INFLUENCE

A B O U T A M E R I C A

WOMEN of
Introduction ........................................................ 1

Guiding Lights to a New World ........................ 2

Pocahontas ..................................................................... 3

Sacagawea ..................................................................... 4

e Colonial Era .................................................. 5

Anne Marbury Hutchinson ............................. 6

Anne Dudley Bradstreet ......................................... 7

Birth of a Nation .................................................. 8

Abigail Smith Adams ................................................ 9

Margaret Cochran Corbin ................................... 10

Breaking the Chains of Slavery ....................... 11

Sojourner Truth.......................................................... 12

Harriet Tubman.......................................................... 13

A Woman’s Right to Vote ................................. 14

Elizabeth Cady Stanton........................................... 15

Susan Brownell Anthony ....................................... 16

A Role in Government ...................................... 17

Jeannette Pickering Rankin .................................. 18

Hattie Ophelia Wyatt Caraway .......................... 19

Anna Eleanor Roosevelt ....................................... 20

Sandra Day O’Connor ............................................ 21

Wilma Pearl Mankiller ......................................... 22

Expanding Horizons ........................................ 23

Clara Harlowe Barton ............................................ 25

Jane Addams .............................................................. 26

Nellie Bly (Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman) ...... 27

Rosalyn Sussman Yalow ....................................... 28

Sheila Crump Johnson ........................................... 29

Maya Ying Lin ........................................................... 30

Bibliography ...................................................... 31

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

A B O U T A M E R I C A

INFLUENCE

WOMEN of
1

I

n recent years more and more societies all 

over the world have begun to recognize the 

vital contributions of women to commerce, 

their communities, and civic life. Whether it be 

Afghan women voting in a presidential election or 

women starting micro-businesses in Ethiopia, the 

worldwide trend toward greater equality is clear. 

Yet “the denial of women’s basic human rights 

is persistent and widespread,” as a 2005 United 

Nations Population Fund statement put it.

is publication offers a glimpse at how women in 

one country — the United States — have helped 

shape their society. ese notable women — from 

the Native-American Sacagawea, who guided white 

settlers through a vast wilderness; to Sojourner 

Truth, who fought for the end of slavery and equal 

rights for all; to Rosalyn Yalow, winner of the 

Nobel Prize in Medicine for a new technique for 

measuring substances in the blood — believed 

that they had a contribution to make and did not 

shrink from the obstacles in their way. is account 

of their accomplishments is a reminder that all 

societies benefit from the talents and expertise of 

their women. 

“ Women are the real architects 

of society.”

— Writer and abolitionist 

Harriet Beecher Stowe

INTRODUCTION
2 

The survival of the 

American colonies 

and later the newly 

born United States was never 

guaranteed — far from it. 

Settlers in the early 17th 

century — even in flourishing 

outposts — could count 

on harsh living conditions, 

scarcity of food, disease, 

and toil. e “lost colony” of 

Roanoke, Virginia, is ample 

proof of the difficulties they 

faced. Two centuries later, in 

the 1800s, Americans would 

trek westward across the 

Mississippi River from the 

relative comfort of established 

cities, seeking new territories 

and access to the Pacific 

coast. e survival of the colonies and the ability 

to explore western territories were critical to the 

establishment and growth of the United States. Two 

young Native-American women — Pocahontas and 

Sacagawea — played a vital role in these efforts. 

Both women would act as beacons, literally and 

figuratively, to the settlers they encountered. 

While still a child, Pocahontas would serve as a 

bridge between the first European arrivals and 

local Indian tribes, saving the life of one explorer 

and acting as a go-between during times of tense 

relations between the two groups. Sacagawea would 

take part in the first U.S. expedition to map the 

lands west of the Mississippi. She lent her skills 

in tribal languages and knowledge of western 

territories to guide the first American explorers 

safely to the Pacific and back.

GUIDING LIGHTS TO A NEW WORLD

Pocahontas, after a 1616 engraving by 

Simon van de Passe. 

The Sacagawea gold dollar coin, first 

minted in 2000. 
3

Born around 1595 in the Algonquin tribe of 

American Indians, Pocahontas became the 

subject of legend. She was, in fact, a woman 

who sought to bring peace to the lives of the United 

States’ first settlers and to her own people. 

Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, 

a powerful chief of the Algonquin tribe in the 

territory of present-day Virginia. Although nobody 

can be sure, she may have seen European settlers 

for the first time in the spring of 1607, when 

Captain John Smith landed with other settlers at 

Jamestown. Smith himself later would describe a 

decisive moment in his life during which the young 

Pocahontas played a critical role. 

According to Smith, he was captured by 

the Algonquin tribe and threatened with death. 

Rushing forward and placing herself between Smith 

and his would-be executioner, young Pocahontas 

pleaded for the captain’s life. Her wish was granted 

and a friendship developed. Accounts say that 

Pocahontas went on to befriend the new settlers, 

bringing them food and delivering messages from 

her father from time to time.

As tensions arose between the settlers and 

the Algonquin tribe, an Englishman by the name 

of Samuel Argall kidnapped the young girl, 

holding her for ransom until he agreed to terms of 

settlement. After relations between the Algonquin 

and settlers had improved, Pocahontas was married 

to Englishman John Rolfe. Although the timing 

is unclear, Pocahontas had, by the time of her 

marriage, converted to Christianity under the 

name “Rebecca.” Importantly for the future of the 

United States, the marriage helped to calm tensions 

between settlers and the Algonquin.

In 1616, she made a well-publicized journey 

to England by ship, along with her husband and 

their young son. Pocahontas was presented to King 

James I and to the royal family. Perhaps the most 

thrilling moment for her was meeting Captain 

Smith, whom she had believed dead for many years. 

Tragically, Pocahontas contracted a fatal disease 

on the trip home and died in March 1617. She was 

buried in Gravesend, England.

Despite her short life, Pocahontas’s romantic 

story continues to appeal to the American 

imagination. It has become the subject of much 

myth-making, as witnessed by the many stories, 

books, paintings, and even films — most recently 

e New World — based on her life, and the towns, 

school buildings, and a Civil War fort named 

after her. 

Pocahontas 

Pocahontas

A Symbol of Peace

Born: c. 1595/6; Died: 1617
4 

Amember of the Lemhi band of the 

Shoshone Indian tribe in present-day 

Idaho, Sacagawea demonstrated her 

strength and intelligence during the 1804-1806 

Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the lands 

leading to the Pacific Coast of North America. 

Early in her life, Sacagawea (a name possibly 

meaning “Boat Launcher” or “Bird Woman”) was 

captured by a rival tribe. She was either sold or 

traded to a French-Canadian fur trader by the 

name of Toussaint Charbonneau, whom she later 

married. At approximately 16 years old, Sacagawea 

gave birth to a son in the vicinity of Fort Mandan in 

the Dakota territories of the western United States. 

In 1805, her husband was hired to assist a 

newly formed expedition, led by Meriwether Lewis 

and William Clark, and charged by President 

omas Jefferson with finding a passage to the 

Pacific. Sacagawea, who spoke several Indian 

dialects, quickly proved herself — as an interpreter, 

as a guide, as a symbol to various tribes of the 

expedition’s peaceful intentions, and even as a 

diplomat when the expedition encountered the 

Lemhi band, over which her brother was now chief. 

She arranged for the Lemhi to provide horses, 

provisions, and shelter, the very things that made 

the journey possible. Sacagawea transported and 

cared for her infant son, Jean Baptiste, throughout 

the difficult journey.

Following the expedition, Sacagawea and 

her husband lived for a time in St. Louis before 

returning to the Dakotas. She is widely believed 

to have died in 1812, although an elderly woman 

claiming to be Sacagawea passed away in 1884. In 

2000, an artist’s imaginary rendering of Sacagawea 

cradling her son was added to U.S. currency on a 

dollar coin. 

Sacagawea

An Explorer of Extraordinary Talent

Born: c. 1786; Died: December 20, 1812

Sacagawea, from a drawing by E.S. Paxson.

“ ... the sight of is Indian woman, wife to one of 

our interprs. confirmed those people of our 

friendly intentions, as no woman ever accompanies 

a war party of Indians in this quarter.”

October 19, 1805, William Clark
5

The European 

immigrants who 

colonized British 

North America in the 17th

century brought the Old 

Continent’s social and 

political mores with them. 

But soon the colonists began 

to drift away from England, 

influenced by their new 

environment, the mix of 

nationalities and religions, 

and English traditions of 

political liberty. An American 

identity began to emerge. It 

encompassed, among other 

traits, increased religious 

tolerance, an affinity 

for political liberty and 

representative government, 

social mobility, and a tough individualism. 

is period also saw the establishment of the 

foundations of American culture and education.

e thousands of women colonists of this era 

made huge contributions to the settlements of the 

New World. ey raised children and educated 

them as they cleared the wilderness alongside their 

husbands, built cabins, and made or traded basic 

necessities. Women were the mainstays of church 

and community. 

e achievements of the two women named 

Anne — Hutchinson and Bradstreet — highlight 

the courage, confidence, and devotion to learning 

it took to create a nation out of primitive 

surroundings. Hutchinson was an early advocate 

of religious freedom who refused to betray her 

principles despite the threat of exile. e poet 

Bradstreet, in turn, was the first to touch on the 

New World experiences that give U.S. literature its 

distinctive voice.

