An Introduction and User’s Guide to 

Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

A Guide for the Public Containing:

• Background on wetlands and restoration

• Information on project planning, implementation, and monitoring

• Lists of resources, contacts, and funding sources

Developed by the Interagency Workgroup on Wetland Restoration:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, 

Army Corps of Engineers, Fish and Wildlife Service, and 

Natural Resources Conservation Service
ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 This guide would not have been possible without the contributions of many individuals. The members

of the Interagency Workgroup on Wetland Restoration were critical to the document’s development

from start to finish: Susan-Marie Stedman, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Fisheries; John McShane, Lynne Trulio, Doreen Vetter, Mary Kentula, and , U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA); Jack Arnold, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS); Jeanne Christie,

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and now with the Association of State Wetland

Managers; and Colleen Charles, US Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) and now with the US

Geological Survey.

The Workgroup would like to acknowledge the members of the Expert/User Review Panel for their

practical knowledge and valuable input: Alan P. Ammann, NRCS; Robert P. Brooks, Pennsylvania

State University’s Cooperative Wetlands Center; Andre F. Clewell, Society for Ecological Restoration

(SER); Donald Falk, SER; Susan Galatowitsch, University of Minnesota; Curtis Hopkins, Ducks

Unlimited; Mike Houck, Audubon Society; Michael Josselyn, Tiburon Center for Environmental

Studies; Jon Kusler, Association of State Wetland Managers; Julie Middleton and Leah Miller-Graff,

Izaak Walton League; Steve Moran, Nebraska Rainwater Basin Coordinator; Richard P. Novitski, RP

Novitzki and Associates; Duncan T. Patton, Arizona State University; John Rieger, California

Department of Transportation; Frederick T. Short, University of New Hampshire; William Streever,

BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc.; Jim Stutzman, FWS; Billy Teels, the Wetland Science Institute; Gordon

Thayer, NOAA Fisheries; Ronald Thom, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories; Pat Wiley, NRCS;

and Joy Zedler, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LETTER TO THE READER .......................................................................................... v

PART 1. INTRODUCTION

Why is Wetland Restoration Necessary?........................................................... 1

What are Wetlands?........................................................................................... 1

The Importance of Wetlands.............................................................................. 4

PART 2. WHAT IS RESTORATION?

Definitions ........................................................................................................ 6

Two Approaches to Restoration ........................................................................ 8

PART 3. TACKLING THE RESTORATION PROJECT

Have Someone Do the Project for You.............................................................. 8

Do the Project Yourself .................................................................................... 9

PART 4. PLANNING

Why Plan? ....................................................................................................... 11

Know Your Landscape .................................................................................... 12

Choosing the Project Site ................................................................................. 14

Know Your Project Site .................................................................................. 15

Setting Goals and Objectives ..........................................................................17

Using Reference Sites ..................................................................................... 19

Using Adaptive Management .......................................................................... 23

Refine Your Goals and Objectives ...................................................................23

Choose the Simple Approach .......................................................................... 25

Preparing for Implementation............................................................................ 28

Publicize Your Project .................................................................................... 28

PART 5. IMPLEMENTATION

Stages of Implementation .................................................................................. 29

Working with Volunteers .................................................................................. 32 

Publicize your Project ........................................................................................ 33

PART 6. MONITORING

What is Monitoring? ........................................................................................ 34

What Should I Monitor? .................................................................................. 34

How Should I Monitor? ................................................................................... 35

How Often Should I Monitor? ......................................................................... 37

How Long Should I Monitor? .......................................................................... 38
iv

What Should I Do with the Monitoring Information? ....................................... 38

PART 7. LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT ..............................................................39

PART 8. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Words to the Wise ........................................................................................... 43

A Wetland Restoration/Creation/Enhancement Checklist ............................... 44

RESOURCE APPENDICES

R-I Bibliography of Reference Resources ............................................................... 46

R-II Federal Financial Assistance ............................................................................ 54

R-III Organizations, Websites and Training Opportunities ....................................... 67

TECHNICAL APPENDICES

T-I Social Goals and Related Ecological Functions of Wetlands............................. 74

T-II What Makes a Wetland Unique? ........................................................................ 76

T-III Activities Used to Restore or Change Wetland Characteristics ......................... 83 

T-IV Wetland Parameters and Monitoring Methods ................................................... 87

T-V Definitions of Categories of Wetlands Conservation Activities ........................ 93

List of Tables

1. Where to Find Information on Your Watershed/Landscape and Site ......................... 13

2. Common Wetland Problems and Corrective Methods ............................................... 26

List of Figures [NOTE: these will be included in the publication, but not on website.]

1. Photograph of People Restoring Wetlands ............................................................... vi

2. Diagram of palustrine wetland from Cowardin.......................................................... 3

3. Photographs of Different Types of Wetlands .............................................................. 4

4. Photograph of Watershed............................................................................................. 13

A-1. Hydrographs of Different Types of Wetlands ......................................................... 76

A-2. Photograph of Water Quality Monitoring in the Chesapeake Bay .......................... 77

A-3. Photograph of Habitat Enhancement at the Hayward Regional Shoreline, California 86
v
ii

LETTER TO THE READER

Over the past 200 years, more than 50 percent of the wetlands in the coterminous U.S. have

been lost and many of the remaining wetlands are degraded. These losses and alterations compromise

the important benefits provided by wetlands including protecting water quality, providing habitat for a

wide variety of plants and animals, and reducing flood damage. While preserving remaining wetland

resources is critical to our nation’s environmental health, restoring wetlands also is essential to ensuring

the quality of aquatic systems. Because wetlands are so important to the earth’s ecosystems and

human society, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), Natural Resources Conservation Service

(NRCS), and Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) worked together to develop this document designed

for people wishing to support or undertake wetland recovery projects.

Many documents about restoration and related activities are technical or scientific in nature and

are designed for experts. This document, however, is not a scientific paper. It is designed specifically

for individuals, community groups, municipalities, or others who have little or no experience in the

restoration field. We have written to a general audience for a number of reasons:

• Most land in the U.S. is in private ownership; significant increases in wetland quality and

quantity can be achieved if private landowners restore wetlands on their property.

C Many EPA, NOAA, FWS, and NRCS programs support public involvement in wetland

recovery efforts; information on wetland restoration for the general public may enhance those

programs.

C Restoration is an important, growing environmental field. The general public can benefit from

access to basic information about restoration, and may become encouraged to become

involved in and support restoration projects.

Developing a guide on wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement applicable across the

nation is difficult for a number of reasons. First, the terms “restoration,” “creation,” and “enhancement”

encompass a wide range of activities related to establishing or re-establishing wetlands. Second,

climate, region, wetland type and local conditions determine the type of wetland project that is most

appropriate. Third, the goals of people undertaking wetland projects vary widely and these goals

influence what kind of activities are best suited to a particular site. Given the broad scope of the

subject matter, this document is designed to achieve two goals:

• Introduce non-technical readers to the basics of wetland projects including planning,

implementing, and monitoring,

and

• Direct interested persons to documents and resources specific to a particular region or

wetland type.

The document is organized around these two goals. The text gives information on wetlands,

background on the practice of restoration, and information on the process involved in undertaking a

wetland project. The appendices provide documents, web sites, agencies, and other resources for

finding additional information and advice on restoration, creation, and enhancement projects.
vii

As you read this document, it will become clear that wetland projects vary considerably in size

and complexity. In some cases, one person’s efforts (fencing out cows, mowing instead of tilling, or

eliminating the use of pesticides) can substantially improve a degraded site. On the other hand,

teamwork and the help of specialists is usually required for creating new wetlands or restoring sites with

extensive damage. In her book Restoring Streams in Cities, Ann Riley (1998) states that most

restoration projects require teams of people with expertise in areas such as ecology, hydrology,

engineering, and planning, among others.

Many landowners enroll in federal or state programs in which the public agency puts together a

team of specialists who help with the restoration work. Other landowners or citizen groups may not be

eligible for these programs or simply may want to organize the project themselves. Whether you are

enrolled in a wetland restoration program or are organizing a wetland project yourself, this guide will

help you understand what types of people and resources to consult in order to plan, implement, and

monitor your wetland project.

The agencies who have worked on this informational document want it to be as useful as

possible. Please give us your thoughts and comments on the information provided here. Write us or email us care of:

Susan-Marie Stedman

NOAA Fisheries F/HC

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

susan.stedman@noaa.gov
1

PART 1. INTRODUCTION

Why Restore Wetlands?

The public’s interest in the renewal of natural ecosystems has grown steadily during the past

few decades. While preservation of habitat is a key to environmental health, there is a growing

awareness that restoration is essential to recover ecosystems that have been degraded or destroyed. 

Wetland habitats are the focus of many restoration efforts because, over the past 200 years, the area

and health of wetlands has declined significantly. Less than 46 percent of the 215 million acres of

wetlands estimated to exist in the contiguous U.S. when Europeans arrived remain. Prior to the mid1970s, the draining and destruction of wetlands were accepted practices. Many wetlands altered by

humans were drained to support agricultural uses, while others were filled for urban development, diked

for water impoundments or to diminish flooding, or dredged for marinas and ports. Indirect impacts

from pollutants, urban runoff, and invasion by non-native species continue to degrade and destroy

wetlands. 

Scientists and policy makers also recognize the value of wetland restoration. In 1992, scientists

completed a study for the National Research Council that called for the development of a national

wetlands restoration strategy. Since then, federal agencies have been working with partners to achieve

a net increase of 100,000 acres of wetlands per year by 2005. This goal will be reached only through

carefully planned and implemented restoration, creation, and enhancement projects that add

ecologically valuable wetlands to the landscape. States and the federal government are funding and

conducting large-scale ecosystem restorations, such as the South Florida/Everglades Ecosystem

Restoration, which are contributing to this goal. However, without the support of citizens and local

groups around the country the 100,000 acre per year goal cannot be reached.

For many decades, citizens have been restoring wetland habitats through local non-profit

organizations. In addition, citizens have become involved in restoration through government programs. 

Despite these efforts, the nation is still losing more wetlands than it gains each year. This document is

designed to support and further encourage landowner and community-based wetland restoration. 

What are Wetlands?

Wetland Characteristics. Wetlands are unique ecosystems that often occur at the edge of

aquatic (water, fresh to salty) or terrestrial (upland) systems. They may be wet year-round, wet during

certain seasons, or wet during part of the day. Corps regulations for implementing the federal Clean

Water Act define wetlands as:

 "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency

and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a

prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands

generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas."

In addition to bogs and swamps, wetlands include tidal marshes, prairie potholes, seagrass

beds, forested wetlands, and seasonally ponded sites, such as vernal pools. Some of these wetland

types, such as seasonal wetlands that are dry much of the year, may not always appear to be wetlands. 
2

The National Research Council’s 1995 report entitled “Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries” lists

several major classes of U.S. wetlands and some plants associated with each:

• Freshwater Marsh--grasses, sedges, herbs;

• Tidal Salt and Brackish Marsh--salt tolerant grasses, rushes;

• Prairie Potholes--grasses, sedges, herbs;

• Fens--sedges, grasses, shrubs;

• Bogs--sphagnum moss, shrubs, trees;

• Swamp Bottomland--cypress, gum, red maple; and

• Mangrove Forest--black, red, white mangroves.

Although wetland types are diverse, they all possess several ecological characteristics that

distinguish them from upland or other aquatic ecosystems. Specifically, wetlands are characterized by

unique hydrologic, soil (substrate), and biotic conditions. The hydrological regime, which is determined

by the duration, flow, amount, and frequency of water on a site, is typically the primary factor driving

the other ecological elements of the system. A site has wetland hydrology when it is wet enough to

produce soils that can support hydrophytic vegetation (plants that are adapted to waterlogged

environments). Wetland substrates are called hydric soils, meaning they are saturated with water for

part or all of the year. Saturated soils become anaerobic (without oxygen) as water stimulates the

growth of micro-organisms, which use up the oxygen in the spaces between soil particles. When soils

become anaerobic, they change significantly in structure and chemistry. These factors all make wetland

soils stressful to terrestrial plants. 

As a result of waterlogged, anaerobic conditions, wetlands are dominated by hydrophytic plants

that are specifically adapted to withstand these demanding conditions. The wide diversity of wetland

plant species includes emergent plants (those with leaves that grow through the water column, such as

cattails, sedges, and rushes), submerged plants (pondweeds, eelgrass), and floating-leaved plants (such

as water lilies and duckweed). Wetland plants also include trees (such as cypress, red maple, and

swamp oak), shrubs (such as willows and bayberry), moss, and many other vegetation types. 

Because they exist where land and water meet, wetlands are often used by animals from both

wet and dry environments. A number of invertebrate, fish, reptile, and amphibian species depend on

wetland water cycles to survive or complete their lifecyles. For example, nearly all amphibians and at

least 50 percent of migratory birds use wetlands regularly. Approximately 75 percent of all commercial

marine fish species depend on estuaries, which in turn depend on their wetlands to maintain these

productive ecosystems. See Technical Appendix T-II for more information on these attributes of

wetlands. 

Wetland Classification. Scientists have classified wetlands into various types. A well-known

scheme, developed by Cowardin et al. (1979) for the FWS, has become the federally-accepted

standard (see Box 1). Cowardin et al. state “Wetlands are defined by plants (hydrophytes), soils

(hydric soils), and frequent flooding. Ecologically related areas of deep water, traditionally not

considered wetlands, are included in the classification as deepwater habitats.” For the complete

national wetlands classification standard see

 http://wetlands.fws.gov/Pubs_Reports/pubs.html.
3

BOX 1: Definitions of Wetland Systems from Cowardin, et al. (1979)

Marine:

Open ocean overlying the continental shelf and associated high-energy coast line. Examples of

wetland types within this system are subtidal and intertidal aquatic beds, reefs, and rocky shores.

Estuarine:

Deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that are usually semi-enclosed by land but have

open, partially obstructed, or sporadic access to the ocean and in which ocean water is at least

occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land. Examples of estuarine classes include

subtidal and intertidal emergent wetlands, forested wetlands, and rock bottom.

Riverine:

Wetland and deepwater habitats contained within a channel with two exceptions: 1) wetlands

dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent plants, emergent mosses, or lichens, and 2) habitat

with water containing ocean-derived salts in excess of 5 ppt (parts per thousand). Rivers and

streams fall within this system and subsystems include tidal, perennial, and intermittent

watercourses.

Lacustrine:

Wetlands and deepwater habitats with all of the following characteristics: 1) situated in a

topographic depression or a dammed river channel, 2) less than 30 percent areal coverage by trees,

shrubs, persistent emergent vegetation, emergent mosses, or lichens, and 3) total area exceeds 8

hectares (20 acres). Lakes typify lacustrine wetland systems.

Palustrine:

All nontidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent vegetation, emergent mosses

or lichens, and all such wetlands that occur in tidal areas where salinity due to ocean-derived salts is

below 5 ppt. This system also includes wetlands lacking such vegetation if they are less than 8

hectares, lack wave-action or bedrock shoreline features, and are no deeper than 2 meters at low

water in their deepest spot. Examples include ponds, bogs, and prairie potholes.
4

The Importance of Wetlands

The loss and degradation of wetlands in the U.S. has resulted in a decline in the important

benefits that wetlands provide to society. These benefits or functions usually link to goods and services

important to society. Some of the benefits wetlands provide include:

• Healthy fisheries. A 1991 study by James R. Chambers determined that approximately 75

percent (by weight) of commercially harvested fish and shellfish are dependent on estuaries and

their wetlands. Nationally, commercial fisheries were valued at $3.5 billion in 2000. In

California alone, the seafood industry generates approximately $800 million in sales annually. 

Virtually all freshwater species of fish are dependent to some degree on wetlands, often

spawning in marshes adjacent to lakes or in riparian forests during spring flooding. These

species are sought by recreational anglers, who spent $38 billion in 1996 to pursue their sport. 

• Support for birds and other wildlife. Wetlands are probably best known for their value to

waterfowl. The freshwater wetlands in the prairie pothole region of North America support an

estimated 50 to 80 percent of the continental waterfowl production each year. The loss of wetlands in

this region, which is estimated to be more than 50 percent of the original wetland acreage occurring at

the time of settlement, has been considered a major factor in the decline in nesting success of duck

populations in North America. Wetlands also support a wide diversity of other birds. Eighty percent of

America’s breeding bird population and more than 50 percent of the 800 species of protected

migratory birds rely on wetlands. In addition to birds, other wildlife makes its home in wetlands. 

Reptiles and amphibians are common wetland residents. Nearly all of the approximately 190 species of

amphibians in North America depend on wetlands for breeding. Other wildlife associated with

wetlands includes muskrat, beaver, mink, raccoon, marsh and swamp rabbits, numerous mice, voles,

shrews, lemmings, and other small mammals. Large mammals also rely on wetlands. For example,

moose often depend on wetlands such as white cedar swamps and other forested wetlands for winter

shelter and food.

C High biological productivity. Many wetlands are highly productive ecosystems in large part

because they are rich in organic matter and nutrients. These nutrients support organisms within

the marsh, but in many instances the nutrients are also transferred to nearby aquatic systems

(lakes, rivers, and estuaries), enhancing the productivity of these systems and supporting human

uses such as offshore commercial fisheries.

C Biodiversity protection. Wetlands support a great diversity of species and many of the species

are unique and rare. Among this vast diversity are many plant species used for food, drugs, and

other commodities. There are most likely other beneficial organisms yet to be discovered. Of

the 1,082 U.S. plant and animal species listed as threatened and endangered as of May 31,

1997, 499 species (46 percent) are wetland-associated. These organisms are important to

ecosystem function and, ultimately, for the health of the environment upon which humans

depend.
5

C Erosion control. By dissipating wave energy and stabilizing shorelines, wetland vegetation

buffers the adjacent upland from wave action and intensive erosion. 

C Flood damage reduction. Wetlands intercept runoff and store stormwater, thereby

changing rapid and high peak flows to slower and smaller discharges over longer periods of

time. Because it is usually the peak flows that cause flood damage, the effect of wetlands is to

reduce the danger of flooding. A classic study by the Corps in the Charles River Basin in

Massachusetts estimated that the loss of 3,400 hectares (approximately 8,100 acres) of

forested wetlands would increase downstream flood damage, costing millions of dollars

annually. 

C Good water quality. Wetlands are known for their ability to capture sediments and filter

pollutants, which improves water quality. For example, spring floods often carry very turbid

water which, if not for the filtering that occurs in downstream wetlands, could deposit sediment

that would smother plants and fish eggs. In addition, wetlands constructed to treat municipal

runoff require only a fraction of the construction and operation budget of a conventional system.

C Aesthetics and recreation. Many recreational activities take place in and around wetlands.

Hunting and fishing are popular activities associated with wetlands. Other recreational activities

in wetlands include hiking, nature observation and photography, canoeing, and other boating. 

Many people simply enjoy the beauty and sounds of nature and spend their leisure time near

wetlands observing plant and animal life. Wetlands are also important places for outdoor study

and for gaining an appreciation of natural history and ecology. Properties bordering wetlands

often have higher property values than those that do not. Urban wetlands are typically some of

the last remaining pieces of “natural habitat” providing residents some sense of wildness and

open space.

A primary goal of wetland recovery projects is to preserve and restore wetland benefits by reestablishing natural ecological processes. Some wetland functions can be mimicked with engineered

structures, but engineered methods typically do not provide the maximum ecological benefit. For

example, instead of re-establishing native vegetation on wetland edges to control erosion, a cement wall

could be used to armor the bank. A cement wall could limit erosion for a time, but it does not provide

the other ecosystem benefits of wetlands, such as filtering pollutants and providing fish habitat. For a

more detailed list of wetland functions, see Technical Appendix T-I.
6

PART 2. WHAT IS RESTORATION?

Definitions

The terms “restoration”, “creation”, and “enhancement” have been defined a variety of ways. 

The following commonly-accepted definitions for these terms, based on Lewis (1990), will be used in

this document:

• Restoration - Returning a degraded wetland or former wetland to a pre-existing condition or

as close to that condition as is possible. 

• Creation - Converting a non-wetland (either dry land or unvegetated water) to a wetland. 

• Enhancement - Increasing one or more of the functions performed by an existing wetland

beyond what currently or previously existed in the wetland. There is often an accompanying

decrease in other functions.

