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Alcohol and Crime

Bureau of Justice Statistics

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs 

5HYLVHG  WK
 Alcohol and Crime i

Alcohol and Crime

An Analysis of National Data on the 

Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime

Prepared for the Assistant Attorney General’s

National Symposium on Alcohol Abuse and Crime

April 5-7, 1998

Washington, D.C.

By Lawrence A. Greenfeld

Statistician

Bureau of Justice Statistics

NCJ 168632

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs
U.S. Department of Justice

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D.

Director

This report was written by Lawrence A.

Greenfeld, deputy director, Bureau of

Justice Statistics. David Levin provided

substantial assistance in the preparation

and analysis of FARS data from the

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; he also verified the report’s

findings. Laura Maruschak provided

assistance in the analysis of the 1996

Survey of Inmates in Local Jails. Cheryl

Ringel verified the findings from the

National Crime Victimization Survey.

Tom Hester, Priscilla Middleton, Rhonda

Keith, 

and Jayne Robinson designed and

produced the report. Maureen Henneberg

and Yvonne Boston reviewed the report.

Marilyn Marbrook, assisted by Ms.

Boston, prepared the report for printing.

Data analyzed for this report can be

obtained from the National Archive of

Criminal Justice Data 1-800-999-0690.

Related reports, spreadsheets, graphs,

and information, as well as the archive

itself, can be accessed at the BJS Internet site: 

http//www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

ii Alcohol and Crime 
Foreword

The extensive and far-reaching

impacts of alcohol abuse on crime and

public safety are only now achieving

widespread public policy attention.

This report was prepared to provide

statistical information as background

for the Assistant Attorney General’s

1998 National Symposium on Alcohol

Abuse and Crime, which will address

many of these policy issues and

discuss approaches that may help

alleviate these problems.

Based on this compilation and new

analysis of data on alcohol and crime,

we know that nearly 4 in 10 violent

victimizations involve use of alcohol,

about 4 in 10 fatal motor vehicle

accidents are alcohol-involved; and

about 4 in 10 offenders, regardless of

whether they are on probation, in local

jail, or in State prison, self-report that

they were using alcohol at the time of

the offense. 

There are, however, a number of

positive indicators that alcohol-related

crime is generally decreasing and that

most of those in need of treatment are

receiving it. Violence between current

and former spouses, boyfriends, and

girlfriends is especially likely to

involve alcohol abuse, and all forms of

violence against intimates, including

homicide, have been declining in

recent years. In addition, rates of

arrest for DUI have declined by 24%

since 1990. During the last 10 years,

the number of highway fatalities attributable to alcohol-related accidents has

dropped by about 7,000 annually, a

29% decrease. 

This report uses a wide variety of

sources, including statistical series

maintained by the Bureau of Justice

Statistics (BJS), the Federal Bureau of

Investigation, the National Highway

Traffic Safety Administration, and the

Bureau of Transportation Statistics.

We are grateful for the cooperation of

these agencies and also want to thank

the many respondents to our surveys

throughout the country. 

We anticipate that more on the issue

of alcohol and crime will be available

in the near future as new data collections by BJS, including the 1997

Survey of Inmates of State and

Federal Correctional Facilities, are

analyzed. BJS has incorporated new

questions into its surveys which will

enable a more in-depth understanding

of the alcohol use and abuse

backgrounds of offenders and the

nature of the treatment they receive

while incarcerated.

Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D.

Director, Bureau of Justice Statistics

Laurie Robinson

Assistant Attorney General

Office of Justice Programs

 Alcohol and Crime iii
Highlights

This report provides the most comprehensive analysis of statistical data on

alcohol and crime published to date by

BJS. 

Sources of information include the

BJS National Crime Victimization

Survey (NCVS), BJS self-report

surveys of correctional populations,

and the periodic BJS censuses of

Federal, State, and local corrections

facilities. In addition, arrest data from

the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting

Program and the most recent data

available from the FBI’s National

Incident-Based Reporting Program are

used to supplement national survey

data. 

Finally, the report includes new analyses from the National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration’s Fatal Accident

Reporting System (FARS), a database

providing detail on more than 2.1

million fatal motor vehicle accidents

that occurred over the last two

decades. The study provides the firstever estimates of the level of intoxication among drinking offenders at the

time of the commission of the offense

for which they had been convicted.

The role of alcohol in crime

victimization

c About 3 million violent crimes occur

each year in which victims perceive

the offender to have been drinking at

the time of the offense. Among those

victims who provided information

about the offender’s use of alcohol,

about 35% of the victimizations

involved 

an offender who had been drinking.

About two-thirds of the alcoholinvolved crimes were characterized as

simple assaults.

c Two-thirds of victims who suffered

violence by an intimate (a current or

former spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend)

reported that alcohol had been a

factor. Among spouse victims, 3 out

of 4 incidents were reported to have

involved an offender who had been

drinking. By contrast, an estimated

31% of stranger victimizations where

the victim could determine the

absence or presence of alcohol were

perceived to be alcohol-related.

c For about 1 in 5 violent victimizations involving perceived alcohol use

by the offender, victims also reported

they believed the offender to have

been using drugs as well.

c Data for 1995 from the National

Incident-Based Reporting System

(NIBRS) of the FBI indicate that about

half the incidents described by the

investigating officer as alcohol-related

were between offenders and victims

who were intimates.

c NIBRS data show that about 7 out 

of 10 alcohol-involved incidents of

violence occurred in a residence; the

hour beginning at 11 p.m. was the

most frequent time of occurrence; and

about 2 in 10 incidents involved the

use of a weapon other than hands,

fists, or feet.

 Alcohol and Crime v
DUI/DWI: Arrests and fatal

accidents

c In 1996, local law enforcement

agencies nationwide made an

estimated 1,467,300 arrests for driving

under the influence (DUI). Arrests for

DUI peaked in 1983 when there were

1.9 million arrests. Compared to

1983, the per capita rate of arrest for

DUI in 1996 was 34% lower.

c Declines in DUI arrest rates have

occurred for every age group. Of

particular note is the decrease in DUI

arrest rates for those under the age of

21 compared to their rates of DUI

arrest in the early 1980's when States

had not adopted a uniform drinking

age. In 1980 persons between 16 

and 20 years old accounted for 10% 

of licensed drivers but 15% of DUI

arrestees. In 1996, this age group

accounted for 7% of drivers and 8% 

of DUI arrestees.

c In 1996 there were 17,126 alcoholrelated traffic fatalitiesaccounting for

40.9% of all traffic fatalities during the

year. This is a 29% reduction from

the more than 24,000 fatalities

recorded 10 years earlier when alcohol

was involved in 52% of the fatalities.

c An estimated 32% of fatal accidents

involved an intoxicated driver or

pedestrian (the majority are drivers,

however) with a blood alcohol concentration, or BAC, of at least 0.10 grams 

of alcohol per deciliter of blood, the

most commonly used definition of

intoxication.

c Over the last decade rates of intoxication in fatal accidents have declined

across every age group. In 1986,

there was about 1 driver involved in a

fatal accident in which he/she was

intoxicated for every 10,500 drivers; in

1996, the rate translates into about 1

intoxicated driver in a fatal accident

for every 17,200 licensed drivers.

 

c Among drinking drivers whose BAC

at the time of the accident was known,

84% had a BAC of at least 0.08 g/dl

and 78% had a BAC of 0.10 g/dl or

higher.

cThe average BAC among drinking

drivers in fatal accidents was 0.16

g/dl. There was a strong relationship

between average BAC among drinking

drivers in fatal accidents and prior

driving record & consistently, those

with prior suspensions, invalid

licenses, and prior driving while intoxicated (DWI) convictions reflected the

highest BAC’s at the time of the crash.

Among drivers in fatal accidents who

had at least two prior DWI convictions,

the average BAC was 0.21 g/dl, the

highest of any group.

Use of alcohol by convicted

offenders

c Among the 5.3 million convicted

offenders under the jurisdiction of

corrections agencies in 1996, nearly 2

million, or about 36%, were estimated

to have been drinking at the time of

the offense. The vast majority, about

1.5 million, of these alcohol-involved

offenders were sentenced to supervision in the community: 1.3 million on

probation and more than 200,000 on

parole.

c There was some variation in the

percentage of offenders who had been

using alcohol at the time of the

vi Alcohol and Crime Revised 04/28/98 th
40% of both jail inmates and probationers, 32% of State prisoners, and

29% of parolees.

c Alcohol use at the time of the

offense was commonly found among

those convicted of public-order

crimes, a type of offense most highly

represented among those on probation

and in jail. Among violent offenders,

41% of probationers, 41% of those in

local jails, 38% of those in State

prisons, and 20% of those in Federal

prisons were estimated to have been

drinking when they committed the

crime. 

cBased upon self-reports of what

offenders were drinking and for how

long, it is estimated that the average

BAC level at the time of the crime

was:

Proba- Jail State

tioners inmates prisoners

All offenders .16 .19 .27

Violent .18 .20 .28

Property .24 .22 .30

Drugs .14 .15 .19

Public-order* .14 .19 .23

*Includes offenses like driving while intoxicated,

weapons offenses, and commercial vice.

c An estimated 62% of probationers

drinking at the time of the offense and

& among daily drinkers & 65% of

convicted jail inmates and less than

50% of State prisoners reported ever

participating in an alcohol treatment

program.

 Alcohol and Crime vii

Alcohol and health issues

y An analysis of alcohol dependence

among trauma center patients found

that the prevalence of alcoholism was

substantially higher among vehicular

crash victims and other trauma

patients than among the equivalent

general population group. More than

half of trauma patients with a positive

BAC at the time of the trauma were

diagnosed as alcoholics, and nearly 

1 in 7 patients who were not drinking

at the time of the trauma were

diagnosed as alcohol-dependent.

Source: "Alcoholism at the Time of Injury

Among Trauma Center Patients: Vehicular Crash Victims Compared with Other

Patients,# Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 29, No. 6, 1997.

y Death rates from alcohol-induced causes have declined 

especially sharply among black males and females, 

but the rates among blacks are twice those among whites.

