African Elephant

Conservation Act

Summary Report

1998-2000

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
African Elephant

Conservation Act

Summary Report

1998-2000

“The mission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is working with

others to conserve, protect and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their

habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people.”

Cover:

Savanna elephant

Photographs in this report, unless otherwise indicated, have been provided by

Richard Ruggiero copyright ©

Introduction

The African elephant is

considered a “keystone

species”: that is, one that

plays a pivotal role in the

ecosystem. As modifiers of

their habitat, elephants are

second only to humans.

Many scientists believe that

the ecological integrity of

African savannas and forests

depends, to a large extent, on

the presence of elephants.

Their disappearance may

produce a cascade of changes

in the environment that are

as yet poorly understood.

A popular symbol of size and power, the

image of the elephant has been used by

people through recorded history. Few

species evoke the imagination and

emotions, as does the African elephant.

Today, a wide range of opinions and

philosophies exists as to whether this

great beast is a threat to human life and

property and should be eliminated; or a

representative of a natural ecosystem that

should be preserved at all costs; or

something in between requiring

enlightened management and

conservation. Elephant numbers appear to

have stabilized and even grown in some

areas of the African continent during the

last decade. In other parts of their range,

civil war, rampant poaching, and loss of

habitat have caused populations to crash.

Over much of their range, the everincreasing human population is coming

into greater conflict with elephants. A

growing commercial bushmeat trade also

is pushing some elephant populations

toward regional extinction.

The complexities of the current status of

the African elephant defy simple solutions.

Practical management and conservation

strategies, based on solid scientific

information, and an understanding of the

human element in elephant conservation,

offer the best hope for the future of

Africa’s greatest living mammal.

This report presents a summary and

highlights of the work supported by the

African Elephant Conservation Fund

(Fund) from 1998 to 2000. The Fund is

administered and coordinated by the

Division of International Conservation,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service),

Department of the Interior.

Forest elephants
Background:

Elephant poached

© Richard Ruggiero

Left:

Detached elephant tusk

© Richard Ruggiero

Right:

Ivory Products

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Background

The African elephant (Loxodonta

africana) and humans have had a profound association throughout recorded

history. Sometimes feared, and often

revered, elephants have been an integral

part of African life and culture for millennia. Sought as a source of food and skins,

they have played an important role in the

lives of innumerable civilizations. But the

value of their ivory is thought to have led

to the first case of their overexploitation

by Romans. By A.D. 50, the Romans had

exhausted most of the elephant

populations in North Africa, and were

forced to turn to East Africa and Asia for

large tusks. Later, as trade with Africa

developed, ivory became one of that

continents most sought-after commodities.

It is difficult to overestimate the role of

ivory trade in African history and

economics. In recent history, the price of

ivory climbed steeply, particularly in the

1970’s when ivory was collected as a hedge

against inflation. The price of a kilogram

(kg) hovered at approximately $5.50 and

moved up slightly to about $7.50 by 1970.

However, by 1978 the price had skyrocketed to almost $75 per kg and, by 1989, it

fetched $150 per kg in Africa and up to

$400 per kg in Japan. This stimulated an

enormous upsurge in organized poaching

and ivory trafficking networks. In the late

1970’s, Africa is thought to have been the

home of about 1.3 million elephants; the

total elephant population can only be

estimated in decades prior to the 1970’s.

By the end of the 1980’s numbers fell by 50

percent, mostly as a result of ivory

poaching.

In response to this crisis, the Convention

on the International Trade in Endangered

Species (CITES) listed the African

elephant first on Appendix III in 1976, and

then on Appendix II shortly thereafter,

which allows commercial trade of a species

with a series of permits. In 1978, the

African elephant was listed as threatened

under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

As evidence of the species’ population

decline continued to accumulate, the

African elephant was raised to CITES

Appendix I in 1989—a status that listed

Loxodonta africana as a species threatened with extinction and allows for no

commercial trade. This change, with some

minor exceptions, legally banned trade of

live elephants or their products for

commercial purposes between CITES

signatory countries.

At the time of the ESA listing, the United

States accounted for about 30 percent of

the world’s carved ivory. Because some

experts believed that nearly 80 percent of

all ivory was attributable to poaching,

consumer purchases in the United States

equated to thousands of dead elephants as

the population declined by nearly 9

percent a year. Had that trend continued,

the African elephant would have been

annihilated throughout much of its range

by the end of the 20th century.