A similar set of definitions was adopted by a number of federal agencies in 2000 to keep track

of federal wetland conservation projects. This set of definitions distinguishes between two types of

restoration - “rehabilitation” (restoration in an existing wetland) and “reestablishment” (restoration in a

former wetland). These definitions are in Appendix T-V.

Restoration and enhancement projects may be difficult to distinguish from each other, because

both can encompass activities in existing degraded wetlands. According to the definitions above,

restoration entails returning a wetland to a former state (e.g., filling a ditch so that a drained wetland

becomes flooded again), while enhancement means changing the wetland so that one or more functions

are increased beyond their original state. An example would be diverting a small stream into a wetland

so that the area has deeper water. 

Enhancing a wetland in one way often degrades it in another way. For example, adding more

water to a wetland may create better habitat for fish, but it will decrease the ability of the wetland to

hold flood waters. This trade-off is particularly true for enhancement in relatively undisturbed wetlands. 

Some common examples of the trade-offs that can occur with wetland enhancement include loss of fish

habitat when salt marshes are impounded to provide waterfowl habitat, decreased water storage when

seasonal wetlands are flooded to increase aquatic habitat, and loss of colonial waterbird habitat when

mangroves are removed to provide shorebird habitat. When wetland enhancement is undertaken, the

project goals should include minimizing any decrease in existing wetland functions.

Wetland creation - putting a wetland where it did not exist before - is usually a difficult

undertaking. The primary challenges in creation projects are bringing water to a site where it does not

naturally occur and establishing vegetation on soils that are not hydric. While creation is possible, it

typically requires significantly more planning and effort than restoration projects, and the outcome of the

effort is difficult to predict. Many attempts to convert uplands to wetlands result in ecosystems that do

not closely resemble natural wetlands and that provide limited wetland functions (valuable upland

habitat might be lost in the process as well). Creating wetlands from open water is less difficult with

respect to establishing a water source, but it often requires placing dirt or other fill into existing aquatic

habitats, which means destroying one kind of aquatic habitat to create another. While this trade-off
7

sometimes can be justified ecologically, the engineering and regulatory challenges of these projects are

so complicated that professional expertise and oversight are almost always required. 

The outcome of a creation and enhancement project is often difficult to predict because these

projects essentially try to produce a new ecosystem. With restoration projects, outcomes are more

predictable, although there may still be uncertainty depending on the type of wetland, extent of

degradation, and many other factors. Under certain circumstances, creation or enhancement may be

the best option (see Box 2 for an example) but for the most part, restoration is more likely to have a

positive outcome in terms of improving wetland resources. 

BOX 2: Created Wetlands to Treat Urban Runoff

Created treatment wetlands can control the increased runoff and pollutants generated by

development in watersheds. In the Sligo Creek Watershed of Montgomery County

Maryland, the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments (COG) worked with

many groups and agencies to create wetlands to capture stormwater runoff from local urban

development. The created wetlands control the amount of water reaching Sligo Creek and

allow the sediment and other pollutants to settle out before the water reaches the Creek. 

Because the created wetlands helped improve water quality and establish more natural

flows to Sligo Creek, COG and local groups were able to complete stream restoration in

the Creek itself. They have restored the natural channel shape, replanted native tree

species, and reintroduced native fish and amphibians. 

One additional term common in discussions about wetland restoration, creation, and

enhancement is mitigation. In a general sense, mitigation means reducing environmental damage by

avoiding, minimizing, and compensating for activities that damage or destroy protected resources. In a

wetland context, “mitigation” is often short for “compensatory mitigation” and means wetland

restoration, creation, enhancement, or some other action undertaken for the specific purpose of

compensating for the damage or destruction to another wetland area. When wetland restoration or a

related activity is undertaken as mitigation, there are usually a number of requirements that must be met

to ensure that the wetland activity provides adequate compensation for the associated wetland loss. 

Discussing the regulatory requirements of compensatory mitigation is beyond the scope of this

document. More information on topics specific to compensatory mitigation can be obtained from

agencies involved in wetland regulation, especially the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the

Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) (see Federal agency web sites in Resource Appendix R-III). 

Planning, monitoring, and long-term management, which are important for all wetland

restoration, creation, and enhancement activities, are especially important for wetland mitigation

projects.
8

Approaches to Restoration

Restoration practitioners typically implement only the actions necessary to re-establish natural

wetland processes on a site. The first method to consider for renewing functions is to remove the

factors causing wetland degradation or loss and let nature do the work of restoration. 

This method is often called the passive approach. For example, if wetland vegetation and water

quality are degraded primarily as a result of cattle grazing, then removing the cows may be the only

activity needed to restore the wetland system. Passive methods allow natural regeneration of wetland

plant communities, natural re-colonization by animals, and re-establishment of wetland hydrology and

soils. Passive approaches are most appropriate when the degraded site still retains basic wetland

characteristics and the source of the degradation is an action that can be stopped. The success of

passive methods usually depends on an accessible source of water, the close proximity of wetland

plants and animals, and a mechanism for bringing species to the restoration site. The benefits of passive

methods include low cost and a high degree of certainty that the resulting wetland will be compatible

with the surrounding landscape. 

For many sites, passive methods are not enough to restore the natural system and an active

approach is necessary. Active approaches involve physical intervention in which humans directly

control site processes to restore, create, or enhance wetland systems. The active approach is most

appropriate when a wetland is severely degraded or when goals cannot be achieved in any other way,

as is the case with wetland creation and most enhancements. Active methods include re-contouring a

site to the desired topography, changing the water flow with water control structures (i.e., weirs or

culverts), intensive planting and seeding, intensive non-native species control, and bringing soils to the

site to provide the proper substrate for native species. The design, engineering, construction, and costs

for such work can be significant. 

PART 3. TACKLING THE RESTORATION PROJECT

Enroll In a Restoration Program

There are a number of federal wetland restoration programs, in which landowners can enroll

for help with a wetland recovery project. Federal programs provide technical and financial assistance

to landowners, communities, and local governments interested in restoring native fish and wildlife

habitats, including wetlands, uplands, riparian, and in-stream habitats. Many people take this route to

restoration. Information on federal programs is given in Resource Appendix R-II. Several states, nonprofit organizations, and local governments have similar programs. Check with your state department

of natural resources to determine whether local restoration programs exist.

Hire a Project Manager

If you don’t qualify for a federal or state program, another project approach is to hire someone

with experience in wetland restoration to put together a plan and a team for you. There are consulting

firms and some non-profit groups around the country who have the expertise in-house or can act as a
9

wetland restoration contractor to find those with the right kind of expertise. Check the Association of

State Wetland Managers’ “Directory of Wetland Professionals” at http://www.aswm.org or the

Professional Certification section of the Society of Wetland Scientists’ site at http://www.sws.org for

lists of professional restorationists (and see Resource Appendix R-III).

Be Your Own Project Manager

If you (as an individual or citizen’s group) choose to do the project yourself, you will want to

assemble the people necessary to complete your wetland work. The type of technical advice and

amount of physical help needed will depend on the project goals, the extent of degradation of the site,

and the type of wetland; in short, it will depend on the complexity of the project. An example of a

community-based project requiring moderate effort is described in Box 3, the Decker Lake Wetlands

Project. 

BOX 3: Decker Lake Wetlands Project–A Multi-Partner Effort

In Salt Lake County, Utah, non-native species were contributing to the degradation of Decker

Lake. Youth Force, part of the Salt Lake County Service and Conservation Corps, decided to

do something to help the Lake. The Salt Lake County Job Training Partnership Act and the

EPA’s Five-Star Restoration Program helped fund the effort. EPA’s Region 8 office provided

funding for a local naturalist who gave presentations on local ecology to the Youth Force crew

and the community. With technical assistance from a Fish and Wildlife Service staff member, the

Youth Force team pruned non-native tamarisk and removed Phragmites and other invasive

plants from a 15 foot by 500 foot bank area next to Decker Lake. In addition to improving

lake-side conditions, the Youth Force educated visiting groups about non-native species and

attracted many other volunteers to help at the site. 

For many projects, to accomplish the changes in hydrology, soils, and biota necessary to create

or restore a functioning system, you will need assistance from local experts on wetland restoration. 

Resource Appendix R-I contains potential sources of information. You will most likely need funding for

your project, too. See Resource Appendix R-II for a start on where to look for funding. Some

sources of information, technical help, and funding include:

On-Line Resources. There are numerous on-line sources of wetland restoration experts and

expertise. Resource Appendix R-III contains internet addresses for directories of wetland and

ecological restoration professionals, training opportunities, documents, and other sources of

information. New information is constantly added to the world wide web, so internet searches on

wetland topics will result in additional on-line information.

Agencies. Talk with public agencies to see if they have staff who can help you. You might

begin with your local office of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), US Fish and Wildlife Service

(FWS), NMFS, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), or the Corps. In agricultural areas, check

with the NRCS for restoration expertise. Your state or local natural resource agencies, conservation
10

districts, or state departments of natural resources may have staff with experience in wetland

restoration. Ask for help in developing your restoration plan, reviewing it, or in providing specific

information on the ecology of the wetland type you want to establish. If the agencies you contact do

not have enough time or expertise to help you, ask for other contacts they would recommend. Some

agencies have programs for funding restoration projects (see Resource Appendix R-II). 

Local Experts. Solicit restoration expertise from the local community. Post or send out flyers

asking for volunteer experts in the community to help you. Many people with wetland restoration

expertise are involved in wetland restoration efforts in their off hours. Not everyone who volunteers will

have the expertise you need, so ask questions about what projects they’ve worked on, and look at the

projects to see if they are meeting their goals. 

Universities and Non-Profits. Check with the biology or environmental studies departments

of local colleges and universities. They may offer ecological restoration courses or programs that could

provide you with more background. The course instructors may be willing to help you with your

project by providing technical advice and/or student volunteers. Local non-profit organizations may

have restoration programs as well as access to advisors and volunteers. If local non-profits don’t yet

have a restoration program, you might convince them to team up with you to plan and undertake your

project. Consider such organizations as the Izaak Walton League of America, the local Sierra Club or

Audubon Society, native plant societies, and watershed protection groups.

Several large non-profit groups are significant supporters of restoration work. The National

Fish and Wildlife Foundation helps groups find money to finance environmental projects, Ducks

Unlimited provides funds and expertise to protect and restore wetland habitat, and The Nature

Conservancy is a valuable source of information on restoration, creation, and enhancement projects.

Find contact information for these and other groups in Resource Appendix R-III.

Corporations. Many corporations sponsor wetland restoration, sometimes in partnership with

government agencies and non-profits. For example, the National Corporate Wetlands Restoration

Partnership, sponsored by the National Association of Manufactures, the Gillette Company, and

Coastal America, is a public-private partnership between the federal government, state governments

and private corporations to restore wetlands and other aquatic habitats (see

http://www.coastalamerica.gov/text/cwrp.html).

The remainder of this document describes the four phases of a restoration project: planning,

implementation, monitoring, and long-term management. If you are having someone conduct the

restoration project for you, you will not be using this information yourself, but knowing the process will

help you ask the right questions and understand the work. For those doing their own projects, the

following information gives a basic overview of the restoration process and provides some resources. 

This document cannot provide the specific information on local wetland types, site conditions,

watershed land uses, or implementation that is necessary to accomplish a project. That information

must be obtained from sources with specific local knowledge. Some of these sources are listed in the

Bibliography (Resource Appendix R-I) and in Resource Appendices R-II and R-III. 
11
12

PART 4. PLANNING

Why Plan?

Good planning is a critical, but often overlooked, stage of the restoration process. Inadequate

planning is often cited as a major reason projects fail to restore self-sustaining, naturally-functioning

systems. Here are just a few reasons thoughtful planning is so important:

• Planning requires collecting information about the local area, potential restoration, creation, or

enhancement sites, historical trends, and other topics that will help you understand the project

you are initiating.

• Planning will help you choose the best site to achieve your goals, or, if you already have a

site in mind, planning will help you determine the most reasonable goals for your site.

• Planning will help you establish clear and feasible objectives given the factors that may constrain

the project. 

• Planning identifies the materials, labor, and activities that will be needed to achieve the

project’s goals.

• Objectives and target criteria established during planning direct the type of monitoring that will

be needed.

• Clear goals and objectives will help you explain to other people, including potential

funders, partners, and the local community, what you are trying to accomplish. 

Not every project will require all of the planning steps described in this section, nor will

everything in each step be needed. The extent of the planning required will depend on the condition of

the project site and your goals. More complex projects require more planning.

Know Your Landscape

To plan a wetland project that will be compatible with adjacent ecosystems, you will need to

understand the local landscape. If you have already chosen a project site, understanding the landscape

will help you determine what is ecologically possible on your site. If you are looking for a site,

understanding the landscape will help you choose the site most likely to achieve your goals. 

All wetlands exist in a landscape that has an enormous influence on how the wetland develops

and functions. As you begin planning a wetland project, look at the landscape and identify the major

natural features and any patterns in the way these natural features occur. For example, is the area fairly

flat, hilly, or sloped? These factors affect surface and groundwater drainage and ponding patterns. Are

land uses in the surrounding landscape changing rapidly, as is often the case near eroding coastlines or

in urbanizing areas? Rapidly changing land forms or land uses may have future negative effects on

project sites. Do the wetlands occur throughout the landscape or are they concentrated in one place? 

The distribution of wetlands is influenced by natural features of watersheds, such as topography

(elevation, aspect, and slope), climate, precipitation patterns, soil types, groundwater, surface waters,

floodplains, and vegetation communities. You will want to collect current information on the hydrology,

soils, and vegetation communities in the watershed.
13

Maps with local topography and existing aerial photography can provide essential information

on the primary sources of water in the watershed and the way wetlands are associated with them. 

Rivers, streams, lakes, bays, and the ocean are obvious sources of water that may have wetlands

associated with them. Some wetlands are sustained by less obvious sources of water such as

groundwater (springs, seeps, high water table) or rainfall and surface runoff. Obtain topography,

drainage, and runoff information from the NRCS Field Office Technical Guides. Local water quality

control districts, water management districts, or flood control districts (states often use different names)

will have rainfall data and water level data for local water bodies. Look for data on the groundwater

levels. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and local flood control districts have

maps on the location and elevations of floodplains. These agencies can help you find out the frequency

and magnitude of the flood events that occur in your community. 

Soil maps for your watershed are available from the NRCS and are invaluable in locating where

wetland soils exist or used to exist. Soil maps also often contain information about the location of

springs, ponds, streams, and drainage ditches. Aerial photographs from the USGS or local aerial

photography firms may provide data on some watershed features including the presence of wetlands

and the amount and type of vegetation cover in an area. Information on local vegetation communities

also may come from recent biological reports completed for planning agencies, Environmental Impact

Statements, or other documents available from local planning agencies. Table 1 gives sources of

information on soils, floodplains, and other watershed features. 

Aerial photos are a valuable and commonly used source of data on watershed features such as

topography, drainage and ponding patterns, land uses, vegetation communities and coverage, and

habitat fragmentation and loss. Aerial photos cannot provide all of the information needed to evaluate

watershed conditions; you will need to check with other sources to fully evaluate your watershed.

Consult local agencies and other sources of information to get a full picture of current watershed

conditions. 

In addition to information about present conditions, collect information on the history of the

watershed for valuable insight into the ecosystems that used to be there and what factors have caused

loss or degradation to wetlands in the area. There may be aerial photographs for the past several

decades or other records of past watershed conditions that could provide some of this information. 

Reviewing aerial photos from several years probably will show that some features, such as topography,

have not changed much but others, such as land use, drainage ditches, roads and other structures, and

vegetation communities, have changed significantly. 

After considering natural conditions, identify human influences and constructed features. 

Roads, ditches, dams, and large areas of impervious surfaces such as parking lots are all features of the

landscape that could affect existing wetlands and proposed wetland projects. Adjacent or regional land

uses may or may not be compatible with re-establishing a former wetland or with the goals of a wetland

creation or enhancement. Typical land uses include urbanized lands (residential, industrial,

commercial), agriculture, grazing, mining, forest harvesting, streams, lakes, wetlands, non-harvested

forest, open grassland, or park/recreational open space. 

Urban and industrial areas may be sources of excess sediment and pollutants, such as oil and

heavy metals, that wash off paved areas into streams and wetlands. Agriculture is often a source of
14

pesticides and fertilizers that may harm wetlands. These land uses may impair the health of newly

established wetlands. On the other hand, farms are capable of providing valuable adjacent upland

habitat if there are uncultivated buffer areas between the wetland and the fields. Consider not only

existing land uses, but also future changes to the landscape such as encroaching development. Local

zoning and planning documents from cities and counties can be examined to identify proposed

conservation areas and future development areas.

Two land use questions to address as you plan your project are:

• How might changes in land uses, roads, ditches, and other human-constructed features

have affected water quality, surface water runoff, and drainage/ponding patterns?

• How might these changes in land use, and the presence of roads, buildings, and other humanconstructed features affect your ability to restore, create, or enhance a wetland?

For more information on watershed features, check the data available on your watershed at the

EPA website, http://www.epa.gov/surf. For another information source, check the USGS 7.5 minute

quadrangle maps for your area; these maps have many relevant landscape features. Also, National

Wetlands Inventory (NWI) maps from the FWS for your region will show the location of some (but not

all) of the wetlands. Visit their web site at http://www.nwi.fws.gov/.

Table 1. Where to Find Information on Your Watershed/Landscape and Site

Information Resource Where to Find Information Resources

Aerial Photography Local Geological Survey (USGS) office, NASA (satellite photos such as

those from the Thematic Mapper); Farm Services Agency (FSA); local

aerial photography companies; state natural resource agencies.

Flood elevations and

floodplains

County, city, or town zoning and planning offices; Federal Emergency

Management Agency (FEMA) Flood Hazard Maps; District offices of

the Army Corps of Engineers; state natural resource agencies.

National Wetlands

Inventory (NWI) Maps

For map status and free desktop printing of areas and acreage status

(42% of US available) use the Wetland Interactive Mapper at

http://wetlands.fws.gov. To purchase paper maps (90% of US

available) call the USGS Earth Science Information Center at 1-888-

ASK-USGS or contact a state distribution center from the list at

http://wetlands.fws.gov/state_distribution_centers.htm.

Soil Survey Information Local office of NRCS; find the field office directory at:

http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html.
15

Topographic Maps Local USGS office or USGS’s “Map Finder” at:

http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/Webglis/glisbin/finder_main.pl?dataset_name

=MAPS_LARGE or call 1-800-ASK-USGS; local map or sporting

goods stores.

Choosing the Project Site

Some people decide to do a wetland restoration project with a site already in mind--one they

own or have a special interest in--but, for many people, site selection is part of the planning process. 

All restoration, creation, and enhancement projects must be carefully placed in the watershed to meet

hydrologic, soil, and biotic requirements. Site selection is a process of setting goals and then looking

for sites with characteristics that will support achieving your goals. In the early stages of planning, you

may select one site and then switch to another as your goals are refined. The best approach to site

selection is to be flexible.

The first place to start when looking for a project site is a local, regional, or state list of priority

wetland restoration sites. By choosing a site from such as list, you will be taking advantage of local

wetland restoration expertise. The contacts listed in Appendix R-III, as well as local and state wetland

contacts, can help you find out if there is a list of priority restoration sites for your area. Talking to the

people who created the list can help you pick the site that best fits your goals and resources.

When there are a number of potential project sites, you will need to evaluate them carefully. 

Hammer (1992) lists these six factors to consider when choosing a restoration, creation, or

enhancement site:

• hydrology;

• topography and geology;

• soils;

• biotics; 

• land ownership; and 

• agency requirements.

Information on the first four factors may be provided when you conduct the

landscape/watershed evaluation described in the previous section. When choosing a project site,

specifically consider how to achieve the necessary amount and duration of water for your wetland type. 

Look for potential locations with the hydrology, topography, and geology typical of the type of wetland

you want to restore. Look also for the presence of wetland soils (hydric soils) or drained wetland soils,

which indicate places that would be appropriate for wetland restoration. Choosing a site that is close to

an area with native wetland species or finding a site that already has native species might aid natural

colonization of the site. The best sites are likely to be near wetlands similar to your target type. 

If you are buying a site, determining the ownership of a potential project site is a critical step. 