 Rates per 100,000 persons, adjusted for age 

 Whites Blacks 

Year All groups Males Females Males Females

1980 8.4 10.8 3.5 32.4 10.6

1985 7.0 9.2 2.8 27.7 8.0

1990 7.2 9.9 2.8 26.6 7.7

1992 6.8 9.9 2.6 22.3 6.3

1993 6.7 9.7 2.7 21.3 5.5

1994 6.8 9.9 2.7 20.4 5.6

Percent change

1980-94 -19.0% -8.3% -22.9% -37.0% -47.2%

 

Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Monthly Vital Statistics Reports.
Sources of data on alcohol 

and crime

National Crime Victimization Survey

The National Crime Victimization Survey

(NCVS) is one of two statistical series

maintained by the Department of Justice

to learn about the extent to which crime is

occurring. The NCVS, which gathers

data on criminal victimization from a

national sample of household respondents, provides annual estimates of

crimes experienced by the public without

regard to whether a law enforcement

agency was called about the crime. Initiated 

in 1972, the NCVS was designed to

complement what is known about crimes

reported to local law enforcement

agencies under the FBI's annual compilation known as the Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR).

The NCVS gathers information about

crime and its consequences from a

nationally representative sample of U.S.

residents age 12 or older about any

crimes they may have experienced. For

personal contact crimes the survey determines who the perpetrator was.

In the latter half of the 1980's, the Bureau

of Justice Statistics (BJS), together with

the Committee on Law and Justice of the

American Statistical Association, sought

to improve the NCVS components to

enhance the measurement of crimes

including rape, sexual assault, and

intimate and family violence. The new

questions and revised procedures were

phased in from January 1992 through

June 1993 in half the sampled households. Since July 1993 the redesigned

methods have been used for the entire

national sample. The NCVS asks victims

of violence directly about their perceptions of alcohol and drug use by the

offender.

Uniform Crime Reporting Program

The Uniform Crime Reporting Program

(UCR) of the FBI provides another opportunity to examine the issue of alcoholinvolved arrests. The summary-based

component of the UCR, launched 70

years ago, gathers aggregate data on

eight categories of crime from law

enforcement agencies nationwide. While

the summary UCR does provide detailed

information on those arrested for driving

while under the influence, it does not

provide any information necessary to

identify violent crimes or arrests involving

alcohol. Such data are available,

however, from the incident-based component of the UCR, the National IncidentBased Reporting Program (NIBRS). 

National Incident-Based Reporting

Program

NIBRS represents the next generation of

crime data from law enforcement

agencies. Rather than being restricted to

a group of 8 Index crimes that the

summary-based program uses, NIBRS

obtains information on 57 types of crimes.

The information collected on each violent

crime incident includes victim-offender

demographics, victim-offender relationship, time and place of occurrence,

weapon use, and victim injuries. An

important contribution of NIBRS is that

investigating officers are asked to record

their perception of whether alcohol was a

factor in the incident. As of the end of

1997, jurisdictions certified by the FBI as

viii Alcohol and Crime 
capable of reporting incident-based

data in the required format account for

just over 7% of the U.S. population

(about 19 million Americans) and just

over 6% of all Index crimes (murders,

rapes, robberies, aggravated assaults,

burglaries, larcenies, and motor

vehicle thefts). 

In those States with certified NIBRS

systems, about 50% of the population

is now covered by NIBRS reporting to

the FBI. BJS is currently funding

preliminary studies of NIBRS data and

their utility for improving our knowledge of violence with special regard

for such concerns as intimate

violence, family violence, and domestic violence and the role alcohol may

play in these kinds of police-reported

incidents.

Surveys of probationers, jail and

prison inmates

BJS also conducts national surveys of

persons under probation supervision

and those confined in local jails and

State and Federal prisons. These

nationally representative surveys are

the principal source of information on

those serving time following a conviction: their backgrounds, their prior

criminal histories, and the circumstances surrounding the offense for

which they had been incarcerated.

Both jail and prison surveys obtain

from violent offenders details about

the offender's relationship to the

victim and how the crime was carried

out. All three surveys incorporate

detailed questions regarding alcohol

use and abuse both before the crime

and at the time the crime was committed. In addition, a number of

questions are devoted to treatment

and the types of treatments received. 

Censuses of prisons and jails

BJS carries out facility-level data

collection among each of the 1,500

State and Federal prisons and the

3,300 local jails. These statistical

series gather detailed information on

the operations of each facility, including capacity, staffing, programs, court

orders, and special functions or

services provided to inmates. Facilities are queried about their treatment

programs and the extent of inmate

participation.

Fatal Accident Reporting System

Since 1975, the National Highway

Traffic Safety Administration of the

U.S. Department of Transportation

has maintained the annual Fatal

Accident Reporting System (FARS)

which obtains accident-level data on

each motor vehicle crash involving a

fatality. FARS uses State agencies

under contract to complete a standardized form on each fatal accident which

covers weather and road conditions,

vehicle type, number of passengers

and fatalities, the manner of the crash,

whether there was a drinking or drugusing driver involved, and specific

measurement of blood alcohol

concentration or BAC (grams of

alcohol per deciliter of blood). 

 Alcohol and Crime ix
Contents

Foreword iii

Highlights v

Sources of data on alcohol 

and crime viii

 

Measuring the extent to which

alcohol is involved in crime 1

Victims perceptions of alcohol

use by offenders

Incident-based data on alcohol

and violent crime

DUI/DWI: Arrests 

and fatal accidents 11

Examining BAC factors

Use of alcohol by convicted 

offenders 20

Offenders on probation and 

alcohol use

Local jail inmates and

alcohol use

Inmates in State prisons and

alcohol use

Appendix I: Formula for 

calculating BAC 32

Appendix II: Liquor law 

violations on college campuses 33

Datapoints for the graphics 34

 Alcohol and Crime xi
Measuring the extent to which

alcohol is involved in crime

Estimates from the National Crime

Victimization Survey indicate that

victims of about 3 million violent

crimes each year, or about a quarter

of all violent crimes, perceived the

offenders to have been drinking.

Among victims of violence who were

certain that they could tell whether or

not an offender had been drinking,

about 35% of the violent victimizations

were believed to have involved an

assailant who had been drinking.

Household surveys reveal that alcohol

use is common among most U.S.

residents. An estimated 8 in 10

persons aged 12 or older has used

alcohol at some time in their lives and

half describe themselves as current

users. Prevalence of use, however, is

age-sensitive since all States have,

since 1983, revised the legal age to a

uniform 21 years old.

 Alcohol use1

 

Age Ever Current 

 12 or older 82% 52%

12-17 41 21

18-25 84 61

26-34 90 63

35 or older 87 53

About 1 in 18 persons age 18 or older

describe themselves as consuming

two or more drinks per day2

 but

national estimates of annual per capita

consumption of alcoholic beverages

have dropped about 10% since 1990.

Even with this decline, aggregate

consumption translates into about one

drink per day for every resident.

Per capita annual

consumption of alcohol3

1990 1995 

 Total (gallons) 40.0 gal. 35.9 gal.

Beer 34.9 31.6

Wine 2.9 2.6

Spirits 2.2 1.8

In 1995 the Substance Abuse and

Mental Health Services Administration

conducted a survey of all known facilities providing alcoholism treatment in

the United States. The survey

revealed that there were nearly

800,000 clients receiving services who

were considered to have an alcohol

problem. Almost certainly the number

of clients participating in such

programs would represent a substantial underestimate of the size of the

total population for whom alcohol

abuse is a significant problem.

A variety of ways exist to estimate the

extent to which alcohol may be a

factor in crime. A significant caveat is

that most alcohol consumption does

not result in crime: the vast majority of

those who consume alcohol do not

engage in criminal behavior.

However, since nonoffending behavior

is not typically measured, there is little

statistical information upon which to

base any estimate of the likelihood of

committing a criminal act when

Alcohol and Crime 1

1

U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health

Services Administration, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, annual. Data

obtained from Statistical Abstract of the

United States 1997, table 220, p. 144. 2

National Center for Health Statistics,

Health Promotion and Disease Prevention:

United States, 1990, Vital and Health

Statistics, Series 10, No. 185.

3

U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Economic Research Service, Food

Consumption, Prices, and Expenditures,

1997: Annual Data, 1970-95.
drinking or following a period of drinking.

In 1993 the National Research Council's

Panel on the Understanding and Control

of Violent Behavior (Albert J. Reiss and

Jeffrey A. Roth, editors, Understanding

and Preventing Violence, Washington,

D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993,

pages 184-5) concluded, after an

exhaustive review of the literature that

existing prevalence research was not

$sufficient to show that alcohol use or

intoxication increases the general risk of

violence.# However, the panel did

observe that many studies had

documented offender use of alcohol

preceding the offense and that offender

populations usually were found to

contain $heavy# or $problem# drinkers.

Victims’ perceptions of alcohol use

by offenders

On average each year from 1992 to

1995, there were an estimated 11.1

million violent victimizations of residents

age 12 or older (figure 1). Victims of

violence were asked to describe whether

they perceived the offender to have

been drinking or using drugs.

y Victims indicate that for about 7.7

million violent victimizations, about 70%

of all violent victimizations, they are able

to distinguish whether or not alcohol or

drug use by the offender was a factor.

yIn about 30% of violent victimizations,

the victim does not know whether the

offender had been using drugs or

alcohol.

2 Alcohol and Crime 

Nearly Victims of violence

 11.1 million

Victim could not tell

if offender was

using drugs/alcohol

3.4 million victims

Victim did not believe

offender to be

using drugs/alcohol

4.3 million victims

Offender using

Offender

perceived to be

using drugs/alcohol

3.4 million victims

Alcohol only

 2.2 million

Drugs only

 0.6 million

Both drugs and alcohol

 0.5 million

Unknown substance

 0.1 million

An annual average of nearly 3 million victims a year perceived the use 

of alcohol by the violent offenders who victimized them, 1992-95

Figure 1
 

y Based on victim perceptions, about

2.7 million violent crimes occur each

year in which victims are certain that

the offender had been drinking. For

about 1 in 5 of these violent victimizations involving alcohol use by the

offender, victims believed the offender

was also using drugs at the time of the

offense (figure 2).

y For those violent victimizations in which the victims

indicated that they were able to

report whether alcohol or drugs

had been used by the offender,

about 56% reported no use of

either substance and 37%

believed the offender was using

alcohol or alcohol in combination with drugs (figure 3).

y Among victims who were able

to distinguish alcohol or drug

use by the offender, the victimoffender relationship was an

important factor in whether the

victim reported alcohol

involvement:

Percent of violent

victimizations with

offender using

alcohol 

 All victims 37%

Intimate* 67

Nonmarital relatives 50

Acquaintances 38

Strangers 31

*Includes current or former spouse,

boyfriend, and girlfriend.

