Saving for Retirement: A Look at 

Small Business Owners

A Working Paper by 

Jules H. Lichtenstein 

Office of Advocacy 

U.S. Small Business Administration

 

Release Date: March 2010 

 

The statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations found in this study are those 

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Advocacy, the 

United States Small Business Administration, or the United States government. 
Saving for Retirement: A Look at 

Small Business Owners

A Working Paper by 

Jules H. Lichtenstein 

Office of Advocacy 

U.S. Small Business Administration

 

Release Date: March 2010 

 

The statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations found in this study are those 

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Advocacy, the 

United States Small Business Administration, or the United States government. 
Contents

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................ 5

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 8

Literature Review.............................................................................................................. 11

The Data ............................................................................................................................ 15

Descriptive Analysis of Business Owner Characteristics by Business Size ..................... 18

Socio-Demographic Characteristics .............................................................................. 18

Age, Sex, Race, Origin and Marital Status ............................................................... 18

Educational Attainment ............................................................................................ 18

Veteran and Citizen Status ........................................................................................ 19

Homeownership ........................................................................................................ 19

Metropolitan Location .............................................................................................. 20

Business Characteristics................................................................................................ 21

Legal Form ................................................................................................................ 21

Business Size ............................................................................................................ 21

Home-based .............................................................................................................. 22

Industry Sector .......................................................................................................... 22

Business Age ............................................................................................................. 22

Number of Businesses Owned .................................................................................. 23

Balance Sheet Indicators ........................................................................................... 24

Ownership Tenure and Part-time Status ................................................................... 25

Retirement Plan Options ............................................................................................... 26

IRA Ownership ......................................................................................................... 26

Keogh Ownership ..................................................................................................... 27

IRA or Keogh Ownership ......................................................................................... 28

IRA Contributions ..................................................................................................... 28

401(k)/Thrift Plan Participation ................................................................................ 29

The Multivariate Logit Models ......................................................................................... 30

Hypotheses ........................................................................................................................ 32

Results ............................................................................................................................... 33

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 38

References ......................................................................................................................... 42

Tables ................................................................................................................................ 45

Charts ................................................................................................................................ 52

Appendix: Variable Names, Datasets and Topics ............................................................. 55

3
Tables

Table 1. Maximum IRA Contributions and Deduction Phase-out Ranges by Year, 

1975 - 2010 .........................................................................................................45

Table 2. Business Owners by Size of Business, 2006 ......................................................45

Table 3. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Business Owners by Business Size, 

2006.....................................................................................................................46

Table 4. Characteristics of the Business Owned by Employment Size of Business, 

2006.....................................................................................................................47

Table 5. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Business Owners by Retirement Plan 

Status, 2006 (Percent) .........................................................................................48

Table 6. Characteristics of Businesses Owned by Retirement Plan Status, 2006 .............49

Table 7. Coding of Variables in SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7 ..............................................50

Charts

Chart 1. Expected Probabilities of IRA Ownership by Business Owners .........................54 

Chart 2. Expected Probabilities of Keogh Ownership by Business Owners .....................55 

Chart 3. Expected Probabilities of IRA or Keogh Ownership by Business Owners .........55 

Chart 4. Expected Probabilities of IRA Contributions by Business Owners with IRAs ...56 

Chart 5. Expected Probabilities of 401(k)/Thrift Plan Participation of Business 

Owners ................................................................................................................56 

4
Executive Summary

This paper identifies and fills several gaps in our understanding of the retirement 

savings behavior of business owners and the self-employed. It deals with the retirement 

savings behavior of business owners; most existing research has examined the retirement 

savings behavior of workers and families. It analyzes the relative importance of business 

owner characteristics and characteristics of businesses in determining how business 

owners and the self-employed save for retirement. The paper utilizes data from the U.S. 

Bureau of the Census’s Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 2004 Panel, 

Wave 7. The reference period for the data is the four-month period January 2006 to April 

2006. 

Two basic methods are used in the survey data analysis. First, a descriptive 

analysis of business owner characteristics by business size was performed. These sociodemographic and business characteristics were also analyzed with respect to retirement 

plan options (i.e., Individual Retirement Account (IRA) ownership, Keogh ownership, 

IRA or Keogh ownership, IRA contributions, and 401(k)/Thrift plan participation). Next, 

multivariate logit models were used to isolate the effect of specific socio-economic or 

business characteristics on a business owner’s retirement plan decisions. 

The research divides business owners into two distinct ownership groups based on 

the number of employees that work at a business: micro-business owners who employ 

fewer than 10 workers and owners of larger businesses who employ 10 or more workers. 

Over 91 percent of the 4,922 business owners in the nationally representative sample 

owned a business with less than 10 employees. Conventional wisdom holds that owners 

5
of larger businesses are more successful and more likely to have and contribute to 

retirement saving accounts than micro-business owners. 

The key results of this study suggest some cause for concern about the retirement 

savings plan behavior of business owners. Retirement account ownership, contribution, 

and participation rates for all business owners are low. Individual-based (outside work) 

retirement account ownership, contribution activity and employment-based participation 

(at work) among business owners are low. The IRA ownership rate for business owners is 

only about 36 percent, and only one-third of business owners with an IRA contributed for 

the 2005 tax year. Less than 2 percent of business owners own a Keogh plan. Only about 

18 percent of business owners participate in a 401(k)/Thrift plan. 

 Both business owner characteristics and the characteristics of businesses have a 

significant impact on an owner’s retirement savings decisions. In addition, asset 

accumulation significantly affects owners’ retirement savings behavior. Business owners 

are more likely to own an IRA and participate in a 401(k)/Thrift plan if they own a home 

and participate in other retirement savings accounts. Participation in retirement account 

plans (e.g., an IRA) does not appear to preclude or substitute for owners participating in 

other types of retirement account plans (e.g., 401(k)/Thrift plans). 

In addition, business owners are more likely to own or contribute to retirement 

accounts if they are older, non-minority, educated, and have more established 

business(es) (e.g., larger, older, profitable), and own more than one business. Business 

size is related to 401(k)/Thrift plan participation but not to IRA or Keogh ownership or 

IRA contributions. 

6
Having a micro-business with fewer than 10 employees reduces the probability of an 

owner having a 401(k)/Thrift plan from 17.4 percent to 10 percent, all else equal. Sole 

proprietors and those owners with home-based businesses are less likely to own IRAs or 

participate in 401(k)/Thrift plans 

Being a male business owner reduces the probability of IRA ownership from 35.6 

percent to 31.2 percent, all else equal. However, being male increases the probability of 

a business owner owning a Keogh account and participating in a 401(k)/Thrift plan. 

Hispanic origin significantly reduces the probability of a business owner having an IRA, 

all else equal (from 35.6 percent to 17.6 percent); however, it is not a significant factor in 

determining 401(k)/Thrift plan participation. Being white increases the probability of 

owning an IRA but does not have a significant effect on 401(k)/Thrift plan participation. 

Policy implications of the study’s findings include developing ways that help the 

owners of the smallest businesses, especially home-based businesses and sole 

proprietorships, increase their retirement savings. Developing ways to help minority, 

especially Hispanic, business owners increase their retirement savings is also a policy 

goal suggested by this study’s results. In addition, there is a need to better coordinate 

employer-based retirement accounts with individual-based accounts like IRAs and make 

plans less complex and burdensome, especially for owners of micro-businesses. Future 

research could include analyzing the effect of default provisions on behavior in both 

individual- and employment-based retirement account plan options. 

7
Introduction

Many observers report that Americans do not save enough and that retirement 

savings are especially inadequate. This is said to be the case for households and workers, 

as well as business owners1

 and the self-employed. This paper identifies and fills several 

research gaps in our understanding of the retirement savings behavior of business owners 

and the self-employed. The paper will analyze the relative importance of business owner 

characteristics and characteristics of businesses in determining how business owners and 

the self-employed save for retirement. 

This paper utilizes the U.S. Bureau of the Census’s Survey of Income and 

Program Participation (SIPP) 2004 Panel, Wave 7, which includes special topical 

modules measuring annual income and retirement account status as well as retirement 

expectations and pension plan coverage of workers and business owners. This survey 

asked a wide range of retirement savings questions to a nationally representative sample 

of the U.S. population, including 4,922 business owners, in 2006.2

 This paper deals only 

with the retirement savings behavior of business owners; most existing research has 

examined the retirement savings behavior of workers and families.3

 

1

 The term “business owner” is used interchangeably with the term “self-employed.” 

2

 SIPP 2004 Panel is a longitudinal survey where each sampled household is re-interviewed at four-month 

intervals over a period of roughly four years. One cycle of four interview months covering the same 

sample, using the same questionnaire, is called a “wave.” The sample in each wave consists of four rotation 

groups (one-quarter of sample and each random subsample), each interviewed in a different month. The 

four Wave 7 interview months were from February 2006 to May 2006. The reference period for the 

questions is the four-month period preceding the interview month. This study uses the fourth interview 

month (May 2006); therefore the reference period for the questions is January 2006 to April 2006. Certain 

data pertain to 2005 and will be noted as such. 

3

 For example see the extensive literature available from the Employee Benefit Research Institute (EBRI) 

and the Boston College Center for Retirement Research. 

8
This research further divides business owners into two distinct ownership groups 

based on the number of employees that work at a business: micro-business owners who 

employ fewer than 10 workers and larger business owners who employ 10 or more 

workers. Conventional wisdom holds that owners of larger businesses are more 

successful and more likely to have and contributed to retirement saving accounts than are 

micro-business owners. 