Find out if there are easements, liens, covenants, water-rights issues, or other aspects of the parcel that

may restrict its use for your project. Agency requirements also determine the suitability of a site for the

intended project. Find out from local, state, and federal agencies what permits or authorizations may
16

be necessary to undertake your project. For more information on this topic, see the section below,

“Government and Agency Requirements.”

Successful site selection produces locations that will support your wetland project goals. You

may need to revise your project goals to reflect the constraints of current conditions if available sites do

not meet your original purposes.

Know Your Project Site

Before designing a project, you will want to learn about the past and current conditions of your

project site by conducting a site assessment. The goals of a site assessment are to:

• understand former conditions on the site;

• determine whether or not a wetland ever existed on the site;

• determine what factors resulted in wetland degradation or loss, if a wetland did exist; and

• determine the current condition of the site.

Before visiting the site and collecting samples or other information, make sure you have

permission from the owner or own the site yourself. 

The site assessment is a more focused version of the landscape evaluation and it may tap some

of the same information sources. Examine historical photos (including aerials), historical maps of the

area, talk to long-time residents, or hire a wetland professional to determine the locations and types of

former wetlands. Past conditions can provide valuable information on impacts to the site that may

affect restoration outcomes. For example, if the site history reveals that the area was once a dumping

ground for potentially toxic materials, you should contact experts on toxic substances to determine how

to proceed. A range of toxic materials can occur in polluted sites, and while some pollutants may be

serious problems, others may not. Expert advice is essential for determining whether a polluted site is

suitable for your project or whether you should seek another project location. 

You will also need to characterize the current conditions of the restoration, creation or

enhancement site. Information on the site’s current hydrology, soils, and vegetation will help you

understand the site’s potential wetland restoration, creation, or enhancement. Visual inspection of the

site and the sources listed in Table 1 can provide qualitative (general) information on the following

characteristics:

• topography;

• evidence of erosion;

• evidence of drainage and water movement patterns;

• major vegetation types;

• human structures and land use; and

• adjacent land uses.
17

In addition to qualitative information, collecting site-specific, quantitative (numerical) data is

often necessary to determine the causes and cures for wetland loss or degradation. Quantitative site

measurements may be required to obtain permits or to design the project. Collecting quantitative data

typically requires the help of local experts familiar with conducting biological assessments and wetland

delineations, and who are knowledgeable about the local natural communities. Several quantitative

parameters that are often measured in the field include:

• exact elevations and topography of features;

• levels of soil nutrients, organic matter, and moisture;

• water flow rates and timing;

• location of wetland soils, wetland plants, and wetland hydrology; and

• diversity and cover of native and invasive or non-native plant species.

You also should look for site conditions that could limit the project goals. Modifications to the

project design or maintenance plan may be needed to address problems such as:

• poor water quality or lack of sufficient water;

• local pollutants; 

• improper sun exposure for plantings;

• lack of native species nearby;

• invasive and non-native species on adjacent lands;

• herbivores that could decimate new plants (Canada geese, muskrats, etc.);

• human uses (of the site and adjacent sites) that are incompatible with restoration;

• future land uses (in and around the site) that are incompatible with restoration; and

• presence of cultural resources.

As noted earlier, watershed conditions play a major role in achieving restoration, creation, or

enhancement goals. It is important to realize that it may be harder to reach your goals at an isolated site

than at a site located near or adjacent to comparable wetlands. Isolated habitats may be more

vulnerable to invasion by non-native species and are more difficult for native plants and animals to

colonize. However, some wetland types such as prairie potholes and vernal pools are naturally

separated from similar habitats. For these types of wetlands, it is appropriate to restore or create them 

where they typically occur in the landscape and in numbers typical to the watershed. 

Setting Goals and Objectives

As you selected the project site and evaluated its condition, you did so with ideas of what you

want to achieve. These goals, which are general statements about the desired project results, reflect

your motivations for undertaking the project. Do you want to see your site support a diversity of native

plant and animal species? Are you interested in improving the water quality in local streams? Do you

hope to return the site to a condition you remember from years before? Examples of goals for wetland

restoration projects might include “repair damage to seagrass beds from boat traffic” or “restore the

native plant species and seasonal water cycle to a drained prairie pothole.”

Goals provide an overall framework. The next step is to develop objectives that provide

specific targets focused on hydrology, soils, topography, and/or biological factors that must be changed
18

on the project site to establish or restore a wetland. For the goal “restore the natural hydrology and

vegetation of a degraded Atlantic coast salt marsh” the following objectives would be appropriate:

• Restore the natural tidal regime;

• Ensure the mudflat is returned to a level appropriate for vegetation;

• Re-establish dominance of the native plant community, e.g., Spartina and Salicornia species;

and

• Limit the presence of non-native or invasive plant species.

 

Progress is determined by measuring performance standards or target criteria that are linked

to each objective. Target criteria often include a numerical end-point and a time line to reach that endpoint. For example, the objective “Restore the natural tidal regime” might be linked to this target

criterion: “Remove enough of the dike so that within one year the tidal range upstream of the dike is

equal to the tidal range downstream of the dike.” Such numerical targets are measurable and will allow

you to know if the site is progressing toward your goals. You should set target criteria that are: (1)

measurable and objective; (2) collectable with simple methods that generate comparable data each time

they are used; and (3) produce repeatable results. Include incremental targets that reflect how the site

is likely to change as it moves from its initial condition toward a more established community.

Box 4 provides information on the target criteria set for the West Eugene Wetlands Project in

Oregon. This project also illustrates another important point: even if you have a very specific goal, such

as providing additional wetland habitat for a rare species, be sure that you focus not just on that one

wetland function, but plan to restore as much of the wetland system as possible. 

Here are other examples of target criteria:

C If your goal is to restore a seagrass bed, then one objective might be to re-establish native

eelgrass. A target criterion for that objective could be to “establish eelgrass plants covering 60

percent of the original area at the end of 3 years.”

• If your goal is to restore a seasonal prairie pothole by re-establishing its natural hydrology, then

one target criterion might be to “establish water depths between 1 and 2 feet on 75 percent of

the site for the period of the year necessary to support native vegetation.”
19

BOX 4: West Eugene Wetlands Project Targets Rare Species Habitat

The Lane-Metro Youth Corps of Eugene, Oregon, undertook a 9-month wetland restoration project

in the West Eugene Greenway, which is managed by the Army Corps of Engineers. The goal of the

project was to complete work in endangered and threatened species habitat that would lead to

natural re-colonization by the native species. The specific measurable target criteria to be achieved

in nine-months included:

• Enhance and restore 5 acres of habitat to provide for the survival and reproduction of 

Bradshaw’s lomatium and Willamette Valley daisies.

• Collect seeds from 40 acres of native wetlands.

• Construct 11 accessory water channels to enhance site hydrology to support rare daisies.

• Plant native species along 5,000 feet of levees to provide a diverse native plant community.
20

Using Reference Sites

How do restoration specialists determine what kind of hydrology, soil conditions, or specific

organisms to establish at a project site? A standard method for setting restoration targets is to base

them on the conditions of the wetland that existed on the site before it was altered. If hydrology, soil,

and biotic data on the pre-damaged condition of the wetland are complete enough, this information can

be used to set standards for partially or completely re-establishing the pre-disturbance conditions. 

Information collected from aerial photos and historical maps may show the former extent of vegetation

and/or hydrology. Data from sources such as local water districts, universities, and citizens, may also

provide the detail needed. 

However, in most cases, there is not enough detailed background information on plant species

and cover, animal species and abundance, soil conditions, or hydrology to set target criteria. Because

historical information is often missing, most restorationists depend on local “reference sites,” which

are sites that represent the least disturbed wetlands of the target type in the area. The ecological

conditions at reference sites are usually indicative of the natural communities that can be supported

under current conditions. Even if we wanted to restore to a “pristine” ecosystem such as the Europeans

first saw when they arrived in North America, changes to land uses, water sources, or other aspects of

the surrounding landscape in the last 300 years usually make it difficult or impossible to restore a

wetland to its pre-disturbance ecological condition (see Box 5). Reference sites provide insight into

what is possible now. 

BOX 5: Restoration in “The Meadowlands” of Northern New Jersey

A good example of altered regional hydrology and its effect on wetland restoration exists in northern

New Jersey in “The Meadowlands.” In colonial times, this area was an Atlantic white cedar swamp,

but today the cedars are gone, replaced by fill, roads, buildings, some brackish marsh, and a tall reed

known as Phragmites. There are numerous wetland restoration projects in The Meadowlands, but

none of them have as their goal restoration of a white cedar swamp. In addition to all the other

landscape changes, a dam on the Hackensack River has made the area too salty for cedars. 

Instead, wetland restoration efforts are focusing on establishing brackish water marsh, which is much

more appropriate given the current regional ecological and hydrological conditions.

To collect reference site data, examine the least altered nearby wetlands that are in the same

landscape position as your site (e.g., along a river, in an isolated depression) and appear to be similar to

the pre-disturbance condition of the degraded wetland, if known. You may have already collected

some information on similar wetlands when you were learning about the local watershed. Try to identify

several reference wetlands, because wetlands of the same type can vary considerably in their

characteristics. Looking at multiple wetlands of the type you hope to establish can help you understand

the natural range of variation of the wetland type. Be sure you have the landowner’s permission to

enter any property you examine.
21

Restorationists also look for data on different phases of recovery to understand how the system

will change over time. Some states are currently developing sets of data from reference wetlands. 

Contact your state water quality agency or department of natural resources to find out if your state is

gathering information on reference wetlands. The wetlands division of your regional EPA office may

also have information on reference sites. Look also for other restoration, creation, or enhancement

projects and talk to the people responsible about how well the project is progressing toward its goals. 

Understanding how other restoration projects are developing can help you determine whether your

goals are appropriate.

You or someone on your team should collect basic information on the hydrology, soils, and

plant community from the reference sites. General information can be collected from visual inspection

of the sites and from the sources you consulted for general information on your project site. Reports

and published literature may also be a source of general information on reference sites. The Community

Profiles series published by the FWS provide basic information on a range of wetland types (see

Resource Appendix R-I). Professional restorationists often collect specific, quantitative measurements

on the characteristics of the reference sites. These characteristics are the same as those used to

quantify conditions on the project site. 

When using data from reference sites to set target criteria, remember that ecological systems

are not static, so target criteria should include an acceptable range of natural variation. Also plan for

typical disturbance regimes, such as 2-year to 100-year flood conditions. While natural disturbance

regimes are essential to the long-term health of ecosystems, many projects have been damaged or lost

soon after completion because planners did not consider the flood potential or natural disturbance

regime of their site.

Below is a list of questions to ask your technical advisors and to keep in mind as you plan your

wetland project. Don’t be alarmed if the answer to many of these questions is “we don’t know

precisely and finding out would be too costly.” Many of these questions do not have simple answers,

but even partial answers can help you in your planning.

Ask about Hydrology:

C Where can regional baseline hydrologic data, including typical and extreme flood events and

their potential, be found? 

C What are the current hydrologic characteristics of the restoration site?

C What are the pre-disturbance hydrologic characteristics at the restoration site (if known)?

C What parameters should be measured at the restoration and reference sites?

C What has caused changes to the hydrologic characteristics of the site (what removed the water

or prevents it from entering your site)?

C Where can reference sites for this wetland type be found in the watershed or nearby?

C Are there potential effects on downstream areas of changing the hydrologic characteristics of

your site?

C What is the relationship between the elevation of the land surface and primary water sources

(surface and ground water) for the wetland?
22

C What changes might restore hydrology and the correct relationship between soil and water

levels?

C What design elements should be included to restore the typical hydrological regime and allow

for extreme events?

C What soft engineering or bioengineering methods are available to rectify the problems?

C What factors might constrain restoring full hydrological functioning?

C What are likely reasons that the site might fail to reach its hydrological goals?

C What potential remediation or correction measures are available?

C Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

C What parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored and for how

long?

Ask about Water Quality:

C Are there indications of pollution? What are the likely sources?

C What water quality tests are necessary?

C What are the best methods for testing water quality (field kits, lab testing)?

C What methods are available for fixing pollution problems?

C Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

C What parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored and for how

long?

Ask about Wetland Soils and Substrates:

• Where can baseline information about local soils be found?

• Where can reference wetlands be found in the watershed or nearby watersheds?

• What are the typical characteristics of substrates in the wetland of interest? Levels of organic

matter, nutrients, soil moisture? Particle sizes and soil structure?

• Are there impervious soil layers contributing to the wetland dynamics?

• What soil parameters should be sampled to characterize the site?

• What are typical substrate elevations and microtopographic features of this wetland type

(including channels, islands, and mounding)?

• If toxic soils are found, can they be removed or remediated?

• What methods are available to bring the soil conditions and substrate elevation in line with

observations from relatively undisturbed wetlands? 

• What bioengineering or soft engineering implementation methods are available?

• Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

• What soil and elevation parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored

and for how long? 
23

Ask about Wetland Plant Communities:

• What native plant species are found in pioneer and mature stages of the target wetland type? 

What are the dominant and rare species?

• What special status, threatened, or endangered species are found in the target wetland type?

• What natural disturbances are typical of this wetland type? 

• On the potential restoration site, what plant species are present, including special status and

listed species, non-native invasives, and species native to the target wetland?

• What soil and hydrolgical conditions on the potential restoration site would constrain

establishing the native community? How should these conditions be changed?

• How should the site be prepared (adding soil amendments, removing non-natives, etc.) for

establishing native plants? 

• What methods are available for eliminating the most damaging non-native species?

• Is it likely that native species will colonize the site quickly? If not, what methods should be used

to establish native plants?

• What are the threats to newly established plants (herbivores, flooding, intense sun, etc.) and

how should they be combated?

• Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

• What plant and plant community parameters should be monitored? How often should they be

monitored and for how long? 

Ask about Wetland Animal Communities:

• What native animal species are found in pioneer and mature stages of the target wetland type? 

What are the dominant and rare species?

• What special status, threatened, or endangered animal species are found in the target wetland

type?

• What natural disturbances affect animal species in this wetland type? 

• On the potential restoration site, what animal species are present, including special status and

listed species, non-native invasives, and species native to the target wetland?

• What soil, hydrolgical and plant community conditions on the potential restoration site would

constrain establishing the native community? How should these conditions be changed?

• What habitat conditions will attract the typical animal species and what specific habitat features

can be added to attract specific valuable and/or rare species?

• What methods are available for eliminating the damaging non-native species?

• Is it likely that native species will colonize the site quickly? If not, what can be done?

• What are the threats to newly established animal populations on the site (predators, flooding,

pollution, human impacts, etc.) and how should they be managed?

• Are the project goals reasonable, feasible, and likely to result in establishing the maximum

ecological functioning possible for the site? 

• What parameters should be monitored? How often should they be monitored and for how

long?
24

Using Adaptive Management

Natural ecosystems are complex. Even if you start out with detailed information about a site,

the way it responds to changes can be unpredictable. Unforseen events may occur, such as a

unexpected plant species colonizing the site, or new information may become available, such as the

presence of a natural spring on the site. These unforseen elements may be beneficial or detrimental to

the project. In either case, you will need to make decisions about how to adapt your project to

account for the new element.

Adaptive management is a technique that involves incorporating new information into all stages

of a wetland project. Using adaptive management means you continuously evaluate your project in light

of new information, generating ideas and making decisions about how to further refine the project. This

process also can be thought of as a “feedback loop” in which information about what is happening with

your project currently helps you determine how best to go forward with the next step of project. 

Monitoring (covered in detail in Part 6) provides the information, you and/or your project team provide

the decisions. Adaptive management is a repeated process that should be applied through the lifetime

of the project.

In the planning stage, adaptive management should be used to refine goals and objectives (see

next section) and make changes to implementation plans as necessary. In the implementation stage,

adaptive management should be used to evaluate the need for changes to any of the original plans for

specific components of the project, e.g., the number and types of plants, the configuration of channels

or grading, or the amount of new soil brought in. In the long-term management stage, adaptive

management should be used to keep the project developing toward a positive outcome.

Refine Your Goals and Objectives

The initial goals and objectives for any project may change based on the ecological data

collected about the landscape, current and past conditions on the potential restoration site, and the

ecology of reference sites. In addition, non-ecological factors such as agency requirements and

socioeconomic factors (financial resources, available labor, concerns of adjacent landowners) may alter

what you can achieve. Therefore, you may need to revise your goals after considering the following

factors. 

Government and Agency Requirements. Discuss your project goals with agencies that

regulate and manage natural resources. If you have asked these agencies for information or help with an

earlier planning stage, you may already be aware of any regulatory requirements relevant to your

project. Do not assume that wetland restoration, creation, or enhancement projects are exempt from

needing a permit or other authorization--some are, but many are not. For complete information you

should call the appropriate federal, state, or local regulatory agencies. If you want to work in a former

or existing wetland, you may need a permit for your project. Begin with your local district of the

Corps. This agency regulates discharges of dredged or fill material to wetlands under Section 404 of

the Clean Water Act. Talk to the EPA about other applicable Clean Water Act regulations. If your

site is on agricultural land, you may need to talk to the NRCS. Your project also may be subject to

federal and state regulations that protect certain kinds of fish and wildlife. States often have "Natural
25

Heritage" or rare species programs that can tell you whether there are plants and animals protected by

state or federal regulations on or near your site. Alternatively, you can contact state fish and wildlife

agencies and/or local offices of the FWS and NMFS for information. See Resource Appendix R-II for

contact information. In addition, you should talk to your city and county planning offices about local

requirements or permits for your project. 

Be sure to avoid or minimize adverse environmental impacts that may result from wetland

project construction activities. For example, earth moving, which can be a part of more complex

projects, can cause erosion, increases in particulate matter in the air, and potential disturbance to locally

nesting bird species. Avoid impacts by following the requirements of regulating agencies and by

implementing the Best Management Practices (BMPs) recommended by the agencies and local

municipalities. BMPs to limit erosion may include using silt fences and hay bales to capture silt,

avoiding work during rainy periods, and/or capturing runoff in a holding pond. 

 Socioeconomic Factors. For many projects, restoration potential is restricted by societal

factors. Some of these include availability of funds, volunteer resources, local landowner concerns,

community support, and legal issues (such as water rights). The relevant societal issues must be

considered in your project design and implementation, with the hope that someday in the future some of

the limitations to a more complete restoration may be removed.

A major limiting factor is, of course, money. Some projects are relatively inexpensive, but

others can be major financial undertakings. Typically, the more engineering that is needed, the more

expensive your project will be. To help finance your project, begin with the list of funding sources in

Resource Appendix R-II. Other sources of money or information on funding are:

• local cities or counties;

• state programs, especially through parks and recreation, wildlife, or other resource

agencies; and 

• local corporations, some of which have philanthropy programs for local projects. 

Other potential constraints on your project may arise from adjacent landowners and/or a lack

of community support. Local communities should be involved if your project may result in controversial

effects on public lands. Neighbors may feel that your project could damage their property through

potential flooding or other effects. Ask your local experts and agencies if there appear to be any

potential community or adjacent landowner issues. See Box 6 for information on an enhancement

project that factored in these types of challenges.
26

BOX 6: Wetland Enhancement in Marshy Hope Creek, Maryland

On Maryland’s eastern shore, Marshy Hope Creek winds its way to the Chesapeake Bay. Along

most of its reaches it is a meandering stream with lush riparian vegetation. However, where it flows

through the town of Fredericksburg, the Creek was straightened and channelized with levees. Much

of the vegetation was removed and the historical floodplain had been filled. The levees containing the

modified portion of the Creek prevented flooding of adjacent properties and local landowners did

not want these embankments to be removed. The Maryland Department of Natural Resources

(DNR) worked with the town to develop a plan that enhanced the Creek’s ecological values while

leaving the levees in place. DNR removed fill from the floodplain and created channels through the

levee that allowed river water to flow to newly sculpted depressions on the floodplain. The channels

also connected the river with existing deep ponds adjacent to the floodplain that were remnants of

former mining operations. Soil excavated from the floodplain was used to fill part of the mining

ponds to create shallow water habitat for fish. Native vegetation recolonized the floodplain and fish

quickly began to use the channels and ponds. Although total restoration was not possible, enhancing

the conditions adjacent to Marshy Hope Creek increased overall wetland values of the area. 

Choose the Simple Approach

You now have a better idea of what your site conditions are like and what you want to achieve. 

What, then, will need to be done for your site to meet its restoration, creation, or enhancement goals? 