Alcohol and Crime 3

Don't know

No drugs or alcohol

Drugs only

Alcohol or drugs

Alcohol and drugs

Alcohol only

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Percent of victims

of violent crime

Among the 11.1 million victims of 

violence each year, 1 in 4 were certain

that the offender had been drinking 

before committing the crime.

*Includes current or former spouse, boyfriend, and girlfriend. 

Stranger 100 24 6 7 63

Acquaintance 100 28 9 10 52

Nonmarital relative 100 38 14 12 36

Intimate* 100 55 9 12 25

All victims of violence 100% 28% 7% 9% 56%

Neither drugs

nor alcohol

Drugs or

Total Alcohol Drugs alcohol

Victim-offender

relationship

Offender using

Among victims of violence who were able to describe the offender’s use

of drugs or alcohol, about two-thirds in an intimate relationship with the

offender reported the offender’s drinking at the time of the crime.

Figure 3

Figure 2
y Among spouse victims of violence who

were able to describe substance use by

the offender, 3 out of 4 incidents were

reported to have involved an offender

who had been drinking.

Percent of spouse

violence victimizations

involving substance

use 

Alcohol only 65%

Drugs only 5

Both alcohol and drugs 11

Either alcohol or drugs <1

Neither alcohol nor drugs 19

y Victim perceptions of the offender’s

use of drugs or alcohol also varies by

type of crime (figure 4). 

Based on victim reports, on average

each year about 183,000 rapes and

sexual assaults involve alcohol use by

the offender, as do just over 197,000

robberies, about 661,000 aggravated

assaults, and nearly 1.7 million simple

assaults. 

Combined use of drugs and alcohol

accounted for 18% of the alcoholinvolved rapes and sexual assaults, 36%

of the alcohol-involved robberies, 24% of

the aggravated assaults in which the

offender was drinking, and 15% of the

simple assaults involving a drinking

offender.

4 Alcohol and Crime 

Simple

assault

6,882,400

incidents

Rape/sexual

assault

497,000

incidents

Aggravated

assault

2,427,900

incidents

Robbery

1,287,900

incidents

Average annual number

of violent victimizations

 11.1 million

Offender

was using

Alcohol 30%

Drugs 4%

Drugs and

 alcohol 7%

Drugs or

 alcohol 2%

Neither 24%

Unknown 34%

Alcohol 10%

Drugs 9%

Drugs and

 alcohol 5%

Drugs or

 alcohol 1%

Neither 59%

Unknown 16%

Alcohol 21%

Drugs 6%

Drugs and

 alcohol 7%

Drugs or

 alcohol 1%

Neither 42%

Unknown 23%

Alcohol 21%

Drugs 4%

Drugs and

 alcohol 4%

Drugs or

 alcohol 1%

Neither 35%

Unknown 36%

Drinking offenders committed over a third of the rapes or sexual

assaults of persons older than 12 and over a quarter of the aggravated 

and simple assaults, according to victims’ perceptions.

Figure 4
y When the victim of violence

perceived that the offender was using

only alcohol at the time of the offense,

nearly two-thirds of the victimizations

were reported to have been simple

assault (figure 5). Robbery accounted

for about 6% of the violent victimizations involving a drinking offender but

19% of the incidents where the

offender was perceived to have been

using drugs.

y Victim perceptions of offender use 

of alcohol translate into an estimated

457,000 alcohol-involved violent

victimizations between victims and

offenders who share an intimate 

relationship. Drinking offenders were

also responsible for about 118,000

incidents of violence between family

members (excluding spouses), an

estimated 744,000 violent incidents

between acquaintances, and about

1,360,000 incidents of violence

committed against a stranger 

(figure 6). 

Alcohol and Crime 5

Simple assault 65 52 52 56

Aggravated assault 23 25 29 24

Robbery 6 19 13 18

Rape/sexual assault 7 4 6 3

Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

Neither

drugs nor

alcohol

Drugs or

Alcohol Drugs alcohol

Victim-offender

relationship

Offender using

Nearly two-thirds of the victims of violence who perceived that the

offender committed the offense while using only alcohol 

were victims of simple assault.

Figure 5

Drinking, intimate violence, 

and race

On average, there are about 1

million incidents of violence each

year in which women are the victims

of

an intimate assailant & a current or

former spouse, boyfriend, or

girlfriend. Among the women who

knew whether the offender had been

drinking or using drugs, about

two-thirds of both black and white

victims reported that the offender

with whom they shared an intimate

relationship had been drinking.

Neither 22 21 27

Either 2 1 4

Both 11 10 12

Drugs only 8 9 7

Alcohol only 57% 58% 50%

Offender using All White Black

Percent of female

victims of intimate

violence
6 Alcohol and Crime 

Casual or

well-known

acquaintance

3,590,300

incidents

Current or

former spouse,

boyfriend, or

girlfriend

1,143,400

incidents

Parent, own

child, other

related

481,800

incidents

Stranger

5,516,800

incidents

Offender was to the victim

Alcohol 19%

Drugs 7%

Drugs and

 alcohol 6%

Drugs

 or alcohol <1%

Neither 18%

Unknown 50%

Alcohol 16%

Drugs 5%

Drugs and

 alcohol 5%

Drugs

 or alcohol <1%

Neither 29%

Unknown 44%

Alcohol 20%

Drugs 5%

Drugs and

 alcohol 4%

Drugs

 or alcohol 2%

Neither 52%

Unknown 16%

Note: Figure excludes details on 362,900 incidents for which victims did not report their

relationship to the offender or could not estimate the number of offenders involved.

Alcohol 34%

Drugs 5%

Drugs and

 alcohol 6%

Drugs

 or alcohol 1%

Neither 15%

Unknown 39%

Average annual number

of violent victimizations

 11.1 million

Offender

was using

Alcohol was part of about 40% of the violent victimizations of a current 

or former spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend. About 20% to 25% of victims

who were strangers, acquaintances, or nonintimate relatives to the

violent offender reported that person to have been drinking.

Figure 6

Figure 7

Other causes $390 $15,500,000

Injury $619 $45,300,000

Lost pay from &

Replacement $308 $26,100,000

Repair $218 $33,900,000

Loss $500 $50,000,000

Property

Cash loss $136 $8,200,000

Medical expenses $1,490 $229,000,000

Total $834 $408,100,000

Type of expense/loss Average loss per victim Estimated total annual loss

About 1 in 5 victims of violence who perceived the offender to have

been using alcohol at the time of the offense, a half million victims 

each year, suffered a financial loss due to medical expenses, broken 

or stolen property, or lost wages & a total annual loss of $400 million.
 

Alcohol and Crime 7

Beginning in 1995, BJS modified its

victimization survey to determine if a

sampled household is on a college

campus and if any household

members are college students. With

this more precise information, it has

become possible to learn more about

the victimization experience of

college students, both those who live

on campus and those who live off

campus. 

College students reported about

463,000 violent victimizations in 1995

in which alcohol use by the offender

was a factor. An estimated 22% of

the alcohol-involved incidents were

perceived to have also involved

offender drug use. An estimated 90%

of the alcohol-involved violent victimizations affecting college students

occurred off campus.

y Among the 15.4 million college

students in 1995, about 1.5 million

experienced a violent crime.

y

About 87% of the violent crimes

sustained by college students

occurred off campus.

y Overall, about 24% of the victims 

of violence reported the offender 

was using alcohol at the time of the

offense; about 4% described offender

drug use; and about 8% said that the

offender was using both drugs and

alcohol or that they could not tell

which. 

y Just over 43% of the victims of

violence were certain no drugs or

alcohol had been involved in the

offense.

y Just over 20% did not know whether

the offender was using 

either drugs or alcohol. 

y Per capita arrest rates for liquor law

violations are highest at public 4-year

colleges. See Appendix II, page 33.

U.S. college students

number nationwide

 15.4 million

Living on campus

2.2 million

Living off campus

13.2 million

Victims of violence

194,000

Victims of violence

1.3 million

On campus

59,000

Off campus

135,000

On campus

136,000

Off campus

1,179,000

Alcohol

involved

41%

Alcohol

involved

37%

Alcohol

involved

18%

Alcohol

involved

31%

Violence occurred Violence occurred

Alcohol and crime on U.S. campuses

Figure 8
Incident-based data on alcohol 

and violent crime

The National Incident-Based Reporting

System (NIBRS) represents the next

generation of crime data from law

enforcement agencies. It is designed to

replace the nearly 70-year-old summary

Uniform Crime Reporting Program of the

FBI that compiles aggregate data on

eight crimes. NIBRS utilizes information

from individual crime reports recorded

by police officers at the time of the

incident. Rather than relying upon a

group of 

8 Index offenses to convey the overall

crime situation, NIBRS collects information on 57 types of crimes.

In addition, NIBRS provides the opportunity to analyze a wide array of contingencies of crime: who the victim was, the

relationship of the victim to the offender,

age of both victim and offender, where

and when the incident occurred, whether

alcohol may have been involved in the

offense, and the consequences of the

crime such as injuries and property loss.

A significant benefit of NIBRS is that the

report of the incident asks the investigating officer to indicate suspected alcohol

use by the offender.

Incident-based data on alcohol-involved

violence, from jurisdictions which

maintained such records of crime in

1995, provide details on such violence

not available from most law enforcement agencies:4

y About half of the incidents of alcoholrelated violence recorded in the NIBRS

1995 dataset involved offenders and

victims who were intimates & current or

former spouses, boyfriends or girlfriends

(figure 9).

8 Alcohol and Crime 

Source: FBI, National Incident-Based Reporting System, 1995.

0% 10% 20% 30%

Percent of violent incidents involving alcohol

Victim-offender relationship

Spouses/ex-spouses

Acquaintances

Boyfriends/girlfriends

Strangers

Other family members

About half of all violent incidents in which alcohol was present 

and for which the police completed an incident report in 1995 

involved victims and offenders in an intimate relationship, 

including current and former spouses, boyfriends, and girlfriends. 

