FoodReview • Volume 23, Issue 3

2

Food Consumption and Spending

Federal dietary guidance outlined in the 2000 edition ofDietary Guidelines for Americans

and depicted in the Food Guide

Pyramid is intended to help consumers choose diets that improve

health, reduce their risk for dietrelated chronic disease, and meet

their nutritional needs (fig. 1). The

Food Guide Pyramid helps consumers put the Dietary Guidelines

into practice by recommending the

type and quantity of foods to eat

from five major food groups—

grains (bread, cereals, rice, and

pasta), vegetables, fruit, dairy (milk,

yogurt, and cheese), and meat (red

meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs,

and nuts). The Pyramid also suggests that consumers use fats, oils,

and sweets sparingly. The Dietary

Guidelines recommend that Americans limit total fat intake to no more

than 30 percent of calories, saturated

fat intake to less than 10 percent of

calories, and dietary cholesterol to

less than the Daily Value of 300 milligrams a day listed on the Nutrition

Facts Label.

Information about consumers’

eating patterns, if different from

these recommendations, helps consumers make dietary adjustments

and helps policymakers and nutrition educators target educational

messages effectively. For example,

analyses of food supply data,

adjusted for spoilage and waste, by

USDA’s Economic Research Service

(ERS) suggest that the average

American diet is heavily weighted

to added fats and sugars found at

the tip of the Pyramid and falls

short of recommendations for fruits

and dairy products. And many consumers need to change the mix of

foods in the meat, vegetable, and

grain groups to meet recommendations for dietary variety and selected

food components, such as fiber, total

fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.

Food Supply Data

Adjusted for Spoilage

and Waste

Two primary data sets are available to measure compliance with 

the new Dietary Guidelines—USDA’s

Continuing Survey of Food Intakes

by Individuals (CSFII) and the 

U.S. Food Supply Series. Both data

sets provide Pyramid servings data

for analyzing how American diets 

stack up compared to Pyramid 

recommendations.

The CSFII records what people

say they have eaten over a specific

time period and collects demographic information about respondents, such as household size,

income, race, age, and sex. The

demographic information is particularly valuable because it can be used

Per Capita Food Supply

Trends: Progress Toward

Dietary Guidelines

Judy Putnam Linda Scott Kantor Jane Allshouse

(202) 694-5462 (202) 694-5456 (202) 694-5449

jjputnam@ers.usda.gov lkantor@ers.usda.gov allshous@ers.usda.gov

The authors are agricultural economists with the

Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic

Research Service, USDA.

Figure 1

Dietary Guidelines 

for Americans

AIM FOR FITNESS...

BUILD A HEALTHY BASE...

Aim for a healthy weight.

Be physically active each day.

Let the Pyramid guide your food 

choices.

Choose a variety of grains daily,

especially whole grains.

Choose a variety of fruits and

vegetables daily.

Keep food safe to eat.

CHOOSE SENSIBLY...

Choose a diet that is low in 

saturated fat and cholesterol

and moderate in total fat.

Choose beverages and foods

to moderate your intake of sugars.

Choose and prepare foods with

less salt.

If you drink alcoholic beverages,

do so in moderation.

The Dietary Guidelines are issued by the

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

and the U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services (DHHS) and are updated

every 5 years to reflect new scientific

findings and changes in food consumption

and physical activity levels of the population. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans

released in April 2000 is the fifth edition.
Food Consumption and Spending

September-December 2000

3

to identify the type of persons most

likely to meet dietary recommendations on the basis of social and

demographic characteristics and can

help researchers assess dietary status among population subgroups.

The 1994-96 CSFII Pyramid Servings

Data provide national probability

estimates for the U.S. population

based on food intakes reported by

14,256 individuals 2 years of age

and older on 2 nonconsecutive days.

Numerous studies suggest that

food intake surveys, like the CSFII,

which collect food consumption

data through recollections of foods

eaten or food diaries over short

periods, are subject to underreporting of consumption when measured

in terms of energy intake. Underreporting of consumption is a particular concern of researchers studying

the underlying causes of the steep

rise in the prevalence of obesity in

recent years in the United States. 

Food supply data are collected

directly from producers and distributors using techniques that vary by

commodity. Food supply data are

not collected from individual consumers, which allows examination

of food consumption changes independent of consumer survey data. If

waste and other losses in the system

are relatively constant from year to

year, food supply data also provide

an independent measure of changes

in food consumption patterns over

time.

ERS calculates annually the

amount of food available for human

consumption in the United States.

For most commodity categories, this

available food supply is measured

as the sum of annual production,

beginning inventories, and imports

minus exports, industrial nonfood

uses, farm uses (seed and feed), and

end-of-year inventories. Per capita

consumption is calculated by dividing the available food supply by the

total U.S. population as of July 1

each year.

Since food supplies are measured

on an aggregate level as they move

through marketing channels for

domestic consumption, the data typically overstate the amount of food

that people actually ingest by capturing substantial quantities of

nonedible food parts (like peach

pits) and food lost through spoilage

and waste in the home and marketing systems.

ERS has developed new methods

to adjust the food supply data for

losses and express the data in terms

of servings recommended by the

Food Guide Pyramid. Researchers

can gain a more complete understanding of U.S. dietary patterns by

comparing food supply servings at

the national level with estimates

generated at the individual level by

food intake surveys. Loss-adjusted

servings calculated from the food

supply data can be compared with

the servings recommended by the

Food Guide Pyramid to gauge

America’s progress in following the

new Dietary Guidelines (fig. 2).

The Pyramid shows a range of

servings for each major food group.

The number of servings varies

depending on a person’s age, sex,

and physiological status. Everyone

should have at least the lowest

number of servings in the food

group ranges. Preschool children, 2-

3 years of age, should eat smaller

servings (two-thirds of the adult

servings, except milk) of the lowest

calorie level. ERS uses the recommended Pyramid servings for a

sample diet of 2,200 calories in this

article. This calorie level approximates the daily Recommended

1Pyramid recommendation based on a sample diet of 2,200 calories.

2The Food Guide Pyramid does not make a recommendation for added fats and oils. This

recommendation is implied by the 52-percent share of total fats accounted for by added

fats and oils in the food supply in 1997 and an upper limit on total fat consumption of 73 grams

for a 2,200-calorie diet.

Source: USDA's Economic Research Service.