This question links goals with implementation. Methods for implementing projects are very diverse and

should be developed with as much ecological, hydrological, and/or soils expertise as you can muster. 

In general, the best approach is to use the simplest methods possible, because the more complex a

wetland project is, the greater the chance that something could go wrong. Implementation should be

achieved through the least destructive means and the most ecologically sound solutions. Passive

methods should be considered before more active interventions. 

If natural processes cannot be initiated with passive methods, then implementation should focus

on bioengineering or soft engineering solutions over traditional hard engineering solutions. Soft or

bioengineering methods are based on working with natural processes. This approach is an alternative

to the traditional, hard engineering solutions that often replace ecosystem functions with

human-designed structures. For example, hard engineering solutions to controlling erosion along a

stream bank such as rip rap or cementing the stream banks destroy natural wetland processes. Soft

engineering uses physical solutions that reinstate ecological processes and allow the system to become

as self-sustaining as possible. In addition to being ecologically preferable, bioengineering methods are

often more economical than traditional techniques. Some researchers have found that hard engineering

for erosion control can cost up to four times as much as soft engineering methods. Examples of soft

engineering solutions to stream bank erosion include: 

• planting native vegetation, especially fast growing species such as willows;

• shoring the banks with logs that will decompose in time; or
27

• stabilizing the bank with “geotextile materials” that do not decompose, but are covered with soil

and allow root growth through the material.

Table 2 contains some of the most common and obvious examples of wetland damage and

typical corrective measures. The table also lists some cautions. If the damage is severe or has been

present for a long time, reversing the damage may not be as simple as it initially seemed. Some of these

corrective measures are also applicable to implementing enhancement or creation projects. Technical

Appendix T-III contains additional information on typical measures for restoring, creating, or enhancing

wetlands.
28

Table 2. Common Wetland Problems and Corrective Methods

Wetland Damage Reason for Damage Suggested

Correction

Considerations

Hydrology

Water Quality

Impairment

Excess sediment or 

nutrients in runoff from

adjacent area

Work to change 

local land use 

practices; install 

vegetated buffers/

swales/constructed

treatment wetlands;

install sediment

traps.

Sediment traps will need

periodic cleaning; an

expert may be needed to

design buffers and swales.

Water Quality

Impairment

Excess sediments from

eroding slopes

Stabilize slopes with

vegetation/

biodegradable

structures.

Many corrective methods

exist; look for most

sustainable and effective

methods.

Altered Hydrology

(drained)

Ditching or tile drains Fill or plug ditches

or drains; break

tiles.

Organic soil may have 

decomposed so that the 

elevation of the site is

lower than it used to be.

Altered Hydrology

(constrained)

Road crossing with 

undersized culvert

Replace with

properly sized

culvert or with a

bridge.

Hydrologic expert needed

to correct this.

Altered Hydrology

(drained)

Former wetland diked

off from its water

sources

Remove/breach

dikes or install

water control

structures.

Substrate elevation may

not be correct for

vegetation; add soil or

control water level with

low maintenance

structures.
Wetland Damage Reason for Damage Suggested

Correction

Considerations

29

Soils

Raised Elevation Soil dumping or fill Remove material. Fill may have compressed 

soil to lower than initial 

elevation; take steps to

avoid erosion.

Subsidence Soil removal; oxidation

of organics;

groundwater removal

Add fill; allow

natural

sedimentation.

Fill must support target

wetland; test fill for toxic

compounds.

Toxic Soils By-product of on-site

or off-site industrial

process; dumping;

leaching and

concentration of natural

compounds.

Treatment systems

or methods appropriate to the soil /

pollutants; remove

material; cover with

appropriate soil. 

Work with experts to

choose treatment methods

that cause least amount of

indirect damage; choose a

different site to avoid

serious toxin problems.

Biota

Loss of Biodiversity Change in original

habitat

Restore native plant

and animal

community using

natural processes.

Allow species to colonize

naturally; import species as

appropriate.

Loss of Native Plant

Species

Invasive and/or nonnative plants; change in

hydrology; change in

land use

Remove invasive,

non-native plants

(allow native plants

to re-colonize); try

to reverse changes

in hydrology.

Pick lowest impact

removal method; repeat

removal as non-natives reinvade; alter conditions to

discourage non-native

species.
30

Prepare for Implementation

After determining what site changes are necessary, prepare to implement the changes by

developing project designs such as field protocols or construction plans and specifications. Protocols

are written guidelines for field crews on how to undertake the work. They should be as specific as

possible, but in easy-to-understand language, especially if volunteers will be doing the work. Even with

protocols, volunteers will need direction in the field.

Most projects will need some level of documentation to direct implementation; more complex

projects will probably need construction plans. Good designs include at least these elements:

• specifications/diagrams for all installation/construction features;

• descriptions of site preparation needed;

• descriptions of how to install features, such as plants, etc.;

• plans to prevent construction impacts, such as erosion;

• lists of plant species, numbers of each to be planted, and planting locations;

• plans for site maintenance; and 

• monitoring features, such as groundwater wells, staff gauges, or boardwalks. 

The design of restoration, creation, or enhancement projects can be highly technical and may

require hydrologists, ecologists, geotechnical experts, engineers, and/or landscape architects. 

Construction documents are usually prepared by engineers for use by contractors in the field for

constructing a project. If construction documents are necessary, take the time to find engineering and

construction firms that are flexible and willing to undertake non-traditional designs and soft engineering

methods. Try to find firms that have done wetland restoration work in the past. Talk to their former

clients to see what their work was like. Be sure your ecological advisors work with the engineers to

produce plans that accurately reflect the methods you want used for the project. During construction,

have the work inspected by your ecological experts to be sure that the plans are being followed

accurately. 

Publicize Your Project

After talking with your neighbors and the appropriate agencies, and after developing feasible

goals and objectives, consider writing a small article for a local newsletter or newspaper describing

your project and its benefits. Publicity at the end of the planning phase lets people know about the

work and may turn up local issues you had not considered. More often, publicity builds public support

and can help you find volunteers to help you install and monitor the project. 
31

BOX 7: Steps in the Planning Process

• Collect past and present information on the local watershed.

• Choose a project site.

• Collect past and present information on the project site.

• Collect data on reference sites.

• Develop objectives and target criteria based on watershed, project site, and reference

site information. 

• Talk to the agencies about appropriate regulations. Talk to adjacent landowners and

identify important social or economic factors that could affect the restoration.

• Refine goals and objectives.

• Decide on methods for implementing changes designed to rectify damage and meet

planning goals and objectives. 

• Prepare designs, such as protocols or construction documents, to direct 

implementation.

• Publicize your project.

PART 5. IMPLEMENTATION

Stages of Implementation

Implementation is the physical process of actually doing the restoration, creation, or

enhancement project according to the design developed in the planning stage. This phase of the

restoration process is popular with volunteers and it is the most visible phase to the public.

Implementation may require a series of steps depending on the wetland type, your project goals and

objectives, and the extent of the degradation. Steps in implementation typically include site preparation,

plant preparation, installation, maintenance, and continuous adaptive management.

Site Preparation. During site preparation, the project site is altered either to allow natural

processes to operate or to prepare it for additional human intervention. Common activities in this stage

are:

• removing non-native species (See Box 6);

• removing piles of soil, debris and trash;

• amending soil with nutrients or other enhancements;

• removing polluted soils;

• bringing in appropriate soils or substrates;

• plugging or removing drains;

• fencing out cattle or other herbivores;

• breaching levees; and

• mowing or burning the site to reinstate the natural disturbance regime. 
32

Plant Preparation. For many restoration projects you can rely on natural re-vegetation to reestablish native wetland vegetation. Native seed banks are present in most wetlands. As long as the

soils have not been removed or filled over, native seeds will germinate and grow when suitable

conditions have been restored. There also may be local sources of plants that can drive natural recolonization. However, for many other projects, indigenous species must be brought to the site. If

native plants must be grown for the site, plant preparation should begin during or before site

preparation. Growing the number of plants needed may take 6 months to a year or even longer. 

Always use native species and cuttings or seeds from local plants. Locally-adapted seeds and

plants will have a better chance of surviving the conditions at your site than plants or seeds of the same

species that come from another area. When collecting native plant material, take care not to damage

the collection site and always check with the property owner (public or private) before collecting plant

material. Plant preparation includes: 

• collecting seeds;

• propagating plants;

• collecting cuttings; and

• collecting plugs (newly-grown whole plants with soil).

There are innumerable methods to collect and treat plants and seeds. Find out from local

botanists, plant experts, or restorationists what methods are best for the species you need. Native plant

nurseries and native plant societies may also have expertise with local native species and they may have

seeds or plants appropriate for the area. They may also be able to grow particular species that are not

available in nurseries.
33

BOX 8: Controlling Invasive Species--A Tale of Two Wetlands

Invasive species, especially plants, are a tremendous problem in the U.S. They degrade more

habitat each year than urban growth. The FWS estimates that 4,600 acres of habitat are lost each

day to invasive species. Consequently, removing these invaders is a major component of restoration

work. Control methods and success rates vary widely, as the following examples show. 

In Fairfield, Connecticut, impounded salt marshes that were once tidal were overrun by Phragmites,

a tall invasive wetland plant. Phragmites had replaced the local plant species and, being prone to

burning in the summer, the invader was threatening homes near the marsh. Phragmites is intolerant

of high salt levels and the City was able to quickly reduce the infestation by installing tidal gates that

allowed the return of salt water to the marsh. This project was expensive, but it was very effective.

At the Hayward Regional Shoreline along the San Francisco Bay, an insidious invader has taken root

in the tidal salt marsh. Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), a species from the east coast of

the U.S., is replacing its close relative, the native Spartina foliosa. Smooth cordgrass is a tough

customer. It is tolerant of a wider range of conditions than its cousin and it has resisted all efforts to

remove it. Biologists have tried digging it up, spraying it with herbicide, and cooking it under black

plastic mats. None of these measures have worked well and the plant is spreading. The search is on

for a biological control agent that will specifically target and destroy S. alterniflora. 

Installation/Construction. A wide array of activities can occur during this phase including

large earth-moving activities, such as grading. Minimize the temporary but destructive impacts that may

occur at this stage. Limit the movement of heavy vehicles to the smallest footprint possible and use the

methods that create the least disturbance possible. Implement appropriate Best Management

Practices. Installation/construction may include:

• constructing water control structures;

• installing bank/edge stabilization structures;

• building habitat islands;

• grading existing soils;

• placing and grading new soil;

• planting plugs, seeds or newly-grown plants;

• installing plant protections (tubes, screens, etc.);

• placing irrigation systems; 

• constructing and placing habitat structures.

As-Built Documentation. After the project is installed, conduct an “as-built” assessment,

which is a detailed description of the site conditions immediately after the installation is completed. If

you and your volunteers installed the site, document whether everything was installed as expected. If
34

the work was done by a contractor, the as-built assessment should be conducted by a site inspector

who is not employed by the contractor to document whether the project plans and specifications were

followed by the contractor. This also ensures that the site complies with any regulatory (e.g., permit)

requirements. 

It is likely that there will be some deviations from the site plan caused by human error or

unanticipated characteristics of the site (e.g., a hidden spring in a corner of the site). Use adaptive

management: any deviations should be documented and discussed with your technical team to

determine whether they need to be corrected to ensure that the project meets its goals. If the installed

project deviates in important ways from the plans, have the construction firm correct the problem--but

only if the benefits of corrections outweigh the impacts from further disturbance. If corrections are

needed, they should be made as soon as possible. The as-built assessment also provides a “baseline,”

or starting point, for measuring change during subsequent monitoring.

Maintenance. Implementation does not end with installation. Maintaining the site in good

ecological condition is a critical part of implementing a project. Many factors can conspire to undo the

hard work you put into the previous stages. Maintenance may require:

• controlling non-native and invasive species; 

• controlling herbivores;

• repairing structures;

• maintaining monitoring and other equipment;

• replacing plants;

• mowing, burning, and/or other activity reinstating or mimicking the natural disturbance regime; 

• reducing or preventing human intrusion; and

• controlling local pollutants.

Working with Volunteers

The implementation and monitoring phases are great times to involve volunteers and there are

many good reasons to include volunteers in your project. Volunteers can help reduce the costs of

implementation, provide community support, and bring a social dimension to the work. Working with

volunteers may be one of the most rewarding aspects of your project. Among the volunteers, you may

find experts, new friends, and dedicated helpers. Some helpers may be inspired to undertake a similar

project of their own and you may find people who will want to continue stewarding your site by helping

you with maintenance and monitoring. 

Look for volunteers through non-profit environmental groups, schools, public community

service groups, and private service groups organized by local corporations. If you decide to use

volunteers, you will enjoy the vitality that they bring to the project. You will also have to carefully train

and monitor those enthusiastic helpers. The more complex the task the more training volunteers will

need. Generally, it is best to have volunteers do one or two simple but time-consuming tasks. Keep

things interesting by rotating people among different tasks. Carefully observe volunteers to be sure they

are following protocols. Encourage and reward your helpers’ hard work.
35

Discuss your project with the volunteer coordinator for a local nonprofit group to determine

any issues that may arise from using volunteers. While volunteers can be great additions to a project,

weigh the benefits against these potential complications: 

• the time and effort required for training;

• the potential need for compensation;

• oversight of volunteers’ work; and

• potential liability issues.

Publicize Your Project

The implementation phase is a great time to get the local media (especially newspapers and

television) interested in your project. People working outside on restoration projects provide great

photo opportunities and these action shots are often popular with the local press. Find out if any of

your volunteers have media contacts or call local TV and newspaper science, outdoors, and current

events reporters. If reporters do cover your project, be sure that they come to the site on a day when

there is some interesting people-oriented activity volunteers. For example, plan media events on days

when volunteers are planting seedlings. You or another supervisor must be on site and the volunteers

must be informed that the press will be there. Prepare what you or your spokesperson will say to the

reporters. Tell them a little about the history of the project and always highlight the positive

environmental and community benefits of the project. 

BOX 9: Summary of Implementation Stages

• Prepare the site by making changes that allow natural processes to occur.

• Prepare plants by collecting materials from local stocks.

• Install the plants, structures, and major features of the project.

• Use adaptive management to adjust plans as needed

• Involve volunteers to keep costs down and develop community support.

• Publicize your project.

PART 6. MONITORING

What is Monitoring?

Monitoring is systematic data collection that provides information on changes that can indicate

problems and/or progress towards target criteria or performance standards which, when met, indicate

that established ecological goals have been reached. Thus, monitoring provides data on whether a site

is developing in a way that will achieve the project goals. 

A common misconception about wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement is that once a

project is implemented, nature will just do the rest. In reality, many wetland projects need mid-course

corrective actions such as re-planting seedlings that were washed away by a storm, digging more
36

channels to get water to remote parts of the site, or plugging ditches missed during the initial site survey. 

Monitoring provides the information for this adaptive management. Monitoring can also give

information on routine maintenance that may be necessary to keep the site functioning well. Broken

sprinkler heads, non-native weed growth, and holes in fences are just a few of the routine maintenance

items that are easily observed during monitoring.

What Should I Monitor?

Monitoring consists of measuring a number of wetland attributes or parameters at regular

intervals to record the changes in the wetland. The parameters to be measured at any particular site are

based on the project objectives and target criteria. Monitoring efforts should be directly linked to the

target criteria. An array of parameters is usually measured to assess hydrology, soils, and biological

conditions on the site. After the project is completed, initial site conditions (including as-built

conditions) should be documented to provide baseline information against which changes to the site can

be evaluated. Typical parameters measured to evaluate wetland functions are listed in Technical

Appendix T-IV. 

How Should I Monitor?

Two basic approaches to monitoring are to collect qualitative (observational and general)

information and to collect quantitative (numerical and specific) data. Qualitative methods can be used in

conjunction with quantitative measures. Qualitative methods typically do not provide enough

information to accurately determine how close the site conditions are to target criteria, but they do give

a general view of whether change is occurring. Some typical methods for gathering qualitative

information include:

• aerial photographs to show general hydrology, evidence of channelization and general substrate

levels, and the extent of the site covered by plants;

• ground-level photographs for identification of some plant species, general level of plant growth,

general substrate levels, general water levels; and

• general observations such as water clarity and scum, presence of trash, evidence of human use,

bird species present, vegetation condition (stressed, blooming, healthy), presence of invasive

plants, evidence or erosion, and the integrity of structures.

Quantitative methods are used to provide detailed information about how the wetland is

developing with respect to target criteria and can also provide information important to long-term

wetland research. A wide range of methods exist for collecting numerical data. With your technical

advisors, develop the most appropriate methods for your project. Talk to local wetland experts and

get their advice on what is needed for adequate monitoring and whether there are special circumstances

(e.g., rocky soils that make it difficult to install wells) or opportunities (such as a nearby school looking

for a science project) that will affect how you monitor your wetland. Examples of some quantitative

methods include:

• measuring water level changes with an automatic water level gauge;
37

• collecting and testing water samples periodically to evaluate changes in water quality;

• collecting a representative sample of sediment cores to test for organic matter and other soil

characteristics;

• surveying surface elevations at permanent transects once a year;

• recording plant species and cover by species along randomly established transects across the

site; and

• setting traps for small mammals at randomized locations to determine species diversity and

abundance.

Quantitative monitoring is often carried out by experts in hydrology, soils, or biota. However,

volunteers may be used to collect numerical data if they are supervised by an advisor who knows the

protocols for data collection. With the right training and supervision, wetland quality can be monitored

by citizens to provide useful information. Quantitative methods can be expensive and time consuming,

but they do provide the most accurate information on site changes. See Technical Appendix T-IV for

common quantitative methods and qualitative methods used to monitor ecological attributes. Box 10

gives an example of a monitoring plan that measures a range of parameters. 

Even if you have very limited resources, monitor by observing your site and documenting the

changes using basic qualitative methods. Take photographs of the site and write down general

observations such as how wet the site is and for how long, what the soils are like, what kinds of plants

are growing on the site, and what kinds of animals you see or hear. Repeat the photographs (from the

same vantage point) and the written descriptions as often as you can. The

 result will be a chronicle of your wetland project for yourself, future owners of the land, and others

interested in your site.

How Often Should I Monitor?

How often and when a particular attribute should be monitored depends on many factors

including the attribute’s natural variability, the rate of change of the site, and the goals of the project. 

Most characteristics should be monitored at least annually. Vegetation should be monitored during the

growing season (monitoring in both the early and late growing season will make it easier to identify all

plants), and animals should be monitored during breeding, nesting, and/or migration seasons. 

Depending on your project goals, you might want to monitor hydrology during both high and low water

periods. Once the site has stabilized, some characteristics such as wetland size may be monitored less

frequently, unless there are signs of change.

Consistent monitoring is very important, and you may need help doing it. Ideally, every

stakeholder involved in the wetland project should help with the monitoring so they can see the benefits

of their work and continue to support it. Monitoring is a good way to get the local community involved

in your wetland project, and it’s a great way to give people hands-on experience in learning how local

ecosystems function. Talk to schools, clubs, and other community groups to see if they would be

interested in helping you with the monitoring. Have training sessions for volunteer monitors. Many

states have active volunteer monitoring groups or programs that monitor lakes and streams. Many are
38

BOX 10: Monitoring in Mountain View, California

The Stevens Creek Tidal Marsh restoration project in the City of Mountain View is a

compensatory mitigation site with the primary goal of providing vegetated tidal marsh habitat for

rare species such as the salt marsh harvest mouse. The site began as a deep pit with ponded water. 

Project objectives included restoring tidal influence, building up the mudflat, and establishing native

tidal salt marsh vegetation. Target criteria included: 

• Re-establish tidal influence.

• Within 3 years, develop mudflat on 50 percent of the site at an elevation available to

vegetation.

• Restore native salt marsh vegetation on 50 percent of the site within 5 years.

To assess progress, the City monitored the following parameters once a year:

C Amount of tidal exchange: measurements were taken by an automatic tide gauge and

interpreted by a hydrologist.

• Elevation of the mudflat: measurements were taken by a qualified surveyor.

• Amount of vegetation on the mudflat: measurements were taken on the ground using

transects and taken from aerial photographs, then interpreted by an ecologist.

• Extent of channel formation: measurements were taken from aerial photographs and

interpreted by a hydrologist. 