The Congress of the United States passed

the African Elephant Conservation Act

(AfECA) in October 1988. The AfECA

provides for: (1) the review of African

elephant conservation programs in each

ivory producing country and the establishment of a moratorium on ivory from any

country that fails to maintain an adequate

elephant conservation program; and (2)

the development of a grant program to

provide financial assistance to support

protection, conservation, and management

of African elephants. In accordance with

the first provision, United States President George H. Bush established a

moratorium on all ivory imports in June

1989. Although several range countries

maintain adequate conservation programs,

no effective mechanism exists to control

international trade in ivory products. To

this day the moratorium remains in effect.

In 1997, successful management of

elephants and their population growth in

some southern African countries was

recognized by down-listing elephant

populations in Botswana, Namibia, and

Zimbabwe to CITES Appendix II. A

monitored one-time sale to Japan of

registered ivory stocks took place in April

1999. At the April 2000 CITES Conference

of the Parties in Nairobi, Kenya, the

elephant population of the Republic of

South Africa was also down-listed to

Appendix II, but further sales of ivory

were not authorized.

Top to Bottom:

Commercial bushmeat truck in Central

Africa

Shotguns confiscated from poachers

Stacks of tropical hardwood for export

Many forested regions in

central Africa are being

altered by large-scale logging.

As new roads cut into

previously inaccessible

forest, wildlife harvesting

begins to occur at

unsustainable rates.

Elephants are among the

first species impacted by

these activities.

The current threat to African elephant

populations varies significantly from one

area to another. During a period when

some areas in southern Africa have stable

or increasing populations, East Africa has

lost 65 percent of its elephants, generally

due to civil wars and political instability.

This is particularly true in central Africa,

where poaching elephants for “bushmeat”

may be a greater threat than ivory

poaching. The proliferation of weapons and

displacement of large numbers of people

contribute to this rapidly increasing

threat. The economic plight of many

African nations undermines the ability of

range countries to support their national

parks and protected areas. Drought and

other natural cycles also place increase

demands on an already stressed

environment.

Development and human population

growth also impact the future of elephants

and other wildlife in Africa. As rural

populations grow, the need for new

agricultural lands and water also grows.

This often results in competition between

humans and elephants for common

resources. Human-elephant conflict

invariably results.

As more pressure is put on the

environment and elephant populations, the

greater the demand for effective

protection and management. It is essential

to know and understand how many

elephants there are, where and why they

move the long distances they do, and what

are the threats to them. In the short term,

protection of threatened elephant

populations is of utmost importance. In

the longer term, effective land-use

planning and protected area management,

conservation education, and wise

international policy are crucial. The

scientific knowledge necessary for all

these activities must continue to develop.

The needs of local people, who live

alongside elephants, are also of paramount

importance. Meeting the complex

challenge of elephant conservation in the

new millennium demands a multi-faceted

approach. Through the African Elephant

Conservation Fund and in cooperation with

governments of elephant range states, as

well as non-governmental organizations

and local individuals, the United States

seeks to play an important role in helping

this magnificent species survive for future

generations to enjoy and celebrate.

African Elephant

Conservation Fund

The AfECA created the African Elephant

Conservation Fund (Fund) as the mechanism through which the United States

provides financial assistance to protect and

conserve African elephants. This act

authorized an amount not to exceed $5

million for each fiscal year from 1989 to

1993, to be appropriated to the Fund,

thereby establishing a grant program. The

AfECA was re-authorized in 1996 to

continue this level of authorization through

the year 2002. Congress appropriated

$2,994,000 from 1998-2000. During this

period, the Fund has supported 48 grants

(51 projects) in 18 countries, leveraging

$6,454,604 in matching and in-kind support.

The AfECA established specific criteria

for project proposals, as well as project

review and approval. Additionally the

Conference Report, adopted with passage

of the AfECA, identified priority funding

actions. The Service uses these criteria

and direction in administering the Fund.

Projects are evaluated for funding based

on the following criteria:

Projects with African Government

Agencies

The Fund encourages African government

agencies responsible for African elephant

conservation to submit proposals. Proposals submitted by non-governmental

organizations or the private sector must

include evidence of support by governmental entities of countries where the projects

are to be conducted. The Service works

through the U.S. Department of State to

coordinate local government participation.

Projects Directed at Anti-Poaching

Assistance to halt the poaching of

elephants was identified by the AfECA as

most urgently needed for African

countries.

Projects that Address Country Elephant

Conservation Plans

The Fund encourages development of

biologically sound conservation programs.