Previewing the findings, the results suggest some cause for concern. Retirement 

account ownership, contribution, and participation rates for business owners are low. The 

Individual Retirement Account (IRA)4

 ownership rate for business owners is only about 

36 percent, and only one-third of business owners with an IRA contributed to one.5 Less 

than 2 percent own a Keogh plan.6 In addition, only about 18 percent participate in a 

401(k)/Thrift plan.7 Overall asset accumulation affects owners’ retirement savings 

behavior. For example, business owners are more likely to own an IRA and participate in 

a 401(k)/Thrift plan if they own a home and participate in other retirement savings 

accounts. 

 

4

 An IRA is the most basic sort of retirement arrangement. IRAs are individual-based retirement plans. 

However, an employer can help its employees set up and fund their IRAs. There are four types of IRAbased plans—Payroll Deduction IRA (which can include a Traditional IRA or a Roth IRA), a SARSEP 

(Salary Reduction Simplified Employee Pension) plan, a SEP (Simplified Employee Pension) plan, and a 

SIMPLE (Savings Incentive Match Plan for Employees) IRA. See 

http://www.irs.gov/retirement/sponsor/article/0,,id=155347,00.html for additional information. 5

 These were tax-deductible IRA contributions during the reference months that applied to their 2005 tax 

return. This is a low estimate since non-deductible IRA contributions could have been made as well. 

6

 Keogh accounts are a tax-preferred account for the self-employed that allow these workers to save money 

for retirement comparable to what can be saved in employment-based retirement plans offered to salaried 

workers (Copeland 2006). 

7

 A 401(k) plan is an employment-based qualified plan in which an employee can elect to have the 

employer contribute a portion of the employee’s cash wages to the plan on a pre-tax basis. There are 

several types of 401(k) plans available to employers—traditional 401(k) plans, safe harbor 401(k) plans, 

and SIMPLE 401(k) plans. SIMPLE plans were created so that small businesses could have an effective, 

cost efficient way to offer retirement benefits to their employees and is not subject to annual discrimination 

tests. See http://www.irs.gov/retirement/sponsor/article/0,,id=151800,00.html for additional information. A 

Thrift plan is a type of employee savings plan under which an employee may contribute up to a specified 

percentage of salary on a pre-tax basis and the employer matches the employee's contribution up to a 

specified percentage. 

9
Business owners are more likely to own tax-deferred IRAs if they are older, 

female, white, non-Hispanic, better educated, and married. Women are more likely than 

men to own an IRA, while men are more likely to own Keogh accounts and participate in 

401(k)/Thrift plans. 

Business characteristics significantly affect a business owner’s retirement savings 

decisions. For example, business size does not significantly affect an owner’s individualbased (outside work) retirement savings behavior (i.e., IRA or Keogh), but has a 

significant effect on an owner’s employment-based (at work) savings choices.8 

Specifically, having a business with fewer than 10 employees reduces the probability of 

an owner having a 401(k)/Thrift plan from 17.4 percent to 10.0 percent, all else equal. 

Sole proprietors and home-based businesses are less likely to own IRAs or participate in 

401(k)/Thrift plans. 

This paper is organized as follows. First, it discusses some of the relevant 

research on business owners and retirement savings behavior. Both workers and business 

owners have low rates of retirement plan participation, and policymakers are concerned 

workers and owners may have inadequate resources to maintain their pre-retirement 

standard of living in retirement. The next section will highlight various patterns within 

the SIPP data set. These will permit a better understanding of the data and help generate 

hypotheses for a model. Next, a series of multivariate logit regressions will determine the 

model that best explains the determinants of retirement plan savings behavior of business 

 

8 An IRA, which is an individual-based plan, allows a person whether covered by an employer-sponsored 

retirement plan or not to save for retirement on a tax-deferred basis. Employer-based (sponsored) plans 

require that employees also be offered participation in the plan. Specifically, ERISA requires a 401(k) plan 

be made available to all and not just highly paid employees. In addition, other types of retirement plans, 

e.g., SIMPLE and Keogh plans, require that employees be allowed to participate in the plan.

10
owners and the self-employed in terms of the ownership of individual-based retirement 

plans (e.g., IRA and Keogh accounts), and employer-based retirement plans (e.g., 

401(k)/Thrift plans). The model will also examine key determinants of IRA 

contributions by business owners. The final section will tie together the analytic findings 

and discuss how these findings might be useful, particularly to those grappling with ways 

to increase the retirement income security of business owners and the self-employed. 

Literature Review

Before discussing retirement savings accounts and plans themselves, it is useful to 

have a sense of our nation’s retirement income system. This system can be thought of as 

a three-legged stool (Munnell and Sunden 2006).9

 The foundation is Social Security, 

which provides almost three-quarters of the retirement income for the typical household. 

But Social Security for several reasons will replace a lower percentage of pre-retirement 

earnings in the future than it does today.10 A second leg is private savings accumulated 

in a variety of forms (e.g., bank accounts, mutual funds, retirement savings accounts) 

(Butrica et al. 2003/2004). A third leg is employer-sponsored pension plans. Research 

shows that only half the work force is covered by an employer-sponsored pension plan 

and that this percent has not changed for almost three decades. Seventy-one percent of 

firms with fewer than 25 workers do not sponsor a retirement plan (GAO 2009). A large 

proportion of the uncovered are employed in small businesses and they are also the self-

 

9

 Some would add a fourth leg – earnings. 

10 A key reason is that the normal retirement age at which a worker is entitled to full benefits is rising. At 

the same time researchers estimate Social Security will pay higher real benefits over the next three decades 

which reflects the much higher earnings history of post-depression birth cohorts compared to those born in 

the 1920-1940 period (Butrica et al. 2003/2004). 

11
employed. Only 19.5 percent of workers in small private firms with fewer than 100 

workers report participating in a retirement plan (Kobe 2010). According to Copeland 

(2009), there are over 9 million self-employed individuals without retirement plan 

coverage. 

 De Vaney and Chiremba (2005), using data from the 2001 Survey of Consumer 

Finances (SCF), find that the self-employed were less likely to hold a retirement account 

than those who were wage-and-salary workers. They postulate that self-employed people 

are less likely to save for retirement in a tax-deferred retirement savings option because 

they prefer to have access to their assets for their business. Some owners intend to sell 

their business in order to retire (De Vaney et al. 1998). 

In a study comparing retirement plan participation of the self-employed and 

wage-and-salary workers De Vaney and Chien (2001) found that both self-employed and 

wage-and-salary workers who were white, with higher income, and had a graduate 

degree, were more likely to participate in a formal retirement plan than their counterparts 

who were nonwhite, with less income and education. 

Older self-employed individuals are much less likely than wage-and-salary 

workers to have pensions or retirement plans on their current job. According to 

Zissimopoulos and Karoly (2007), older self-employed workers are much less likely to 

hold pension assets than their wage-and-salary counterparts. Data from the Health and 

Retirement Study (HRS) indicate that 60.8 percent of wage-and-salary workers aged 51 

and above had a pension on their current job compared with 9.9 percent of the selfemployed. The proportion of the self-employed with defined contribution (DC) plans 

was significantly higher than that of wage-and-salary workers. 

12
When an individual becomes a business owner or self-employed can significantly 

affect retirement plan ownership and contributions. Examining self-employment after 

age 50, Karoly and Zissimopoulos (2004) found that workers who became self-employed 

at age 50 or after had lower income and wealth than those who became self-employed 

prior to age 50. One exception was that the group who entered self-employment before 

age 50 had higher wealth in IRA and Keogh accounts as a result of rollovers of prior DC 

accounts. 

Researchers and policymakers have used various approaches ranging from 

psychological theory to tax and regulatory analysis to explain variation in retirement 

savings behavior among workers, business owners, firms, and families. According to 

some, the absence of pension plans in firms, especially small businesses, reflects many 

factors, especially the complexity of pension tax law—the overwhelming number of rules 

and regulations applying to pension and savings plans (Orszag and Greenstein 2001). 

Findings from the EBRI 2003 Small Business Employer Survey indicate a range of 

reasons why many firms do not offer pensions. Forty-one percent of employers listed 

business-related reasons (uncertain revenues—27 percent; business too new/too small—

14 percent); 27 percent cited employee-related reasons (workers not interested—12 

percent; too much goes to short-term workers—12 percent; and workers prefer cash 

wages—3 percent). Twenty-five percent indicated cost/administrative reasons (costs too 

much to set up and administer or administration is too burdensome—19 percent; required 

company contributions are too expensive—6 percent). Six percent cited other reasons 

(not interested/no need—4 percent; employees benefit through spouse’s work—2 

percent). Employers indicated the main reason for sponsoring a plan would be an increase 

13
in business profits (EBRI 2003). A small business employer survey from 2000 included 

other owner-related reasons including that the benefits for the owner are too small (3 

percent), and the owner has his/her own deferred compensation arrangement (2 percent) 

(EBRI 2000). Therefore, it would appear that owner-related issues are relatively minor 

deterrents to the creation of retirement plans in small businesses. 

Another factor affecting future pension coverage is the increasing contribution 

limits to IRAs. With these limits, the small business owner may not see the need for a 

company pension plan and may drop such as plan (or decide not to establish one in the 

first place) (Orzsag and Greenstein 2001). Under current law in 2010, a small business 

owner and his or her spouse can deposit a total of $10,000 into their IRAs this year, (plus 

$2,000 if they are over age 50) (Table 1). 

The lack of pension coverage for a significant portion of the workforce has been 

recognized as a serious problem for a long time. The designers of the Employee 

Retirement income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) sought to partially address this issue 

by establishing IRA accounts outside the employer-based system. There is a current 

debate about whether IRAs have actually expanded pension coverage (Munnell and 

Sunden 2001). 