4

Data for 1995 were obtained from law

enforcement agencies in nine States. The

violent offenses utilized in this analysis

included murder and nonnegligent

manslaughter, aggravated assault, simple

assault, and intimidation. Coverage for

these data is estimated to be about 2% of

murders in the United States, 4% of

reported aggravated assaults, and an

unknown percentage of simple assault and

intimidation offenses.

Figure 9
y In just over 6% of the incidents of

alcohol-related violence, victims were

children under the age of 18 (figure

10). About 9% of the offenders who

were suspected of having been drinking in violent incidents were under the

legal drinking age of 21.

y About 7 out of 10 alcohol-involved

violent incidents occurred in a

residence; 1 in 10 occurred in a bar 

or restaurant.

y The largest number of violent

incidents involving alcohol use by the

offender were found to occur in the

hour beginning at 11 p.m.; the fewest

incidents occurred at 9 a.m. (figure

11).

Alcohol and Crime 9

Source: FBI, National Incident-Based

Reporting System, 1995.

50 or older 8.6 5.9

40-49 16.2 14.3

30-39 37.9 34.6

25-29 18.0 17.6

21-24 10.6 14.1

18-20 6.2 7.2

15-17 2.2 3.8

14 or younger 0.3% 2.5%

Age Offenders Victims

Percent in violent

incidents

In those violent incidents

recorded by the police in which

alcohol was a factor, about 9% 

of the offenders and nearly 14% 

of the victims were under age 21.

Source: FBI, National Incident-Based Reporting System, 1995.

Midnight 4 a.m. 8 a.m. Noon 4 p.m. 8 p.m. Midnight

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

Percent of an entire day's violent

incidents involving alcohol

Violent incidents occurring between 11 p.m. and midnight 

are the most likely to involve alcohol.

Figure 10

Figure 11
y Nearly 80% of violent incidents in

which the offender had been drinking

involved the use of hands, fists, or feet

by the offender (figure 12). 

Firearms were involved in about 4% of

the alcohol-related violent incidents.

10 Alcohol and Crime 

Source: FBI, National Incident-Based Reporting System, 1995.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Hands, feet, or fists Knives

Blunt

objects

Other

weapons

Firearms

Percent of alcohol-related violent incidents

About 1 in 5 alcohol-related incidents involved a weapon other than the

offender’s hands, feet, or fists. Firearms were involved in about 1 in 25 

violent incidents in which alcohol was considered to be a factor.

Figure 13

Source: FBI, National Incident-Based Reporting System, 1995.

Minor injury 51 45 55

Other major injuries 2 3 2

1 1 1 Internal injuries, teeth knocked

out, knocked unconscious

Severe lacerations 6 10 4

Broken bones 1 2 1

Major injury 10 16 7

Injury 61% 61% 62%

Uninjured 39% 39% 38%

All Male Female

Percent of victims

About 6 in 10 incidents of alcohol-related violence brought to the 

attention of the police resulted in an injury to the victim.

Male and female victims of such violence were about equally likely to have

experienced an injury, according to police incident records. Male victims 

were about twice as likely as the females to have sustained a major injury, largely

because of the higher level of reported severe lacerations.

Figure 12
 

DUI/DWI: Arrests and fatal

accidents

Driving while under the influence of

alcohol (DUI), which also includes

driving while under the influence of

drugs and driving while intoxicated

(DWI) represent the most common

reasons for arrests by the police. In

1996 DUI accounted for 1 in 10 arrests

for all crimes nationwide, an estimated

1,467,300 arrests. That same year,

an estimated 10,000 intoxicated

drivers were involved in fatal motor

vehicle accidents resulting in about

13,400 deaths.5

y The number of DUI arrests has 

been declining:

& In 1983, the highest recorded year

for DUI arrests in the last 30

years, local law enforcement

agencies reported 1,921,100

arrests for DUI from a population of 154.4 million licensed

drivers, about 1 arrest for

every 80 licensed drivers.

& In 1996 there were 1,467,300

arrests for DUI (including

persons under age 16) with 

a licensed driver population

numbering 179.5 million, a 

rate of 1 arrest for every 

122 licensed drivers.

This represents a 34% reduction in the

per capita rate of DUI arrest nationwide over the period.

Alcohol and Crime 11

Figure 14

5

The National Highway Traffic Safety

Administration defines intoxicated drivers

as those with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.10 grams of alcohol per

deciliter of blood or higher, the legal

measure of intoxication in most States.

Compared to their share of

licensed drivers, DUI arrestees 

are overrepresented at each age

from 18 through 44.

Persons under the legal drinking age

of 21 account for about 8% of DUI

arrestees. About 7% of licensed

drivers are between the ages 21 

and 24, but this age group accounts 

for nearly 15% of DUI arrests. By

contrast, those age 50 or older

account for a third of all drivers 

but 9% of DUI arrestees.

Sources: Department of Transportation,

Highway Statistics, 1996 and FBI, Crime in the

U.S., 1996.

Total number 179,500,000 1,466,300

50 or older 32.8 9.0

45-49 9.7 7.3

40-44 10.9 11.1

35-39 11.7 15.7

30-34 11.1 17.3

25-29 10.2 17.2

24 1.8 3.7

23 1.7 3.6

22 1.7 3.6

21 1.6 3.6

20 1.6 2.6

19 1.6 2.4

18 1.4 1.8

17 1.3 .8

16 .9% .3%

DUI

arrestees

Licensed

drivers Age

Percent
y Declines in DUI arrest rates have

occurred for every category of age

(figure 15). The age group with the

highest per capita rate of arrest for DUI,

21-year-olds, had a rate of 1 arrest for

every 42 drivers in 1990 which dropped

to 1 arrest for every 56 drivers in 1996 &

a 24% decrease. 

y The largest decrease in DUI arrest

rates since 1990 has occurred among

those age 25 to 29 (-31%) while arrest

rates have declined less than 10%

among persons age 16 and between

ages 35 and 44. 

y From the early to mid-1970's, States

lowered the minimum age for the

purchase or sale of alcoholic beverages.

Between 1970 and 1973, 24

States reduced the minimum age, and

by 1983, the peak year for DUI arrests,

33 States had a minimum age below 21.6

y As a result of changes in Federal

highway funds legislation, all States

raised the minimum age to 21. In 1980

persons under age 21 accounted for 10%

of licensed drivers but 15% of those

arrested for DUI, a 50% overrepresentation for drivers of this age. By contrast,

in 1996, persons under age 21

accounted for 7% of drivers and 8% of

arrestees for DUI, a substantially

reduced disparity compared to 1980.

12 Alcohol and Crime 

The number of arrests for DUI per 1,000 licensed drivers 

dropped 24% from 1990 to 1996.

The decline in arrest rates occurred for every age category, 

with the drivers ages 25 to 29 having the largest percentage decrease. 

50 or older 2.7 2.2 -18.5

45-49 7.1 6.1 -14.1

40-44 8.9 8.3 -6.7

35-39 11.9 11.0 -7.6

30-34 16.1 12.7 -21.1

25-29 20.0 13.8 -31.0

24 20.6 16.3 -20.9

23 22.1 16.9 -23.5

22 23.1 17.3 -25.1

21 23.8 18.0 -24.4

20 18.5 13.2 -28.6

19 17.0 12.5 -26.5

18 14.1 10.6 -24.8

17 6.6 5.3 -19.7

16 3.5 3.2 -8.6

All ages 10.8 8.2 -24.1%

Age 1990 1996

Percent change

in rates of DUI

arrests, 1990-96

DUI arrest rate

per 1,000 drivers

6

This change primarily reflected ratification

of the 26th amendment (1971) that

extended the right to vote to 18 year-olds.

Figure 15
y The National Highway Traffic Safety

Administration (NHTSA) of the U.S.

Department of Transportation

estimates that in 1996, there were

17,126 alcohol-related fatalities

accounting for 40.9% of all traffic

fatalities during the year.7

 This represents a 29% reduction from the 24,045

alcohol-related fatalities in 1986, a

year in which alcohol-related crashes

accounted for 52% of the fatalities.

NHTSA also estimates that during

1996 about 7% of all crashes (both

fatal and nonfatal) were alcoholrelated and more than 321,000

persons were injured in such crashes. 

y While nearly 41% of traffic fatalities

in 1996 were alcohol-related, an

estimated 32% involved an intoxicated

driver or pedestrian (BAC=0.10 g/dl or

higher) & a total of 13,395 fatalities.

Among these fatalities, about 70%

were themselves intoxicated. In 1996

local law enforcement authorities

carried out 140 arrests for DUI per

intoxicated driver involved in a fatal

crash.

y Rates of intoxication among drivers

in fatal accidents have declined for

every age group over the last decade.

In 1986 an estimated 26% of drivers

had a BAC of at least 0.10 g/dl while

in 1996 about 19% were estimated to

have had a BAC at this level.

Comparing 1986 to 1996 by age, the

percentage of drivers in fatal

accidents who were intoxicated:

Percent of drivers 

in fatal accidents 

who were intoxicated

Age 1986 1996 

 All drivers 25.8% 18.8%

16-20 years 23.7 14.1

21-24 36.1 27.0

25-34 33.0 26.2

35-44 24.5 21.9

45-64 16.2 13.6

65 or older 6.8 5.4

y In 1986 there were about 1 intoxicated driver in a fatal accident for

every 10,500 licensed drivers. By

1996, this rate had improved to 1

intoxicated driver involved in a fatal

accident for every 17,200 licensed

drivers. Rates of involvement in

driving while intoxicated in fatal

accidents (the number of intoxicated

drivers in fatal accidents per 100,000

licensed drivers) have decreased

across each age group over the last

decade:

Number of

intoxicated drivers

in fatal accidents

per 100,000

licensed drivers Change

 1986 1996 in rate

 All drivers 9.5 5.8 -39%

16-20 years 18.6 9.1 -51

21-24 22.3 13.5 -39

25-34 13.3 8.8 -34

35-44 7.1 5.9 -17

45-64 3.7 3.0 -19

65 or older 1.7 1.4 -18

y Alcohol involvement in fatal

accidents during 1996 varied across

the States ranging from 24% of the

traffic fatalities in Utah to more than

half the fatalities in Alaska, Louisiana,

Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota,

Texas, and Washington (figure 16).