It also establishes criteria that prioritize

projects leading to effective management

and conservation strategies. An

international coordination group has

assisted some range countries to develop

country conservation plans, while other

countries have produced theirs

independently. The goal is to provide

African governments with a strategy to

maintain ecologically viable elephant

populations. Elephant conservation plans

identify country-specific actions required

to maintain elephant populations at

sustainable levels.

Projects in each Sub-region

The Fund recognizes that elephants help

maintain the biological diversity of Africa

and encourages all range states in the four

geographic African sub-regions to support

its conservation. It also recognizes that

some African countries have effective

elephant conservation programs, but

many others lack sufficient resources to

properly manage, conserve, and protect

elephant populations.

Projects with Matching Funds

The Fund accepts donations to provide

assistance to projects funded under the

grant program. Priority is given to

cooperative projects with matching funds

or in-kind support from other sources,

and/or interim support for projects with

future funding secured.

The concept of prioritizing projects that

have matching or in-kind funds was

mandated by the congressional action that

created the Fund. As a result, the

$11,129,766 provided by the Fund, since its

inception, has been supplemented by

$51,743,750 in matching and in-kind

support. This synergy permits the

creation of projects with more diversified

and sustainable support over the life of

their field activities, and enables a wider

scope of projects to be funded.

Savanna elephant

On-the-Ground

Results

Protection of

Elephants and their

Habitats

Garamba National Park, one of Africa’s

greatest parks, is best known for its

population of the last remaining northern

white rhinos (Ceratotherium simum

cottoni). It also is the home of an

important elephant population in a mosaic

of forests and grasslands that produces a

rich diversity of habitats and wildlife

communities. The park faces severe

threats due to civil unrest in the

Democratic Republic of Congo and

organized, large-scale poaching for ivory

and bushmeat. Present conditions make

working in the park complicated and

difficult. To address these conservation

problems, the African Elephant

Conservation Fund cooperates with the

Institut Congolais pour la Conservation

de la Nature and the International Rhino

Foundation to augment park protection

and surveillance efforts.

Besides being the largest land

animal, they comprise the

majority of biomass in some

areas. In the equatorial

forest, elephants create

pathways through dense

vegetation that may

otherwise be impenetrable to

smaller animals. They knock

down trees and form

openings in the canopy that

allow sunligh to reach the

ground, thereby stimulating

the growth of vegetation.

They consume large

quantities of fruits and

disperse seeds over great

distances.

Seedlings in elephant droppings

Decomplosing forest elephant skull

One of the greatest impediments to

conserving elephants in West Africa is the

lack of trained field biologists. To address

this problem, the Fund supported

Conservation International’s West Africa

Program and two host countries to

conserve and manage populations of

African forest elephants in Kakum

National Park (Ghana) and Marahoue

National Park (Côte d’Ivoire). This

initiative provided advanced training for

biologists in survey techniques, population

estimation, habitat analysis, and other

essential management skills. Field work

by researchers in Kakum NP also tested

and compared two methodologies used to

estimate forest elephant numbers—the

conventional dung count methods and an

innovative technique using genetic analysis

(under an additional project supported by

the Fund to the University of California at

San Diego). The resulting information on

elephant numbers and movements is used

to determine the relationship between

elephant habitat use within the parks and

human land use in surrounding areas.

Based on this program, current elephant

management and conservation issues, as

well as future research may now be

addressed in both parks.

Training and

Capacity-Building

Dense forest vegetation

makes it difficult to find

elephant carcasses even at

close range, therefore

conventional transect

techniques are often

inadequate to address

elephant mortality.

Surveys and

Monitoring of

Elephant Populations

CITES-Mandated Monitoring of the Illegal

Killing of Elephants [MIKE]

This agreement provides support to

conduct the CITES-Mandated Monitoring

of Elephants and Illegal Elephant Killing

(MIKE) Central African Pilot Program, in

cooperation with the Wildlife Conservation

Society and the CITES Secretariat. The

project builds capacity at the local and

national levels in the Central African 

sub-region. It provides training,

equipment, and development of

methodology, which produces field data in

selected sites. When extended over the full

range of MIKE sites, these and other

techniques will be used to detect trends in

the distribution of elephants, their relative

numbers, and the factors affecting them,

in particular, illegal killing. This pilot

elephant-monitoring project is conducted

in selected forested areas in the Republic

of Gabon, Republic of Congo, Democratic

Republic of the Congo, Central African

Republic, and the Republic of Cameroon.

Forest Elephant Study-Dzanga Clearing

The forest elephant population in the area

of Dzanga-Sangha Reserve and the

Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central

African Republic, is considered one of the

most important on the continent. It is the

subject of the most extensive study of

forest elephant ecology and social behavior

ever undertaken. The long-term

monitoring aspect of this work produces

detailed and accurate information on

population trends that guide conservation

efforts in the national park and the region.