In addition, there are many theories of savings behavior. One major theory 

frequently used to explain why people save is the “life cycle model.” Under this model, 

people would be expected to save during their working careers, and then deplete their 

assets in retirement (Korczyck 1998). The model can be used to explain why less 

educated people save less than those with more education. 

14
Other models are based on psychological theories which focus on behavior 

patterns rather than assuming the individual is trying to achieve an optimal pattern of 

lifetime consumption (Korcyzck 1998). One perspective in this vein is that individuals 

have different “tastes for saving.” Those with higher “tastes” are more likely to save and 

accumulate assets in numerous different ways—homeownership, retirement plans, 

business investment, etc. In addition, an individual’s response to retirement savings 

options may be affected by the type of retirement plan available (e.g., defined benefit 

versus defined contribution plans (Smith 1998). Another relevant psychological factor is 

the relative “spendability” of various types of income. This theory holds that the easier a 

person finds it to access certain types of income, the more likely the income is to be spent 

(Korczyck 1998). Psychological and behavioral models are also the basis of current 

efforts to make retirement contributions “opt-out,” i.e., the default, through automatic 

IRAs and 401(k)s (GAO 2009).11

Further analysis of the issues raised in the literature is needed in order to more 

fully understand retirement savings behavior of business owners and develop approaches 

to help increase retirement income security owners of small and large companies and 

their workers. This is particularly important for micro-businesses given that they create a 

significant share of net new jobs in the U.S. economy. 

The Data

We use the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) 2004 Panel to analyze 

the retirement plan behavior of business owners and the self-employed. The SIPP is a 

 

11 The auto-IRA would be set up as a default retirement plan in which a percentage of salary is deducted by 

an employer and automatically invested unless an employee chooses to opt out. 

15
national survey of approximately 45,000 households (including almost 93,000 

individuals) conducted by the Census Bureau. SIPP is a longitudinal survey where each 

sampled household is re-interviewed at four-month intervals over a period of roughly 

four years. One cycle of four interview months covering the same sample, using the same 

questionnaire, is called a “wave.” 

The sample in each wave consists of four nearly equal random subsamples, called 

rotation groups, each interviewed in a different month. SIPP includes a core survey as 

well as topical modules that focus on areas of special interest. Data analyzed here are 

from the core and two topical modules—the Annual Income and Retirement Account 

Topical Module and the Retirement Expectations and Pension Plan Coverage Topical 

Module included in Wave 7. Core questions are repeated at each interview over the life 

of the panel. Topical module questions are asked only in certain waves.12 The reference 

period for the questions is the four-month period preceding the interview month. The 

four Wave 7 interview months were from February 2006 to May 2006. This study uses 

the fourth interview month (May 2006); therefore the reference period for the questions is 

January 2006 through April 2006. Certain data pertain to 2005 and will be noted as such. 

SIPP’s Annual Income and Retirement Account Topical Module includes 

questions IRA and Keogh ownership and contributions. In addition to basic sociodemographic and business characteristics information, the core survey includes questions 

on whether the business owner had an IRA or Keogh plan and whether the owner 

participated in a 401(k)/Thrift plan (Appendix Table 1).13 As noted earlier there are 

 

12 There are 12 waves in the SIPP 2004 Panel. 

13 The retirement account variables (IRA, Keogh, and 401(k)/Thrift plan) in the SIPP have not been edited 

and contain various non-responses including “not answered,” “don’t know,” and “refused.” Only those 

owners who answered the question “yes” or “no” were included in this analysis. 

16
several types of IRAs, and that the IRA contribution data reported here include only taxdeductible contributions to traditional IRAs.14 The same is true for Keogh plans. IRA 

contributions pertain to those applied to an owner’s 2005 tax return. 

This study therefore analyzes the factors influencing IRA ownership and 

contributions.15 SIPP also contains information on the size of businesses owned by 

individuals, provided they owned it during the reference period. 

 This section will discuss observed patterns in the SIPP data that will assist us in 

developing a model for predicting a business owner’s decision to own and contribute to a 

retirement savings plan. Tables 3 through 6 compare characteristics of business owners 

by business size to identify significant differences. From these patterns it is possible to 

identify important factors associated with retirement savings plan behavior of business 

owners using a multivariate logit model. Results from those models will be presented in 

the next section. 

 Note that there are 4,922 observations for business owners in the sample (Table 

2). Over 91 percent of these owners could be classified as “micro-business” because 

their firms have fewer than 10 employees. Weighted, this sample represents almost 16.1 

million owners.16

 

14 The SIPP data only deals with DC tax-deferred Keogh plans. Likewise, SIPP only asks about taxdeferred traditional IRAs, not Roth IRAs. For example, the data reported here on IRA contributions does 

not include nondeductible contributions to Roth (tax-free on withdrawal) IRAs. 

15 Census’s DataFerrett system was used to extract and analyze the SIPP data. See Appendix Table 1. 16 This analysis only deals with an owner’s main business. Business owners may own multiple businesses. 

The Census Bureau top-coded the firm size variable for business owners in the public use SIPP database at 

50 or more workers. Further, it is not possible to identify non-employer firms, i.e., firms with no employees 

other than the owner. 

17
Descriptive Analysis of Business Owner Characteristics by Business Size

Socio-Demographic Characteristics 

Age, Sex, Race, Origin and Marital Status 

Overall, business owners tend to be older, male, white, and married. Compared to 

the owners of larger businesses, micro-business owners, defined as those owning 

businesses with fewer than 10 employees, tend to be younger, i.e., under age 35, female, 

Hispanic, and non-married (Table 3). Owners of larger businesses, i.e., with 10 or more 

employees, are more likely than owners of micro-businesses to be male, 35 to 49 years 

old (i.e., in their prime working years), and married. Owners of larger businesses are 

slightly more likely to be white than micro-business owners. 

The fact that women represent a higher proportion of micro-business owners than 

men may reflect the fact the self-employment rate for women shows a proportional 

increase over the last 35 years compared with men’s self-employment (Gurley-Calvez et 

al. 2009) and the number of women-owned businesses has been growing at a faster rate 

than the number of U.S. businesses overall (SBA 2006). 

Educational Attainment 

Micro-business owners have significantly lower education levels than owners of 

larger businesses (Table 3). One-third of micro-business owners have only a high school 

education or less compared with about 23 percent of owners of larger businesses. Over 

42 percent of owners of larger business have a bachelor’s degree or higher compared to 

less than one-third of micro-business owners. 

18
This difference in education level supports the notion that self-employment 

provides an avenue for entrepreneurs who might drop out of school to pursue a business 

interest. This may reflect the fact that some younger business owners are running their 

businesses part-time even while they are going to school. Likewise, owners of larger 

businesses with more education are likely to develop businesses requiring high levels of 

technologies, specialized knowledge, and professional skills. 

Veteran and Citizen Status 

Micro-business owners appear more likely to have veteran status than owners of 

larger businesses. This result conforms to Census data from the 2002 Survey of Business 

Owners which shows a higher proportion of respondent firms with veteran owners having 

fewer than 10 employees than is the case in all firms (SBA 2007). The fact that veteranowned businesses are more likely to be micro-businesses may reflect the fact that 

veterans tend to be older, and owners age 50 and older represent a slightly higher 

proportion of micro-business owners than owners of larger businesses. 

There appears to be little difference in citizenship status between micro-business 

owners and larger business owners. This is unexpected given that immigrants are highly 

likely to start very small businesses because they can have significant difficulty entering 

the wage-and-salary part of the labor market. 

Homeownership 

Homeownership can be a significant factor affecting business startup as well as 

retirement planning and savings behavior. Homeownership is often viewed as a proxy for 

19
wealth and is the single most important family asset, but also accounts for the single 

largest share of debt. In the retirement saving context, owning a home can also be an 

owner’s major retirement asset and may affect retirement savings behavior. Indeed many 

new and existing business owners utilize equity in their homes to start new ventures or 

for cash flow to their businesses. It is also possible that business owners view their 

business rather than their home as their main retirement asset. Businesses sold at the 

owner’s retirement are subject to taxation at the capital gains rate. Because this rate may 

be lower than the owner’s income tax rate in the years prior to the business’s sale, 

investing in a business rather than a retirement plan could allow an owner to reduce the 

impact of taxation while still accumulating a retirement fund (De Vaney et al. 1998) 

 Owners of larger businesses with 10 or more workers are much more likely to be 

homeowners than owners of micro-businesses (Table 3). This may reflect the greater 

success of a larger business which can generate income for home purchases. It may also 

reflect age differences by business size. The fact that almost 88 percent of larger business 

owners are over age 35 compared to only 84 percent of micro-business owners probably 

has an effect on the differential homeownership rate. 

Korczyk (1998) points out an important link between saving behavior, 

homeownership and net worth—homeowners appear to save more than renters even after 

the asset value of the home is considered. 

Metropolitan Location 

 Owners of larger business are more likely to live in metropolitan areas than 

micro-business owners. This may reflect the fact that metropolitan areas present greater 

20
opportunities for business growth than non-metropolitan areas do, such as easier access to 

capital and a larger market for goods and services. In addition, there is probably more 

business competition in metropolitan areas, forcing business owners to either expand 

their business or risk failure and bankruptcy. 

Business Characteristics17

Legal Form 

 As expected, micro-business owners are less likely to own their business as either 

a corporation or a partnership than are owners of larger businesses. Over 36 percent of 

larger business owners have an incorporated venture compared to only about 15 percent 

of micro-business owners (Table 4). Almost 72 percent of micro-businesses are sole 

proprietorships compared to about 42 percent of larger businesses. Legal form of 

business can have implications for the type of retirement plan that a business can 

participate in and also affects the type and availability of retirement plans for an owner’s 

employees.18

Business Size19

 The size of a firm owned by a business owner has implications for the retirement 

plan behavior of the owner. The smaller the business the more likely the owner is to own 

an individual account retirement plan on his or her own and the less likely the owner is to 

 

17 The business characteristics refer to the business an owner designates as the main business; other 

businesses are not analyzed here. 