These quantitative methods were supplemented by qualitative observations on tidal flow, non-native

also beginning wetland monitoring projects. Check out the EPA website for information on volunteer

monitoring at http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands/wqual.html#Volunteer.

How Long Should I Monitor? 

Like most ecosystems, wetlands change over many years. This is especially true for restored,

created, or enhanced wetlands that may take decades to reach a condition close to that of a mature,

naturally-occurring wetland. Research on wetlands created from dredged material in the Gulf of

Mexico suggests that these wetlands are still changing and maturing 20 years after they were created. 

Consider monitoring to be a long-term activity, not just something you do for the first year or two. At a

minimum, a site should be monitored until it meets all performance standards, which can take from

several years to decades. Future managers of wetlands will thank you for monitoring for as long as you

can. Even after it reaches maturity, your wetland will be a dynamic system that varies over time.

What Should I Do With the Monitoring Information?
39

Monitoring information can be used in several ways. First, monitoring data are essential for

determining whether your project goals are being met. Organize, summarize, and graph (if possible) the

monitoring data at least annually to show how the restoration site is developing. Monitoring information

should be compared to the target standards to assess whether the site is developing as planned. If it is

not, determine whether remedial measures should be taken or whether the original goals should be

reevaluated (see section above on adaptive management). 

Second, monitoring data can be used to determine whether the target criteria were good

measures of the project goals you hoped to achieve. If you were to do this again, would you do

anything differently? Third, use long-term monitoring to assist in maintaining structures and managing

the site to keep it functioning well. See Part 7 for more on long-term management. 

Finally, use your monitoring data to inform others. Provide copies of your findings to your local

planning and wetland regulatory authority, and the local offices of the Corps, EPA, FWS, NMFS, or

NRCS. Present your work to local groups and ecological societies or at professional meetings of the

Society of Wetland Scientists, Society for Ecological Restoration, and others (see Appendices for

contact information). Write an article for the local newspaper or a journal, such as Ecological

Restoration, which publishes reports from landowners, community groups, and restoration

practitioners. All too often, years of irreplaceable data are lost if they are not shared, archived, or

published. Don’t assume no one is interested in your project; every wetland restoration, creation, and

enhancement project that is monitored provides wetland scientists and restorationists with additional

knowledge about how wetlands function and develop over time. With this additional information,

scientists, policy-makers, and landowners can make better decisions about wetland conservation,

including the use of wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement.

BOX 11: Steps in the Monitoring Process

• Select the parameters you will monitor based on the target criteria established in the planning

stage. Include observations to assist in site maintenance.

• Develop procedures for qualitative and quantitative monitoring methods.

• Collect data at intervals that will provide information necessary to monitor the progress of the

site relative to the target criteria.

• If monitoring shows that site conditions are not meeting target criteria, use an adaptive

process to identify corrective measures.

• Continue long-term monitoring and maintenance to ensure that the site continues to provide

the maximum ecological value.

• Provide your monitoring data and results to local groups and publish in newsletters.

PART 7. LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT
40

In addition to providing data on whether a site is developing in a way that will achieve the project

goals, monitoring is essential for the long-term management of wetland projects. A wetland is an

ecosystem that evolves and changes in response to the surrounding environment. It is not realistic to

expect that when the implementation stage is complete, the work is done. Long-term management is

often required to keep the site functioning as it was designed to function and to keep human impacts to

a minimum. For example, long-term management is often needed to: 

• maintain existing structures such as berms, water control structures, or levees;

• maintain a specific desirable plant community by burning, mowing, or otherwise managing the

vegetation on a periodic basis;

• address problems such as invasive species or excessive sediment deposition; or

• address unexpected events such as structural failure.

Adaptive Management, introduced in Part 4 as an iterative process of monitoring conditions and

then taking appropriate action, should be an integral part of long-term management and stewardship of

your site. If your site is not developing as anticipated, there are two basic options: make changes to the

site to try to get it “back on track,” or allow the site to continue developing in the new direction. Which

option to pick should be decided in consultation with your local experts.

Consider whether current progress at the site might achieve your overall goals in a different way

than you originally intended. Also consider whether any deviation from the expected development is

within the ecological norms for that wetland type and the region. Since natural systems are variable,

sites may diverge from objectives, but this difference may not require significant changes to the site. 

For example, your site may be developing a native wetland community, but one that is different from

what was expected. If this new community is within the norms of the wetland type and the watershed,

it may not be necessary to change it. 

If, however, your site is growing a crop of invasive or non-native species or otherwise falling far

short of restoration objectives, then corrective action is probably necessary. Significant corrections to a

site are called remedial measures. Work with local experts or your technical team to determine the

source of the problems and the appropriate remedial actions. The remedial measures taken will depend

on why the site is diverging from its expected path and what the costs and impacts of the changes

would be. Always consider whether changing conditions on the site will be worth the cost of the

disturbance that would be incurred. Typical problems with wetland sites include the hydrology not

being properly restored, incorrect water-to-substrate elevations, nutrient problems with the soil, and

rapid invasions by non-native species. Some typical remedial measures include: 

• regrading the site to the correct substrate elevations;

• contouring channels or installing structures to redirect water flow;

• adding to or reworking water control structures or altering structure operations;

• removing invasive plants, planting native species, or installing a cover crop; and

• replanting.
41

Box 12 - Adaptive Management in Commencement Bay, Washington

The Middle Waterway Shore Restoration project is an attempt to re-establish some of the salt

marsh that once covered thousands of acres of Commencement Bay. In a cooperative effort, 

federal, state, tribal, and private interests planned and implemented a restoration project that

included re-grading fill material to intertidal elevations and planting salt marsh plants salvaged from

the same area, as well as some provided by a nursery. One year after project implementation,

monitoring showed that few of the plants had survived. A review of the planting procedures

pointed to a number of possible causes for the low plant survival, including soil that was too sandy,

nursery plants that weren’t from the local area, and planting during the summer. The goal of the

project (increasing the acreage of fringing marsh) could not be achieved without better plant

growth, so a decision was made to replace some of the soil and re-plant. The top eighteen inches

of the sandy fill was replaced with topsoil. A local nursery collected seeds from plants in the local

area and grew them into seedlings, which were planted on the site in the spring. A year after this

new planting, salt grass, seaside plantain, seaside arrowgrass, and other species were thriving. 

Monitoring will continue in case other remedial actions are needed, but for now the project seems

to be on the right track.

Long-term management often is needed to compensate for changes in the surrounding landscape. 

In many cases, the surrounding land use, hydrology, or other features of the local watershed will change

over time, possibly affecting your wetland site. Ideally, those changes were at least partially anticipated,

and your site was designed to withstand or adapt to their effects. If something unanticipated happens,

such as a substantial reduction of the water source or conversion of what had been an adjacent park

area to development, you will need to reevaluate how your wetland site fits into the changed landscape,

and whether the goals or management of the site will need to change. The overall goal of long-term

management is a wetland that provides a maximum amount of wetland function and value within the

context of the landscape and that requires a minimum amount of intervention by humans.

Finally, a plan for long-term management is needed to identify who will be responsible for the site

and what kinds of activities should or should not occur there. The responsible party may be you, the

landowner, or some combination of people. One approach to long-term management of a restoration

site is to establish a stewardship program for the site. Local schools, scout groups, or citizen

conservation groups may be willing to “adopt” the site and provide the kind of observation, care taking,

and even remedial action that would be difficult for one person to provide. The kinds of activities you

need to think about are recreational (do you want to allow hikers, campers, bird-watchers, or hunters

on the property?) and possibly commercial (does the landowner want to allow grazing or tree-cutting

on the property?). The answers to these questions should be included in a long-term management plan.

Long-term legal protection of a wetland site is also an important consideration. Do you want to

take steps to ensure the wetland restoration will be permanently protected? One way might be to place

a deed restriction on the site or establish a conservation easement. These arrangements should
42

effectively restrict harmful activities that might otherwise jeopardize achieving the goals of the wetland

project. When needed, the acquisition and protection of water rights should be secured. One of the

best ways to secure long-term protection is to donate or sell the land to a local, state, or federal natural

resource agency or a non-profit organization such as a land trust.
43

PART 8. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Words to the Wise

While restoration, creation, or enhancement projects can be complex and time-consuming, most

restorationists find their projects are very rewarding. As you undertake a project, keep in mind the

following points:

• Be patient. Restoration is a process, not a product. Restoration is a creative activity and there is

no cookbook for it.

• Talk to many people. There are many elements and phases to wetland projects and many

different views on how to accomplish them. Talk to a range of people to collect as much

information as possible and to get different perspectives on the process.

• Be flexible. Your ideas and goals may be clear at the outset, but for many reasons it may be best

to change some, add some, and throw others out. As you go through the process, be flexible but

keep your goals in mind.

• Take your time. Try not to rush the process. Get the technical help you need. Get the permits

required. Develop a community support base, if necessary. 

• Plan well. A well-considered and thorough plan will guide you through the project as directly as

possible. A good plan will result in reasonable, measurable, and ecologically beneficial goals. A

good plan will help you get money and help. 

• Let reference sites be your guide. Reference sites are valuable models of what ecological

conditions are achievable.

• Use low impact implementation methods. Use soft engineering and passive methods whenever

possible. Consider the impact the project construction will have and minimize those impacts. 

• Monitor and manage your site. Restoration does not end after the plants and structures are

installed. All restoration projects must include monitoring to see if goals are being met and to direct

the long-term management of the site.

• Do your best to recover as much of the wetland system as possible. Restoring, creating, or

enhancing sites with the greatest ecological functioning possible, so that they are self-sustaining for

the long-term, is the highest goal. 
44

A Wetland Restoration/Creation/Enhancement Checklist

Use this checklist to help guide you through the wetland project process.

r Talk to local wetland experts. Visit local wetland restoration, creation, or enhancement sites as

well as relatively undisturbed wetlands.

r Ask about getting help through programs that support wetland restoration with cost-sharing and

technical assistance.

r Get to know the local landscape and watershed characteristics.

r Give first priority to restoring degraded wetlands.

r Set goals. Pick a site that is most appropriate for achieving your goals.

r Plan your entire project before you start. Include monitoring and long-term management in your

planning.

r Clarify your goals with specific objectives. Quantify the objectives with measurable target criteria.

r Use adaptive management to refine your goals and implementation plan.

r Identify techniques for achieving your objectives.

r Develop written protocols or construction documents.

r Discuss your plans with local regulators, wetland experts, and adjacent landowners.

r Implement your plans. Have someone who understands the project on the site whenever work is

occurring.

r Perform an “as-built” assessment after site work is completed.

r Involve local volunteer organizations in the project’s implementation, monitoring, and long-term

management.

r Publicize your project.

r Develop a written monitoring plan. Monitor your project’s development. Apply the results to

adaptive management of your site.

r Send monitoring results to local wetland experts and discuss the results with them.

r Develop a long-term management and stewardship plan.

r Investigate protecting the site in perpetuity.
45

RESOURCE APPENDICES
46

APPENDIX R-I: BIBLIOGRAPHY

Below is a list of sources of information on wetlands and wetland restoration. It is not a

comprehensive list, just a way to introduce you to the wealth of information available.

ONLINE BIBLIOGRAPHIC RESOURCES:

C http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wetresto/wetresto.htm - A searchable wetland

restoration bibliography with over 3,000 entries, developed by the Northern Prairie Science Center

and the Midcontinent Ecological Science Center.

C http://www.wetlands.agro.nl/wetl_publications.html - A 1996 compilation of over 1,000

wetland restoration and creation literature references is available for download from Wetlands

International and the Association of State Wetland Managers.

C http://www.nwrc.gov/library_catalog.html - National Wetlands Research Center's Library

(11,000 documents)

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Pinit, T.P. and R.J. Bellmer. 2000. Habitat Restoration - Monitoring Toward Success: a Selective

Annotated Bibliography. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-42. Silver Spring, MD. 21

pp.

Erwin, K.L. 1996. A Bibliography of Wetland Creation and Restoration Literature. The Association

of State Wetland Managers, Berne, New York.

GENERAL INFORMATION ON WETLANDS AND RESTORATION

Azous, A. and R. Horner, eds. 2000. Wetlands and Urbanization. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton,

Florida.

 

Berger, J.J. 1987. Restoring the Earth. Anchor Press, New York, New York.

Berger, J.J. 1990. Environmental Restoration. Island Press, Covelo, California.

Boylan, K.D. and D.R. MacLean. 1997. Linking Species Loss with Wetlands Loss. National

Wetlands Newsletter. Vol. 19, No. 6, Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C.

Bradshaw, A.D. 1987. The reclamation of derelict land and the ecology of ecosystems. Pages 53-74

in W. R. Jordan, M. E. Gilpin, and J. D. Aber, editors. Restoration Ecology. Cambridge University

Press, New York, New York.
47

Brinson, M.M. 1993. A Hydrogeomorphic Classification for Wetlands. U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA. Technical Report WRP-DE4.

Cairns, J., ed. 1995. Rehabilitating Damaged Ecosystems. Lewis Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Wetlands and

Deepwater Habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., USA. 

FWS/OBS-79/31.

Hammer, D.A. 1992. Creating Freshwater Wetlands. Lewis Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Jordan, W.R. III, M.E. Gilpin, and J.D. Aber, eds. 1987. Restoration Ecology: Ecological

Restoration as a Technique for Basic Research. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York.

Kentula, M.E. 1996. Wetland restoration and creation, p. 87-92. In The National Water Summary

on Wetland Resources. J.D. Fretwell, J.S. Williams, and P.J. Redman, compilers. Water-Supply

Paper 2425. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.

Kusler, J.A. and M.E. Kentula. 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science.

Island Press, Washington, D.C.

MacDonald, K. B. and F. Weinmann, eds. 1997. Wetland and Riparian Restoration: Taking a

Broader View (contributed papers and selected abstracts). Society for Ecological Restoration

International Conference, September 14-16, 1995. Seattle, Washington.

Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 1999. Wetlands (third edition). John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New

York, New York.

National Research Council. 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and

Public Policy. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

National Research Council. 1995. Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries. National Research

Council. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Niering, W.A. 1984. Wetlands. The Audubon Society Nature Guides. Alfred A. Knopf, New York,

New York. 

Schneller-McDonald, K., Ischinger, L.S., and G.T. Auble. 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration:

Description and Summary of the Literature. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 90(3).
48

Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends. U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, Washington, DC.

Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1985. Wetlands of New Jersey. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands

Inventory, Newton Corner, Massachusetts. 

Thayer, G.W., ed. 1992. Restoring the Nation's Marine Environment. Maryland Sea Grant College,

College Park, Maryland.

USEPA, 2000. Principles for the Ecological Restoration of Aquatic Resources. EPA841-F-00-003. 

Office of Water (4501F), United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 4pp.

APPROACHES TO RESTORING WETLANDS

Admiral, A.N., J.M. Morris, T.C. Brooks, J.W. Olson, M.V. Miller. 1997. Illinois Wetland

Restoration and Creation Guide. Illinois Natural History Survey, Special Publication 19. Champaign,

Illinois.

Allen, J.A., Keeland, B.D., Clewell, A., H. Kennedy. 1999. Guide to Bottomland Hardwood

Restoration. U.S. Geological Survey. 

Denbow, T.J., D.Klements, D.W. Rothman, E.W. Garbisch, C.C. Bartoldus, M.L. Kraus, D.R.

Maclean, and G.A. Thunhorst. 1996. Guidelines for Development of Wetland Replacement Areas. 

National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 379. National Academy Press,

Washington, D.C.

Ducks Unlimited, Arkansas Game & Fish Commission, and the Cooperative Extension Service of

Mississippi State University. 1993. Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook for the Lower

Mississippi River Valley. 

Eckles, S.D., Barnard, T., Dawson, F., Goodger, T., Kimidy, K., Lynn, A., Perry, J., Reisinger, K.,

Rhodes, C., and R. Zepp. 1994. Mitigation Technical Guidance for Chesapeake Bay Wetlands. U.S.

EPA Region 3, Annapolis, Maryland.

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 1998. Stream Corridor Restoration:

Principles, Processes, and Practices. http://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/newgra.html. 

Garbisch, E.W. The Do’s and Don’ts of Wetland Planning. Environmental Concern’s Wetland

Journal, volume 10, number 4.
49

Gersib, R. 1997. Restoring Wetlands at a River Basin Scale: A Guide for Washington's Puget Sound. 

Washington State Department of Ecology Publication no. 97-99, Seattle, Washington.

Galatowitsch, S.M. and A.G. van der Valk. 1994. Restoring Prairie Wetlands: An Ecological

Approach. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Hollevoet, R., Gregoire, T., and B. Vose. 1992. Income alternatives for farmers and ranchers. North

Dakota State University Extension Service, Fargo, North Dakota.

Marble, A.D. 1990. A Guide to Wetland Functional Design. Federal Highway Administration Report

Number FHWA-IP-90-010, McLean, Virginia.

Matthews, G.A. 1994. Technology and Success in Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement of

Spartina alterniflora Marshes in the United States, Vols 1 and 2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Middleton, B. 1999. Wetland Restoration, Flood Pulsing, and Disturbance Dynamics. John Wiley

and Sons, Inc. New York, New York.

Stevens, M. and R. Vanbianchi. 1993. Restoring Wetlands in Washington: A guidebook for

wetland restoration, planning and implementation. Washington State Department of Ecology,

Publication #93-17.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1998. Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Conservation

Practice Standards - “Wetland Restoration”, “Wetland Enhancement”, “Wetland Creation”, and

“Wetland Wildlife Habitat Management” http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/nhcp_2.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Restoring and Creating Wetlands: a Planning Guide for

the Central States Region: Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska. U.S. EPA Region 7, Kansas City,

Kansas.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. A Citizen’s Guide to Wetland Restoration: Approaches

to Restoring Vegetation Communities and Wildlife Habitat Structure in Freshwater Wetland Systems.

U.S. EPA Region 10, Seattle, Washington.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Mitigation Technical Guidance for Chesapeake Bay

Wetlands. U.S. EPA Region 3, Chesapeake Bay Restoration Program, Living Resources

Subcommittee, Annapolis, Maryland.

Wenzel, T.A. 1992. Minnesota Wetland Restoration Guide. Minnesota Board of Water and Soil

Resources, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
50

Yozzo, D., J. Titre, and J. Sexton, 1996. Planning and Evaluating Restoration of Aquatic Habitats from

an Ecological Perspective. IWR Report 96-EL-4. Institute for Water Resources, U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Zedler, J.B. 2000. Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Zedler, J.B. 1996. Tidal Wetland Restoration: A Scientific Perspective and Southern California

Focus. California Sea Grant Program, La Jolla, California.

APPROACHES TO MANAGING AND MONITORING WETLANDS

Adamus, P.R. 1996. Bioindicators for Assessing Ecological Integrity of Prairie Wetlands. 

EPA/600/R-96/082. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental

Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecological Division, Corvallis, Oregon. 

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and R.E. Witmer. 1976. A Land Use and Land Cover

Classification System for Use with Remote Sensor Data. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological

Survey, Professional Paper 964. Washington D.C.

Bartoldus, C.C. 1999. A Comprehensive Review of Wetland Assessment Procedures: A Guide for

Wetland Practitioners. Environmental Concern Inc., St. Michaels, Maryland.

Brinson, M.M. 1993. A Hydrogeomorphic Classification for Wetlands. U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA. Technical Report WRP-DE4.

Firehock, K., Graff, L., Middleton, J.V., Starinchak, K.D., and C. Williams. 1998. Handbook for

Wetlands Conservation and Sustainability. Izaak Walton League of America, Gaithersburg, Maryland.

Horner, R.R. and K.J. Raedeke. 1989. Guide for Wetland Mitigation Projects Monitoring. Report

Number WA-RD 195.1. Washington State Department of Transportation, Seattle, WA.

Karr, J.R. and E.W. Chu. 1998. Restoring Life in Running Waters: Better Biological Monitoring.

Kentula, M.E., Brooks, R.P., Gwin, S.E., Holland, C.C., Sherman, A.D., and J.C. Sifneos. 1992. An

Approach to Improving Decision Making in Wetland Restoration and Creation. Island Press,

Washington, DC.
51

Kusler, J.A, D.E. Willard, and H.C. Hull, Jr., eds. 1995. Wetlands and Watershed Management: 

Science Applications and Public Policy, A Collection of Papers from a National Symposium and

Several Workshops. Association of State Wetland Managers, Berne, New York.