To date, more than 2,600 elephants have

been individually identified. Records of

births, deaths, and social behavior permit

conservationists to accurately estimate

population numbers and growth rates, as

well as study elephant movements into the

other protected areas in the Sangha River

Tri-national Conservation Area.

Forest elephants

Elephants excavate soil for

water and minerals, making

them available to smaller

animals. Their activities are

believed to maintain forest

openings that are rich in

minerals and provide

terrestrial forage for

numerous species. These

large openings in dense forest

canopy play an essential role

in the ecology of some central

African forests. Without

elephants to keep these areas

open, they are quickly

overgrown by trees and

shrubs and may no longer

provide nutritious vegetation

and minerals to other forest

fauna.
A herd of Central African elephants crossing

a fllodplain at dusk
Nouabalé-Ndoki Forest Elephant Project

This partnership facilitates applied

research on African forest elephant

(Loxodonta africana cyclotis) populations

in and around Nouabalé-Ndoki National

Park, Republic of the Congo. It provides

detailed information on seasonal

movements and distribution of elephants,

particularly in relation to ecological and

human interference factors such as

logging, poaching, and human settlement.

The project goal is accomplished by

tracking elephants with global positioning

system and radio collars; extensive

groundwork following and mapping

elephant trails; and noting the appearance

of elephant forage species. Researchers

use aircraft to facilitate location of collared

elephants and downloading data stored in

their collars. Overflights also produce

useful videographic data in areas

important to elephants. There is an

extensive training component in this

project to enhance the ability of Congolese

conservation biologists and park

ecoguards to manage elephants. The

information gained in this study will

increase the government of Congo’s

capacity to conserve elephants and their

habitat in this important area in

Central Africa.

Applied ResearchMovements and

Behavior

Elephant trails in dry

grasslands form a sort of

“fire break” that may limit

the extent and severity of

grass fires—thereby favoring

regeneration of tree

seedlings. But elephants also

damage or destroy trees and

shrubs. This is part of the

natural cycle—except where

elephant numbers have

become artificially

concentrated due to human

activity. In these places,

elephants are capable of

transforming woodlands into

grasslands with considerable

effects on other wildlife

species, to the benefit of some

and the detriment of others.

Applied Research

Non-invasive Genotyping of African

Elephants in Ghana

The Fund collaborates with researchers

from the University of California and their

associates in the field to conduct applied

genetic research on non-invasive

genotyping of African elephants

(Loxodonta africana) based on dung

samples. This technique is purported to be

100 times more informative than previously applied methods. It will enable

researchers to refine methodologies and

develop new applications for population

census and genetic profiling. Population

genetics information will provide wildlife

managers with baseline data for

monitoring genetic erosion and inbreeding,

and help plan translocations when

necessary. Current research uses

population samples from Ghana’s forest

elephants in Kakum National Park and

savanna elephants in Mole National Park.

Comparing data from these discrete

populations will help establish whether

African elephants should be managed as

one or two taxa and estimate the extent of

hybridization between the two subspecies

in Ghana and elsewhere in Africa.

Acoustic Monitoring of Forest Elephants

Methodologies currently available to

monitor forest elephants are expensive

and, in many cases, only provide rough

population estimates. The purpose of this

project is to develop and conduct applied

research on infrasonic communication by

elephants and its application for research

and monitoring of elephants in the forests

of west and central Africa. Research and

monitoring are difficult or impossible in

the dense tropical forests. Such technology represents an extremely valuable tool

that may permit conservationists to

determine elephant movements and

relative habitat occupancy, behavior

(including reproductive and other social

activities), monitor poaching activities, and

estimate elephant numbers. Currently,

data is collected using autonomous

recording devices that are deployed in the

forest at strategic locations and then

analyzed in the laboratory. A goal of this

project is to develop the ability to analyze

data in real time. This information could be

used to warn park security forces about

dangers to elephants, as well as indicate

the presence and activities of crop-raiding

elephants. In addition, analysis of stored

data could denote particular

circumstances experienced by elephants

(i.e. movements, stress, reproductive

activity), and relative numbers and

distribution. Work is being conducted in

Kakum National Park, Ghana, and DzangaSangha National Park, Central African

Republic (both sites of other AfECF

supported projects). The resulting

technology may form the basis of a 

much-needed new way to monitor forest

elephants in Africa and Asia.