THE COLONIAL ERA

Painting of Anne Dudley Bradstreet by 

LaDonna Gulley Warrick.

Anne Marbury Hutchinson 
6 

Anne Marbury Hutchinson

“Courageous Exponent of Civil Liberty and Religious Toleration”

Born: 1591; Died: August/September 1643

The core American concepts of freedom 

of religion and freedom of speech had 

one of their earliest advocates in Anne 

Marbury Hutchinson. Born in England to a 

dissenting Anglican clergyman and his wife, she 

married the merchant William Hutchinson in 

1612 and bore him 15 children, according to most 

sources. Yearning for greater freedom to practice 

her religious beliefs, in 1634 she persuaded her 

husband to follow her beloved minister, John 

Cotton, to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, today’s 

Boston.

en her troubles began. Well-educated and 

not afraid to speak her mind, Anne Hutchinson 

began inviting devout women to her home to 

reflect on Cotton’s sermons. As her reputation 

grew, the gatherings attracted men, too, including 

the governor, Henry Vane. In addition to stepping 

outside the bounds of conventional women’s 

behavior, her denunciation of the colony’s 

ministers and her belief that “he who has God’s 

grace in his heart cannot go astray” set her at odds 

with the religious establishment. ey moved 

to prosecute the woman Massachusetts’s new 

governor, John Winthrop, criticized for having 

“a very voluble tongue, more bold than a man.” 

According to Harvard professor Rev. Peter J. 

Gomes, at her trial “she bested the best of the 

... Colony’s male preachers, theologians, and 

magistrates.” Despite her vigorous defense of her 

beliefs, she was excommunicated and banished 

in 1638, and moved with her family and other 

followers to Rhode Island. She is considered one 

of the founders of that colony, the first to establish 

complete separation of church and state and 

freedom of religion in what would become the 

United States. After her husband’s death in 1642, 

Anne Hutchinson moved to Long Island, in New 

York. Tragically, she and all of her children save one 

were killed there in an Indian raid. 

“Courageous Exponent of Civil Liberty and 

Religious Toleration” says the inscription at the 

bottom of a statue raised in her honor in Boston. 

But the most fitting tribute to Anne Hutchinson’s 

influence — proof that her ideals ultimately 

prevailed over her opponents’ — is the First 

Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: “Congress 

shall make no law respecting an establishment of 

religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”

Woodcut depicting Anne Hutchinson’s sentencing to be 

banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 
7

The first important American poet, Anne 

Dudley Bradstreet was born in England 

of prosperous parents who had embraced 

the Puritan faith. She was married at 16 to Simon 

Bradstreet. With her parents and husband, she 

sailed to North America in 1630 as a member of 

the Puritan group that founded the Massachusetts 

Bay Colony. Unlike most women at that time, 

Anne Bradstreet grew up with a love of books 

and received an excellent education in literature, 

history, and the classics. She wrote poems while she 

raised eight children, kept a home, and served as a 

hostess for her husband, a governor of the colony.

Her brother-in-law took her poems to England 

without her knowledge. ey were published 

there in 1650 as e Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up 

in America. Ironically, these — the only poems 

published during her lifetime — are today 

considered her least interesting. Inspired by English 

metaphysical poets, they are long and often dull, 

dealing with conventional subjects such as religion 

as seen through the seasons. Contemporary critics 

and defenders of her work prefer her witty poems 

on daily life and her warm and loving verses to her 

husband and children, including one on her feelings 

upon the death of a month-old grandchild. 

Her writings and the few records that remain 

about Anne Bradstreet reveal her to be a woman 

of high intelligence and courage. She was painfully 

aware of her society’s disapproval of women who 

ventured beyond their domestic duties. In one of 

her poems, she proclaimed, “I am obnoxious to 

each carping tongue,/at says my hand a needle 

better fits!” And she dared to remain a friend of 

Anne Hutchinson, even as the men in the colony, 

including her husband and father, worked to 

banish the dissenter from their ranks. 

Anne Bradstreet’s literary gifts; her exploration 

of the universal themes of devotion to family, 

love, and loss; and her courage in standing by 

controversial friends make her an attractive model 

for women — and men — everywhere.

Left, Anne Bradstreet, stained glass in St. Botolph’s 

Church, Boston, Lincolnshire, England. Right, the 

frontispiece to the 1650 edition of The Tenth Muse.

To my Dear and Loving Husband

If ever two were one, then surely we. 

If ever man were lov’d by wife, then thee. 

If ever wife was happy in a man, 

Compare with me, ye women, if you can. 

I prize thy love more than whole Mines of gold, 

Or all the riches that the East doth hold. 

My love is such that Rivers cannot quench, 

Nor ought but love from thee give recompetence. 

Thy love is such I can no way repay. 

The heavens reward thee manifold, I pray. 

Then while we live, in love let’s so persever, 

That when we live no more, we may live ever.

“To my Dear and Loving Husband” is reprinted from Several 

Poems. Anne Bradstreet. Boston: John Foster, 1678.

Anne Dudley Bradstreet

“The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America”

Born: c. 1612; Died: September 16, 1672
8 

Great men — leaders 

like George 

Washington, omas 

Jefferson, and Alexander 

Hamilton — dominate 

accounts of the War for 

Independence (1775-1783) 

that gave birth to the United 

States of America. ese 

Founding Fathers also have 

the starring role during the 

difficult period that followed 

independence, when the 

young nation struggled to 

give legal form to the ideals 

expressed in the Declaration 

of Independence. ey wrote 

the Constitution with its 

Bill of Rights, persuaded the 

autonomous 13 states to join 

in a “more perfect Union,” and created the nation’s 

democratic government.

American women played a large, if until 

recently often unacknowledged, role during this 

era. Many tended the family farms and businesses 

while the men were fighting the war or fashioning 

the peace. Others went to battle side by side with 

the men, nursing the sick and burying the dead. 

In the stories of Abigail Adams and Margaret 

Corbin, we see that women in the revolutionary 

era were as ardently patriotic as the men and were 

equally determined to enjoy “liberty and the pursuit 

of happiness.” Adams with a pen and Corbin 

behind a cannon showed that women were valuable 

partners in the creation of a democratic nation that 

today guarantees equal rights to all its citizens. 

Portrait of Abigail Adams by 

Benjamin Blythe, 1766.

Margaret Corbin, illustration by 

Herbert Knotel. 

BIRTH OF A NATION
9

Wife of the second president of the 

United States and mother of the sixth, 

Abigail Adams’s multiple claims to 

fame also rest on her championing of women’s 

rights, including the right to an education. Her 

voluminous correspondence is full of wit and 

vivid insights into the early years of her beloved 

nation. She shared and helped shape her husband’s 

political thought and career, and excelled in the 

management of their farm and finances. 

Born at Weymouth, Massachusetts, Abigail 

Adams lacked a formal education, as did most 

women of that time. She was, nevertheless, an 

ardent reader from an early age. She married John 

Adams in 1764. eir 54-year union — as reflected 

in their letters to each other — was warm, loving, 

and intellectually lively. Her husband’s frequent 

travels meant long separations, so she raised their 

four surviving children and managed their home 

affairs on her own, all the while acting as her 

husband’s chief political confidant. In 1776, she 

made her strongest appeal for women’s rights in a 

letter to Adams, then a member of the Continental 

Congress that declared independence from Britain. 

“In the new Code of Laws which I suppose it 

will be necessary for you to make I desire you 

would Remember the Ladies,” she wrote, “and 

be more generous and favourable to them than 

your ancestors.” Her plea was the first call for the 

equality that American women would gradually 

achieve. When George Washington’s army was 

facing certain destruction later that year, she boldly 

wrote that the British forces instead would be 

opposed by “a race of Amazons in America.”

Abigail Adams joined her husband in Paris 

and London when he served as diplomatic 

representative of the new nation. She dutifully 

acted as his hostess when he became the country’s 

first vice president, in 1789, and president, in 1797. 

Defeated by omas Jefferson in the 1800 election, 

Adams retired to their home in Massachusetts, 

where he and Abigail enjoyed their remaining years 

until her death in 1818. On that sad occasion, her 

son John Quincy Adams, a future president, paid 

her this tender tribute in his journal, “ere is not a 

virtue that can abide in the female heart but it was 

the ornament of hers.”

Engraved portrait of First Lady and author 

Abigail Adams.

Abigail Smith Adams

“Remember the Ladies ...”

Born: November 11, 1744; Died: October 28, 1818
10 

Margaret Cochran Corbin fought 

alongside her husband in the 

first two years of the War for 

Independence. She was the first woman whose 

valor and sacrifice were recognized with a U.S. 

government pension for disabled soldiers.

Born near Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, 

Corbin was orphaned at age five when Indian 

raiders killed both her parents. She married 

John Corbin when she was 21 and accompanied 

him when he joined the First Company of 

Pennsylvania Artillery for service in the 

Continental Army. Like the other women 

who followed the troops, she cooked, washed 

clothes, and tended the sick or wounded. On 

November 16, 1776, British and Hessian troops 

attacked Fort Washington, New York, and John 

Corbin, one of the soldiers firing cannons in 

defense, was shot and killed. Margaret Corbin, 

at his side to help him load the cannon, took 

over loading and firing the cannon until she 

was hit by grapeshot, which tore her shoulder 

and wounded her in the chest and jaw.