18 For example, Keogh plans are intended for unincorporated businesses. 19 As noted earlier, the Census Bureau top-coded the firm size variable for business owners in the public 

use database at 50 or more workers. 

21
establish an employer-based plan. Self-employed owners without employees are likely to 

set up a Keogh plan (which allowed deferral of up to $49,000 in 2009). 

 Home-based 

 Micro-business owners are significantly more likely to have home-based 

operations than are owners of larger businesses. Over 64 percent of micro-business 

owners have a business that is home-based compared to only about 21 percent of larger 

business owners. Having a home-based business can also be a significant benefit to 

homeowners who deduct office expenses from their mortgage payments; they can also 

receive other benefits from operating out of the house, including reduced transportation 

and commuting costs. However, the home office tax deductions that are taken may 

eventually reduce the equity value of the home which in turn can reduce the value of 

home assets and therefore wealth for retirement. 

Industry Sector 

A higher proportion of micro-business owners have businesses in the goodsproducing sector than large business owners (Table 4). This is an unexpected finding and 

may reflect the impact of including the agricultural sector as a goods-producing 

industry.20

 

Business Age 

As expected, large business owners operate enterprises that are older than those of 

micro-business owners. Over 80 percent of larger businesses are over three years old 

 

20 A goods-producing industry is defined here as agriculture, mining, manufacturing and construction. 

22
compared to about 70 percent of micro-business owners (Table 4). Data indicate that 

seven out of 10 new employer firms last for at least two years, and about half survive five 

years (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1977-2005). 

 An older business probably signifies that the business is viable and may produce 

sufficient revenues and profits so that the business owner has more of an opportunity to 

invest in retirement savings as well as in the business. In addition, a more stable business 

can also employ workers with longer tenure who eventually expect better employee 

benefits including retirement savings plans. An owner will probably need to provide 

these benefits in order to retain productive workers. Business owners use benefits to help 

hire and retain productive high-quality workers which can lead to additional job creation. 

Number of Businesses Owned 

 There is very little difference between micro-business owners and larger business 

owners in terms of the total number of businesses owned by an owner. About 92 percent 

of both categories of owners owned only one business (Table 4). 

 Multiple business ownership would probably signify increased success of a 

business owner and could indicate an owner’s desire to diversify business activities. This 

could help reduce exposure to fluctuating and volatile markets. Multiple business 

ownership could also signify that the business owner is using resources aggressively to 

invest in other businesses rather than to invest in retirement savings accounts. Also, the 

total size of all businesses owned may affect a business owner’s retirement plan behavior 

since benefit decisions may be made on the basis of the characteristics of the total 

businesses owned. 

23
Balance Sheet Indicators 

There are several ways to examine the health of the business’s balance sheet and 

therefore the financial wherewithal of the business owner. Several different business 

activity and health measures are included in the analysis. They are: total business 

expenses, monthly income earned from the business, and whether the business owner 

experienced a net profit or loss.21

 As expected, a higher proportion of owners of larger businesses reported total 

expenses of $10,000 or more than did micro-business owners. Over 81 percent of owners 

of larger businesses reported expenditures at this level compared to only about 69 percent 

of micro-business owners (Table 4). 

 Owners of larger businesses are also likely to have much higher monthly earned 

income from their business than micro-business owners—over 38 percent of the former 

reported monthly earnings of $6,000 or more compared to only about 17 percent of 

micro-business owners. 

 Owners of larger businesses are much less likely to report that they had a net 

profit compared to owners of micro-businesses. Almost 43 percent of micro-business 

owners reported a net profit in their owner’s share compared to only about 23 percent of 

larger business owners. Profitability is an important determinant of a business owner’s 

decision to own an individual-based retirement savings account and as well as the 

 

21 Total business expenses are for 2005. Note that the SIPP question was “what was the owner’s share of 

net profit or loss”? Net profit or loss is the difference between gross receipts and expenses during the 

reference period. Prior to the 2004 Panel, the variable referred to the entire net profit or loss of the 

business, while for 2004, it refers to the person’s share of the net profit or loss of the business. 

24
business’s ability to offer an employer-based retirement plan to its owner(s) and 

worker(s). 

Ownership Tenure and Part-time Status 

 The length of time a business owner has operated his or her business is a 

fundamental indicator of the stability and success of the business as well as a possible 

factor in determining an owner’s proclivity and ability to invest in retirement savings 

accounts. High ownership tenure would give a business owner a better idea of the future 

prospects of a business and allow for longer range business planning as well as personal 

financial planning. This could lead to establishing retirement accounts and contributions 

to these accounts. Larger business owners are more likely than micro-business owners to 

have worked in the business from 10 to 25 years—48 percent compared to 43 percent, 

respectively (Table 4).22 Micro-business owners are much more likely than owners of 

larger businesses to have worked in the business for less than 10 years—57 percent 

versus 52 percent, respectively. 

 As expected, owners of larger businesses are much more likely than microbusiness owners to work at the business full-time, i.e., 35 hours per week or more (Table 

4). Over 84 percent of larger business owners work at their business full-time, compared 

to only about 69 percent of micro-business owners. 

 

 

22 The tenure question is defined in years or months. We discuss this variable in terms of years. 

25
Retirement Plan Options 

IRA Ownership 

 Business owners who own an IRA in their own name appear more likely to be 

older, white, non-Hispanic and married (Table 5). IRA owners are likely to have 

significantly higher education levels than non-owners. Almost 54 percent of those 

owners with at least a bachelor’s degree own an IRA; less than 19 percent of those with a 

high school education or less own one. Owners who are veterans are more likely to have 

an IRA than owner non-veterans—37.6 percent versus 34.2 percent, respectively. As 

expected, business owners who are also homeowners are significantly more likely to own 

an IRA than non-homeowners—39.3 versus 12.2 percent, respectively (although there is 

little difference in IRA contribution behavior between homeowners and non-homeowners 

with IRAs). In addition, owners living in metropolitan areas are more likely to own an 

IRA than those owners living elsewhere. 

 In terms of business characteristics outlined in Table 6, IRA owners are more 

likely to own corporations than sole proprietorships and partnerships. They are also 

much more likely to own larger businesses than micro-businesses—48.3 percent versus 

33.1 percent. They are more likely not to be home-based and to own businesses in the 

services sector than the goods-producing sector and they are more likely to have owned 

their business for three years or more. Owners of two or more businesses are more likely 

to own an IRA than an owner of a single business—43.9 versus 33.5 percent, 

respectively. They are also more likely to have a net loss and higher total business 

expenses. Those with high total business expenses tended to own IRAs—almost 48 

percent of those owners with expenses of $10,000 or more per month had an IRA 

26
compared to only 24.2 percent with expenses of less than $5,000. Also owners with high 

monthly income earned from the business owned an IRA—almost 57 percent of those 

owners earning $6,000 or more per month had a IRA compared to only 29.1 percent 

earning less than $3,000 monthly from the business. Owners who have been with the 

business for over 10 years are more likely to have IRAs than owners with shorter tenure. 

Likewise, owners who are full-time are more likely to have an IRA than part-time 

owners. 

Keogh Ownership 

 The Keogh ownership rate compared to the IRA ownership rate is relatively 

low—less than 2 percent (Table 5). Even with this low overall rate, a consistent 

demographic pattern of Keogh ownership a (very similar to the pattern for IRA 

ownership) among business owners emerges. Keogh owners tend to be older, male, nonHispanic, and married. Owners with higher education are more likely to have Keogh 

plans. Also, homeowners and business owners with a metropolitan residence own Keogh 

plans. 

 In terms of business characteristics, there is little difference in Keogh ownership 

by legal form of business (Table 6). Keogh owners are less likely to have a home-based 

business and be in the goods-producing sector. They are more likely to own a larger, 

older business and have had a net loss during the reference period. In addition, they are 

more likely to have longer tenure with their business and work full-time in the company. 

27
IRA or Keogh Ownership 

 The patterns for IRA or Keogh ownership are similar to those for IRA ownership 

given the low rate of Keogh ownership. Owners of larger business appear to be much 

more likely than owners of micro-businesses to own an IRA or Keogh plan—57.2 percent 

versus 37.6 percent.

IRA Contributions 

 Business owners with an IRA who made tax-deductible contributions to their IRA 

(that were applied to their 2005 tax return) are likely to be over 35 years old and 

nonwhite (Table 5). They are also likely to be married. Owners with a bachelor’s 

degree and higher are more likely to have contributed to their IRA account for tax year 

2005 than those with a lower education level. Veteran owners appear to be less likely to 

contribute. Unlike the pattern for IRA ownership, there is little difference in IRA 

contribution behavior between those business owners having and not having a home. 

Those owners living in metropolitan areas are more likely to make an IRA contribution 

than those living outside a metropolitan area. 

In terms of business characteristics (Table 6), business owners who establish 

corporations are more likely to make tax-deductible contributions to an IRA than owners 

who are sole proprietors and partners—39.3 percent (of business owners with IRAs) 

versus 31.9 percent and 33.9 percent, respectively. Likewise, owners of larger businesses 

are much more likely than micro-business owners to make an IRA contribution—40.0 

percent (of business owners with IRAs) versus 33.0 percent. Those owners with a homebased business are less likely to be an IRA contributor, while those with a business in the 

28
service sector are more likely to contribute. Owners of older businesses are likely to 

contribute as are owners of more than one business. Those with monthly earned income 

of $6,000 or more from the business are more likely to contribute than those earning less 

than $3,000 per month, as are those owners with total business expenses of $10,000 or 

more. In addition, those with long business tenure—10 years or more—are more likely 

to make an IRA contribution than owners who have been with their business less than 10 

years. Full-time owners are more likely to make an IRA contribution than part-time 

owners. 