Non-lethal Control of African Elephant

Populations in South Africa

In order to reduce damage to the

environment caused by over-abundant

elephant populations, several management

tools exist. Translocation may be of value

in certain circumstances, but its

applications are limited. Some countries

have previously resorted to culling

elephants to reduce populations. The

purpose of this grant is to support applied

research in Kruger National Park,

Republic of South Africa, to development a

non-lethal control of African elephant

populations by means of immunocontraception. The technique under

development uses Porcine Zona

Pellucida(PZP) vaccination to inhibit

fertility among female elephants. This

technique may provide a humane method

of limiting reproduction in areas where

other population control measures are

inappropriate or undesirable. The study is

a technical collaboration between

ZooMontana (Billings, MT), the University

of Georgia (Athens, GA), and Kruger

National Park (Republic of South Africa).

Forest elephant

People, Elephants, and

Conservation in the

Greater Amboseli

Ecosystem

The African Wildlife Foundation, in

partnership with the Fund and host

country conservationists, is conducting

applied research and community

conservation activities in support of the

conservation and management of African

elephant populations in the area around

Amboseli National Park, Kenya. The

project provides detailed information on

seasonal movements and distribution of

elephants, particularly in relation to

human settlements. Researchers are

studying these subjects and attempting to

resolve elephant-human conflicts in the

greater Amboseli Ecosystem. These goals

will be accomplished by tracking GPScollared elephants, conducting aerial

surveys, and implementing outreach

program with local Maasai communities.

These activities will enhance elephant

range by reducing competition with

humans for common resources and

thereby help relieve elephant

overcrowding within the national park.

Massai women and children

Survival of elephants will be

determined by humans and

whether we will control our

appetites for more land and

wildlife products.

Elephants pose enormous problems to

subsistence farmers in many places. The

Ecology and Deterrence of Crop-Raiding

Elephants in the Mid-Zambezi Valley,

Zimbabwe, initiative is a program to study

and manage human-elephant conflict in the

Muzarabani Rural District, Zimbabwe.

Communities in this area have agricultural

holdings subject to depredations by

resident and migrant elephant herds. The

Fund supported research on the

movements, behavior, and habitat use of

crop-raiding elephants, with the goal of

developing effective prevention and

deterrent strategies. It extends work

performed under previous grants by the

Fund and supports Rural District

Councils, which manage elephant herds

and create management plans based on

extensive data on the behavior of cropraiding elephants. Local partners are also

experimenting with their recently

developed elephant deterrant, which

contains a harmless product made of an

extract of locally grown peppers.

Reduction of

Human-Elephant

Conflict

Women working agricultural field next to

forest habitat in the Congo

Mitigating human-elephant

conflict may ultimately

determine the survival of the

African elephant.
Monitoring and Mitigating the Impact of

Elephant on Agriculture in Southern

Gabon III

World Wildlife Fund US, $79,000 +

$88,942—An investigation into all aspects

of crop raiding by elephants in the Gamba

Protected Area Complex, Gabon, with the

goal of producing an effective management

and conservation plan.

Applied Elephant Research in the

Nouabalé-Ndoki Forest for Management

and Conservation

Wildlife Conservation Society, $91,800 +

$103,100—Research project on the

seasonal elephant migration patterns,

upon which future elephant management

and conservation decisions will be based in

the Nouabalé-Ndoki NP and surrounding

Sangha River Tri-national Region.

Post-War Rehabilitation of Minimal

Infrastructure in the Reserve de Faune

d’Okapi, (RFO) Democratic Republic of

the Congo

Wildlife Conservation Society, $60,000 +

$60,000—A project for the rehabilitation of

the infrastructure of the Reserve de Faune

d’Okapi that was destroyed during the

Congolese civil war. Elephant security

activities are included in this project.

Support to the African Elephant

Specialist Group

The African Elephant Specialist Group/

IUCN, $122,000 + $122,000—Support to

enable the African Elephant Specialist

Group (AfESG) to serve more effectively

as technical advisors on the conservation

and management of the African elephant

and its habitat.

Non-lethal Control of African Elephant

Populations By Means of Immunocontraception I

Humane Society of the United States,

$75,000 + $28,350—A feasibility study to

measure the efficacy of an immunocontraceptive vaccine in the inhibition of

reproduction among African elephants in

Kruger NP, South Africa.

Supplemental Anti-poaching Assistance

to Zimbabwe for the Lower Zambezi

Valley

Southern Africa Wildlife Trust $74,849 +

$136,024—A grant to provide Zimbabwe’s

anti-poaching personnel with adequate

non-lethal equipment with which to

interdict heavily-armed elephant ivory

poachers.