Her fellow soldiers took her to a hospital 

in Philadelphia, but she never fully recovered 

from her wounds, and was left with a disabled 

left arm. In recognition of her bravery, the 

Continental Congress granted her a lifetime 

soldier’s half-pay pension. She was formally 

mustered out of the Continental Army in April 

1783. Known by neighbors as “Captain Molly,” she 

died near West Point, New York, probably before 

her 50th birthday. In 1926, the Daughters of the 

American Revolution re-interred her remains 

at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. A 

bronze plaque to “the first American woman 

to take a soldier’s part in the War for Liberty” 

commemorates her courage and initiative near the 

place of the battle, in today’s Fort Tryon Park, 

New York City. 

Margaret Cochran Corbin

“The First American Woman to Take a Soldier’s Part in the War for Liberty”

Born: November 12, 1751; Died: c. 1800

Corbin in a sketch by Herbert Knotel.

Margaret Corbin’s grave at 

the West Point Cemetery in 

New York. 
11

At the mid-19th 

century, America 

was paradoxically 

both a freedom-loving and a 

slave-holding society. In places 

along the eastern seaboard, 

slavery was more than 200 

years old and an integral part 

of the economy of the South. 

But as the century advanced, 

an increasingly assertive 

abolitionist movement called 

attention to the gulf between 

the nation’s ideals and the 

practice of slavery in the 

Southern half. Tensions grew 

and, in 1861, erupted into 

civil war. It took four years 

of bloody warfare before 

the North, under Abraham 

Lincoln’s leadership, prevailed, a result that sealed 

the end of slavery in the United States. 

Women were vital to the emancipation 

movement, and several stood out as leaders. Former 

slaves Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth, 

featured in the next two pages, gave personal 

testimony to the evils of slavery. A third figure, 

Harriet Beecher Stowe, a white woman, wrote a 

famous book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, in 1852. e novel 

inspired widespread enthusiasm for the antislavery 

cause, particularly in the rising generation of voters 

in the North. It secured Stowe’s place in history as 

an ardent abolitionist. And, just like Tubman and 

Truth, she became a celebrity, speaking against 

slavery at many gatherings. 

e freeing of the black population and 

the granting of voting rights to male African 

Americans made many women recognize their 

own unequal position in society. Emancipation 

adherents like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Tubman, 

and Truth later became advocates for the emerging 

women’s rights movement. 

Times were changing and women seized the 

opportunity to take increasing control of their 

lives. By great personal sacrifice and perseverance, 

women like Tubman and Truth dedicated their lives 

to noble goals: freedom from the tyranny of slavery, 

and human rights for all.

Harriet Tubman Sojourner Truth

BREAKING THE CHAINS OF SLAVERY
12 

Sojourner Truth

Antislavery Activist, Advocate of Women’s Rights

Born: c. 1797; Died: November 26, 1883

An ardent abolitionist and a proponent of 

women’s rights, Sojourner Truth found her 

voice in the early 1840s. She was born a 

slave named Isabella Baumfree. She took the name 

of Sojourner Truth because she felt God had called 

her “to travel up and down the land, showing the 

people their sins and being a sign unto them.”

After a difficult life as a youth in Ulster County, 

New York, she labored for a succession of five 

masters until New York State abolished slavery on 

the Fourth of July, 1827. Soon she moved to New 

York City and began to speak out against the evils 

of slavery. She was an imposing figure — almost 

six feet tall — with a powerful, resonant voice, 

who vividly described the abuses of slavery and the 

hardships she had endured.

Truth was self-educated and possessed a 

quick wit and a charisma that often drew large 

crowds. Facing a heckler in an audience once who 

said he did not care for her anti-slavery speech 

anymore than he would a bite from a flea, Truth 

replied, “Perhaps not, but Lord willing I’ll keep you 

scratching.” 

A staunch supporter of suffrage, Sojourner 

Truth became a national symbol for strong black 

women, and for all strong women. Her speech, 

“Ain’t I a Woman,” given at the 1851 Women’s 

Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio, has become a 

classic text on women’s rights. 

During the Civil War she gathered supplies for 

black volunteer regiments and she was involved in 

various political causes. In tribute to her efforts, 

President Lincoln received her at the White 

House in 1864. She was appointed to the National 

Freedman’s Relief Association in the same year, 

where she worked to better conditions for all 

African Americans. 

After the Civil War, she set out on a final 

unsuccessful crusade to gain support for her dream 

of a land distribution program for former slaves. By 

this time she had made her home in Battle Creek, 

Michigan, where, surrounded by her family and 

friends, she died in 1883. 

On the 200th anniversary of Sojourner Truth’s 

birth, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced 

that the name for their Mars Pathfinder rover 

would be “Sojourner,” a fitting tribute to the 

19th-century abolitionist and champion of 

women’s rights. 

Abraham Lincoln reading the Bible with abolitionist 

Sojourner Truth. Baltimore’s black community presented 

this print to the president to commemorate the 

Emancipation Proclamation. 
13

Harriet Tubman

Leader of the Underground Railroad

Born: c. 1820; Died: March 10, 1913

Born a slave in Dorchester County, 

Maryland, Harriet Tubman was an 

extraordinary African-American woman 

who courageously freed herself from slavery 

by running away to safe haven in Philadelphia, 

Pennsylvania. In 1850, when the Fugitive Slave Act 

made it illegal to help a runaway slave, Tubman 

decided to join the “Underground Railroad,” 

the network of people who helped slaves to 

their freedom. 

e Underground Railroad, neither 

underground nor a railroad, was an elaborate and 

secret series of houses, tunnels, and roads set up 

by abolitionists and former slaves as a way out of 

the oppressive South. Tubman knew these routes 

so well that she was never captured and never 

failed to deliver her passengers to safety. She 

began an intensive speaking tour in 1860, calling 

not only for the abolition of slavery, but also for a 

redefinition of women’s rights.

She guided 300 slaves through the 

Underground Railroad in the years leading up to 

the Civil War. Tubman made the perilous trip to 

slave country 19 times. On one trip she rescued 

her 70-year-old parents, bringing them to Auburn, 

New York. Auburn became her home, as well.

In 1861, when the Civil War began, she served 

as a nurse, spy, and scout for the Union forces. 

Well acquainted with the countryside from 

her days as a “conductor” on the Underground 

Railroad, she was considered especially valuable as 

a scout. 

Owing to inefficiency and perhaps lingering 

racial discrimination, Tubman was denied a 

government pension after the war and struggled 

financially for many years. She pressed to advance 

the status of women and blacks, to shelter orphans 

and elderly poor people. 

Eventually she did receive a small pension from 

the U.S. Army, most of which she spent in 1908 to 

build a wooden structure that served as a home 

for the aged and needy in Auburn, New York. She 

worked in that home and was herself cared for in it 

the last few years before her death in 1913. 

Harriet Tubman, far left, whose talents as Underground 

Railroad scout freed 300 slaves before the Civil War.

Painting by Paul Collins of Harriet Tubman’s 

Underground Railroad.
14 

The 19th-century drive to secure equal 

rights for women arose in part as welleducated women involved themselves 

in other social issues. Elizabeth Cady Stanton 

and Lucretia Mott met in 1840 at an anti-slavery 

conference in London. Unhappy at being excluded 

from activities of the convention because of their 

gender, Stanton, Mott, and other female delegates 

staged a walkout, then began planning a similar 

convention on women’s rights. It took place in 

Seneca Falls, New York, eight years later.

e Seneca Falls Convention drafted a 

Declaration of Sentiments based on the U.S. 

Declaration of Independence that had, in 1776, 

separated the United States from Britain. e 

declaration set the agenda for the movement: 

the right of women to their children in the event 

of a divorce, the right to testify against a cruel 

husband in court, the right of women to enter 

various kinds of jobs and to keep their salaries 

instead of turning money over to their husbands, 

and — the most controversial at that time — the 

right of women to vote. 

e political insight of Stanton and her 

equally famous partner in the 19th-century 

women’s rights movement, Susan B. Anthony, 

was that in order to change society, you have to 

change public opinion first. Both women were 

bent on propagating ideas: Stanton through her 

writing, Anthony through personal leadership and 

extensive lecture tours. In addition, both women 

realized that freedom and liberty for some groups 

essentially means freedom and liberty for all 

groups. Arguing for the abolition of Negro slavery, 

they aimed to convince Americans in the late 19th 

century that women, like former slaves, deserved 

well-defined and legally protected rights. 

Finally, they both realized that universal, fair, and 

free elections are necessary to allow all members of 

society to express their needs in an effective way.

Left, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and right, 

Susan B. Anthony, c. 1870s.

A WOMAN’S RIGHT TO VOTE
15

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

“The Mother of Woman Suffrage”

Born: November 12, 1815; Died: October 26, 1902

Elizabeth Cady Stanton was one of the major 

forces behind the empowerment of women 

in the United States and throughout the 

world. In particular, she was a founder and leader of 

the 19th-century women’s rights movement, which 

in 1920 won American women the right to vote.