401(k)/Thrift Plan Participation 

 The previous discussion has dealt with business owner retirement savings 

behavior in individual-based retirement plans—IRA and Keogh accounts. The following 

discussion focuses on business owner retirement savings behavior in employer-based 

plans, specifically, 401(k)/Thrift plans.23

 Many of the patterns in business owner retirement savings behavior for 

individual-based and employer-based retirement plans are similar. There are a few 

differences, for instance, male owners are more likely to participate in a 401(k)/Thrift 

plan than women owners—19.4 versus 15.5 percent, respectively (Table 5). This was not 

the pattern evident with respect to individual-based plans. On the whole, with respect to 

other socio-demographic variables, the pattern between individual-based plan behavior 

and employer-based plan behavior is very similar. In terms of business characteristics, 

the patterns are also very similar for individual- and employer-based plans, except with 

 

23 As noted earlier, employer-based retirement plans are legally required to offer participation to employees 

of a business. Also, certain non-discrimination rules must be met so that plan benefits are equitably 

distributed among highly- and non-highly compensated individuals. 

29
respect to the business tenure variable, where an owner’s tenure in a business makes little 

difference in terms of the owner participating in a 401(k)/Thrift plan. Again, owners of 

larger businesses are much more likely than micro-business owners to participate in a 

401(k)/Thrift plan—38.5 percent versus 16.1 percent. 

The Multivariate Logit Models

Descriptive tabulations are not able to isolate the effect of specific sociodemographic or business characteristics (e.g., firm size) on a business owner’s retirement 

plan decisions. To measure the effect of each characteristic while holding other 

characteristics constant we estimated a binary (meaning two outcomes) logistic model. 

The model is estimated for individual-based retirement plans (IRAs and Keogh plans) 

and employer-based retirement plans (401(k)/Thrift plans). The purpose of the model is 

to assess how the initial probability of a retirement plan decision would change with a 

specific characteristic, holding all other characteristics constant. The model is used to 

predict the expected probabilities of a retirement plan decision by an individual business 

owner, holding all other characteristics constant. 

This approach will estimate five separate distinct retirement plan models: 1) 

owning an IRA, 2) owning a Keogh plan, 3) owning an IRA or a Keogh plan, 4) 

contributing to an IRA, and 5) participating in a 401(k) or Thrift plan. The purpose of 

constructing different models for different types of tax-deferred retirement accounts is to 

measure the effect of a specific owner characteristic, business characteristic, and other 

30
retirement savings options on the participation in different types of tax-deferred 

retirement accounts. Business size is included as an independent dummy variable in the 

set of business characteristics to measure the effect of size holding all other 

characteristics constant. 

It is assumed that retirement plan behavior of a business owner or self-employed 

person can be estimated using the following function. A set of logistic regressions is 

defined in the following terms: 

Ri = αi + β1 Di + β Bi + β Ai+ εi 

Where R = ownership, participation, or contribution to a specific tax-deferred 

retirement plan i (IRA, Keogh, IRA or Keogh, 401(k)/Thrift plan) under 

consideration 

D = a vector of several socio-demographic characteristics for each 

business owner 

B = a vector of business and work characteristics related to each owner’s 

business 

A = a vector of related tax-deferred retirement plan options for business 

owners (IRA, Keogh, IRA or Keogh, 401(k)/Thrift plan) not included as 

the dependent variable24

εi = the model error term.

 

24 The following retirement variables are included as independent variables with each tax-deferred 

retirement plan option dependent variable (see Table 7): dependent variable—IRA ownership (independent 

variables: Keogh ownership and 401(k)/Thrift plan participation); dependent variable—Keogh ownership 

(independent variables: IRA ownership and 401(k)/Thrift plan participation); dependent variable—IRA or 

Keogh ownership (independent variable: 401(k)/Thrift plan participation); dependent variable—IRA 

contribution (independent variables: Keogh ownership and 401(k)/Thrift plan participation); dependent 

variable—401(k)/Thrift plan participation (independent variable: IRA or Keogh ownership).

31
The dependent variable for each model is ownership of a tax-deferred retirement account 

plan, and is coded as a dummy (See Table 7).25 The dependent and independent 

variables in each model are listed in Table 7. The SIPP 2004 Panel variable names, 

datasets, and topics selected from the public use files available in DataFerrett are 

outlined in Appendix Table 1. 

Hypotheses

 We expect the regression outcomes to partially reflect results predicted by savings 

models (e.g., “life-cycle”) especially with respect to the socio-demographic 

characteristics of owners, such as age and education, but also to reflect the 

characteristics of the businesses owned, and the involvement of owners in other 

retirement savings plan options. There is also the possibility that business owners’ 

psychological behavior, e.g., their “taste for saving” could be a factor. This might be 

surmised indirectly by examining the extent and diversity of asset accumulation. The 

expected finding based on the previous descriptive analysis of the data is that business 

owners are more likely to invest in a retirement savings plan if they are older, have more 

assets and higher earnings and if their business is older, larger, and more established. It 

is also hypothesized that participation in an individual-based retirement plan (e.g., an 

IRA) does not necessarily preclude, and does not substitute for, business owners 

participating in other types of retirement plans—especially employment-based plans. 

 

 

25 STATA/SE was used to produce the logit regressions. The STATA/SE logit regression procedure 

automatically drops variables because of collinearity. The odds ratios (i.e., Exp(β) defined as the 

exponential of coefficients) generated by STATA/SE were converted into expected probabilities using the 

following method: Expected Probability = Exp(β)*Initial Odds/(1+ Exp(β)*Initial Odds), where Initial 

Odds = Initial Probability/(1-Initial Probability). (Verma 2004). 

32
Results

Charts 1 through 5 show the results from the logistic models. The proportion of 

all business owners with a specific type of retirement plan (IRA, Keogh, 401(k)/Thrift) is 

the initial proportion, or initial probability. This is the expected probability of 

participating in or contributing to a plan (i.e., prior to estimating the logistic model) if 

someone had no knowledge of the business owner’s or the business’s characteristics. The 

model’s results indicate that individual-based retirement account ownership, contribution 

activity, as well as employment-based account participation among business owners are 

low. The initial probability of a business owner having an IRA is 35.6 percent, owning a 

Keogh is 1.8 percent, owning either an IRA or a Keogh is 40.9 percent. The initial 

probability of a business owner with an IRA making a tax-deductible IRA contribution 

(applied to their 2005 tax return) is 33.5 percent, and having a 401(k)/Thrift plan is 17.4 

percent.26

For the most part the results support the earlier tables and the general thrust of this 

paper. Only the “best fit” models are presented here, with only the significant explanatory 

variables shown (each variable is significant at either the 95 or 90 percent level). The 

following trends can be ascertained from Charts 1 through 5: 

• Overall asset accumulation, i.e., homeownership and participation in other 

retirement savings accounts, is the most significant factor affecting IRA 

 

26 These initial probabilities presented in Charts 1 through 5 may differ from those percentages presented in 

Tables 5 and 6 due to elimination of records with missing values by the STATA/SE statistical package in 

the analysis. The tables were produced using DataFerrett. 

33
account ownership and 401(k)/Thrift plan participation. Home ownership 

increases the probability of owning an IRA from 35.6 percent to 63 percent, all 

else equal. 401(k)/Thrift plan participation and Keogh ownership appears 

positively and strongly correlated with IRA behavior, increasing the probability 

of IRA ownership to over 60 percent. In addition, owning an IRA or Keogh 

account increases an owner’s probability of participating in a 401(k)/Thrift plan 

from 17.4 percent to 50.3 percent. Therefore, participation in one type of 

retirement plan (e.g., an IRA) does not appear to preclude or substitute for 

owners participating in other types of retirement plans (e.g., 401(k)/Thrift 

plans).

It is difficult from the data to measure how much of this effect is the result 

of prior defined contribution plan rollovers into the business owner’s IRA 

account or 401(k)/Thrift plan. However, this result is consistent with other 

findings that workers with pensions are more likely to have IRAs (Smith 1998). 

As observed earlier, one possible explanation is that workers with a defined 

contribution plan (i.e., a 401(k)/Thrift plan or Keogh plan) are more likely to 

own an IRA, if they have a higher taste for saving in account-type plans, due to 

a learned appreciation of account plans. Such business owners have experience 

controlling their business finances and therefore prefer to control their 

retirement finances by managing their own individual-based retirement account 

plans.

• Socio-demographic characteristics are significant factors affecting an 

owner’s IRA ownership. Being an owner who is older, non-minority, a citizen, 

34
and highly educated significantly increases the probability of IRA ownership, 

all else equal. For example, being a citizen increases the probability of 

ownership from 36.5 percent to 58.7 percent, all else equal. Citizenship is likely 

to confer a whole set of incentives for saving for retirement that are not 

prevalent for non-citizens. Having an education beyond a bachelor’s degree 

increases the probability of IRA ownership from 35.6 percent to 58.9 percent. 

• Business characteristics also play a major role in a business owner’s 

decision to own and contribute to an IRA. Business owners who have more 

established business(es), e.g., those who own larger, older, profitable, and more 

than one business, are more likely to own and contribute to an IRA. For 

example, monthly earnings of $3,000 to $5,000 increased the probability of IRA 

ownership from 35.6 percent to 48.7 percent, all else equal. If an owner had a 

business at least three years old, the probability that they made a contribution to 

their IRA increased from 33.5 percent to 44.1 percent. In addition, if a business 

owner earned more than $6,000 per month and owned a business that showed a 

profit, the probability of making an IRA contribution increased to around 40 

percent. Unfortunately it was not possible from the data to determine whether 

business owners contributed to an IRA up to the statutory limit ($4,000 in 

2005). 

