U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Assistance Bureau of Justice Assistance Bulletin

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA

July 2003

Cold Case Squads: Leaving

No Stone Unturned

by Ryan Turner and Rachel Kosa

Why Cases Get Cold

C onventional wisdom in homicide investigations holdsthat speed is of the essence. The notion is that any case

that is not solved or that lacks significant leads and witness

participation within the first 72 hours has little likelihood of

being solved, regardless of the expertise and resources deployed.

Over time, unsolved cases become “cold.” Cases most likely to

be classified as cold include gang- and drug-related deaths;

cases involving immigrants, transients, and homeless or

unidentified people; unclassified deaths; and unsolved police

shootings. Cold cases are among the most difficult and

frustrating cases detectives face. These cases are, in effect, cases

that other investigators, for whatever reason, could not solve.

Law enforcement agencies, regardless of size, are not immune to rising

crime rates, staff shortages, and budget restrictions. Rising crime rates can

tax the investigative and administrative resources of an agency. More crime

may mean that fewer cases are pursued vigorously, fewer opportunities arise

for followup, or individual caseloads increase for already overworked

detectives. Transfers, retirements, and other personnel changes may force

departments to rely on younger, less experienced investigators to work

cases, often unsuccessfully.
• 2 •

About BJA

The Bureau of Justice Assistance was established in

1984 as a component of the Office of Justice Programs,

U.S. Department of Justice. BJA provides leadership and

resources to state, local, and tribal governments and

communities to reduce crime, violence, and drug abuse

and to strengthen the nation’s criminal justice system.

BJA provides this assistance through formula and 

discretionary grants, training and technical assistance,

publications, and the BJA web site.

Bureau of Justice Assistance

810 Seventh Street NW.

Washington, DC 20531

202–616–6500

Fax: 202–305–1367

Web site: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA 

For publications and information on other BJA-funded

programs, contact:

Bureau of Justice Assistance Clearinghouse 

P.O. Box 6000 

Rockville, MD 20849–6000

1–800–688–4252

Web site: www.ncjrs.org

Clearinghouse staff are available Monday through Friday,

8:30 a.m. to 7 p.m. eastern time. Ask to be placed on

the BJA mailing list. 

An increase in homicide rates can increase the caseloads

for the staff of crime labs and county coroners’ and

medical examiners’ offices. This, in turn, can lead to

reports that are delayed for months, increased chances for

error, and overlooked evidence. Support services, if

available at all, may be spread thin during high-profile

cases that force investigative labs to expend large amounts

of manpower disproportionately. These overloads can

either slow investigations or discourage some detectives

from using the support services at all. Criminalists and

evidence technicians can also face backlogs that prevent

them both from attending all crime scenes and from

conducting prompt followup work. As a result, crucial

scientific evidence, especially blood and trace evidence,

goes uncollected. Investigators with heavy caseloads may

be forced to rely on photographs of evidence or on

witness testimony, which may be strongly challenged by

defense attorneys.

All the obstacles that hamper homicide investigations in

their early phases contribute to cold cases. Cold cases may

even allow more murders to be committed. People who

have killed once, if not arrested, may continue to kill.

Police failure to solve murder cases and to put the

offenders behind bars often leaves the community feeling

helpless. If they feel the police are not doing their job in

protecting the community and witnesses of crimes,

members of the community may also be less willing to

cooperate with police.

How Cold Case Squads Work

A cold case squad may be a viable option for a jurisdiction

that is plagued by a significant number of unsolved

murders. Some cold case squads are formed because the

volume of new cases or police initiatives prevents any work

from being done on old cases. Some squads are formed

out of convenience when a decline in new murder cases

provides departments with the personnel and other

resources necessary to begin investigating old cases.

The specific duties of cold case squads may vary among

law enforcement agencies. Nearly all of these squads

NCJ 199781

About the Authors

Ryan Turner and Rachel Kosa are former Research

Assistants with the Police Executive Research Forum.

The Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) is a national

organization of progressive police executives from the

largest city, county, and state law enforcement agencies.

PERF is dedicated to improving policing and advancing

professionalism through research and involvement in

public policy debate. Incorporated in 1977, PERF’s

primary source of operating revenue comes from

government grants and contracts, and partnerships with

private foundations and other organizations.

Police Executive Research Forum

1120 Connecticut Avenue NW., Suite 930

Washington, DC 20036 

202–466–7820

www.policeforum.org
• 3 •

review and continue the investigation of unsolved

homicides or suspected homicides in which the lead

detective initially assigned has retired, transferred, or

otherwise left the case. Cold case squads can be especially

useful in locating and working with past and potential

witnesses and reviewing physical evidence to identify

suspects. The squads may investigate unsolved homicides

currently assigned to a homicide detective when deemed

necessary by supervisors—usually when the lead detective

has exhausted all leads. Cold case squads also perform an

outreach and networking role by assisting other

jurisdictions with homicide investigations as appropriate.

