have 

been identified in the treatment area: Alaska, Pacific

Northwest, California, Upper Colorado, Lower 

Colorado, Rio Grande, Missouri, Great Basin, and 

Arkansas-White-Red (Seaber et al. 1987). Most public 

lands occur in arid to semiarid environments in the

Great Basin and Colorado drainage basins. 

Alaska Hydrologic Region 

The BLM administers approximately 143,000 miles of 

riparian habitat and nearly 12.6 million acres of 

wetlands in Alaska (USDI BLM 2006d). This 

hydrologic region occupies the entire state of Alaska, 

and is characterized by an abundance of water 

resources. Major river systems, such as the Yukon, 

drain the mountain ranges, and extensive wetlands dot

the low-lying plains and coastal regions. 

The Yukon and Kuskokwim river drainages are two of

the dominant drainages in Alaska. The Yukon River 

drains an area of more than 330,000 square miles (mi

2

), 

making it the fourth largest drainage basin in North

America. Its mainstem, the Yukon River, originates in 

northwestern Canada and extends through central 

Alaska, discharging into the Bering Sea (Brabets et al. 

2000). Major tributaries of the Yukon River include the 

Tanana, Nenana, and Chena rivers. 

The Kuskokwim River is the second largest drainage in

Alaska. The glacially turbid mainstem is approximately

900 miles long, originating from the interior headwaters 

of the Kuskokwim Mountains and the shadows of the 

Alaska Range. The Kuskokwim River flows in a 

southwest direction to the Bering Sea. 

Hydrologic processes are strongly affected by the 

presence of permafrost, which may thaw seasonally or 

be continuous throughout the year, particularly in the 

North Slope. In central Alaska, permafrost is

discontinuous, and an active layer at the surface that

thaws during the summer months can supply 

groundwater for domestic use. The valleys of major 

rivers have alluvial aquifers with an active layer in the 

summer months that also supply good quality

groundwater. During the winter, permafrost generally 

extends to the surface, impeding water infiltration and 

groundwater recharge. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-11 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Pacific Northwest Hydrologic Region 

The Pacific Northwest Hydrologic Region includes the 

wet coastal areas of Oregon and Washington, as well as 

the semiarid Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington, 

Oregon, and southern Idaho. The region is drained by

the Columbia, Willamette, and Snake River systems, 

which are important sources of hydroelectric power and

irrigation for agriculture. 

The coastal areas of Oregon and Washington are 

influenced by medium to high rainfall levels due to the 

interaction between marine weather systems and the 

mountainous nature of the region. Mountains within 

this area are generally rugged with steep canyons. 

Tributary streams are short and have steep gradients, 

creating rapid surface water runoff with relatively shortterm water storage, limiting recharge. 

The Columbia River Basin drains approximately

259,000 mi

2

. The basin extends roughly from the crest

of the Coast Ranges of Oregon and Washington, east 

through Idaho, to the Continental Divide in the Rocky 

Mountains of Montana and Wyoming; and from the 

headwaters of the Columbia River in Canada to the high 

desert of northern Nevada and northwestern Utah. Its 

mainstem, the Columbia River, originates in two lakes 

that lie between the Continental Divide and the Selkirk 

Mountain Range in British Columbia. After flowing a

circuitous path for approximately 1,200 miles, it joins 

the Pacific Ocean near Astoria, Oregon. 

The Columbia River has 10 major tributaries—the 

Kootenay, Okanagan, Wenatchee, Spokane, Yakima, 

Snake, Deschutes, Willamette, Cowlitz, and Lewis 

rivers. 

The Pacific Northwest Hydrologic Region includes a 

network of coastal streams and rivers. Many are raindriven systems that are hydrologically flashy and

influenced primarily by rain storms during the winter. 

Streams west of the Cascade Range typically discharge 

directly into the Pacific Ocean. 

The southernmost portion of this hydrologic region 

extends down to the northern portion of the Great

Basin. This area is geologically very new and contains 

extensive areas of lava and other volcanic rock. The 

rock substrata are very permeable; therefore, streams 

tend to lose much of their flow through percolation. 

Only large rivers that lie below the water table contain 

substantial flows year-round. In most years, abundant 

precipitation along the western side of the Cascade 

Range produces abundant surface water flow in streams

flowing off the Cascade Range to the Pacific Ocean. 

Aridity progressively increases and precipitation 

decreases east of the Cascade Range because of

rainshadow effects caused by the mountains. 

Timing of precipitation east of the Cascade Range 

coincides with periods of relatively high solar radiation;

thus, precipitation is rapidly evaporated, limiting the 

amount of surface water available to streams in this 

portion of the region (Spence et al. 1996). Generally,

streams that flow year-round east of the Cascade Range 

are fed by snowmelt from higher elevations or by 

groundwater discharge from aquifers recharged during 

periods of abundant precipitation. 

Groundwater is an important resource in this hydrologic 

region for domestic consumption and irrigation,

particularly when surface water supplies are 

insufficient. It is generally contained in shallow alluvial 

aquifers along major streams and their valleys. 

California Hydrologic Region 

This hydrologic region includes nearly the entire state 

of California, as well as parts of southern Oregon. The 

region is characterized by a Mediterranean climate with

winter precipitation, and a prolonged summer period

with little precipitation. 

The California region is drained by rivers such as the 

Sacramento and San Joaquin. Surface water flow in

streams is derived mainly from snowmelt in the

mountainous areas during the spring months. During

the remainder of the year, many streams have no flow 

or intermittent flow that follows major storms. 

Groundwater in the mountainous areas is relatively 

deep, and is contained in sedimentary units that 

continue under the intermountain basins and form a 

deep reservoir that is seldom tapped because of its 

depth. Shallow groundwater can be found in sands and

gravels that fill the basins between the mountain ranges. 

This groundwater is fed by infiltration of surface water

from streams that flow off the mountain ranges. 

Groundwater in southeastern California is the main

source of water for domestic consumption and 

agricultural irrigation. 

Upper Colorado Hydrologic Region 

This hydrologic region includes the Colorado Plateau, 

which encompasses parts of southern Wyoming, 

western Colorado, eastern Utah, and northern Arizona 

and New Mexico. The upper reaches of the Colorado

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-12 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

River and its tributaries drain this region. Precipitation

varies greatly with elevation, and occurs as winter 

snows and heavy fall rainstorms. 

Perennial surface water flow occurs in major rivers 

(e.g., the Green River and Colorado River). Major 

streams are fed by snowmelt in the mountainous areas. 

Dams serve as flood control, domestic supply, and

power generation for the major urban centers, as well as 

provide surface water for irrigation. Intermittent flow

occurs in tributaries to the major rivers, and ephemeral 

flow occurs in small canyons. Surface water runoff or 

groundwater baseflow are the major processes that

deliver precipitation and snowmelt to streams. In

Colorado, the annual hydrograph for most streams is 

dominated by snowmelt in the mountains; however, 

there is also a rain component, which varies by region. 

For instance, in the southwest portion of Colorado, 

summer monsoonal flow produces ample rain. The 

larger rivers in Colorado are perennial, but the smaller 

rivers and streams are either intermittent or ephemeral. 

Groundwater is found in most of the sedimentary rocks

of the Colorado Plateau, and is the major source of 

water for domestic and municipal use. Major aquifer 

systems are not present; groundwater is localized and 

can be abundant in some areas and absent in others.

Farming and ranching are usually limited to stream

valleys, where irrigation water comes mostly from 

surface water. Groundwater baseflow is the major 

source of water for perennial flows in the late summer

and early fall. Seeps and springs are an historic source 

of water for Native American tribes and a current

source of water for smaller ranches. 

Lower Colorado Hydrologic Region 

This hydrologic region is comprised of the lower 

reaches of the Colorado River in the desert southwest of

Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Nevada. In this 

region, public lands are mainly restricted to the arid

valleys, while many of the upland areas are

administered by the Forest Service. The climate is arid,

and precipitation is limited to the winter months and

periods of heavy storms. Most precipitation during 

summer evaporates before it can infiltrate into the

desert sands. 

Surface water flow in the arid basins of the southwest is

ephemeral to non-existent most of the year. Spring

snowmelt and periods of heavy rain during the winter

result in surface water flow in the mountainous areas 

and along the mountain fronts in the intervening basins. 

During the rest of the year, surface water flow is absent

except after major storms, where flash floods are 

common along the mountain fronts. Only major rivers 

draining the Colorado Plateau or the Mogollon Rim,

such as the Gila and Bill Williams rivers, have

perennial flow. 

Groundwater is found in the alluvium of the basins and 

in the bedrock of the mountainous areas (i.e., deep 

reservoirs to depths of many thousands of feet). 

Groundwater is recharged by precipitation in the 

mountains and infiltration of stream flow along the base

of the mountains. The shallow groundwater reservoirs 

are used extensively for irrigation and domestic 

consumption. Irrigation demand and mine dewatering

have substantially lowered the water levels in the 

shallow groundwater reservoirs of the Arizona basins. 

However, groundwater levels in the basins of southern

New Mexico have not been substantially affected by

irrigation. Many of the basins have shallow 

groundwater surfacing in playa lakes. 

Rio Grande Hydrologic Region 

This region occupies central New Mexico and western

Texas. The Rio Grande and Pecos rivers are major 

surface water resources that derive their water from the

mountainous regions of southern Colorado and flow

through New Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico. Surface 

water flow is present year-round in the Rio Grande and

is caused by spring snowmelt and summer monsoon

thunderstorms. Agricultural diversions account for 

approximately 90% of surface water use and may result

in practically no flow during the summer months

(Levings et al. 1998). 

The Rio Grande aquifer system covers a 70,000-mi

2

area of southern Colorado, central New Mexico, and 

western Texas. It consists of a network of 

hydrologically interconnected aquifers in basin-fill

deposits located along the valleys of the Rio Grande 

and nearby rivers. These aquifers are generally

composed of unconsolidated sediment deposits present

in intermountain basins. Groundwater recharge 

primarily originates as precipitation in the mountainous 

areas that surround the basins, while most of the 

precipitation that falls in the valleys is lost to

evaporation and transpiration. Potential evaporation 

may exceed 100 inches per year, while precipitation is 

frequently less than 8 inches per year (Levings et al. 

1998). 

Most groundwater withdrawal occurs as discharge from 

pumping wells, of which about 90% is used for 

irrigation of commercial crops. Most cities and 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-13 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

communities in the area, such as Albuquerque, Las 

Cruces, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, rely on

groundwater for municipal use. Groundwater 

withdrawals in closed basins have caused long-term

water level declines, while withdrawals from wells 

located near the Rio Grande, or its perennial tributaries, 

generally do not cause long-term water level declines in 

the aquifer. 

Missouri Hydrologic Region 

This hydrologic region covers the largest geographic

area of the nine regions, including much of Montana, 

Wyoming, northeastern Colorado, North Dakota, South 

Dakota, and Nebraska. This region represents the 

eastern front of the Rocky Mountains stretching to the

Great Plains, most of which is drained by the Missouri

and Platte rivers and their tributaries. 

Surface water resources are dominated by the major 

rivers and their tributaries. Precipitation is generally 

sparse in the summer and fall months, and surface water 

flow is generally dependent on snowmelt in the 

mountainous areas. Rivers flow mainly from late spring

to early fall and can be dry in some parts of the region

during the winter months. Surface water is directly

connected to groundwater through shallow alluvial

aquifers that are found along all the major rivers and 

their tributaries. Groundwater baseflow supplies stream

and river flow in the late summer and fall. Surface

water is the main source of municipal and irrigation

water in the Rocky Mountain region, and irrigation

return flow is a major component of surface water flow.

Groundwater in Wyoming and western Montana is

found both in the igneous rocks of the uplifts and the 

basins, although groundwater in the uplifts is generally 

not used. Groundwater is used extensively for 

irrigation, much of it becoming irrigation return water 

that flows into major streams and their tributaries. In 

addition to irrigation, groundwater is also used for

municipal and domestic water supplies. Major aquifers 

in the Great Plains are the Ogallala Aquifer of eastern

Wyoming, Nebraska, and Kansas, and the Dakota 

Aquifer of North and South Dakota. These aquifers are 

overdrawn and the water table has been declining for 

decades. Recharge comes only from stream infiltration

and spring snowmelt. 

Great Basin Hydrologic Region 

The Great Basin of Nevada and Utah is an arid region

located in the rainshadow of the Sierra Nevada 

Mountains. The Great Basin is characterized by

northerly trending mountain ranges and intermountain

valleys with closed drainage. Precipitation generally 

falls as rain and snowfall in the mountains. Streams 

flowing down from the mountains carry water to the 

basins, which infiltrates into the alluvial sediments and

provides the only substantial recharge to groundwater in

the basins. Surface water flow in the basins is derived

almost entirely from the mountain streams. 

Apart from major rivers (e.g., the Humbolt and Truckee 

rivers), surface water flow in the basins of Utah and

Nevada is intermittent along the mountain fronts and

ephemeral in the basins themselves. Surface water flow 

in the mountainous areas is limited mainly to late spring 

snowmelt in the higher areas of the ranges. Agricultural

diversions of major streams exiting the mountains are 

common, and major rivers are used extensively for 

irrigation. Surface water flow in northern Nevada has

been affected by groundwater pumping from mining

areas into the rivers. The Humboldt River, from Battle

Mountain to Winnemucca, Nevada, is dominated by

mine discharge. 

Groundwater is found in the alluvium of the basins and 

in the deeper rocks that underlie the alluvial basins.

Shallow groundwater in the alluvium of the basins is

the main source of water for domestic consumption, 

irrigation, and power plant cooling. Some areas of the 

Great Basin, particularly in northern Nevada, have 

geothermal reservoirs that underlie the shallow 

groundwater reservoirs. These geothermal waters have 

been tapped, often inadvertently, by open pit mining

and dewatering of areas used for gold mining. The 

Great Basin contains many of the largest groundwater 

reservoirs in the United States. These reservoirs are

largely untapped at present, but major urban areas like 

Las Vegas are actively pursuing their development. 

Arkansas-White-Red Hydrologic Region 

This hydrologic region occupies the drainage of the

Arkansas, Canadian, and Red River basins above the 

points of the highest backwater effect of the Mississippi

River. It includes all of Oklahoma and parts of 

Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Kansas, Missouri, and

Louisiana. Only a relatively small proportion of public 

lands are found in this region, primarily concentrated

near the headwaters of the Arkansas River in central

Colorado and near the headwaters of the Canadian 

River in northeastern New Mexico. 

Surface waters generally originate from precipitation 

falling in the eastern Rocky Mountains. Precipitation is 

relatively sparse in the summer and fall months, and

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-14 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

surface water flow is typically dependent on snowmelt

in the mountainous areas. Surface water resources are

used extensively for agricultural irrigation. 

Groundwater resources, which are extensive in this 

region, consist primarily of the Ogallala Aquifer and

alluvial aquifers associated with the river valleys. The

Ogallala Aquifer underlies much of this region, and

water withdrawals are used almost exclusively for 

irrigation (Robson and Banta 1995). 

Water Quality 

Water quality is defined in relation to its specified

and/or beneficial uses, such as human consumption,

irrigation, fisheries, livestock, industry, or recreation. 

The quality of surface water is determined by

interactions with soil, transported solids (organics and 

sediments), rocks, groundwater, and the atmosphere. 

The Clean Water Act established the basic structure for 

regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the 

U.S., and is responsible for setting water quality

standards for all contaminants in surface waters. Section

313 of the Clean Water Act requires all federal agencies 

to comply with state water quality standards “...to the

same extent as any nongovernmental entity.” Thus, the

BLM has a responsibility to fulfill its obligations under 

the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act, to

maintain waters that meet or surpass designated 

beneficial uses, to restore impaired water resources in

support of their designated beneficial uses, and to 

provide water for public consumption and use (USEPA

2003d). 

Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires that

water bodies violating state water quality standards and 

failing to protect beneficial uses be identified and

placed on a 303(d) list (USEPA 2003d). The delisting 

of 303(d) listed streams is a priority of the BLM. 

Nonpoint source pollution, the largest source of water 

quality problems, comes from diffuse or scattered

sources rather than from an outlet, such as a pipe that

constitutes a point source. Sediment is a nonpoint 

source of pollution that results from activities such as

livestock grazing and timber harvest. Erosion and 

delivery of eroded soil to streams is the primary 

nonpoint source pollution problem of concern to the 

BLM (USDI BLM 1980). 

The most important factors affecting water quality are

sediments, microbes, pesticides, nutrients, metals, and

radionuclides (Nash 1993). Sedimentation and nutrient

loading affect surface waters, while agricultural runoff 

and industrial wastes can also leach into groundwater. 

Surface water quality is also affected by solar loading 

and shade producing vegetation that affect water 

temperature, flow, total suspended solids (TSS), total

dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, changes in dissolved

oxygen, salinity, and acidity. 

The susceptibility of aquifers to groundwater

contamination relates to geology, depth to groundwater, 

infiltration rates, and solubility of contaminants. Deep 

aquifers are often too deep to be affected by surface

alteration or shallow waste disposal. However, shallow 

aquifers may be directly affected by surface alternation 

and by waste and wastewater disposal. Shallow, 

unconfined aquifers with rapid recharge rates are 

generally the most vulnerable to contamination because 

of the rapid infiltration of groundwater from the surface

to the water table. 

Water quality data for the surface and groundwater

resources of the western states are available from the

USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) 

database (USGS 2002b), the USGS National Water 

Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program (USGS 

2002c), the USEPA’s Index of Watershed Indicators 

(USEPA 1999b), the USEPA’s National Water Quality 

Inventory (USEPA 2000a), the USGS Groundwater

Atlas of the United States (USGS 2000), and from state 

water quality databases. These sources have been used

to develop a general assessment of water quality in the

hydrologic regions of the western states (including 

Alaska), where the BLM has substantial land

management responsibility. Data from the USEPA’s 

Index of Watershed Indicators characterizes the

condition and vulnerability of each of the 2,262

subbasins in the U.S. (Map 3-6). Information on general

groundwater quality (based on concentration of TDS) 

was compiled from the USEPA’s National Water 

Quality Inventory (USEPA 2000a; Map 3-7). 

Alaska Hydrologic Region 

Surface and groundwater resources in Alaska are of 

relatively good quality. The lack of industrial and

agricultural development reduces the risk of

contamination of water resources. Human activities, 

such as mining, oil drilling, and waste disposal in small

villages contribute to localized surface and groundwater

pollution. Oil drilling adds petrochemicals to both 

surface water and groundwater, and waste disposal adds

nitrates and colliform bacteria. Public lands have 

localized surface water and groundwater contamination 

from oil drilling. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-15 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Pacific Northwest Hydrologic Region 

Surface water quality has been degraded in the 

agricultural areas of eastern Washington and Oregon

and in southern Idaho by contamination resulting from 

agricultural and grazing practices. Elevated levels of 

nitrates, phosphates, and other nutrients are found in 

these waters. In Montana, agricultural practices in the

Bitterroot Valley have added nutrients to surface water. 

Fish farming has also contributed to elevated nutrient 

levels in these streams and rivers of Washington. 

Irrigation return waters in the Snake River Basin are

contributing nutrients and pesticides to surface waters 

(Clark et al. 1998). Herbicide use results in elevated

levels of these chemicals in surface waters during the

growing season; however, these levels typically decline 

after the growing season. 

Groundwater is generally of good quality for most uses 

across the Pacific Northwest. Rivers and streams with

lower water quality are primarily the result of thermal

modifications, pathogens, habitat alteration, and

concentrated agricultural activities in areas such as the

Willamette Valley and the Columbia Plateau (Wentz et

al. 1998; Williamson et al. 1998; USEPA 2000a). 

Elevated levels of nitrates and pesticides have been 

detected in the groundwater in the Snake River Basin

and the Columbia Plateau. 

California Hydrologic Region 

Surface water resources in California show elevated 

concentrations of TDS from high salinity, particularly 

in the southern portion of the region. Groundwater and

surface water diversions are used for agricultural

irrigation in California. Because of the arid nature of the

climate, much of this irrigation water evaporates,

leading to irrigation return waters that flow back into 

streams with elevated levels of salt, nutrients, and

pesticides. In the agricultural areas of the Central

Valley of California (San Joaquin and Sacramento

River basins), nutrient loadings to streams and

accumulation of pesticides in aquatic organisms and

streambed sediments are a problem (Dubrovsky et al. 

1998; Domagalski et al. 2000). Nitrate concentrations in 

streams generally meet USEPA drinking water 

standards, but at levels that can pose a problem for 

aquatic life. 

Groundwater in southern California has naturally high

concentrations of TDS from the presence of evaporite 

beds in the sedimentary rocks that underlie the desert

areas. In agricultural areas, extensive fertilizer use,

combined with heavy irrigation to overcome the high

evaporation rates, have resulted in elevated 

concentrations of nitrates in shallow groundwater 

reservoirs. Pesticides are present in shallow 

groundwater reservoirs, but at concentrations generally 

below USEPA drinking water standards. In agricultural

areas, groundwater is used for irrigation, leading to

substantial declines in shallow groundwater tables and

contamination of groundwater resources by agricultural

practices. In the desert areas administered by the BLM, 

groundwater is generally not affected by pesticides. The 

low recharge rate for groundwater in these areas means 

that any application of herbicides is unlikely to enter 

and affect groundwater resources. 

Upper Colorado Hydrologic Region 

In this hydrologic region, surface waters generally flow

out of the southern Rocky Mountains and work their 

way to major rivers. Water quality in the southern

Rocky Mountains is generally good, except in historic 

mining areas. As the surface waters pass through the 

Colorado Plateau country, quality declines due to 

agricultural practices, evaporation, a change in the 

nature of the bedrock, and urban wastewater disposal

practices (Spahr et al. 2000). Concentrations of

nutrients and pesticides increase as the waters pass 

through this area. Groundwater quality in this region 

appears to be influenced mainly by the nature of the 

bedrock. In areas of sedimentary rock, concentrations of 

TDS, along with radon, uranium, and metals, can be

high. Mesozoic rocks in this region may host uranium,

selenium, evaporite, and copper deposits. In areas of the 

Colorado Plateau administered by the BLM, grazing

and mining are the main activities, often leading to local 

groundwater contamination from metals, especially the 

uranium-rich areas of the Colorado Plateau.

Lower Colorado Hydrologic Region 

High surface water temperatures in this hydrologic 

region affect water quality. Total dissolved solids 

concentrations can be elevated, especially along major 

rivers with extensive agriculture in their river valleys, 

such as the Salt and Gila rivers of Arizona. Agricultural

land use practices and mining have been the major 

contributors to surface water degradation in this region.

Public lands in this region are used mainly for grazing

and mining, resulting in localized impacts to surface 

waters. These impacts include increases in turbidity, 

sedimentation, salinity, and possible chemical

contamination. High erosion rates can be expected 

wherever there is a large percentage of exposed soil, a

very common result of grazing by domestic animals in

this region (Bogan et al. 2003). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-16 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Groundwater quality in this region is dependent on the 

rocks that host the groundwater reservoir. Shallow

groundwater reservoirs are mainly in alluvium or Late

Tertiary sedimentary beds dominated by lakebeds and

evaporites, causing saline groundwater with elevated

concentrations of TDS. In mining districts, 

concentrations of metals are elevated in the 

groundwater, and in areas of extensive grazing, shallow 

alluvial groundwater may have elevated concentrations 

of nitrates and bacteria. Deep groundwater reservoirs 

are usually contained in carbonate rocks, leading to

groundwater of good quality and low concentrations of

TDS. 

Rio Grande Hydrologic Region 

Elevated levels of TDS associated with agriculture in

the Rio Grande River valley can pose a problem for 

surface water quality. Agricultural practices along the 

Rio Grande River have also contributed nutrients and 

pesticides to surface waters (Levings et al. 1998). The

upper reaches of the Rio Grande River in Colorado and 

the tributaries to the Rio Grande River in southern

Colorado have shown elevated metal concentrations,

primarily due to the Creede, Colorado, mining district. 

Most of the groundwater resources utilized in the Rio

Grande River basin are used for irrigation and livestock

watering, although drinking water is also an important

use. Nitrate concentrations may exceed USEPA 

standards, particularly in agricultural areas such as the

San Luis and Rincon valleys. Pesticides have been

detected in the groundwater in both agricultural and 

urban areas, but generally do not exceed USEPA 

standards. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may be

present in shallow groundwater in urban areas such as 

Albuquerque and Santa Fe (Levings et al. 1998). 

Missouri Hydrologic Region 

In the high Rocky Mountains of this hydrologic region, 

surface water has low concentrations of dissolved solids 

and meets all aquatic and drinking water standards, 

except in areas of historic mining. As surface water 

leaves the mountains and enters the plains and valleys 

surrounding the mountainous area, the water quality 

changes. In Colorado, agricultural land use practices

and urban wastewater disposal degrade the water 

quality by adding nutrients and pesticides (Dennehy et

al. 1998). In Wyoming, dewatering from mining and 

petroleum extraction has resulted in localized increases 

in concentrations of dissolved solids and metals in

surface waters. Grazing activities in the Great Plains 

affect surface water quality by contributing sediments 

and nutrients. Bacterial contamination of surface water 

by domestic livestock is considered a significant nonpoint source of water pollution (Bohn and Buckhouse 

1985, George 1996). Areas of extensive agriculture 

often have elevated nutrients and pesticides in the 

surface water. Agricultural practices have contributed 

nutrients and pesticides to surface waters in basins

along major rivers in this region. 

Groundwater in this region is generally of good quality 

and low in TDS, except in areas of historic and presentday mining, where there are elevated concentrations of 

sulfate and metals in the groundwater. In areas of the 

Rocky Mountains administered by the BLM, mining is 

the principal source of groundwater contamination. A 

secondary source of contamination is the geology of the 

bedrock, where rocks rich in uranium and radon

contribute to groundwater. This is particularly evident

in Wyoming and in the South Platte River basin of

Colorado (Dennehy et al. 1998). Shallow alluvial 

groundwater in agricultural areas has elevated

concentrations of nutrients and pesticides. Shallow 

groundwater along the Colorado Front Range and in 

large urban areas of the Rocky Mountains shows local

evidence of contamination by wastewater, petroleum 

by-products, and nutrients and/or pesticides used on 

lawns and golf courses. In the Great Plains, 

groundwater has nitrate concentrations that often

exceed the USEPA limit of 10 parts per million (ppm) 

and also has elevated concentrations of pesticides. 

Great Basin Hydrologic Region 

Water quality in the rivers and streams of this 

hydrologic region has been affected by agricultural land

use along the major rivers, urban waste disposal

practices, the chemical composition of rocks in the river 

basins, and past mining activity. Public lands in the 

Great Basin generally exclude urban and agricultural

areas, but include most of the areas of past mining. 

Agricultural practices have contributed nutrients and

pesticides to surface waters in basins along major 

rivers. Urban areas, such as Reno, Las Vegas, and Salt

Lake City, have added nutrients and synthetic organic 

compounds to surface waters as well. Past mining 

activity has added metals to surface waters in localized 

areas throughout the Great Basin. The chemical makeup

of near-surface rocks has contributed arsenic, uranium,

and radon to surface waters (Bevans et al. 1998). 

Groundwater quality in the Great Basin is determined

mainly by the chemistry of the rocks that host the 

groundwater reservoir. Groundwater in reservoirs made

of carbonate rocks and sandstones has relatively low 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-17 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

concentrations of TDS and is of good quality. 

Groundwater in the central parts of basins with playa

lakes, and in areas with evaporite beds, generally has 

elevated concentrations of salts and TDS. Groundwater

in mining areas often has high localized concentrations 

of mercury, arsenic, and other metals. In areas of

extensive agriculture, shallow alluvial aquifers are often

contaminated with nitrates and pesticides. 

Arkansas-White-Red Hydrologic Region 

Surface water quality is typically moderate in this 

hydrologic region, and poor in areas with extensive 

agricultural or livestock production. The upper reaches 

of the Arkansas River, where most public lands are 

located, rely primarily on spring snowmelt for recharge 

and are generally of better water quality than other 

portions of the region. 

Groundwater quality is relatively good in this region. 

The TDS concentration of water in the aquifers in 

eastern Colorado and eastern New Mexico is generally 

less than 500 milligrams per liter (mg/L), but may 

exceed 1,000 mg/L in small areas of Colorado.

Concentrations less than 250 mg/L are found in

northeastern Colorado and are the result of relatively

high recharge rates in areas of sandy soil that contains 

few soluble minerals (Robson and Banta 1995). 

Wetland and Riparian Areas 

Wetlands are generally defined as areas inundated or 

saturated by surface water or groundwater at a 

frequency and duration sufficient to support vegetation 

that is typically adapted for life in saturated soil. 

Wetlands include bogs, marshes, shallows, muskegs, 

wet meadows, estuaries, and riparian areas. According

to the 1987 Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation 

Manual, an area must exhibit evidence of at least one

positive wetland indicator from each of the following

parameters to be defined as a wetland (Environmental

Laboratory 1987): 

• Soils - The substrate is predominately 

undrained hydric soil, or the soils posses 

characteristics that are associated with 

reducing soil conditions; 

• Hydrology - The area is inundated either 

permanently or periodically at a mean water 

depth of less than 6.6 feet or the soil is 

saturated to the surface at some time during the 

growing season of the prevalent vegetation;

and 

• Vegetation - The land supports predominately 

hydrophytes. Hydrophytes are macrophytic 

plants with the ability to grow in water or on a 

substrate that is at least periodically deficient 

in oxygen as a result of excessive water 

content and depleted soil oxygen levels. 

The BLM administers approximately 12.8 million acres

of wetlands. Of these, approximately 12.6 million acres 

are found in Alaska (USDI BLM 2006d). 

Riparian and wetland areas comprise approximately 9% 

of public lands (USDI BLM 2006c). The benefits of 

these vital areas, however, far exceed their relatively 

small acreage. The functions of wetland and riparian 

areas include water purification, stream shading, flood

attenuation, shoreline stabilization, groundwater 

recharge, and habitat for aquatic, semiaquatic, and

terrestrial plants and animals (USEPA 2001b). 

The BLM has surveyed 89% of the wetland acreage in

the lower 48 states. Only a small fraction of the 

wetlands in Alaska have been surveyed due to their 

pristine nature and lack of immediate development 

pressure. Sixty-seven percent of wetlands in the lower 

48 states evaluated were judged to be functioning 

properly (USDI BLM 2006d). Ninety-eight percent of 

Alaska wetlands are assumed to be functioning

properly. The remaining Alaska wetlands have been

placed in the “Unknown” category because some

questions have been raised about development impacts. 