• Business size does not affect whether a business owner has an IRA or 

Keogh plan or contributes to an IRA, but it affects 401(k)/Thrift plan 

participation. Regression analysis isolated the impact of business size on a 

business owner’s retirement plan savings behavior. Having a business with less 

35
than 10 employees reduces the probability of an owner participating in a 

401(k)/Thrift plan from 17.4 percent to 10.0 percent, all else equal. Since we 

are only examining the differences between micro-businesses with less than 10 

workers and larger businesses with 10 or more workers, this may not truly 

capture the effects of business owner behavior for much larger businesses. 

Unfortunately the small sample sizes in SIPP did not permit a more detailed 

analysis of business size. However, the fact that a business owner only owns 

one business reduces the probability of owning an IRA from 35.6 percent to 

28.1 percent. This means that owning several businesses increases the 

probability of IRA ownership. Perhaps a better measure of size would be total 

size (or number of employees) for all the businesses owned by a business 

owner.

• There were also some additional findings of note. These include: 

o Women business owners were more likely to own an IRA than male 

owners, all else equal. Being male reduces the probability of ownership 

from 35.6 percent to 31.2 percent, all else equal. Men, on the other hand, 

are more likely than women to own a Keogh plan and participate in a 

401(k)/Thrift plan. This may be due to the fact that male owners have 

more successful businesses and can more readily establish employmentbased plans or take advantage of the Keogh contribution limits which are 

much higher than the IRA limits. 

o Racial and ethnic origin variables also had a significant impact on IRA 

ownership but not on 401(k)/Thrift plan participation. White business 

36
owners were significantly more likely to own an IRA than non-white 

owners; being white increased the probability of ownership from 35.6 

percent to 52.1 percent, all else equal. Race is not a significant factor 

affecting 401(k)/Thrift plan participation. Hispanics were much less 

likely to own an IRA than non-Hispanics. Being Hispanic reduced the 

probability of IRA ownership from 35.6 percent to 17.6 percent, all else 

equal. Hispanic origin, however, is not a significant factor in determining 

401(k)/Thrift plan participation. 

o Owners who are sole proprietors or have home-based businesses are less 

likely to own an IRA and participate in a 401(k)/Thrift plan, all else 

equal. For example, being a sole proprietor or a home-based business 

reduces IRA ownership from 35.6 percent to 32.0 and 28.0 percent, 

respectively. 401(k)/Thrift plan participation is reduced from 17.4 

percent to 13.4 percent for both types of plans. This is probably an 

indication of the success of the business and the level of assets available 

for savings. 

o Business owners residing in metropolitan areas were more likely to own 

an IRA than those living in non-metropolitan areas. This may be related 

to the availability of information and financial services, as well as the 

probability of more successful businesses in metropolitan areas because 

of larger markets for goods and services. 

o Several business factors appear to have no real influence on ownership 

of an IRA. Industry sector (goods vs. services industry) does not have an 

37
impact on a business owner owning an IRA. Neither does business size, 

as indicated earlier. In addition to race and Hispanic status, a number of 

factors appear to have no significant effect on 401(k)/Thrift plan 

participation; these include such socio-demographic factors as veteran 

status and metropolitan location, and such business characteristics as 

industry, number of businesses owned, profitability, business expenses, 

business tenure, and hours worked. 

Finally, it is worth noting that the pseudo R2 measures for each of these models 

range from 3.5 percent to about 23 percent, suggesting that much of the decision 

to own an IRA or Keogh plan, contribute to an IRA (Keogh plan), as well as 

participate in a 401(k)/Thrift plan is unexplained, even in these models. That is 

not surprising, given that “tastes for retirement savings” probably differ 

substantially in the population as well as among business owners. Yet, these 

models do explain enough of the decision to own individual-based retirement 

plans and employer-based plans to provide interesting and, hopefully, usable 

results. 

Conclusion

This paper identifies and fills several research gaps in our understanding of 

retirement plan savings behavior of business owners and the self-employed. The paper 

analyzes the relative importance of personal business owner characteristics, 

38
characteristics of their businesses, and retirement savings options in determining how 

owners and the self-employed save for retirement. 

Individual-based retirement account ownership, contribution activity as well as 

employment-based retirement account participation among business owners is low. Only 

about one-third of business owners own an IRA and only one-third of these owners 

contributed to their IRA for the 2005 tax year. Keogh plan ownership is extremely low 

(less than 2 percent) and only about 18 percent of owners participate in a 401(k)/Thrift 

plan. 

 Owners’ overall asset accumulation behavior affects their retirement savings 

behavior. Homeownership and/or involvement in other retirement savings accounts are 

the most important factors affecting IRA or Keogh ownership and 401(k)/Thrift plan 

participation. Therefore, participation in one type of retirement plan does not appear to 

preclude or substitute for owners participating in other types of retirement plans.

 Business owners are more likely to own tax-deferred individually based IRAs if they 

are older, female, white, non-Hispanic, citizens, better educated, and married. 

It is not surprising to find that a business owner’s decision to own an IRA is correlated 

with the success of his or her business. IRA or Keogh ownership is more likely if a 

business owner has higher monthly earned income. In addition, business owners are 

likely to own multiple retirement accounts indicating that many of them have a high taste 

for saving, as well as owning and investing in their own business. However, it is 

surprising, given the descriptive results that business size significantly affects an owner’s 

decision to participate in a 401(k)/Thrift plan and not the decision to own an IRA or 

Keogh plan. 

39
Some other unexpected findings are related to the socio-demographic variables. 

For example, women business owners are more likely to own an IRA than male business 

owners, all else equal. On the other hand, there is no indication that women business 

owners are more likely to contribute to their IRAs than male owners are. Other research 

tends to suggest women have significantly lower IRA accumulations than men do.27

There are many policy implications of the study’s findings. These include 

developing ways that help the owners of the smallest businesses, especially home-based 

sole proprietorships, increase their retirement savings. Efforts to help minority, 

especially Hispanic, business owners increase their retirement savings is also a policy 

goal suggested by this study’s results. Perhaps more bilingual information about 

retirement programs is needed. In addition, there is a need to better coordinate employerbased retirement accounts with individual-based accounts like IRAs and make plans less 

complex and burdensome on business owners, especially for owners of micro-businesses. 

There is also a need to help employers provide retirement savings options to their 

employees in a fair and equitable way by expanding “safe harbor” provisions which 

reduce frequent non-discrimination testing when there are changes in a very small pool of 

retirement plan participants. 

Future research should continue to examine the retirement saving behavior of 

both business owners and workers. This includes analyzing the effect of default 

provisions on behavior in both individual- and employment-based retirement account 

plan options. Also research should examine how business owners manage their retirement 

account funds. Do they continue to save and invest their assets within retirement 

accounts or are they likely to withdraw or borrow funds from their accounts? Analysis of 

 

27 See Munnell and Sunden (2001) 

40
the uses of cash-outs or loans is important to determine whether and to what extent 

retirement account assets are being used for business financing, i.e., for startup businesses 

or for maintaining or growing existing enterprises. 

41
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Advocacy (November 2008). 

GAO, “Retirement Savings: Automatic Enrollment Shows Promises for Some Workers, 

But Proposals to Broaden Retirement Savings for Other Workers Could Fact 

Challenges.” GAO-10-31, (October 2009). 

Gurley-Calvez, Tami, Katherine Harper, and Amelia Biehl, Self-Employed Women and 

Time Use. Report prepared for the U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of 

Advocacy (February 2009). 

IRS website which provides “An Easy Retirement Plan Guide for Small Employers” at 

http://www.retirementplans.irs.gov/choose-a-plan/. (accessed February 16, 2010.) This 

site describes five basic categories of plans: 1) plans with IRAs, 2) 401(k) and profitsharing plans, 3) defined benefit plans, 4) tax-exempt plans, and 5) plans with IRAs. 

IRS website which provides “A 401(k) Resource Guide” at 

http://www.irs.gov/retirement/sponsor/article/0,,id=151800,00.html (Accessed February 

17, 2010.) 

IRS website which provides “Types of Retirement Plans” at 

http://www.irs.gov/retirement/sponsor/article/0,,id=155347,00.html (Accessed February 

17, 2010.) 

Karoly, Lynn A. and Julie Zissimopoulos (RAND), Self-Employment and the 50+ 

Population, AARP Public Policy Institute, Issue Paper #2004-03 (March 2004). 

Kobe, Kathryn (Economic Consulting Services, LLC), Retirement Plan Availability and 

Participation by Firm Size. Report prepared for the U.S. Small Business Administration, 

Office of Advocacy (February 2010). 

Korczyk, Sophie H. How Americans Save, AARP Public Policy Institute, Issue Paper 

#9806 (July 1998). 

Munnell, Alicia H. “A Primer on IRAs,” Just the Facts on Retirement Issues, No. 7, 

Boston College Center for Retirement Research, (March 2003). 

Munnell, Alicia H. and Annika Sunden, “401(k) Plans are Still Coming Up Short,” Issue 

Brief, No. 43, Boston College Center for Retirement Research, (March 2006). 

Munnell, Alicia H. and Annika Sunden, “Private Pensions: Coverage and Benefits 

Trends,” Paper prepared for symposium “Conversation on Coverage” Washington, D.C., 

July 24-25, 2001. 

43
44

Munnell, Alicia H. and Pamela Perun, Update on Private Pensions, Issue in Brief, Center 

for Retirement Research at Boston College, Number 50, August 2006, p. 4. 