Born in 1815 to a father who was a prominent 

New York state congressman and judge, Stanton 

read law informally under her father’s tutelage, and 

discovered an early vocation to reform the law of 

the day so it would treat men and women equally. 

In 1840, she married Henry Brewster Stanton, a 

lawyer, orator, and abolitionist. is marriage gave 

her a further entrée into politically progressive 

circles. In 1848, Elizabeth Stanton helped persuade 

the New York legislature to enact laws protecting 

the property rights of married women. In July of 

that year, along with feminist Lucretia Mott, she 

helped lead the first women’s rights convention in 

the United States and probably the world, in the 

New York town of Seneca Falls. e convention 

passed numerous resolutions appealing for rights 

for women, and — significantly — a demand for 

female suffrage (the right to vote) in the Declaration 

of Sentiments, a document modeled on the U.S. 

Declaration of Independence.

Elizabeth Stanton gave birth to seven 

children between 1842 and 1859, but this scarcely 

diminished her enthusiasm for her work. During 

the U.S. Civil War, she and her husband worked 

to abolish slavery, later splitting with other 

progressives over the lack of emphasis given to the 

votes-for-women issue.

Around 1850, Stanton began her association 

with Susan B. Anthony, also a leader in the 

movement to give women the right to vote. eir 

50-year-long collaboration benefited from Stanton’s 

skills as the better orator and writer and Anthony’s 

as the organizer and tactician. “I forged the 

thunderbolts,” Stanton said of their partnership, 

“and she fired them.” Stanton became famous 

as president of the National Woman Suffrage 

Association, and also lectured on topics such as 

maternity, divorce law, and the social effect of 

liquor, which some felt destroyed homes, marriages, 

and lives. After 1880 she retired to collaborate 

with Anthony on the History of Woman Suffrage. She 

died in 1902, having created a national agenda for 

women’s political and social equality that was to be 

realized in decades following.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, in a photo from her book, 

Eighty Years and More: 1815-1897.
16 

Susan Brownell Anthony

“Incomparable Organizer” of Women’s Rights Movement

Born: February 15, 1820; Died: March 13, 1906

Like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. 

Anthony came from the Northeast, 

and began her life under the tutelage 

of a strong-willed father. Born in Adams, 

Massachusetts, Anthony grew up in the home 

of a successful businessman, Quaker, and 

abolitionist. She was known as a gifted child, 

reportedly able to read and write at the age 

of three.

In her mid-20s Anthony began a teaching 

career, eventually settling in the Rochester, 

New York, area as the headmistress of a 

local school. She was drawn towards the 

temperance movement, a political and 

religious movement that viewed alcohol 

consumption as the root of social and familial 

ills, and campaigned against the “bottle.” 

Feeling marginalized and unable to speak in 

a male-dominated organization, Anthony and some 

friends founded the Woman’s State Temperance 

Society of New York. Around 1850 she met 

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and joined her in the larger 

crusade for women’s rights.

Unlike Stanton, Anthony never married, 

and put all her time and energy into political 

organizing. Anthony worked as a member of the 

American Anti-Slavery Society from 1856 until 

the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War in 1861 and 

continued to work for slaves’ emancipation during 

the war. With Stanton, she engaged in petition 

drives for women’s rights, founded a progressive 

magazine, e Revolution, and helped organize the 

New York Working Women’s Association. With 

the adoption in 1870 of the 15th Amendment, 

all citizens were guaranteed the right to vote 

regardless of “race, color, or previous condition of 

servitude,” but not regardless of gender. Appalled at 

this situation, Anthony took direct action, leading a 

group of women to the polls in Rochester.

Arrested and awaiting trial, she took advantage 

of the publicity to begin a lecture tour. In 1873, she 

again engaged in civil disobedience, again trying 

to vote. She was denied the right to testify at her 

own trial because of her sex and given a light fine, 

which she refused to pay. Spurred on by the fight 

and the attendant publicity, she worked more 

vigorously than ever to secure American women 

the right to vote — through national organizations 

and individual lecture tours in eastern states and 

western territories.

In 1888, Anthony organized the International 

Council of Women and in 1904 the International 

Woman Suffrage Alliance, bringing her crusade to 

the international level with meetings in London and 

Berlin. She died in 1906 — four years after Stanton 

— but their work paved the way for the ratification 

of the 19th amendment to the U.S. Constitution, 

which, in 1920, granted American women the right 

to vote. 

Susan B. Anthony, 1899.
17

The first half 

of the 20th 

century 

saw the United 

States transformed 

into a world power 

after emerging 

victorious from 

two world wars 

and overcoming 

a depression. 

Economic and 

social reforms gave 

workers and their 

families improved 

standards of living and African-Americans 

increasing hope that, at last, they could 

secure racial equality.

ese years also saw women making 

breakthrough gains in fields long 

considered outside their traditional roles 

as wives, mothers, and caretakers. Many 

attended college or took up jobs in industry 

while the men fought World War II. 

Winning the vote in 1920 inspired women 

to countless other victories in the arenas 

of politics and government. e western 

state of Montana, which gave women the 

vote decades before the nation as a whole did in 

1920, elected Jeannette Rankin as the first female 

representative to Congress. Soon hundreds and 

then thousands of women ran for city, county, state, 

and national office. ese included Connecticut’s 

Ella Grasso, the first woman elected as governor 

on her own right; Wilma Mankiller, the first 

female principal chief of a Native-American nation; 

and several who have run for president or vicepresident of the United States, including Shirley 

Chisholm and Elizabeth Dole. Appointees to office 

like Eleanor Roosevelt at the United Nations, 

Sandra Day O’Connor in the Supreme Court, and 

Condoleezza Rice at the State Department also are 

among the many notable women whose talents 

have enriched political life in the United States and 

abroad. But their stories start with trailblazers like 

Jeannette Rankin and Hattie Caraway. 

A ROLE IN GOVERNMENT

Jeannette Rankin Hattie Caraway Eleanor Roosevelt

Sandra Day O’Connor Wilma Mankiller
18 

Jeannette Pickering Rankin

First Woman Member of the U.S. Congress

Born: June 11, 1880; Died: May 18, 1973

J

eannette Rankin took her seat in the U.S. 

House of Representatives — the first woman 

to be elected to either chamber — on April 2, 

1917. It would be another three years before women 

throughout the United States earned the right 

to vote. 

Rankin, born in Montana, was an energetic 

young woman with a zest for politics and a life-long 

devotion to feminist and pacifist causes. With a 

degree from the New York School of Philanthropy 

(later Columbia University’s School of Social 

Work), she became a social worker in Seattle, in 

Washington State. To gain first-hand knowledge of 

her clients’ condition, she worked for a while as a 

seamstress. Rankin joined the 1910 suffrage drive 

in Washington and led the successful campaign 

in 1914 for women’s suffrage in Montana. e new 

women voters in Montana helped Rankin become 

one of the few Republicans elected to Congress 

in 1916. 

Seeing it as her “special duty” to speak for 

American women, she helped draft legislation 

helping women and children and supported a 

constitutional amendment to give women the right 

to vote. She did not stay in Congress long enough 

to see suffrage extended to all American women in 

1920, however. Voters rejected her bid to become 

a senator in 1918, probably because of her vote 

against U.S. entry into the First World War a year 

earlier. 

Rankin returned to social work and to reform 

organizations, such as the National Consumers’ 

League, the Women’s International League for 

Peace and Freedom, and — in 1919 — attended 

the Second International Congress of Women in 

Zurich. Re-elected to Congress in 1940, she cast 

the only vote in Congress against war on Japan 

after the attack on Pearl Harbor. With her political 

career ended by this unpopular vote, Rankin 

devoted the rest of her life to her favorite causes. At 

age 86, for instance, she participated in the March 

on Washington opposing the Vietnam War.

Jeannette Rankin understood the importance 

of engaging women’s talents and expertise to 

build better societies. “Men and women are like 

right and left hands; it doesn’t make sense not to 

use both,” she said. In her will, she left money to 

ensure that women could get an education to help 

improve society. e Jeannette Rankin Foundation, 

one of the many legacies of this determined 

and committed American, has been providing 

educational opportunity to low-income women 

since it was chartered in 1976.

Jeannette Rankin addresses a rally at Union Square, 

New York, September 1924.
19

Hattie Ophelia Wyatt Caraway

First Woman Elected to U.S. Senate

Born: February 1, 1878; Died: December 21, 1950

Hattie Caraway was the first 

woman elected to the U.S. Senate 

in her own right. 

A native of Tennessee, she earned a 

degree from Dickson Normal College. 

ere, she met addeus H. Caraway, 

married him in 1902, and had three sons. 

e family moved to Arkansas, where 

addeus Caraway was elected to the U.S. 

Congress in 1912, and to the U.S. Senate 

in 1920. After he died unexpectedly in 

1931, Arkansas Governor Harvey Parnell 

appointed Hattie Caraway to her late 

husband’s seat. A special election January 

12, 1932, confirmed her appointment. 