The BLM defines properly functioning wetlands as 

those that: 1) support adequate vegetation, landform, or

debris to dissipate energies associated with wind action,

wave action, and overland flow from adjacent sites, 

thereby reducing erosion and improving water quality;

2) filter sediment and aid floodplain development; 3)

improve floodwater retention and groundwater 

recharge; 4) develop root masses that stabilize islands 

and shoreline features against cutting action; 5) restrict

water percolation; 6) develop diverse ponding

characteristics to provide the habitat and the water 

depth, duration, and temperature necessary for fish

production, waterbird breeding, and other uses; and 7) 

support greater biodiversity (Prichard et al. 2003). This 

assessment does not take into consideration the habitat

value of the wetland to fish and wildlife. 

About 20% of wetlands are considered to be functional, 

but at risk, and 2% are non-functional, in terms of their 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-18 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

ability to dissipate energy associated with high-flow 

events (USDI BLM 2006d). Public lands with poorly

functioning wetlands tend to be located in the

southwestern U.S. 

Riparian areas, according to the BLM, are green zones 

along flowing-water features such as rivers, streams, 

and creeks (Gebhardt et al. 1990). These areas exclude 

streams where water flows for only brief periods during 

storm runoff events (ephemeral streams). The BLM

administers approximately 143,000 miles of riparian

habitat in the treatment area. Of this, approximately

107,565 miles are found in Alaska (USDI BLM 2006d). 

It is estimated by the BLM that 46% of surveyed

riparian areas in the lower 48 states and 100% of 

riparian areas in Alaska are properly functioning in

terms of having adequate vegetation, landform, or large 

woody debris present to dissipate stream energy

associated with high waterflows (USDI BLM 2006c). 

Eight percent of riparian areas in the lower 48 states are

considered non-functional, and 38% are functioning but

at risk (USDI BLM 2006c). Poorest functioning 

riparian areas are found in the southwest and Montana, 

while most riparian areas in Alaska, Colorado, and Utah

function properly.

Vegetation 

The composition and distribution of plant communities 

in the western U.S. have been influenced by many

factors, including climate, drought, insects, diseases, 

wind, domestic livestock grazing, cultivation, browsing

by wildlife, and fire (Gruell 1983). Other activities that 

have a direct and/or indirect effect on plant 

communities include logging, minerals extraction and 

reclamation activities, recreational activities, and ROW 

development including road construction and

maintenance. In addition, competition with non-native 

invasive plant species has resulted in the loss of native 

plant communities in portions of the western states. 

Before European settlement, naturally occurring fire

was an important influence on the landscape of the 

West, and plant communities are adapted to the 

occasional intense fires that burned over the landscape

(Gruell 1983). The exclusion of fire following

European settlement has caused significant changes in

plant species composition in the western U.S., 

especially in areas adapted to fire (Swetnam 1990). 

Where fire-adapted communities previously limited the 

expansion of juniper, sagebrush, and other less firetolerant species, exclusion of fire has resulted in 

invasion of these species into the surrounding

ecosystems (Gruell 1983). The circumstance has also

contributed to accumulation of hazardous fuels. 

Vegetation within the treatment area has been classified

into 14 subclasses that are consistent with the National

Vegetation Classification Standard (Federal Geographic 

Data Committee 1997; Table 3-4). The subclasses

differentiate vegetation on the basis of growth form

(tree, shrub, or herb), life history strategy (evergreen or 

deciduous, annual or perennial), and percent of canopy 

closure (forest or woodland) or hydrologic influences. 

The following sections discuss important vegetation 

subclasses for each ecoregion. 

Tundra Ecoregion

Located at high latitudes in northern and western

Alaska, plant communities in the Tundra Ecoregion are

adapted to withstand an extremely short growing

season, continuous permafrost, and limited rooting

depths. Slow-growing dwarf shrubs, grasses and

sedges, and cryptogams (lichens) are the dominant 

vegetation types in this region. Approximately 39

million acres of public lands occur within this

ecoregion. 

Perennial graminoid communities are found on over 13 

million acres (Map 3-8). Along Alaska’s coastal regions 

to the north, west, and southwest, cottongrass-tussock

communities are the most widespread plant systems. 

Cottongrass occurs as the dominant species in extensive 

patches in flat, poorly drained areas, and is associated

with other sedges, dwarf shrubs, lichens, mosses, dwarf 

birch, Labrador tea, and cinquefoil. Similar plant

communities are also found at low elevations in the

mountainous North Slope and Alaska Peninsula 

regions. 

Deciduous shrublands (both dwarf and non-dwarf) are 

found in many of the same areas as perennial graminoid

communities, as well as higher elevation alpine areas. 

Deciduous dwarf-shrubland occurs on over 10 million

acres and is characterized by shrubs that are less than 2

feet tall, a reduced stature that is attributable to 

extremely harsh growing conditions. Characteristic

plant species include dwarf birch, willow, blueberry, 

and Labrador tea and other shrubs. A variety of forbs 

and graminoids are found in the understory, and lichen 

species may be an important component. At high 

elevations in mountainous areas, dwarf Arctic birch,

crowberry, and dwarf blueberry are also common. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-19 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Deciduous shrubland species occur on over 6 million 

acres and are generally the same as those found in

deciduous dwarf-shrublands, but are taller because of

slightly better growing conditions. Willow, dwarf birch, 

alder, huckleberry, Labrador tea, and heath species are

common. These communities may be successional to

forest or woodland, or may be the climax vegetation

where frozen and poorly drained permafrost soils limit 

tree growth. Stunted black spruce and other tree species

are occasionally scattered throughout shrub

communities. 

In areas underlain by permafrost, nearly 3 million acres

of sedge-dominated wet meadows, bogs, and wetlands 

are scattered among the shrublands. Along major rivers

and streams, riparian communities composed of alder, 

willows, and stunted stands of spruce and birch can be 

found. In shrublands, pure stands of stunted alder 

shrubs are found in wet drainages, at the head of 

streams, along river terraces, or on slopes. Some

evergreen spruce woodlands, spruce hardwood forests 

composed of white spruce, paper birch, and alder, and

black spruce forests also occur, in low amounts, in the 

Tundra Ecoregion. 

Subarctic Ecoregion 

Located within the central continental region of Alaska, 

the Subarctic Ecoregion primarily consists of evergreen

forests and open lichen woodlands collectively known

as the boreal forest, or taiga. The climate in this region

is characterized by low precipitation (10 to 20 inches

average annual precipitation), extreme ranges of

temperature, low humidity, and high evaporation rates.

However, as it is a diverse area, large portions of this

region are semiarid as well. Approximately 43 million

acres of public lands occur in this ecoregion. 

Over 20 million acres of evergreen woodlands and 

mixed evergreen-deciduous woodlands can be found

throughout this region. Within the lowland areas of

interior central Alaska, evergreen woodlands are often

composed of pure stands of black spruce, with an

understory of willow, dwarf birch, crowberry,

blueberry, lichens, and mosses. Within the mountainous 

regions of central and south-central Alaska, woodlands 

are also common, typically supporting a number of 

boreal tree species: white spruce, black spruce,

tamarack, balsam poplar, paper birch, and aspen. 

Deciduous shrubland occurs on 10 million acres, 

predominantly at higher elevations in the mountainous 

areas of this region. These shrublands are composed of

a wide variety of low growing shrubs, herbs, grasses, 

and sedges, rooted in mosses and lichens. Mountain 

avens, low growing willows, dwarf birch, Labrador tea,

blueberry, green alder, moss campion, and blackish 

oxytrope are all common species. Along riparian areas, 

deciduous tree species are prevalent. Paper birch, aspen, 

and balsam poplar are all found in these deciduous 

forest riparian communities. Extensive sphagnum bogs 

occur in old river terraces, ponds, and sloughs. These 

scattered wetlands are composed of sphagnum and

other mosses, sedges, bog rosemary, Labrador tea, rose, 

birches, willow, bog cranberry, soapberry, and 

blueberry. About 2 million acres of forested

communities also occur in the Subarctic Ecoregion. 

Mixed evergreen-deciduous forests, supporting many of

the same species as woodlands, can be found in 

mountainous areas between elevations of about 1,000 

and 3,000 feet (timberline). Spruce-hardwood forests, 

consisting of white spruce, birch, aspen, and poplar, 

with an undergrowth of mosses and berries, are 

common. 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion 

The Temperate Desert Ecoregion is composed of arid

lands in the rain shadow of the Pacific mountain ranges, 

including the Great Basin, Columbia Plateau, and 

Wyoming Basin. Plant communities, which are adapted 

to pronounced summer drought and cold winters, are 

composed primarily of xerophytic semidesert shrubs. 

Approximately 105 million acres of public lands occur 

in this ecoregion. 

Evergreen shrublands in the form of sagebrush

communities occur on nearly 74 million acres (Map 3-

9). These shrublands typically consist of fairly dense to

open vegetation, with shrubs that are 2 to 6 feet high

and an understory of perennial and annual grasses and 

forbs (Cronquist et al. 1972). On the drier sites, shrub

density is generally high, while on more mesic sites 

individuals are more robust and widely spaced, with

greater coverage of herbaceous species. 

In the plains and tablelands of the Columbia River and

Snake River plateaus and the Wyoming Basin,

representative shrubs in sagebrush communities include 

big sagebrush, black sagebrush, low sagebrush, 

Mormon tea, and bitterbrush (Cronquist et al. 1972). 

Important perennial grasses include bluebunch and 

western wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, Idaho fescue, 

and basin wildrye. Medusahead and downy brome are 

introduced annual grasses that have become abundant in

these communities where the native herbaceous 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-20 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-4 

Vegetation Classification System

Order Class Subclass

1. Evergreen Forest 

Closed Tree Canopy 2. Deciduous Forest

3. Mixed Evergreen-Deciduous Forest

4. Evergreen Woodland 

5. Deciduous Woodland 

Tree Dominated 

Open Tree Canopy

6. Mixed Evergreen-Deciduous Woodland 

7. Evergreen Shrubland Shrubland 8. Deciduous Shrubland 

9. Evergreen Dwarf-Shrubland Shrub Dominated 

Dwarf-Shrubland 10. Deciduous Dwarf-Shrubland 

11. Perennial Graminoid 

Herb Dominated Herbaceous Vegetation 12. Annual Graminoid or Forb

13. Perennial Forb 

14. Riparian/Wetland

Source: Developed by the BLM based on the Federal Geographic Data Committee Vegetation Subcommittee’s National Vegetation 

Classification Standard (Federal Geographic Data Committee 1997). 

understory has been depleted, particularly in lower 

precipitation zones. They have an adaptive advantage

over seedlings of most existing grass species in their 

ability to take advantage of limited moisture early, short

lifespans, and prolific seed production. Where repeated

fire or grazing have removed the native vegetation, 

these invasives, as well as invasive forbs, will dominate

the site, taking advantage of what moisture exists and

outcompeting the native vegetation. They then dry out 

and become fuel, burning very intensely and carrying

fire into previously unburned areas, thus repeating and

expanding the cycle. 

In the Great Basin and northern Colorado Plateau, 

common shrubs in salt desert shrub communities are

shadscale, fourwing saltbush, spiny hopsage, and

greasewood. These communities occur from valley

bottoms to mid-elevations in areas with shallow water 

tables and accumulated salts. Understory vegetation is

generally sparse, with a large amount of bare soil or 

desert pavement exposed (MacMahon 1988). Species 

such as saltgrass, Indian ricegrass, squirreltail, fescues,

and James’ galleta may be found in this understory

layer. Fires are generally absent due to the sparse fuels,

and efforts to reestablish native plant communities are

complicated by the dry conditions. 

In the mountainous regions, sagebrush communities can

be found scattered throughout the forested areas, and 

sagebrush communities dominate the foothills adjacent

to the forested habitat. These higher elevation sagebrush

communities are dominated by big sagebrush and other 

shrubs including antelope bitterbrush, mountain 

mahogany, and snowberry. The herbaceous component

of these plant communities often contains Idaho fescue, 

bluebunch wheatgrass, various needlegrass and

bluegrass species, and a variety of forbs. 

Pinyon-juniper (evergreen) woodlands occur on nearly

14 million acres. These communities can be found in

small areas in central Oregon, and at elevation zones 

above sagebrush communities throughout the rest of the

ecoregion. Young pinyon-juniper trees are easily killed

by fire, which historically limited their expansion into 

sagebrush communities (West and Van Pelt 1987). 

Stands of pinyon-juniper have established in many 

locations, and form dense canopies that cause the loss of 

understory plants. These closed-canopy pinyon-juniper 

stands generally do not have enough understory shrubs 

to carry a surface fire, and do not burn until conditions

are met to carry a crown fire. 

Deciduous shrublands typically occur at similar 

elevations as sagebrush, on arid, saline soils on nearly 3

million acres. Dropping leaves during times of drought

enable plants such as greasewood, hopsage, catclaw 

acacia, and European smoketree to survive the harsh 

conditions. Many of these species are fairly tolerant of 

alkaline and saline conditions, and occur as lesser 

members of sagebrush and pinyon-juniper communities. 

Other vegetation classes include the perennial 

bunchgrass grasslands of Oregon, Washington, and

Idaho (6 million acres), and the evergreen forests that

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-21 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

occur at elevations above woodlands (over 1 million 

acres). Dominant tree species in these forests include

ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir. In a few areas, 

mountains are high enough to support subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce. 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion 

The Subtropical Desert Ecoregion occupies southeast

California, southern Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, 

and western Texas, and includes the Chihuahuan,

Sonoran, and Mojave deserts. Vegetation is adapted to

dry conditions, and includes numerous xerophytic 

plants, such as small, hard-leaved or spiny shrubs, cacti, 

or hard grasses, which are widely spaced and provide

little ground cover. Large portions of these hot deserts 

have no visible plants and are made of shifting sand

dunes or nearly sterile salt flats. Approximately 29 

million acres of public lands occur in this ecoregion. 

Although major fires were not historically common in 

this region due to the wide spacing between plants and 

sparse fuels, the invasion of fire-prone species (e.g., red

brome, downy brome, and buffelgrass) has shortened 

the fire interval in some areas, resulting in significant 

changes in plant communities. 

Evergreen shrub communities are prevalent in desert

habitats on over 23 million acres of public lands. On the

plains of the Sonoran Desert, shrublands of creosote 

bush and saltbush species cover extensive areas in

nearly pure stands. Individual shrubs are typically

widely spaced, with large amounts of bare ground in

between. 

Large plants, such as the treelike saguaro cactus, prickly 

pear cactus, ocotillo, creosote bush, and smoke tree

often form communities with a near-woodland 

appearance. They are commonly associated with blue

paloverde, bursage, mesquite, desert ironwood, crown 

of thorns, jojoba, acacia, and many species of cactus,

yucca, and agave. 

In the Mojave Desert, Joshua tree shrublands are 

widespread. Other common shrubs in this region

include creosotebush, bursage, thornbush, shadscale, all

scale, spiny hopsage, and greasewood. The Mojave 

Desert is especially rich in annual plants, which are 

abundant during the rainy season in winter and spring 

(Brown 1982). 

Shrublands occurring adjacent to shallow playa lakes 

and desert washes, and in other moist habitats, have a 

unique species composition. Greasewood and catclaw

acacia, which occur as scattered individuals in many 

plant communities throughout the ecoregion, often form 

pure stands in desert washes. Mesquite is another shrub

species that may be found growing along washes and

watercourses. Shrubs associated with alkaline soils near 

playas include mesquites, whitethorn acacia, blue

paloverde, ironwood, desert willow, and canyon 

ragweed. 

Evergreen shrublands in the Chihuahuan Desert include 

such species as mesquite, American tarwort, acacia, and

creosotebush. Shrubs have recently increased in density 

in the Chihuahuan Desert, which is thought to have

historically existed as open grassland or grassland 

scattered with shrubs (Buffington and Herbel 1965). 

Evergreen shrublands grade into grasslands, with the

relative abundance of each plant community determined

by such factors as fire, grazing, climate change, and 

seed dissemination (Holechek et al. 1995). 

Perennial grasslands occur on nearly 4 million acres in 

the high plains of southeast Arizona (in the Chihuahuan

Desert), where they are best developed on deep, welldrained soils on level sites (Brown 1982). Black grama 

and tobosagrass grasses are characteristic, along with 

sideoats grama and hairy grama, bush muhly, vine and 

curly mesquite, pappusgrass, tanglehead, and threeawn. 

Shrubs and succulents characteristic of this grassland 

include yucca, bear grass, agaves, sumac, ocotillo, 

acacias, mimosas, and cacti.

Deciduous and evergreen woodlands occur in select

areas on over 1 million acres, predominantly on higher 

elevation slopes (pinyon-juniper woodlands) and in

eastern New Mexico (oak and mesquite woodlands). 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion

The Temperate Steppe Ecoregion, which is typified by a

semiarid continental climate, includes the Rocky

Mountains and the Great Plains. Vegetation 

communities adapted to this climate include steppe, or 

shortgrass prairie, and semidesert, as well as the 

evergreen and deciduous forests and woodlands of the 

Rocky Mountains. Approximately 19 million acres of 

public lands occur in this ecoregion. 

Perennial grassland communities are widespread in this 

ecoregion (over 4 million acres), which includes the

prairie grasslands of the Great Plains, the Palouse

grasslands of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and the 

mountain grasslands of the Rocky Mountains. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-22 June 2007 

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Prairie grasslands, which occur on the broad, flat belt of

land that slopes eastward from the foothills of the

Rocky Mountains, vary in height in response to

precipitation. Dominant grasses in the shortgrass 

communities are buffalograss and blue grama, which 

occur with other herbs, as well as some woody species, 

including mesquite, sagebrush, and yucca.

Mixed grass communities include both warm-season

(e.g., blue grama) and cool season species, such as

needlegrasses, wheatgrasses, and fescues grass species.

Shrubs, including juniper, sagebrush, rabbitbrush, and 

forbs are also important components of mixed grass 

communities (Brown 1982). 

The Palouse grasslands, or northwest bunchgrass 

prairies, are dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho 

fescue, Sandberg bluegrass, and rough fescue. Many of 

the introduced species are Mediterranean annuals that 

are well adapted to grazing and the predominantly

winter precipitation regime. 

Perennial mountain grasslands are scattered throughout 

areas at elevations from 3,000 to over 9,000 feet in the 

Rocky Mountains, particularly in western Montana. 

These grasslands are part of the vegetation mosaic 

created by the highly complex environment of the

Rocky Mountains. Important grasses in these

communities include bromes, bluegrasses, oatgrasses, 

sedges, wheatgrasses, fescues, needlegrasses,

hairgrasses, reedgrasses, bentgrasses, and junegrass. 

Forb components vary with site, latitude, and 

management. Shrubs include several species of

sagebrush, rabbitbrush, snakeweed, shrubby cinquefoil, 

rose, horsebrush, and prickly pear cactus (Mueggler and 

Stewart 1980). 

Evergreen forests occur on over 2 million acres in the 

mountain regions, with species composition that varies 

by altitude. Subalpine forests are composed of 

Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and mountain 

hemlock. Below this zone, Douglas-fir, western white 

pine, grand fir, western larch, lodgepole pine, and 

ponderosa pine are common. Lodgepole pine or 

ponderosa pine forests may occur at the lowest

elevations, and often grade into grasslands or evergreen

shrubland. Fire is an important component of all of 

these forests, with the highest natural frequency on the 

lowest elevation sites. Lodgepole pine is specifically 

adapted to regenerate after fire. 

Deciduous forests may occur along streams and rivers 

in the eastern portion of this ecoregion. Eastern species 

such as ash, hackberry, elm, birch, and bur oak may be

found. Deciduous forests composed of quaking aspen 

are prevalent throughout the Rocky Mountains up into

Alaska (DeByle and Winokur 1985). Aspen may form

extensive pure stands or exist as a minor component of 

other forest types. 

The most common type of shrubland in this ecoregion is 

sagebrush steppe. Sagebrush-dominated communities 

occur on the plains and lower mountain slopes on nearly

8 million acres. Chaparral shrublands and pinyonjuniper woodlands (2 million acres) are also found in 

some of the lower elevation areas on warm, dry sites. 

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion 

The Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion, located in northern 

Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, is composed of 

plateaus and high plains. Because of its altitude, the

climate is semiarid, rather than arid. This region is 

composed primarily of grassland vegetation, with 

locally found shrubs and woodlands. Pinyon-juniper 

woodlands are common on the Colorado Plateau. To the 

east, in New Mexico and Texas, grasslands grade into 

savanna woodlands or semideserts composed of

xerophytic shrubs and trees. Approximately 13 million

acres of public lands occur in this ecoregion. 

The perennial graminoid communities in this region are

composed of xerophytic grasses, with shrubs and low 

trees growing singly or in clumps, and occupy over 4

million acres. Common grass species include blue and 

hairy grama, buffalograss, threeawn species, sideoats 

grama, bluestem, and bristly wolfstail. Shrubs and trees, 

such as mesquite, oaks, and junipers, often grow in open 

stands among the grasses. The perennial grasslands 

grade into evergreen woodlands, with the respective 

coverage of each vegetation class dependent on the

amount and type of disturbance to which a particular 

area is subjected. 

Evergreen woodlands of drought-tolerant juniper and

pinyon pines consist of a relatively open canopy on dry 

sites at mid-elevations on nearly 4 million acres. Plant

composition in pinyon-juniper woodlands exhibits wide 

geographic variation. In the Colorado Plateau and the

central and southern Rockies, doubleleaf pinyon

replaces singleleaf pinyon and is associated with Rocky 

Mountain juniper, Utah juniper, and oneseed juniper 

(Cronquist et al. 1972). In the dry mountains of southern 

New Mexico and Arizona, alligator juniper, Emory oak, 

gray oak, and Mexican pinyon dominate (Brown 1982). 

The understory layer of shrubs, grasses, and forbs in 

these communities is composed of representatives from 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-23 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

adjacent sites above and below the woodland zone. 

Important understory species include big sagebrush, 

western and bluebunch wheatgrass, blue grama, 

cliffrose, bitterbrush, Indian ricegrass, mountain

mahogany, rubber rabbitbrush, and Mormon tea 

(Garrison et al. 1977). 

It is estimated that small surface fires historically

occurred every 10 to 30 years (Leopold 1924), and large 

stand-replacing fires occurred every 100 to 300 years 

(Miller and Rose 1999). Fires easily kill young trees and 

frequent fires maintain the sagebrush-grassland

communities (West and Van Pelt 1987). Drought and 

competition from grasses probably helped slow the

invasion of juniper into adjacent shrublands, particularly

at lower elevations. Many pinyon-juniper sites may 

have historically cycled between grass-shrub and

pinyon-juniper communities, with fire as the chief 

driving force (West and Van Pelt 1987). 

At higher elevations (up to 7,000 feet), chaparral is a 

common type of evergreen shrubland on over 4 million

acres, with pinyon-juniper and oak-juniper woodlands 

also occurring. Plant communities consist of dense to 

moderately open stands of evergreen and sclerophyllous 

shrubs of relatively uniform height. Most chaparral

shrubs are deep-rooted, sprout readily from the root

crown, and regenerate quickly after burning (Brown 

1982). Shrub live oak is common, and associated with

mountain mahogany, yellowleaf silktassel, sumac, 

hollyleaf buckthorn, pointleaf and Pringle manzanita, 

desert ceonothus, and other oak species. Grass species 

may include sideoats grama and hairy grama, cane

bluestem, plains lovegrass, threeawn, and bristly 

wolfstail. Forbs are not particularly abundant, except 

during a brief period after burns (Brown 1982). 

Evergreen forests occur at the highest elevations in this 

region. Over 7,000 feet, forests of ponderosa pine, 

Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, limber pine, and aspen may

be found. Engelmann spruce, corkbark fir, limber pine, 

and bristlecone pine occur in subalpine forests. 

Mediterranean Ecoregion 

The Mediterranean Ecoregion occupies most of

California (excluding deserts in the southeastern portion

of the state) and a portion of southern Oregon. This 

region supports a distinctive assemblage of hard-leaved

evergreen trees and shrubs, commonly known as 

chaparral, which are adapted to withstand severe 

summer droughts and frequent fires. Coniferous forests 

and oak woodlands are also characteristic of the region.

Approximately 6 million acres of public lands occur in

this ecoregion. 

Evergreen shrubland occurs on over 2 million acres. 

Along coastal areas a type of chaparral known as 

maritime chaparral is common. Inland evergreen

shrublands are found in the low hills of mountainous 

regions, often forming a mosaic pattern with deciduous

(oak) woodlands, grasslands, or evergreen forests. 

Important chaparral species include manzanita, 

wedgeleaf ceanothus, hollyleaf buckthorn, poison oak,

chamise, Christmasberry, mountain mahogany, 

California scrub oak, blue oak, and interior live oak

(Holechek et al. 1995). Chaparral shrubs are adapted to 

recurrent fire, and the ecosystem depends on periodic 

fires for its persistence. Herbaceous vegetation is

generally lacking in chaparral communities, except after 

fire. 

Nearly 1 million acres of deciduous woodlands and

evergreen woodlands also occur in foothills throughout 

California, typically on sites that are more mesic than

those occupied by chaparral. Deciduous oak woodlands 

include stands of Oregon white oak, California black

oak, blue oak, valley oak, and various other oaks. On 

cooler, moister sites in the Coast Ranges, oak 

woodlands merge with mixed hardwood forests in

which tanoak, California laurel, and Pacific madrone are 

common. Evergreen live oaks are common associates,

and conifer species such as Coulter pine, digger pine, 

Douglas-fir, and grand fir may also be present. 

Understory vegetation varies by location and may 

include poison oak, snowberry, serviceberry, 

blackberry, wild oats, bromes, bluegrass, ryegrass, and 

needlegrass. 

Evergreen woodland communities composed of live 

oaks occur in moist, frost-free areas such as the coastal

hills from San Francisco into southern California, where

adequate moisture and mild temperatures allow them to 

carry out photosynthesis through the winter. Evergreen 

oak woodlands are composed of species such as canyon

live oak, interior live oak, coast live oak, and

Engelmann oak. Oak woodlands may exist as open, 

park-like savannas, occupying a transition zone between 

grasslands and denser woodlands. Shrubs are generally 

absent because they cannot compete with trees for 

moisture on drier sites. Evergreen woodlands also

include some endemic tree species such as Monterey 

cypress, Torrey pine, Monterey pine, and Bishop pine. 

In the mountains of California and southern Oregon, 

evergreen forests are the dominant vegetation type, 

occupying nearly 2 million acres of public lands. These 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-24 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

forests are a diverse assemblage of many conifer 

species, and are adapted to a long, warm growing

season, relatively mild winters, and periods of summer 

drought. Tree species include ponderosa pine, Douglasfir, white fir, sugar pine, incense cedar, Jeffrey pine,

California red fir, and giant sequoia (Szaro 1995). At

elevations between 6,500 and 9,500 feet, subalpine 

forests composed of mountain hemlock, California red

fir, lodgepole pine, western white pine, and whitebark 

pine occur. 

Evergreen forests also occur along coastal northwestern

California as redwood-dominated communities. Other 

common tree species forests include Douglas-fir, 

western hemlock, and western red cedar. The 

understories are dominated by Pacific rhododendron,

western azalea, salal, California huckleberry, western

swordfern, and redwood sorrel. Pine-cypress forests 

also occur along the coast, while mixed forests of 

tanoak, coast live oak, madrone, and Douglas-fir occur 

further inland. 

For the most part, annual and perennial graminoid

communities are located in the valleys and plains of the 

Mediterranean Ecoregion. While it is generally believed 

that the Central Valley, the largest grassland expanse in 

California, was historically dominated by perennial

grassland communities, other plant communities (e.g., 

oak woodlands, chaparral, annual grasslands, and desert

scrub) may have also been present (Blumler 1992, 

Hamilton 1997). Large portions of the native vegetation 

have been replaced by annual grasses, however, as a

result of introduced species, fires, and overgrazing by

livestock of early Spanish settlers (Sims 1988). Annual 

grasses include introduced species such as wild oat,

slender oat, soft chess, ripgut brome, red brome, and

wild barley. Common forbs include redstem filaree, 

broadstem filaree, turkey mullein, true clovers, and 

burclover. Perennial grasses, which are found in moist, 

lightly grazed or relict areas, include Idaho fescue and 

purple needlegrass (Garrison et al. 1977). With the 

development of irrigation, the California grassland 

ecosystem has become intensively utilized for 

agriculture. 

Marine Ecoregion

The Marine Ecoregion Division occupies the Cascade 

and Coast Ranges of western Washington and Oregon, 

and the Coast Mountains of southeastern Alaska, along 

the Pacific Coast. The mild, rainy climate produces 

conditions that are hospitable for dense forest

communities, which are characteristic of this region. 

Approximately 4 million acres of public lands occur in

this ecoregion. 

In the Cascade and Coast Ranges, complex, multistoried evergreen forests occupy over 1 million acres, 

with species composition varying by altitude and 

climate. At lower elevations, Douglas-fir, western red

cedar, western hemlock, grand fir, silver fir, Sitka 

spruce, and Alaska cedar are the dominant tree species.

Subalpine forests composed of mountain hemlock,

subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and Alaska cedar extend 

to timberline, which varies from 7,700 to 10,000 feet. In 

the drier climates of the eastern Cascade Range, forests 

dominated by ponderosa pine are common. Evergreen 

forests are often associated with understory plants such 

as vine maple, huckleberry, elderberry, salal, Oregon

grape, twinflower, and western swordfern (Franklin 

1988). 

The area between the Cascade and Coast ranges is also 

characterized by dense evergreen forests. Much of the 

land in this intermountain region once existed as 

Douglas-fir, western redcedar, and western hemlock

forests, but has since been developed for agricultural

and urban uses. 

Evergreen forests are also the predominant vegetation 

type found in the Coast Mountains of southeastern

Alaska. Forests in this region are restricted to low 

elevation, coastal rainforests dominated by Sitka spruce 

and western hemlock. Associated species include

Alaska cedar and mountain hemlock. 

Along the major river channels, deciduous riparian

forests composed of broadleaf trees such as black 

cottonwood, red alder, willow, and birch are common. 

In poorly drained areas, wetlands characterized by

sphagnum moss, sedges, and willows occur. 

Vegetation types with minor coverage in the Marine 

Ecoregion include Oregon white oak woodlands, which

occur as scattered stands at low elevations, and prairies 

(perennial graminoid communities), which now occur

only as remnant patches in the Willamette Valley and

Puget Sound lowlands. Both of these community types 

are being lost as a result of succession by evergreen 

forests and development. 