Alcohol and Crime 13

7

NHTSA defines alcohol-related as any

fatal traffic crash in which a driver or

pedestrian had a measureable non-zero

BAC (0.01 g/dl or higher). Intoxication is

defined as 0.10 g/dl or higher.
14 Alcohol and Crime 

Source: Alcohol Traffic Safety Facts 1996, National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration.

Mississippi 811 41.6 33.1 Wyoming 143 40.6 26.2

Minnesota 576 37.9 30.0 Wisconsin 761 42.4 34.2

Michigan 1,505 40.7 31.6 West Virginia 345 38.0 31.6

Massachusetts 417 44.4 32.0 Washington 712 50.0 40.1

Maryland 608 33.0 24.0 Virginia 875 38.6 30.2

Maine 169 37.5 29.0 Vermont 88 43.9 36.9

Louisiana 781 51.4 39.6 Utah 321 23.7 18.7

Kentucky 841 35.2 28.1 Texas 3,741 53.2 42.3

Kansas 491 40.9 30.0 Tennessee 1,239 40.2 32.8

Iowa 465 42.5 33.0 South Dakota 175 39.9 31.1

Indiana 984 34.1 27.0 South Carolina 930 42.4 33.6

Illinois 1,477 45.0 36.1 Rhode Island 69 48.4 36.2

Idaho 258 33.8 26.0 Pennsylvania 1,469 39.1 32.3

Hawaii 148 44.4 31.5 Oregon 524 42.2 32.6

Georgia 1,574 36.0 27.6 Oklahoma 772 36.3 28.2

Florida 2,753 36.9 29.1 Ohio 1,395 33.0 25.6

85 53.4 44.9 North 

 Dakota 62 49.2 36.0 District of 

 Columbia

Delaware 116 41.0 28.5 North Carolina 1,493 35.1 27.8

Connecticut 310 49.2 38.2 New York 1,564 33.4 24.0

Colorado 617 39.6 33.0 New Mexico 481 50.1 42.0

California 3,989 40.2 30.1 New Jersey 818 34.2 25.4

134 34.7 26.4 New

 Hampshire Arkansas 615 34.7 26.9

Arizona 993 43.9 34.8 Nevada 348 50.1 37.3

Alaska 80 51.1 44.4 Nebraska 293 33.6 26.0

Alabama 1,143 42.6 34.1 Montana 200 37.1 33.0

 U.S. total 41,907 40.9% 32.0% Missouri 1,149 49.4% 38.7%

Drivers 

had a 

BAC 

0.10 or

higher

Involved 

alcohol

Number 

of 

fatalities

Drivers 

had a 

BAC 

0.10 or

higher

Involved 

alcohol

Number 

of 

fatalities

Percent of

fatalities

Percent of

fatalities

Figure 16
Examining BAC factors

Knowledge of the level of intoxication

of drivers in fatal accidents is derived

from the Fatal Accident Reporting

System (FARS) which gathers data on

a wide variety of issues relating to

fatal accidents, including driver,

vehicle, and environmental factors

associated with the crash. Initiated in

1975 by the National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration, data on fatal

vehicle accidents are compiled by

State officials from police reports, files

of State vehicle registration and

drivers’ licenses, death certificates,

hospital records, and other sources

and submitted under the FARS reporting program. Crashes occurring on

public roads in which a vehicle

passenger or nonpassenger (such as a

pedestrian or cyclist) dies within 30

days are included. 

BAC levels of drivers or pedestrians 

in fatal accidents may be measured 

in a variety of ways using testing

methods which examine samples of

blood, breath, urine, saliva, or other

analyses of body tissue. Given that

BAC declines over time (BAC levels

decrease by about 0.015 g/dl per

hour), measured BAC levels among

surviving drivers in fatal accidents

would be somewhat less than the

actual BAC at the time of the crash.8

y FARS data on BAC for crashes

occurring in 1994 indicate that such

information is available for a third of

fatal accidents. However, BAC test

results are available for about 60% of

the drivers in fatal accidents who were

identified, presumably by police

officers or others, as having been

drinking drivers. 

yAmong those crashes in which

persons were tested for BAC, an

estimated 59% were found to have a

BAC of zero and 41% had a positive

BAC of .01 g/dl or higher (figure 17).

Alcohol and Crime 15

Figure 17

8

FARS data in the following analyses were

obtained from the Traffic Safety CD-ROM:

1996, produced by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics. This dataset contains

annual FARS data files for the first two

decades of the program, 1975-94.

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System,

1994.

Note: BAC is measured and reported for

about a third of the 92,000 fatal motor

vehicle accidents in 1994. Data shown

here and in subsequent figures are based

on those accidents where the BAC of the

driver was known.

0.3 2.6

0.26-0.29 3.5

0.20-0.25 9.1

0.10-0.19 17.2

0.08-0.09 2.4

0.06-0.07 1.9

0.01-0.05 4.7

0 58.6%

Percent of fatal

accidents

Blood alcohol

concentration 

4 out of 10 fatal motor vehicle

accidents had a drinking driver.

A third of such accidents

involved a driver who had 

been drinking and whose BAC

was at least 0.08.
y An estimated 34% of fatal accidents 

in which alcohol tests were conducted

reflected BAC levels of 0.08 or higher.9

Fatal accident data for 1996 indicate.

that alcohol is more likely to be a factor

at night & 62% of fatal crashes at night

involved alcohol & than in the daytime

when 18% were alcohol-involved. 

y Nearly half of all fatal accidents in

which the driver has been drinking occur

on the weekend (figure 18). The

16 Alcohol and Crime 

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System, 1975-94.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

0%

10%

20%

30%

Percent of fatal accidents

with a drinking driver

Figure 18

9

About 97% of those with positive BAC’s

(.01 g/dl or higher) in the 1994 dataset

were drivers in fatal accidents. The

remainder were pedestrians, cyclists, and

nonoccupants who were tested and

reported as involved in the fatal crash.

s

s s

s

s s

s

s

s

s

s

8

8 8

8

8 8

8

8

8

8

8

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Percent of drinking drivers in fatal accidents with recorded BAC levels

0.10 or

higher

BAC

 0.08 or

 higher

 BAC

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System, 1975-94.

Midnight 6 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. Up to

midnight

Figure 19
rate of alcohol involvement in 1996

fatal crashes occurring during the

weekend was 54% compared to 31%

during the week.

y About 84% of drinking drivers in

fatal accidents in 1994 were reported

to have been at 0.08 g/dl or higher

(figure 20). About 78% were at 0.10

g/dl or higher.

y Over the first 20 years of

record-keeping by NHTSA on

fatal motor vehicle accidents,

BAC data indicating alcohol

consumption by a driver

involved in the accident are

available for nearly a quarter

million drivers in crashes in

which a death occurred.

Among these drinking drivers,

about 3 out of 4 had a BAC of

at least 0.10 g/dl and just

under a third were about twice

that level &&0.20 g/dl or higher

(figure 21).

Alcohol and Crime 17

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System, 1975-94.

.05 or less

.06-.07 

.08-.09 

.10-.19 

.20-.29

.30 or higher

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Percent of drivers in fatal accidents with a

positive test of blood alcohol concentration

BAC levels

Of those drivers who were drinking before a fatal crash, 40% 

had a BAC between 0.10 and 0.19, and 38% had a BAC of 0.20 or

higher. To reach a BAC above 0.10, a man of average size and metabolism 

Figure 20

Figure 21

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System, 1975-94.

50 or older 74 38 15

45-49 81 43 9

40-44 81 42 9

35-39 81 40 9

30-34 81 37 8

25-29 79 32 9

20-24 73 23 11

16-19 62 14 16

All 75% 30% 11%

BAC’s

0.05 or

less

BAC’s

above

0.20

BAC’s

above

0.10

Age of 

drinking driver

Percent of all drinking drivers

About 4 in 10 drivers in fatal accidents 

with a drinking driver age 30 or older 

had a BAC level above 0.20.
y The average BAC among drinking

drivers in fatal accidents in 1994 was

0.16 g/dl (figure 20). 

In fatal motor vehicle accidents &

The highest average BAC among

drinking drivers was found for those

from age 40 to 44 (0.19 g/dl). 

Just under 12% of drinking drivers

were known to have had prior 

convictions for DWI. 

The average level of intoxication was

about 25% higher for these repeat

offenders than among those who had

no reported prior DWI convictions.

y The greater the number of prior license

suspensions and DWI convictions, the

higher the average BAC among drinking

drivers involved in fatal accidents (figure

23). Those with two prior DWI convictions had an average BAC which was

10% higher than those with one prior

conviction and 33% higher than those

with no prior convictions. 

y There was substantial variation in

driving background among those at

different levels of intoxication (figure 24).

Those with the highest blood alcohol

concentrations, 0.30g/dl, were about 4

times as likely as those not drinking to

have had no valid license at the time of

the crash and about 7 times as likely to

have had prior DWI convictions. At each

intoxication level shown, the driving

record of the fatal accident driver

worsened. 

18 Alcohol and Crime Revised 4/28/98 th

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System,

1994.

1 or more 0.20 11.8

None 0.16 88.2%

Prior DWI

convictions

Suspended 0.18 23.8

Valid 0.16 76.2%

Drivers’ license

Female 0.16 14.6

Male 0.16 85.4%

50 or older 0.17 10.4

45-49 0.18 6.1

40-44 0.19 8.0

35-39 0.18 12.3

30-34 0.17 15.9

25-29 0.16 16.9

20-24 0.15 21.2

16-19 0.12 9.0

15 or younger 0.12 0.3%

All 0.16 100%

Percent

of drinking

drivers

Average

Drinking drivers BAC

Fatal accidents

Among drinking drivers

involved in fatal accidents 

in 1994, the highest BAC levels

were recorded for persons 

from age 40 to 44, those 

whose license was suspended,

and those with prior DWI

convictions.

Figure 22
Revised 4/28/98 th Alcohol and Crime 19

Note: Table does not show those for whom the license status 

was unknown or for whom BAC was not measured.

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System, 1994.