Number of daily servings

Figure 2

1999 Food Supply Servings Compared With Food Guide Pyramid

Serving Recommendations

0 2 4 6 8 10

0 2 4 6 8 10

Grains

Vegetables

Fruit

Dairy

Meat,

 poultry, fish,

dry beans, 

eggs, & nuts

3

6 ounces

6.2 ounces

4

9

10

1.4

4

1.6

2.2

Added 

sugars

Added fats &

oils2

64 grams of fat

38 grams of fat

34 teaspoons, dry-weight equivalent

12 teaspoons, dry-weight equivalent

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1999 servings

Pyramid recommendation1
Energy Allowance (REA) of 2,247

calories for the United States,

derived from a 1998 populationweighted average of REA’s for 

different cohorts of the U.S. 

population.

Red Meat Dominates the

Meat Group

In 1999, total meat consumption

(red meat, poultry, fish, and shellfish) amounted to 201 pounds

(boneless, trimmed-weight equivalent, unadjusted for waste and cooking losses) per person, 24 pounds

above the 1970’s annual average

(table 1). Each American consumed

an average of 12 pounds less red

meat (mostly less beef), 33 pounds

more poultry, and 3 pounds more

fish and shellfish, compared with

average annual consumption in the

1970’s.

The Dietary Guidelines and the

Food Guide Pyramid recommend

two to three servings (totaling the

equivalent of 5 to 7 ounces of

cooked lean meat) of fish, shellfish,

lean poultry, other lean meats, eggs,

beans, or nuts daily. The Dietary

Guidelines suggest choosing beans

often, trimming fat from meat, skinning poultry, and limiting intake of

organ meats, egg yolks, and high-fat

processed meats, such as bacon,

sausages, and cold cuts, to keep saturated fat intake and blood cholesterol in check. The Dietary Guidelines

also advise eating moderate

amounts of foods high in unsaturated fats—some fish, such as

Table 1

Americans Are Eating Less Red Meat, Fewer Eggs, and More Poultry and Fish

1999

food supply,

Change, Pyramid-based 

Per capita annual averages 1970-79 servings per

Item 1970-79 1980-89 1990-99 1999 to 1999 capita per day1

Ounces of cooked 

Pounds, edible weight2 Percent meat equivalents

Total meat, poultry, and fish 177.2 182.2 191.1 201.3 13 5.2

Red meat 129.5 121.8 113.7 117.7 -9 3.0

Beef 80.9 71.7 63.9 65.8 -19 1.8

Pork 45.0 47.7 48.1 50.5 12 1.2

Lamb and mutton 1.5 1.0 .9 .9 -40 —

Veal 2.0 1.3 .8 .6 -70 —

Poultry 35.2 46.2 62.6 68.3 94 1.7

Chicken 28.4 36.3 48.5 54.2 91 1.3

Turkey 6.8 9.9 14.1 14.1 107 .4

Fish and shellfish 12.5 14.2 14.8 15.2 18 .5

Dry beans, peas, and 

lentils (legumes)3 7.0 6.6 8.1 8.4 20 .2

Peanuts and peanut butter 5.8 6.1 6.0 6.1 5 .1

Tree nuts and coconuts 2.3 2.6 2.7 2.7 21 .1

Number

Eggs 285.4 256.6 238.7 254.6 -11 .6

In-shell 251.6 218.3 178.6 181.1 -28 .4

Processed 33.8 38.3 60.1 73.5 118 .2

Ounces of cooked meat equivalents daily1

Total meat group supply1, 3 5.7 5.7 5.9 6.2 9 6.2

— = Less than 0.05. Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

1Adjusted for waste and cooking losses. According to the Food Guide Bulletin, consumers should count meat, poultry, and fish in total

ounces. Other foods in this group—1 egg, 1/2 cup dry beans, 2 tablespoons of peanut butter, and 1/3 cup of nuts—are counted as the

equivalent of 1 ounce of cooked lean meat.

2Aggregate data, unadjusted for waste and cooking losses.

3Includes all legumes consumed, including those that may have been selected as vegetable group servings.

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Food Guide Pyramid bulletin recommends that average meat group consumption should total the equivalent of 6 ounces of

cooked lean meat per person per day for a 2,200-calorie diet, and that legumes should be selected often as choices from the

meat group.

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Food Consumption and Spending
Food Consumption and Spending

September-December 2000

5

salmon, tuna, and mackerel, and

many kinds of nuts—taking care to

avoid excess calories. The 2000 edition of the Dietary Guidelines states:

“Get most of your calories from

plant foods (grains, fruits, vegetables). If you eat foods high in saturated fat for a special occasion,

return to foods that are low in saturated fat the next day.”

For a 2,200-calorie diet, the recommended amount from the meat

group is the equivalent of 6 ounces

of cooked lean meat per person per

day. Meat, poultry, and fish are

counted in total ounces. Other foods

in this group—1 egg, 1/2 cup of dry

beans, 1/2 cup of tofu, a 2-1/2-

ounce soyburger, 2 tablespoons of

peanut butter, or 1/3 cup of nuts—

are counted as the equivalent of 1

ounce of cooked lean meat.

After adjusting for waste and

cooking losses, the food supply provided the equivalent of 6.2 ounces

of cooked meat (lean and fat portion) per person per day in 1999—

a modest 9-percent increase from

the 1970’s. Because food supply 

estimates for meat and poultry

include both lean and fat, the estimates likely overstate lean meat

consumption and are not directly

comparable with the Food Guide

Pyramid recommendation.

Legumes (dry beans, peas, or

lentils) count either as servings in

the meat or the vegetable group. As

a vegetable, 1/2 cup of cooked, dry

beans counts as one serving. As a

meat substitute, one cup of cooked,

dry beans counts as one serving

(equivalent to 2 ounces of cooked

lean meat). The 2000 edition of the

Dietary Guidelines advises consumers to choose legumes often as

vegetable servings and as protein

sources from the meat group. Previous dietary assessment research has

implied that “often” equals about

one-seventh of total vegetable servings, or about four 1/2-cup servings

a week for a 2,200-calorie diet. For

this analysis, we also defined

“often” as equal to one-seventh of

total meat group servings, or about

three 1-cup servings a week for a

2,200-calorie diet. Thus, average

consumption of cooked legumes

should total 5 cups per week. However, total legume servings in

1999—less than 3/4 cup of cooked

legumes weekly a person—fell far

short of this level.