Noxious Weeds and other Invasive 

Vegetation 

Invasive plants are undesirable plants that infest land or 

deplete water resources, and may cause physical and 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-25 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

economic damage or have other adverse effects on

humans. Invasive plants are increasingly recognized as 

a major threat to ecosystems. Many invasive taxa have

transformed both the structure and function of 

ecosystems by changing nutrient cycling or disturbance 

regimes (D’Antonio et al. 1999; Rejmanek et al. 2005).

The spread of invasive plants threatens the structure and

function of many ecosystems worldwide (Higgens et al. 

1996; Drake et al. 1989). Certain invasive plant species 

have the ability to spread over large areas or acutely 

threaten an ecosystem over its continental range (Hobbs 

and Humphries 1995). There are estimated to be over 

2,000 species of non-native plants in the U.S. (U.S. 

Congress Office of Technology and Assessment 1993), 

over 1,000 of which are invasive (Rejmanek et al. 

2005). Approximately 10% of invasive species have

profound effects on biodiversity, and clearly demand a 

major allocation of resources for containment, control,

and/or eradication. 

Noxious weeds are invasive plants that are designated 

and regulated by state and federal laws, such as the 

Federal Noxious Weed Act, because they are

detrimental to agriculture, commerce, and/or public 

health. Noxious weeds are generally non-native invasive 

plants that have been either accidentally or intentionally 

introduced. 

The Extent of the Problem

It is estimated that invasive plants already infest well

over 100 million acres in the U.S., and they continue to

spread at an estimated rate of 3 million acres annually 

(USDI BLM 1998). Weed infestations are capable of 

destroying wildlife habitat; reducing opportunities for 

hunting, fishing, camping and other recreational

activities; displacing many threatened and endangered 

species; reducing plant and animal diversity because of

weed monocultures; and costing millions of dollars in

treatments and loss of productivity to land owners. 

Besides ecological changes, invasive plants can cause

impacts to public safety. While the spread of downy

brome has increased the frequency and severity of fires, 

to the detriment of native plants and animals, as well as

property and human safety, other species have caused 

unforeseen disasters as well. In 1936, for example, the 

town of Bandon, Oregon, was destroyed and 11 citizens 

killed by a fire propagated by gorse, a highly flammable

plant introduced 70 years earlier (Simberloff 1996). 

This species is still being battled along the Oregon and 

California coasts. 

Traits of Invasive Plants 

Invasive plants and noxious weeds have biological traits 

that enable them to colonize new areas and successfully

compete with native species. While not all invasive

species share many of these traits, most species have

one or more that allow them to compete successfully.

These traits may include deep tap root systems and very 

little surface foliage (allowing the plants to grow later in

the summer than most native rangeland plants); earlier 

growth and reproduction than most natives; long-lived

seeds in a viable seedbank; adaptations for spreading

long and short distances; production of many seeds 

from one plant; long lifespan; ability to delay flowering;

ability to reproduce vegetatively; tolerance for a wide

range of physical conditions; rapid growth; self

pollination; ability to compete intensively for nutrients;

and production of toxic compounds that negatively 

affect neighboring plants (adapted from USDA Forest

Service 2005). 

Some plant communities and ecosystems are more

susceptible to plant invasion than others. Very few

invaders are successful in successionally advanced plant

communities. Open and disturbed communities are 

more invaded, while undisturbed forests are less 

invaded (Rejmanek et al. 2005). 

Mechanisms of Invasion 

Invasive plants have been introduced into the U.S. 

through a variety of pathways. Some non-native species 

were intentionally introduced for beneficial reasons and 

later became invasive. Purple loosestrife, which was 

originally introduced in ballast water dumped from

ships coming from Europe, is still sold as an ornamental 

plant in garden centers in many states. Dalmatian

toadflax is another introduced ornamental that can still 

be found in garden seed mixes. Saltcedar was 

introduced for erosion control, as was European 

beachgrass along the West Coast. Many other invasive 

plants have been introduced unintentionally via air, 

water, rail, or road transportation pathways. Common

methods of introduction include contaminated seed, 

feed grain, hay, straw, and mulch; movement of

contaminated equipment across uncontaminated lands; 

animal fur and fleece; spreading of gravel, roadfill, and

topsoil contaminated with noxious weed seed; and 

plants and seeds sold through nurseries as ornamentals 

(USDI BLM 1996). 

Once introduced, invasive plants are spread primarily 

by vehicles, humans, wild horses, livestock, wind, 

water, and wildlife. Initially, invasive weeds may

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-26 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

become established in disturbed sites such as trailheads, 

along roads and trails, firebreaks, landing pads, oil and

gas development sites, wildlife and/or livestock 

concentration areas, and campgrounds, but may also

invade relatively undisturbed sites. 

Maintaining cover of native plant species on public 

lands may be critical to halting the spread of noxious 

weeds. In a 45-year study of a sagebrush steppe 

landscape in Idaho, areas with the highest cover of 

native species exhibited the greatest resistance to

invasion by downy brome (Anderson and Inouye 2001). 

The plant invasion process occurs in three phases:

introduction, establishment, and spread. Once an 

introduction occurs, a delay or lag phase often takes 

place while an invasive plant becomes established. The

length of this initial phase varies, but it can last for up to

100 years (Hobbs and Humphries 1995). This phase is 

followed by a period of rapid growth that continues

until the invasive species reaches the bounds of its new 

range (Figure 3-1; Mack et al. 2000). 

BLM Infestations 

In 2006, the BLM estimated that nearly 45 million acres

of public lands were infested with weeds (Table 3-5).

The estimated rate of weed spread on western public 

lands in 1996 was 2,300 acres per day (USDI BLM

1996). A recent estimate of weed spread on all western

federal lands is 10% to 15% annually (Asher and 

Dewey 2005). The states with the largest weed

infestations on public lands are Utah, Nevada, Arizona, 

and Oregon (Table 3-5). The most dominant invasive

plants consist of grasses in the Bromus genus, which

represent nearly 70% of the total infested area. A single

species, downy brome, occupies an estimated 10 million

acres alone. Another grass, red brome, has invaded

portions of the Southwest. Other important weed 

species that occupy over 100,000 acres include 

halogeton, common Mediterranean grass, medusahead, 

houndstongue, leafy spurge, Canada thistle, saltcedar, 

spotted knapweed, rush skeletonweed, Russian 

knapweed, diffuse knapweed, yellow star-thistle, and

hoary cress. 

The BLM treated approximately 50,000 to 320,000

acres of noxious weeds during 1997 through 2006.

Treatments included a combination of chemical,

mechanical, manual, biological, and cultural controls, 

and herbicides have been used to create firebreaks in

shrublands as well as improve forage for livestock and 

wildlife. Each year, over half of the treatment acres

were in Montana, and over 35,000 treatment acres were 

in Idaho. In 2005, the BLM inventoried nearly 6.4 

million acres for weeds, and evaluated weed treatments 

on over 278,000 acres of treatment lands (USDI BLM

2006c). 

Figure 3-1. Relationship between Area Occupied by 

Invasive Species and Time. 

Understanding this process is critical for making timely

and appropriate decisions for managing invasive plants. 

Preventing the spread of species during the lag phase

should be a priority for managers. The establishment

phase, while enough residual desired vegetation

remains, should be another crucial time for controlling 

infestations (USDA Forest Service 2005). 

Sleeper weeds, a relatively new concept, are invasive

plant species with populations that are known to have 

increased significantly more than 50 years after 

becoming naturalized (Groves 2006). Common reed, for 

example, has been identified as a sleeper weed in 

Quebec, Canada. While the species has been present in 

Quebec since 1916, it did not spread on a large scale 

until the 1960’s, most likely after the development of 

the highway network (Lelong et al 2007). Controlling 

newly introduced populations of non-native species 

should help to alleviate the development of sleeper 

weeds 

Vegetation Condition and Fire 

Regimes 

In support of national-level fire planning and ecological

assessment, the Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) 

concept was devised. The BLM uses the FRCC concept 

to describe ecological departure. It is a measure that

helps to describe common issues on public lands, such

as altered disturbance regimes, invasive species, or 

highly altered plant communities. Generally, FRCC is

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TABLE 3-5 

Estimated Acres of Weed Infestations on Public Lands in 2000

State 

Bromus

species

1 Halogeton 

Mediterranean 

grass

2

Medusa 

head

Centaurea 

spp.3

Houndstongue 

Other Total

Alaska

4 -- -- -- -- -- -- 992 992

Arizona 5,007,000 5,000 3,190,600 0 150 0 86,000 8,288,637

California 517,000 4,000 243,000 261,000 35,000 0 69,000 1,129,000

Colorado 1,952,000 372,000 0 0 23,000 408,000 329,000 3,084,000

Idaho 2,814,000 --4 0 15,000 214,000 500 376,000 3,419,500

Montana 933,018 300 0 0 157,726 9,580 180,929 1,281,553

Nebraska4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

North Dakota 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,196 2,196

New Mexico 30 21 0 0 7,000 0 41,000 48,051

Nevada 6,564,2445 1,050,000 1,500,000 5,000 18,100 50 120,000 9,257,394

Oklahoma4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Oregon and

Washington 5,139,000 151,000 0 676,000 48,000 113 393,000 6,407,113

South Dakota 208 0 0 0 3 66 2,111 2,388

Texas4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Utah 6,948,000 3,063,000 94,000 25 51,000 604 130,000 10,286,629

Wyoming 1,395,000 1,500 0 0 47,000 27,000 188,000 1,658,500

Total 31,269,500 4,646,821 5,027,600 957,025 600,979 445,913 1,918,228 44,865,953

1

 Includes downy, rigput, Japanese, and red bromes. 2 This refers to Schismus barbatus. 3 Includes spotted, Russian, diffuse, squarrose, and Tyrol knapweeds and yellow and malta starthistles. 4

 No data were reported for this state. 5

 Acres calculated through GIS based on 10% cover estimate derived from remote sensing data sources. Acreage includes 

undifferentiated Bromus and other invasive annual grass species. 

Source: Peterson (2006). 

one piece of information used to describe the health of 

public lands. 

The first national FRCC assessment was completed in 

the late 1990s and published in Development of Coarsescale Spatial Data for Wildland Fire and Fuel

Management (Coarse Scale; Schmidt et al. 2002). This

analysis was used in the Draft PEIS. This assessment

excluded public lands in Alaska (86 million acres), as 

well as 25.5 million acres of agricultural, barren, and 

urban/developed lands in the lower 48 states. Three 

condition classes were established to represent 

qualitative measures describing the degree of departure

from historical fire regimes. Departure from historical

fire regimes may result from activities, such as fire 

exclusion, timber harvesting, livestock grazing, 

introduction and establishment of exotic plant species, 

introduced insects or disease, and/or other management

activities, that alter key ecosystem components such as 

species composition, structural stage, stand age, canopy 

closure, and fuel loadings. 

While the intent of the Coarse Scale analysis was 

regional and national characterization, USDI agencies 

found the analysis to be of limited utility, especially for 

public lands in the western U.S. The condition classes in 

the Coarse Scale analysis were assigned based on 

successional stages for potential natural vegetation 

groups. Public lands were poorly represented in this 

effort for two reasons. First, some vegetation types, 

such as annual grasses or woodlands, could not be

discerned in the vegetation classification used 

(Kuchler’s Potential Natural Vegetation Groups;

Kuchler 1964). Second, condition class assignments 

relied heavily on forest canopy cover thresholds, which 

have limited applicability to the majority of public

lands. 

Because of these shortfalls, a second national FRCC 

analysis was conducted as part of the Rapid Assessment

Phase of the Landscape Fire and Resource Management

Planning Tools Project (LANDFIRE). The Rapid

Assessment Phase is intended as an interim product

while further refinement of LANDFIRE continues. 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-28 June 2007 

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LANDFIRE is a 5-year, multi-partner project producing

consistent and comprehensive maps and data describing 

vegetation, wildland fuel, and fire regimes across the 

United States. It is a shared project between the 

wildland fire management programs of the USDA and

USDI. 

Intended to better represent USDI-administered lands, 

the Rapid Assessment Phase mapped FRCC based on

potential natural vegetation groups (historic vegetation), 

S-class (current seral stages), and historic fire regimes 

of the coterminous United States. Despite some

localized inaccuracies, the Rapid Assessment Phase

layer is the most accurate FRCC summary map for 

lands managed by the BLM, to date. Like the first

national FRCC assessment, the second national FRCC 

assessment also excluded lands in Alaska as well as

agricultural, barren, and urban/undeveloped lands in the

lower 48 states. 

The Rapid Assessment Phase is primarily intended for 

use at the national, regional, or state level, but not the

local level. As a result, the Rapid Assessment Phase,

like the Coarse Scale Analysis, is not intended to 

portray district or field office site conditions. FRCC can 

be assessed at the local level using a variety of tools 

(besides the national map), such as the FRCC software 

or GIS mapping tools. 

For this Final PEIS, departures from historical fire

regimes are based on the Rapid Assessment Phase 

analysis, and have been grouped into three classes, as

shown on Map 3-10. Condition Class 1 lands (27.2

million acres of public lands; acres are approximate as 

federal agencies are updating and refining acreage 

estimates) are characterized by fire regimes that are

within their historical range of vegetation variability 

characteristics, fuel composition, and fire frequency,

severity, and pattern. Fire behavior, effects, and other 

associated disturbances are comparable to those that

took place prior to management practices that do not 

mimic the normal fire regime. The structure and

composition of vegetation and fuels are similar to the 

historical regime, and the risk of losing key ecosystem 

components to fire is low. These areas can generally be 

maintained within the historical fire regime with

treatments such as prescribed fire. Wildland fire use for

resource benefit may also be used to maintain these 

areas. 

Condition Class 2 lands (79.5 million acres) have fire

regimes that have been moderately altered from their 

historical conditions. They experience either an

increased or decreased fire frequency of one or more

return intervals, resulting in changes to fire size,

intensity, and severity, and/or landscape patterns. 

Vegetation composition and structure and fuels have 

been moderately altered from their historical range, and 

have a moderate risk of losing key ecosystem

components due to fire or other causes. These lands 

may need moderate levels of restoration treatments, 

such as prescribed fire and hand or mechanical

treatments, to be restored to the historical fire regime. 

Condition Class 3 lands (54.7 million acres) have fire

regimes that have a high departure from the historical 

condition, and the associated risk of losing key 

ecosystem components to fire or other causes is high. 

Vegetation composition, structure, and diversity, as well

as fuels, have been significantly altered from their 

historical range. Due to these alterations, Condition 

Class 3 areas are especially susceptible to severe and

intense wildland fires. These areas often require high 

levels of restoration treatments, such as hand or

mechanical treatments, before prescribed fire can be

used to restore the historical fire regime (Schmidt et al.

2002). Almost 41% (21.2 million acres) of the Class 3

lands occur in the Temperate Desert Ecoregion. 15.5 

million acres occur in the Subtropical Desert Ecoregion, 

8.2 million acres occur in the Temperate Steppe

Ecoregion, and 5.4 million acres occur in the

Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion. An additional 1.5 million 

acres of Class 3 lands occur in evergreen forests of the

Mediterranean Ecoregion. 

A comparison by acreage shows that the acreage of 

FRCC Condition Class 3 lands increased substantially 

between the Coarse Scale and Rapid Assessment Phase

analysis. The Rapid Assessment Phase analysis further 

supports the need for treatment of large numbers of

acres in the West to improve condition class. 

Further information and methods can be found at the

FRCC website and in the Interagency FRCC Guidebook 

(www.frcc.gov). 

Non-timber Forest Products 

Non-timber forest products include all plant materials 

other than timber that are extracted from forests for 

human use (National Network of Forest Practitioners 

2005). They consist of medicinal plants (e.g., ginseng, 

goldenseal), wild foods (e.g., mushrooms, berries, roots, 

syrups), decoratives and floral greens (e.g., salal, ferns,

boughs), flavors and fragrances (e.g., sassafras, balsam

fir), fibers (e.g., cedar bark, sweet grass, lichens), wild

native seeds and transplants for restoration and nursery 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-29 June 2007 

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stock, plant dyes, arts and crafts materials, and resins

and saps. These forest products are harvested for a 

variety of reasons, including subsistence, cultural, 

spiritual, commercial, recreational, and educational

purposes. 

Native American tribes and Alaska Natives traditionally 

used forest products for tools, food, construction

materials, medicine, and religious ceremonies. Forest

products used included bark for housing, branches and

stems for utensils and tools, and wood for containers 

(Chamberlain et al. 1998). Much of the knowledge

gained from Native American tribes and Alaska Native 

groups has influenced the development of the U.S. 

herbal medicinal industry. A discussion of Native 

American and Alaska Native plant uses is provided in

the Cultural Resources section of this chapter, and in 

Appendix D of the PER. 

During FY 2005, approximately $194,000 worth of 

non-timber forest products was sold by the BLM. The 

actual value of non-timber forest products harvested on

public lands is substantially greater (USDI BLM 

2006c). Over 40% of non-timber forest product sales on 

public lands were in western Oregon, and about 13%

were in Nevada. Other important states for non-timber 

forest product sales are Colorado and Utah. 

Special Status Species 

There are over 150 plant species occurring on or near 

public lands in the treatment area that are federallylisted as threatened or endangered, or proposed for 

listing. The number may change over time depending 

on future evaluations of each species’ status. BLM

policy states that BLM actions must not adversely 

impact special status species, which include species that 

are listed under the ESA, given some form of special 

designation to denote rarity by the state, or are listed as 

sensitive by the BLM. Special status species, other than

those already listed under the ESA, are in potential 

danger of becoming listed under the ESA. Special status 

plant species are distributed throughout the western 

U.S., including Alaska. A list of these species can be 

found in Appendix J. 

For this PEIS, the BLM has consulted with the USFWS 

and NMFS since 2001 on listed species and species 

proposed for listing, and their critical habitats, that 

could be affected by the proposed treatments. As part of 

the consultation process, the BLM prepared a 

Vegetation Treatments on Bureau of Land Management 

Lands in 17 Western States Programmatic Biological 

Assessment, which provides a description of the 

distribution, life history, and current threats for each 

species (USDI BLM 2007a). Information contained in 

the BA will be used as a guideline by BLM field offices 

when developing local projects. 

Fish and Other Aquatic 

Organisms

The BLM administers lands directly affecting almost 

155,000 miles of fish-bearing streams and 4 million

acres of reservoirs and natural lakes (USDI BLM

2006d). These habitats range from isolated desert

springs of the Southwest to large interior rivers and their 

numerous tributaries. 

For this section, the eight geographic regions that were 

used to describe water resources in the treatment area

are used to describe associated aquatic organisms and

their habitats (Map 3-5). Key fish species have been

identified for each region. These species are 

ecologically representative of the region(s), use major

habitat types within the region, and strongly influence 

the aquatic community structure. As a result of species 

distributions and ecological similarities between

regions, some key species may occur in more than one 

geographic region. 

Alaska and the Pacific Northwest 

The most significant group of native fishes found in

Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, in terms of their 

ecological, cultural, and commercial importance, is the 

salmonid family. All members of this group, which

include salmon, trout, char, and whitefish, require

relatively pristine, cold freshwater habitats during part 

or all of their life cycles, and as such, depend greatly on

the conditions of the surrounding forests and rangelands 

to ensure their survival (Meehan 1991). 

Most salmonids use large stream and river systems with 

direct ocean access. In Alaska, significant streams 

within public lands include the Colville River and 

Yukon River systems. The most significant system in

Pacific Northwest is the Columbia River Basin. With its 

headwaters in British Columbia, the Columbia River 

extends over 1,200 miles to the Pacific Ocean. 

Salmonid productivity within a freshwater system is 

dependent on the underlying stream productivity and the 

period of use by salmonids during their life cycle. Five

general factors determine the suitability of aquatic

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-30 June 2007 

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habitat for salmonids: flow regime, water quality, 

habitat structure, food (energy) source, and biotic 

interactions. All salmonids require suitable habitat for 

spawning, incubation, and rearing. Generally, adult

salmon require spawning gravel (less than 2 inches in

diameter) and overhead streambank or vegetative cover 

from predation, while eggs and newly hatched salmon

(alevins) require stable gravel and cool (less than 57 °F) 

and highly oxygenated water (Meehan 1991). Bull trout, 

which tend to spend most, if not all of their life in inland 

waters, require water less than 42 °F for spawning and 

rearing of newly hatched young. Because salmonids 

prefer cold water, temperatures above 77 °F are lethal to 

most species in this family (Meehan and Bjornn 1991). 

Migrant salmonids pass through several distinct habitats 

while traveling to and from feeding or breeding habitats, 

utilizing the full extent of the watershed. The 

importance of each habitat type differs by species.

Chinook salmon, for example, spawn in the mainstem 

of a river. Upon emerging from the gravel, individuals

either start their migration to the sea within their first

year (ocean-type) or mature within rivers for 2 to 3

years before migrating to sea (stream-type). In contrast, 

resident trout populations, such as rainbow, bull, and 

cutthroat trout, may spend their life (5 to 6 years) in

various freshwater systems, including small streams or 

lakes, and do not migrate to the sea (Meehan and Bjornn 

1991). 

Various fish species have been introduced into aquatic

systems throughout Alaska and the Pacific Northwest.

Most of the non-native species have been introduced to

promote sportfishing opportunities. Some have escaped

from fish farms. Introduced salmonids (such as brook, 

brown, lake, and hatchery-raised rainbow trout), 

centrarchids (such as bass and sunfish), and percids 

(such as walleye) now support many, if not most, of the 

non-native sport fishing opportunities within these

regions (Mills 1994). 

A variety of aquatic invertebrates occur in Northwest

and Alaskan streams. These species can be quite 

susceptible to instream activity (e.g., removal of large 

woody debris), or disturbances in riparian zones. The 

diversity of aquatic insects is naturally low in glacierfed streams. Streams flowing through conifer forest, 

however, support a diverse aquatic invertebrate fauna, 

including many mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies 

(Whittier et al. 1988). The diversity of freshwater

mollusks is also usually highest in montane, spring-fed

streams and pools (Forest Ecosystem Management

Assessment Team 1993). 

The Arid Environment 

In arid regions, hydrologic inputs that drive aquatic 

systems come in pulses of short duration. Although rain 

may trigger biological processes, such as reproduction, 

after long dry periods, a severe rainfall that creates flash 

flooding can exert considerable pressure on fish species 

and community structure (Naiman 1981). The natural

hydrology of southwestern desert rivers and streams is

highly variable and episodic (Rinne and Stefferud

1997). Natural flow regimes have been considered 

optimum for sustaining native fish populations (Poff et

al. 1997). Although many streams of the U.S. deserts 

have been highly modified, reducing the impacts of 

flash floods on fish communities, these sudden rain

inputs may still be detrimental. Carrying heavy silt, 

flash floods may remove or destroy habitat features 

such as shoreline vegetation, leaving fish species

susceptible to rising water temperatures (Naiman 1981). 

Because there is limited hydrological connection among 

water bodies within the desert, fish distribution is also

limited. Some streams continually flow through the

humid desert regions, terminating in closed lakes or

dissipating in the sand, while other streams originate 

from subterranean sources, emerging as springs. Springs 

occur throughout the desert ecosystem, ranging from 

quiet pools or trickles to active aquifers. Many larger 

springs emit warm water, with temperatures above the 

mean annual air temperature, and range from fresh to

highly mineralized, carrying large amounts of dissolved

materials or extremely low dissolved oxygen levels 

(Naiman 1981). Although each spring or pool is

species-poor, most aquatic inhabitants of each pool are 

short-lived (1-2 years) and native to only a single 

locality (Naiman 1981, Page and Burr 1991). 

Aquatic species have been introduced into this 

ecosystem, either on purpose or accidentally, changing 

the ecological balance to favor many of the non-native

species. Invasive fish reduce numbers of native species 

through competition, hybridization, predation, and the

spread of pathogens to which they have developed

resistance in their home waters, but to which native 

species have not (Rinne 1995, 2003). Overall, nonnative fish species now outnumber natives in number of

species, population density, and often biomass at many

localities (Platania and Bestgen 1988; Griffith and

Tiersch 1989; Douglas et al. 1994). 

Large reservoirs and diversions have been constructed

on various rivers and streams, at least partially to deliver 

irrigation water for agricultural purposes. Additionally, 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-31 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

domestic livestock grazing has impacted some

rangelands, and historical grazing pressures in riparian

areas have reduced the function of some aquatic 

habitats. 

Lower Colorado River and the Rio Grande 

These regions cover portions of Nevada, Arizona, New 

Mexico, and Texas. Grasses and shrubs cover large 

expanses of the southwest region. This vegetation helps 

to reduce runoff and erosion during the rainy season. 

During the dry seasons, dormant vegetation and

vegetative litter serve a similar function and are critical 

for the overall health of these rangeland systems. 

Livestock grazing in the region has reduced the quality 

of plant communities, resulting in increased runoff into 

streams during heavy rainfall, and localized lowering of 

water tables (Naiman 1981, Rinne and Minckley 1991). 

These impacts, combined with upper basin

modifications, including dams, have impacted fish

habitat throughout the lower Colorado and Rio Grande 

rivers. 

The Colorado River, which was once a warm, silted, 

swift river, is now a cold, clear series of artificial

impoundments. These impoundments are a significant 

threat to desert waterways, and in some instances can 

end a stream’s existence, as has occurred in the lower 

reaches of the Salt and Gila rivers in Arizona (Cole 

1981). The Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River, 

upstream of Lee’s Ferry, eliminated the seasonal 

variation in the river’s discharge, ionic composition, 

temperature, and sediment load in the gorge of the 

Grand Canyon. The impoundment has altered both the

flow of the river and the river’s potential for fish habitat

downstream. As a consequence, most native fish 

populations in the Colorado River Basin have declined

substantially throughout much of the species’ ranges. 

The Family Cyprinidae is the most dominant native fish

group within the lower basin region, followed by the 

Family Catostomidae. The Cyprinidae family is

composed mainly of minnow species, including the

threatened Colorado pikeminnow and bonytail chub,

while the Catostomidae family includes the threatened 

razorback sucker (Starnes 1995). Impoundments have 

had the greatest impacts on these fish communities 

(Minckley and Deacon 1991). 

Bonytail chubs were historically common, migrating

throughout the mainstem of the Colorado River and

many of its tributaries, including the Green, Gunnison, 

Yampa, and Gila rivers, before the construction of large 

dams (Kaeding et al. 1986). Although bonytails 

continue to be found in low numbers in several manmade lakes, including Lake Mohave, the temperature 

and physical and chemical composition of these lakes is 

very different from those in which the fish evolved 

(Minckley 1973, Minckley and Deacon 1991). 

The headwaters of the Rio Grande River originate in the 

Rocky Mountains of southwestern Colorado and the 

river meanders approximately 1,900 miles across 

Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas before terminating 

at the Gulf of Mexico (Water in the West 2002). Public 

lands within the Rio Grande region are limited to the 

upper and middle reaches of this drainage. Most 

precipitation in the basin falls as snow near its 

headwaters or as rain near its mouth, while little water is 

contributed to the system along the middle reaches of

this river, particularly within the Chihuahuan Desert. 

Historically, riparian woodlands in the Rio Grande 

River Valley were a mosaic of various-aged stands 

dominated by cottonwood and willow (Cassell 1998). 

However, conversion of much of this land to residential 

and agricultural uses has modified this floodplain area, 

significantly reducing the quantity and quality of 

wetland and riparian habitat (Cassell 1998; Levings et

al. 1998). These changes, combined with instream 

modifications, have reduced fish habitat considerably 

throughout the region. 

Prior to the construction of dams like the Cochiti Dam,

the Rio Grande River had characteristics similar to the

Colorado River, and was considered a swift, warm, 

muddy river (Scurlock 1998). The settling effects of

dam reservoirs have resulted in slower, clearer, colder

water. This modification of water quality has had a

debilitating effect on the range of the Rio Grande 

silvery minnow, a species that once extended from 

Española, New Mexico, in the Rio Grande River Valley 

to the Gulf of Mexico; and in the Pescos River from 

Santa Rosa, New Mexico, to the confluence with the 

Rio Grande River in south Texas (Federal Register 

1994). Currently, it is found only in a 170-mile reach of 

the middle Rio Grande River in New Mexico. Much of

its decline may be attributed to modification of stream 

habitat by impoundments, water diversion for 

agriculture, and stream channelization. 

Many non-native fish species have adapted well to the 

instream modifications to the Lower Colorado and Rio

Grande rivers (Maddux et al. 1993; Douglas et al. 

1994). Usually more aggressive than native fish and

able to outcompete them for resources, these non-native 

species include walleye, bass (large and smallmouth), 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-32 June 2007 

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and rainbow, brook, and brown trout (Douglas et al. 

1994). 

Great Basin 

The Great Basin covers an arid expanse of 

approximately 190,000 mi

2 and is bordered by the Sierra 

Nevada Range on the west, the Rocky Mountains on the 

east, the Columbia Plateau on the north, and the Mojave 

and Sonoran deserts on the south. The Great Basin is the 

area of internal drainage between the Rocky Mountains 

and the Sierra Nevada Range. Streams in this area never 

reach the ocean, but are instead confined, draining to the

base of the basin, and typically resulting in terminal

lakes, such as Mono Lake and the Great Salt Lake, 

marshes, or sinks that are warm and saline (Moyle 

1976). 

Many Great Basin fish are adapted to extreme 

conditions. Trout are predominantly found in lakes and 

streams at higher elevations within the basin (Behnke 

1992). Bonneville cutthroat trout have persisted in the

isolated, cool mountain streams of the eastern Great

Basin, while Lahontan cutthroat trout populations 

occupy small, isolated habitats throughout the basin. 

These trout species are unusually tolerant of both high

temperatures (>80 °F) and large daily fluctuations in

temperature (up to 68 °F). They are also quite tolerant 

of high alkalinity (>3,000 mg/L) and dissolved solids 

(>10,000 mg/L; Behnke 1992). 

Water diversions, subsistence harvest, and stocking with 

non-native fish (particularly rainbow trout) have caused

the extirpation of the Bonneville cutthroat trout from

most of its range. Although Lahontan cutthroat trout

were once common in desert lakes, including Pyramid, 

Walker, Summit, and Independence lakes, and large 

rivers, such as the Humboldt, Truckee, and Walker 

rivers, they have declined in numbers overall, 

disappearing in many areas (Hudson et al. 2000). 

The decline of Lahontan cutthroat trout abundance is a 

result of habitat loss, interbreeding with introduced 

rainbow trout, and competition with other species of

trout; these factors continue to be the primary threats to

the species (Coffin and Cowan 1995, Dunham 1998). 