Before Hattie Caraway was elected, only 

one woman — Rebecca Latimer Felton 

— had served as a courtesy appointment 

for one day, also as a result of a senator’s 

death.

In contrast to the outspoken Jeannette 

Rankin, Hattie Caraway made no speeches 

nor did she take on unpopular causes. Such was 

her restraint, as a matter of fact, that she earned 

the nickname “Silent Hattie.” She was a diligent 

public servant, however, taking her responsibilities 

seriously and building a reputation for integrity. 

A Democrat, she routinely supported President 

Franklin D. Roosevelt and New Deal legislation on 

behalf of veterans and organized labor. 

“Silent Hattie” spoke up and took everyone by 

surprise on May 9, 1932. Invited to become the first 

woman to preside over the Senate, she announced 

to the reporters gathered for the event that she 

was running for re-election. She won that election, 

thanks in part to Senator Huey Long of Louisiana, 

who campaigned hard for her. In the 1940s she 

signed on as a co-sponsor of the proposed Equal 

Rights Amendment. She left the Senate in 1945, 

after being defeated by William Fulbright. In a 

typical understatement, she summed up her fourthplace showing, “e people are speaking.”

Her career in public service was not over, 

however. Roosevelt appointed her to the U.S. 

(federal) Employees’ Compensation Commission 

and later to the Employees’ Compensation Appeals 

Board. In January 1950, she suffered a stroke and 

resigned her post. She died at the close of that year. 

Her correspondence and other papers tracing 

her years in office were published under the title 

Silent Hattie Speaks: e Personal Journal of Senator 

Hattie Caraway.

Sen. Hattie Caraway, shown with Sen. Joseph Guffey (left), as she 

becomes the first woman to preside over an open meeting of a Senate 

Committee in Washington, D.C., February 26, 1936. 
20 

Born to a rich and influential family in 

New York City, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt 

transformed the role of first lady during her 

husband Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s presidency 

of the United States (1932-1945). She became an 

inspiration to millions around the world by giving a 

voice to the powerless: minorities, women, the poor, 

and the disadvantaged. She was a controversial 

figure to others because of her dedication to human 

rights, civil rights, and women’s rights.

 Orphaned at the age of 10, Eleanor Roosevelt 

grew up shy and insecure. She followed her family’s 

tradition of community service, teaching in a 

settlement house before marrying her outgoing 

cousin Franklin in 1905. ey had six children, one 

of whom died as an infant. Her husband’s election 

to the New York State Senate in 1910 launched her 

career as political helpmate. 

Several of her biographers see her traumatic 

discovery in 1918 of her husband’s affair with 

her social secretary as the spur behind Eleanor’s 

expanded social activism, but others point to her 

education and expanding network of friends as her 

inspiration. When Franklin Roosevelt was stricken 

with poliomyelitis in 1921, she turned increasingly 

to politics, to further his career and her ideals of 

social justice. 

Once Roosevelt was elected president, 

Eleanor toured a country devastated by the 

Great Depression. She reported back to him on 

conditions and tirelessly promoted equal rights 

for women and minorities, child welfare, and 

housing reform. She became the first president’s 

wife to hold regular press conferences, to write 

a syndicated column (“My Day”) and do radio 

commentary, to go on the lecture circuit, and to 

address a political convention. She used symbolism 

to great effect: In 1939, when the Daughters of the 

American Revolution banned African-American 

singer Marian Anderson from performing in their 

auditorium because of her race, Eleanor Roosevelt 

resigned from the organization. She suggested that 

Anderson sing at the Lincoln Memorial instead, in 

a concert attended by 75,000 people. 

After Franklin’s death, President Harry Truman 

appointed her a delegate to the United Nations. 

She served as chairman of the U.N.’s Commission 

on Human Rights and played a leading role in the 

drafting and adoption of the Universal Declaration 

of Human Rights. In 1961, President John F. 

Kennedy made her the chair of the President’s 

Commission on the Status of Women, work she 

continued until her death in 1962. 

President Truman admiringly called Mrs. 

Roosevelt “First Lady of the World.” She was, 

typically, more unassuming in describing her 

achievements: “I just did what I had to do as things 

came along.” 

Anna Eleanor Roosevelt

“First Lady of the World”

Born: October 11, 1884; Died: November 7, 1962

Eleanor Roosevelt regarded her work on the Universal Declaration 

of Human Rights as her greatest legacy.
21

The woman whom President 

Ronald Reagan would appoint 

to the U.S. Supreme Court 

a half-century later was born in El 

Paso, Texas. She grew up on the Lazy 

B Ranch in southeastern Arizona. She 

married John Jay O’Connor III soon 

after graduation from law school and 

has three sons. 

Despite her law degree — with 

honors — from Stanford University, 

O’Connor was turned down by 

law firms because of her gender, 

a common practice in the 1950s. 

O’Connor became deputy county 

attorney of San Mateo, California. 

Years later, she recalled that her first 

job “influenced the balance of my 

life because it demonstrated how much I did enjoy 

public service.” 

e family moved to Germany and then to 

Arizona, where O’Connor held a succession of 

jobs, raised her children, and became involved 

in Republican Party politics. In 1969, she was 

appointed to the state senate, won re-election 

twice to that post, and became senate majority 

leader in 1972. In 1975, voters elected her to a state 

judgeship on the Maricopa County Superior Court. 

Four years later, Arizona’s governor appointed her 

to the state’s Court of Appeals, and Reagan formally 

nominated her to the Supreme Court on August 

19, 1981. O’Connor brought to the Supreme Court 

experience in government, as well as being the only 

sitting justice previously elected to public service. 

In her years on the Court, O’Connor’s pragmatic 

bent made her a consummate compromiser, turning 

her into the “swing” vote in many 5-4 decisions. 

Many saw her as the most powerful woman in 

the United States. O’Connor’s opinions have 

provided judicial guidelines on federalism — the 

constitutional sharing of power between the states 

and the federal government — and on controversial 

topics such as affirmative action, the death penalty, 

and abortion. rough it all, she remained mindful 

that — as the first woman in the Court — some 

people might focus only on her sex and not her 

talent while, paradoxically, her appointment 

represented an achievement for American women. 

“e power I exert on the Court depends on the 

power of my arguments, not on my gender,” she 

once said. But she also insisted that “half the 

population in my country are women, and it makes 

a difference for women to see women in positions 

of authority in high office.”

Justice O’Connor retired from the Supreme 

Court on January 31, 2006. She is currently cochair of the Campaign for the Civic Mission of 

Schools, a group dedicated to preparing the next 

generation of Americans for citizenship.

Sandra Day O’Connor

First Woman Justice of the Supreme Court

Born: March 26, 1930

Left, Sandra Day O’Connor at 

Georgetown University, October 27, 

2004. Above, O’Connor poses with 

her family and Chief Justice Warren 

Burger on the steps of the U.S. 

Supreme Court prior to her swearing 

in, September 1, 1981.
22 

Wilma Mankiller has said that, before 

her election as the first female 

principal chief of the Cherokee Nation, 

“young Cherokee girls would never have thought 

that they might grow up and become chief.”

e woman who did become head of one 

of the largest tribes in the United States and 

established thriving community-building 

programs for her people was born in Tahlequah, 

Oklahoma. Her family believes their surname 

signifies a Cherokee military ranking. A U.S. 

government Indian relocation program forced her 

family’s move to San Francisco when Mankiller 

was young. ere she joined the Native-American 

activist movement of the late 1960s, which drew 

inspiration from the development of ird World 

nationalism in that decade, as well as the U.S. 

civil rights movement. She raised funds for the 

support and defense of the young men who seized 

Alcatraz Prison for 18 months to protest wrongs 

suffered by Native Americans. ese experiences 

shaped her understanding of Native-American 

social and economic problems, and of the uneasy 

relationship between the sovereign tribal nations 

and the federal government.

Mankiller went to work for the Cherokee 

Nation, founding its Community Development 

Department and devising programs like the Bell 

Water and Housing Project. Each Indian family 

in the Bell project was responsible for laying one 

mile of water pipe and for raising the money 

needed to do so. It was a great success: Many 

homes got fresh running water for the first time. 

Valuing her leadership abilities, then Principal 

Chief Ross Swimmer asked Mankiller in 1983 to 

run for election as his deputy. Mankiller received 

death threats during her campaign and some who 

opposed a woman leader for the tribe slashed her 

car’s tires. She and Swimmer won, however. In 1985 

Swimmer resigned and Mankiller assumed his post. 

She was elected in her own right in 1987, and twice 

after that, by overwhelming majorities.

Mankiller, who believes Indians should “solve 

their own economic problems,” found herself 

presiding over more than 220,000 people, with 

an annual budget of $75 million. She signed a 

landmark self-government U.S.-Cherokee Nation 

agreement in 1990 that allowed her people to 

manage federal funds previously administered on 

their behalf by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. She 

also established a tax commission and improved 

the Nation’s courts, education, and police. 

Ill health, including two kidney transplants, 

may have been behind Mankiller’s decision not to 

seek re-election in 1995. She remains, however, 

the most celebrated Cherokee of the 20th century, 

receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 

1998, as well as several other awards. 