Norman, Jan / National Association for the Self-Employed, “The ABCs of IRAs, SEPs, 

and Other Retirement Plans,” Press release, 

http://www.nase.org/About/PressReleases/09-07-

29/The_ABCs_of_IRAs_SEPs_And_Other_Retirement_Plans.aspx (accessed February 

16, 2010.) 

Orszag, Peter and Robert Greenstein, “Toward Progressive Pensions: A Summary of the 

U.S. Pension System and Proposals for Reform,” Background paper for symposium 

“Conversation on Coverage” Pension Rights Center, Washington, D.C., July 24-25, 2001. 

Smith, Paul A. “Pension Participation and IRA Coverage Among Workers in the CPS 

and SCF,” paper presented at the Allied Social Science Meetings, January 1999. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Business Dynamics Statistics, 

1977-2005. 

U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy, “Frequently Asked Questions” 

(September 2009). 

U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy, The Small Business Economy

(December 2007). 

U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy, Women in Business: A 

Demographic Review of Women’s Business Ownership. (August 2006). 

Verma, Satyendra, “A Note on Discrete Choice and Limited Dependent Models (Logit, 

Multinomial Logit, Probit, and Tobit Models),” Unpublished paper, AARP Public Policy 

Institute (2004). 

Zissimopoulos, Julie and Lynn A. Karoly (RAND), Work and Well-Being Among the 

Self-Employed at Older Ages, AARP Public Policy Institute, Issue Paper #2007-04 

(February 2007). 
Tables

Table 1 Maximum IRA Contributions and Deduction Phase-out Ranges by Year, 1975 - 2010 

Years 

Maximum Contribution (Dollars) Maximum 

Catch-up 

Contributionb

(Dollars) 

Deduction Phase-out Range ($000s) 

Worker NonWorking 

Spouse 

Unmarried 

Married Filing Jointly Married 

Filing 

Covered Separately a 

Not 

Covereda 

Spouse 

Covereda 

Spouse Not 

Covereda 

1975 to 

1981 0 1,500 0 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 

1982 to 

1986 2,000 2,000 250 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 

1987 to 

1996 2,000 2,000 250 0 25 to 35 40 to 50 40 to 50 0 to 10 

1997 2,000 2,000 2,000 0 25 to 35 40 to 50 40 to 50 0 to 10 

1998 2,000 2,000 2,000 0 30 to 40 50 to 60 150 to 160 0 to 10 

1999 2,000 2,000 2,000 0 31 to 41 51 to 61 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2000 2,000 2,000 2,000 0 32 to 42 52 to 62 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2001 2,000 2,000 2,000 0 33 to 43 53 to 63 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2002 3,000 3,000 3,000 500 34 to 44 54 to 64 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2003 3,000 3,000 3,000 500 40 to 50 60 to 70 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2004 3,000 3,000 3,000 500 45 to 55 65 to 75 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2005 4,000 4,000 4,000 500 50 to 60 70 to 80 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2006 4,000 4,000 4,000 1,000 50 to 60 75 to 85 150 to 160 0 to 10 

2007 4,000 4,000 4,000 1,000 52 to 62 83 to 103 156 to 166 0 to 10 

2008 5,000 5,000 5,000 1,000 53 to 63 85 to 105 159 to 169 0 to 10 

2009 5,000 5,000 5,000 1,000 55 to 65 89 to 109 166 to 176 0 to 10 

2010 5,000 5,000 5,000 1,000 56 to 66 89 to 109 167 to 177 0 to 10 

Source: Congressional Budget Office, 2006. Updated U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy. 

Note: n.a. = not applicable. 

 a

Covered by a workplace retirement plan. 

 b

Applies to people age 50 and older. 

Table 2 - Business Owners by Size of Business,* 2006 

Total Employment Size of Business 

Less than10 10 or more 10-24 25-49 50+ 

Sample 4,922 4,499 423 253 74 96 

Weighted Sample 16,088,876 14,708,703 1,380,172 804,811 241,794 333,567 

Percent (Sample) 100.0% 91.4% 8.6% 5.1% 1.5% 2.0% 

Source: Bureau of Census, SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7. The reference period for the data is the for four-month period January 2006 to 

April 2006. 

*Pertains only to an owner’s main business.

45
Table 3 - Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Business Owners by Business Size, 2006 

(Percent) 

Owner Characteristics Total, All 

Businesses 

Employment Size of Business 

Fewer than 10 

workers 

10 or more workers 

Age 

 Under 35 15.5 15.9 12.1 

 35 to 49 39.0 38.7 43.0 

 50 or older 45.4 45.5 44.9 

Sex 

 Male 63.4 62.9 68.1 

 Female 36.6 37.1 31.9 

Race 

 White 88.1 88.0 89.4 

 Nonwhite 11.9 12.0 10.6 

Origin 

 Hispanic 6.0 6.2 4.3 

 NonHispanic 94.0 93.8 95.7 

Marital Status 

 Married 69.8 68.9 80.1 

 Not married 30.2 31.1 19.9 

Education 

 High school or less 32.2 33.0 23.2 

 Some College 35.1 35.1 34.8 

 College Degree (4 yr.)+ 32.7 31.9 42.1 

Veteran 

 Yes 13.0 13.2 10.6 

 No 87.0 86.8 89.4 

Citizen 

 Yes 94.1 94.1 94.8 

 No 5.9 5.9 5.2 

Homeowner 

 Yes 82.2 81.5 89.8 

 No 17.8 18.5 10.2 

Metropolitan Location 

 Yes 76.8 76.5 80.5 

 No 23.2 23.5 19.5 

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce: Bureau of the Census, SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7. The reference period for the 

data is the four-month period January 2006 to April 2006. 

Note: Maximum sample size: 4,922 total business owners (4,499 business owners with firms fewer than 10 workers 

and 423 owners with firms of 10 or more workers). 

46
Table 4 - Characteristics of the Business Owned by Employment Size of Business, 2006 

(Percent) 

Business Characteristics Total, All 

Business Owners 

Employment Size of Business 

Fewer than 10 workers 10 or more workers 

Form of Business 

 Sole proprietorship 69.0 71.6 41.7 

 Partnership 14.3 13.6 22.0 

 Corporation 16.7 14.8 36.3 

Home-based 

 Yes 60.5 64.3 21.2 

 No 39.5 35.7 78.8 

Industry Sector 

 Goods 27.2 27.5 23.9 

 Services 72.8 72.5 76.1 

Age of Business 

 Less than 3 years old 29.4 30.3 19.4 

 3 years or more 70.6 69.7 80.6 

No. of Businesses Owned 

 One 92.1 92.0 92.6 

 Two or more 7.9 8.0 7.4 

Profit/Loss 

 Profit 41.0 42.7 22.9 

 Loss 59.0 57.3 77.1 

Total Business Expenses 

 Less than $5,000 21.3 21.7 14.9 

 $5,000 to $9,999 8.7 9.1 3.7 

 $10,000 or more 70.0 69.1 81.3 

Monthly Business Income 

 Less than $3,000 55.1 58.3 33.3 

 $3,000 to $5,999 25.2 24.8 28.3 

 $6,000 or more 19.7 16.9 38.4 

No. of Yrs or Months 

Worked in Business 

 1 to 9 56.6 57.0 52.0 

 10 to 19 22.4 22.1 25.1 

 20 to 25 21.0 20.9 22.9 

Hours Worked/Week 

 35 or more 70.4 69.1 84.2 

 Less than 35 29.6 30.9 15.8 

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce: Bureau of the Census, SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7. The reference period for the 

data is the four-month period January 2006 to April 2006. 

Note: Maximum sample size: 4,922 total business owners (4,499 business owners with firms fewer than 10 workers 

and 423 owners with firms of 10 or more workers). 

47
Table 5 – Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Business Owners by Retirement Plan Status, 

2006 (Percent) 

Owner Characteristics IRA Keogh IRA or 

Keogh 

IRA Contributions 

(Percent of IRA 

Owners)1 

401(k)/ 

Thrift Plan 

Age, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Under 35 16.6 0.1* 18.4 29.9 8.5 

 35 to 49 33.6 1.5* 38.0 34.1 20.1 

 50 or older 41.1 2.4 47.6 34.2 19.5 

Sex, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Male 34.7 2.1 39.8 34.8 19.4 

 Female 33.9 1.1* 38.5 32.3 15.5 

Race, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 White 36.3 1.7 41.7 33.3 18.8 

 Nonwhite 20.2 1.7* 21.8 41.5 12.3 

Origin, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Hispanic 9.4* 0.7 11.1 26.1* 4.7*

 NonHispanic 36.0 1.7 41.1 34.0 18.8 

Marital Status, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Married 38.5 1.8 44.2 34.9 20.7 

 Not married 25.0 1.3 28.0 30.1 11.7 

Education, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 High school or less 18.7 0.6* 21.9 29.9 8.0 

 Some College 31.0 0.8* 35.0 31.6 14.2 

 College Degree (4 yr+) 53.5 3.7 61.1 36.7 31.9 

Veteran, Total 34.7 1.7 39.6 33.8 18.2 

 Yes 37.6 1.4* 42.7 27.6 17.4 

 No 34.2 1.7 39.2 34.9 18.3 

Citizen, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Yes 35.9 1.7 41.1 33.8 18.9 

 No 9.6* 1.1* 11.1 36.4* 3.8*

Homeowner, Total 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Yes 39.3 1.9 44.5 33.8 20.3 

 No 12.2 0.6* 15.3 34.1 7.4 

Metropolitan Location, 

Total 33.9 1.7 39.0 34.0 17.9 

 Yes 36.6 1.9 40.9 35.1 19.2 

 No 25.6 1.2* 32.7 28.5 13.6 

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce: Bureau of the Census, 2004 SIPP, Wave 7. The reference period for the data is 

the four-month period January 2006 to April 2006. 