Although poultry meat consumption nearly doubled since the 1970’s,

red meat accounted for 49 percent of

total meat-group servings per capita

per day in 1999, nearly double the

27-percent poultry share. The

remaining 24 percent broke down as

follows: fish and shellfish, 7 percent;

eggs, 10 percent; dry beans, peas,

and lentils, 4 percent; peanuts and

peanut butter, 2 percent; and tree

nuts and coconuts, 1 percent. (The

food supply series does not estimate

consumption of soy products—soyburgers, tofu—other than soybean

oil.) The data suggest that, on average, Americans consume large

quantities of foods that, relative to

others in the meat group, are naturally high in saturated fat, and cholesterol. Many consumers may need

to adjust the mix of foods they eat in

this group.

Cheese Accounts for

Over Two-Fifths of Total

Dairy Servings

Dairy products accounted for

nearly three-quarters of the calcium

available in the U.S. food supply in

1997 (72 percent). Calcium is essential to form strong bones and teeth,

and requirements increase significantly during adolescence, early

adulthood, pregnancy, and lactation.

Therefore, the Dietary Guidelines

base milk serving recommendations

on age and physiology rather than

energy requirements alone among

the food groups. Three daily servings—the equivalent of three 8-

ounce glasses of milk per day—are

suggested for teenagers, young

adults up to 24 years of age, and

pregnant and lactating women. All

others should have two daily servings.

In this study, food supply servings were measured against a daily

recommended intake of 2.2 servings.

This target was based on a weighted

average of recommended servings

for different age groups of the U.S.

population (excluding the higher

needs of pregnant and lactating

women). The food supply provided

1.6 daily servings of dairy products

in 1999, about three-quarters of the

2.2 servings target, which is essentially unchanged since 1970 (table 2).

A modest increase in consumption, equal to about one-half cup of

milk per person daily, would bring

per capita servings up to Pyramid

recommendations. Because many

dairy foods are naturally high in fat,

consumers may need to weigh their

increased consumption of dairy

products against overall fat intake.

In 1999, for example, more than half

the dairy servings provided by the

food supply came from two dairy

products naturally high in fat—

cheese and whole milk.

Sharp changes over time in consumption patterns for fluid milk

and cheese also suggest that many

consumers may be substituting one

high-fat dairy food for another, with

little net reduction in total dairy-fat

intake. Between 1970-79 and 1999,

for example, Americans reduced

their average annual consumption

of plain whole milk by three-fifths

to 8 gallons per person. Consumption of plain low-fat (1-percent) and

skim milk nearly tripled during this

same period, but consumption is

still relatively low at 6.4 gallons per

person in 1999. Consumption of

plain reduced-fat (2-percent) milk

increased 60 percent to 7.5 gallons

per person in 1999.

Even as Americans used less

whole milk, they boosted their
FoodReview • Volume 23, Issue 3

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Food Consumption and Spending

Table 2

Americans Are Drinking Less Milk and Eating More Cheese and Yogurt

1999

food supply,

Change, Pyramid-based 

Per capita annual averages 1970-79 servings per

Item 1970-79 1980-89 1990-99 1999 to 1999 capita per day1

Gallons2 Percent Number

Beverage milk 29.8 26.5 24.6 23.6 -21 .70

Plain 28.1 24.9 23.1 22.0 -22 .66

Whole 20.9 13.9 8.8 8.0 -62 .24

2-percent fat 4.7 7.7 8.5 7.5 60 .23

1-percent fat 1.0 1.8 2.5 2.6 160 .08

Skim 1.4 1.5 3.4 3.8 171 .12

Flavored 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.4 15 .04

Buttermilk .6 .5 .3 .3 -50 .01

Half-pints2

Yogurt 3.2 6.5 8.5 9.1 184 .03

Pounds2

Total cheese (excluding cream 

cheese)3 18.6 24.3 27.8 30.2 76 .68

Cheese other than 

cottage-types3, 4 13.7 20.2 24.9 27.5 107 .67

Natural cheese 9.3 15.3 20.1 22.9 146 .54

Cheddar 6.3 9.0 9.3 10.1 60 .20

Mozzarella 2.0 4.5 8.0 9.2 360 .18

Cheese content of 

processed cheese products5 4.3 5.0 4.8 4.6 6 .13

Cottage cheese 4.9 4.1 2.9 2.7 -45 .01

Frozen dairy products6 27.8 27.4 29.1 29.3 5 .09

Ice cream 17.7 17.7 16.1 16.8 -5 .06

Low-fat ice cream 7.6 7.2 7.6 7.9 4 .03

Sherbet 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 -9 .00

Frozen yogurt na na 2.9 2.1 na .01

Condensed and evaporated milks 9.4 7.5 7.5 6.6 -30 .04

Dry milks 4.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 -12 .10

Number of daily servings1

Total dairy group supply1 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 4 1.64

na = Not available. Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Percentages computed from unrounded data.

1Adjusted for losses and waste. One cup of milk or yogurt, 1-1/2 ounces of natural cheese, 2 ounces of processed cheese, 2 cups of

cottage cheese, 1-1/2-cups of ice cream, 1/2 cup of canned evaporated milk, or 1/4 cup of dry milk or buttermilk count as one serving.

2Aggregate data, unadjusted for losses and waste.

3Cream cheese is counted in added fats.

4Excludes full-skim American, cottage, pot, and baker's cheese.

5Processed cheese is made by pasteurizing, emulsifying, and blending natural cheese.

6Includes items not shown separately, such as mellorine (from 1970-90).

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Food Guide Pyramid bulletin suggests three servings—the equivalent of three 8-ounce glasses of milk per day—for teenagers,

young adults up to 24 years of age, and pregnant and lactating women. Two daily servings of dairy foods are recommended for

children and most other adults. In this study, average servings were compared with a daily recommended intake of 2.2 servings. This

target was based on a weighted average of recommended servings for different age groups of the U.S. population (excluding the

higher needs of pregnant and lactating women).
cheese consumption. Total and saturated fats per serving in many

cheeses are as high or higher than

whole milk. When butter and fluid

cream products (including sour

cream) are included, total per capita

consumption of milkfat increased

slightly between 1970-79 and 1999.