Wilma Pearl Mankiller

First Woman Chief of an American-Indian Nation

Born: November 18, 1945

Wilma Mankiller 

on the day in 1985 

when her election 

as chief of the 

Cherokee Nation 

was announced.
23

Over the course of American history, 

women have dedicated many years 

to achieving rights and gaining 

opportunities most men had taken for granted, 

from the right to vote to equal access to an 

education and a paying job. 

Going back to Colonial times, widespread 

opposition to the formal education of women 

was the norm. But in 1821, Emma Hart Willard 

succeeded in getting funding from the citizens 

of Troy, New York, to found the Troy Female 

Seminary, the first of its kind in the country. It 

offered what now would be considered collegelevel courses in science, mathematics, literature, 

and history. In 1833, Oberlin College opened as a 

coeducational institution, the first school to grant 

higher-education degrees to women. In 1861, 

Vassar was founded as the first private women’s 

liberal arts college. In the second half of the 19th 

century, women began to gain admission to other 

coeducational colleges and universities. 

Many fields, not just government and politics, 

remained largely closed to women well into the 

20th century, however. Outstanding individuals like 

physicist Rosalyn Yalow and Supreme Court Justice 

Sandra Day O’Connor still found it difficult, at least 

initially, to gain admission to most universities 

in disciplines considered “masculine” provinces 

— science, law, mathematics — or to get a job 

commensurate with their abilities and training. 

Nevertheless, determined women overcame 

educational hurdles and other obstacles in pursuit 

of their ambitions and ideals. In the 20th century, 

they steadily joined the labor force, excelling in 

‘Nellie Bly’ 

(Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman)

Jane Addams

EXPANDING HORIZONS

Clara Barton
24 

professions previously considered out of bounds 

to their sex. Disparities remain, but women’s 

progress in many areas has been remarkable. 

Two statistics from the last U.S. Census Bureau 

illustrate this development. In education, women 

are expected to earn 59 percent of the bachelor’s 

and 60 percent of the master’s degrees awarded 

for the school year 2005-06. Businesses headed by 

female entrepreneurs had receipts of $940.8 billion 

in 2002. 

e women featured in this section are just 

a few among the many pioneers and achievers of 

the past 150 years. ey have been eager to make 

a difference, to employ their talents to the fullest. 

ey have had the courage to stand up to authority 

when necessary, or to face controversy. And, in the 

process, they have made great contributions to the 

social, economic, scientific, and cultural wealth of 

their communities, their country, and the world.

Rosalyn Yalow Sheila Johnson Maya Ying Lin
25

The image of Clara Barton — tending the 

Civil War wounded and the dying in her 

bonnet, red bow, and dark skirt — is a 

familiar one to most Americans. But Barton’s 

devotion to victims of war and natural disasters 

did not end with the war in 1865. She went on to 

become the founder of the American Red Cross, 

and worked for decades to persuade the U.S. 

government to recognize the organization.

Born in North Oxford, Massachusetts, Clara 

Barton was the youngest of five children. Her 

brothers taught her horseback riding and other 

“boyish” pursuits, but her family often fretted 

about her extreme shyness. Once grown up, she 

taught for several years, eventually moving to New 

Jersey, where she founded that state’s first free (later 

public) school. Denied the chance to run the school 

because of her sex, Barton moved to Washington, 

D.C. She took a job as a clerk at the U.S. Patent 

Office, earning the same salary as the male clerks. 

is was a great achievement at a time when 

government jobs were not available to women.

en, on April 12, 1861, the Civil War broke 

out. ousands of wounded Union soldiers poured 

into Washington and Barton realized that the 

government was not prepared to care for them. 

For nearly a year, she pleaded with the bureaucracy 

to allow her to bring medical supplies to the field, 

something no one — let alone a woman — had 

done before. Permission finally granted, she 

became the nursing “angel” to soldiers in some 

of the war’s bloodiest battles: Second Manassas, 

Antietam, and Fredericksburg.

Once the war ended, Barton took charge of 

identifying and marking the graves of the 13,000 

Union soldiers who died at the Andersonville, 

Georgia, prisoner-of-war camp. She became the 

first woman to head a U.S. government bureau, 

the Missing Soldiers Office, and located 22,000 of 

the missing between 1865 and 1868. On doctor’s 

advice, Barton went to Switzerland in 1869. She 

joined the relief effort during the 1870-71 FrancoPrussian War. is introduced her to the Red 

Cross, the organization created in 1864 to provide 

humane services to war victims. 

Barton came home to establish the American 

Red Cross, which was recognized by the U.S. government to provide aid for natural disasters on May 21, 

1881. She resigned its presidency in 1904. She had 

succeeded in getting the United States to sign the 

1864 Geneva Convention and becoming a member 

of the International Red Cross. She received many 

awards for her humane work, including the Iron 

Cross from Germany, the Silver Cross of Imperial 

Russia, and the International Red Cross Medal. 

She died at age 90 in her home in Glen Echo, 

Maryland. 

Clara Harlowe Barton

“Angel of the Battlefield”

Born: December 25, 1821; Died: April 12, 1912

Clockwise, starting from 

above, a notice marking 

Clara Barton’s Missing 

Soldiers office in Washington, 

D.C.; Barton in 1884; and 

a spinning wheel frames 

her field desk at the Clara 

Barton birthplace and 

museum in North Oxford, 

Massachusetts.
26 

J

ane Addams was an internationally known 

advocate for the poor, a pacifist, a reformer, 

a leader in progressive groups, and the first 

American woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize. 

She is best remembered as the founder of HullHouse in Chicago, one of the first settlement 

houses that provided services for the working class 

immigrants in the neighborhood and served as a 

laboratory for reform. 

A native of Cedarville, Illinois, Addams 

graduated from the Rockford Female Seminary. 

Her father’s death in 1881 and surgery in her back 

combined to make her nearly an invalid for two 

years. On a trip to Europe with her school friend 

Ellen Gates Starr, they visited London’s Toynbee 

Hall, a settlement house. Inspired by this experience, 

the two friends founded Hull-House in 1889. 

Addams lived and worked there until her death. 

With donations, Hull-House grew to serve 

more than 10,000 people a week: immigrants 

from European countries in its first decades, and 

then African Americans and Mexicans in the 

1920s. It offered night school for adults, a public 

kitchen, a gym, a library, a day nursery for the 

children of working mothers, and meeting places 

for trade union groups. Addams realized that 

the poverty around her would not end unless the 

country’s institutions organized to get rid of it. 

She campaigned with Hull-House’s clients for 

legislation to protect immigrants from exploitation, 

limit working hours for women, recognize labor 

unions, institute the first juvenile-court law, and 

provide for safe work places. In 1910 she became 

the first woman elected president of the National 

Conference of Social Work. 

Addams directed her talents and unflagging 

energy to other causes, including women’s suffrage, 

politics (seconding eodore Roosevelt’s nomination 

by the Progressive Party in 1912), and as a 

founding member of organizations like the National 

Association for the Advancement of Colored 

People (NAACP) — the pre-eminent civil rights 

and anti-hate organization — and the American 

Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). She wrote 11 books 

and many articles. She became involved in the 

international pacifist movement in the first decade 

of the 20th century, and was elected chairman of 

the Woman’s Peace Party and first president of the 

International Congress of Women at e Hague in 

1915. When the United States entered World War I, 

a move that she opposed, some Americans began to 

criticize Addams and her causes. 

Her many achievements led to many awards, 

most importantly the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931, 

which she shared with Nicholas Murray Butler. 

Jane Addams died in Chicago. Hull-House 

has been preserved as a national monument to her 

memory.

Jane Addams

Social Reformer, Humanitarian, Pacifist

Born: September 6, 1860; Died: May 21, 1935

Above, Jane Addams never 

lost her concern for children 

and devoted much of her 

energy to meeting their 

needs. Right, Hull House in 

Chicago, Illinois, shown here 

on July 10, 1946.
27

When she was about 21 years old, 

Elizabeth Cochrane assumed the pen 

name “Nellie Bly” and wrote her way 

into worldwide fame in what had been the man’s 

world of journalism. 

She was born in a small Pennsylvania town, but 

her family moved to Pittsburgh after her father’s 

death. An article opposing the goals of the 19th 

century feminist movement angered Cochrane 

into sending a stern letter denouncing the writer 

to the editor of the Pittsburgh Dispatch. e editor 

was so impressed with her letter that he hired her, 

making her one of the first women reporters in the 

United States. Her byline, “Nellie Bly,” came from a 

Stephen Foster song. 

Instead of restricting her beat to women’s 

subjects, Nellie Bly focused on ordinary men and 

women, even going under cover to investigate their 

lives and jobs. She worked in a factory, for instance, 

and wrote about child labor, unsafe working 

conditions, and the poor wages she witnessed first 

hand. When advertisers began to complain about 

her stories, her editors tried to restrict her writing. 

Bly instead traveled to Mexico in 1886-87 and filed 

stories about the country, describing its poverty and 

corruption. e assignment ended abruptly when 

the Mexican government expelled her. Unhappy 

back in Pittsburgh, Bly decided to try her hand 

elsewhere. “I am off for New York,“ said her note to 

the editors. “Look out for me. Bly.”