2 or more <1 1 <1 2 3 7

1 2 5 7 8 13 13

None 98 94 93 90 83 80

Prior DWI convictions

2 or more 4 9 9 11 14 20

1 5 9 13 12 14 11

None 91 82 78 77 71 69

Number of prior 

license suspensions

Invalid 8 19 20 22 27 34

Valid 92 81 80 78 73 66

License status at time

of accident

Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

0.30+

0.20-

0.29

0.10-

0.19

0.08-

0.09

0.01-

0 0.07

Driving record of 

drivers in fatal crashes

BAC levels 

2 or more

Prior DWI's

1

None

License suspensions

2 or more

1

None

License

Valid

Invalid

All drinking drivers

Average BAC levels of drinking drivers in fatal accidents

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

Source: Fatal Accident Reporting System, 1994.

BAC records of drivers in fatal accidents show that the levels 

of intoxication at the time of the accident vary with the driving record. 

Among drivers in fatal accidents, the highest average BAC level, 0.21, 

or more than twice the legally defined level of intoxication in most States, 

was found for those with 2 or more prior DWI convictions.

Figure 24

Figure 23
Use of alcohol by convicted

offenders

More than 36% of the 5.3 million

convicted adult offenders under the jurisdiction of probation authorities, jails,

prisons, or parole agencies in 1996 had

been drinking at the time of the offenses

for which they had been convicted. This

translates into just under 2 million

convicted offenders nationwide on an

average day& 1.3 million on probation,

85,000 in local jails, 360,000 in State and

Federal prisons, and more than 200,000

under parole supervision& for whom

alcohol use was a factor in their crime

(figure 25). 

BJS periodically conducts surveys

among the Nation’s offender population

in order to learn more about their

backgrounds. Representative samples

of probationers and those in local jails

and State and Federal prisons are interviewed about their criminal histories,

family backgrounds, and many elements

of the current offense. Among the topics

of interest is their experience with

alcohol, both in the past and at the time

of the crime. These data represent

detailed information not typically available from official records and provide the

only uniform national description of

offender use of alcohol.

20 Alcohol and Crime 

Note: The prevalence of alcohol use at the time of offense for parolees was estimated 

by applying the known percentages for prisoners by offense to the composition 

of the prison exit cohort.

Total 5,280,728 36.3% 1,919,251

Parole 704,709 29.3 206,480

Federal prison 105,544 11.0 11,610

State prison 1,074,976 32.3 347,217

Local jail 215,136 39.5 84,979

Probation 3,180,363 39.9% 1,268,965

Estimated number 

of offenders for whom

alcohol was a factor 

in their crime

Estimated percentage using alcohol 

at the time of the

Correctional authority Number offense

Convicted offenders

On an average day in 1996, an estimated 5.3 million convicted offenders

were under the supervision of criminal justice authorities. Nearly 40% 

of these offenders, about 2 million, had been using alcohol at the time 

of the offense for which they were convicted.

Figure 25
y As would be expected,

those convicted of publicorder crimes such as DWI,

weapons offenses, and

commercial vice are the most

likely to report the use of

alcohol at the time of the

offense (figure 27). For more

than 4 in 10 convicted

murderers, being held either

in jail or in State prison,

alcohol use is reported to

have been a factor in the

crime. Nearly half of those

convicted of assault and

sentenced to probation had

been drinking when the

offense occurred.

Alcohol and Crime 21

Victims

Jail inmates

Probationers

State prisoners

0% 20% 40%

Note: Estimates for victims are based

on those who reported knowing if the

offender used or did not use alcohol/drugs.

Percent of incidents

or offenders

Self reports

Victims and offenders both report that

about 4 in 10 violent crimes involved 

alcohol use by the offender.

Note: Data for this table are drawn from the 1996 Survey of Adults 

on Probation, the 1996 Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, and the 1991 

Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities.

*Too few cases for estimate to be made.

Public-order offenses 75.1% 56.0% 43.0% 13.1%

Trafficking 16.2 28.4 17.5 8.3

Possession 14.4 28.6 18.3 8.3

Drug offenses 16.3% 28.8% 18.0% 8.2%

Fraud 9.7 21.6 18.9 5.3

Larceny 16.3 31.6 29.2 15.4

Burglary 38.5 38.2 34.7 15.3

Property offenses 18.5% 32.8% 31.8% 8.1%

Assault 45.5 45.4 41.6 38.1

Robbery * 37.6 32.7 13.9

Rape/sexual assault 31.8 31.5 35.9 26.5

Murder * 43.7 41.4 37.2

Violent offenses 40.7% 40.6% 37.5% 20.4%

All offenses 39.9% 39.5% 32.3% 11.0%

Convicted

offenders in

Federal prisons

Convicted

offenders in

State prisons

Convicted

offenders in

local jails

Adults on

probation

Percent of offenders drinking at the time of the offense

Similar percentages of offenders on probation and in jail 

or State prison committed their crimes while drinking.

Figure 27

Figure 26
y

Regardless of the type of corrections

status, offenders were about equally

likely to have been drinking at the time

of the crime. What they consumed was

similar, with beer being the most

commonly used alcoholic beverage: 30%

of probationers, 32% of jail inmates, and

23% of State prisoners said that they

had been drinking beer or beer in combination with liquor prior to the commission

of the current offense (figures 28a, b,

and c). Consumption of wine alone was

comparatively rare among the surveyed

offender populations.

y On average, the consumption of an

ounce of ethanol is equal to drinking

about two 12-ounce beers. Among

offenders who drank during the 8 hours

or less before the offense, the amount of

ethanol consumed varied by correctional

status and by offense.

Probationers were estimated to have

consumed about 4.7 ounces of ethanol,

the equivalent of about 9 beers. By

contrast, jail inmates self-reported

ethanol consumption equaling about 11

beers, and prisoners drank the equivalent of 15 beers during a period of up to

8 hours prior to the crime. The highest

overall consumption prior to the offense

was reported by State prisoners serving

time after conviction for a property

offense. The amount of ethanol

consumed among offenders in the

immediate period (up to 8 hours) preceding the offense was:

Ounces of ethanol consumed

in a period up to 8 hours

before the crime 

State

Type of Proba- Jail prison

offense tioners inmates inmates

 All 

 offenders 4.7 oz 5.6 oz 7.5 oz 

Violent 5.6 6.0 7.8

Property 6.5 6.4 8.3

Drugs 4.0 4.6 5.4

Public-

 order 4.2 5.5 6.5

22 Alcohol and Crime 

Not drinking

Other combinations

Liquor

Beer and liquor

Beer

0% 20% 40% 60%

Local jail inmates

Percent of convicted

jail inmates drinking at

the time of offense

Not drinking

Other combinations

Liquor

Beer and liquor

Beer

0% 20% 40% 60%

Percent of convicted

State prisoners drinking

at the time of offense

State prison inmates

Figures 28a, b, and c

Adults on probation

Percent of adults on

probation drinking at

the time of offense

Not drinking

Other combinations

Liquor

Beer and liquor

Beer

0% 20% 40% 60%
y BJS surveys gather information on

the type of beverage consumed at the

time of the crime, the amount of each

type of alcoholic beverage consumed,

and the time spent drinking prior to the

occurrence of the offense. Together

with the offenders’ self-reported body

weight, it is possible to estimate the

BAC of each offender at the time the

offense was committed (figure 29).10

y These self-reports indicate that

those offenders in State prisons,

though a smaller percentage had been

drinking at the time, were considerably

more intoxicated when the crime

occurred than those on probation or

being held in local jails. Those

convicted offenders on probation and

in local jails appear, on average, to be

about as intoxicated as drivers in fatal

accidents (average BAC was about

0.17 g/dl for fatal accident drivers

from the FARS data for 1994) when

they committed their crimes. Such

comparative data on estimated levels

of intoxication at the time of the crime

have never been reported previously

for a nationally representative sample

of offenders.

Alcohol and Crime 23

10The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration provided a formula to BJS which takes these

factors into account and reduces BAC based upon

a standardized rate at which the body metabolizes

ethanol. See Appendix I for details.

Figure 29

Note: See Appendix 1, page 32, for calculation of the BAC. Analysis was limited to 

persons reporting drinking for 8 hours or less preceding the offense.

Public-order 0.14 0.19 0.23

Drugs 0.14 0.15 0.19

Motor vehicle theft 0.34 0.19 0.29

Larceny 0.23 0.23 0.28

Burglary 0.26 0.24 0.31

Property 0.24 0.22 0.30

Assault 0.18 0.18 0.30

Robbery 0.32 0.22 0.28

Sexual assault 0.13 0.25 0.28

Homicide 0.22 0.26 0.28

Violent 0.18 0.20 0.28

All offenders 0.16 0.19 0.27

Type of offense Probationers Local jail inmates State prisoners

Offenders who reported drinking at the time of the offense &

estimated average BAC at the time of the offense

While about 33% of State prisoners and nearly 40% of convicted 

offenders under probation supervision or in local jails reported 

drinking at the time of the offense, estimates of the average blood

alcohol concentration (BAC) suggest that State prisoners were 

more severely intoxicated when they committed their crime. 
Offenders on probation 

and alcohol use

y About a quarter of the women on

probation nationwide had been drinking

at the time of the offense compared to

more than 40% of male probationers

(figure 30). For those convicted of

public-order crimes, nearly two-thirds of

women and three-quarters of men had

been drinking at the time of the offense.

y Probationers described a variety 

of behaviors at some time in their lives

when drinking:

About half of all probationers reported

that they had driven a vehicle while

under the influence of alcohol.

About half of all probationers had

engaged in arguments with family or

friends while drinking.

About a third of probationers had gotten

into a physical fight with someone after

drinking.

More than a third of probationers

reported that they had consumed the

equivalent of a fifth of liquor in a day. 

About 1 in 12 probationers said they had

a lost a job because of drinking.

y Estimates of BAC for probationers

at the time of the offense were higher

24 Alcohol and Crime 

Figure 30

 Total probation population

 100%

At the time of the offense

Detoxification 6%

Inpatient program 5%

Outpatient program 24%

Self-help group 30%

Other 9%

Ever

 62%

Never

 38%

Drinking

 40%

In alcohol treatment

Note: Probationers may have participated in more than one type of treatment. The

self-help groups include Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and a variety of other organizations.