1

IRA contributions are those that applied to an owner’s 2005 tax return. 

Note: Maximum sample size: 4,922 total business owners (4,499 business owners with firms fewer than 10 workers and 

423 owners with firms of 10 or more workers). Following sample sizes answering “yes” for retirement variables: IRA 

ownership (1,531), Keogh ownership (75), IRA or Keogh ownership (1,935), IRA contributions (482), and 401(k)/Thrift 

Plan (886). 

* Less than 30 observations in the cell. 

48
Table 6 – Characteristics of Businesses Owned by Retirement Plan Status, 2006 

(Percent) 

Business Characteristics IRA 

Owned 

Keogh 

Owned 

IRA or 

Keogh 

Owned 

IRA Contributions 

(Percent of IRA 

Owners)1 

401(k)/ Thrift 

Plan 

Participation 

Form of Business 35.6 1.8 40.9 34.0 18.1 

 Sole proprietorship 31.2 1.8 35.2 31.9 14.0 

 Partnership 36.4 1.9* 45.7 33.9 21.0 

 Corporation 53.3 1.9* 60.1 39.0 32.5 

Business Size 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 <10 workers 33.1 1.5 37.6 33.0 16.1 

 10+ workers 48.3 3.9* 57.2 40.0 38.5 

Home-based 35.5 1.8 40.7 34.0 18.0 

 Yes 30.6 1.3 34.8 30.2 12.6 

 No 43.1 2.5 49.9 38.4 26.2 

Industry Sector 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.9 18.0 

 Goods 28.7 0.7* 33.6 31.4 13.9 

 Services 36.5 2.1 41.5 34.6 19.5 

Age of Business 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Less than 3 years old 26.8 0.6* 28.7 25.2 16.1 

 3 years or more 37.6 2.1 43.7 36.5 18.8 

No. of Businesses Owned 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 One 33.5 1.7 38.4 33.5 17.6 

 Two or more 43.9 1.7 49.4 36.6 22.4 

Profit/Loss 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 Profit 31.0 1.5 34.6 33.9 13.1 

 Loss 36.9 1.8 42.6 33.8 21.4 

Total Business Expenses 41.2 1.8 45.8 34.7 18.8 

 Less than $5,000 24.2 0.3* 27.3 32.6 12.6 

 $5,000 to $9,999 41.1 0.0* 44.2 19.4* 16.0*

 $10,000 or more 47.8 2.6* 53.2 37.2 21.7 

Monthly Income From 

Business 39.9 2.1* 45.5 37.5 24.4 

 Less than $3,000 29.1 1.3* 34.9 33.7 16.3 

 $3,000 to $5,999 50.2 2.9* 53.1 37.4 24.7 

 $6,000 or more 56.9 3.6* 65.2 43.4 46.5 

No. of Yrs/Months Worked 

in Business 34.4 1.7 39.3 33.8 18.0 

 1 to 9 30.3 1.1* 34.2 30.7 17.6 

 10 to 19 39.7 1.8* 45.0 37.2 18.9 

 20 to 25 39.7 3.2 46.9 36.5 18.1 

Hours Worked/Week 34.5 1.7 39.6 33.8 17.9 

 35 or more 36.1 1.9 41.6 36.7 19.9 

 Less than 35 30.7 1.2* 34.8 26.1 13.2 

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce: Bureau of the Census, SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7. The reference 

period for the data is the four-month period January 2006 to April 2006. 

Note: Maximum sample size: 4,922 total business owners (4,499 business owners with firms fewer than 10 

workers and 423 owners with firms of 10 or more workers). Following total sample sizes for retirement 

variables: IRA ownership (4,452), Keogh ownership (4,452), IRA or Keogh ownership (4,922), IRA 

contributions (1,424), and 401(k)/Thrift Plan (4,922). 

* Less than 30 observations in the cell. 

1

Includes only those respondents who answered the question. Does not include those who refused to answer, 

didn’t know, or not answered. 

49
Table 7 - Coding of Variables in SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7 

Variables Coding Variable 

Name 

Dependent Variables 

Owns an Individual Retirement Account (IRA) 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise ira 

Owns a Keogh 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise keogh 

Owns an IRA or Keogh Account 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise iraorkeogh 

Contributes to an IRA1 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise iracontr 

Participates in a 401(k) or Thrift Plan 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise 401(k) 

Independent Variables 

Socio-Demographic Characteristics 

 Age: Less than 35 years old 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise age<35 

 35 to 49 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise age35-49 

 50 and older 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise age50+ 

 Sex: Male 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise male 

 Race: White 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise white 

 Origin: Hispanic 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise hispanic 

 Marital Status: Married 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise marriedl 

 Education: High School or less 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise highschool 

 Some College 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise somecoll 

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise bachdeg+ 

 Veteran’s Status Veteran 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise veteran 

 Citizenship Status Citizen 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise citizen 

 Homeownership Homeowner 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise ownhome 

 Metropolitan residence Metro 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise metro 

Business Characteristics 

 Form of Business Sole Proprietorship 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise soleprop 

 Partnership 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise partner 

 Corporation 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise corp 

 Business Size Fewer than 10 workers 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise microbus 

 Business Location Home-based 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise homebase 

 Industry Sector Goods 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise goods 

 Age of Business More than 3 years old 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise busage3+ 

 No. Businesses Owned One 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise onebus 

 Net Profit/Loss Profit 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise profit 

 Total Business Expenses Less than $5,000 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise TBE<$5k 

 $5,000-$9,999 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise TBE$5-9k 

 $10,000 or more 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise TBE$10k+ 

 Monthly Earned Income Less than $3,000 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise MEI<$3k 

 (Business) $3,000-$5,999 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise MEI$3-5k 

 $6,000 or more 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise MEI$6k+ 

 No. Yrs/ Months Worked 1 to 9 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise tenure1-9 

 10 to 19 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise tenure10-19 

 20 to 25 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise tenure20-25 

 Hrs. Worked/Wk 35 or more 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise full-time 

50
Table 7 - Coding of Variables SIPP 2004 Panel, Wave 7 (continued) 

Variables Coding Variable 

Name 

Independent Variables 

Other Retirement Variables 

If Dependent Variable = IRA, then added independent variables are: 

 Owns a Keogh 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise Keogh 

 Participates in a 401(k) or Thrift Plan 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise 401(k) 

If Dependent Variable = Keogh 

 Owns an IRA 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise IRA 

 Participates in a 401(k) or Thrift Plan 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise 401(k) 

If Dependent Variable = IRA or Keogh Account 

 Participates in a 401(k) or Thrift Plan 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise 401(k) 

If Dependent Variable = Contributes to an IRA1

 Owns a Keogh 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise Keogh 

 Participates in a 401(k) or Thrift Plan 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise 401(k) 

If Dependent Variable = Participates in a 401(k) or Thrift Plan 

 Owns an IRA or Keogh Account 1 if yes; 0 if otherwise IRAorKeogh 

1

 IRA contributions are those that applied to an owner’s 2005 tax return.

51
Charts

52
53
54
55

Appendix: Variable Names, Datasets and Topics

Appendix Table 1 – SIPP 2004 Panel Variable Names, Datasets and Topics1 

Variables for Regression Analysis SIPP 

Variable 

Name 

Dataset/Topic (Topical Module) Variables 

Retirement Account Variables2

IRA ownership IIRAYN Annual Income and Retirement Account (TM3) 

Keogh ownership IKEOGHYN Annual Income and Retirement Account (TM) 

IRA or Keogh ownership EAST1B Core4/Assets Variables 

IRA contribution (if owned)5 IIRACONT Annual Income and Retirement Account (TM) 

401(k)/Thrift plan participation EAST1C Core/Assets Variables 

Socio-Demographic Characteristics 

Sex ESEX Core/Demographic Variables 

Age TAGE Core/Demographic Variables 

Race ERACE Core/Demographic Variables 

Hispanic EORIGIN Core/Demographic Variables 

Marital Status EMS Core/Demographic Variables 

Education EEDUCATE Core/Education Variables 

Veteran EAFEVER Core/Armed Forces Variables 

Citizen Status ECITIZEN Core/Demographic Variables 

Homeownership ETENURE Core/Household Variables 

Metropolitan Location TMETRO Core/Household Variables 

Business Characteristics 

Form of Business IBSFORM1 Annual Income and Retirement Account (TM) 

Firm Size TBUSTOTL Retirement Expectations & Pension Plan 

Coverage (TM) 

Business Location IBSLOCT1 Annual Income and Retirement Account (TM) 

Industry Sector TBSIND1 Core/Business Variables 

Firm Age TSBDATE1 Core/Business Variables 

Number of Businesses Owned EBUSCNTR Core/Labor Force Variables 

Net Profit/Loss TPRTB1 Core/Business Variables 

Total Business Expenses TTOTEXP1 Annual Income and Retirement Account (TM) 

Monthly Earned Income (Business) TBSUM1 Core/Business Variables 

Years/Months Worked TNUMLEN Retirement Expectations & Pension Plan 

Coverage (TM) 

Usual Hours Worked/Week RMHRSWK Core/Labor Force Variables 1

All data are for the January 2006-April 2006 period unless otherwise noted. 

2

Topical Module variables in Wave 7. 

3

Tax deductible IRA contributions which applied to the 2005 tax return. 

4

Core questions are repeated at each interview over the life of the panel. 5

These variables have not been edited. Observations with non-responses which included “not answered,” “don’t 

know,” and “refused” were excluded in the analysis.