Elephant Crop Damage Control in Red

Volta Valley, Ghana

Ghana Wildlife Department, $23,000 +

$36,230—A program to monitor the

distribution and numbers of elephants in

the Red Volta Valley, Ghana, and evaluate

Summary of Grants

1998-2000

Bold/italic type within

individual summary

indicates project matching

funds.

NP=National Park
various elephant deterrence techniques to

reduce crop raiding.

Forest Elephant Study, The Dzanga

Clearing III, Central African Republic

The Wildlife Conservation Society, $43,500

+ $43,500—Research and data collection

including the size, demographics,

morphometrics, genetics, social structure,

social behavior and ecology for an

important forest elephant population in

the Dzanga-Sangha Reserve.

Tracking the Origin of African Elephant

Ivory through Geographic Mapping of

Allele Frequencies

Woodland Park Zoological Society, $61,908

+ $134,090—A study to produce a method

for tracking the geographical origin of

African elephant ivory and to develop

geographic maps of allele frequency

distributions.

Continuing Dialogue Among African

Elephant Range States - Dialogue III

IUCN/Species Survival Programme

$86,795.23 + $176,350—The administration

of the Third Dialogue of the Range States

of the African Elephant, in Arusha,

Tanzania, September 1998.

Confiscated ivory and an AK-47 used to poach elephants
Projects Funded By

Program Area

(continued)

National Elephant Planning Workshop

and Drafting of the National Elephant

Management Plan for Mozambique

IUCN—The World Conservation Union,

$13,825 + $20,738—Conduct a workshop, in

close cooperation with the Mozambican

Wildlife Department, to formulate a

framework and strategy for the national

elephant management plan, and to

produce a list of prioritized activities

required to implement the plan.

Non-invasive Genotyping of African

Elephants in Ghana

University of California, San Diego, $34,897

+ $35,071—A program of applied genetic

research for non-invasive genotyping of

African elephants based on dung samples.

Support to CAMPFIRE II in Zimbabwe

Safari Club International, $63,166 +

$63,182—Assistance to community

activities to conserve elephants through

the CAMPFIRE Program (Communal

Areas Management Program for

Indigenous Resources).

Economics of Elephant-Human Conflict

in Caprivi, Namibia

University of California-Davis, c/o

Directorate of Environmental Affairs,

Ministry of Environment and Tourism,

$13,300 + $15,635—An applied research

program on the socio-economic aspects of

conflict between elephants and people in

the Caprivi Region of Namibia.

Management and Conservation of Forest

Elephants in West Africa

Conservation International, $99,545 +

$146,693—A biologist training program

and research project to conserve and

manage populations of African elephants in

Kakum National Park (Ghana) and

Marahoue National Park (Côte d’Ivoire).

Non-lethal Control of African Elephant

Populations by Means of Immunocontraception in South Africa II

Humane Society of the United States,

$50,418 + $50,418—Applied research in

Kruger NP, Republic of South Africa, for

the development of non-lethal control of

African elephant populations by means of

immuno-contraception.

Aerial Monitoring of Elephants in the

Maasai-Mara National Reserve, Kenya

Worldwide Fund for Nature, $33,240 +

$13,170—A series of aerial surveys of

elephant populations and training to the

Kenya Wildlife Service aerial monitoring

team in the Maasai-Mara Game Reserve,

Kenya.
People, Elephants, and Conservation in

the Greater Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya

African Wildlife Foundation, $105,515 +

$187,788—A community conservation and

management project for elephant

populations in the area around Amboseli

NP, Kenya.

Forest Elephant Study, the Dzanga

Clearing, Central African Republic

Wildlife Conservation Society, $38,500 +

$14,500—A long-term study of a large

population of forest elephants in the

Dzanga-Sangha Reserve and the DzangaNdoki NP, Central African Republic.

Nouabalé-Ndoki Forest Elephant

Project: Applied Research for

Conservation in Congo

Wildlife Conservation Society, $60,500 +

$68,800—Applied research to produce

detailed information on elephants’

seasonal movements and distribution,

particularly in relation to ecological and

human interference factors such as

logging, poaching, and human settlement,

in and around Nouabalé-Ndoki NP,

Republic of the Congo.

Elephants are a primary source of bushmeat

in Africa
Projects Funded By

Program Area

(continued)

Conservation for the African Elephant on

Lewa Wildlife Conservancy and

Affiliated Community Projects in Kenya

Lewa Wildlife Conservancy, $49,940 +

$843,690—A protection program through

improved intelligence and security efforts,

as well as management of elephant

populations in and around Lewa Downs

Ranch, Il Ngwesi Group Ranch, and the

Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust in

central Kenya.