(Cream products and butter are classified as added fats rather than as

part of the dairy group in our

tables.) Average annual per capita

consumption of fluid cream products rose by more than 80 percent

between 1970 and 1999 to 18 halfpints per person.

People Eat Fewer Fruits

Than Recommended

The food supply provided 1.4

servings per person per day of fresh

and processed fruit and fruit juices

in 1999, less than half the 3 fruit

servings a day recommended by the

Food Consumption and Spending

September-December 2000

7

Table 3

Three Fruits—Oranges, Apples, and Bananas—Contributed One Half of Total Daily Fruit Servings in 1999

1999

food supply,

Change, PyramidPer capita annual averages 1970-74 based servings

Item 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 1999 to 1999 per day1

Pounds, fresh-weight equivalent2 Percent Number

Total fruit3 240.0 257.5 266.0 275.3 277.1 290.9 297.9 24 1.40

Fresh fruit 97.6 101.2 107.6 118.6 120.7 129.6 132.5 36 .73

Processed fruit 142.3 156.3 158.4 156.7 156.4 161.3 165.3 16 .68

Citrus, melons, and berries3 141.5 151.6 148.2 143.8 142.0 156.3 157.2 11 .62

Fresh citrus4 27.9 26.6 24.7 23.7 23.1 24.8 20.7 -26 .09

Oranges 15.0 13.8 13.0 12.8 12.2 12.5 8.6 -43 .04

Grapefruits 8.4 8.2 7.0 6.3 5.7 6.0 5.9 -30 .02

Melons4 20.0 19.1 20.5 24.7 24.8 28.6 30.5 52 .15

Watermelon 12.6 12.0 12.1 13.3 14.1 15.7 15.8 26 .08

Cantaloupe 6.5 5.8 6.8 9.1 8.7 10.6 11.9 84 .06

Berries4 3.5 3.5 4.0 5.1 6.1 6.8 7.1 103 .07

Fresh and frozen

strawberries 2.9 3.0 3.5 4.3 4.8 5.5 5.8 100 .06

Kiwifruit na na na .2 .5 .5 .6 na .01

Juices4 90.1 102.4 99.0 90.3 88.0 96.1 98.9 10 .30

Orange juice 73.6 85.8 83.3 77.1 73.8 80.3 83.6 14 .27

Other fruit4 98.5 105.9 117.8 131.5 135.1 134.6 140.7 43 .78

Fresh bananas 18.0 19.5 21.6 24.7 26.3 28.6 31.4 74 .15

Fresh apples 16.3 17.6 18.0 19.4 19.2 18.9 18.8 16 .10

Apple juice 5.9 8.2 14.7 18.5 20.2 20.5 21.8 272 .08

Fresh grapes 2.8 3.4 5.1 7.3 7.3 7.6 8.2 197 .08

Canned applesauce 5.5 5.1 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.0 5.1 -7 .03

Canned peaches 6.4 5.8 4.4 4.1 4.0 3.6 3.7 -43 .04

Raisins 5.8 6.8 8.0 9.1 8.1 7.7 7.2 22 .04

Fresh peaches and 

nectarines 4.8 5.6 6.3 6.0 5.9 5.1 5.3 10 .03

Canned pears 3.7 4.2 4.0 3.6 3.6 3.2 3.5 -7 .03

Servings per capita per day1 

Total fruit1 1.06 1.12 1.17 1.27 1.30 1.36 1.40 28 1.40

na = Not available. Note: Percentages computed from unrounded data.

1Inedible portions removed and adjustments made for spoilage and waste. One medium apple, banana, or orange; 1/2 cup of

chopped, cooked, or canned fruit; 1/4 cup of dried fruit; or 3/4 cup of fruit juice count as one serving.

2Inedible portions, spoilage, and waste included.

3Totals may not add due to rounding.

4Includes food item(s) not shown separately.

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Food Guide Pyramid bulletin recommends three servings of fruit a day for a 2,200-calorie diet.
FoodReview • Volume 23, Issue 3

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Food Consumption and Spending

Food Guide Pyramid for a 2,200-

calorie diet (table 3). This shortfall is

particularly troublesome given scientific evidence linking frequent

consumption of fruits and vegetables with substantially reduced risk

of many chronic diseases, including

certain cancers.

When measured in Pyramid servings, average fruit consumption has

inched up 0.3 serving a day since

the early 1970’s—the equivalent of a

third of a medium banana or apple

or 1.75 ounces of fruit juice.

Consistent with recommendations, total fruit servings were fairly

evenly divided between two fruit

subgroups—citrus, melons, and

berries (0.62 serving) and other fruit

(0.78 serving). However, the data

suggest that many consumers do

not incorporate adequate variety

into their daily diet. Six foods, out

of more than 60 fruit products

included in the food supply data,

accounted for more than half (55

percent) of total fruit servings in

1999—orange juice (19 percent),

bananas (11 percent), fresh apples (7

percent), apple juice (6 percent),

watermelon (6 percent), and fresh

grapes (6 percent).

Eating a wide variety of fruits and

vegetables is important because different fruits and vegetables are rich

in different nutrients. For example, a

fresh orange has 27 times the fiber

content of orange juice, and many

less frequently consumed fruits

(blueberries and cranberries) and

vegetables (kale and beets) are

excellent sources of protective phytochemicals. Some fruits and vegetables—orange vegetables like carrots

and sweet potatoes; dark-green

leafy vegetables like spinach; orange

fruits like cantaloupe and apricots;

and tomatoes—are excellent sources

of carotenoids, including those

which form vitamin A. Others (citrus, kiwi, strawberries, cantaloupe,

broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, cabbage, potatoes, romaine lettuce, and

spinach) are excellent sources of vitamin C. Still others (cooked dry

beans, oranges, dark-green leafy

vegetables, and green peas) are

good sources of folate. Potatoes,

cooked greens, winter squash,

bananas, dried fruits, orange juice,

and cooked dry beans are excellent

sources of potassium.

Potatoes Dominate

Among Vegetables

Our vegetable consumption tells

the same story—consumers tend to

eat a limited variety of vegetables.

While food supply servings met the

overall recommendation, consumption was concentrated in a small

number of foods. The food supply

provided a daily average of four

servings of fresh, frozen, canned,

and dehydrated vegetables (including dry beans, peas, and lentils) in

1999, equal to the minimum four

daily servings recommended for a

2,200-calorie diet (table 4). Per capita

servings grew 28 percent, or nearly

a whole (0.87) vegetable serving,

between the early 1970’s and 1999.