Minnows and pupfish are the dominant fish species at

lower elevations and are found in thermal artesian

springs and streams (Cole 1981, Feldmeth 1981). 

Various native and non-native minnows (e.g., dace, 

chubs, shiners), are common throughout streams and

lakes of the basin. Pupfish, however, are very sitespecific and live, by choice, at the extreme upper limit 

of their zone of thermal tolerance (Feldmeth 1981). 

Pupfish are able to survive extreme environmental

conditions, tolerating water temperatures as high as 115 

°F, salinity as high as 142 parts per thousand (ppt; ocean 

water is typically 33 ppt), and oxygen concentrations as 

low as 0.13 mg/L (Page and Burr 1991). Because of the

high water temperatures, pupfish have developed

behavioral traits to regulate body temperature. They

have been observed migrating to shallow pools in the 

morning and remaining there throughout the day,

returning to deep water at night. While some pupfish

populations are isolated in extremely variable

environments (i.e., rapidly fluctuating water levels and 

temperature gradients), others are isolated in stable

springs with constant temperatures (Biological Resource

Research Center 2001, NatureServe Explorer 2001). 

The most significant problem facing desert fish are the

limited water supply. Desert fishes have a tenuous hold

on survival under natural conditions, occurring only in

the few permanent springs, rivers, and lakes, and their 

existence has been placed in doubt by human activities 

(Deacon and Williams 1991). Pumping groundwater for 

agriculture has threatened several pupfish populations, 

including the Devil’s Hole pupfish (Deacon and 

Williams 1991). 

Aquatic invertebrates are probably diverse within the 

Great Basin region, though relatively little is known 

about them (Hershler and Pratt 1990). Streams flowing

within mountainous forest region support diverse 

aquatic invertebrate fauna including mayflies, 

stoneflies, and caddisflies. Small springs contain diverse 

molluscan fauna (Hershler and Sada 1987). Spring

biotic communities are usually less diverse than stream

communities, and springs are often habitat for endemic

species because they are predictable, benign habitats

that have served as refugia during dry periods. 

The Upper Colorado River Basin 

The Colorado River is the primary river of the 

southwestern U.S., draining approximately 242,000 mi

2

from portions of Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New 

Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California. The 

headwaters of the Colorado River are located in Rocky 

Mountain National Park in Colorado, from which the 

river flows southwest, toward the Gulf of California. 

The Colorado River Basin is divided into two basins, 

the Lower and Upper basins, with a dividing line near

Lee’s Ferry, Arizona. Three distinct aquatic zones have 

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been identified in the Upper Colorado Basin (Joseph et

al. 1977). The upper (headwater) zone is characterized

by cold and clear water, a high gradient, and a rocky or

gravel substrate. Resident salmonid populations are 

predominant in this zone. An intermediate zone occurs 

as the stream flows out of the upper zone. Within the 

intermediate zone, water discharge rates and 

temperature increase, and water is turbid during spring 

runoff and after heavy rainfall. The substrate is

generally rocky with occasional expanses of sand. The

lower (large-river) zone has warm water, meandering 

sections, and a low gradient in flat terrain. Minnows and

suckers are the dominant fish communities of the 

intermediate and lower zones. 

The construction of reservoirs, such as Fontenelle and

Flaming Gorge, has had profound effects on water flow

and quality throughout the upper basin region; lower 

summer water temperatures have resulted, and

spawning of native fish has virtually ceased (Carlson 

and Carlson 1982, Wullschleger 2000). The humpback

chub, for example, prefers deep, fast-moving, turbid 

waters often associated with canyon-bound segments of

the rivers (Valdez and Clemmer 1982). Historically, this 

species occurred in great numbers throughout the 

Colorado River system from the Green River in 

Wyoming to the Gulf of California in Mexico. Today,

due to lower water temperature and migration routes 

blocked by dams, this species can only be found in

limited deep, canyon-bound portions of the Colorado 

River (Douglas and Marsh 1996). 

Native salmonids in the upper zone of the Upper 

Colorado River Basin are disappearing with the 

introduction of rainbow, brook, and cutthroat trout for 

sport fishing (Miller et al. 1982). The habitat 

immediately downstream of constructed reservoirs 

favors these non-native salmonids (Platania 2003). In

addition, non-native species effectively outcompete

native species for available resources, and interbreed

with native species (Joseph et al. 1977; Rinne and 

Minckley 1991). Populations of native species within

lakes are also declining as a result of competition with 

and predation by, introduced non-native species, such as 

carp, northern pike, and red shiner (Rinne and Minckley

1991). 

California 

California has two distinct fish habitat regions: northern

and southern California. The northern region extends

from the Oregon border south to Sacramento (the most

southern reaches of salmon distribution in North 

America). This region includes rain-fed coastal streams,

snow-fed streams of western Sierra Nevada, and the 

Central and San Joaquin valleys. Habitat characteristics 

are very similar to those observed in the western Pacific

Northwest, with a dominance of evergreen forests 

throughout the area. Streams in the coastal region

usually have steep drainages and are characterized by

extreme seasonal flow, flooding in the winter and

becoming intermittent in summer (Moyle 1976). Water 

flow in snow-fed streams is more constant than in

coastal streams, a condition to which native fish are 

adapted. 

Fish habitats within southern California are located 

predominantly within the arid southeast region of the 

state, and include numerous rivers and lakes. Native fish

communities, such as those comprised of pupfish and

minnows in the lower elevations and cutthroat trout in

the mountainous regions, and their aquatic habitats,

exhibit characteristics similar to those seen in the Lower 

Colorado and Great Basin regions. 

Missouri River Basin 

The Missouri River Basin encompasses 529,350 mi

2

and flows for over 2,340 miles, from its headwaters at

the confluence of the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson 

rivers in the Rocky Mountains at Three Forks, Montana, 

to its confluence with the Mississippi River at St. Louis, 

Missouri. 

The Missouri River historically carried a heavy silt load, 

collected from tributaries in the northern part of its 

drainage. Its wide and diverging channel created

shifting sandy islands, spits, and pools, resulting in fish 

species suited to its turbid and dynamic conditions. 

Many of the fish species within the upper reaches of the 

Missouri River are considered benthic fishes, such as 

sturgeon and minnows (Duffy et al. 1996; Scarnecchia

et al. 2002). 

Public lands in Montana occur predominantly in the

northeastern portion of the state. The surrounding 

habitat, referred to as the Milk River Basin, has 

relatively high densities of depressional wetlands 

dominated by shortgrass prairies. The upper reaches of

the Missouri River and its major tributaries maintain the

healthiest fish populations in the basin (White and

Bramblett 1993). However, dams built along the 

mainstem of the Missouri River, such as the Fort Peck 

Dam in Montana, have limited fish migration patterns

and water flow, as well as the movement of silt

downstream, resulting in declining fish numbers and

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reduced quality spawning and rearing habitat (Hesse et

al. 1989). This combination of habitat loss and poor 

dam management has contributed to the decline of

many native mainstem species including paddlefish, 

sturgeon, and several species of chub. 

Native species such as the sicklefin chub, sturgeon 

chub, and pallid sturgeon prefer silty rivers with a

diversity of depths and velocities forming braided 

channels, sand bars, sand flats, and gravel bars, all of 

which were historically common along the Missouri 

River (Gilbraith et al. 1998; Scarnecchia et al. 2002).

All three species have been affected by changes in the

Missouri River. Although the chub species have 

managed to effectively reproduce where habitat

conditions allow, the pallid sturgeon has been unable to 

adapt well to the present river conditions, resulting in a

significant decline in its abundance (Duffy et al. 1996). 

The endangered pallid sturgeon, a bottom feeder, may 

become extinct, as changes in water flows continue to 

affect food sources, spawning habitat, and the timing of 

reproduction (USFWS 1990). 

Introduced species, such as rainbow trout, have been 

stocked throughout Montana. Rainbow trout have 

adapted well to the wide range of habitats available

within the basin. The species has successfully integrated 

into this aquatic system, and has caused a severe 

reduction in the range of native cutthroat trout through

hybridization and competition (Walleyes Unlimited

2002). Other introduced species that have adapted well 

to the modifications of the Missouri River drainage in

Montana include smallmouth bass, walleye, and white

crappie. 

The Missouri River drainage includes all of Wyoming

east of the Continental Divide, and represents 74% of 

the state’s surface area. Typically, streams along the 

southern boundary of Wyoming originate from the 

mountainous region of northern Colorado and are

characterized by high gradients, cobble and boulder

substrates, and riparian areas dominated by conifers and 

willows. This area of Wyoming drains into the North 

Platte River drainage, comprising 24% of the surface 

area of Wyoming. Native and introduced salmonids 

such as rainbow, brook, and cutthroat trout dominate 

fish communities within this region. 

As streams flow onto the arid, desert plains, they are 

characterized by low gradients, meandering or braided 

channels, and silt, sand, and gravel substrates, with

riparian areas dominated by cottonwoods, willows, 

shrubs, and grasses. Central and northern Wyoming are 

considered high cold desert. Native and non-native 

minnows and suckers dominate fish communities. 

Special Status Species 

There are over 100 aquatic animal species occurring on

or near public lands that are federally listed as 

threatened or endangered, or are proposed for future 

listing. Included in the total number are 59

species/subspecies of fish, 13 species of mollusk, and 6 

aquatic arthropods. A complete list of these special 

status species may be found in Appendix J. Please note 

that this list is dynamic, and will likely change

throughout the time period considered by this PEIS. 

Special status aquatic animal species are found on 

public lands throughout the United States. A number of 

listed salmon populations are found in rivers of the 

Pacific Coast states. In arid habitats, many special status 

fish species are found in the rare and fragile desert

wetlands and springs, as well as in the major rivers such

as the Colorado and the Rio Grande. In the deserts of

the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau, terminal lakes,

marshes, and sinks provide important habitats for 

special status fish species that are adapted to their warm,

saline conditions. 

Special status mollusks occur predominantly in the

Snake River of Idaho, and in thermal habitats and small

springs and wetlands in New Mexico, Arizona, and

Utah. Aquatic arthropods of special concern occur 

predominantly in the vernal pools of California. 

Wildlife Resources 

Public lands sustain an abundance and diversity of

wildlife and wildlife habitat. Public lands provide a 

permanent or seasonal home for more than 3,000

species of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. 

Wildlife populations are found in areas where their 

basic needs—food, shelter, water, reproduction, and

movement—are met. The area in which the needs of a

particular population are met is its habitat. Many 

animals have special behaviors and physical traits that

allow them to successfully compete with other animals 

in only one or a few habitats; many threatened and 

endangered species fall into this category. Other 

animals, such as mule deer, coyote, and American robin 

are less specialized and can use a wider range of

habitats. 

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Several features make some habitats better for wildlife

than others. In turn, the more of these features that are 

present, the greater the diversity of wildlife species that 

is likely to be present. These features include: 

• Structure – shape, height, density, and diversity 

of the vegetation and other general features of

the terrain. 

• Vertical layers – layers of vegetation (e.g., 

herbaceous, shrub, and forest canopy). 

• Horizontal zones – vegetation and other habitat 

features that vary across an area. 

• Complexity – an integration of vertical layers 

and horizontal zones. 

• Edge – the area where two types of vegetative 

communities meet, such as a forest and shrub

community. 

• Special features – unique habitat features 

needed for survival or reproduction, including

snags (dead trees), water, and rock outcrops. 

Of the 164 million acres of rangeland administered by

the BLM within the western states, 52% have been

inventoried for habitat quality. Of those acres, 42% are

rated as excellent or good, 42% are rated as fair, and

16% are rated as poor based on the departure of 

vegetation composition from a reference condition 

(USDI BLM 2006d). The BLM also administers 55

million acres of forestlands and woodlands. Of these

acres, 16% have been rated as healthy and providing

good habitat for wildlife, while 25% are in need of 

restoration, including mechanical thinning, fuels 

reduction, and prescribed fire. The condition of the 

remaining acres is unknown (USDI BLM 2004a). 

An important activity of the BLM is to manage

vegetation to improve wildlife habitat. Plants, which are 

an important component of habitat, provide food and 

cover. Food is a source of nutrients and energy, while 

cover reduces the loss of energy by providing shelter 

from extremes in wind and temperature, and also

affords protection from predators. The following section

describes the important characteristics of wildlife and

habitat in the eight ecoregions that comprise the

treatment area, focusing primarily on the vegetative

characteristics of habitat and how wildlife use this 

vegetation. 

Tundra Ecoregion 

Because of the short growing seasons and low summer 

temperatures, vegetation in tundra areas exhibits simple 

structure, few layers, limited complexity, low primary 

productivity, low decomposition rates, low stress 

tolerance, and high susceptibility to physical

disturbance. Thus, on an annual basis, the tundra 

supports fewer wildlife species and numbers than other 

ecoregions, although it does support large populations 

of some wildlife, such as shorebirds and waterfowl,

during summer. 

Wildlife species in tundra habitats fall into three

categories: 1) resident species that remain active yearround, 2) resident species hibernating in winter, and 3) 

migratory species present for only a portion of the year 

(Lent 1986). Resident species that remain active yearround include the willow ptarmigan, common raven, 

snowy owl, Arctic fox, brown lemming, muskox, and 

caribou. Hibernating species include the Arctic ground

squirrel, and hoary marmot. The great majority of the 97 

or so bird species using the tundra are migratory 

(Pitelka 1979). 

Except for the wood frog, there are no amphibians or

reptiles in the Tundra Ecoregion. Because they are coldblooded animals, the climate is too cold for these 

groups. Wood frogs are unique in that they partially 

freeze in winter; up to one-third of the water in a wood

frog’s body may turn to ice for a period of several 

weeks (USGS 2004). 

The tundra has low species diversity; tundra insect 

fauna, for example, is only 1% to 5% as rich in species 

as the insect fauna found at temperate latitudes (Bolen

1998). Wildlife populations are also constrained by the 

low plant productivity, and can fluctuate greatly in 

response to annual changes in plant productivity. 

Animal population peaks can markedly alter vegetation

and other habitat features in some instances, leading to 

sharp declines in population numbers. The brown 

lemming is the classic example of a cyclic species, with

extreme fluctuations in numbers. Lemmings clip and

consume large amounts of dormant vegetation under the

snow during winter. During periods with large 

populations of lemming, lemmings remove much of the 

vegetation during winter, resulting in limited food 

during summer, and also limited protective cover 

against predators. As lemming populations decline due 

to starvation and predation, species that prey upon

lemmings, such as the snowy owl and Arctic fox, also

show marked population declines. 

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The widespread occurrence of shallow lakes and 

wetlands during the summer creates ideal conditions for 

insects, especially mosquitoes. Mosquitoes have 

adapted to the harsh winter by overwintering in an egg 

stage that is resistant to drying, hatching as larvae when

warmer weather and moisture returns in the spring. 

Plant-eating insects are rare in the Tundra Ecoregion,

likely due to the low growth rate of the vegetation.

Nearly all insects prey on animals, biting the animal or 

burrowing into its skin or flesh. 

Insect fauna provides an important prey base for 

migratory shorebirds and waterfowl. To cope with the 

short summer and limited food supplies, migratory birds 

tend to nest almost immediately upon arriving on the

breeding grounds, and young hatch when insects and 

vegetation are most abundant. Waterfowl, other small

birds, and small mammals are preyed upon by Arctic 

fox, snowy owl, gyrfalcons, peregrine falcons, and 

rough-legged hawks (World Wildlife Fund 2002). 

Even resident populations of the tundra can be quite 

mobile in their search for suitable food and cover.

Arctic foxes may travel hundreds of miles in search of 

new denning areas, while caribou may go years without

using certain winter ranges. Ptarmigan congregate by 

the thousands in favorable winter valleys in winter, but 

disperse widely during the summer. 

Suitable habitat for denning or burrowing species may 

be limited in areas with continuous or near-continuous 

permafrost. Burrowing species must select areas where

the permafrost is not near the surface. The presence of 

deep snowdrifts is important for denning wolverines, 

polar bears, and brown bears. Talus slopes and cut 

banks are important habitat features used by denning

Arctic foxes. Raptors tend to nest along river and

coastal bluffs because of the generally flat, treeless 

character of the Arctic tundra. 

Subarctic Ecoregion 

The Subarctic Ecoregion, or boreal forest, is the largest

ecoregion in North America. The vegetation is similar 

in structure and dominated by relatively few species of

conifers, including white and black spruce, and

tamarack, and some birch and aspen. Boreal forests are 

structurally more complex than tundra, and thus support

a greater diversity of wildlife species. These forests 

provide habitat for large mammals, such as grizzly bear, 

black bear, wolf, moose, caribou, and wolverine; small

mammals, such as red fox, American beaver, American

marten, and weasels; birds, such as spruce and ruffed 

grouse, owls, and raven; and the amphibian, wood frog. 

Many species have unique adaptations to survive in 

subarctic forests. Herbivores typically graze on 

herbaceous and shrubby vegetation during the summer, 

but shift to a high fiber diet of conifer needles and

woody shrub browse during winter. 

White-winged crossbills are an example of a species 

that have adapted to the abundant cone seeds in boreal

forests. These birds move in large flocks when cone 

supplies are abundant, but are nomadic when cone 

supplies are limited. White-winged crossbills also breed

opportunistically, when cone supplies are most

abundant. 

Bog vegetation occurs widely throughout the Subarctic 

Ecoregion. Bogs are characterized by a spongy 

underfoot of peat that provides a rooting layer for most

vegetation, and is often overlain by sphagnum moss. In

Interior Alaska, bogs are often underlain by permafrost. 

Bogs tend to have limited structural complexity, as trees 

and shrubs are often sparse in bogs. Thus, fewer wildlife 

species are found in bogs than upland forests. The high

water table of bogs also discourages burrowing species. 

Fires, which are normal, recurring events in boreal

forest ecosystems, help maintain ecosystem productivity 

and biodiversity (Rowe et al. 1974; Adams et al. 2000). 

Large area fires are common due to the uniformity of 

the vegetation and presence of a continuous layer of 

surface fuels, the moss and lichen layer. Fires can also 

destroy the rich growth of lichens found in the northern 

portions of the boreal forest. These lichens are an 

important food source for barren-ground caribou, 

comprising 60% to 80% of the winter diet of caribou 

(Boertje and Garner 1998, Bolen 1998). Fire may be 

necessary to maintain lichen ranges in the long term, 

because in old stands, competition from sphagnum 

moss, shade from trees, or the old age of lichens may 

limit lichen productivity (Andreev 1954, Viereck 1973,

Zoltai 1974, Maikawa and Kershaw 1976). 

After a fire of adequate severity, birch, aspen, and 

willow can revegetate the area, either sprouting from

surviving roots or establishing from seed where adjacent 

seed sources exist. Willow, in particular, is the mainstay

of the moose’s winter diet, and moose populations 

thrive in such burned areas. However, because lichens 

are slow growing, it can take decades before the

biomass of lichens for winter caribou grazing reaches its 

preburn levels (Joly et al. 2002). Schaefer and Pruitt

(1991) observed that burned areas did not provide

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suitable winter habitat for caribou, but that fires could

enhance the quality and abundance of summer forage. 

Temperate Desert Ecoregion 

Vegetation structure in the Temperate Desert Ecoregion

tends to reflect the area’s precipitation pattern and 

temperature regimes (Jones 1986). Sagebrush is codominant with perennial bunchgrasses in the wetter, 

northern part of the ecoregion, but sagebrush dominates 

in the southern, drier portion (Paige and Ritter 1999). 

Trees are mostly limited to the pinyon-juniper 

woodlands found at higher elevations, and along

watercourses. 

Northern, cooler desert regions, such as the Great Basin

Desert, support far fewer wildlife species than southern, 

warmer deserts found in the Subtropical Desert 

Ecoregion (Bender 1982, Brown 1982). The shorter 

growing season of the northern deserts results in lower 

plant productivity and a lower diversity and abundance

of animal prey. Thermal regimes in northern deserts 

also limit the activity of wildlife, especially coldblooded animals such as amphibians and reptiles, to 

short periods each year. 

The Great Basin Desert, which is the largest desert in 

North America, is dominated by two structurally and

floristically simple plant communities—sagebrush and 

saltbush. Because most precipitation in the region falls 

during the winter when plants are dormant, there is

insufficient moisture during the growing season for the

development of plant structure and diversity needed to

support an abundance of wildlife species. This desert

supports large populations of pronghorn antelope, and

also provides critical habitat for sage-grouse species that

use sagebrush for food and cover. 

Desert habitats have some of the most unusual wildlife 

in the treatment area. Desert animals are adapted to 

survive under extreme environmental conditions, 

including low, erratic rainfall, and highly variable 

temperatures. Many small desert mammals require no 

free water, but survive on their own metabolic water 

and through water conservation measures, such as being

active only at night and excreting uric acid rather than

urea. Spadefoot toads have a special appendage on their

hind foot that allows them to burrow into the soil to

avoid daytime heat, and breeding activities are timed to

occur during periods with summer thunderstorms. 

Special features, such as water and rock outcrops, are

critical habitat components in desert environments. 

Permanent and temporary water sources are scarce in

this ecoregion, but their importance cannot be

overstated. Riparian areas are especially important in 

the desert. For example, of the 148 species of breeding

birds in the Great Basin Desert, 131 are dependent upon

riparian areas for all or part of their life requisites. 

Talus slopes, cliffs, and rock outcrops provide nesting 

and feeding habitat, thermal and escape cover, and 

resting sites for wildlife. Common reptiles that use these 

features include the common garter snake, western

rattlesnake, and sagebrush lizard. Rodents and other 

small mammals use rock features to hide from

predators, and to avoid temperature extremes. Bats use

caves and rock outcrops as roost and nursery sites. 

Deep, rugged cliffs are used by desert bighorn sheep for 

lambing, escape, and thermal cover. Raptors, including

golden eagles and several species of hawks use cliffs 

and rock outcrops as nest and perch sites. The canyon

walls of the Snake River provide nesting habitat for one 

of the highest densities of predatory birds in the world 

(USDA Forest Service and USDI BLM 1997). 

Soil characteristics determine the number of subsurface

sites available to wildlife in the desert. Lack of

vegetative structure in deserts is often offset by

subsurface space created by deep and diverse soils. 

Subsurface sites provide shelter from daytime heat,

protection from predators, and sources of food for 

predator, such as snakes. 

Wildlife habitat in this ecoregion has undergone great 

change during the past century, usually to the detriment

of native species. For example, cool-season

bunchgrasses once dominated large areas of the 

Columbia Plateau. Much of the grassland community

has since been lost with the conversion of lands to 

agricultural and urban uses. Changes in fire regimes and

grazing by domestic livestock have modified significant 

portions of the remaining grassland habitat. Species 

associated with native perennial bunchgrass 

communities, including the Columbian sharp-tailed

grouse, kit fox, and Idaho ground squirrel, have 

declined in numbers more than other species’ groups in

the region. These species rely on grassland vegetation

for plant and insect forage, nesting and brood-rearing

habitat, and hiding cover. 

Much of the sagebrush habitat in the Temperate Desert 

Ecoregion has been lost or modified during the past 

several decades, resulting in habitat fragmentation. This 

loss is a result of conversion to agricultural and urban 

uses, grazing, altered fire regimes, and the 

encroachment of downy brome, other weeds, and 

woody species such as juniper and Douglas-fir (USDA 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-38 June 2007 

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Forest Service and USDI BLM 1997). The best 

sagebrush habitat occurs where there is a mix of multiage sagebrush with associated perennial bunchgrasses 

and forbs, interspersed with open wet meadows or

riparian areas. These are key habitat components for 

sage-grouse and other wildlife. During winter, sagegrouse feed almost exclusively on the leaves of 

sagebrush (Patterson 1952; Wallestad et al. 1975). 

Subtropical Desert Ecoregion 

The Subtropical Desert Ecoregion is composed of the 

Mohave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan deserts. In contrast

to the cooler deserts of the Temperate Desert Ecoregion, 

the hotter deserts of the Subtropical Desert Ecoregion

tend to have a more diverse flora and fauna. The 

northern limits of many species common in Mexico are 

found in this ecoregion, such as brown-crested

flycatcher, vermilion flycatcher, black-tailed 

gnatcatcher, hooded skunk, pocketed free-tail bat, 

coatimundi, and jaguar. The Sonoran Desert is the most

floristically diverse of the three deserts, and as a result,

has the greatest diversity of wildlife. The desert tortoise, 

which is federally listed as a threatened species (in the 

Mojave Desert only), is found in this ecoregion. Longlived and once common, desert tortoises have suffered

population declines due to adverse impacts associated 

with human activities (USFWS 1994a). 

The ecoregion is characterized by widely dispersed

desert plants that provide little ground cover for 

wildlife. Canopy cover rarely exceeds 50%, and there is

usually extensive bare ground between plants. In the 

Mojave and Sonoran deserts, several species of cacti, 

ocotillo, yucca, and other woody species provide areas

of near-woodland habitat that support a greater diversity

of wildlife than other areas with less plant structure. 

Like species in the Temperate Desert, wildlife in the

Subtropical Desert have evolved numerous means to 

deal with water scarcity and other rigors of the hot 

desert. Presence of standing water in winter and new 

herbaceous growth in spring provide water and forage 

for most wildlife (Laudenslayer and Boggs 1988). 

During summer and fall, some species, such as the

desert kangaroo rat and other rodents, derive water from

the seeds in their diet. Saguaro, as well as most other 

species of cactus, has spines for protection from many

grazing animals. However, collared peccaries and many

desert rodents can avoid or digest cactus spines and 

obtain water from the plants’ succulent tissues. 

Black-throated sparrows secrete highly-concentrated

urine and dry feces, and thus need little drinking water.

In contrast, most other desert-living bird species show 

few adaptations for coping with water scarcity and

simply fly to water sources to meet their needs. Reptiles 

and small mammals are active mostly at night and 

retreat to cool burrows, or seek shelter under vegetation 

or in rock outcrops to avoid the midday sun and reduce 

water loss. The yucca night lizard, for example, is 

restricted to desert regions with downed litter of yucca 

and agave plants (Jones 1986). 

Salt balance is an important physiological function in 

desert animals. Chuckwallas, desert lizards, eat the 

fleshy tissue of cacti, and are able to excrete salt from

their nostrils by sneezing, without losing much water. 

Many other lizard species also have salt glands for

excreting salt. 

The structure of live vegetation is probably the most

important habitat feature in these deserts. Shrubs and

tall cacti are used by lizards for feeding and breeding, 

and lizards climb onto creosote bushes during the day to 

avoid hot ground temperatures. Vertical structure 

provides nesting, feeding, and breeding niches for birds. 

Cacti provide roosting and breeding habitats for bats

that small shrubs do not provide. Horizontal vegetation 

structure is also important, as some species of birds 

prefer either open or closed habitats, and many species 

of lizards require more open areas for foraging, but 

closed habitat the rest of the time to avoid the heat and 

predators (Pianka 1966, Rottenberry and Wiens 1980). 

The extensive root systems of certain desert plants, such 

as creosotebush, provide access to subsurface openings 

for toads, salamanders, lizards, snakes, and small 

mammals. Creosotebush areas found in the Chihuahuan 

and Sonoran deserts have little vegetative structure, but 

have a rich diversity of wildlife because of favorable

soils that allow access to subsurface space. 

Desert wildlife have evolved characteristics that are 

adaptive to the attributes of certain plant species. Desert

iguanas feed heavily on creosotebush buds, especially

during the spring, and their distribution is closely 

related to the distribution of creosotebush (Norris 1953). 

Several birds rely on the saguaro and other cacti for 

roosting and nesting, including elf owl, cactus wren, and 

gilded flicker. Cavity-nesting birds often select

vegetation with spines, perhaps to discourage nest 

predation by small mammals and reptiles. The Gila

woodpecker and gilded flicker both excavate nest 

cavities in saguaro cacti, but due to differences in bill

structure, the gilded flicker must excavate its cavity near

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-39 June 2007 

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the top of the cactus, while the Gila woodpecker can 

excavate cavities near the base of the trunk. 

Temperate Steppe Ecoregion

The Temperate Steppe Ecoregion is comprised of 

prairie grasslands, evergreen and deciduous forests, and

sagebrush and chaparral shrublands. Prairie grasslands 

occur in an environment with irregularities in weather 

patterns, including wet and dry spells, which occur 

often enough to impose severe stresses on wildlife. In a 

drought year, for example, reduced moisture and higher 

temperatures can greatly affect the abundance and 

quality of vegetation used for food and cover, often 

leading to substantial population declines in some

species, especially birds. 

The characteristics and habitats of grassland animals 

differ from those of animals that inhabit shrublands and

forests. Many grassland species live in burrows,

including burrowing owls, prairie dogs, ground

squirrels, pocket gophers, black-footed ferrets, and

American badgers. Burrows provide a place to hide

from predators, a more stable microclimate during hot 

summers and cold winters, and shelter from grassland

fires (Brown 1982). 

If an animal cannot hide in a burrow, it must be a fast

runner to avoid predation. The swift fox can travel at 25

miles per hour (mph), while the pronghorn can run at 70 

mph. Even quail and grouse often run instead of flying

to escape predation, staying close to the ground and

using the vegetation as cover. 

Grassland animals tend to occur in large social groups. 

For example, millions of American bison occurred on 

the Great Plains in presettlement days and millions of

prairie dogs have been found in a single prairie dog 

town. Wildlife species living in grasslands tend to be

more social than their forestland counterparts. Prairie 

dogs live in large, highly organized social units, while 

their eastern woodland counterpart, the woodchuck, 

rarely interacts with its own species. Flocking species 

are also more prevalent in grasslands than in 

forestlands. Socialization enables the members of a

flock to more readily detect predators, but also to

convey other information, such as mating status, which

is difficult to ascertain in open grassland where sound is 

muffled and perches are few. Raptors are also more 

common in grasslands than other habitats, as open 

spaces favor animals with good vision and provide an 

abundance of prey items. 

Compared with other habitats, grasslands tend to have

low bird species diversity and abundance (Wiens and

Dyer 1975). Although grasslands are highly productive, 

they are structurally simple and less complex than other 

habitat types, and thus provide birds with few niches to 

exploit. Bird species tend to differentiate themselves 

based on the cover and height of the grassland

vegetation, with the horned lark and burrowing owl

selecting areas with low, scattered vegetation, and the

savanna sparrow and bobolink selecting high, dense 

herbaceous cover. 

Grasslands found in the proposed treatment area include 

the Great Plains, shortgrass prairie, intermountain 

grasslands, and the Palouse grasslands. The mixed

prairie of the Great Plains constitutes the eastern range

for many grassland animals, including the prairie dog, 

pronghorn, swift fox, and desert cottontail. It was also

the home of the American bison. The shortgrass prairie

to the west of the Great Plains, and east of the Rocky 

Mountains, is where true grassland animals are found. 