 In 1887, Bly became a reporter for the New 

York World. ere, she pioneered investigative 

journalism, or, as it was often called, “muckraking” 

— exposing corruption, crime, and abuse. She had 

herself committed to a woman’s asylum and, once 

she left, wrote articles that revealed the horrors 

in the treatment of the mentally ill. “e insane 

asylum on Blackwell’s Island is a human rat trap,” 

Bly concluded. “It is easy to get in, but once there 

it is impossible to get out.”

Despite her vivid writing, her courageous 

muckraking, and the reforms her articles inspired, 

Bly is best remembered for mimicking the feat 

described in Jules Verne’s Around the World in 80 

Days. With her newspaper’s support, she left New 

York on her 24,899-mile trip on November 14, 1889. 

She circled the globe, and was back in New York 

in 72 days, six hours, 11 minutes, and 14 seconds 

— a new record. e highly publicized trip allowed 

newspaper readers to follow her travel day by day 

and made Bly an international celebrity. 

Bly retired from journalism in 1895, when she 

married Robert Seaman, a millionaire industrialist. 

After his death, she tried unsuccessfully to keep his 

companies afloat. To escape the collapse of the 

companies, she left for Europe in 1914, and reported

on World War I for the New York Evening Journal. 

Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman died at age 57, of 

pneumonia. 

*New York Evening Journal

Nellie Bly

“The Best Reporter in America”*

Born: May 5, 1864; Died: January 27, 1922

The U.S. Postal Service honored Nellie Bly with this stamp, 

issued in September 2002.
28 

Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine, 

Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research 

Award, and U.S. National Medal of 

Science: ese are the most prominent among 

scores of prizes and honorary degrees awarded to 

Rosalyn Yalow in recognition of her achievements. 

With her colleague Solomon Berson, Yalow 

devised a technique — radioimmunoassay (RIA) 

— that measures hundreds of substances in the 

human body, from viruses to drugs to hormones. 

anks to their discovery, we now can screen 

blood-donor supplies for hepatitis, treat hormonerelated health problems, detect foreign substances 

and some cancers in the blood, and gauge effective 

dosage levels of antibiotics and drugs.

When Yalow was born in the Bronx, New 

York, and then when she graduated with honors 

from Hunter College in 1941, women were not 

expected to become physicists or mathematicians. 

But, with so many young men fighting in World 

War II, she was offered a teaching assistantship 

in physics at the University of Illinois. ere, Yalow 

was the only woman in the physics department and 

the first woman to study physics at that university 

since 1917. She married a fellow student, Aaron 

Yalow, in 1943 and received her doctorate in 1945.

In 1947, Yalow agreed to work part-time 

to start a radioisotope service in the Veteran’s 

Administration Hospital in the Bronx. She and 

Berson used radioactive isotopes to investigate 

the mechanism behind adult-onset diabetes, the 

research that led to RIA. 

Yalow and two other joint recipients won the 

Nobel in 1977, but not Berson, who died in 1972. 

She was the second woman to win this Nobel, and 

only the sixth to win any Nobel in the sciences. 

After receiving the Nobel, Yalow hosted a fivepart dramatic TV series on the life of a famous 

forerunner, Polish-born physical chemist Marie 

Curie. In 1979, she became a distinguished professor 

at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva 

University. She left that post to become the Solomon 

Berson Distinguished Professor-at-Large at the Mt. 

Sinai School of Medicine in 1986. She retired in 1991. 

roughout her years juggling her work as a 

scientist, wife, and mother of two children, Yalow 

was mindful of her standing as a trailblazer for 

women scientists and professionals. She has said, 

“ose of us who have had the good fortune to 

move upward ... must feel a personal responsibility 

to serve as role models and advisors to ease the 

path for those who come afterwards.” And, in her 

Nobel Banquet speech, she reminded those in 

power not to undervalue women’s potential. “e 

world cannot afford the loss of the talents of half 

of its people if we are to solve the many problems 

which beset us,” she said.

Rosalyn Sussman Yalow

Nobel Prize Winner for Physiology or Medicine

Born: July 19, 1921

Dr. Rosalyn Yalow at her Bronx Veterans Administration Hospital, 

October 13, 1977, after learning she was one of three American doctors 

awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine that year. 
29

S

heila C. Johnson is a businesswoman, 

a musician, a philanthropist, and 

reportedly the first African-American 

woman to become a billionaire. She is also 

one of the few women in the United States 

who owns a professional sports team: She 

is president and managing partner of the 

Washington Mystics women’s basketball team. 

Asked about her many achievements by a 

reporter, she answered, “I always had a drive in 

me that desired to be the best that I could be.” 

Johnson was born in Pennsylvania, the 

daughter of a neurosurgeon who instilled 

his love of music in his daughter. Her first 

dream, to become a concert violinist, came 

true when she became concert violinist 

and concertmaster in the Illinois All-State 

Orchestra, and won Illinois’s statewide violin 

competition. After her marriage to Robert 

Johnson, she taught music in Washington, D.C. 

Her Young Strings in Action student orchestra 

was so successful that it was invited to perform in 

Jordan. King Hussein gave her the country’s top 

education award after she helped set up Jordan’s 

first national music conservatory. 

Young Strings in Action also helped pay the 

family’s bills after she and her husband founded 

Black Entertainment Television (BET) — the first 

and only cable TV network focused on AfricanAmerican audiences — in 1980. Sheila Johnson was 

the network’s vice president of corporate affairs and 

developed an award-winning teen talk show, “Teen 

Summit,” which allowed youth to discuss issues 

like illegal drug use and AIDS. She recalls that 

the network faced a lot of problems because of the 

Johnsons’ race. “We had to get advertisers to believe 

that African Americans would buy products.” BET’s 

success and influence, however, was no longer in 

question when the Johnsons sold the company to 

Viacom for about $3 billion in 2000. 

e couple divorced in 2002, after 33 years 

of marriage and two children. Since then, Sheila 

Johnson has launched new business ventures, but 

her primary interest has been philanthropy — 

particularly her international work on the safety of 

children and the opening of cultural opportunities 

and arts training for youth. She has donated 

millions to charities, including the United Negro 

College Fund, the International Center for Missing 

and Exploited Children, several colleges, and the 

Sheila C. Johnson Foundation, which makes it 

possible for poor children to attend college. She 

sits on the board of several organizations and 

philanthropies, including Parsons e New School 

for Design, the Christopher Reeve Foundation, the 

National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, and 

the Sorensen Institute for Political Leadership.

Sheila Crump Johnson

Philanthropist, Entrepreneur, Musician

Born: 1949

Sheila Johnson with General Motors Global Group Vice President Gary 

Cowger, left, and Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Foundation President 

Harry Johnson Sr., right, at the August 22, 2005, launch of the Kids for 

King program marking the 1963 March on Washington. 
30 

Maya Lin became a controversial 

figure at the age of 21, when 

she won first prize in the 

design competition for a Vietnam Veterans 

Memorial in Washington, D.C. She still 

remembers her anger and bitterness when a 

group of veterans denounced her design as “a 

black gash of shame.” at initial criticism, 

however, no longer matters. e memorial 

by the then Yale University architecture 

student has become the most-visited and 

beloved monument in the United States and 

an acknowledged architectural masterpiece. 

Hundreds of thousands of visitors have 

been moved and comforted as they read and 

touched the names of the dead and missing 

inscribed on its V-shaped black granite wall. 

Seeing the visitors, and the mementos they 

leave behind near the names of their loved 

ones, any observer would agree that Lin succeeded 

in her goal: “is memorial is for those who have 

died, and for us to remember.”

Since that first famous project, Lin — born in 

Athens, Ohio, of Chinese immigrant parents — has 

designed many other significant works that often 

combine her skills as an architect and a sculptor. 

Her Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, 

Alabama, in the form of a wall and flat disk over 

which water flows, was inspired by Martin Luther 

King Jr.’s “I have a dream” speech. Lin used water as 

its principal feature, drawing on King’s words: “We 

are not satisfied and we will not be satisfied until 

justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like 

a mighty stream.” e Langston Hughes Library 

in Clinton, Tennessee; the Museum for African 

Art in New York City; a line of furniture for the 

Knoll company called “e Earth Is (Not) Flat”; 

and another memorial, e Women’s Table at Yale 

University, are some of her other works. 

She has won the architecture prize from 

the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the 

Presidential Design Award, and the American 

Institute of Architects Honor Award, as well as 

honorary doctorates in Fine Arts from Harvard, 

Yale, Brown, Smith, and Williams. In 2003, she 

was one of the selection jurors for the World Trade 

Center Site Memorial competition. In 2005, Lin 

was elected to the National Women’s Hall of Fame 

in New York. An award-winning documentary 

about her life, Maya Lin: A Strong, Clear Vision, 

took its title from a speech she gave about the 

monument design process.

In interviews, Lin has said that the Hopewell 

Indian earthen mounds, Japanese raked-sand 

gardens, and the American earthworks artists of 

the 1960s and ‘70s have influenced her creations. 

She always works with the landscape. Concerned 

about the environment, she uses recycled, living, 

and natural materials in many of her works. 