Five foods—iceberg lettuce,

frozen potatoes, fresh potatoes,

potato chips, and canned tomatoes—accounted for 52 percent of

total vegetable servings in 1999.

Legumes made up 6 percent of total

consumption. Another 16 percent of

total vegetable servings came from

dehydrated potatoes (mainly instant

potatoes), fresh tomatoes, fresh carrots, and fresh onions. No other single food, out of more than 70 vegetable foods in the food supply data,

accounted for more than 3 percent

of total vegetable consumption, or

0.1 serving. (Note: fresh, frozen, or

canned vegetables are counted as

three different foods.)

Dietary guidance suggests that

consumers divide their total vegetable servings into three subgroups—dark green leafy and deep

yellow vegetables; starchy vegetables, including potatoes, dry beans,

peas, and lentils; and other vegetables. Thus, for a 2,200-calorie diet

with a minimum serving recommendation of 4 servings daily, consumption would be expected to be

evenly divided at 1.3 servings from

each subgroup. Within these groups,

dark-green leafy vegetables and dry

beans, peas, and lentils should

account for 0.6 servings or about

three-sevenths of total subgroup

consumption, and deep yellow and

other starchy vegetables should

account for 0.8 servings or four-sevenths of their subgroups.

Average vegetable consumption

tilted to starchy vegetables, especially white potatoes, in 1999, however. Frozen potatoes (mostly french

fries) and potato chips together

accounted for 43 percent of starchy

vegetables servings and 17 percent

of total vegetable servings. Consumption of dark-green leafy vegetables and deep yellow vegetables

combined totaled 0.4 serving per

capita per day, well below the 1.3

daily servings suggested for a 2,200-

calorie diet. Likewise, average consumption of dry beans, peas, and

lentils was woefully low.

Refined Grain Servings

Are Higher than

Recommended

The food supply provided 10

servings of flour and other commodities in the bread, cereals, rice,

and pasta group in 1999, suggesting

that many consumers met the 9-

serving Pyramid recommendation

for a 2,200-calorie diet (table 5).

Total daily servings were nearly 50

percent higher than in the early

1970’s. Increased consumption of

white and whole wheat flour

accounted for half of the increase. A

threefold increase in corn products

(used for some snack foods and

Mexican-style foods like tortillas)

and rice and a 54-percent increase in

durum flour (used for pasta) consumption accounted for additional

grain group servings.

The actual number of per capita

daily servings from the grains group
Food Consumption and Spending

September-December 2000

9

Table 4

Iceberg Lettuce, Frozen Potatoes (Mainly French Fries), and Potato Chips Constituted More Than A Third of

Total Daily Vegetable Servings in 1999

1999

food supply,

PyramidChange, based serving

Per capita annual averages 1970-74 per capita

Item 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 1999 to 1999 per day1

Pounds, fresh-weight equivalent2 Percent Number

Total vegetables 335.5 340.1 339.0 364.3 399.0 418.0 421.2 26 4.00

Fresh vegetables 148.1 145.7 148.7 162.7 173.6 185.9 192.1 30 2.13

Processed vegetables 187.3 194.4 190.3 201.5 225.4 232.1 229.1 22 1.86

Canned 102.1 100.0 98.8 99.1 112.7 108.6 105.7 4 .62

Frozen 47.3 56.9 56.5 65.5 72.9 82.4 82.5 74 .59

Dehydrated (includes 

dry beans) 21.3 21.3 17.8 19.4 22.7 25.0 24.6 15 .42

Potato chips 16.6 16.1 17.2 17.6 17.1 16.2 16.3 -2 .23

Dark green leafy vegetables 4.0 4.5 5.5 10.2 12.4 15.8 17.1 328 .15

Escarole, romaine, and 

leaf lettuces .6 .5 .4 3.3 4.9 6.6 6.5 1,063 .07

Broccoli 1.7 2.3 3.5 5.3 5.8 7.4 8.2 386 .06

Spinach 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 2 .02

Deep yellow vegetables 15.2 14.5 14.5 14.8 17.8 21.7 22.0 45 .23

Carrots 10.2 9.4 9.7 10.4 13.5 17.3 17.6 73 .20

Sweet potatoes 5.0 5.1 4.8 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.0 -21 .03

Dry beans, peas, and 

lentils (legumes)3 7.2 6.7 6.2 6.9 7.8 8.2 8.6 19 .24

Other starchy vegetables 152.7 153.6 146.7 154.2 164.6 174.9 173.1 13 1.38

Total potatoes 118.9 121.3 117.4 124.7 133.1 142.2 139.8 18 1.24

Fresh potatoes 55.5 49.5 48.4 48.5 49.3 49.4 49.2 -11 .38

Frozen potatoes 31.7 40.4 39.7 45.9 51.6 59.4 59.5 88 .46

Corn 27.8 26.9 24.6 25.2 27.2 29.0 29.7 7 .11

Peas 5.1 4.7 4.3 3.9 3.9 3.5 3.5 -31 .03

Other vegetables 156.3 160.7 166.1 178.2 196.5 196.7 197.5 26 2.00

Iceberg lettuce 22.8 24.8 24.6 25.4 25.9 23.2 25.3 11 .60

Canned tomatoes 63.0 62.7 62.5 64.5 76.0 74.4 72.8 15 .26

Fresh tomatoes 12.0 12.4 13.1 16.0 15.9 17.5 17.8 48 .13

Fresh onions 10.6 11.0 11.9 14.0 16.3 18.5 18.6 76 .10

Cabbage 11.1 10.7 10.3 10.4 10.3 9.9 9.3 -16 .06

Bell peppers 2.4 2.7 3.1 4.2 5.6 6.7 6.7 179 .07

Celery 7.3 7.1 7.2 6.9 7.2 6.3 6.2 -16 .07

Cucumbers 8.5 9.4 9.5 10.2 9.7 10.9 11.1 31 .06

Servings per capita per day2, 3

Total vegetables1, 3 3.12 3.19 3.17 3.40 3.66 3.80 4.00 28 4.00

Cruciferous vegetables4 .12 .13 .14 .16 .16 .15 .14 18 .14

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Percentages computed from unrounded data.