Many of the species found here cannot survive in the 

tallgrass and mixed prairies because they are less able to

see and flee from predators. 

Wildlife found in the intermountain grasslands

associated with the Rocky Mountains are similar to 

those found in grasslands to the east, except species that

need a year-round supply of green grass do not occur. 

Deer, elk, and pronghorn survive in the intermountain 

grasslands by foraging upon shrubs and other woody 

vegetation during winter. Ground squirrel diversity is 

especially high in the intermountain grasslands, with 19

of the 22 species of ground squirrels in North America 

found in this region. Much of the Palouse grasslands

have been converted to agriculture or lost to shrubland 

encroachment, greatly reducing their value to sharptailed grouse and other wildlife that were once common. 

Evergreen and deciduous forests are found at higher

elevations and along streams and other aquatic areas. 

The plant species composition of coniferous forest

stands, and the types of wildlife that use them, varies 

with altitude. Aspen is an important component of many

deciduous forests. Aspen typically is found in moist 

areas and becomes established after fire or other 

disturbance has cleared a suitable area. American

beaver use aspen limbs and foliage for food and to build 

dams and lodges. Snowshoe hare feed on aspen twigs 

and bark during winter, and aspen buds are important in 

the winter diet of ruffed grouse. American badger,

ground squirrels, and other burrowing animals provide 

bare ground needed by aspen seeds to germinate. 

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Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion 

The Subtropical Steppe Ecoregion is composed

primarily of grassland vegetation, with local 

occurrences of shrubs and woodlands. Grassland 

wildlife species found in the Temperate Steppe 

Ecoregion are also found here, such as pronghorn, mule 

deer, white-tailed deer, coyote, American badger, and

black-tailed jackrabbit. The northern limit of 

distribution of several mammals, including the Mexican

ground squirrel and gray fox, occurs in the grasslands of 

this ecoregion (Bailey 1997). 

Woodlands formed of pinyon and several species of 

juniper (pinyon-juniper woodlands) are found on about

4 million acres, and are also found in other ecoregions. 

The canopy of these woodlands is generally open, and

the trees are far apart. Open stands of pinyon-juniper 

with abundant vegetation below the trees provide the

best wildlife habitat. These woodlands generally do not

have the structure and complexity to support a large 

diversity of wildlife as compared to other forest types,

although a study in Utah showed that avian species 

diversity in pinyon-juniper woodlands is similar to 

species diversity in other woodland and forest types 

(Paulin et al. 1999). 

Reptiles are not common in pinyon-juniper woodlands. 

Birds feed on pinyon and juniper seeds and berries, find

nesting cavities within juniper trunks, and use the 

stringy and fibrous juniper bark for nesting material. 

The pinyon jay, plain titmouse, and bushtit are obligate 

to these woodlands, and 144 different species of birds 

have been observed in pinyon-juniper woodlands in 

New Mexico (Short and McCulloch 1977). Avian

species diversity is usually greater in pinyon-juniper 

woodlands than in adjacent grasslands (Sieg 1991). 

Abert’s squirrel, pinyon mouse, wood rat, gray fox, and

other small mammals eat berries, seeds, and the inner 

twigs from pinyon-junipers. Mule deer, white-tailed

deer, elk, pronghorn, and desert bighorn sheep may 

occur throughout the year in pinyon-juniper woodlands. 

Leaves and berries of pinyon pine and juniper trees are 

eaten by large mammals. 

Most food habit studies have shown that the value of 

pinyon-juniper woodlands to wildlife is usually related 

to the quantity and composition of the vegetation 

growing in association with pinyon-juniper. As pinyonjuniper stands mature, the trend is toward increased tree

density and finally, dense canopy cover. The dense 

canopy cover shades out plants found below pinyonjunipers, reducing the variety of plant types that can 

provide food and cover for wildlife. Small mammals, 

deer, and elk use of pinyon-juniper woodlands declines 

as tree canopies become more dense, although some

species, like pinyon mice and pinyon jays, may favor 

denser stands (Short and McCulloch 1977, Willis and

Miller 1999). 

Mediterranean Ecoregion 

The vegetation of the Mediterranean Ecoregion is 

dominated by grassland, shrubland, and forestland

habitats. Many shrub (chaparral) and forest/woodland 

plant species have thick, hard, evergreen leaves. The

number of wildlife species using shrub habitats is 

limited by the lack of trees in shrublands. However, 

wildlife species diversity can also be limited in 

evergreen woodlands due to the paucity of shrubs in 

these communities, as shrubs are often unable to

compete with trees for the limited moisture. 

Because of their tough, leathery texture, the leaves of 

vegetation in chaparral communities are resistant to

wilting, and thus provide cover for wildlife even during 

the frequent droughts typical of the region. Wildlife 

found in chaparral tend to be species that nest on the

ground or in shrubs, such as ground- and shrub-nesting

birds and rodents, or that prey upon ground- and shrubdwelling species, including coyote, striped skunk, and 

bobcat. 

Although this ecoregion supports a diverse vertebrate

fauna, including numerous species of reptiles and 

rodents, only a limited number of species are closely 

tied to the chaparral. These include the mountain quail,

California thrasher, wrentit, brush rabbit, California 

mouse, and dusky-footed woodrat. 

Mountain quail favor slopes covered with chaparral. 

They feed on acorn mast, fruits, and seeds in the fall,

leafy foods during winter, and bulbs in the spring and 

summer. Thrashers and wrentits find good food and

cover in the chaparral, and are more often seen than 

heard in the dense vegetation. The brush rabbit does not 

use burrows regularly like most other species of rabbits, 

perhaps because of the dense chaparral cover. Woodrats 

construct stick dens that are also used by the California

mouse. Since homes are constructed of sticks, woodrats 

are vulnerable to fires in chaparral communities. 

Chaparral communities are adapted to fire, and wildlife 

respond by retreating to burrows, hiding in rock 

crevices, or escaping from the area. After a fire, seedeating birds, such as mourning doves, move into the 

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area to feed on seeds exposed by fire. Mule deer seek

out the temporary community of herbaceous plants that 

develop during the first year or two after the fire. Many 

of these plants produce bright flowers that attract nectarfeeding insects and birds. 

Deciduous and evergreen woodlands provide vegetation

structure and complexity that benefits a variety of

wildlife species. The habitat often occurs in a mosaiclike pattern of conifer stands intermixed with deciduous 

tree stands. The shrub and herbaceous strata are often

poorly developed in these woodlands. Mature 

woodlands are important to cavity nesting birds, and

oak mast crops are an important food source for birds 

and mammals, such as scrub and Steller’s jays, acorn 

woodpecker, wild turkey, mountain quail, California 

ground squirrel, western gray squirrel, black bear, and

mule deer (Anderson 1988). Amphibians that reside in 

the forest detritus layers include Mount Lyell 

salamander, ensatina, and relictual slender salamander 

(McDonald 1988). 

Oak woodlands serve as important wildlife habitat, 

supporting over 300 vertebrate species, many of which

are special status species such as the California spotted

owl and willow flycatcher (Thomas 1997). Oak trees 

provide nesting sites for both canopy- and cavitynesting birds, and the acorns they produce are an 

autumn food source relied upon by many bird and

mammal species (Almeda County Agriculture Advisory 

Committee 2005). 

Annual and perennial grasslands are found in central 

and coastal California. Annual grassland habitats consist

largely of non-native annuals that have displaced native

perennials (Kie 1988). Habitat structure and wildlife 

abundance are dependent on a mix of plant species at a 

site. Sites with western brackenfern exhibit a taller, 

more diverse structure than sites with shorter grasses. 

Many wildlife species use grassland habitats, but some

require special habitat features, such as cliffs, caves,

ponds, or shrubby areas for breeding, resting, and

escape cover. 

Marine Ecoregion 

The Marine Ecoregion is dominated by evergreen and, 

to a lesser extent, deciduous forests located along the

Pacific Coast. These forests are managed by the BLM

primarily for timber production and wildlife habitat. 

Temperate forests are among the most productive 

habitats in the world (Whittaker 1975). The energy

available to wildlife from temperate forests vegetation, 

along with their structure and complexity, provide 

habitat for a diversity of wildlife. Temperate forests are

also routinely subject to disturbances that increase

variability in the environment and create edge habitat.

In turn, the succession of vegetation types that follow a

disturbance provide habitats for a succession of wildlife 

species. 

In general, deciduous trees support more wildlife than 

evergreen trees (Glenn-Lewin 1977). Conifer forage is

less palatable than deciduous forage, which means that

there are fewer animals that can consume the foliage,

and in turn, be consumed by predators. Conifer foliage 

is also relatively unpalatable to decomposing organisms, 

such as fungi and bacteria, so the decomposition of 

coniferous matter is often a slow process (Hunter 1990). 

Deciduous trees generally have more structural

complexity than conifers, providing more places for 

animals to feed and seek shelter. 

Conifers do possess characteristics that are critical to the 

survival of many wildlife species. Spruce grouse are

dependent on conifer foliage to survive the winter. 

Conifer stands also provide crucial winter cover to elk, 

deer, and other wildlife by blocking wind and keeping

snow from reaching the ground, covering browse, and

restricting animal movements. However, the foliage that

captures snowfall also intercepts light in the spring, 

reducing the amount of light that can reach the forest

floor, warm the soil, and stimulate the growth of 

herbaceous vegetation and shrubs used by these 

wildlife. 

Since this ecoregion is characterized by abundant 

rainfall, there is an abundance of moisture on the forest

floor, as well as in ponds and streams, to support a 

diversity of amphibians. All frogs and toads in this 

region lay their eggs in water. Most salamanders lay 

their eggs in or near water, while others lay their eggs 

on land under logs (Ensatina), in rock outcrops (western 

red-backed salamander), or both (clouded salamander). 

Many of these amphibians spend a portion or most of 

their lives out of water, living under moist logs, dead

wood, or forest litter, or in burrows or root or rock

crevasses. 

Few reptiles are found in this ecoregion. The alligator 

lizard is the only widely distributed species found in

forested habitats, and the painted turtle and western

pond turtle are the only turtles common in the area. The 

most common snake is the northwestern garter snake. 

Birds have adapted to exploit the different layers of

vegetation in the forest. Ruffed grouse, winter wren, 

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American robin, spotted towhee, and dark-eyed junco

are often found near the forest floor or in shrubs. 

Woodpeckers and brown creepers are seen moving up

and down the trunks of trees in search of insects. 

Nuthatches and chickadees exploit the cone seeds, while

warblers and kinglets glean insects from the upper 

deciduous forest canopy. 

Like birds, mammals exploit the vegetation types and

strata found in the forest. Shrews, mice, and moles are 

fossorial or live near the forest floor. Rabbits and hares 

reside near the ground and seek shelter in dense 

herbaceous or shrub vegetation. Wide-roaming species 

that live near the ground include black-tailed deer, elk, 

black bear, mountain lion, and bobcat. Deer and elk

tend to remain in dense forest stands during the day to

seek shelter, but move to more open shrublands and 

grasslands at night to feed, and thus favor forest habitat

interspersed with shrubland/grassland habitats. Bears 

favor large stands of contiguous forest, but also use

shrublands with abundant berries and other forage. 

Several special habitat features have been identified in 

forests that are important to wildlife. Snags, which are

dead or dying trees, are critical to many species of

wildlife. Cavities in snags provide shelter and nesting 

sites for woodpeckers, owls, and other cavity-using

wildlife, while dead and dying bark often harbors large 

numbers of insect prey for birds. Edges are places 

where different plant communities or successional 

stages meet, such as between a forest clearing and dense

forest stand. A large number of species are found at 

edges, and some species reach their maximum 

population densities there (Hunter 1990). For some

species of birds, however, nest predation is higher for

individuals nesting near edges than for those nesting in 

the forest interior. 

A number of species rely on old-growth forests for most

or all of their life requisites. Old-growth forests in the 

Marine Ecoregion generally consist of conifer trees with

a diameter of more than 3 feet at the base of the tree, 

and that are more than 200 years old (Bolen 1998). 

These forests also contain a multilayered canopy and

numerous snags and logs. Vaux’s swifts depend on 

large, hollow snags for nesting and roosting habitat. 

Marbled murrelets use the stout branches of old-growth

trees for nest platforms. Northern spotted owl nest in 

tree cavities and feed on northern flying squirrels. 

Banana slugs, Pacific giant salamander, Olympic 

salamander, and Oregon slender salamander are other 

species that prefer the rotting logs and moist soil

conditions found in old-growth habitats. 

Special Status Species 

There are over 75 terrestrial animal species occurring on

or near public lands in the treatment area that are

federally listed as threatened or endangered, or proposed

for listing. Included in the total number are 10 species

of arthropod, 7 species of amphibian, 5 species of

reptile, 20 species of bird, and 27 species of mammal. A 

complete list of special status animal species may be 

found in Appendix J. Please note that this list is 

dynamic, and will likely change throughout the time

period considered by this PEIS. 

Special status animal species are found on public lands 

throughout the U.S. Special status arthropods are largely 

butterflies that occur mostly in open habitats. Special

status amphibians occur in wetland habitats throughout 

the West, and special status reptiles occur in warm 

habitats of California and the southwest. Special status 

birds and mammals use a wide range of habitats found 

on public lands throughout the western U.S. 

Livestock 

Approximately 161 million acres of public lands are

open to livestock grazing, with use levels established by 

the Secretary of the Interior and administered through 

the issuance of grazing permits/leases. The majority of

the grazing permits issued by the BLM involve grazing

by cattle, with fewer and smaller grazing permits for 

other kinds of livestock (primarily sheep and horses). 

The BLM administers grazing lands under 43 CFR Part

4100 and BLM Handbooks 4100 to 4180, and conducts 

grazing management practices through BLM Manual

Handbook H-4120-1 (Grazing Management; USDI 

BLM 1984a). Management of livestock grazing is 

authorized and enforced through both permits and

leases, and is commonly carried out through the

development and implementation of allotment

management plans (AMPs) and/or terms and conditions 

of the grazing permit or lease. The grazing permit

establishes the allotment(s) to be used, the total amount

of use, the number and kind of livestock, and the season 

of use. The grazing permit may also contain terms and 

conditions as appropriate to achieve management and

resource condition objectives. Allotment management

plans further outline how livestock grazing is managed 

to meet multiple-use, sustained-yield, and other needs 

and objectives, as determined through land use plans. 

Geographically specific rangeland health standards and

guidelines are identified for each state to help direct the 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-43 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

grazing program for those states. Each year the BLM 

conducts reviews of land within its jurisdiction to 

determine the level of compliance with rangeland health 

standards. At a minimum, grazing is managed to ensure 

that 1) watersheds are in or making significant progress 

towards properly functioning physical condition; 2) 

ecological processes including the hydrologic cycle, 

nutrient cycle, and energy flow are maintained; 3) water 

quality complies with state water quality standards; and 

4) significant progress is being made toward restoring

or maintaining habitats for all special status species, 

including federally-listed threatened or endangered 

species. Reviews of rangeland health standards are often

conducted when grazing permits or leases expire, 

particularly when those permits or leases are within 

high priority watersheds. 

Public lands provide an important source of forage for

many ranches and help to support the agricultural

component of many communities scattered throughout

the west. As of October 2005, the total number of 

grazing permits/leases in force was 17,940, with a total

of 12.7 million Animal Use Months (AUMs) authorized

(Table 3-6; USDI BLM 2006d). Grazing authorizations 

produced approximately $14.5 million in annual 

revenues in FY 2005 (USDI BLM 2006c). 

Wild Horses and Burros 

The BLM, in conjunction with the Forest Service, 

manages wild horses and burros on BLM- and Forest

Service-administered lands through the Wild FreeRoaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971. In FY 2005, 

wild horse and burro populations on public lands totaled 

over 31,760 animals, with nearly half of these animals 

living in Nevada (Table 3-7). Another 25,000 animals 

are held in holding pens. The population of wild horses 

and burros is approximately 4,000 animals above the 

Appropriate Management Level (AML) of 27,500. The 

AML is an estimate of the number of wild horses and 

burros that public lands can support while maintaining a 

thriving natural ecological balance (USDI BLM 2006c, 

d). 

Animals are managed within 201 Wild Horse and Burro 

HMAs (USDI BLM 2006c). Wild horse herds grow at

an average rate of 20% annually. Management is

accomplished by carefully controlling horse and burro

populations so that their numbers do not exceed the

carrying capacity of the land. This is done primarily by

gathering animals periodically so that numbers are near 

the AML. Fertility control is being used in some herd

management areas (HMAs) as a means to reduce the

population growth rate. It has shown to be effective thus

far and will likely be used on a larger scale in future 

years. 

When horse and burro populations begin to exceed the 

AML, excess animals are gathered and offered to the 

public through periodic adoption. In FY 2005, 5,700 

wild horses and burros were adopted in the U.S. Thirtytwo percent of these were adopted in the eastern U.S. 

Nearly 209,000 animals have been adopted since 1971 

(USDI BLM 2006d). In 2001, the BLM implemented a 

program to further reduce the wild horse and burro 

population to approximately 27,500 animals. Public 

lands inhabited by wild horses or burros are closed to 

grazing under permit or lease by domestic horses and

burros. The Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act

mandates that wild horses and burros can only be

managed in areas where they were found in 1971. Those 

that stray onto non-designated public and/or private 

lands are removed. 

TABLE 3-6 

Grazing Permits and Leases in Force and Active 

Animal Unit Months during Fiscal Year 2005

State Leases and 

Permits Active AUMs 

Arizona 757 660,511

California 573 421,843

Colorado 1,588 662,920

Idaho 1,889 1,351,806

Montana, 

North Dakota, and South 

Dakota 

4,289 1,366,331

Nevada 644 2,130,112

New Mexico,

Oklahoma, and Texas 2,290 1,861,369

Oregon and Washington 1,579 1,058,756 

Utah 1,525 1,237,117

Wyoming and Nebraska 2,806 1,950,312 

Total 17,940 12,701,077

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDI BLM 2006d).

Paleontological and Cultural 

Resources 

Paleontological Resources 

The BLM is responsible for managing the public lands 

and their various resources so that they are utilized in a

manner that will best meet the present and future needs 

of this Nation. The western U.S. has a fossil record that

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-44 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-7 

Wild Horses and Burros on Public Lands in Fiscal Year 2005 

Wild Horses Wild Burros

State FreeRoaming 

Population 

Adopted Removed

FreeRoaming 

Population 

Adopted Removed

Arizona 230 218 1 1,542 91 53

California 3,079 705 992 1,228 231 252

Colorado 800 292 357 0 17 0

Idaho 704 110 360 0 0 0

Montana, North Dakota, and South 

Dakota 

142 4 0 0 0 0

Nevada 13,251 54 5,805 1,464 0 68

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas 82 916 23 0 69 0 

Oregon and Washington 2,670 313 891 15 6 0 

Utah 2,420 173 248 142 20 0

Wyoming and Nebraska 3,991 420 1,973 0 1 0 

Total 27,369 3,205 10,650 4,391 435 373

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDI BLM 2006c). 

includes almost all of the geologic periods from the 

Cambrian (500+ million years ago) to the Holocene 

(Recent; the last 10,000 years), and nearly every 

imaginable ancient environment. Many fossil deposits 

are of national and international importance, and many

thousands of different kinds of fossils were originally 

made known to the scientific world from specimens first

found in the West. 

The BLM manages fossils as a natural heritage resource 

on the lands it administers under the general guidance of

the FLPMA and NEPA. Fossils are managed to promote 

their use in research, education, and recreation, and 

paleontological localities are an important consideration 

in developing land use management decisions. More 

than 200 properties, totaling more than 5 million acres, 

are managed either wholly or in part for paleontological 

values or contain paleontological values that may 

require special management strategies in the future. 

Significant paleontological resources can also be found 

on other public lands estimated to total over 20 million

acres. Because of the increasing interest and activity 

related to fossils over the past 3 decades, it is estimated

that there are more than 50,000 fossil sites documented 

on public lands. Table 3-8 lists the localities that include

many of these sites. 

Cultural Resources 

Cultural resources include archaeological, historic, or 

architectural sites, structures, or places with important

public or scientific uses, and may include definite 

locations (sites or places) of traditional cultural or 

religious importance to specific social or cultural

groups. Cultural resources are concrete, material places 

and things that the BLM locates, classifies, and ranks.

The BLM manages cultural resources according to their 

relative importance, to protect significant cultural

resources from inadvertent loss, destruction, or 

impairment, and to encourage and accommodate the

appropriate uses of these resources through planning 

and public participation. 

The cultural heritage for public lands administered by 

the BLM in 17 western states extends back 11,000 to

13,000 years before the present (BP). As one moves 

forward in time, the number and variety of sites 

increases mainly as a result of the increase in Native

populations and, after 1500 AD or so, European and 

Euroamerican immigration. 

Table 3-9 summarizes the number of acres of public

lands inventoried for cultural resources, the number of

properties found on public lands, and the number of 

properties listed in the NRHP. 

American Indian and Alaska Native

Cultural Resources 

This review uses the culture area approach as defined in 

the Handbook of North American Indians (Sturtevant

1978-2001). See Map 3-11 for the location of these

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TABLE 3-8 

Interpreted Paleontological Sites on Public Lands 

State Interpreted Locations

Colorado 

• Dinosaur Diamond Byway

• Gard Park Fossil Area 

• Kremmling Cretaceous Ammonitie Locality 

• Rabbit Valley Trail Through Time

• Fruita Paleontology Area 

Idaho • Malm Gulch Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC) 

Utah 

• Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry

• Copper Ridge Sauropod Dinosaur Tracks 

• Mill Canyon Dinosaur Trail

• Warner Valley Dinosaur Track Site 

Wyoming 

• Red Gulch Track Site ACEC 

• Big Cedar Ridge Fossil Plant Area ACEC 

• Dry Creek Petrified Tree Environmental Education Area

areas. These regions represent areas within which 

specific cultural groups shared certain cultural 

characteristics and histories. Each culture area section 

provides a brief review of the archaeology and 

ethnography of that area. Table 3-10, summarizing 

examples of major types of archaeological sites likely to

be in each culture area, follows this section. 

Arctic and Subarctic (Alaska) 

Archaeological research suggests that the earliest 

human migrants crossed into the New World via the 

Bering Land Bridge, likely following large herbivorous 

Pleistocene animals, such as mastodon, woolly

mammoth, horse, and American bison. In this culture

area, typical artifacts from the period 13,000 to 9,000

Before Present (BP) include lanceolate projectile points, 

bifacial knives and scrapers, and retouched flake tools 

(Ames and Maschner 1999, Dixon 1999). Cultural

resource sites from this time period include open 

campsites, habitations or campsites located in caves or

rockshelters, and sites where game animals were killed 

and/or processed. 

As the post-glacial climate in Alaska warmed, 

prehistoric cultures became more established. Early 

aboriginal groups, with a subsistence strategy similar to 

that of the Paleoindians, used tool assemblages 

dominated by microblades, small wedge-shaped cores, 

and burins. 

Cultures from 9,000 to 6,000 BP often are referred to as 

the Microblade Tradition (Dumond 1987). In addition to

open campsites and sites with skin-covered tents, semisubterranean houses are documented for this period

(Anderson 1984). By 6,000 BP, the Northern Archaic 

Tradition had arisen in the boreal forests of the interior, 

represented by small, seasonal campsites and tool

assemblages composed of lanceolate and side-notched

projectile points and scrapers (Dumond 1987).

Technological advances during the period 6,000 to 250 

BP led to the development of several distinct cultures. 

Tool kits of the widespread Arctic Small Tool Tradition 

included small stone endblades and sideblades inserted 

into the shafts of arrows or spears (Dumond 1987). 

Populations of Arctic Small Tool Tradition people

developed highly specialized maritime technologies

(kayaks, umiaks, dogsleds, toggling harpoons, bow and

arrows, and ground slate tools). Habitations, in the form

of semisubterranean houses, often were clustered in 

villages (McCartney 1984, Dumond 1987). 

At present, the Alaska Natives and Indians are the

dominant native groups of Alaska. In general, the Inuit 

(Eskimo and Aleut) inhabit the coastal areas and

adjacent tundra, while Indians (Athabaskan or Tlingit) 

inhabit the interior forests and southeast Alaska, though 

both groups have tremendous intra-cultural diversity 

and overlapping resource exploitation areas. Terrestrial

and marine mammals and fish are the primary source of

food for both groups; plants being of lesser importance, 

given the short growing season. 

Kelp and berries are the principal plant foods, with

mushroom, wild parsnip, wild rhubarb, and lupine roots 

also gathered. Dune grass is used to weave baskets and

mats (Kehoe 1992). Alaskan Indians have focused their 

subsistence activities on marine whales and seals, 

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TABLE 3-9 

Cultural Resources on Public Lands 

State 

Number of 

Acres 

(in millions) 

Number of 

Acres 

Surveyed 

Percent of 

Acres 

Surveyed 

Number of 

Properties 

Recorded 

Alaska 85.5 109,872 0.1 3,205 

Arizona 12.2 822,100 6.7 11,858

California 15.2 1,813,118 11.9 28,454

Colorado 8.4 1,493,770 17.9 39,232

Idaho 12.0 2,020,017 16.8 14,604

Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota 8.3 1,340,862 16.2 10,224 

Nevada 47.8 2,183,973 4.6 44,851

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas 13.4 1,441,183 10.8 34,931 

Oregon and Washington 16.5 1,585,580 9.6 12,623 

Utah 22.9 1,801,321 7.9 38,526

Wyoming and Nebraska 18.4 2,590,769 14.1 40,157 

Total 260.6 17,202,565 6.6 278,665

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDI BLM 2006f).

seasonal fish runs, and inland caribou herds and a 

variety of other land mammals. 

Edible plant resources of the interior include a wide 

variety of berries, fern roots, lily bulbs, mushrooms, 

wild onions, wild rhubarb, rose hips, and various roots 

(Kehoe 1992). Birch bark continues to be used for the 

manufacture of many utilitarian objects, including 

baskets, shelters, cooking pots, and canoes. The wood

of birch, spruce, and willow has been used for bows, 

arrows, snowshoe frames, wooden tools, and house and 

canoe frames. Ropes and fishing nets have been made 

from willow bast, nettle fibers, and spruce roots. 

Additional uses of spruce roots include containers, 

basketry, sewing thread, and twine (McClellan and 

Deniston 1981). 

Northwest Coast 

Archaeological evidence for occupation of this culture

area dates back to about 11,000 BP, though faunal 

remains from the Olympic Peninsula suggest human

presence earlier than 12,000 BP (Lyman 1991). Early 

peoples’ subsistence systems focused on maritime 

resources, and typical artifacts consist of large chipped 

stone projectile points, microblades, compound 

harpoons, and grinding stones (Ames and Maschner 

1999). Due to the damp climate and acidic soils in this 

region, faunal remains and tools made from perishable 

items dating to this period are rarely preserved. In

addition, the changing sea levels over the last 10,000 

years have inundated many of the older occupation or 

processing sites. 

By about 5,000 BP, sea levels rose and stabilized, and

distinctive cultural patterns emerged. Bone and ground 

stone tools were prevalent from Southeast Alaska to

Puget Sound, as were large settlements and specialized 

maritime subsistence strategies. There is evidence of 

sedentism (pithouses and shell middens in western

Washington) from 3,500 BP, and it appears that by

3,000 BP, trade networks with Plateau cultures were 

well established (Nelson 1990). Petroglyph sites begin

during this period (Boreson 1998, Ames and Maschner 

1999). 

By 1,000 BP, most Northwest Coast groups occupied 

village sites on a year-round basis. Many village sites 

were located for defensive purposes and included

fortifications, suggesting the presence of warfare, social

complexity, and competition for resources (Ames and

Maschner 1999). Typical artifacts include composite 

woodworking tools, netsinkers, bone and antler tools, 

and copper and iron tools. Archaeological sites in the 

Northwest Coast region are generally difficult to locate

because of dense vegetation and poor preservation 

(Nelson 1990). 

A handful of “wet sites” occurring in the Pacific 

Northwest have been systematically studied, with 

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TABLE 3-10

Culture Areas, Prehistoric Occupation Periods, and Selected Common Site Types

Culture 

Area Paleoindian Middle Period or Archaic Late or Sedentary Period 

Arctic and 

Subarctic 

13,000+ to 9,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Animal kill and lithic processing sites 

9,000 to 6,000 B.P. 

Semi-subterranean houses 

Open campsites and tent camps

6,000 to 250 B.P.

Semi-subterranean house villages 

Open campsites and tent camps

Northwest 

Coast 

12,500+ to 6,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

6,000 to 250 B.P.

Large, cedar plank pithouse villages 

Fortified sites 

Seafood capture or processing sites 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

California 

11,000(?) to 8,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Animal kill or processing sites 

8,000 to 5,000 B.P. 

Open campsites and coastal villages 

Plant or seafood processing sites 

5,000 to 250 B.P.

Large coastal villages

Burial mounds

Extensive seafood, sea mammal, and 

plant processing sites 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

Great 

Basin 

11,500+ to 8,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave occupation sites 

Lithic processing sites 

8,000 to 4,000 B.P. 

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Pithouse villages 

Plant and lithic processing sites 

Fishing sites 

4,000 to 250 B.P.

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Small pithouse villages 

Plant and lithic processing sites 

Storage pits 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

Southwest 

11,500 to 8,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Animal kill and lithic processing sites 

Cave occupation sites 

8,000 to 2,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Pithouses and storage pits 

Waddle and daub structures

Lithic processing sites 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

2,000 to 250 B.P.

Pithouse villages 

Storage pits 

Above-ground structures (Pueblos) 

Below-ground structures (Kivas) 

Irrigation ditches and roads 

Navajo hogans and pueblitos 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

Plains

12,000 to 8,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Animal kill and lithic processing sites 

8,000 to 2,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Pithouses and storage pits 

Tipi ring sites 

Cairns and cairn lines

Animal kill, lithic, and plant processing 

sites 

2,000 to 250 B.P.

Open campsites and tipi ring sites 

Waddle and daub structures

Earthlodge villages 

Burial mounds

Storage pits 

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Small pithouse villages 

Cairns and cairn lines

Animal kill, lithic, and plant 

processing sites 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

Plateau 

12,500 to 8,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Cave or rockshelter occupation sites 

Fishing sites 

Lithic processing sites 

8,000 to 4,000 B.P. 

Open campsites

Small pithouse villages 

Cave occupation sites 

Animal or fish processing sites 

Lithic processing sites 

Plant processing sites

4,000 to 250 B.P.