Leibowitz, S.G., B. Abbruzzese, P.R. Adamus, L.E. Hughes, J.T. Irish. 1992. A Synoptic Approach

to Cumulative Impact Assessment. EPA/600/R-92/167. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.

Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory. 1990. A manual for assessing restored and natural coastal

wetlands with examples from southern California. Report Number T-CSGCP-021. California Sea

Grant Program, La Jolla, California.

Pennsylvania State University College of Agricultural Sciences Cooperative Extension. 1996. 

Managing Your Restored Wetland. 

Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Proter, S.K. Gross and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid Bioassessment

protocols for Use in Streams and Rivers: Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish. U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency, Washington DC. Report Number EPA/444/4-89-001.

Smith, R.D., A Ammann, C. Bartoldus, and M.M. Brinson. 1995. An Approach for Assessing

Wetland Functions Using Hydrogeomorphic Classification, Reference Wetlands, and Functional

Indicators. Technical Report WRP-DE-9. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment

Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1996. Planning Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring Programs. 

IWR Report 96-R-23, http://www.wrsc.usace.army.mil/iwr/currpt.htm.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine

Fisheries Service. 1998. Goal Setting and Success Criteria for Coastal Habitat Restoration

(compilation of papers and abstracts). Office of Habitat Conservation, Silver Spring Maryland.

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Wetland Bioassessment Fact Sheets. EPA 843-F-98-

001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Habitat Evaluation Procedures. ESM 102. U.S. Department of

the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Ecological Services, Washington D.C.

Yozzo, D., J. Titre, and J. Sexton. 1996. Planning and Evaluating Restoration of Aquatic Habitats from

an Ecological Perspective. IWR Report 96-EL-4. Institute for Water Resources, U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
52

DOCUMENTS ON RESTORING, ENHANCING, AND CREATING 

SPECIFIC WETLAND TYPES

Streams

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 1998. Stream Corridor Restoration:

Principles, Processes, and Practices. http://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/newgra.html. 

Petts, G. and P. Calow, eds. 1996. River Restoration. Blackwell Science, Cambridge,

Massachusetts.

Riley, Ann. 1998. Restoring Streams in Cities. Island Press, Covelo, California.

Tidal Marshes

Eckles, S.D., Barnard, T., Dawson, F., Goodger, T., Kimidy, K., Lynn, A., Perry, J., Reisinger, K.,

Rhodes, C., and R. Zepp. 1994. Mitigation Technical guidance for Chesapeake Bay Wetlands. U.S.

EPA Region 3, Annapolis, Maryland.

Josselyn, M. and J. Buchholz. 1984. Marsh Restoration in San Francisco Bay. A Guide to Design

and Planning. Technical Report #3, Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State

University, San Francisco, California.

Matthews, G.A. 1994. Technology and success in restoration, creation, and enhancement of Spartina

alterniflora marshes in the United States, vols 1 and 2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory. 1990. A Manual for Assessing Restored and Natural Coastal

Wetlands with Examples from Southern California. Report Number T-CSGCP-021. California Sea

Grant Program, La Jolla, California.

Zedler, J.B. 2000. Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Zedler, J.B. 1996. Tidal Wetland Restoration: A Scientific Perspective and Southern California Focus. 

California Sea Grant Program, La Jolla, California.

Seagrass Beds

Fonseca M.S., J.W. Kenworthy, and G.W. Thayer. 1999. Guidelines for the Conservation and

Restoration of Seagrasses in the U.S. and Adjacent Waters. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision

Analysis Series No. 12. Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, MD. 222 pp.
53

Inland Wetlands

Admiral, A.N., J.M. Morris, T.C. Brooks, J.W. Olson, M.V. Miller. 1997. Illinois Wetland

Restoration and Creation Guide. Illinois Natural History Survey - Special Publication 19. Champaign,

Illinois.

Allen, J.A., Keeland, B.D., Clewell, A., Kennedy, H. 1999. Guide to Bottomland Hardwood

Restoration. U.S. Geological Survey. 

Galatowitsch, S.M. and A.G. van der Valk. 1994. Restoring Prairie Wetlands: An Ecological

Approach. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 

Wenzel, T.A. 1992. Minnesota Wetland Restoration Guide. Minnesota Board of Water and Soil

Resources, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Wetlands and Wildlife Habitat

Payne, N. 1992. Techniques for Wildlife Habitat Management of Wetlands. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New

York, New York.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. A Citizen’s Guide to Wetland Restoration: Approaches

to Restoring Vegetation Communities and Wildlife Habitat Structure in Freshwater Wetland Systems.

U.S. EPA Region 10, Seattle, Washington.

Constructed Treatment Wetlands

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2000. Guiding principles for constructed treatment wetlands:

providing water quality and wildlife habitats. EPA 843-B-00-003, U.S.EPA, Washington D.C.
54

APPENDIX R-II: FEDERAL FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

Below is a list of some federal sources of money that may be applicable to wetland

restoration projects. Be sure to contact your state environmental agencies for other sources of

funding and check with some of the organizations listed in Appendix III for possible nonprofit

assistance.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Clean Water Act State Revolving Fund

Purpose: Provides grant funds to states to help them establish state revolving fund (SRF)

programs. States, in turn, offer loans and other types of financial assistance from their

SRFs to municipalities, individuals, and others for high-priority water quality activities. 

Projects: While traditionally used to build or improve wastewater treatment plants, loans are also

used increasingly for: agricultural, rural, and urban runoff control; wetland and estuary

improvement projects; wet weather flow control (including stormwater and sewer

overflows); and alternative treatment technologies.

Assistance: States offer loan rates that are two to four percent below market rates. Some states

offer even lower interest rates to small, economically disadvantaged communities.

Eligibility: Municipalities, individuals, communities, citizen groups, and non-profit organizations,

though each state ultimately determines eligibility.

Address: U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management, 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue,

Washington, DC 20460

Phone: (202) 260-7360 or (202) 260-2268

Facsimile: (202) 260-1827

E-mail: srfinfo.group@epa.gov

Web Site: http://www.epa.gov/OWM

Five-Star Restoration Program

Purpose: To promote community-based wetland and riparian restoration projects.

Projects: The projects must have strong on-the-ground habitat restoration components that

provides long term ecological, educational, and/or socio-economic benefits to the

people and their community.

Assistance: Each project would ideally involve at least five partners, who are expected to contribute

funding, land, technical assistance, workforce support, or other in-kind services that

match EPA's contribution which amounts to about $10,000 on the average per project. 

Eligibility: Partners may include citizen volunteer organizations, corporations, private landowners,

local conservation organizations, youth groups, charitable foundations, and other

federal, state, tribal agencies and local governments. 

Address: Five-Star Restoration Program, US EPA, Wetlands Division (4502F), 100

Pennsylvania Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20460

Phone: (202) 260-8076
55

Facsimile: (202) 260-2356

E-mail: pai.john@epa.gov

Web Site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/5star/

Nonpoint Source Implementation Grants (319 Program)

Purpose: To help States, Territories, and Tribes develop and implement programs to prevent and

control nonpoint source pollution, such as creating constructed wetlands to clean-up

urban runoff and agricultural wastes.

Projects: State, Territories, and Tribes receive grant money (and may then provide funding and

assistance to local groups) to support a wide variety of activities, such as technical

assistance, financial assistance, technical programs, education, training, technology

transfer, demonstration projects (e.g. best management practices), and monitoring

specific to nonpoint source implementation. 

Assistance: Grants are first awarded to state agencies. Local organizations can then apply for

grants through the agencies, but they must provide 40 percent of the total project or

program cost as non-federal dollars.

Eligibility: State, local, and tribal governments, nonprofit and local organizations, etc. (check with

your state contact).

Address: U.S. EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue,

Washington, DC 20460

Phone: (202) 260-7100

Facsimile: (202) 260-7024

E-mail: ow-general@epa.gov

Web Site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/NPS

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA)

USDA - Forest Service

Taking Wing

Purpose: To create and enhance partnerships in the management of wetland ecosystems for

waterfowl and wetland wildlife, while providing a variety of compatible recreational

opportunities on National Forest System lands.

Projects: Focus towards on-the-ground wetland enhancement and restoration, although some

projects include assessment and analysis components. Example: restoration of 100

acres in the Columbia River Scenic Area.

Assistance: Funds are allocated to Forest Service units through internal budget process.

Eligibility: Non-federal entities and individuals - projects must be on National Forest System lands

or provide benefits to those lands.

Address: Cynthia Ragland, One Waterfowl Way, Memphis, TN 38120

Phone: (901) 758-3722
56

Facsimile: (901) 758-3850

E-mail: cragland@ducks.org

Web Site: http://www.fs.fed.us/outdoors/wildlife

USDA - Farm Service Agency

Conservation Reserve Program

Purpose: To establish long-term resource-conserving covers on eligible cropland to conserve

soil, water, and wildlife.

Projects: Voluntary program where landowners receive rental payments or enter into a costshare restoration agreement, while maintaining private ownership, to plant cover on

marginal cropland.

Assistance: Three options: 1) receive annual rental payments of up to $50,000/year; 2) receive

payment of up to 50% of cost to establish cover; 3) receive payment of up to 25% of

cost for wetland hydrology restoration. Contracts are typically 10-15 years in length.

Eligibility: Individuals, states, local govenments, tribes, or any other entity who owns private land

for at least 1 year that is: either cropland planted with a crop in 2 of the last 5 crop

years or marginal cropland that is enrolled in the Water Bank program or suitable to be

used as a riparian buffer. Also, the land must be either highly erodible land, a cropped

wetland, be devoted to highly beneficial environmental practices, subject to scour

erosion, located in a CRP priority area, or be a cropland associated with or

surrounding non-cropped wetlands.

Address: Contact your local or state Farm Service Agency office (see

“http://www.fsa.usda.gov/dapdfo/”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture, Farm

Service Agency, Conservation Reserve Program Specialist, Stop 0513, Washington,

D.C. 20250-0513

Phone: (202) 720-6221

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: info@fsa.usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/publications/facts/pubfacts.htm

USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service

Conservation Technical Assistance

Purpose: To assist land-users, communities, units of state and local government, and other federal

agencies in planning and implementing conservation systems.

Projects: Projects that reduce erosion, improve soil and water quality, improve and conserve

wetlands, enhance fish and wildlife habitat, improve air quality, improve pasture and

range condition, reduce upstream flooding, and improve woodlands

Assistance: Technical assistance available to land users who voluntarily applying conservation and

to those who must comply with local or state laws and regulations, such as the wetland
57

(Swampbuster) provisions of the 1985 Food Security Act and the wetlands

requirements of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. 

Eligibility: Individual landusers, communities, conservation districts, and other units of State and

local government and Federal agencies.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office (see

“http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

National Resources Conservation Service, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: (202) 720-4527

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: n/a

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/NRCSProg.html

Emergency Watershed Protection Program

Purpose: To protect lives and property threatened by natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes,

tornados, and wildfires.

Projects: Examples: Clearing debris from clogged waterways, restoring vegetation, stabilizing

river banks, restoring wetland flood retainers.

Assistance: Funds cover up to 75% of costs to restore the natural function of a watershed. 

Another option is to offer land for a floodplain easement that would permanently restore

the hydrology of the natural floodplain as an alternative to traditional attempts to restore

damaged levees, lands, and structures. Funds can cover up to 100% of the agricultural

value of the land, costs associated with environmental measures taken, and costs

associated with establishing the easement. A sponsor must assist you in applying for

assistance. Sponsors can be any legal subdivision of state, local, or tribal governments,

including soil conservation districts, U.S. Forest Service, and watershed authorities.

Eligibility: Owners, managers, and users of public, private, or tribal lands if their watershed area

has been damaged by a natural disaster.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office (see

“http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

National Resources Conservation Service, Watersheds and Wetlands Division, P.O.

Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: See above

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: n/a

Web Site: http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/CCS/ewpFs.html

Environmental Quality Incentives Program

Purpose: To install or implement structural, vegetative, and management practices in priority

areas.

Projects: Conservation practices, such as grassed waterways, filter strips, manure management

facilities, capping abandoned wells, and other practices important to improving and
58

maintaining water quality and the general health of natural resources in the area; and

land management practices such as nutrient management, manure management,

integrated pest management, irrigation water management, and wildlife habitat

management.

Assistance: Cost sharing may pay up to 75 percent of the costs of certain conservation practices. 

Incentive payments may also be made to encourage a producer to perform land

management practices for up to three years. Offers 5-10 year contracts. Maximum of

$10,000 per person per year and $50,000 for the length of the contract.

Eligibility: Eligibility is limited to persons who are engaged in livestock or agricultural production,

excluding most large confined livestock operations.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office (see

“http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

National Resources Conservation Service, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: (202) 720-1873 or (202) 720-1845

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: n/a

Web Site: http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/OPA/FB96OPA/eqipfact.html

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention

Purpose: Works through local government sponsors to help participants voluntarily plan and

install watershed-based projects on private lands.

Projects: Projects include watershed protection, flood prevention, erosion and sediment control,

water supply, water quality, fish and wildlife habitat enhancement, wetlands creation

and restoration, and public recreation in watersheds of 250,000 or fewer acres.

Assistance: Provides technical and financial assistance. Funds can cover 100% of flood prevention

construction costs, 50% of costs associated with agricultural water management,

recreation and fish and wildlife, and none of the costs for other municipal and industrial

water management.

Eligibility: Local or state agency, county, municipality, town or township, soil and water

conservation district, flood prevention or flood control district, tribe or tribal

organization, or nonprofit agency with authority to carry out, maintain, and operate

watershed improvement works.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office (see

“http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

National Resources Conservation Service, Watersheds and Wetlands Division, P.O.

Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: (202) 720-3527

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: n/a

Web Site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/NRCSProg.html
59

Wetlands Reserve Program

Purpose: Protect and restore wetlands, riparian areas and buffer zones.

Projects: Voluntary program where landowners may sell a conservation easement or enter into a

cost-share restoration agreement, while maintaining private ownership.

Assistance: Three options: 1) permanent easement - USDA purchases easement (payment will be

the lesser of: the agricultural value of the land, an established payment cap, or an

amount offered by the landowner) and pays 100% of restoration costs; 2) 30-year

easement - USDA pays 75% of what would be paid for permanent easement and 75%

of restoration costs; 3) restoration cost share agreement - 10-year minimum agreement

to restore degraded habitat where USDA pays 75% of restoration costs.

Eligibility: Individuals, states, local governments, tribes, or any other entity who owns private land. 

The land must be owned for at least 1 year and be restorable and suitable for wildlife.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office (see

“http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

National Resources Conservation Service, Watersheds and Wetlands Division, P.O.

Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: (202) 690-0848

Facsimile: n/a

E-mail: RMisso@usda.gov

Web Site: http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/OPA/FB96OPA/WetRule.html or

http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/OPA/FB96OPA/WRPfact.html (fact sheet)

Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program

Purpose: To develop and improve fish and wildlife habitat on private lands.

Projects: Participants prepare a wildlife habitat development plan in consultation with the local

conservation district. The plan describes the landowner's goals for improving wildlife

habitat, includes a list of practices and a schedule for installing them, and details the

steps necessary to maintain the habitat for the life of the agreement.

Assistance: Technical assistance and cost-share agreements where NRCS pays up to 75% of cost

of installing wildlife practices. Typically 5-10 year contracts.

Eligibility: Must own or have control of the land and cannot have it enrolled in other programs

with a wildlife focus, such as the Wetlands Reserve Program, or use the land for

mitigation. Other restrictions may apply.

Address: Contact your local or state National Resources Conservation Service office (see

“http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.gov/perdir.html”); otherwise: Department of Agriculture,

National Resources Conservation Service, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013

Phone: (202) 720-3534

E-mail: n/a

Web Site: http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/OPA/FB96OPA/WhipFact.html
60

DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR (DOI)

DOI - Fish and Wildlife Service

Coastal Program

Purpose: To conserve healthy coastal ecosystems for the benefit of fish, wildlife, and people.

Projects: Examples of protection include use of conservation easements and fee title acquisition

to protect relatively pristine coastal wetlands, salt marshes, prairies, dunes, bottomland

hardwood forests, and riparian areas. Examples of coastal habitat restoration include:

reintroduction of tidal flow to formerly-diked mud flat and salt marsh habitat, planting of

native vegetation (including submerged aquatic grasses), control and monitoring of

exotic invasive species, fencing to restore riparian salmon spawning habitat, and

removal or retrofit of small dams and culverts to allow for passage of anadromous fish

in coastal streams and estuaries.

Assistance: Technical and financial assistance is available. The program focuses exclusively on

coastal watersheds. It applies an ecosystem-level approach to resolving resource

problems, and targets efforts for a strategic (rather than opportunistic) approach. The

program is a non-regulatory, pro-active program that relies on voluntary partnership

building. Partners include other federal and state agencies, local and tribal

governments, businesses, conservation organizations, and private landowners.

Matching grants are also awarded annually, on a competitive basis. States that border

the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, Pacific and Great Lakes are eligible to apply for

grants. The one exception is the State of Louisiana, which has its own coastal wetlands

program. Trust Territories and Commonwealths of the United States are also eligible

for grants.

Eligibility: The Coastal Program funds projects on private and public lands.

Address: Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Fish and Wildlife

Management Assistance and Habitat Restoration, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 400,

Arlington, VA 22203. National, regional, and state contacts are listed at

http://www.fws.gov/cep/coastweb.html

Phone: 703/358-2201

Fascimile: 703/358-2232

Web Site: http://www.fws.gov/cep/coastweb.html

Jobs in the Woods Watershed Restoration Program

Purpose: Provides funding to support watershed restoration projects in timber-dependent

communities within the range of the northern spotted owl through the Northwest Forest

Plan (NWFP). The NWFP was created to offset impacts of economic losses to

communities in CA, OR and WA, resulting from reductions in timber harvest. 

Projects: Program funds are to support watershed restoration projects, including: instream habitat

restoration, fish passage improvements, fish screen installation, riparian and wetland

habitat restoration, and upland forest restoration, on non-federal lands, while employing
61

workers from timber dependent communities to conduct project work. Projects are

focused on implementing habitat improvements to benefit federally listed, proposed or

candidate species, under the ESA.

Assistance: The Service provides the grants and assists applicants with obtaining permits and

complying with federal laws, including the ESA, NEPA, NHPA, and the Clean Water

Act. Most funded projects involve grants of under $100,000. 

Eligibility: Projects must occur on non-federal lands. Non-profit organizations, individuals, private

businesses, Native American tribes and state and local governments are eligible.

Address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arcata FWO; Jobs in the Woods Watershed

Restoration Program; 1125 16th Street, Room 209; Arcata, CA 95521.

Phone: (707) 822-7201

Facsimile: (707) 822-8136

Web Site: http://www.ccfwo.r1.fws.gov/jitw

North American Wetlands Conservation Act Grant Program

Purpose: To promote long-term conservation of North American wetland ecosystems and the

wildlife that depend on them.

Projects: For on-the-ground wetland and wetland-associated acquisition, creation, enhancement,

and/or restoration.

Assistance: Regular Grant Program (over $50k) and Small Grant Program ($50k or less) 

Eligibility: Must form public-private sector partnerships and match grant funds 1:1 with U.S. nonFederal dollars.

Address: Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, North American Waterfowl and

Wetlands Office, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 110, Arlington, VA 22203 (Attn:

specify which grant program you are interested in)

Phone: (703)358-1784

Facsimile: (703)358-2282

E-mail: R9ARW_NAWWO@MAIL.FWS.GOV

Web Site: http://www.fws.gov/r9nawwo/nawcahp.html

Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program

Purpose: To conserve, protect, and enhance fish and wildlife and their habitats

Projects: Examples of voluntary habitat restoration: restoring wetland hydrology, planting native

trees and shrubs, planting native grasslands, installing fencing and off-stream livestock

watering facilities, removal of exotic plants and animals, prescribed burning,

reconstruction of in-stream aquatic habitat.

Assistance: Financial and technical assistance available. The landowner may perform the

restoration and be reimbursed directly for some or all of his or her expenses, the

Service may hire a contractor to complete the work, or the Service may complete the

work itself. While not a program requirement, a dollar-for-dollar cost share is sought

on a project-by-project basis. In some states where the program is very popular,
62

however, a 50:50 cost share is required. Partners for Fish and Wildlife funds are not

used to purchase or lease real property interest or to make rental or other incentive

payments to landowners. Minimum 10-year contract. 