Not drinking

 60%

Figure 31

Public-order

Drug

Property

Violent

Total

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Percent of adults on probation

who had used alcohol at the

time of their offense

Male

Female
among those describing themselves

as daily drinkers (0.19 g/dl) compared

to those who typically drank less often

(0.15 g/dl). The number of hours

spent drinking was an important factor

in the level of intoxication at the time 

of the offense:

 Hours drinking Average BAC 

1 .08

2 .10

3 .14

4 .19

5 or more .22

y Among those offenders drinking at

the time of the offense, an estimated

62% had previously participated in an

alcohol treatment program (figure 31).

y About a third of all probationers

reported that they had received some

form of alcohol treatment since being

placed on probation. More than 6 in

10 probationers who had been under

the influence of alcohol at the time of

their offense said they had been

involved in an alcohol treatment

program since entering probation

supervision.

 Percent of probationers

receiving treatment after

being placed on probation

Drinking

Type of when comprogram All mitted offense

 Any 32% 62%

 Crisis/detox 4 9

 Self-help 

 (AA-type group) 24 48

 Counseling 8 14

 Outpatient 18 38

 Inpatient 4 8

Local jail inmates and alcohol use

y As found among probationers,

convicted males in local jails were

more likely than convicted females to

report alcohol use at the time of the

offense, though the disparity by

gender was smaller (figure 32). For

every type of offense, except for

public order crimes, women in jail

reported greater use of alcohol at the

time of the offense than was the case

for women under probation supervision in the community (figure 30).

Alcohol and Crime 25

Total Violent Property Drugs Public-order

Type of conviction offense

Percent of jail inmates

drinking at the time of the offense

Males

Females

60%

20%

0%

40%

Figure 32
y Across the periodic BJS surveys of jail

inmates, the percentage reporting

alcohol use prior to the offense suggests

that violent offenders serving time in

1996 were somewhat less likely to have

been using alcohol when they committed

the crime than in earlier surveys.

Percent of convicted jail

inmates consuming alcohol

prior to the offense 

 1983 1989 1996 

 All offenders 48% 41% 40%

Violent 54 47 41

Property 40 31 33

Drugs 29 20 29

Public-order 64 64 56

Sources: BJS, Surveys of Inmates in Local Jails.

y Based upon the self-reported drinking

behavior at the time of the offense,

about two-thirds of convicted jail inmates

who had been drinking had a BAC of at

least 0.10 g/dl at the time of the offense

and nearly three-quarters had BAC’s of

0.08 or higher (figure 33).

26 Alcohol and Crime 

DWI 84 73 68

Public-order 83% 72% 67%

Drugs 66% 55% 51%

Motor vehicle theft 88 81 69

Larceny 91 87 82

Burglary 91 83 78

Property 88% 82% 76%

Assault 78 69 65

Robbery 86 85 80

Sexual assault 91 83 83

Murder 90 86 86

Violent 81% 75% 71%

All 81% 72% 67%

0.10 

and higher

0.08 

and higher

0.05 

and higher

Percent of drinking inmates 

Jail inmates in estimated BAC levels

drinking at the 

time of the offense

Overall, about two-thirds of convicted offenders in 

local jails who reported that they had been drinking 

at the time of the offense were estimated to have had 

a BAC level of 0.10 or higher.

Figure 33
y About a third of all convicted

inmates in local jails described

themselves as having been daily

drinkers at the time of the offense

(figure 32). Among these daily drinkers, about 2 out of 3 said that they had

previously received some form of

alcohol treatment, with detoxification

the most commonly described intervention. Among those who described

themselves as drinking less often,

about 2 out of 3 also reported prior

alcohol treatment 

participation, most often in an 

inpatient program.

y The most recent census of the 3,300

local jails nationwide (1993) indicates

that about 10% of all jails maintain

special housing units for alcohol

detoxification. Less than 4% of local

jails in States in the Northeast,

however, describe having such units

available for housing inmates in need

of alcohol detoxification. 

 Number of jails, 1993

With

detox

Region Total facilities

Total U.S. 3,304 324

Northeast 228 8

Midwest 967 82

South 1,591 170

West 518 64

Alcohol and Crime 27

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996.

In alcohol treatment

Non-drinkers

42%

Drinkers

58%

Daily drinkers

32%

Drinking less than daily

26%

Ever

65%

Never

 35%

Ever

63%

Never

 37%

In alcohol treatment

Type of program Type of program

Convicted inmates in local jails

100%

Other 3%

Detoxification 23%

Inpatient program 20%

Outpatient program 7%

Self-help/AA -type group 13%

Detoxification 15%

Inpatient program 19%

Outpatient program10%

Self-help/AA-type group 13%

Other 6%

About 6 in 10 convicted jail inmates said that they had been 

drinking on a regular basis during the year before the offense 

for which they were serving time. 

Nearly 2 out of 3 of these inmates, regardless of whether they 

drank daily or less often, reported having previously been 

in a treatment program for an alcohol dependency problem.

Figure 34
Inmates in State prisons 

and alcohol use

y The alcohol consumption patterns of

State prisoners differ markedly from jail

inmates and probationers; though the

prevalence of drinking is lower, the

estimated levels of intoxication at the

time of the offense are higher. A major

departure from other components of the

corrections population is that women

inmates report higher levels of intoxication at the time of the offense than male

inmates (figure 33). 

y Overall, State prison inmates report

having consumed an average of nearly 9

ounces of ethanol prior to the offense,

the equivalent of about three six-packs

of beer or two quarts of wine. The

median time spent drinking prior to the

crime was about 6 hours.

y Intoxication levels vary by the amount

of time the offender spent drinking

before the crime but vary little by the

relationship between the victim and

offender in violent crimes. 

y The extent of alcohol involvement in

crime increases if victim use of alcohol

at the time of the offense is included.

While the NCVS does not ask crime

victims to indicate if they had been drinking when the offense occurred, the

inmate surveys ask the offender to

indicate if he/she knew if the victim had

been drinking. Among violent offenders

in State prisons, 28% reported that they

had been using alcohol at the time of the

offense, 6% report only the victim had

been using alcohol, and 8% of violent

offenders report that both they and their

victim had been drinking (text table on

page 29). Manslaughter offenses and

offenses directed against a spouse or

intimate were the most likely to have

been alcohol-involved.

28 Alcohol and Crime 

Male Female

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Sex of offender

1 2 3 4+

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Hours of drinking

Strang

er

Family Intimat

e

Acquai

ntance

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

 Victim-offender relationship

Estimated average BAC at the time of the offense

Stran- Fam- Inti- Acquainger ily mate tance

Figure 35
According to offenders, whether the

victim was drinking at the time of the

violent offense:

Of- Vic- Neifender tim Both ther 

All offenders 28% 6% 8% 58%

Offense

Murder 25% 10% 13% 52%

Man-

 slaughter 27 13 17 43

Rape/

 sexual

 assault 27 3 8 62

Robbery 29 4 3 64

Assault 29 8 11 52

Victim/offender

 relationship

Stranger 30% 5% 7% 58%

Family 23 3 4 70

Spouse/

 intimate 27 10 18 45

Acquaintance 26 8 12 54

y Among State prisoners, nearly 3 in

10 described themselves as daily

drinkers during the period preceding

their incarceration (figure 34). By type

of offense, there was little variation in

the percentage who described

themselves as drinking daily: only

those serving time for drug offenses

were less likely to report regular drinking or drinking daily. Daily drinkers

reported that they began regular drinking earlier, at less than age 17, and at

the time of the offense, they were

estimated to have had the highest

average BAC, about 0.30 g/dl.

Alcohol and Crime 29

0.27 0.30 0.24 0.22 Average BAC at the

time of the offense

17.4 yr 16.7 yr 18.0 yr 18.4 yr Average age began

drinking regularly

Public-order 100% 24% 32% 27% 17%

Drugs 100% 34% 23% 25% 19%

Property 100% 28% 30% 25% 16%

Assault 100 23 34 27 17

Robbery 100 31 29 24 15

Sexual assault 100 25 29 25 20

Manslaughter 100 25 25 33 18

Murder 100 24 32 25 19

Violent 100 26 30 25 18

All 100% 28% 29% 25% 18%

Drinking 

less than

weekly

Weekly

drinkers

Daily 

drinkers

NonTotal drinkers

Most serious offense

of State prison

inmates

Percent of State prison inmates

Just under 30% of State prisoners described themselves as daily

drinkers. Daily drinkers began regular drinking at the earliest age 

and had the highest estimated BAC at the time of the offense 

for which they were in prison.

Figure 36
30 Alcohol and Crime 

Figure 38

0.28 0.30 0.24 0.30 0.25

Average BAC

of murderer

Neither 52 53 64 46 50

Both 14 13 13 18 13

Victim 10 8 9 9 13

Murderer 25 26 14 27 24

Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Intimate Acquaintance

Family

All Stranger member 

Drinking at the Victims of murderers in State prisons

time of the

murder

Convicted murderers in State prisons reported that alcohol was a

factor in about half the murders they committed. Those who

murdered intimates reported drinking the largest quantity for the

longest period prior to the offense. They were estimated to have had

a comparatively high BAC, about 0.30, at the time of the murder.

Non-drinkers

28%

Drinkers

72%

Daily drinkers

29%

Drinking less than daily

43%

Ever

48%

Never

 69%

Never

 52%

Ever

31%

Total State prison inmate

population

100%

Alcohol treatment Alcohol treatment

Type of program

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities, 1991.

Type of program

Other 1%

Detoxification 2%

Inpatient program 12%

Outpatient program 5%

Self-help/AA -type group 28%

Detoxification 1%

Inpatient program 5%

Outpatient program 3%

Self-help/AA -type group 21%

Other 1%

About half of all State prison inmates describing themselves as daily

drinkers had received some form of treatment in the past. For most 

the treatment was in the form of participation in a self-help group 

such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).

Figure 37
y About half the prisoners who

described themselves as daily drinkers

prior to entering prison, reported that

they had participated in an alcohol

treatment program at some time in

their lives (figure 36). 