Pithouse and longhouse villages, often 

with burials 

Open campsites

Cave occupation sites 

Storage pits 

Animal or fish processing sites 

Lithic and plant processing sites 

Pictograph and petroglyph sites 

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excellent preservation of organic components, such as 

acorns, wood, and basketry items, from prehistoric sites 

on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington, including

Ozette, the Hoko River, and Mud Bay, and also the 

“Sunken Village” on the Willamette River in Oregon

(Croes 2007). 

Food resources currently used by native Northwest

groups include salmon, halibut, cod, candlefish (an

important source of dietary oil), clams, whales, elk,

deer, mountain sheep, and bear. Plant food sources, 

which are numerous in this culture area, include edible

ferns and lilies, the tuber of the wapato, over 40 fruits 

and berries, edible nuts, leaves, and shoots, and certain 

types of algae, seaweed and kelp. Many groups used

controlled burning to maintain prairies, and berry, root, 

and nut-producing areas along the coast from California 

to British Columbia (Suttles 1990, Ames and Maschner 

1999). 

Forest resources are used extensively, particularly

western red cedar and Alaska cedar, for canoes, for 

plank house construction, and for specialized ritual

purposes such as totem poles and masks. Sitka spruce 

has often been used for houses and canoes, and western

hemlock and Douglas-fir saplings have been used to 

construct fish weirs. Red alder, Rocky Mountain maple, 

and Alaska cedar have been used for spoons, bowls, 

masks, and dishes; and western yew has been used for

bows, wedges, clubs, and digging sticks. Plant materials 

used to make rope and cordage include the limbs of

western red cedar, the stipes of bull kelp, the roots of 

cedar and spruce, and the fibers of stinging nettle and 

Indianhemp. Materials used in basketry include cedar 

roots, cattail, tule, beargrass, and various sedges and

grasses. The inner bark of western red cedar and Alaska 

cedar is used for baskets, mats, skirts, capes, towels, and

diapers. There are numerous medicinal plants in the

Northwest region, including devil’s club, kinnikinnick,

hogfennel, and tobacco (Suttles 1990). 

Southwest

Between 11,500 and 8,000 BP, human groups practiced

a highly mobile hunting and gathering subsistence 

strategy. In general, the oldest archaeological sites in 

this culture area are located near now extinct springs,

large and small Pleistocene lakes (playas), or major 

drainages, and consist of open camps, animal kill sites, 

animal processing sites, or caves. 

Archaeological sites dating from 8,000 to 2,000 BP are 

either open campsites located near water sources, 

containing chipped and ground stone tools, or are in

rockshelters or caves, where well-preserved twined

sandals, wood artifacts, and basketry are often 

recovered (Kehoe 1992). Horticulture was introduced 

into the southwest as early as 4,500 BP, although 

domestic crops did not substantially contribute to the 

diet until later (Woodbury and Zubrow 1979). Typical 

artifacts of the period include stemmed projectile points

used with atlatls, basketry, scrapers, grinding slabs, and

cobble tools. Remains of surface structures, made of 

posts and brush or other material, are documented

beginning midway through the period in the West

(Irwin-Williams 1979). The first pit house sites and

storage pits are documented late in this period 

(Woodbury and Zubrow 1979). Petroglyphs and 

pictographs are first produced during this time period 

(Schaafsma 1980). 

Researchers have subdivided the Southwest, starting 

from about 2,000 BP, into the Anasazi, Mogollon, 

Hohokam, and Hakataya geographical-cultural areas. 

The Anasazi occupied variable topography during the 

generally cooler and moister climates; the Mogollon 

inhabited well-watered, forested and mountainous 

regions; the Hohokam were located in low, dry deserts;

and the Hakataya occupied the hot desert regions 

bordering the lower Colorado River (Woodbury 1979). 

Parts of the region were intensively occupied and

socially and economically linked to the civilizations of

the Mexican Classic Period, when sedentary cultures 

began to emerge (Irwin-Williams 1979). 

Maize was cultivated in earnest by about 2,200 BP, and

was soon followed by beans, squash, cotton, and other 

crops (Irwin-Williams 1979; Woodbury and Zubrow 

1979). By 1,700 BP, some inhabitants of the region had

developed sophisticated irrigation, pottery, storage pits, 

and pit house villages. Eventually, small to large 

permanent towns of multi-story, aboveground structures 

(pueblos) were developed. Sites dating to this period 

may include features such as irrigation canals, wells, 

storage pits, and roads. Typical artifacts consist of 

pottery (used for the storage of crops), basketry, and 

small corner-notched projectile points indicating the 

adoption of the bow and arrow by 1,500 BP (Woodbury 

and Zubrow 1979). 

The Pueblo Indians are best known for their agricultural

development of corn, beans, and squash. In addition, 

wild plants (e.g., amaranth, chenopods, wild onion, wild

celery, sage, grass seeds, juniper berries, pine nuts, 

acorns, walnuts, agave, prickly pear, and tree cholla) 

were eaten (Bodine 1979, Plog 1979). Other plants are 

used for clothing, shelter, and medicine. Baskets are 

made from yucca fibers, cotton is used for weaving, 

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blankets are made from small palms, yucca roots are 

used for hair washing, and gourds are used as containers 

(Bodine 1979, Kennard 1979, Plog 1979, Schroeder 

1979). 

The Yuman groups (Colorado River Tribes) living 

along the Colorado and Middle Gila rivers have 

traditionally cultivated corn, squash, pumpkins, melons, 

beans, and cotton (Maxwell 1978). Important animal

foods include small game and fish, and important plant

resources include prickly pear, saguaro, mesquite, and 

numerous nuts and berries (Maxwell 1978, Jorgensen

1980). Yuman groups living on or near the Colorado 

Plateau practiced agriculture in the canyons in summer,

then hunted deer, antelope, bighorn sheep, and rabbits in 

the fall. They also gathered pinyon nuts, juniper berries, 

various cacti, and other plants for both subsistence and 

domestic purposes (Khera and Mariella 1983, McGuire 

1983, Schwartz 1983). 

Southern Athapaskan or Apachean-speaking tribes 

occupied much of eastern Arizona, portions of New 

Mexico around the Pueblos, southeastern Colorado, 

western Oklahoma, and parts of western and southern

Texas beginning about 700 BP. Following contact with 

the indigenous Pueblo peoples, the Navajo readily 

adopted maize, bean, and squash agriculture. The 

Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan cultivated crops 

less intensively, and the remaining groups did not adopt

any agricultural practices. With arrival of the Spanish,

the Navajo readily adopted the raising of horses, sheep, 

goats, and cattle, and cultivated orchards and other 

introduced crops (Basso 1983, Opler 1983, Tiller 1983,

Witherspoon 1983). 

Traditional plants gathered by the Apacheans include 

agave crowns, saguaro cactus fruit, yucca, prickly pear,

mesquite beans, acorns, pinyon nuts, numerous berries, 

grass seeds, wild root crops, and various greens or 

young plants. Yucca has been used to make shampoo, 

and the sap of Spanish bayonet and other plants has

been used to make dyes. Common basketry plants 

include sourberry, willow, martinia, and bata mota. At

least 29 species of plants have been used for medicinal

purposes. Various large and small game animals were

hunted for food and hides. 

Great Basin 

Two of the oldest archaeological sites in this culture 

area are the Tule Springs campsite (11,000 BP) and 

Danger Cave (9,000 BP; Aikens 1983). Typical artifacts 

of the period from 11,000 to 8,000 BP include

lanceolate-shaped and long-stemmed projectile points, 

occasional fluted points, specialized scrapers, chipped 

stone crescents, and drills (Warren and Crabtree 1986). 

This period also includes the earliest evidence of basket

making (Adovasio 1986). Inhabitants of the region 

likely were highly mobile hunter-gatherers with a 

generalized big game hunting and collecting economy. 

The warm and dry climatic conditions during 8,000 to

7,000 BP limited human subsistence activities. Sites 

dating to this period are rare, and include caves (Aikens 

1983) and rockshelters in drier areas, or pithouse 

villages located in valley bottoms near permanent

streams and springs (Elston 1986). During this period,

generalized hunting and collecting remained the major 

subsistence practices, although seed collecting and

processing activities gained importance, as indicated by 

bedrock mortars and milling stones. Root collecting and 

fishing also gained importance during this period

(Mehringer 1986). Typical artifacts include projectile

points used with atlatls, basketry, twined sandals, and 

various wooden implements (Aikens and Madsen 

1986). 

By about 4,000 BP, subsistence systems were broadbased and resource-rich areas were heavily exploited

seasonally. The shift in styles of projectile points over 

time indicates the adoption of the bow and arrow. While

caves continued to be occupied (Aikens 1983), many

locations along major rivers contained small pithouse 

villages with associated storage facilities (Butler 1986). 

Horticulture was introduced in the eastern Great Basin 

and Owens Valley by Southwest cultures around 1,500 

BP. Outside of these areas, hunting and gathering

remained the primary form of subsistence. An expanded 

reliance on pinyon nut gathering, as evidenced by

mortars and pestles, also occurred during this period 

(Aikens and Madsen 1986, Elston 1986). Petroglyphs

were common by 3,000 BP and pictographs by 1,000 

BP (Schaafsma 1986). 

Prior to the acquisition of the horse in the late 1700s, 

Shoshone and Northern Paiute in the High Desert region

and western Wyoming fished for salmon in the spring

and dug camas roots in the summer. These groups 

traveled to the mountains of southeastern Idaho and 

northern Utah to hunt deer and elk in the fall. After the 

development of equestrian culture, ranges and territories 

extended into present-day Wyoming and Montana, in

seasonal pursuit of buffalo. 

In the high desert, the single-leaf pinyon nut was an

important staple, along with plant resources such as 

chenopod, blazingstar, grass seeds, mesquite, salvia, 

various cacti, and gourds (Egan 1917; Steward 1939, 

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1997; Thomas et al. 1986). The Western Shoshone wore 

hats made from twined sage bark or willow and clothing 

made from bark, grass, or fur. A large number of plants 

have also been used for basketry in this region 

(Adovasio 1986; Fowler 1986; Thomas et al. 1986). The 

Eastern Shoshone pursued game more extensively,

while fish were a substantial part of the Northern Paiute

diet (Liljeblad and Fowler 1986, Murphy and Murphy

1986, Shimkin 1986). 

The aboriginal groups of the low desert, such as the Ute, 

Southern Paiute, Kawaiisu, Owens Valley Paiute, and

Panamint, exhibited seasonal migration by traveling into

the deserts and valleys in the winter and mountains in 

the summer. With the introduction of horses, these 

groups ranged onto the Plains, and adopted a Plains 

pattern, such as buffalo hunting and use of long-pole 

tepees (Conetah 1982, Janestki 1991, Kehoe 1992). 

Plants utilized within the low desert region included 

berries, roots of sego lily and bulrush, some cacti,

pinyon, and mesquite beans. Low desert tribes also

hunted large and small animals (Kelly 1964, 1976; 

Kroeber 1976; Kelly and Fowler 1986). Plant materials 

used to make cordage included sagebrush bark, juniper 

bark, dogbane, yucca, and nettle. Tule reeds had

multiple uses, in such items as balsa rafts, mats, and

blankets (Callaway et al. 1986). Present day Moapa 

Paiutes still use desert fan palms for making baskets, 

food, and shelter (Moapa Memories 2002). Jimson 

weed, tobacco, nettle, and red ants are some of the

traditional medicines used by Native groups in this 

region (Zigmond 1986).

Plateau 

Because of the arid climate during the period from

12,500 to 8,000 BP, resources in this culture area were 

concentrated along the margins of rivers and major 

tributaries. Archaeological sites dating to this period

include caves, rock shelters, and open camps. The low 

frequency of early sites is generally attributed to the low 

population densities of the highly mobile huntergatherers who occupied the Plateau. Stemmed and

unstemmed lanceolate projectile points, microblades, 

cobble tools, scrapers, gravers, and bifaces are common

artifacts associated with the period. Although groups 

engaged in fishing, intensive utilization of riverine

resources did not occur until later, when climatic

conditions stabilized (Ames et al. 1998; Ames and

Maschner 1999). 

A gradual increase in moisture from 8,000 to 4,000 BP

helped expand the range of sagebrush steppe and

stimulate the productivity of root crops across the 

region. Human groups continued to practice highly 

mobile subsistence strategies with an increasing reliance

on salmon (Chatters and Pokotylo 1998). Other than the

addition of large side-notched points, and a decrease in 

the overall size of projectile points, evidence of atlatl 

use, the tool kit is similar to that of the preceding period. 

The appearance of individual or small numbers of pit

houses along major drainages signified the rise of semisedentary settlement strategies, and hopper mortars and

milling stones provide evidence for the increased

importance of roots and other plant resources in the diet. 

Other site types include large open sites lacking 

evidence of habitations, caves, short-term camps, 

resource extraction sites, and resource processing sites, 

generally located farther from the major drainages 

(Ames et al. 1998). 

A cooling climate around 4,000 BP helped to stabilize 

salmon productivity by restricting the seasonality of the

salmon migrations (Butler and Schalk 1986). In

response, inhabitants of the Plateau intensified their use 

of salmon, storing it for year-round consumption, and 

structuring their subsistence strategies to coincide with 

seasonal salmon migrations. Semi-permanent villages of 

various-sized pit houses, and longhouses appearing 

about 1,500 BP, were located mainly along rivers and

major tributaries and occupied during the winter 

months. Some of the habitations were eventually used

for human burials. Camps positioned at strategic 

resource locales in the uplands and mountains were 

used on a seasonal basis. Cave sites produce wellpreserved wood and fiber artifacts. The adoption of the

bow and arrow; specialized fishing technologies 

including nets, harpoons, and barbed bone points; and 

the continued presence of grinding and pounding tools

are evidence of increasingly complicated subsistence 

strategies (Ames et al. 1998). Petroglyphs and

pictographs, dating as early as 3,500 BP, are most

common near the larger settlements on major rivers 

(Boreson 1998). 

The hallmark of northern and southern Plateau cultures 

is still salmon fishing. For many Plateau groups, plant 

resources also constitute a large portion of the diet.

Significant plant resources utilized by these groups 

include root crops of camas, bitter root, lomatium, 

balsamroot, and yellowbells, and various berries. These 

plant resources have not only provided food, but have

also been used for such functions as shelter, clothing,

basketry, and medicine. Some Plateau groups 

traditionally burned habitats to enhance the production 

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of usable plant material, including berries (Chatters 

1998, Ross 1998). 

In the southern Plateau, traditional dwellings were semisubterranean and constructed from wood and large mats

made of tule bulrushes or cattail reeds, sewn together 

with Indianhemp (Schuster 1998). The main firewoods 

of the region are Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine, with 

alder wood preferred for cooking or smoking salmon. 

Douglas-fir saplings have been used for fish net poles, 

greasewood twigs for sewing needles, Indianhemp for 

fishing nets and other weaving purposes, and cattail

leaves for weaving bags. Rosewood has been used in 

cradleboards, and has been hung in homes to repel

ghosts. Medicinal and religious plants include mullein, 

willow bark, and tobacco (Hunn 1990, Hunn and French 

1998). 

In the northern Plateau, tule reeds and cedar bark were

used for covering structures, and tule was also used for 

matting and bedding, and to shroud corpses. Sources of

baskets and bags included birch bark, cedar bark, cedar 

and spruce roots, and Indianhemp (for cordage). 

Underground storage casks were made from 

cottonwood bark, canoes were made from white pine 

bark, snowshoe frames were made from maple boughs, 

and mats used to dry salmon were made from willow 

shoots. Sources of dye included huckleberries and the 

inner bark of Oregon grape, and sunflower root was 

used to make shampoo (Kennedy and Bouchard 1998,

Miller 1998). 

California 

The Lake Mojave sites, dating to over 10,000 BP, 

represent some of the oldest archaeological materials in

this culture area. These sites include evidence of big 

game hunting and gradual expansion into the use of 

plant resources. Open camp and processing sites suggest

that there were few early occupants of the region who

maintained a highly mobile subsistence strategy. 

Artifacts include large, fluted projectile points,

lanceolate-shaped points, shouldered points, chipped 

stone crescents, scrapers, knives, and choppers (Wallace 

1978). 

Between 8,000 and 7,000 BP, an arid environment

caused lakes and marshes to dry, forcing people to adapt

to new environments (Moratto 1984). Based on the 

presence of milling stones, a shift from big game

hunting to plant and seed collecting occurred between

8,000 and 5,000 BP. Artifact assemblages are 

surprisingly homogeneous, consisting mostly of heavy,

deep-basined milling and hand stones, with occasional 

projectile points that were likely used with atlatls 

(Wallace 1978). 

About 5,000 BP, transition began toward a more 

diversified subsistence economy that included the

exploitation of marine and terrestrial resources. Inland

sites show evidence of intensive plant processing

indicated by the presence of mortars and pestles.

Archaeological and climatic evidence from the last 

2,000 years indicates that subsistence and settlement

patterns in California remained quite stable. Coastal 

groups relied on marine resources; northern groups 

relied on riverine resources, especially salmon; central

and southern groups relied on lake and marsh resources;

and groups throughout the state relied on deer and

acorns. The presence of bedrock mortars in the Sierra

Nevada foothills indicates continuous use of the same

areas. There is also evidence that widespread burning of 

forests was conducted to stimulate plant growth and

provide forage for deer, a universal food source (Driver 

and Massey 1957, Lewis 1973, Bendix 2002). The 

earliest petroglyphs appear to correlate with similar 

ones from the Great Basin dating 3,000 BP, while very 

elaborate, perhaps ceremonial, pictographs are thought 

to be no more than 1,000 years old (Clelow 1978). 

Coastal groups have long exploited coastal marine and

inland oak forest resources, where they collect acorns 

and hunt large and small game. A variety of plants 

provide building materials, basketry materials, clothing, 

and medicine. The redwood tree was used to construct 

permanent dwellings and large canoes, as well as 

clothing made from its bark. Juniper and tule were also 

used to make shelters. Tule reeds are used in basketry 

(in addition to numerous other plants), boats, clothing, 

and matting. Materials used to make dyes include green

oak galls, burned pepperwood berries, tan oak bark, and

alder bark. Medicinal plants include tobacco, angelica,

and pepperwood leaf (Loeb 1926, Maxwell 1978). 

In the valleys between the Sierra Nevada and coastal

ranges, riparian corridors and foothills rich in oak

groves provide acorns, a staple diet of many California 

tribes. Migrating salmon are an important food source, 

as are berries, bulbs, tubers, and roots. Native groups of

the Central Valley and Sierra region hunted waterfowl

using snares, nets, arrows, and decoys. Tule growing in

wetlands has been an important component of baskets, 

matting, dwellings, and watercraft. Plants used for 

cordage and rope include milkweed, Indianhemp,

dogbane, and inner willow bark. Medicinal plants 

include tobacco and horehound (Levy 1978, Wallace 

1978). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-52 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

In the desert region of southeast California, important

tribal resources included fish, shellfish, deer, rabbit, 

rodents, and insects. Additional dietary staples, still

used, include wild grass, mescal beans, pinyon seeds 

and nuts, and mesquite beans, which are ground into

flour and made into cakes (Barrows 1900, Kelly 1964, 

Kroeber 1976). 

In the desert region, dwellings were constructed from a 

wide variety of plants, including juniper, manzanita, 

greasewood, mountain oak, and mesquite, with tule, 

carrizo, ferns, bark, or reeds often used for thatching. 

Plants used for basketry include tule, sumac,

squawbrush, and a variety of rushes and grasses. Yucca 

has been used for cordage. A number of plants were

used for clothing and sandals, including the inner bark

of willow and cottonwood trees, mescal and yucca

fibers, and mesquite bark. Creosote bush and milkweed

were used as adhesives, and yucca root has been used to

make soap. Among the wide variety of medicinal plants

are tobacco, jimson weed, wormwood, creosote, and

sumac (Bean and Saubel 1972).

Plains 

Human occupation of this culture area dates to at least

11,500 BP. Highly mobile hunters occupied sites on a 

short-term basis or repeatedly over varying lengths of 

time. These sites, which were frequently located near 

water sources, often include finely manufactured fluted, 

stemmed, or lanceolate points in association with

skeletons of extinct game species. 

American bison hunting has played a significant role in 

the subsistence economy of Plains groups throughout 

prehistory. Additional utilized fauna included elk, 

mountain sheep, deer, antelope, bear, and various small

mammals, as well as fish, freshwater mussels, reptiles, 

and amphibians. Archaeological evidence indicates that

roots, bulbs, berries, fruits, and seeds were collected and

often processed using a variety of grinding stones 

(Frison 2001, Vehik 2001). 

Typical artifacts of the period from 8,000 to 2,000 BP 

include medium-sized lanceolate to large, side-notched 

projectile points, corner-notched dart points, hide

scrapers, milling or grinding stones, coiled basketry, and

pottery. Although open campsites (often with fire pits), 

cave or rockshelter sites, and American bison kill and 

processing sites are the most common sites, burials, as

well as sites containing housepits and/or food cache pits 

are also documented throughout this period. In addition,

the use of teepees, based on the presence of stone circles 

at cultural resources sites, is evident (Frison 2001,

Vehik 2001). 

Petroglyphs and pictographs (rock art) date from this 

period (2,000 to 250 BP), occurring on rock outcrops in 

the northern and northwestern Plains and southeastern

Colorado (Frison 2001, Gunnerson 2001). With the 

appearance of the bow and arrow in the northwestern

Plains about 1,900 BP, hunting became more efficient. 

The use of teepees by the more nomadic western and

northwestern Plains dwellers became very common

throughout the period, to the point where some multiple

stone circle sites are labeled villages (Frison 2001). By 

1,500 BP, farming of maize, beans, squash, and 

sunflowers was established in the eastern Plains and 

spread to sedentary groups living in earth lodge villages

along the Missouri River (Maxwell 1978; Kehoe 1992;

Wedel 1961, 1983; Wedel and Frison 2001; Wood and

Irwin 2001). 

At the time of European contact, plants used for 

subsistence by Plains groups included prairie turnip, 

groundnut, ground bean, sunflower, Jerusalem 

artichoke, serviceberries, mesquite beans, cacti, camas, 

and grass seeds. Maize, beans, and squash were also

cultivated (Maxwell 1978, Wedel 1983, Wedel and

Frison 2001). Following the introduction of horses by

the Spanish in the 16th century, subsistence patterns of 

many Plains groups shifted from sedentary, part-time 

farming and hunting to mounted hunting heavily 

focused on the migratory herds of American bison.

During the 1700s, pressure from the Europeans 

generated movements of woodland groups, such as the 

Sioux, onto the Plains. By the late 1700s, the 

dependence on plants for subsistence by these groups 

waned (Maxwell 1978). 

Plains groups have used plants for a variety of purposes, 

in addition to subsistence. Tobacco has been used in

religious ceremonies. Cottonwood and willow were

used to provide fuel and building materials, and willow 

has been used for boat frames. Oak, elm, and

huckleberry are also high quality building materials, and

poles made from pine have been used for teepee frames. 

Willow, box elder bark, and nettles have been used to 

make baskets, which are often colored with a black dye 

derived from walnuts. Medicinal plants of the Plains

include mescal beans and sweetgrass. Bowls were made

from box elder, and bows from cedar, ash, and hickory. 

Sage was used to help whiten hides (Brown and Irwin

2001, Voget 2001, Wedel and Frison 2001, Wood and

Irwin 2001). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-53 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

European Settlement Resources

Euro-American contacts with the western U.S and 

Alaska generally began with exploration or trading, 

with missionary activities soon following in some of the

areas. The earliest exploration occurred in the

Southwest and in California in the 1500s, with 

settlements by the military, missionaries, and colonists 

in the 1600s in the Southwest, and in the later 1700s in

California. In the late 1700s, Spanish, Russian, British, 

and American exploration and trade extended up and 

down the West Coast of North America. By the late

1700s and early 1800s, explorers such as Lewis and

Clark and fur traders traversed the interior of what is

now the western U.S. Table 3-11 shows the types of 

European settlement resources typically present in the 

cultural areas.

The discovery and the promise of precious metals first

inspired conquest of Native People through treaty and

force, then created the market for the development of 

agriculture, timber, and fisheries, and finally motivated 

the construction of a transportation system sufficient to

transport people and goods. Although furs and precious 

metals drew the first adventurers, a more permanent

settlement of the West in the late 19th

 and early 20th

centuries was related to agriculture. In most of the arid

regions of the West agriculture primarily consisted of 

ranching. During this time, the Homestead Act and

other similar programs transferred most of the irrigable 

land to private ownership, and the adjacent public land

was used for grazing livestock by the ranchers who had 

either homesteaded or purchased those private lands.

Beginning about the turn of the 20th century, the federal

government reserved tracts of land in the West for 

management by agencies such as the Forest Service and

National Park Service, and, after its formation in the

middle of the century, by the BLM. These lands remain

in the public domain.

The history of the rural western U.S. encompasses

several broad themes and periods including exploration, 

discovery of the region’s mineral wealth, conflict, and 

settlement, and includes the growth of communities 

dependent upon resource extraction—farming, 

ranching, logging, fishing, and mining. These 

communities were in turn linked to local, regional, and

national markets through a complex and evolving

system of trails, military roads, wagon roads, rail lines, 

and navigable river corridors, a trend that continues into

the modern period. By the mid-20th century, with the 

region secured and transportation assured, recreation

and tourism increasingly comprised the economic base 

of western communities, and military training use 

escalated in response to the training needs of the 

modern military.

Public lands in the West contain cultural resources 

representing all major periods and events in the broad

sweep of western history. The most common rural

manifestations of these dominant themes include 

transportation resources such as ferry sites, railroads, 

trails, and roads; military sites (training grounds and 

battlefields); and mining resources related to exploration 

(prospect pits), extraction (adits, hydraulic cuts, and 

quarries), and processing (smelters and mills). Other 

resources include homesteading, ranching and farming

resources (human and animal shelter and irrigation

development); fishery resources (boats, fish traps, and 

weirs); and logging resources (stumpage, sawmills, and 

human and animal shelter). Evidence of community

development includes rural schools, stores, churches, 

and community centers. Recreation and leisure sites 

include cabins, resorts, and trail systems.

Important Plant Uses and Species Used 

by American Indians and Alaska

Natives 

Although universally important, plant use by Native 

American and Alaska Native groups is extremely 

varied, both by region and by group. Subsistence use of 

such plant products as roots and tubers, stalks, leaves, 

berries, and nuts is essential to native people.

Vegetation also provides habitat for important wildlife 

species. 

Most Native American and Alaska Native groups 

constructed a variety of residential shelters and other 

buildings such as ceremonial lodges and sweat houses

using a combination of materials, usually employing a 

locally derived hardwood as part of the structural frame. 

The frames were then covered with other readily 

available materials, such as planks, mats, brush, and

other materials. Wood has been burned to cook food, 

warm dwellings, and facilitate toolmaking. Trees have

been fashioned into various types of watercraft and

terrestrial hauling devices. Various woods have been 

carved or used to produce utilitarian implements like

bowls and spoons, and also ceremonial items, such as 

pipes and totems, and many other items of material

culture. 

The use of plants for medicinal purposes is widespread, 

as is the use of tobacco. Plants such as tobacco, sweet

grass, cedar, and sage, have seen important religious 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-54 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-11

European Settlement Resource Types 

Site Type Examples Culture Region 

Transportation 

River navigation Fords, cable ferries, and shipwrecks All 

Overland navigation (both 

railroad and non-railroad) 

Trails, wagon roads, truck trails (public and private), engineered features

(bridges, trestles, ballast, track, and ties), and construction camps All 

Exploration and Overland Migration 

Trails (most often at 

topographic restrictions, 

such as canyons) 

Trail ruts (rock) and trail ruts (earth) All 

Geological landmarks with 

cultural and historical value Rock promontories, springs, passes, and meadows All 

Inscriptions Petroglyphs (chiseled inscriptions), pictographs, and carvings on trees All 

Missions Schools, churches, agricultural plots, orchards, and housing All 

Military 

Battlefields (Indian wars) Not applicable All except Alaska 

Training grounds World War I, World War II, Korean War, and Cold War eras Great Basin, Plateau, 

and Desert Southwest 

Transportation routes Trails and wagon roads All 

Agriculture 

Ranching and farming 

Home ranch facilities (including foundations), outlying buildings and 

structures, cultural landscape elements (including fences, stock ponds and 

trails, dams, and river fords), irrigation structures, and archaeological sites 

All 

Commerce/Urban Development 

Urban settlement Civic, commercial, and domestic All 

Mining 

Resources associated with 

extraction 

Resources associated with prospecting (locating ore) and development 

(accessing and removing ore), resources associated with placer mining 

(sluicing), and lode mining (adits, waste rock, and interior tramways) 

All 

Resources associated with 

beneficiation and refining 

Mills (various types), smelters, tailing piles, tailing ponds, power plants, 

and refineries All 

Support facilities Bunkhouses, mess halls, livestock shelters, and trash dumps All 

Transportation systems Trails, two-track roads, truck trails, rail lines, and construction debris All 

Logging 

Extraction Stumps, skid lines, and sky-line cables All 

Processing Lumber mills and power plants All 

Support facilities Shingle camps, logging camps, and livestock facilities All 

Transportation Roads, donkey engines, big wheels, rail lines, and flumes All 

Fisheries 

Extraction (except 

processing-related and 

support facilities) 

Weirs, fish traps, natural features (falls, eddies), and boats All 

BLM Administration and Development 

Administrative facilities Buildings (administrative, maintenance, and warehouse) and livestock

facilities All 

Interpretation Museums and interpretive signs All 

Recreation (pre-1934) Camp sites, developed natural features, summer homes, interpretive signs, 

roads, and trails All 

Recreation (post-1934) Campground, developed water source, and roads and trails All 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-55 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

and other ceremonial uses. The use of grasses and other 

plant resources for basket, box, and tool making also

can be observed in the cultures of numerous Native 

American and Alaska Native groups. Plant products 

also have been used to make textiles, cordage, and 

matting, as well as to tan hides. The use of plant dyes, 

paints, and soaps is widespread. 

Visual Resources 

The public lands administered by the BLM contain

many outstanding scenic landscapes. Visual resources in

these landscapes consist of land, water, vegetation, 

wildlife, and other natural or man-made features visible 

on public lands. Vast areas of grassland, shrubland, 

canyonland, and mountain ranges on public lands

provide scenic views to recreationists, visitors, adjacent 

landowners, and those just passing through. Roads, 

rivers, and trails on public lands pass through a variety 

of characteristic landscapes where natural attractions 

can be seen and where cultural modifications exist.