Eligibility: Although the primary partners are private landowners, anyone interested in restoring

and protecting wildlife habitat on private or tribal lands can get involved in the Partners

for Fish and Wildlife Program, including other federal, state and local agencies, private

organizations, corporations, and educational institutions.

Address: Contact your state office for assistance. National, regional and state contacts are listed

at http://www.fws.gov/r9dhcpfw/CONTACTS/altcont.html; U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service, Division of Fish and Wildlife Management Assistance and Habitat Restoration,

4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 400, Arlington, VA 22203

Phone: (703) 358-2161

Facsimile: (703) 358-2232

Web Site: http://www.fws.gov/r9dhcpfw/

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA)

NOAA - National Marine Fisheries Service

NOAA Community-Based Restoration Program

Purpose: To restore marine fish habitat by fostering partnerships with local communities

Projects: Community-based restoration efforts that benefit marine fish habitat (including coastal

wetlands and anadromous fish streams)

Assistance: Small grants available - should be developed in partnership with local National Marine

Fisheries Service office

Eligibility: non-profits, state and local agencies, tribes

Address: National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Habitat Conservation, Restoration

Division, 1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910.

Phone: (301) 713-0174

Facsimile: (301) 713-0184

E-mail: chris.doley@noaa.gov or robin.bruckner@noaa.gov

Web Site: http://www.nmfs.gov/habitat/restoration

ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (CORPS)

CORPS--Civil Works Directorate

Planning Assistance to States Program, Section 22 of the Water Resources Development Act

Purpose: To allow the Corps of Engineers to perform technical studies for management of water

and related land resources to help states and Indian tribes deal with their water

resources problems. The program is limited to a maximum of $500,000 per state or

tribe in any year.
63

Projects: Typical activities studied under this Program are flood damage reduction, water

resources development, water supply, water conservation, water quality, erosion,

wetlands evaluation, and navigation. 

Assistance: This is not a grant program. The local sponsor of the study shares in the cost of the

study.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on requests to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District

office by the local sponsor.

Example: In Louisiana, Section 22 funds were used to cost-share in a study to plan and design a

hiking/biking/recreation trail compatible with existing levee systems and other

floodplain improvements. The local sponsor then implemented the trail design using

non-Federal funding sources.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers.

Phone: n/a

Facsimile: n/a

Email: n/a

Website: http://www.usace.army.mil/

Beneficial Uses of Dredged Material, Section 204 of the Water Resources Development Act

Purpose: To allow the Secretary of the Army to carry out projects for the protection,

restoration, and creation of aquatic and ecologically related habitats, including

wetlands, in connection with dredging for construction, operation, or maintenance by

the Secretary of an authorized navigation project. 

Projects: Work must be for the protection, restoration and creation of aquatic and ecologically

related habitat, including wetlands. Examples include: placement in subsiding wetlands

to re-establish necessary elevations for vegetation, additions to offshore islands to reestablish submerged areas and nesting habitat, filling deep holes to re-establish

wetlands.

Assistance: This is not a grant program. A local sponsor, a governmental entity, must partner with

the Corps. The non-federal share is 25% of the costs in excess of the costs necessary

to carry out the dredging for the authorized navigation project.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on request to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District

office by the local sponsor.

Example: Battery Island Bird Habitat Preservation, Cape Fear River, North Carolina. Battery

Island is owned by the State of North Carolina and administered by the North

Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation. The Ecosystem Restoration Project will

protect 10 acres of upland nesting habitat for colonial waterbirds from further erosion. 

The project will also restore 5.5 acres of valuable colonial waterbird nesting habitat by

placement of dredged material obtained from periodic dredging of the adjacent

Wilmington Harbor navigation project.
64

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers.

Phone: n/a

Facsimile: n/a

Email: n/a

Website: http://www.usace.army.mil/

Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration, Section 206 of the Water Resources Development Act

Purpose: To allow the Corps to carry out aquatic ecosystem restoration projects that will

improve the quality of the environment, are in the public interest and are cost-effective. 

Projects: Work has to be related to aquatic restoration. Examples include reforestation of

bottomland hardwoods, modification of stream channels to stabilize channels, while

introducing complexity and fish habitat, riparian re-vegetation, improvement of fish

passage, which may include dam removal, re-establishing submerged vegetation,

restoration of reclaimed land, restoration of wetlands.

Assistance: A non-federal sponsor, a public entity, must partner with the Corps. The non-Federal

share is 35% of the total project cost, including study phase cost. The non-Federal

sponsor is also responsible for 100% of the operation, maintenance, repair and

rehabilitation cost.

Eligibility: Studies are initiated based on request to the appropriate Corps of Engineers District office by the local sponsor.

Example: At the Ladd Marsh Wildlife Area, 6 miles southeast of LaGrande, Oregon, the State

of Oregon teamed with the Corps to restore the meandering pattern and riparian

vegetation of an approximately 4,000-foot section of Ladd Creek and a 2,000-foot

section of Barney Creek. This project enhances habitat for resident rainbow trout as

well as the steelhead trout, which is listed under the Endangered Species Act for

protection in the entire Snake River Basin.

Address: Contact your local district office of the Army Corps of Engineers.

Phone: n/a

Facsimile: n/a

Email: n/a

Website: http://www.usace.army.mil/

Other Funding Source Documents:

“Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance”. Published biannually by General Services Administration.

http://aspe.os.dhhs.gov/cfda, (202) 708-5126.

“Catalog of Federal Funding Sources for Watershed Protection, 2nd Edition” (1999). EPA’s

Watershed Academy, Office of Water, Publication No. EPA 841-B-99-003. 

http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/watershed/wacademy/fund.html , National Center for Environmental

Publications and Information (NCEPI), (800) 490-9198. 
65

“Environmental Grantmaking Foundations”. Published annually by Resources for Global Sustainability,

Inc. http://home.eznet.net/~rgs, (716) 473-3090.

“Exploring Wetlands Stewardship- A Reference Guide for Assisting Washington Landowners” (1996). 

Washington State Department of Ecology Publication No. 96-120. 

http://www.wa.gov/ecology/sea/shorelan.html, (360) 407-7472.

“Financing Clean Water Action Plan Activities” (1998), EPA Clean Water Act State Revolving Fund

Branch, Office of Water. www.epa.gov/owm/finan.htm, (202) 260-2036.

“Funding for Habitat Restoration Projects” Citizen’s Guide: A Compendium of Current Federal

Programs with Fiscal Year 1996–1998 Funding Levels”. Restore America’s Estuaries.

http://www.estuaries.org/funding.html or e-mail: raecoalition@estuaries.org

“A Guidebook of Financial Tools” (1997). Environmental Finance Center Network and the

Environmental Financial Advisory Board. http://www.epa.gov/efinpage/guidebk/guindex.htm or email: mcprouty.timothy@epa.gov

“Landowners Guide to Voluntary Wetland Programs in Arkansas”, Arkansas Game and Fish

Commission. http://www.mawpt.org/MAWPT_Products/ or (501) 223-6300. 

“Landowning Colorado Style”, Colorado Association of Soil Conservation Districts, (303) 232-6242. 

“Living with Michigan’s Wetlands: A Landowner’s Guide”. Tipp of the Mitt Watershed Council, (616)

347-1181. 

“Ohio Wetlands”. National Audubon Society's Great Lakes Regional Office, (614) 224-3303. 

“Options for Wetland Conservation: A Guide for California Landowners”. California Resources

Agency. www.ceres.ca.gov/wetlands/introduction/opt_guide.html or (916) 653-5656.

“The Oregon Wetlands Conservation Guide: Voluntary Wetlands Stewardship Options for Oregon’s

Private Landowners” (1995). Oregon Wetlands Conservation Alliance. Contact Oregon Department of

Agriculture, Natural Resources Division at (503) 292-9451.

“Private Landowner’s Wetlands Assistance Guide: Voluntary Options for Wetlands Stewardship in

Maryland” (1992). Contact EPA Region III at (215) 566-2718. 

“A State and Local Government Guide to Environmental Program Funding Alternatives” (1994). EPA

document #EPA 841-K-94-001, Office of Water.
66

“Wetland and Riparian Stewardship in Pennsylvania: A Guide to Voluntary Options for Landowners,

Local Governments and Organizations” (1997). Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. Contact the Bureau

of Watershed Conservation, Pennsylvania Deptartment of Environmental Protection, (717) 236-8825.

“Wetands Assistance Guide for Landowners (in Texas)”. Texas Parks and Wildlife.

http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/conserve/wetlands/wetintro.htm or (512) 389-4328.
67

APPENDIX R-III: ORGANIZATIONS, WEB SITES, AND TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES

Below is a list of sources of assistance and information on wetland restoration. It is not a

comprehensive list, but is a good introduction to what is available.

Nonprofit Organizations:

NAME CONTACT INFORMATION

Association of State Floodplain Managers 2809 Fish Hatchery Road, Suite 204 Madison,

WI 53711, (608)274-0123,

http://www.floods.org/

asfpm@floods.org

Association of State Wetland Managers PO Box 269, Berne, NY 12023-9746

(518)872-1804, http://www.aswm.org/

aswm@aswm.org

Ducks Unlimited, Inc. One Waterfowl Way, 

Memphis, Tennessee, USA 38120

1(800)45DUCKS, http://www.ducks.org/

conserv@ducks.org

Environmental Law Institute 1616 P St., NW, Suite 200

Washington, DC 20036, (202)939-3800

http://www.eli.org/, widholm@eli.org

Estuarine Research Federation http://www.erf.org/, webmaster@edf.org

Izaak Walton League of America 707 Conservation Lane, Gaithersburg, MD 

20878, (800)BUG-IWLA (284-4952),

http://www.iwla.org/

general@iwla.org

Native American Fish and Wildlife Society 750 Burbank Street, Broomfield, CO 80020,

(303) 466-1725, www.nafws.org/index/html

Soil and Water Conservation Society 7515 NE Ankeny Road, Ankeny, Iowa

50021, (515)289-2331, http://www.swcs.org

Society for Ecological Restoration 1207 Seminole Highway

Madison WI 53711 USA, (608)262-9547,

http://ser.org/, ser@vms2.macc.wisc.edu
68

Society of Wetland Scientists P.O. Box 1897, Lawrence, Kansas

66044-8897, 1(800)627-0629,

http://www.sws.org/, sws@allenpress.com

Terrene Institute 4 Herbert Street, Alexandria, VA 22305,

(703)548-5473, 

http://www.e2b2.com/index.ht,

terrinst@aol.com

Water Environment Federation 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA

22314-1994 USA, 1(800)666-0206,

http://www.wef.org/, msc@wef.org

Federal Agency Web Sites:

AGENCY INTERNET ADDRESS

Army Corps of Engineers http://www.usace.army.mil/

Bureau of Reclamation http://www.usbr.gov/

Bureau of Land Management http://www.blm.gov/

Council on Environmental Quality http://www.whitehouse.gov/CEQ/

About.html

Department of Agriculture http://www.usda.gov/

Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of

Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds

http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands/

restore

Farm Service Agency http://www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/default.asp

Fish and Wildlife Service http://www.fws.gov/

Forest Service http://www.fs.fed.us/

Geological Survey http://www.usgs.gov/

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, 

National Marine Fisheries Service

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/

habitatprotection/wetlands.htm

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/

restoration/
69

National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/

Natural Resources Conservation Service http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

Office of Surface Mining http://www.osmre.gov/osm.htm

State Department’s Bureau of Oceans and

International Environmental and Scientific

Affairs 

http://www.state.gov/www/global/oes/

Other Web Sites:

DESCRIPTION INTERNET ADDRESS

Better Wetlands: More Than a Dozen Ideas to

Improve Restored Wetlands for Wildlife and

Personal Enjoyment (U.S. Natural Resources

Conservation Service)

http://www.ia.nrcs.usda.gov/enhance/bwtoc.html

Do Created Wetlands Replace the Wetlands

that are Destroyed? (U.S. Geological Survey)

http://wwwdwimdn.er.usgs.gov/widocs/wetlands/

FS_246-96.html

Evaluation of Restored Wetlands in the Prairie

Pothole Region

http://www.NPWRC.USGS.GOV/wetland/

Monitoring Water Quality Web Page:

Resources for Volunteer Monitors (USEPA)

http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/monitoring/

"Riverine Wetlands: Succesion and

Restoration" - bibliography and abstracts of

scientific articles, dissertations and books

(University of Lyon, France)

http://limnologie.univ-lyon1.fr/htdocs_limno/public

ations.html

Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles,

Practices, and Processes (Interagency)

http://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/

Volunteer Estuary Monitoring (USEPA) http://earth1.epa.gov/OWOW/monitoring/volunte

er/estuary/index.html

Wetland Bioassessment Fact Sheets (USEPA) http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/wqual/bio_f

act/

Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status

of the Science (USEPA)

http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/wetlands/kusler.ht

ml
70

Wetland Research: Restoring the Balance

(LWRRDC)

http://www.ramsar.org/wurc_library_research.ht

ml

WES Environmental Laboratory - Wetlands

(US Army Corps of Engineers)

http://www.wes.army.mil/el/wetlands/wetlands.ht

ml#wrtc

Training Opportunities:

The following are training opportunities offered by nonprofit, government, and academic

organizations. There are also many private firms not listed here that have wetland training

courses available.

NAME/DESCRIPTION CONTACT INFORMATION

Certified professional in erosion and sediment

control (CPESC) - Certification training

Soil and Water Conservation Society

7515 NE Ankeny Road, Ankeny, IA 50021

(515) 289-2331 ext.17,

http://www.swcs.org/cpesc.ht,

pamd@swcs.org

Desert research institute water resources

center - Courses available

Water Resources Center, Desert Research

Institute, P.O. Box 60220, Reno, NV

89506-0220, USA, (702)673-7300,

http://www.dri.edu, wwwwrc@dri.edu

Interagency training opportunities and

non-government training partners - Internet

training list (hot links to natural resources

training web pages)

Bureau of Land Management National

Training Center, 9828 N 31st Ave, Phoenix,

AZ 85051, USA, (602)906-5500

http://www.ntc.blm.gov/partner.html 

Izaak Walton League’s Save Our Streams

program training workshops - Short

workshops (volunteer wetlands and streams

monitoring, quality assurance, restoration)

Save Our Streams, Izaak Walton League of

America, 707 Conservation Lane,

Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA, (301)548-

0150, http://www.iwla.org/, sos@iwla.org 

Mid-Atlantic interagency wetland training -

Free courses (delineation, plants, soils,

hydrology)

(215)814-2718, spagnolo.ralph@epa.gov 
NAME/DESCRIPTION CONTACT INFORMATION

71

Society of Wetland Scientists professional

certification program

SWS Professional Certification Program,

P. O. Box 1897, 810 East 10th Street,

Lawrence, KS 66044-8897 USA,

1(800)627-0629,

http://www.wetlandcert.org/,

swscertif@allenpress.com

U.S. Department of Agriculture (Natural

Resources Conservation Service) training

workshops on water quality monitoring - Free

Bruce Newton, National Water and Climate

Center, USDA Natural Resources

Conservation Service, 101 SW Maine Street,

Suite 1600, Portland, OR 97204-3224, USA,

(503)414-3055, bnewton@wcc.nrcs.usda.gov 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s National

Conservation Training Center (NCTC)

Courses

NCTC, Rt.1, Box 166, Shepherdstown, West

Virginia 25442, USA, (304)876-7445

http://www.fws.gov/r9nctc/nctc.html, 

dee_butler@mail.fws.gov

Watershed training opportunities through The

Watershed Academy - Free

Watershed Academy, U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency (4503F), 401 M Street,

SW, Washington, DC 20460, USA,

(202)260-5368, 

http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacade

my.htm, wacademy@epamail.epa.gov

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute (delineation

training and biogeochemistry

Symposia)

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute, Louisiana

State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

70803-7511, USA, (504)388-8810,

http://www.leeric.lsu.edu/,

wetlands@premier.net 

WETLAND program short courses at Ohio

State University (wastewater treatment,

delineation, mitigation)

Wetlands Program c/o William J. Mitsch, The

Ohio State University, School of Natural

Resources, 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus,

OH 43210, USA, (614)292-9773,

http://swamp.ag.ohio-state.edu/, 

mitsch.1@osu.edu
NAME/DESCRIPTION CONTACT INFORMATION

72

Wetland-related academic programs and

training courses - two internet listings

Society of Wetland Scientists Business Office,

P.O. Box 1897, Lawrence, Kansas

66044-8897, USA, 1(800)627-0629. For

academic programs -

http://www.sws.org/colleges/ 

For training courses -

http://www.sws.org/training/,

sws@allenpress.com or

mingst@mail.modot.state.mo.us

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Proponent-Sponsored Engineer Corps

Training (PROSPECT) environmental training

courses on wetlands and restoration

http://www.wes.army.mil/el/nrrdc/

train.html
73

TECHNICAL APPENDICES
74

APPENDIX T-I: Societal Goals and Related Ecological Functions of Wetlands (adapted from NRC, 1995)

Social Goal Ecological Function Ecological Effects Physical Indicator* Measurement Parameters

Provide fish and Long-term surface Maintain base flows Basin capacity; presence of * Basin volume

shellfish habitat water storage water during fish lifecycle * Water level changes

(hydrological regime); * Water quality measures

typical water quality; (temp, salinity, etc.)

substrate to water level elevations * Substrate elevations

allow water flow and retention * Channelization patterns

Support typical Food, cover Plant species diversity and * Species number, abundance 

communities abundance richness * Species height, cover,

structure

* Growth, reproductive rates

Support waterfowl Maintain typicalFood, nesting, cover Mature wetland vegetation; * Species number, abundance

and furbearers plant communities for animals typical mosaic of plant comm- * Population growth paraunity succession stages meters: breeding pairs, offspring

produced, mortality,

immigration/emigration

* Sources of mortality

Provide useful Support typical Maintain nutrient Survival and reproduction of * Growth, reproduction rates

plants plant communities levels within wetland particular species * Sustainable crop yields
75

Societal Value Ecological Function Ecological Effects Physical Indicator Measurement Parameters

Maintain water Retention, removal Reduced transport Nutrient outflow lower than * N and P levels in incoming

quality of dissolved materials of nutrients inflow versus outgoing waters;

* N and P levels in wetland

sediments 

Accumulation of Retain pollutants, Increase in depth of peat; * Change in depth of peat 

peat (organic matter) nutrients, metals presence of pollutants in peat layer

* Analysis of heavy metals and

other pollutants in soil cores

Accumulation of Retain sediments, Increase in depth of sediment * Change in depth of 

sediments (inorganic) some nutrients sediment layer

Reduced shoreline Maintain vegetated Stable shorelineErosion and deposition rates * Soil loss rates from edges

erosion wetland edges edges typical of wetland type; lack * Undercutting and down

of eroded or undercut shore; cutting changes

presence of stable vegetation * Plant loss from edges

Reduced damage Short-term surface Reduced down- Presence of floodplain * Width of floodplain and 

from floodwaters water storage stream flood peaks along river corridor; wide riparian vegetation

vegetation buffer; basin capacity * Basin volume

Maintain Maintain high Support typical Presence of diverse native * Species number, abundance,

biodiversity water table plant community plant species richness

* Complete food chain

Maintain typicalSupport for animal High diversity of animal * Few to no non-native

energy flow populations species * Rare and dominant species

* Species succession

* Physical Indicators include both measurable processes and structures of the system.
76

Figure A-1. Hydrographs of a tidal marsh and a

prairie pothole

APPENDIX T-II: What makes a Wetland Unique? 

Although they are varied in type and location, wetlands possess several ecological

characteristics that distinguish them from upland or aquatic habitats. Wetlands are characterized by

unique hydrologic, soil (substrate), and biotic conditions that set them apart from other systems. Each

of these characteristics is described in detail below to provide you with a basic understanding of the

ecological elements that wetland restoration, enhancement, or creation projects seek to establish. 

Hydrology and Water Quality

Wetland hydrology generally exists when an area is wet enough to result in soils that are

anaerobic (depleted of oxygen) and support hydrophytic vegetation (plants that are adapted to

anaerobic, waterlogged environments). The hydrological regime is typically the primary factor driving

the rest of the elements of the system. 