1Excludes inedible portions and adjusts for spoilage and waste. One cup of raw leafy greens, 1/2 cup of other vegetables—cooked or

chopped raw—or 3/4 cup of vegetable juice count as one serving.

2Includes inedible portions, spoilage, and waste.

3Includes all legumes consumed, including those that may have been selected as meat group servings.

4Cruciferous vegetables (members of the cabbage family) are not mentioned per se in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. However, the Committee on Diet, Nutrition, and Cancer of the National Research Council advised the public in 1982 to eat more carotenerich (dark green and deep yellow) vegetables and cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts) to

lower the risk of certain cancers.

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Food Guide Pyramid bulletin recommends four servings of vegetables a day for a 2,200-calorie diet.
FoodReview • Volume 23, Issue 3

10

Food Consumption and Spending

was probably higher than indicated

because the food supply series fails

to count many grain foods, particularly whole grain items. For example, the series excludes wheat foods

not manufactured directly from

wheat flour or bulgur, such as

wheat bran, wheat germ, wheat

berries, and products manufactured

directly from these items, such as

Wheaties, Shredded Wheat, Puffed

Wheat, and All-Bran breakfast cereals and Triscuit crackers. Similarly, it

excludes whole grain foods made

directly from field corn and corn

bran, such as corn tortilla snack

chips and some breakfast cereals,

and popcorn. In addition, the food

supply series excludes many whole

grains that Americans rarely eat,

such as amaranthe, buckwheat, millet, kamut, quinoa, spelt, and triticale, as well as flours milled from

these grains.

The U.S. Census of Manufactures

series provides some information

about whole grain foods, which the

food supply series does not have.

Using the most recent census data,

ERS researchers estimate that the

inclusion of wheat germ, wheat

bran, popcorn, and whole field corn

used in snack foods and some tortillas would add more than 18

pounds of grain foods per person to

the official 1999 per capita food supply series (unadjusted for loss and

waste), or roughly one serving per

capita per day. Unpopped popcorn

sold in consumer-size packages and

popcorn used in manufactured

products like Cracker Jack and Poppycock totaled more than 8 pounds

per capita in 1997, or 0.43 serving a

person a day. If bulk sales of popcorn to movie theater chains and the

like, which are unmeasured but

undoubtedly substantial, also were

included, the contribution of popcorn to total grain intake would

likely be more than a two-thirds

serving a person a day.

While the food supply data suggest that average total grain conTable 5

Per Capita Grain Consumption Has Jumped by Nearly 50 Percent Since the Early 1970's1

1999

food supply,

PyramidChange, based serving

Per capita annual averages 1970-74 per capita

Item 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 1999 to 1999 per day2

Pounds3 Percent Number

Total flour and cereal 

products2 135.1 141.2 147.0 167.9 186.8 198.6 201.9 49 9.97

Total wheat flour 111.0 116.1 117.3 128.3 139.9 146.9 148.4 34 7.69

White and whole wheat flour 103.9 109.0 110.8 119.1 127.2 134.5 137.5 32 7.39

Durum wheat flour4 7.1 7.1 6.5 9.2 12.7 12.4 10.9 54 .30

Rye flour 1.2 .8 .7 .6 .6 .6 .5 -54 .02

Rice (milled) 7.2 7.4 10.1 12.6 16.7 18.7 19.4 170 .51

Total corn products 10.2 11.8 14.1 20.4 22.6 27.0 28.4 178 1.53

Corn flour and meal 6.3 6.5 8.2 13.0 15.3 17.1 17.7 180 .96

Hominy and grits 2.0 3.0 2.9 3.3 3.0 5.0 5.9 201 .25

Corn starch 2.0 2.4 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.8 147 .32

Oat products 4.7 4.1 3.8 5.0 6.3 4.9 4.5 -5 .20

Barley products .9 1.0 1.0 .9 .7 .7 .7 -18 .02

Servings per capita per day3

Total flour and cereal products2 6.78 7.10 7.36 8.35 9.26 9.77 9.97 47 9.97

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

1Excludes quantities used in alcoholic beverages and fuel. Excludes popcorn and some other whole grain foods.

2Adjusted for spoilage and waste. Servings are calculated based on a grain equivalent. The amount of flour in 1 slice of bread; 1

ounce of ready-to-eat cereal; or 1/2 cup of cooked cereal, rice, or pasta count as one serving.

3Unadjusted for spoilage and waste.

4Includes flour equivalent of imported pasta products.

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Food Guide Pyramid recommends nine servings of grain products a day for a 2,200-calorie diet.
sumption meets Pyramid recommendations, many consumers may

need to change the types of foods

consumed from this group to meet

dietary recommendations for fiber,

fat, cholesterol, and added sugars.

Cakes, cookies, pastries, and pies—

all high in fat and sugar—accounted

for 13 percent of average total grain

consumption in the 1994-96 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by

Individuals (CSFII). Grain-based

snack foods (crackers, popcorn,

pretzels, and corn chips) accounted

for another 4 percent. Actual consumption of grain-based sweets and

snacks may be higher, as people

tend to underreport snack and binge

eating.

Whole wheat flour accounted for

less than 2 percent of total wheat

flour provided by the food supply

in 1992, the latest year for which

data are available. This shortfall in

whole grain servings is confirmed

by data from the 1994-96 CSFII,

which indicate that average consumption of foods made from 

whole grains stood at about one

serving per person per day, well

below the minimum three servings

recommended.

Consumption of Added

Fats Skyrockets

After adjusting for losses and the

nonfat portion of composite products like margarine, the per capita

food supply provided 64 grams of

added fats and oils in 1999, a 32-percent increase from the 49 grams

available for consumption in the

early 1970’s (table 6).

Fats are added in cooking and at

the table and in many processed

food products, including baked

goods, french fries, and snack foods.

Added fat in processed foods may

not be visible to consumers, who are

typically not aware of the fat content. These added fats are consumed

in addition to those that occur naturally in red meats, poultry, fish,

nuts, eggs, and dairy products.