Support to the Niassa Game Reserve,

Mozambique

Niassa Game Reserve, $76,175 + $641,242

—The provision of assistance to antipoaching teams and park management by

supporting aerial surveys and purchase of

materials for elephant exclusion fences in

and around the Niassa Game Reserve.

Collaborative Assessment of Elephant

Impacts on Plant and Habitat

Biodiversity in the Kruger NP, South

Africa

University of Witwatersrand, Center for

African Ecology, $45,500 + $168,100—A

research project to provide vital

information for the management the

African elephant and its habitat.

Elephants are a favorite attraction and

provide revenue from ecotourism
Daily Activities, Habitat Use and

Movements of Elephants on Mt. Kenya,

Kenya

Kenya Wildlife Service/Mt. Kenya Project,

$22,000 + $27,050—A grant to assist the

field scientists of the Kenya Wildlife

Service in the formulation of management

plans and related conservation activities,

such as reduction of human-elephant

conflict in the peripheral areas of Mt.

Kenya.

Support for the Protection and

Rehabilitation of Garamba National

Park, Democratic Republic of Congo

The International Rhino Foundation,

$67,750 + $443,500—An anti-poaching and

surveillance project for the protection of

the African elephant and other wildlife

species in the Garamba NP, Democratic

Republic of Congo (DRC).

Restoration of the Tembe-Futi-Maputo

Elephant Population in South Africa &

Mozambique

The Southern Africa Wildlife Trust and

Peace Parks Foundation, $98,963 +

$139,306—An effort to promote the

establishment of a Trans-frontier

Conservation Area in an area of high

ecological importance and value as

elephant habitat between the Maputo

Region of Southern Mozambique and

northern KwaZulu Natal in South Africa.

Community Conservation at Mkomazi

Game Reserve, Tanzania

The Tony Fitzjohn/George Adamson

African Wildlife Preservation Trust,

$45,985 + $50,375—A community

conservation program to reduce humanelephant conflict and to manage habitat of

the African elephant in and around the

Mkomazi Game Reserve.

Support to Activities of the African

Elephant Specialist Group

IUCN—The World Conservation Union,

$216,000 + $281,858—Support for two

years of the activities of the African

Elephant Specialist Group to provide

technical advice for the long-term

conservation of African elephants throughout their range.

Elephant Crop Damage Control:

A Pilot Study

Zambia National Parks and Wildlife

Service and the Wildlife Conservation

Society, $9,000 + $20,000—A pilot study on

the effectiveness of electric fencing as a

deterrent for elephants that may raid

crops and grain storage areas in small

communities in elephant habitat.
Fourth Dialogue Meeting of the African

Elephant Range States

IUCN—The World Conservation Union,

$100,000 + $96,992—Fourth Dialogue

Meeting of the African Elephant Range

States, 6-7 April 2000 in Nairobi, Kenya.

Anti-Poaching in Zakouma National

Park, Chad (Part I)

Department of State, American Embassy,

N’Djamena, $50,000 + >$50,000—

Communications equipment for park

security forces in Zakouma NP, Chad.

CITES-Mandated Monitoring of

Elephants and Illegal Elephant Killing

[MIKE]

Wildlife Conservation Society, $337,450 +

$404,392—A pilot project to implement the

MIKE Central African Program to build

capacity through training at local and

national levels, methodological

development, and data production at

selected sites in the Central African subregion to detect trends in elephant

distribution, relative numbers, and the

factors affecting illegal killing.

Projects Funded By

Program Area

(continued)

Mother forest elephant chases great white

egret from her calf
Sahelian Elephant Ecology Research and

Conservation Program in Gourma, Mali

Save the Elephants, $47,054 + $123,375—A

grant to support the Timbuktu Elephant

Project’s study of movements and ecology

to provide a scientific basis for managing

and conserving arid-land elephants.

Elephant, Crops and People, Uganda,

African Wildlife Trust, $31,050 + $21,145—

A program to reduce current and future

conflicts between the recovering elephant

population of Queen Elizabeth NP and the

growing human communities neighboring

the park.

Zambian Game Management Area Game

Scout Anti-Poaching Support Project

The Southern Africa Wildlife Trust,

$15,658 + $31,300—Assistance to antipoaching teams in the Lunga/Busanga and

Chizela Game Management Areas of

Zambia by furnishing necessary non-lethal

equipment to protect populations of

elephants and other wildlife.