Activities occurring on these lands, such as recreation, 

mining, timber harvesting, grazing, or road 

development, for example, have the potential to disturb

the surface of the landscape and impact scenic values. 

Public lands have a variety of visual (scenic) values 

which warrant different levels of management. The 

BLM uses a system called VRM (visual resource 

management; Manual 8400) to systematically identify 

and evaluate these values to determine the appropriate 

level of scenery management (USDI BLM 1984b). The 

VRM process involves 1) identifying scenic values, 2) 

establishing management objectives for those values 

through the land use planning process, and 3) then 

designing and evaluating proposed activities to analyze 

effects and develop mitigations to meet the established 

VRM objectives. 

The BLM Visual Resource Inventory Handbook 

(Handbook 8410-1; USDI BLM 1986a) sets forth the 

procedures for inventorying scenic values and 

establishing VRM objectives, referred to as 

Management Classes. A visual resource inventory is 

informational in nature and does not set forth

management direction. A visual resource inventory is 

based on an analysis of three primary criteria 

influencing visual values: 1) inherent scenic quality, 2) 

public sensitivity to landscape change, and 3) distance 

zones from primary travel ways or special areas. These

three criteria are ranked for all acres of public land and a 

final VRM inventory rating is identified. 

These ratings are then used during the land use planning

process and considered along with other resource 

objectives to determine final VRM objectives, or 

classes. BLM policy requires that every acre of BLM

land be inventoried and assigned a VRM class ranging 

from Class I to Class IV. After VRM classes have been 

established, Bureau policy requires all management

activities to be designed to meet the assigned classes. 

Class IV allows for the most visual change to the 

existing landscape, while Class I allows the least (Table 

3-12). 

The Visual Contrast Rating Handbook (Handbook

8431-1; USDI BLM 1986c) is used to provide an 

objective and consistent method for describing

landscape character, evaluating visual effects of 

activities, and developing mitigation to meet VRM

objectives. The contrast rating process involves 

describing the landscape in the context of the basic 

environmental design elements and features that

comprise it. The elements of form, line, color, and 

texture are used when describing and evaluating

landscapes. Activities or modifications in a landscape 

that repeat these elements are thought to be in harmony 

with their surroundings. Modifications that do not

harmonize are said to be in contrast with their 

surroundings. Visual resource design techniques and 

best management practices (BMPs) are then used in 

project development to minimize contrast in order to

meet the VRM Class objectives established in the LUP. 

Wilderness and other Special 

Areas 

The BLM manages certain lands under its jurisdiction

that possess unique and important historical, 

anthropological, ecological, biological, geological, and

paleontological features. These features include

undisturbed wilderness tracts, critical habitat, natural

environments, open spaces, scenic landscapes, historic 

locations, cultural landmarks, and paleontologically rich

regions. Special management is administered with the 

intent to preserve, protect, and evaluate these significant

components of our national heritage. Most special areas 

are either designated by an Act of Congress or by

Presidential Proclamation, or are created under BLM

administrative procedures. 

The National Landscape Conservation System is the 

primary management framework for these specially 

designated lands. The NLCS was created in June 2000 

by the BLM to bring into a single system some of the 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-56 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

agency’s premier areas. Of the nearly 261 million acres 

administered by the BLM, nearly 43 million acres on

867 BLM units are managed under the NLCS program 

(Map 3-12 and Table 3-13). The NLCS designations 

include National Monuments, National Conservation 

Areas, Designated Wilderness and WSAs, National 

Scenic and Historic Trails, and Wild, Scenic, and 

Recreational Rivers (USDI BLM 2006d). 

Fourteen of the 15 BLM-administered National

Monuments are areas designated by the President, under 

the authority of the Antiquities Act of 1906, for the

protection of objects of scientific and historical interest

that are located on federal lands. Congress has also

created a BLM National Monument on which to

conserve, protect, enhance and manage public lands. 

National Conservation Areas, Cooperative Management

and Protections Areas, Outstanding Natural Areas, 

National Recreation Areas, and Forest Reserves are

designated by Congress to conserve, protect, enhance, 

and manage public land areas for the benefit and 

enjoyment of present and future generations. These 13

areas, totaling 14 million acres, feature exceptional

natural, recreational, cultural, wildlife, aquatic, 

archeological, paleontological, historical, educational, 

and scientific resources. Additionally, the White 

Mountains National Recreation Area in Alaska is

approximately 1 million acres and was designated by 

the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 

1980. The White Mountains National Recreation Area 

is managed for multiple uses with an emphasis on

recreational uses (USDI BLM 2006c). 

National Wilderness Areas, designated by Congress, are 

defined by the Wilderness Act of 1964 as places “where

the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by

man, where man himself is a visitor who does not

remain.” Designation is aimed at ensuring that these

lands are preserved and protected in their natural 

condition. Wilderness Areas, which are generally 5,000 

acres or more in size, offer outstanding opportunities for 

solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of

recreation; such areas may also contain ecological, 

geological, or other features that have scientific, scenic, 

or historical value. The BLM manages 175 Wilderness 

Areas encompassing nearly 7.2 million acres (USDI

BLM 2006d). 

Wilderness Study Areas have been designated by the 

BLM as having wilderness characteristics, thus making 

them worthy of consideration by Congress for

wilderness designation. Currently, the BLM manages 

610 WSAs encompassing 14.3 million acres. While

Congress considers whether to designate a WSA as 

permanent wilderness, the BLM manages the area to 

prevent impairment of its suitability for wilderness 

designation. 

National Wild and Scenic Rivers (WSRs) are rivers (or 

river sections) designated by Congress or the Secretary 

of the Interior, under the authority of the Wild and

Scenic Rivers Act (WSRA) of 1968, to protect

remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and 

wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values and to 

preserve the river in its free-flowing condition. The law 

recognizes three classes of rivers—wild, scenic, and

recreational. Wild rivers are free of impoundments and

generally inaccessible except by trail, with watersheds 

or shorelines essentially primitive and water unpolluted.

Scenic rivers are free of impoundments with shorelines 

or watersheds largely undeveloped, but accessible in 

places by roads. Recreational rivers are readily 

accessible by road or railroad, may have some

development along their shoreline, and/or may have 

undergone some impoundment or diversion in the past. 

The BLM manages all or portions of 38 rivers totaling

2,052 miles as part of the National WSR System (USDI

BLM 2006d). 

Congress, under the National Trails System Act of 

1968, designates areas as National Scenic and Historic

Trails. National Scenic Trails offer maximum outdoor 

recreation potential and provide enjoyment of the 

various qualities (scenic, historical, natural, and

cultural) of the areas through which these trails pass. 

National Historic Trails are extended trails that follow 

as closely as possible, on federal land, the original trails 

or routes of travel with national historical significance. 

Designation identifies and protects historic routes and 

their historic remnants and artifacts for public use and 

enjoyment. A designated trail must meet certain criteria, 

including having a significant potential for public 

recreational use or interest based on historical 

interpretation and appreciation. 

The NLCS differs from the National Park System and

the National Wildlife Refuge System in several ways. 

Visitor facilities are often located in adjacent

communities, providing local economic opportunities 

and minimizing new development in the special areas.

Traditional land uses, such as livestock grazing, are 

often permitted in these areas, and the local 

communities and interested public are encouraged to 

participate in the planning and management of them. 

Other special areas managed by the BLM outside of the 

NLCS framework include Areas of Critical

Environmental Concern (ACEC), Research Natural

Areas, National Natural Landmarks, National 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-57 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-12

Visual Resource Management (VRM) Classes and Objectives and Appropriate Management Activities 

VRM 

CLASS Visual Resource Objective Change Allowed (Relative Level) 

Relationship to the Casual

Observer 

Class I 

Preserve the existing character of the 

landscape. Manage for natural ecological

changes. 

Very Low Activities should not be visible and 

must not attract attention. 

Class II Retain the existing character of the 

landscape. Low Activities may be visible, but should not attract attention.

Class III Partially retain the existing character of the 

landscape. Moderate

Activities may attract attention but

should not dominate the view. 

Class IV 

Provide for management activities which 

require major modification of the existing 

character of the landscape. 

High 

Activities may attract attention, may 

dominate the view, but are still 

mitigated. 

Recreation Trails, and a variety of other area 

designations. 

The BLM uses the ACEC designation to highlight

public land areas where special management attention is 

necessary to protect and prevent irreparable damage to

important historical, cultural, and scenic values; fish or

wildlife resources; or other natural systems or

processes.The ACEC designation may also be used to 

protect human life and safety from natural hazards. The 

BLM identifies, evaluates, and designates ACECs 

through its resource management planning process. 

Allowable management practices and uses, mitigation, 

and use limitations, if any, are described in the planning 

document. 

Under current guidelines, ACEC procedures also are 

used to designate Research Natural Areas, Outstanding 

Natural Areas, and other natural areas requiring special 

management attention. The National Natural Landmarks 

Program recognizes and encourages the conservation of 

outstanding examples of natural history. National 

Natural Landmarks are designated by the Secretary of 

the Interior and are the best examples of biological and 

geological features in both public and private ownership 

within the U.S. The Recreational Trails Program 

provides funds to the states to develop and maintain

recreational trails and trail-related facilities for both 

non-motorized and motorized recreational trail uses. 

Among these groups, 903 areas comprising nearly 13 

million acres are designated as ACECs; 45 areas 

comprising over 417,000 acres are designated as

National Natural Landmarks; and 164 areas comprising

over 323,000 acres are designated as Research Natural

Areas. An additional 30 million acres fall under various 

other designations, such as the Lake Todatonten Special 

Management Area, the Santa Rosa Mountains National 

Scenic Area, Herd Management Areas, and Globally

Important Bird Areas. In addition, there are over 2,950 

miles of vehicle routes and trails designated as National

Backcountry Byways and National Recreation Trails 

(USDI BLM 2006c, d). 

The BLM also cooperates with the National Park

Service in implementing the National Natural Landmark

Program as it applies to public lands. The National Park 

Service, through the National Natural Landmark

Program, designates significant examples of the 

Nation’s ecological and geological heritage. 

Recreation 

Public lands provide visitors with a wide range of 

recreational opportunities, including hunting, fishing, 

camping, hiking, dog mushing, cross-country skiing, 

boating, hang gliding, OHV driving, mountain biking, 

birding, viewing scenery, and visiting natural and 

cultural heritage sites. In addition to the recreational

opportunities afforded the public by wilderness and

other special areas discussed earlier, the BLM 

administers 205,498 miles of fishable streams, 2.2 

million acres of lakes and reservoirs, 6,600 miles of

floatable rivers, over 500 boating access points, 300

Watchable Wildlife sites, 55 National Back Country 

Byways, 5,500 miles of National Scenic, Historic, and 

Recreational Trails, and thousands of miles of multiple

use trails used by motorcyclists, hikers, equestrians, and 

mountain bikers (USDI BLM 2006c). 

The BLM’s long-term goal is to provide opportunities 

to the public for environmentally responsible recreation. 

Over 4,000 communities with a combined population of

23 million people are located within 25 miles of public

lands, and approximately 40% of public lands are 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-58 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
B

LMVegetationTreatments Using Herbicides 3-59 June 2007 

FinalProgrammaticEIS

TABLE 3-13

National Landscape Conservation System and Other Special Designation Areas on Public Lands as of Septem

National Landscape Conservation System Area 

Outstanding

Natural Areas,

Forest Reserve 

Cooperative

Management and 

Protection Areas,

and National 

Recreation Areas

National

Monuments 

National

Conservation Areas Wilderness Areas Wilderness Study Areas Wild, Scenic, and Recreational Rivers N

Hi

Sc

State 

# of 

Sites Acres # of Sites Acres # of Sites1 Acres2 # of Sites1 Acres # of Sites1 Acres # of Sites Acres/Miles # o

Site

Alaska 1 998,772 - - 1 1,208,624 - - 1 784,238 6 609,280/952 1 Arizona 5 1,775,017 3 121,277 47 1,396,466 2 63,930 - - 2 California 1 7,400 3 291,390 3 10,729,231 76 3,552,665 77 974,769 6 24,800/78 4 Colorado 1 163,892 2 185,773 4 139,524 54 621,737 - - - Idaho 1 274,800 1 484,034 1 802 66 1,341,709 - - 4 Montana 2 375,027 - - 1 6,000 40 450,823 1 89,300/149 3 Nebraska - - - - - - - - - - - Nevada - - 3 1,043,422 38 1,758,613 71 2,877,917 - - 1 New Mexico 1 4,124 1 227,100 3 139,281 60 970,532 2 22,720/71 3 North Dakota 

- - - - - - - - - - - 

Oklahoma - - - - - - - - - - - Oregon 2 428,156 1 52,947 - - 4 186,723 97 2,337,762 23 254,438/803 3 SouthDakota 

- - - - - - - - - - - 

Texas - - - - - - - - - - 1 Utah 1 1,870,800 1 - 3 27,720 99 3,260,120 - - 3 Washington - - - - 1 7,140 1 5,518 - - - Wyoming - - - - - - 42 575,841 - - 6 Total 4 1,434,328 15 4,807,997 13 13,999,461 175 7,214,934 610 14,264,896 38 1,005,538/2,052 12 

1 Figures in the number column do not add up to the total shown at the bottom since areas may cross state lines and are reported in the count for each state.2 Acreages/miles for multi-state sites are provided only for the state in which the majority of site is located.

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDI BLM 2006d).
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

located within a day’s drive of a major urban area

(USDI BLM 2006c). 

Most BLM lands are managed as Extensive Recreation

Management Areas (ERMAs), where management 

consists primarily of providing basic information and

access. Dispersed recreation occurs in ERMAs, and 

visitors have the freedom of recreational choice with 

minimal regulatory constraints. Significant public 

recreation issues or management concerns are limited in

these areas, and nominal management suffices. 

Special Recreation Management Areas (SRMAs) are

places where special or intensive recreation 

management is needed. SRMAs include congressionally

recognized areas, such as WSRs, parts of the National 

Trail System, National Recreation Areas, and 

Wilderness Areas. In addition, administratively 

recognized areas where issues or management concerns 

may require special or intensive management are also

designated. Areas where visitor use may cause user 

conflicts, visitor safety problems, or resource damage 

are also included. These more intensively used areas 

require direct supervision of recreational activities and 

of commercial and BLM-regulated recreation

operations. Most SRMAs require selective vegetation

treatments to protect visitors from hazards and/or 

adverse effects associated with certain plants, and 

replanting of vegetation in highly disturbed areas to

improve appearance. 

BLM field offices reported 56 million recreational visits 

to BLM public lands and waters in FY 2005, an 

increase of nearly 4% from the previous year. The total 

amount of time spent on public lands, reported as visitor 

days, was estimated at 66.2 million visitor days, down

5% from the previous year (Table 3-14; USDI BLM 

2006d). The greatest number of visitor days occurred in 

Arizona and California. Overall, developed recreational

sites were used about as frequently as non-developed

dispersed areas. Recreational use of public lands 

consists predominately of camping and picnicking,

which represented 43% of all visitor days in 2005. 

Other important recreational activities include nonmotorized travel, such as hiking, horseback riding, and 

mountain biking (10%); off-highway travel (10%); 

hunting (8%); and viewing public land resources and 

interpretation and education (6%). The remaining visitor 

days were associated with driving for pleasure, special 

events, sports and activities, power and non-power 

boating, fishing, and swimming. Snow- and ice-based

activities, such as cross-country skiing, snowmobiling, 

and snowshoeing, represented less than 1% of visitor 

days (USDI BLM 2006c). 

Commercial revenues generated by recreation on BLM

lands are discussed in the Social and Economic Values 

section of this chapter. 

TABLE 3-14

Estimated Recreation Use of Public Lands 

during Fiscal Year 2005 

Number of Visitor Days

1

(thousands) State Recreation

Sites 

Dispersed 

Areas Total2

Alaska 297 921 1,218

Arizona 7,541 1,776 13,958

California 8,426 8,776 17,246

Colorado 1,637 3,021 4,776

Idaho 1,234 2,847 4,102

Montana, 

North Dakota, and 

South Dakota 

920 2,528 3,448

Nevada 915 4,644 5,560

New Mexico,

Oklahoma, and Texas 581 1,416 1,997

Oregon and 

Washington 

2,015 3,712 5,727

Utah 1,912 3,883 6,226

Wyoming and 

Nebraska 630 1,258 1,890

Total 26,108 34,782 66,178

1

 One visitor day equals 12 visitor hours. 2 Includes visitor days for recreation lease sites and recreation 

partnership sites.

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDI BLM 2006d).

Rights-of-way, Facilities, and 

Roads 

Rights-of-way 

Under FLPMA and the Mineral Leasing Act provisions, 

the BLM issues ROW grants to authorize the 

construction, operation, and maintenance of a wide 

range of projects on public lands. These include 

petroleum pipelines, electrical transmission lines, 

telecommunications lines, energy development and

distribution facilities, water facilities, communication 

sites, and roads. Rights-of way for roads, trails, and

other infrastructure needs are appropriated for use by 

the BLM and other federal agencies (e.g., Forest

Service, Federal Highway Administration, and

Bonneville Power Administration) under Section 507 of 

FLPMA. In FY 2005, there were over 90,000 ROWs on

public lands, and the BLM processes more than 4,000

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-60 June 2007 

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AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

new applications each year. Energy-related applications 

comprise about 60% of new applications (USDI BLM

2006c). Demand for ROWs on public lands is expected

to increase substantially during the next decade due to

energy needs, changes in the utility industry, and

increased urbanization. 

The length and width of an ROW (and the resulting

acreage of public lands) is dependant on a variety of

physical and operational factors, including topography, 

geology, safety, type of use or uses proposed within the 

ROW, current technology, and access needs. Rights-ofway may also be subject to controls or limitations 

prescribed by law or identified within BLM land use

plans. The BLM encourages the utilization of ROWs in 

common, where practical, in order to minimize adverse 

environmental impacts. The BLM land use plans 

identify ROW corridors for existing and future ROW 

development. 

Rights-of-way are issued for short-term use of public 

lands or in perpetuity. Right-of-way grants generally 

include provisions that authorize the holder to manage 

vegetation within and adjacent to the ROW using

methods approved by the BLM. The scope and intensity

of vegetation management treatments within ROWs are

operationally specific and highly variable. Inspections 

are conducted at periodic intervals to assess vegetation 

treatment needs within the ROW. Several techniques 

are used to manage vegetation in ROW. Preeemergence

or postemergence herbicides can be applied to prevent

or control young emerging and existing vegetation. 

Mechanical methods, such as mowing, are also used to

eliminate undesirable vegetation. In certain situations, 

livestock have been used to selectively remove 

undesirable plant species, in a targeted approach. 

Vegetation can interfere with ROW site access and

facility maintenance, interfere with electric power flow, 

and pose safety problems for workers and other users of 

ROW. The development and maintenance of ROW has 

significant impacts on vegetation. The removal of the 

existing vegetation during construction activities results 

in increases in bare ground that can facilitate the 

introduction and spread of non-native and invasive plant 

species. The relatively open nature of ROW makes 

them attractive to many recreationists, including OHV 

enthusiasts, horseback riders, and hikers. However these 

activities can also facilitate the spread of invasive

species that are present on ROW. 

Facilities and Roads 

The BLM operates or oversees operation on numerous 

facilities on public lands. These include oil, gas, 

geothermal, and mineral exploration and production 

sites, including over 21,000 production sites; 510 

campgrounds, 87 interpretive centers, and other

recreational facilities; over 4,300 buildings and 713 

administrative sites; over 76,000 miles of roads; and

communication facilities (USDI BLM 2006c). 

Construction and operations disturbance can often 

introduce noxious weeds and other invasive vegetation

to facility sites and roads. In general, vegetation 

management at facilities focuses on controlling 

vegetation that can pose a safety or fire hazard, or is not 

aesthetically pleasing. In such situations the vegetation 

is managed using several methods, which can be

integrated into an effective management process.

Residual herbicides, applied to vegetation before or 

after emergence, offer extended management in areas 

where bare ground is required for safety purposes. 

Mechanical methods, such as mowing, and manual 

control by hand pulling have been used to manage 

vegetation along roads, as well as in sensitive areas. 

Social and Economic Values 

Social/Demographic Environment 

The western U.S., including Alaska, is more sparsely

populated than the rest of the U.S., containing about 

32% of the total U.S. population, but comprising 

approximately 65% of the total land area. In 2000, over 

89 million people lived in this region, with over 50

million in California and Texas, alone (Table 3-15).

Population density is relatively low, averaging about 40

people per mi

2

, which is half of the national average of 

nearly 80 people per mi

2

. Density ranges from about 1 

person per mi

2

 in Alaska to over 217 persons per mi

2

 in 

California. Based on 2000 census data, population

growth between 1990 and 2000 averaged over 16%, 

which was slightly higher than the national average. 

Many of the western states, however, exceeded the 

national average, with growth rates of 20% or higher 

during this time period. 

Within regions of the western states, mobility patterns 

of the population were evident. Population declined in

rural areas and increased in urban areas. Growth of the

western states during this time occurred predominantly

in WUI areas, due to expansion of urban population

areas into previously rural areas. 

The western U.S. contains a large percentage of the 

nation’s minority populations, including over 60% of 

the nation’s Hispanics and American Indians, and over 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-61 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFE

BLM

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CTED ENVIRONMENT 

Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-62 June 2007 

ogrammatic EIS 

50% of the nation’s Asian/Pacific Islanders. In 

particular, Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas 

contain large Hispanic populations, which comprise 

from 25 to over 40% of the total population in each of 

these states. Over 15% of Alaska’s population is 

comprised of American Indians. 

The age distribution of the population of the western 

U.S. is similar to the nationwide distribution. 

Approximately 27% of the population is under 18 years 

of age, while about 11% is over 65. Alaska and Utah are 

slight exceptions, with a higher percentage of people 

under 18 (over 30%) and a lower percentage of people 

over 65 (5% and 8%, respectively). 

Economic Environment 

Employment 

Between 1990 and 2000, employment growth in the 

western U.S. averaged 21%, which slightly exceeded 

the national average of about 18%. Nevada and Arizona 

had the most employment growth overall (60% and 

42%, respectively) while California and Alaska had 

below-average employment growth of less than 15%. 

Most employment growth during this time occurred in 

the management, professional, and related occupations 

(26%) and in the service sector (15%), while negligible 

growth occurred in the manufacturing sector. 

In December 2006, the nationwide unemployment rate 

was 4.5% (Table 3-16). Unemployment rates in the 

western U.S. exceeded the national average, with the 

greatest unemployment in Alaska (6.7%), Oregon 

(5.4%), and Washington (5.0%). The unemployment 

rate was lowest in Utah (2.6%) and Montana (2.9%; 

U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 

2007). Unemployment rates were generally higher for 

African Americans and Hispanics than other races. 

Over 23% of the nation’s employment opportunities, 

amounting to over 40 million jobs, are located in the 

western U.S. (Table 3-17). Employment in the trade and 

services industries accounts for over half of the total 

jobs. Industries related to natural resources, such as 

agriculture and mining, are important sources of 

employment and represent nearly one third of the 

nation’s agricultural services, forestry, and fishing jobs. 

Employment in the government and military sector is 

higher in Alaska than in other states, accounting for 

27% of total jobs versus about 17% overall in the 

western U.S. 

Income 

In 2000, the per capita income in the western U.S. was 

$20,215, which was similar to the national average of 

$21,690. Per capita income was greatest in Colorado, 

Washington, Alaska, and California, and lowest in 

Montana, Idaho, and Utah. In 1999, approximately 12% 

of the population of the western U.S. lived below the 

poverty level, which was consistent with the national 

average. The highest poverty rates occurred in Montana, 

California, and Arizona, while the lowest rates occurred 

in Alaska, Colorado, and Utah (U.S. Department of 

Commerce Bureau of the Census 2004). 

In 1999, the highest mean annual income in the western 

U.S. was paid to individuals employed by the federal 

government ($63,048), followed by the mining 

($57,458), transportation and public utilities ($50,397), 

and manufacturing ($50,201) sectors. The lowest 

average income was realized by those working in the 

agricultural services, forestry, and fishing ($18,845) and 

retail trade ($20,332) industries (U.S. Department of 

Commerce Bureau of the Census 2004). 

Revenues Generated by BLM Lands 

The BLM allows land use for authorized private 

commercial activities such as energy and mineral 

commodity extraction, timber harvesting, livestock 

grazing, recreation, and the development of ROW on 

public land. Income generated by public land is used to 

assist state and local governments, support the General 

Fund of the U.S. Treasury, and offset charges for 

program operations where certain fees collected can be 

retained by the BLM. During FY 2005, the BLM 

collected nearly $1.6 billion from a variety of land uses 

in the western U.S. (Table 3-18). 

Operating revenues from mineral leases and permits 

totaled $178.3 million in FY 2005 (USDI BLM 2006c). 

These receipts include rental collections from oil and 

gas ROW, revenues from developed lands within the 

Naval Oil Shale Reserve in Colorado, lease rentals and 

bonus bids from the National Petroleum Reserve in 

Alaska, and fees related to mining claims, holding fees, 

and non-operating revenues. 

Woodland products are an important commodity and 

source of revenue generated on public lands. These 

products include timber; other wood products, such as 

fuelwood, posts, and poles; and non-wood forest 

products, such as Christmas trees, cactus, seed, yucca, 

pinyon nuts, mushrooms, and yew bark. During FY 

1997 to 2005, an average of approximately $35 million 

was generated annually from woodland products 
TABLE 3-15

Population, Age Distribution, and Race in the Western States and Alaska

Age Distribution Percent of Both Hispanic and Non

State

Population

2000 

(thousands) 

Percent 

Change 

from 1990 

Density

(per mi2) Percent 

Under 18 

Percent 

Over 65 

Percent of 

Hispanic 

Origin Caucasian African American American Indian Asian

Isla

Alaska 627 12.3 1.1 30.2 5.4 4.1 69.3 3.5 15.6 Arizona 5,131 28.6 45.2 26.5 12.6 25.3 75.5 3.1 5.0 California 33,877 12.1 217.2 27.2 10.1 32.4 59.5 6.7 1.0 1Colorado 4,301 23.4 41.5 25.5 9.2 17.1 82.8 3.8 1.0 Idaho 1,294 22.2 15.6 28.4 10.7 7.9 91.0 0.4 1.4 Montana 902 11.4 6.2 25.3 12.5 2.0 90.6 0.3 6.2 Nebraska 1,711 8.4 22.3 26.3 13.6 5.5 89.6 4.0 0.9 Nevada 1,998 39.9 18.2 25.5 10.6 19.7 75.2 6.8 1.3 New Mexico 1,819 16.7 15.0 27.8 11.2 42.1 66.8 1.9 9.5 North Dakota 642 0.5 9.3 24.9 13.5 1.2 92.4 0.6 4.9 Oklahoma 3,460 9.7 50.3 25.9 13.2 5.2 76.2 7.6 7.9 Oregon 3,421 16.9 35.6 24.6 12.2 8.0 86.6 4.6 1.3 South Dakota 755 7.8 9.9 26.5 13.1 1.4 88.7 0.6 8.3 Texas 20,852 22.8 79.6 28.2 9.9 32.0 71.0 11.5 0.6 Utah 2,233 22.9 27.2 32.0 8.2 9.0 89.2 0.8 1.3 Washington 5,894 17.4 88.6 25.6 10.6 7.5 81.8 3.2 1.6 Wyoming 494 8.1 5.1 25.9 11.0 6.4 92.1 0.8 2.3 United States 281,422 11.6 76.6 25.6 11.7 12.5 75.1 12.3 0.9 Western States 89,406 16.5 40.5 27.1 10.5 24.9 70.7 6.5 1.9 Percentage of Total U.S. 31.8 - - 33.7 28.5 63.2 29.9 16.7 68.3 5Source: U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census (2004).

BLMVegetationTreatments Using Herbicides 3-63 June 2007 

FinalProgrammaticEIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-16

Percent Unemployment for Western U.S. and 

Alaska 

Year 

State 1990 2000 December 

2005 

Alaska 7.0 6.6 6.7

Arizona 5.5 3.9 4.1

California 5.8 4.9 4.8

Colorado 5.0 2.7 4.0

Idaho 5.9 4.9 3.2

Montana 6.0 4.9 2.9

Nebraska 2.2 3.0 3.1

Nevada 4.9 4.1 4.4

New Mexico 6.5 4.9 3.8 

North Dakota 4.0 3.0 3.2 

Oklahoma 5.7 3.1 3.8

Oregon 5.6 4.9 5.4

South Dakota 3.9 2.3 3.2 

Texas 6.3 4.2 4.5

Utah 4.3 3.2 2.6

Washington 4.9 5.2 5.0

Wyoming 5.5 3.9 3.0

United States 5.6 4.0 4.5 

Source: U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 

(2007). 

harvested from public lands, the majority of which

came from timber sales. The average volume of 

timber harvested annually between 1997 and 2005

was approximately 30 million cubic feet. The revenue

generated from timber sales has generally decreased

over the past 8 years, from $83.6 million in 1997 to

$36.1 million in 2005 (USDI BLM Public Land 

Statistics 1997-2006). 

Ninety percent of income from the sale of timber and

other vegetative materials is derived from Oregon and

California and Coos Bay (Oregon) Wagon Road Grant

Lands. Timber harvest levels on these lands are 

guided by the direction of the Northwest Forest Plan. 

Timber sales on other public lands include sales from

salvage timber and forest health projects. 

Grazing fees are derived using a formula established

in the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978, 

which is based on several index factors, including 

private land lease rates, beef cattle prices, and the cost 

of production. In 2006, the fee was $1.56 per AUM, 

down from $1.79 in 2005 (USDI BLM 2006c). 

Approximately $14.5 million was collected in grazing

receipts in 2005. Half of the grazing fees are used by 

the BLM for rangeland improvements (USDI BLM

2006d). 

Fees are charged at many public recreation sites to 

provide for maintenance and improvement, and

include access fees for Entrance Permits, Special Area 

Permits, Daily Use Permits, Commercial, 

Competitive, and Group Permits, Leases, and

Passports. At other locations, generally those without 

public facilities, no fees are charged. In FY 2005, 

nearly 79% of recreational use on public lands, in 

terms of visitor days, occurred in non-fee areas (USDI 

BLM 2006d). The BLM also issues special recreation 

permits to qualified commercial companies and 

organized groups such as outfitters, guides, vendors, 

and commercial competitive event organizers who

conduct activities on both fee and non-fee lands. 

Nearly $13.3 million were collected in recreation fees

in 2005 (USDI BLM 2006d). 