The most important component of cold case squads is

personnel; the squads must have the right mix of

investigative and supervisory talent. The staffing model

used for cold case squads is determined mainly by whether

the squad works full-or part-time and whether it is based

within a police agency or a prosecutor’s office. Cold case

squads can consist of any of the following:

◆ Single full-time investigator.

◆ Squad of two or more full-time investigators.

◆ Investigators working on cold cases in addition to

other investigative duties.

◆ Former homicide detectives in a part-time or

volunteer capacity.

◆ One-time cold case squads (assigned to high-profile

unsolved cases).

◆ Occasional squads.

◆ Investigators in a special squad based in a district

attorney’s or state attorney general’s office.

◆ Interdepartmental partnerships (county or regional

cold case squads).

Cold case squads usually include at least the following:

◆ A supervisor or team manager (usually a lieutenant)

from the homicide division, who acts as a liaison

among police management, participating law

enforcement agencies, the local community, and the

press.

◆ A supervisor (usually a sergeant), who coordinates

the daily operations of the team.

◆ Investigators.

Squads may also contain administrative or “light-duty”

detectives to enable full-duty detectives to devote their

time to other cases. These detectives review cases, write

case summaries, list evidence and witnesses, and perform

workups on witnesses and potential suspects to gather

current information such as addresses and recent arrests.

Light-duty detectives also compile any documentation or

records that are not already in the case file.

Using External Resources 

Squads may also use, as needed, the services of the Federal

Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and U.S. Marshals Service,

medical officer’s or coroner’s office, retired personnel,

college students or interns, internal or external criminalists

or other specialists (forensic, fingerprint, firearms), and

administrative staff. A permanent, fully staffed and

supported cold case squad can be more advantageous than

a temporary or one-time squad because investigative staff

and resources focus solely on solving cold cases and are

more likely to be applied to cases over a long period.

Budget and staff constraints, however, may determine the

particular squad setup.

Not all cold case squads reside in municipal police

departments. The Naval Criminal Investigative Service

(NCIS), like the Army Criminal Investigation Division and

Air Force Office of Special Investigations, investigates cold

cases involving homicides that occurred on military bases

or involved military personnel. The amount of formal

cooperation between military and local law enforcement

personnel is limited by the scope of their jurisdictions.

NCIS is unique among the armed forces investigative

services in that its cold case investigations are all

performed as undercover operations. 
• 4 •

The U.S. Marshals Service has a number of joint-agency

fugitive task force units around the nation. Local or state

police departments often send an officer to work with the

task force, and a cold case squad may gain assistance in

this way. Cold case squads should contact their local

Marshals’ office to determine what assistance may be

available for a specific investigation. The FBI assists local

law enforcement agencies with cold cases through its

National Center for Analysis of Violent Crimes, which is

headquartered in Quantico, Virginia. The FBI formerly

helped police departments form cold case squads, but it

now focuses its cold case assistance on cases that involve

gangs and drugs, as a part of the Safe Streets Violent

Crimes Initiative.

Choosing Personnel

Because cold cases can be very labor- and time-intensive

and may require innovative investigative techniques,

squads are most effective when they consist of

investigators who have significant experience in

investigating and prosecuting various types of homicide

cases. Traits considered essential for cold case investigators

include:

◆ Seniority.

◆ Strong communication and interpersonal skills

(including interviewing and interrogation ability).

◆ Strong research skills.

◆ Patience.

◆ Creativity.

◆ Persistence.

◆ High motivation level.

◆ Enthusiasm for the job.

Some cold case squads encourage additional training

about modern criminalistic technology and about services

for victims’ families (such as support meetings and witness

protection resources).

Cold case squads offer various types of additional

compensation, such as the ability to work regular daytime

shifts, earn increased salary and rank, and use separate

offices and equipment (including automobiles).

The size of the staff determines the number and type

(team or individual) of investigations that can be

conducted. Several investigators may be assigned to a case

depending on its nature, the type of work involved, and

the size of the squad. If possible, the cold case squad

should be given an office separate from that of the general

homicide squad. Separate work space may help prevent

cold case detectives from being drawn into general

homicide cases, especially high-profile cases that require

more resources. In some instances, officers rotate

periodically between general homicide assignments and

cold case squad investigations.

Reviewing Cases

The process by which cases are reviewed and considered

for referral to the cold case squad varies. These cases are

usually at least a year old and cannot be addressed by the

original homicide squad because of workload, time

constraints, or the lack of viable leads. Cases are referred

to a cold case squad by the homicide squad supervisor or

other homicide detectives. In many instances, the

supervisor, either with or without the input and consensus

of the squad, decides which cases are referred to the cold

case squad. In some instances, prosecutors will reopen

cold cases or initiate cold case investigations with state and

local law enforcement agencies. Witnesses that were

previously uncooperative or unknown may come forward

with information that leads to the reinvestigation of a cold

case.