Although a healthful diet requires

some dietary fat, excessive fat intake

Food Consumption and Spending

September-December 2000

11

Table 6

Average Consumption of Salad and Cooking Oils Increased by Three-Quarters Between 1970-74 and 1999

1999

food supply,

Change, added fats 

Per capita annual averages 1970-74 per capita

Item 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 1999 to 1999 per day1

Pounds, product weight2 Percent Grams

Salad and cooking oils 16.8 19.5 22.3 24.9 26.4 27.8 29.4 75 28.9

Shortening 17.2 17.6 19.0 21.9 23.3 21.7 21.6 26 17.3

Margarine 11.0 11.4 10.8 10.6 10.7 8.7 8.1 -26 6.3

Lard (direct use)3 3.6 2.5 2.1 1.5 1.4 1.9 2.0 -45 1.2

Edible beef tallow (direct use)3 na .4 1.4 1.2 1.8 3.0 3.7 na 2.3

Other edible fats and oils4 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.6 -27 1.9

Dairy fats na na na na na na na na 5.8

Butter 5.0 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.8 -4 3.7

Cream cheese .6 .8 1.1 1.4 2.0 2.2 2.4 266 0

Half pints2

Heavy cream 1.0 1.1 1.5 2.1 2.5 3.5 3.9 276 .7

Light cream .7 .6 .5 .8 .7 .9 1.2 76 .1

Sour cream 2.3 3.1 3.7 4.5 5.0 5.6 5.8 147 .5

Half and half 4.9 4.5 4.7 5.8 5.8 6.2 6.6 34 .2

Grams per capita per day1 

Total added fats1 48.5 50.6 54.3 58.9 61.9 61.6 63.8 32 63.8

na = Not applicable or not available. Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

1Adjusted for losses and waste. Fat content of butter and margarine calculated at 80 percent. One gram of fat equals 9 calories.

2Aggregate data, unadjusted for losses and waste.

3Excludes use in margarine and shortening.

4Specialty fats used mainly in confections and nondairy creamers.

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Dietary Guidelines recommend that people limit their total fat consumption to no more than 30 percent of daily energy

intake—about 73 grams of added and naturally occurring fat for a 2,200-calorie diet. In 1999, added fats alone accounted for 87

percent of this suggested upper limit.
is associated with increased blood

cholesterol, heart disease, and some

cancers. The Dietary Guidelines recommend that people limit total fat

consumption to no more than 30

percent of daily energy intake—

about 73 grams of added and naturally occurring fat for a 2,200-calorie

diet.

The food supply data suggest that

most consumers do not meet this

recommendation. In 1999, added

fats alone accounted for 87 percent

of the recommended upper daily

limit for total fat intake—or about

26 percent of total calories for a

2,200-calorie diet. Per capita consumption of salad and cooking oils,

which is up by three-quarters since

the early 1970’s, accounted for

nearly half (45 percent) of added

fats in 1999. These oils, which are

largely unsaturated, are used mainly

in mayonnaise and salad dressings.

Animal fats—including lard, edible

beef tallow, butter, and other dairy

fats—which are major sources of

saturated fats, accounted for 15 percent of added fats in 1999. Shortening and margarine, which are major

sources of trans fatty acids,

accounted for more than a third (37

percent) of added fats in 1999. Trans

fatty acids and saturated fat raise

blood cholesterol and increase risk

of heart disease.

According to food supply nutrient

data for 1997, added fats accounted

for 52 percent of the total fat provided by the food supply. Assuming

that added fats continue to account

for about 52 percent of the total fat

provided by the food supply, Americans must, on average, consume

two-fifths less added fat to bring

total fat (added fat and naturallyoccurring fat) consumption close to

the recommended upper limit of 30

percent of calories.

Added Sugars

Consumption Is Nearly

Triple Dietary Targets

Although our body cannot distinguish between naturally occurring

and added sugars, dietary guides

focus on added sugars because

foods high in added sugars often

FoodReview • Volume 23, Issue 3

12

Food Consumption and Spending

Table 7

Average Consumption of Added Sugars Increased 29 Percent From 1980-84 to 1999

1999

food supply,

Change, added sugars 

Per capita annual averages 1970-74 per capita

Item 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 1999 to 1999 per day1

Pounds, dry-weight equivalent2 Percent Teaspoons

Total caloric sweeteners 123.6 123.8 122.4 130.6 141.6 153.6 158.4 29 34.1

Refined cane and 

beet sugar 100.5 91.5 74.7 62.0 64.4 66.7 67.9 -9 14.6

Corn sweeteners 21.7 30.9 46.4 67.3 75.8 85.6 89.1 92 19.2

High fructose corn syrup 1.5 9.4 27.4 47.1 52.8 62.0 66.2 142 14.2

Glucose 15.7 17.5 15.6 16.5 19.1 19.7 19.3 24 4.2

Dextrose 4.6 3.9 3.4 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.6 6 .8

Edible syrups .5 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 0 .1

Honey .9 1.0 .9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 29 .2

Teaspoons per capita per day 

Total caloric sweeteners 

supply

Not adjusted for loss and 

waste2 42.1 42.2 41.7 44.5 48.2 52.0 54.0 29 54.0

Adjusted for loss and waste 26.4 26.6 26.4 28.1 30.5 32.8 34.1 29 34.1

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding

1Adjusted for loss and waste.

2Aggregate data, unadjusted for loss and waste. One teaspoon of sugar equals 15 calories.

Source: USDA’s Economic Research Service.

The Food Guide Pyramid bulletin recommends that people limit their consumption of added sugars to no more than 12 teaspoons

daily for a 2,200-calorie diet. In 1999, average consumption of added sugars was nearly 3 times this suggested upper limit.
Food Consumption and Spending

September-December 2000

13

supply calories but few nutrients,

the so-called empty calories. High

intake of sugary snack foods and

desserts—colas, candy, cookies—

and reduced intake of nutrient-rich

foods—fruits, vegetables, grains—

cuts needed nutrients.

To maintain nutritious diets and

healthy weights, the Food Guide

Pyramid advises consumers to limit

added sugars to 12 teaspoons a day

for a 2,200-calorie diet. After adjusting for losses, the food supply provided 34 teaspoons of added sugars

(refined cane and beet sugar, corn

sweeteners, edible syrups, and

honey) per person per day in 1999—

about the amount in 3-3/4 regular

12-ounce colas (table 7). Average

annual consumption of caloric

sweeteners grew by 29 percent

between 1980-84 and 1999.

The ability of consumers to moderate their consumption of added

sugars is complicated by the fact

that caloric sweeteners are likely to

be “hidden” in prepared foods.