In FY 2005, sales of public land and material, 

including receipts from the sale of public land, and the

sale of vegetative and mineral materials, totaled nearly 

$1.5 billion, of which nearly $1.2 billion were from

the sale of certain public lands in Clark County,

Nevada, near the city of Las Vegas, under the

Southern Nevada Public Land Management Act

(USDI BLM 2006c). 

In addition to providing revenue for the BLM, all of 

the major public land activity categories generate

economic benefits to the communities and states in

which they occur. For example, there are nearly

18,000 grazing leases in force on public lands, 

supporting over 12.7 million AUMs (Table 3-6).

Alaska and Texas have no grazing permits in force. 

The value of these grazing permits and the acreage 

they entail vary widely depending on the location, soil

characteristics, and precipitation. The availability of 

public land grazing leases is highly beneficial, if not 

crucial, to some ranching operations, however, and 

consequently is very important to many rural

communities throughout the West. 

Similarly, mineral development is an economic

mainstay of many western communities. Table 3-17

illustrates the relative importance to the employment

base of mineral extraction, particularly in Arizona, 

Wyoming and Nevada. Each of these states, plus 

Alaska, has a much higher percentage of employment

in mining/natural resource industry than the average 

for the West as a whole. This industry sector includes 

oil and gas, coal, aggregates, and hard rock minerals 

such as gold and copper. Alaska’s oil industry not 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-64 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3-17

Percent Employment by Industry in 2004 

State 

Agriculture Mining and Natural Resources Construction Manufacturing Transportation and Public Utilities Trade (Wholesale and Retail) Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate Services Government Other Total Number(thousands) 

Alaska 0.3 3.5 6.5 3.5 20.6 13.8 4.8 7.7 27.4 3.6 301

Arizona 2.7 8.6 8.4 7.2 19.0 15.8 6.8 14.0 17.6 3.7 2,379

California 3.1 0.2 5.8 10.5 18.9 15.5 0.6 15.1 16.4 3.4 14,633

Colorado 2.0 0.7 7.0 7.0 18.7 15.3 7.1 13.9 16.7 4.0 2,186

Idaho 6.5 0.8 7.3 10.3 19.8 16.5 4.6 12.9 19.7 3.1 600

Montana 6.5 1.7 6.5 4.6 20.8 17.0 5.2 8.4 21.4 4.0 410

Nebraska 6.9 0.1 5.3 11.0 21.6 16.1 6.9 10.3 17.8 3.8 917

Nevada 1.4 7.8 10.2 4.0 17.0 14.1 5.4 8.1 14.0 3.0 1,165

New Mexico 2.5 1.9 6.4 4.6 17.3 14.4 4.4 11.4 25.3 3.6 799

North Dakota 8.8 1.1 5.4 7.0 21.3 17.4 5.6 7.1 23.0 4.6 341

Oklahoma 3.3 2.2 4.3 9.7 18.8 15.2 5.7 10.8 20.5 5.0 1,472

Oregon 4.3 0.6 5.3 12.6 19.9 16.4 6.1 11.1 17.0 3.6 1,624

South Dakota 9.2 0.2 5.4 9.9 20.3 17.2 7.2 6.2 19.7 4.2 385

Texas 2.9 1.6 5.9 9.3 20.6 16.4 6.2 11.3 17.7 3.8 9,519

Utah 2.4 0.7 6.8 10.3 19.8 15.7 5.8 12.6 18.0 2.9 1,119

Washington 2.9 0.3 6.3 9.6 19.2 15.8 5.8 11.2 19.3 3.7 2,752

Wyoming 5.5 8.1 8.2 3.8 19.1 14.4 4.1 6.0 25.4 3.7 259

Western U.S. 3.2 0.8 5.8 9.3 19.5 15.8 6.1 12.8 17.6 3.6 40,861

Source: U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics (2004). 

only supports ongoing employment, it contributes 

toward minimizing taxes for all state residents and has 

provided a substantial cash rebate to residents over the 

years. 

The BLM estimated the benefits to local economies

from recreation on public lands. These estimates serve

as one example of the economic activity that depends on 

the public land base. Recreational activity provides 

revenue for local economies through expenditures 

associated with activities such as hunting, fishing, and

wildlife viewing (Table 3-19). In FY 2005, an estimated 

$3 billion was injected into local economies through

these recreation-associated expenditures (USDI BLM

2006c, d). These activities produce indirect financial

benefits to community businesses providing food,

lodging, equipment sales, transportation, and other 

services. State fish and wildlife management agencies 

also benefit from spending associated with these

activities from sources such as state tax revenue and 

state administered fishing and hunting license programs. 

Expenditures by the BLM 

The budget for the BLM was $1.78 billion in FY 2006, 

and is projected to be $1.8 billion in FY 2007 (USDI 

BLM 2006c). In FY 2006, $848 million was allocated

to management of lands and resources (Table 3-20). 

These expenditures included integrated management of 

public land, renewable and cultural resources, fish and 

wildlife, threatened and endangered species, recreation, 

and energy and minerals. 

Wildland Fire Management 

While the amount budgeted for wildland fire 

management may be relatively consistent from year to 

year, the cost of fighting fires has varied substantially. 

The USDI allocated $800 million to wildland fire

management for FY 2006 for all USDI fire efforts 

(USDI BLM 2006c). 

Table 3-21 shows the BLM’s fire suppression

expenditures for recent years. The variability often

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-65 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-18

Revenues Generated from Public Lands by Source for Fiscal Year 2005 

State 

Mineral 

Leases

Timber

Sales 

Land and 

Material Sales 

Grazing 

Fees

Recreation 

Fees Other

1 Total 

Alaska $64,139,369 $17,490 $202,736 $0 $260,115 $801,390 $65,421,100

Arizona 91,485 2,675 2,509,213 769,358 1,217,641 1,828,752 6,419,124

California 220,665 1,605,477 1,388,651 267,679 3,347,666 2,815,390 9,645,528

Colorado 15,499,973 38,502 640,191 617,622 424,138 667,176 17,887,602

Idaho 31,700 558,581 218,056 1,622,749 579,963 828,918 3,839,967

Montana 2,517,912 610,113 139,909 2,039,872 307,467 221,436 5,836,7092

Nebraska 0 0 0 1,510 0 0 1,510

Nevada 130,948 6,441 1,240,628,540 2,101,628 2,140,736 4,838,503 1,249,846,796

New Mexico 957,739 14 3,739,748 2,174,496 396,957 721,915 7,990,869

North Dakota 2,172 0 1,573 18,731 0 2,460 24,936 

Oklahoma 13,834 0 0 236 0 0 14,070

Oregon 14,861 23,507,514 271,822 1,278,627 1,980,602 1,322,489 28,375,915

South Dakota 201 33,428 1,018 174,142 0 4,601 213,390 

Texas 634 0 0 0 0 0 634

Utah 129,034 25 586,121 1,136,093 2,155,660 656,863 4,663,796

Washington 84 10,455 28,165 51,906 0 18,028 108,638

Wyoming 851,335 23,070 1,622,279 2,285,227 218,650 1,026,460 6,027,021

Other 93,700,3883 0 0 0 0 0 93,700,388

Total 178,302,334 26,413,785 1,252,024,986 14,539,876 13,029,595 115,754,381 1,498,906,604

1 Includes fees and commissions, ROW rents, rent of land, and other sources. 2

 Includes Land Utilization Project land purchased by the federal government under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act and subsequently

transferred to the USDI. 3

 Includes mining claim and holding fees and non-operating revenue.

Source: BLM Public Land Statistics (USDI BLM 2006d).

TABLE 3-19

Estimated Benefits to Local Economies by Recreation on Public Lands in Fiscal Year 2005 

State1 Fishing 

Expenditures 

Hunting 

Expenditures 

Wildlife Viewing 

Expenditures Total 

Alaska $116,425,359 $22,158,084 $80,372,999 $218,956,442

Arizona 17,251,493 45,326,644 154,080,147 216,658,284

California 54,815,364 82,363,747 411,761,577 548,940,688

Colorado 74,107,778 154,416,602 98,545,120 327,069,500

Idaho 44,282,994 72,746,698 66,800,278 183,829,970

Montana 13,377,194 23,635,550 33,670,436 70,683,180

Nevada 43,973,306 101,344,319 193,650,554 338,968,179

New Mexico 21,802,203 27,218,884 106,404,864 155,425,951

Oregon 60,958,338 140,939,262 219,081,863 420,979,463

Utah 46,208,009 92,412,855 245,410,668 384,031,532

Washington 1,876,536 2,044,106 5,274,085 9,194,727 

Wyoming 10,459,904 39,947,204 85,394,947 135,802,055

Total 505,538,478 804,553,955 1,700,447,538 3,010,539,971 1

Estimates include only states with more than 75,000 acres of public lands. No estimates were made for Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South

Dakota, and Texas.

Source: BLM Public Lands Statistics (USDI BLM 2006d).

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-66 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-20

Summary of BLM Jobs and Expenditures for the Management of the Lands and Resources Program 

by Activity and Subactivity (dollars in thousands)

2005 (Actual) 2006 (Enacted) Activity/Subactivity FTE1 Amount FTE1 Amount 

Management of Lands and Resources 

 Land Resources 

 Soil, Water, Air 

 Range Management

 Forest Management 

 Riparian Management 

 Cultural Resources 

 Wild Horse and Burros 

 Wildlife and Fisheries 

 Wildlife Management 

 Fisheries Management 

 Threatened and Endangered Species 

 Recreation 

 Wilderness Management

 Recreation Resource Management

 Resource Protection 

 Energy and Minerals 

 Realty and Ownership 

 Transportation Facilities and Maintenance 

 Workforce Organization and Support

 Alaska Minerals

 Other2

 

6,287 

1,493 

246 

6,880 

72 

195 

130 

170 

298 

197 

101 

176 

553 

145 

408 

536 

1,009 

731 

426 

626 

15 

663 

$836,826

188,014 

34,738 

69,183 

8,895 

21,228 

14,925 

39,045 

36,947 

25,063 

11,884 

21,144 

60,589 

16,431 

44,158 

81,501 

106,631 

92,624 

77,813 

142,161 

3,944 

25,458 

6,138 

1,456 

240 

658 

75 

190 

127 

166 

302 

202 

100 

171 

548 

141 

407 

527 

993 

710 

395 

611 

11 

639 

$847,632 

187,613 

33,838 

69,870 

10,404 

22,124 

15,015 

36,362 

40,480 

28,166 

12,314 

21,254 

65,131 

16,559 

48,752 

84,358 

108,157 

88,978 

76,646 

144,446 

2,263 

27,306 1

 Full Time Equivalent. 2 Includes Communications Sites Management, Mining Law Administration, Land Resources Information Systems, Challenge Cost 

Share, and Reimbursable programs. 

Source: USDI BLM (2006c). 

results from changing weather, but terrain, vegetation,

and proximity to populated areas all contribute to the

cost of fighting a fire. 

The cost of fire suppression also depends on the number 

and size of fires. Approximately 95% of wildland fires 

are controlled in the initial attack, when they are 

relatively small and not yet seriously out of control.

Table 3-22 illustrates the acreage lost to large fires 

(greater than 10,000 acres) in recent years. Notably,

there were relatively few large fires in 2001 and 2003,

which likely contributed to reduced suppression

expenditures in those years. 2004 was an anomaly in

that costs remained relatively low despite an extremely 

large acreage lost to fire. The most likely reason is that

nearly all of the large fires that year were in Alaska, and 

several were sufficiently remote, or in such rugged

terrain, that they were allowed to burn without a major 

effort to control them. 

Hazardous Fuels Reduction 

Reducing the hazardous fuels available to sustain a

wildland fire can be costly. The USDI treated 542,568

acres in the WUI during 2005 at an average cost of $244

per acre. Treatment can cost up to $5,000 per acre for 

labor-intensive, small, mechanical treatments in forested

WUI areas. During the same year, the USDI treated

726,835 acres in non-WUI areas at a cost of about $104

per acre (USDI BLM 2006c). 

Weed Management 

Herbicides and other vegetation management methods

are employed to control invasive plant species, which

have caused a variety of problems on public lands. The 

Vegetation section of this chapter addresses several

major types of weed infestations on public lands. As 

Duncan and Clark (2005) noted, “The economic impact

of most (weed) species is poorly documented. This is

generally due to the lack of quantitative information on 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-67 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

ecosystem impacts and the challenge of assessing nonmarket cost such as those to society and the

environment (e.g., changes in fire frequency, wildlife 

habitat, aesthetics, loss of biodiversity).” 

TABLE 3-21

BLM Wildland Fire Suppression Expenditures 

Fiscal Year 1998 through Fiscal Year 2005 

Fiscal Year Expenditure Percent Change 

from Prior Year 

1998 $ 63,470,000 NA 

1999 85,724,000 35.1 

2000 228,394,000 166.4 

2001 192,115,000 -15.9 

2002 204,666,000 6.5 

2003 151,994,000 -25.8 

2004 158,626,000 4.4 

2005 218,445,000 39.7 

NA = Not applicable 

Source: USDI BLM (2006c). 

Expenditures for herbicides used on BLM land are a 

relatively small part of the agency’s budget, accounting

for only a little more than $2.7 million in FY 2005 

(Table 3-23). Table 3-23 includes only the cost of the 

chemicals; labor and equipment costs for herbicide 

application are in addition to the costs shown. The BLM

estimated it spent $9.6 million to treat approximately

205,000 acres ($47 per acre) to treat weeds during FY 

2005; These costs included herbicide, labor, and 

equipment costs. The cost of herbicides can vary 

dramatically, depending on the type selected and the 

method of application. Costs can also vary significantly 

by geographic region, vendor, type of chemical (generic 

versus branded), and size and terrain of the application 

target area. The Forest Service estimated the average

cost per acre at $100 for ground applications and $25

for aerial applications (USDA Forest Service 2005). 

The BLM’s range of estimated application costs is even

broader. For ground applications, BLM’s estimates 

range from $50 to $300 per acre for backpack or ATV 

applications and $25 to $75 per acre for boom sprayer 

applications. Aerial applications are estimated at $6 to

$40 per acre for fixed-wing aircraft and $25 to $200 per 

acre for helicopter applications. 

It is estimated that downy brome infests over 56 million

acres in the 17 western states and that the infestation is 

growing at 14% per year (Duncan and Clark 2005). As

indicated in Table 3-5, more than 90 million acres of 

public lands are infested with downy brome and other 

brome species. Downy brome can increase the

frequency and intensity of wildfire and destroy the 

structure of the native plant communities, particularly

sagebrush habitats. Because of its widespread

dominance, downy brome has become the most

important forage grass in the western U.S. However, it

is highly unreliable as a forage base for both cattle and 

wildlife because it can exhibit “tenfold differences (300-

3,500 lbs/acre) from year to year” in productivity, 

depending on precipitation. 

Once a treatment is accomplished, it is then costly to 

rehabilitate the land. Cost per acre to stabilize and 

rehabilitate disturbed land is estimated at $17. During

1991, however, it cost $100,000 to rehabilitate the 1,700 

acres burned in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area,

Idaho, or almost $59 per acre. During 2004, it cost the 

BLM $1,640 per acre to restore 12,000 acres of 

forestland and woodlands. The unit cost ranged from 

$295 per acre in New Mexico to $2,730 per acre in

Oregon (USDI BLM 2005a). 

TABLE 3-22

BLM Action Fires Larger Than 10,000 Acres1 

during 1999 to 2005 

Calendar 

Year 

Number 

of Fires 

Average 

Size

(Acres) 

Total 

Acreage 

1999 64 44,990 2,879,351

2000 66 34,851 2,300,187

2001 28 40,524 1,134,662

2002 46 55,484 2,552,265

2003 23 55,940 1,286,612

2004 51 122,805 6,263,059

2005 98 68,277 6,691,137

Total 376 61,455 23,107,273 1

 Fire Type 1 - All protection types. 

Source: USDI BLM (2007c). 

Payments to State and Local Governments 

Where the federal government maintains public land, it 

makes payments to state and local governments for a 

variety of purposes. Receipts from coal leases and 

bonus payments, for example, are shared. Payments in 

lieu of taxes help address the loss of potential local tax 

income that could have been generated from those 

public lands if they were in private ownership. 

Payments in lieu of taxes, as well as other forms of

transfer payments, are generally set by law and provided 

according to a formula. Payments in lieu of taxes, for 

example, are computed based on the number of acres of 

public lands within each county and multiplied by a 

dollar amount per acre. Over $2 billion in payments 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-68 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-23

Herbicide Uses and Costs for Vegetation Treatments on Public Lands during 2005 

Herbicide Type of 

Application 

Acres Treated1 Total Herbicide 

Expenditure

2

 

Cost per Acre for 

Herbicide

2

2,4-D Aerial 

Ground 

1,689 

40,133 

$5,474 

186,515 

$3.24 

4.65 

Bromacil Aerial 

Ground 

0 

2,999 

0 

379,763 

NA 

126.63

Chlorsulfuron Aerial 

Ground 

374 

2,667 

35,572 

51,836 

95.11 

19.44 

Clopyralid Aerial 

Ground 

5,168 

6,277 

169,510 

268,032 

32.80 

42.70 

Dicamba Aerial 

Ground 

48 

7,664 

945 

150,245 

19.69 

19.60 

Diuron 

Aerial 

Ground 

0 

4,427 

0 

72,340 

NA 

16.34 

Fosamine 

Aerial 

Ground 

0 

0 

0 

0 

NA 

NA 

Glyphosate 

Aerial 

Ground 

11,032 

8,309 

25,648 

56,487 

2.32 

6.80 

Hexazinone 

Aerial 

Ground 

0 

4,952 

0 

3,138 

NA 

0.63 

Imazapic Aerial 

Ground 

0 

45 

0 

1,309 

NA 

29.10 

Imazapyr 

Aerial 

Ground 

1,203 

1,788 

151,340 

105,619 

125.80

59.07 

Metsulfuron methyl Aerial 

Ground 

663 

14,129 

5,529 

178,208 

8.34 

12.61 

Picloram

Aerial 

Ground 

4,158 

28,385 

67,497 

629,897 

16.23 

22.19 

Sulfometuron methyl Aerial 

Ground 

0 

304 

0 

7,741 

NA 

25.46 

Tebuthiuron 

Aerial 

Ground 

40,755 

0 

47,427 

0 

1.16 

NA 

Triclopyr 

Aerial 

Ground 

4,000 

3,170 

23,750 

85,966 

5.94 

27.12 1

 Acres treated do not take into account whether the aerial application was by helicopter or airplane, nor do they distinguish between 

ground application methods. Costs would vary depending on the application method. 2

 Total herbicide expenditure and cost per acre do not include costs for labor, equipment, and application, and represent an average cost 

for use throughout the BLM. 

NA = Not available or not applicable. 

have been made since 1976. Table 3-24 shows the 

BLM payments to states and local governments for 

FY 2004. 

Human Health and Safety 

Background Health Risks 

This section discusses background information on

human health risks of injuries, and cancer and other 

diseases for people living in the states in which the 

BLM is planning to implement vegetation treatments. 

People living in these states are exposed to a variety of 

risks common to the U.S. as a whole, including 

automobile accidents and other injuries; contaminants 

in the air, water, soil, and food; and various diseases. 

Risks to workers may differ from those facing the 

general public, depending on the nature of a person’s 

work. Some of these risks may be quantified, but a 

lack of data allows for only a qualitative description of 

certain risks. Where data are only available for the

U.S. as a whole, it is assumed that these data apply to 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-69 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

the treatment states. Information for this section was 

obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention (CDC), the National Center for Injury

Prevention and Control (NCIPC), the National Center 

for Health Statistics (NCHS), the National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the 

Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Risks from Diseases 

Disease Incidence 

Despite the difficulties in establishing correlations 

between work conditions and disease, certain illnesses 

have been linked to occupational hazards. For 

example, asbestosis and lung cancer among insulation 

and shipyard workers has been linked to their 

exposure to asbestos (NIOSH 2002). Pneumoconiosis

among coal miners has been correlated with the 

inhalation of coal dust. Occupational exposures to 

some metals, dusts, and trace elements, as well as CO,

carbon disulfide, halogenated hydrocarbons, 

nitroglycerin, and nitrates, can result in increased 

incidence of cardiovascular disease. Neurotoxic 

disorders can arise from exposure to a wide range of 

chemicals, including some pesticides. Dermatological

conditions like contact dermatitis, infection, trauma, 

cancer, vitiligo, uticaria, and chloracne have a high 

occurrence in the agricultural, forestry, and fishing 

industries. 

Disease Mortality 

Mortality rates for states in the BLM treatment area

are listed in Table 3-25. The five most common

causes of death in the U.S., as well as in the treatment

states, are heart disease, cancer, stroke, respiratory 

disease, and accidents (Minino et al. 2002). Counties 

in the western U.S. that have the highest mortality 

rates are located in central Nevada, north and southcentral California, and western Montana. Mortality 

rates are generally lowest in counties in western Utah, 

central Idaho, and northwest Wyoming (NCHS 2007). 

Mortality rates for males are nearly one and a half 

times those as for females, and mortality rates for 

African Americans are nearly one and a half times 

those of Caucasians (NCHS 2007). 

Risks from Injuries 

Injury Incidence 

In 2005, more than 29.3 million nonfatal injuries were

reported in the United States, 4.4 million of which 

were transportation related (CDC 2007a). Injuries

accounted for 26% of emergency department visits

during 2004 (NCHS 2007). 

The rate of hospitalizations for injury is significantly 

higher among elderly persons than among all other

age groups (CDC 2005). The NIOSH estimates that 

approximately 10 million traumatic work-related

injuries occur annually. Some chronic injuries may be 

directly linked to the nature of the work performed. 

For example, vibration syndrome affects a large 

proportion of workers using chippers, grinders, 

chainsaws, jackhammers, or other handheld power 

tools, causing blanching and reduced sensitivity in the 

fingers. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 

1995, an estimated 62% of all work-related illness 

cases were due to musculoskeletal disorders 

associated with repeated trauma, such as that

associated with the use of power tools (NIOSH 1997). 

Noise-induced hearing loss may also affect production 

workers who are exposed to noise levels of 80

decibels or more on a daily basis. 

Acute trauma at work remains a leading cause of 

death and disability among U.S. workers. During the

period from 1980 through 1995, at least 93,338 

workers in the U.S. died as a result of trauma suffered

on the job, with an average of about 16 deaths per day

(NIOSH 2001). The Census of Fatal Occupational

Injuries Summary by the BLS (U.S. Department of 

Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 2004) identified

5,559 workplace deaths from acute traumatic injury in

2003. Occupational fatalities resulted from a number

of causes, including motor vehicle accidents, 

machines, falls, homicide, electrocution, and being 

struck by falling objects (NIOSH 2002). 

The occupational fatality rate in 2005 was 

approximately 4.0 fatalities per 100,000 employed. 

Fatality rates were highest for the agriculture, forestry, 

fishing, and hunting; mining; transportation; and

construction industries. The fatality rate for the

agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting sector was 

the highest, at 32.5 fatal industries per 100,000 

workers. The mining sector had the second highest 

rate, at 25.6 fatalities per 100,000 employed. In the

transportation and construction industries the rates 

were 17.6 and 11.0 fatalities per 100,000 employed, 

respectively. The largest number of fatal work injuries 

resulted from construction-related incidents, which 

accounting for 21% of workplace fatalities in 2003 

(U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 

2004). 

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-70 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-24

BLM Payments to States and Local Governments during Fiscal Year 2005

Taylor Grazing Act2

State 

Payments 

in Lieu of

Taxes1

Mineral 

Leasing 

Act 

Section 

3

Section 

15 Other 

Proceeds 

of Sales 

Other Total 

Payments 

Alaska $15,785,027 $29,559 $0 $0 $0 $5,412 $31,594,59533 $47,414,593 

Arizona 19,233,774 45,743 43,124 79,669 0 107,081 0 19,509,331

California 19,002,175 122,757 14,012 55,755 0 45,359 0 19,240,058

Colorado 16,839,759 129,557 53,520 30,062 43,068 29,640 0 17,125,606

Idaho 15,871,144 15,850 167,896 22,898 0 18,051 0 16,095,839

Montana 17,188,322 18,056 128,785 95,678 0 20,175 649,7454 18,100,761 

Nebraska 676,604 0 0 664 0 0 0 677,268

Nevada 13,732,723 65,445 233,458 705 0 824,000 204,497,4795 219,353,810 

New Mexico 22,386,899 475,204 170,502 135,900 14 88,389 8,2694 23,265,177 

North Dakota 950,280 1,086 0 7,921 0 67 0 959,354 

Oklahoma 1,600,788 13 0 68 0 0 11,9466 1,612,815 

Oregon 6,428,257 7,678 131,630 23,405 0 46,661 113,338,9007 119,976,531 

South Dakota 2,566,411 100 0 67,435 0 2,600 0 2,636,546

Texas 2,595,410 317 0 0 0 0 0 2,595,727

Utah 19,622,224 55,319 104,868 0 0 15,337 0 19,797,748

Washington 6,322,087 42 0 22,367 0 5,378 0 6,349,874

Wyoming 14,810,769 413,269 145,697 327,446 6,924 78,040 0 15,782,145

Western States 195,612,593 1,379,995 1,193,49 869,973 50,006 1,286,190 350,100,934 550,493,183

All States 226,356,675 1,379,995 1,193,49 869,973 50,006 1,286,458 350,100,934 581,237,533

1 Payments in lieu of taxes are made by the USDI, Office of the Secretary, for tax-exempt federal lands administered by the BLM, National Park Service,

USFWS, and Forest Service, as well as for federal water projects and some military installations. 2

 Including payments for FY 2004 that were processed in FY 2005. 3

 National Petroleum Reserve – Alaska lands. 4

 Land utilization lands under the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act (7 U.S.C. 1012). 5

 Land utilization sales under the Southern Nevada Public Land Management Act resulted in direct payments at the time of sale totaling $193,566,000.

Calendar year payments to Clark County and the State of Nevada under the Santini-Burton Act totaled $3,784,080. 6

 Oklahoma royalties. 7

 Payments from Oregon and California grant lands and Coos Bay Wagon Road grant land counties.

Source: USDI BLM (2006c).

Injury Mortality 

Over 167,000 Americans died from injuries nationwide 

in 2004. About 26% of these resulted from motor 

vehicle accidents, while other accidental deaths 

occurred from unintentional falls, drowning, and 

poisoning (CDC 2007a). Injury is the leading cause of

death and disability among children and young adults. 

Risks from Cancer 

Cancer Incidence 

Nationwide, the chance of developing some form of 

cancer during one’s lifetime is estimated to be about one

in four (Calabrese and Dorsey 1984). There are many

causes of cancer development, including occupational

exposure to carcinogens, environmental contaminants, 

and substances in food. In the U.S., one-third of all

cancers are attributed to tobacco smoking. Workrelated cancers are estimated to account for 4% to 20%

of all malignancies. It is difficult to quantify the

information because of the long time intervals between

exposure and diagnosis, personal behavior patterns, job 

changes, and exposure to other carcinogens. The 

NIOSH has reported that approximately 20,000 cancer 

deaths and 40,000 new cases of cancer each year in the

U.S. are attributable to occupational hazards. Millions 

of U.S. workers are exposed to substances that have 

tested as carcinogens in animal studies (NIOSH 2002). 

Cancer Mortality. Based on the data shown in Table 3-

25, cancer accounted for between 13 and 33% of all 

deaths in the treatment states in 2002-2003. Nationwide, 

cancer account for approximately 23% of all fatalities 

(NCHS 2007). Cancer mortality rates are generally

highest in counties in western and southern Nevada and 

northern California and lowest in counties in Utah, 

central Colorado, and northern New Mexico (Devesa et

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-71 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

TABLE 3-25

Mortality Rates (per 100,000 Population) and Causes of Death by State 2002-2003

Cause of Death 

Diseases 

State All Cerebrovascular and 

Cardiovascular Disease 

Chronic Respiratory 

Disease 

Cancer Accidents

Alaska 812.51 235.7 47.4 186.9 58.2

Arizona 788.0 248.1 46.8 171.9 48.1

California 762.3 283.8 43.1 175.9 28.2

Colorado 784.5 231.4 53.0 169.5 42.0

Idaho 800.4 264.3 48.3 175.6 45.4

Montana 841.3 249.4 58.4 190.3 53.3

Nebraska 799.9 262.4 47.4 183.2 38.0

Nevada 920.1 303.9 64.5 203.1 40.5

New Mexico 820.1 240.4 49.3 169.7 61.9

North Dakota 765.2 260.8 40.0 180.7 36.3 

Oklahoma 967.9 367.4 55.2 202.5 47.4

Oregon 823.7 256.9 48.9 195.8 37.6

South Dakota 782.1 264.1 42.4 186.7 46.9 

Texas 863.6 307.5 44.6 187.8 39.9

Utah 778.2 239.7 35.3 143.1 34.1

Washington 785.3 258.9 47.4 190.9 36.0

Wyoming 852.9 258.8 60.7 185.0 56.0

United States 842.7 295.5 43.4 193.0 36.6 

1

Age-adjusted death rate per 100,000 population, which accounts for changes in the age distribution of the population. 

Source: NCHS (2007). 

al. 1999), and differ depending on race and sex.

Generally, males have higher rates of cancer mortality 

than females, and African Americans have higher rates 

than Caucasians. 

Risk from Using Herbicides on Public 

Lands 

Based on the BLM’s injury breakout report (USDI

BLM 2005b), only one minor injury from use of 

herbicides was recorded during FY 2005. 

Risk from Wildfire Control on Public 

Lands 

During FY 2005, 24,683 fires totaling 6,691,137 acres 

were suppressed on public lands. Over three out of 

every four fires were caused by lightning, while the 

remainder were caused by humans. Approximately 56% 

of fires occurred on forestlands, the remainder on 

rangelands and other land types (USDI BLM 2006d). 

Wildfires cause the loss of life and property. According 

to the National Interagency Fire Center (2005), 12

people died from wildland fire-related accidents in 

2005. From 1999 to 2005, the leading cause of 

firefighter deaths nationally, which include federal, 

state, and local firefighters and volunteers, as well as 

private individuals who were involved in direct support 

of wildland fire operations are: vehicle accidents 

(23.8%), heart attacks (22.7%), aircraft accidents 

(22.3%), and burnovers/entrapments (20.2%). 

During FYs 2002 to 2005, 49 USDI personnel were 

injured conducting fire operations. During 2005, 

wildland fires resulted in the loss of 240 primary 

residences and 750 total structures on lands near BLMor Forest Service-administered lands (USDI BLM

2006c).

BLM Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides 3-72 June 2007 

Final Programmatic EIS