Cases are reviewed and prioritized according to the

likelihood of an eventual solution. The highest priority

cases are those in which the murder victim, or even a

second surviving victim, has been identified; the death was

ruled a homicide; suspects were previously named or

identified through forensic methods; an arrest warrant was

previously issued; significant physical evidence (such as
• 5 •

fingerprints, DNA, or shell casings) can be reprocessed for

further clues; newly documented leads have arisen within

the last 6 months; and critical witnesses are accessible and

willing to cooperate.

High (but not highest) priority cases generally are those in

which witnesses can identify suspects; information or

evidence can identify possible suspects; or the initial

investigation identified witnesses who could not be located

or need to be reinterviewed. Cases of moderate priority

include those in which preserved evidence can be

processed and analyzed through modern technology (such

as an automated fingerprint identification system, DNA

analysis, or DRUGFIRE, a computerized program that

tracks signatures on spent shell casings) and whose status

as a homicide can be reclassified depending on the results

of the additional laboratory analysis. Cases that generally

receive the lowest priority are those in which no known

physical evidence or witnesses are available to help identify

a suspect.

Cold case investigators usually start by reviewing the case

file, talking with all previous investigators tied to the case,

and obtaining any notes they may have that are not in the

case file. Investigators are particularly interested in

reviewing or locating any gaps of information in the case,

including people mentioned in statements that do not

have a corresponding interview report in the case file,

undocumented investigative actions (such as search

warrants without documentation of service), and so forth.

Any available evidence is assessed for future usability and

additional analysis. The original suspect is rarely

reinterviewed. 

After reinterviewing significant witnesses and working all

viable leads, if no suspect can be identified, the detective

writes a summary documenting the followup investigation

and recommending either further investigation or

inactivation. A homicide case can be closed either through

arrest of the suspect or by administrative action. The arrest

of a suspect renders a case closed regardless of whether the

suspect is convicted or even brought to trial. A case may

be closed administratively if the suspect for which the

department has probable cause either has died or has been

prosecuted for another crime and is behind bars for life.

Resources 

Although forensic analysis and investigative techniques

have greatly improved over the years, the resolution of

cold cases is primarily rooted in a squad’s ability to

identify, locate, and secure the testimony and cooperation

of witnesses and informants.

Cold case investigations place particular emphasis on

securing the participation of previously unknown or

uncooperative witnesses. Locating them can be a

formidable task. Witnesses may lie low because they face

threats or retaliation, and informants may have, at best, a

faulty recollection of an incident. With the passage of

time, however, witnesses may no longer feel intimidated

by threats or by the initial shock and publicity of a

homicide. Individuals may have access to previously

unavailable information, especially when a killer begins to

boast about previous crimes. The relationship between

suspects and witnesses may also have soured over time; in

drug- and gang-related homicides, the killer himself may

have been killed by a rival or other parties. Some witnesses

may find their personal, professional, or legal

circumstances have changed or may need assistance from

law enforcement themselves. 

Today, cold case squads have at their disposal technology,

investigative methods, and resources that were not

available to law enforcement agencies in the past. The two

most frequently cited technological tools are DNA analysis

and fingerprint technology (including automated

fingerprint identification systems; cyanocrylate/

“superglue” fingerprint systems that allow investigators to

lift prints from surfaces previously considered unprintable,

such as leather and cloth; and systems that use lasers to lift

prints). The availability of telephone services (such as

Crime Stoppers) that offer cash rewards for anonymous

informants has increased the flow of cold case information

to investigators. Some agencies use the Internet and

online forums for their Crime Stoppers efforts. In
• 6 •

addition, some law enforcement web sites offer police-only

areas that present examples of modus operandi to

investigators and agencies worldwide in order to obtain

their comments.

Although media outlets sometimes have an uneasy

relationship with law enforcement, particularly on a local

level, they can help by reaching out to potential or

uncooperative witnesses. After an arrest has been made in

one cold case, people often contact police with

information on other cold cases. Major newspapers and

community publications can print articles and photographs

relating to old cases. Radio and television stations,

through news and community affairs broadcasts, can

disseminate information, offer reenactments, and reach

more members of a community than most law

enforcement agencies can. Moreover, the participation of

one media entity may encourage others to participate,

increasing the potential for outreach. 

Performance Measures 

The most visible measure of a cold case squad’s effectiveness is the number of cases it solves. Other internal and

external gauges include awareness of and participation in

investigations by communities, families, witnesses, and

outside law enforcement agencies; the number of

investigations handled by the squad; the number of

resolutions (although a resolution may not result in

arrest); and the number of successfully prosecuted cases.