Although the food label mandated

by the 1990 Nutrition Labeling and

Education Act requires manufacturers to disclose the total sugar content of food, the label does not distinguish total sugars from added

sugars, which may sometimes make

it difficult for consumers to determine how much added sugar they

actually consume. A coalition of

leading health experts and organizations, concerned about the climbing

rates of obesity and the rising level

of added sugars consumption in the

United States, has asked the U.S.

Food and Drug Administration to

require that food labels state the

amount of sugar added to soft

drinks, ice cream, and other foods.

Topsy-Turvy American

Diet Fuels Rise in Obesity

and Related Chronic

Diseases

The average American has an

unbalanced diet when compared

with the recommended servings

from the Food Guide Pyramid.

The Dietary Guidelines recommend 

limiting consumption of added sugars 

to no more than 12 teaspoons a day 

for a 2,200-calorie diet. The Dietary

Guidelines recommend that fats 

account for no more than 30 percent 

of daily energy intake—about 73 

grams of added and naturally 

occurring fat for a 2,200-calorie diet.

Grains

6-11 servings

Fruit

2-4 servings

Vegetables

3-5 servings

 Dairy

2-3 servings

Fats,

Oils, & 

Sweets

use sparingly

Grains

10.0 servings

Fruit

1.4 servings

Figure 3

The Unbalanced American Diet

Vegetables

4.0 servings

Meat, 

poultry,

fish, 

dry beans,

eggs, & nuts

2.5 servings

Meat, 

poultry,

fish, 

dry beans,

eggs, & nuts

2-3 servings

 Dairy

1.6 servings

34 tsp. added sugars

64 grams of added fats

Loss-Adjusted Food Supply Pyramid

Source: USDA's Economic Research Service

USDA/DHHS Food Guide Pyramid
FoodReview • Volume 23, Issue 3

14

Food Consumption and Spending

Instead of resembling a well-built

pyramid, consumption based on

loss-adjusted food supply data

reflects a precariously built or tumbling pyramid, top heavy with

added sugars and added fats (fig. 3).

The midsection of the pyramid sags

from underconsumption of fruits,

dark green leafy and deep yellow

vegetables, dry beans, fish, nuts,

and lowfat dairy products. The base

of the pyramid—the grain group—

is somewhat larger than that recommended by the Food Guide Pyramid but is weakened by heavy consumption of refined grain foods

(often loaded with fat and sugars)

and woefully low consumption of

fiber- and nutrient-rich whole grains

(thought to decrease the risk of

heart disease, diabetes, and some

cancers).

Americans’ weight gain over the

last 20 years is no mystery. An

unbalanced, increasingly high-calorie American diet largely explains

why Americans continue to put on

pounds. Initial results from the 1999

National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES),

using measured heights and

weights, indicate that an estimated

61 percent of U.S. adults are either

overweight or obese, compared with

56 percent in 1994 and 46 percent in

the late 1970’s. In 1999, 26 percent of

U.S. adults were obese (at least 30

pounds overweight), up from 23

percent in 1988-94 and 15 percent in

the late 1970’s. Obesity puts one at

significant risk for serious health

problems like diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease. Lossadjusted food supply data suggest

that average daily calorie intake

increased about 15 percent between

1984 and 1994, and remained stable

between 1994 and 1997. Nearly 90

percent of that 15-percent increase

in average calorie intake stemmed

from higher consumption of refined

grains (42 percent), added sugars

(23 percent), and added fats (23 

percent).

Obesity prevention requires

changes in individual behavioral

patterns as well as eliminating environmental barriers to healthful food

choices and active lifestyles—both

exceedingly difficult to achieve. In

the January-February 2000 issue of

Public Health Reports, nutrition professor Marion Nestle and nutrition

activist Michael Jacobson recommend major governmental and societal changes to reduce the prevalence of obesity. Their paper,

“Halting the Obesity Epidemic: A

Public Health Approach,” urges legislators, researchers, educators, businesses, urban planners, transportation experts, and nonprofit groups

to fight obesity in a more creative

way and to take immediate action.

Specific recommendations include:

• Mounting large-scale mass-media

campaigns to promote healthier

diets and physical activity.

• Requiring chain restaurants to

provide information about calorie

content on menus or menu

boards.

• Designating more downtown

areas as pedestrian malls and

automobile-free zones.

• Having health-insurance companies pay for effective weight-loss

programs.

• Changing government policies

and corporate practices, including a ban in schools on the sale of

soft drinks, candy bars, and other

foods high in calories, fat, and

sugar.

Nestle and Jacobson conclude:

“Ending the obesity epidemic will

require much greater knowledge of

effective diet and activity strategies

than is currently available. The

research focus must extend beyond

genetic, metabolic, and drug development studies to encompass—and

emphasize—population-based behavioral interventions, policy development, and program evaluation.”

References

Kantor, Linda Scott. A Dietary

Assessment of the U.S. Food Supply:

Comparing Per Capita Food Consumption with Food Guide Pyramid Serving

Recommendations. Agricultural Economic Report 72. U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Economic Research

Service, December 1998.

Nestle, Marion, and Michael J.

Jacobson. “Halting the Obesity Epidemic: A Public Health Policy

Approach,” Public Health Reports,

Vol. 115, January-February 2000, pp.

12-24.

Putnam, Judy. “U.S. Providing

More Food and Calories,”

FoodReview, Vol. 22, Issue 3, September-December 1999, pp. 2-12.

Putnam, Judith J., and Jane E. Allshouse. Food Consumption, Prices, and

Expenditures, 1970-97. Statistical Bulletin 965. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service,

April 1999.

U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Agricultural Research Service. 

Pyramid Servings Data: Results from

USDA’s 1994-96 Continuing Survey 

of Food Intakes by Individuals. ARS

Food Surveys Research Group.

<http://www.barc.usda.gov/bhnrc

/foodsurvey/pdf/3yr-py.pdf>, February 1999.

U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Nutrition and Your Health:

Dietary Guidelines for Americans (fifth

edition). Home and Garden Bulletin

232. May 2000.

U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. The Food Guide Pyramid,

Home and Garden Bulletin 252.

October 1996.

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Adults:

United States, 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

National Center for Health Statistics. <http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/

products/pubs/pubd/hestats/obes

e/obse99.htm>