 

y Among offenders in State prisons

who described themselves as drinkers,

offenders convicted of public-order

crimes were the most likely to report

having previously participated in an

alcohol treatment program.

y About a third of daily drinkers in

State prisons had participated in

alcohol treatment programs 2 or more

times previously. Since admission to

prison, about 1 in 5 offenders who

described themselves as drinkers

joined an AA or Al-Anon type of group.

y In 1995 a BJS census conducted

among prisons nationwide revealed

that 1,224 of the 1,375 State correctional facilities (both confinement

facilities and community-based facilities) and 121 of the 125 Federal

prisons and halfway houses provided

alcohol dependency treatment

programs. Among these 1,345 correctional facilities with alcohol treatment

services, 1,075 were traditional

confinement facilities and 270 were

community-based primarily serving a

pre-release population.

y Among the 1,196 confinement facilities nationwide in 1995, 192 indicated

that a central mission of the facility

was to provide drug/alcohol treatment,

more than double the number of

prisons providing such services in

1990. Thirty-nine prisons described

their primary function as alcohol/drug

treatment. 

y In 1995 there were 110 privately

operated correctional facilities in the

U.S. under contract to State or

Federal authorities. Among these, 4

facilities, housing an average daily

population of 1,035 inmates,

described their primary function as

alcohol or drug treatment.

Alcohol and Crime 31
Appendix I

Formula for calculating BAC

The National Highway Traffic Administration has provided a formula that

permits an estimate of Blood Alcohol

Concentration (BAC) to be made based

upon the self-reported drinking behavior

of the offender immediately preceding

the commission of the offense. The

formula requires the collection of data

from offenders about the type of beverage consumed, the alcohol content of

that beverage, the quantity consumed,

the amount of time spent drinking, the

drinker’s gender, and the body weight of

the offender.

The formula for calculating BAC after

multiple hours of drinking (Widmark

Formula) is:

BAC(h)=[A/(r * p)/10]-(h* k)

where

BAC=Blood Alcohol Concentration at

time h

A=grams of ethanol consumed: which is

equal to (liquid ounces of ethanol *

.82)/.035

r=reduced body mass: which is .68 for

males and .55 for females

p=weight in kilograms: which is equal to

weight in pounds/2.2046

h=hours drinking

K=estimated rate at which the body

metabolizes ethanol which is .015 grams

per hour

Based on this formula, a male offender

who weighs 173 pounds and reported

consuming 12 beers in 4 hours before

the offense would have an estimated

BAC of 0.19 at the time of the crime.

To solve for BAC &

1) 144 ounces beer * 4% alcohol

content=5.76 ounces of liquid ethanol

2) A=(5.76 * .82)/.035=134.95 grams of

ethanol

3) p=173 pounds/2.2046=78.47

kilograms

4) r * p=.68 * 78.47 kilograms=53.36

kilograms

5) h * k=4 hours * .015=.06

BAC (4 hours)=[(134.95/53.36)/10]-.06

=(2.527/10)-.06

=.19

32 Alcohol and Crime 

Note: The average metabolic rates assume a

reduction of 0.015 g/dl per hour.

4 0.12 0.22

3 0.09 0.16

2 0.06 0.11

1 hour 0.03 0.05

136-pound

female

173-pound

male

Hours drinking 

at the rate of 2

beers per hour

Estimated BAC 

from consuming two

12-ounce beers per

hour
Appendix II

Liquor law violations 

on college campuses

Based upon a nationwide survey of

postsecondary institutions carried out

by the National Center for Education

Statisitics, in 1994 an estimated 13%

of 2- and 4-year colleges reported

on-campus arrests for liquor law violations. Liquor law violations generally

include prohibited manufacture, sale,

or possession of liquor and maintaining illegal drinking places but exclude

public drunkenness offenses and

DUI/DWI.

An estimated 63% of public 4-year

universities reported arrests for liquor

law violations compared to 17% of

private 4-year schools. National

estimates of the number of arrests on

campus for 1994 were 20,430. Per

capita arrest rates averaged 1.404 per

thousand students nationwide but

varied substantially by type of school,

residency, size, and location:

Source: Laurie Lewis and Elizabeth

Farris, Campus Crime and Security at

Postsecondary Education Institutions,

Washington, D.C.: National Center for

Education Statistics, January 1997

(NCES 97-402).

Just over half of campus law enforcement agencies at 4-year universities

and colleges with at least 2,500

students report that they operate

alcohol education programs. Generally, the larger the university the more

likely they are to maintain alcohol

education as a special unit or activity.

Public universities (59%) more often

reported the availability of such

programs and services than those

universities which were privately

operated (43%).

Source: Brian A. Reaves and Andrew

L. Goldberg, Campus Law Enforcement Agencies, 1995, Washington,

D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics,

December 1996 (NCJ-161137). 

Alcohol and Crime 33

Rates of arrest for liquor law violations per 1,000 students, 1994

Public 2-year .339 No campus housing .087

Private 2-year .932 <25% on campus 1.575

Public 4-year 2.837 25% or more on campus 2.996

Private 4-year .595

<200 students .985 Large city campus .775

200-999 .336 Mid-size city campus 1.754

1,000-2,999 .939 Urban fringe campus 1.044

3,000-9,999 1.175 Town/rural campus 2.403

10,000 or more 1.780
34 Alcohol and Crime 

Don’t know 30.4

Neither 38.7

Drugs only 5.1

Alcohol or drugs 1.3

Alcohol and drugs 4.7

Alcohol only 19.7%

Percent of victims 

of violence

Was the offender

using &

Figure 2. Victims’ perception of the

use of alcohol and drugs by the

violent offender

Midnight 9.3

11 10.2

10 9.6

9 8.5

8 7.1

7 5.8

6 4.8

5 3.5

4 3.2

3 2.2

2 1.7

1 p.m. 1.4

Noon 1.3

11 1.0

10 0.9

9 0.7

8 0.8

7 0.9

6 1.0

5 1.4

4 2.6

3 4.8

2 7.8

1 a.m. 9.6

Midnight 9.3%

Percent of violent

incidents

Hour of

occurrence

Figure 11. Percent of violent

incidents involving alcohol, by hour of

occurrence

Other family members 11.0

Strangers 11.8

Boy/girlfriends 19.2

Acquaintances 28.6

Spouses/ex-spouses 29.4%

Percent of violent

incidents involving alcohol

Figure 9. Percent of violent incidents

that involved alcohol, by the victimoffender relationship

Other weapons 3.9

Blunt objects 6.4

Knives 6.9

Firearms 3.7

Hands, feet, or fists 79.1%

Percent of alcoholrelated violent

incidents

Figure 12. Type of weapon used 

in alcohol-related incidents

*Estimated from the characteristics of inmates leaving State prison. 

Parolees* 206,480 225,507

Prison inmates 358,827 351,186

Jail inmates 84,979 77,449

Probationers 1,268,965 445,251

 Total 1,919,251 1,099,393

Alcohol Drugs

Number of convicted offenders who had used

alcohol or drugs at the time of the offense

Cover. Number of persons under correctional supervision

who committed their crime after drinking, 1996 Datapoints

for the

graphics
Alcohol and Crime 35

.30 or higher 7.6

.20-.29 29.9

.10-.19 39.9

.08-.09 6.0

.06-.07 4.8

0.05 or less 11.7%

Percent of drinkBAC levels ing drivers

Figure 20. Percent of drinking

drivers in fatal accidents, by BAC

levels

Victims 35.1

Jail inmates 40.6

Probationers 40.7

State prisoners 37.5%

Percent of incidents or

offenders in which the

violent offender was

Source drinking

Figure 26. Percent of offenders and

victims who reported that the offender

was drinking at the time of the crime

Sunday 20.4

Saturday 25.6

Friday 16.2

Thursday 11.0

Wednesday 9.4

Tuesday 8.5

Monday 8.7%

Percent of fatal

accidents with a

drinking driver

Figure 18. Percent of fatal accidents

with a drinking driver, by day of

occurrence

All drinking drivers 0.16

Invalid 0.18

Valid 0.16

License

None 0.16

1 0.17

2 or more 0.18

License

suspensions

None 0.16

1 0.19

2 or more 0.21

DWI convictions

BAC levels of

drinking drivers in

fatal accidents 

Figure 23. BAC levels of drinking

drivers in fatal accidents, by driving

record

11 -11:59 p.m. 63.7 59.3

9 -10:59 57.9 54.2

6:30 -8:59 50.7 47.3

4:30 -6:29 36.0 33.5

2 -4:29 23.4 21.7

10 a.m.-1:59 p.m. 14.9 13.7

7-9:59 12.7 11.7

5-6:59 33.3 30.7

2 -4:59 72.3 67.4

1 -1:59 74.1 69.3

Midnight-12:59 a.m. 62.9% 57.4%

0.10 or

higher

0.08 or

higher

Percent of drinking

drivers in fatal

accidents with

recorded BAC

levels

Figure 19. Percent of drinking

drivers in fatal accidents, by BAC

levels and hour of occurrence
36 Alcohol and Crime 

None 62 60 62

Other combinations 2 4 6

Beer and liquor 10 12 10

Liquor 6 4 9

Beer 20% 20% 13%

State prison

inmates

Local jail 

inmates

Adults on

 probation

Beverage consumed 

at the time of the crime

Percent of drinking offenders

Figures 28a, b, c. Alcoholic beverages consumed by convicted

offenders drinking at the time of their offense, by jail and prison

inmates and adults on probation 

Public-order 75 62

Drugs 17 12

Property 21 6

Violent 38 28

Total 41% 25%

Men Women

Percent of adults

on probation

drinking at the

time of the

offense

Figure 30. Percent of adults on

probation who had used alcohol 

at the time of their offense, by

offense and sex of offender

Public-order 57 47

Drugs 29 27

Property 35 16

Violent 41 35

Total 41% 29%

Men Women

Percent of

inmates in local

jails drinking at

the time of the

offense

Figure 32. Percent of inmates in

local jails who had used alcohol at

the time of their offense, by offense

and sex 

of offender

Acquaintances 0.27

Intimates 0.29

Family members 0.31

Strangers 0.29

4 0.34

3 0.27

2 0.20

Drinking 1 hour 0.13

Female 0.37

Male 0.27

Estimated BAC

levels of State

prison inmates at

time of offense 

Figure 35. BAC levels of drinking

State inmates at the time of their

offense, by sex of inmates, number of

hours of drinking, and victim-offender

relationship