Pros and Cons

The main benefit of a cold case squad is that it reduces the

backlog of unsolved homicide cases. The arrest of suspects

in one cold case may either solve other cases (through new

leads and information from those suspects) or prevent new

ones (by keeping killers from committing other crimes).

A cold case squad’s success in even one case can lead to

positive feedback from a family that had been frustrated

by law enforcement’s previous inability to solve the death

of a loved one. The sense of justice and closure gained by

the victim’s family when a case is closed cannot be

overestimated. Even clearing previous suspects from

suspicion can be helpful both to the families and the

investigators. Arrests made in old cases also provide a

good opportunity to present the community with a

positive image of police who never stop caring about

unsolved cases.

A cold case squad, however, also requires significant

staffing and financial resources to pursue leads and track

suspects. In addition, it requires input from potentially

uncooperative or reluctant parties, especially the

community, the victim’s family, and witnesses. A cold case

squad’s success in closing cases and encouraging other

investigations may actually hamper its effectiveness if

resources for pursuing a flood of additional leads are not

available.

Other Options

Not every law enforcement agency can afford a permanent

cold case squad. One alternative is to consult a cold case

organization like the Vidocq Society, an international

nonprofit organization of forensic experts, criminalists,

pathologists, investigators, and attorneys who meet

regularly to solve unsolved homicides. The group works

with the police, prosecutors, and the victim’s family,

providing assistance on a pro bono basis. In addition, the

FBI and various federal, state, or district attorneys’ offices

may be able to provide investigative resources for cold

cases. Funding may also be obtained from federal sources

or foundations.

Contacts

For additional information about cold case squads,

contact:

Scott H. Birch

Criminal Investigator

Idaho Attorney General

700 West State

Boise, ID 83720

208–334–4527
• 7 •

Det. M. Deasaro or Det. R. Shock

St. Petersburg Police Department

1300 First Avenue North

St. Petersburg, FL 33705

Sgt. Jim Givens (retired)

3407 West Mountain View Road 

Phoenix, AZ 85003

602–863–4003

Sgt. Jerry W. King

Cold Case Supervisor

Dallas Police Department

2014 Main Street, Room 300

Dallas, TX 75201

214–670–6976

Capt. Thomas A. Martin

Escambia County Sheriff’s Office

Attention: Criminal Investigation Division

1700 West Leonard Street

Pensacola, FL 32501

850–436–9589

Lt. Hugh F. Mooney

Santa Ana Police Department

60 Civic Center Plaza

P.O. Box 1981

Santa Ana, CA 92702

714–245–8022

Sgt. Jim Munsterman

or Sgt. Jorge Duran

San Diego Police Department

Northeastern Division

Homicide MS #713

San Diego, CA 92101

858–538–8000

or 619–531–2473

Special Agent Charles Regini

Washington Field Office

Federal Bureau of Investigation

Washington, DC 20535

202–278–2225

Special Agent Edward Royal

Florida Department of Law Enforcement

Chairperson, Southeast Florida Cold Case Committee

7265 Northwest 25th Street

Miami, FL 33122

305–470–6827

Sgt. Ray Verdugo

Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department

Homicide Bureau/Unsolved Unit

5747 Rickenbacker

Commerce, CA 90040

213–890–5520

Lt. Ron Waldrop

Homicide Unit Commander

Dallas Police Department

2014 Main Street, Room 300

Dallas, TX 75201

214–670–3739 or 214–670–1633

Arthur Westveer

Behavioral Science Unit

FBI Academy

Quantico, VA 22135

Cpl. J.F. Whitt

Greensboro Police Department

300 Washington Street

Greensboro, NC 27401

336–574–4018 or 336–373–2255

The Vidocq Society

1704 Locust Street, Second Floor

Philadelphia, PA 19103

215–545–1450

www.vidocq.org
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In their research for this document, the authors surveyed

police departments throughout the nation regarding the

size, operation, organization, and success of their cold

case units. 

This bulletin includes information provided by the

following departments and units: Broward County

(Florida) Sheriff’s Office, Columbus (Ohio) Division

of Police, Dallas (Texas) Police Department, Fairfax

(Virginia) Police Department, Federal Bureau of

Investigation/Metropolitan Police Department Cold

Case Homicide Squad (Washington, D.C.), Metro-Dade

(Florida) Police Department, San Diego (California)

Police Department, Santa Ana (California) Police

Department, St. Petersburg (Florida) Police Department,

and Toronto (Canada) Police Service Cold Case Squad.

This document was prepared by the Police Executive

Research Forum under a grant awarded by the Bureau

of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S.

Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and

conclusions or recommendations expressed in this

document are those of the authors and do not necessarily

represent the official position or policies of the U.S.

Department of Justice.

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Assistance *NCJ~199781*