Ecology and Deterrence of Crop-Raiding

Elephants in the Mid-Zambezi Valley,

Zimbabwe

The Cambridge University/Mid-Zambezi

Elephant Project, $29,900 + $41,200—A

study of the movements and habitat use of

crop-raiding elephants, to develop effective

prevention and deterrent strategies in the

Muzarabani Rural District.

Acoustic Monitoring of Forest Elephants

Cornell University Bioacoustics Research

Program, $100,741 + $294,256—A pilot

study to develop and conduct applied

research on infrasonic communication by

elephants and its application for research

and monitoring of elephants in dense

tropical forests.

Anti-Poaching in Zakouma NP, Chad

(Part II)

Department of State, American Embassy,

N’djamena, $40,000 + >$40,000—Support

for anti-poaching teams through the

provision of clothing, camping gear,

binoculars, a boat for rainy season patrols,

and a needs-assessment study to advise

and direct training for park ecoguards.

Development of the African Elephant

Database (Part II)

IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist

Group, $78,100 + $148,598—A grant to

continue production of the African

Elephant Database (AED), which is a

computerized bank of information stored

in a Geographic Information System (GIS)

on elephant numbers and distribution

throughout the African continent.
Meritorious Awards Program for

African Elephant Conservation (Part II)

Southern African Wildlife Trust, $142,450

+ $142,450—Program to award field

personnel who face heavily-armed

poachers while executing their duty to

protect and manage wildlife in Tanzania,

Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Namibia,

and the Republic of South Africa.

Suivi de la Dynamique des Populations

et des Déplacements Saisonniers des

Eléphants du Sud Est du Tchad

Projet de Conservation de

l’Environnement dans le Sud-est du

Tchad, $30,000 + $29,400—A system of

monitoring the seasonal movements and

habitat use of African elephants in and

around the Zakouma NP, Chad.

Kunene West Elephant Monitoring

Project

Save the Rhino Trust-Elephant Project,

$30,400 + $41,484—Identification and

Projects Funded By

Program Area

(continued)

Elephant greeting
monitoring of desert elephants and

community wildlife conservation training

in Namibia.

Elephant Conservation and Monitoring

in the Multiple-use Forests of the

Sangha/Likouala Regions of Northern

Congo

Wildlife Conservation Society, $98,250 +

$451,960—Protection efforts, community

conservation, and monitoring of population

trends in a logging area that forms part of

the Sangha River Tri-national

Conservation Area.

Appui à la Promotion de la Mise en

Oeuvre de la Stratégie pour la

Conservation des Eléphants en Afrique

de l’Ouest

IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group,

$19,016 + $37,000—Support to West

African Program Officer to assist in

capacity-building to implement the West

Africa Conservation Strategy.

Monitoring Elephants in the Meru

Ecosystem

Save the Elephants, $16,800 + $20,000—

Applied research on the seasonal

movements of elephants in the Meru

Ecosystem in north central Kenya.

Control of Elephant Poaching in the

Okapi Faunal Reserve, Democratic

Republic of Congo (DRC)

Wildlife Conservation Society, $59,980 +

$77,425—The rehabilitation of

infrastructure and procurement of

materials to conduct protection and

monitoring activities in eastern DRC.

Community-based Conservation of the

African Elephant in Sarara-Sabache and

Surrounding Areas

Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust,

$37,455 + $50,975—Protection and

monitoring activities on group ranches and

other community conservation activities in

north central Kenya.

Long-term Monitoring, Research, and

Protection of Elephants in the NouabaléNdoki NP and Surrounding Areas

Wildlife Conservation Society, $162,300 +

$189,950—Long-term protection, applied

research, and monitoring of elephants in

and around the national park, which is part

of the Sangha River Tri-national

Conservation Area.
Distribution of

Funds

Program Areas

Grant Funds

$3,369,675

Matching Funds and

In-Kind Contributions

$6,454,604

Grant and Matching Funds

34%

66%

Country Governments

Academic Institutions

Country NGOs

International NGOs

Organizational Funding

12%

12%

15%

61%

Wildlife Protection

Conflict Resolution

Conservation Education

Other

Surveys & Monitoring

Protected Area Management

21%

12%

4%

4%

35%

24%
Countries with Grants

Fiscal Years 1998-2000
For more information about the Fund,

please contact:

Chief, Division of International

Conservation

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 730

Arlington, VA 22203

703.358.1754
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Division of International Conservation

Washington, DC 20240

http://www.fws.gov/

http://international.fws.gov/

Spring 2001