Maya Ying Lin

“A Strong, Clear Vision” 

Born: October 5, 1959

Left, visitors look at the names inscribed on the wall of the Vietnam Veterans 

Memorial in Washington, D.C. Right, Maya Lin in her New York office.
31

About America: WOMEN OF INFLUENCE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

About America: e Constitution of the United States 

of America With Explanatory Notes. Washington, D.C.: 

U.S. Department of State, 2004.

http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/constitution/

About America: How the United States Is Governed. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 2005.

http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/abtamerica/

overview.htm

Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull House: With 

Autobiographical Notes. Dodo Press, 2006.

American Women: A Library of Congress Guide for the 

Study of Women’s History and Culture in the United 

States. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 2001.

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/naw/nawshome.html

Anthony, Susan B., Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Matilda 

Joslyn Gage, and Ida Husted Harper, eds. e History of 

Woman Suffrage. Manchester, NH: Ayer Co. Pub., 1979.

Bly, Nellie. Ten Days in a Mad-House, in Cochrane, Kira, 

Naomi Wolf, and Eleanor Mills. Journalistas: 100 Years 

of the Best Writing and Reporting by Women Journalists. 

New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2005.

Caraway, Hattie and Diane D. Kincaid. Silent Hattie 

Speaks: e Personal Journal of Senator Hattie Caraway. 

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979.

Introduction to Human Rights. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of State, 2001.

http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/hrintro/

hrintro.htm

Mankiller, Wilma Pearl and Michael Wallis. Mankiller: 

A Chief and Her People. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 

1993.

O’Connor, Sandra Day. e Majesty of the Law: 

Reflections of a Supreme Court Justice. New York: 

Random House, 2004.

Outline of American Literature. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of State, 2005.

(http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/oal/oaltoc.htm)

Outline of U.S. Government. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of State, 2000.

http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/outusgov/

Outline of U.S. History. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of State, 2005. http://usinfo.state.gov/

products/pubs/histryotln/index.htm

Painter, Nell Irvin. Sojourner Truth: A Life, a 

Symbol. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.

Principles of Democracy. “e Rights of Women and 

Girls.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 

2005.

http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/principles/

women.htm

“Freedom of Religion”

http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/principles/

religion.htm

Roosevelt, Anna Eleanor. e Autobiography of Eleanor 

Roosevelt. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1992.

Roosevelt, Anna Eleanor. My Day: e Best of Eleanor 

Roosevelt’s Acclaimed Newspaper Columns, 1936-1962. 

Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001.

Shapiro, Bruce, ed. Shaking the Foundations: 200 Years 

of Investigative Journalism in America. New York: 

under’s Mouth Press/Nation Books, 2003.

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. Eighty Years and More: 

Reminiscences 1815-1897. Boston, MA: Northeastern 

University Press, 1992.
32

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. e Woman’s Bible. Amherst, 

NY: Prometheus Books, 1999.

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. Solitude of Self. Ashfield, MA: 

Paris Press, 2000.

WEB SITES

e Adams Papers

http://www.masshist.org/adams_editorial/

Barton, Clara. National Historic Site

http://www.nps.gov/clba/

Barton, Clara. Birthplace Museum

http://www.clarabartonbirthplace.org/

Bly, Nellie. Nellie Bly’s Book: Around the World in 

Seventy-Two Days. New York: e Pictorial Weeklies 

Company, 1890.

http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/bly/world/

world.html

Cherokee History Resources on the Web 

http://cherokeehistory.com/histlink.html

Human Rights

http://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/human_rights.html

International Religious Freedom

http://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/human_rights/intl_

religious_freedom.html

Lin, Maya. Architecture and Sculpture

http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/lin_maya.html.

Lin, Maya. Vietnam Veterans Memorial

http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Vietnam_

Veterans_Memorial.html

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

Mars “Sojourner” Rover

http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/mpf/rover.html

National Women’s Hall of Fame

http://www.greatwomen.org/home.php

Native Americans

http://usinfo.state.gov/scv/history_geography_

and_population/population_and_diversity/native_

americans.html 

Nobel Prize 

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/

laureates/1977/

Smithsonian Museum of the American Indian

http://americanindian.si.edu/ 

Sojourner Truth speeches (Note: ere are several 

renditions of her speeches, since most of them were 

transcribed and edited by others.)

http://www.sojournertruth.org/Library/Speeches/

Default.htm#RIGHTS

Underground Railroad Map

http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/

ugrrmapNE.jpg

e U.S. Mint. Golden Dollar Coin 

http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/index.cfm?flas

h=yes&action=golden_dollar_coin

Women’s Rights

http://usinfo.state.gov/scv/history_geography_and_

population/civil_rights/womens_rights.html

The U.S. Department of State assumes no responsibility 

for the content and availability of the resources from 

other agencies and organizations listed above. All Internet 

links were active as of Fall 2006.
Credits from left to right are separated by semicolons; 

from top to bottom by dashes.

Cover design: by Bryan Kestell with photos from: 

©AP Images (Hattie Caraway; Hull-House; Sandra Day 

O’Connor; Clara Barton; Wilma Mankiller; Sheila Johnson; 

Jane Addams). West Point Museum, United States Military 

Academy (illustration by Herbert Knotel of Margaret 

Corbin). USIA (Eleanor Roosevelt; Rosalyn Yalow). 

©Bettmann/CORBIS (Nellie Bly). National Portrait Gallery, 

Smithsonian Institution; gift of the A.W. Mellon Educational 

and Charitable Trust (Pocahontas). Stock Montage/Getty 

Images (Abigail Adams). ©Huntington Library/SuperStock 

(Susan B. Anthony). Courtesy Harvard University Library 

(Elizabeth Cady Stanton). Library of Congress, Prints 

and Photographs Division (Harriet Tubman). Hulton 

Archives/Getty Images (Sojourner Truth). Cheung Ching 

Ming, courtesy of Many Lin Studio (Maya Lin). Painting 

of Anne Dudley Bradstreet by LaDonna Gulley Warrick. 

Gift of Frederik Meijer ©Public Museum of Grand Rapids 

(Painting by Paul Collins of Harriet Tubman’s Underground 

Railroad). 

Page1: Top row: North Wind Picture Archives; © 1999 

U.S. Mint; ©1999-2002 The Illustrator Archive and New 

World Sciences Corporation; painting by LaDonna Gulley 

Warrick; painting by Benjamin Blythe, 1766; West Point 

Museum, United States Military Academy, illustration 

by Herbert Knotel; Library of Congress, Prints and 

Photographs Division. Second row: Hulton Archives/Getty 

Images; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs 

Division; courtesy Harvard University Library; Library 

of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division (2); ©AP 

Images (2). Third row: ©AP Images (2); USIA; Bettmann/

Corbis; Copyright Nobelstiftelsen; ©AP Images; Cheung 

Ching Ming, courtesy of Maya Lin Studio.

Page 2: North Wind Picture Archives; © 1999 U.S. Mint. 3: 

National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, gift of 

the A.W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust. 4: MPI/

Getty Images. 5: © 1999-2002 The Illustrator Archive and 

New World Sciences Corporation; painting by LaDonna 

Gulley Warrick. 6: North Wind Picture Archives. 7: By 

kind permission of the Vicar and Churchwardens of St. 

Botolph’s Church. 8: portrait by Benjamin Blythe, 1766; 

illustration by Herbert Knotel, West Point Museum, United 

States Military Academy. 9: Stock Montage/Getty Images. 

10: illustration by Herbert Knotel, West Point Museum, 

United States Military Academy. 11: Library of Congress, 

Prints and Photographs Division; Hulton Archives/Getty 

Images. 12: MPI/Getty Images. 13: Hulton Archives/Getty 

Images; gift of Frederik Meijer © Public Museum of Grand 

Rapids. 14: Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division. 

15: courtesy Harvard University Library. 16: © Huntington 

Library/SuperStock. 17: Library of Congress, Manuscripts 

Division; ©AP Images; Photograph No. 208-PU-167G-18PHE 

(Photographer Harris & Ewing) Records of the Office of 

War Information, Record Group 208; National Archives at 

College Park, College Park, MD; ©AP Images (2). 18: FPG/

Getty Images. 19: ©AP Images. 20: United Nations. 21: ©AP 

Images (2). 22: ©AP Images. 23: ©AP Images (2); Bettmann/

Corbis. 24: USIA; Courtesy Washington Mystics; Cheung 

Ching Ming, Courtesy of Maya Lin Studio. 25: ©AP Images 

(3). 26: ©AP Images (2). 27: United States Postal Service. 

28: USIA. 29: ©AP Images. 30: U.S. Department of State, 

Kenneth E. White; ©AP Images.

Executive Editor: George Clack

Managing Editor: Mildred Solá Neely

Art Director/Design: Min-Chih Yao

Writers: Mark Betka, Paul Malamud, 

Chandley McDonald,

Mildred Solá Neely

Photo Research: Maggie Johnson Sliker

Kenneth E. White

Advisor: Historian Susan Ware, editor of Notable 

American Women, A Biographical Dictionary, 

2004

CREDIT:

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE

Bureau of International Information Programs

2006

http://usinfo.state.gov/
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE

Bureau of International Information Programs

http://usinfo.state.gov/