Wetland hydrology may exist at sites that are obviously flooded or at sites that are never

flooded but have soils that are saturated near the surface. A site’s hydrologic characteristics are the

most important factors in determining what kind of wetland will exist and what functions it will perform.

The hydrologic characteristics of a wetland are commonly described in terms of water depths over

time, flow patterns, and duration and frequency of flooding or saturation. Some systems, such as

streams, have very dynamic hydrological regimes that can be difficult to re-create. Other wetlands,

such as permanent ponds or bogs, have hydrological conditions that are more static. 

The presence of

water on a site can be

measured and illustrated with

a hydrograph. A hydrograph

indicates the level of water or

the depth of soil saturation

over the year. Figure A-1

shows the water signatures

for a tidal marsh and a prairie

pothole. Some wetlands have

fairly stable hydrographs;

however, most fluctuate

based on seasonal

precipitation, temperature,

and evaporation. 

Hydrographs for wetlands in

coastal areas will be heavily influenced by tidal cycles. Inland wetland hydrographs, such as those for

prairie potholes, may show the strong influence of ground water levels.

Many wetlands are dynamic and fluctuate in size during the year and between years. These

natural fluctations are the wetland’s disturbance regime and this regime needs to be included in the

design for your wetland site. Sites may flood on regular 2, 10, or 50 year cycles and cause significant,
77

Figure A-2. Water quality monitoring by

volunteers in Chesapeake Bay

but predictable changes in wetland size and shape. Extreme events, such as hurricanes, may have less

predictable effects. 

If wetland hydrology can be established at your site, there is a good chance that other wetland

characteristics will develop over time. When a wetland project does not develop as planned, or does

not develop into a wetland at all, it is most often because the hydrologic characteristics of the site are

not what they need to be to achieve the goals. The first step in trouble-shooting wetland projects is to

check the hydrologic characteristics of the site.

For many sites, establishing the proper hydrology requires the services of a hydrologist who will

assess current conditions on your site, evaluate the local disturbance regime, and determine what

changes are necessary to achieve the hydrological regime typical of the wetland you wish to establish.

Water contains a number of dissolved and suspended materials including nutrients (e.g.,

nitrogen, phosphorus, dissolved carbon), contaminants (e.g., pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons), and

other constituents (e.g., dissolved oxygen, salts, metals, suspended sediments). Some chemicals (e.g.,

nutrients) can be either beneficial or toxic, depending on how much is present. Water quality usually

refers to how “healthy” the water is for humans, animals and plants. An aquatic area with “good”

water quality has the water chemistry typical of the ecosystem and region, including the levels of

dissolved oxygen, contaminants, and other constituents (nutrients, suspended sediments) that result in

healthy populations of native plants and animals. 

Because wetland types vary, good water quality varies from one wetland type to another. For

example, significant amounts of suspended sediments are typical of good conditions for some tidal

marshes because, as sediments settle out, they

help to build up the marsh surface, which allows

the growth of marsh vegetation. Conversely, too

much suspended sediment in coastal waters can

be harmful to seagrass beds because it reduces

the amount of light penetrating the water to the

plants. If you suspect that the water quality

might be a problem, you will need to compare

the water condition at your site with those at

reference wetlands, i.e., sites in your region that

are relatively undisturbed examples of your

wetland type. This work will almost always

require the expertise of a water quality specialist. 

Wetland Soils and their Qualities

Wetland soils or substrates are hydric

soils, meaning they are waterlogged for all or part of the year which results in anaerobic conditions. In

hydric soils, water fills the air spaces between soil particles and forces the oxygen out causing soils to

become anaerobic (depleted in oxygen) in the zones closest to the surface. Waterlogged, anaerobic

conditions are very hostile to terrestrial plants and these conditions will quickly kill most upland species. 

As a result, wetlands are dominated by plants that are specifically adapted to these tough, waterlogged,
78

anaerobic soil conditions. When soils lose their oxygen, they change significantly in structure and

chemistry which also influences the plant and animal species able to survive there.

Wetland soils come in two major types—organic and mineral. Organic soils are made up

primarily of plant material, either decomposed (the soil is then called “muck”) or undecomposed (called

“peat”). Mineral soils are composed primarily of non-plant material such as quartz, biotite, or calcite. 

Depending on the size of the soil grains, mineral soils are generally described (from largest grain size to

smallest) as sand, silt, and clay. Sandy wetland soils are the most permeable, allowing water to move

easily between the wetland and the groundwater, depending on the depth of the water table. Less

permeable clayey soils are more likely to maintain water in the wetland even if the water table is low.

Some sites have “hard pan” layers underneath them, impermeable layers of clay or rock, essential to the

ecology of the wetland. These hard subsurface layers may allow water to stay ponded for much longer

than would occur otherwise, resulting in unique ecosystems, such as “vernal pool” habitats. 

Many wetland soils, especially organic soils such as peat, are characterized by relatively high

amounts of organic carbon and nutrients, which drive the significant biological productivity of wetlands. 

The organic material provides energy for soil microbes to recycle nutrients and to convert nitrogen to

organic forms that encourage plant growth. Of course, not all soils are naturally high in organic material

or nutrients. As with other wetland elements, soil characteristics vary with the system and the region. 

Reference sites can provide data on typical soil conditions of the region. Soil scientists can identify

hydric soils by their color and structure. Often organic, anaerobic soils are dark grey to nearly black. 

In more mineral soils, the chemistry of hydric soils affects minerals such as iron and manganese causing

distinctive color variations.

In addition to small scale soil qualities, two large scale features of substrates are critical to

restoration projects: 1) soil or substrate elevation in relationship to water levels, and 2) networks of

channels to move water in and out. These features are shaped by water and their relationship to water

levels is critical. Incorrect elevations and topographies are some of the most common reasons wetland

restoration projects fail to achieve their goals. 

Soil maps produced by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service are a good place

to start for local soil information. Soil maps are produced for each county and provide information on

the presence of hydric soils, the permeability of these soils, and their suitability as wetland habitat. 

However, some county maps are decades old, and most do not contain enough detail to locate small

hydric “inclusions” in non-hydric soils (or vice-versa). You may need to have a professional soil

scientist examine the soils at the project site, particularly if the site has been altered, to determine

whether the existing soil is hydric. Determining proper soil elevations and topography, if they have been

altered, is the job of hydrologists or wetland experts who deal with sediments and their transport.

Wetland Plants

Wetland plants, or hydrophytic plants, are specifically adapted to waterlogged, anaerobic

conditions. Some wetland plants grow exclusively in wetlands and are called “obligate” wetland

species; others are “facultative” species as they may be found in both wetlands and drier areas. There

are many types and categories of wetland plants, including emergent plants (such as rushes), submerged

plants (eel grass), and floating plants (such as duckweed). Wetland plants also include trees (like
79

swamp oak), shrubs (like bayberry), moss, and many other types. The wetland’s water source (fresh,

saline (salty), or brackish) will affect the composition of the wetland plant community, as will the amount

and duration of water in the wetland. 

Plant species also can be regionally and locally specific: the dominant native plant in Atlantic

coast tidal systems is smooth cordgrass (Spartina alternaflora) whereas the dominant native plant in

central Pacific coast salt marshes is Pacific cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). Some wetlands may be

degraded because they contain non-native species, that is, plants from other regions. These nonnatives may be invasive and displace more typical wetland plants. Sometimes non-native species can

completely replace the natural wetland plant community, which alters the ecological functioning of the

site. Purple loosestrife, reed canary grass, and common reed are examples of non-native invasive

wetland plants. Atlantic cordgrass becomes an invasive, exotic species when it occurs along the Pacific

coast, outside its native range.

The spread of non-native species is a huge ecological problem in the U.S. The U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service estimates that approximately 4600 acres per day in public natural areas are lost to nonnative plants and animals. For many restoration and enhancement projects, significant effort is devoted

to removing the invaders so that the native species can re-establish.

Nutrient, turbidity, and salinity levels are key parameters determining the composition of

wetland plant community. Another critical element is the relationship of water levels to substrate

elevation. If water is too deep, emergent and sub-emergent vegetation will not establish. If the

substrate elevation is too high, then what you may get is an upland. In some habitats, such as vernal

pools, microtopographic changes must be re-created to establish the very sensitive endemic species

that occur there. 

Wetland Animals

Wetlands are inhabited by creatures large and small: water fleas and alligators; shrews and

bears; minnows and salmon; wrens and herons. Because wetlands exist where land and water meet,

they are often used by animals from both wet and dry environments. Many species depend on

wetlands for all or part of their lives. For example, the salt marsh harvest mouse lives its entire life in the

tidal salt marshes around the San Francisco Bay. It is so well adapted to this habitat that it has

developed special kidney functions that allow it to eat salt marsh vegetation and survive the ingestion of

sea water. Wetlands are very important in maintaining biodiversity; they are used by 43 percent of the

species listed as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act.

Some of the smallest wetland animals are invertebrates (animals without backbones) such as

beetles, water fleas, crayfish, dragonflies, snails, and clams. Invertebrates are an important food source

for other animals, both as adults and in their egg and larval forms. Amphibians and, to a lesser extent,

reptiles, are very strongly tied to wetlands because many frogs, snakes, turtles, and salamanders need

both water and drier environments to complete their life cycles. Fish are not found in all wetlands, but

wherever there is permanent water fish are likely to occur. Even wetlands with only seasonal flooding

may be temporary habitat for fish from adjacent permanent water. Many fish spawn in wetlands, and

wetlands are particularly valuable as nursery areas where young fish can hide from hungry predators

until they are big enough or fast enough to survive in open water. 
80

Birds are some of the best-known inhabitants of wetlands. Ducks, in particular, are valuable to

people who enjoy hunting or birding. However, wetlands are also important to shorebirds (plovers,

sandpipers) that feed in mudflats, wading birds (herons, egrets, bitterns) that feed in shallow water,

songbirds (red-winged blackbirds, rails, marsh wrens) that perch on or nest in tall grasses or shrubs,

and other birds such as terns and hawks that are all common inhabitants of wetlands. Finally, mammals

such as beavers, raccoons, shrews, mice, moose, and bear are common residents of wetlands, although

their tracks are usually seen more often than the animals themselves.

While the ecological requirements for animals vary with the species, here are a few general

requirements of major taxa using wetlands:

• Invertebrates process nutrients and organic matter and are important for supporting much of the

wetland food chain. Invertebrate species are numerous and live in a range of ecological

conditions. In general, like most aquatic animals, most invertebrates need well-oxygenated

water. Temperature levels and food sources are essential to support invertebrate diversity. A

reliable source of water, a diversity of typical plant species, and buffers around the wetland will

support invertebrates by filtering out pollutants, moderating temperature, providing a variety of

habitats, and providing food sources. 

C Amphibians and reptiles (herptiles) require a range of habitats during their lifecycles. Plant

structural diversity, such as brush, leaf litter, and small dense stands of grass or reeds, can give

these species cover, foraging and nesting habitat. Larger debris like logs are attractive for

basking. Areas of sandy soil with a warm, southern exposure encourage turtle reproduction. 

Deep water areas will support species that overwinter by burrowing in mud. Shallow water

(usually with vegetation) is important for hiding egg masses and protecting tadpoles from

predators. Gradual slopes from the wetland to the upland help animals move easily between

habitats. Habitat requirements vary by species and restorations should be designed with the

needs of local herptile species in mind.

C Fish need both shallow water to protect eggs and young fish, and deeper water for adults. Fish

may move in and out of wetlands as water depths fluctuate. Some wetlands support no fish or

only small fish because the wetland is shallow or temporary. Temperature, dissolved oxygen

(DO), and salinity levels are parameters that will determine the species present. Shade,

streambed/wetland structure, and food sources (such as invertebrates) will also determine the

species richness. Trees for shade and large debris for hiding can be very beneficial. Some fish

can provide insect control in the wetland. However, others, such as bottom-feeding fish can

destroy submerged plant communities and thereby reduce light levels by stirring up sediment.

C Birds occupy a variety of habitats in and around wetlands and are important indicators of

wetland functioning. Breeding or migratory waterfowl and shorebirds will be present in

wetlands that offer adequate cover and food sources. Rare species can be indicators of

specific habitat conditions. For example, clapper rail populations in west coast tidal salt

marshes, are indicators of mature, healthy Pacific cordgrass marshes. A wide range of bird
81

Nutria, Non-native Nightmare

 Nutria are large (8-18 lb) beaver-like

rodents native to South America. Accidentally

introduced into Maryland’s eastern shore

marshes in the 1940's, nutria have been

implicated in the loss of emergent brackish

marsh. 

 First noticeable in the 1950s, marsh loss

along the Blackwater River in Dorchester

County, Maryland, has accelerated at an

alarming rate as nutria populations have grown.

What was once continuous marshland now

appears as fragmented remnants.

 Nutria forage directly on the vegetation root

mat and cut the marsh into finer and finer

fragments. Erosion by tidal and wave action

lowers the unvegetated marsh bottom and

prevents plants from recolonizing.

 A recent study found that within the

Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge alone,

over 6 square miles of marsh have been lost to

open water since 1938. Over 50 percent of the

remaining marsh has significant damage and

may likely be lost in the near future.

species, including wrens, sparrows, and yellowthroats, live and nest in wetlands or where the

wetlands interface with the upland. Adjacent uplands, especially grass, willow, and tree

dominated zones, are important as high tide refuges for wetland birds and offer millions of

migratory birds places to stop and forage. In developing wetland enhancement activities to

attract particular species, carefully weigh the potential effects on other species that use the

wetland. Restorationists have also found that some birds can be very destructive to newly

installed plants; geese, for example, are able to denude acres of newly planted stems in one

night and they can be one of the biggest challenges to new wetland restoration sites.

C Mammals generally need adjacent

uplands or upland islands for escape

during high-water periods. Therefore,

undisturbed upland buffers and

corridors connecting adjacent habitats

are critical to these taxa. Nest boxes

may attract bats, which can provide

insect control in the wetlands. 

Muskrats can help to control

vegetation, but can also “eat-out” the

vegetation and be a nuisance with

burrowing activities. Beavers, a

keystone species of wetlands

throughout North America, can aid

wetland restoration by creating the

very water control structures that are

needed to keep water in a wetland,

but they also can redesign your site

by creating dams where you didn’t

plan for them. 

The conversion of wetland vegetation

to non-native plants alters the habitat for

native animals and results in the loss of

species from local wetlands. In addition, nonnative animals are as big a problem as nonnative plants. Non-native animals are causing

losses of wetland communities and biodiversity (see box on nutria).

Animal communities vary with wetland type and region, but in general, healthy wetlands are rich

in wildlife and very productive biologically. For example, approximately three-quarters of the Nation’s

commercially harvested fish and shellfish depend on bays and other estuarine habitats, of which

wetlands are an integral part. According to some estimates, each year the production associated with
82

these wetlands accounts for more than $100 billion dollars in sales of fish and shellfish and provides one

and a half million jobs. 

Each wetland has its own distinctive animal community. Relatively undisturbed wetlands in your

region will give you an idea of what you can expect to inhabit your wetland, as long as your wetland

project results in typical wetland hydrology and native plant communities. If you are interested in

attracting a particular animal or animals to your wetland, a wetland biologist or ecologist may be able to

help you pick specific plants or take other actions designed to accomplish that goal.
83

APPENDIX T-III: Activities Used to Restore or Change Wetland Characteristics

Typical Activities Used to Restore or Change Hydrology:

C Try to reverse the actions that caused the loss or alteration of a wetland’s hydrologic

characteristics. Some measures include: 

* Remove dams or other water control structures

* Fill or plug ditches or drains 

* Remove fill that has elevated the land surface

C Bring additional water to the site if the current water supply is inadequate. Methods include:

* Dig channels to bring water to additional areas

* Pumping water in from other sites

* Installing pipes to bring in water

C Control water levels by installing water control structures. Some structures include:

* Open culverts

* Culverts with manual or automatic gates

* Weirs

* Check dams 

C Use the lowest maintenance water control structures possible. Seek structures that allow

flexibility in use and are able to withstand extreme hydrological and climactic (e.g. winter ice)

events

C Reinstate proper substrate to water level elevations. Some methods include:

* If the substrate elevation is too low, allow natural sedimentation to build up the elevation (a

passive method).

* If the substrate elevation is too low, import appropriate sediment/soils (an active method). 

Soils may come from upland sites, dredged sites (dredged material), or other wetlands.

* If the substrate elevation is too high, excavate to the required level.

* Shape and contour your site to re-establish the right relationship between the hydrology of the

site and its topography. 

C If the primary water source is tidal or groundwater, you may need very precise grading because

deviations of only inches can alter the habitat for plants.

Typical Approaches to Improving Water Quality: 

C If contaminants are found in the water at the restoration site, check uses and inputs upstream or

adjacent to the site for sewer outflows, other outfall pipes, ditches draining industrial or

agricultural areas, landfills, or areas where junk and trash has been illegally dumped. 

C If you find a potential source of pollution contact local authorities for help to determine whether

it is the source of the contaminants and whether it can be cleaned up. Never attempt a cleanup yourself unless you know exactly what you are removing and you own the property or have

the owner’s permission. If a site contains contaminants in amounts that are toxic to wildlife or

humans, have the toxic materials removed or remediated by professionals. 

C If the source of the pollution can’t be removed, lessen its impact by:
84

* Implementing “Best Management Practices” (BMPs) to reduce pollution from stormwater

runoff from developed areas adjacent to the site. BMPs include activities such as labeling storm

drains, installing settling basins, etc. 

* Planting vegetated upland buffers to reduce the amount of contaminants, excess nutrients, or

sediment coming into your site from adjacent or upstream areas.

* Selecting plant species that can tolerate the existing conditions.

* Routing the water through pools or other structures constructed to allow excess nutrients,

sediments, or contaminants to settle out or become absorbed or converted to a less harmful

form by natural processes.

* Educating neighbors about pollutant effects on wetlands and asking them to reduce their use

of fertilizers and pesticides.

Typical Activities for Restoring or Changing Soils/Substrates:

• If soils are degraded or are lacking nutrients, organic matter or other soil component (often the

case when wetlands are created from excavated uplands):

* Do nothing, and see what plants grow at the site.

* Amend the soil with materials designed to address the soil nutrient deficiency. There are

scores of amendment approaches. Talk to a specialist to determine the best one for the

problems.

* Cover the site with wetland soils salvaged from wetlands that are being destroyed.

• If you need to raise the elevation of compacted or eroded sites: 

* Let natural sedimentation build up the elevation, if the process is fast enough. 

* Use dredged materials to build up the elevation.

C Provide controls against erosion and sedimentation during construction in or near the wetland or

aquatic areas. Common erosion prevention techniques include:

* wheat straw (which is longer, thus more stable, than grass/hay straw) 

* mulch or bales

* fiber blankets

* cover vegetation (temporary plantings or seeding)

* plastic sediment fences with hay bales (be sure they are ultimately removed and do not remain

on site or wash downstream). 

C Once construction is completed, you may want to delay flooding the site until the exposed soils

have been stabilized with vegetation.

C Protect site against long-term erosion. Many methods exist to achieve this goal.

Typical Activities for Establishing a Healthy Wetland Plant Community:

C To establish native species for the target habitat type, after establishing hydrology and soil

conditions:

* Wait a season or two and see what comes in naturally (assuming wetland hydrology has been

established).
85

* Plant wetland vegetation, using local plants or seeds from local nurseries and seed distributors

(see USDA’s Plant Materials Program for sources of seeds and plants at

“http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/). If you are using seeds, ask for a germination test result

before you buy.

* Salvage plants that would otherwise have been destroyed from local land development, road

building, or logging operations, and plant them at your site.

C Follow plant lifecycle needs, including:

* Plant early in the species’ growing season.

* Control water, if possible, to help vegetation become established.

* Provide irrigation until young plants are established.

C Control erosion, add nutrients, and establish cover quickly with a fast-growing “cover species”

while slower-growing plants become established. Use a leguminous species to boost soil

nitrogen, if needed. Never use an invasive or competitive native or non-native species.

• Remove non-native species. The wide range of methods falls into three categories:

* Mechanical–pull by hand, use a pulaski or weed wrench, use a blade or backhoe, burn,

graze, etc.

* Chemical–use a pre-emergent or a herbicide for emergent plants.

* Biological–use a biocontrol species, host-specific to the non-native exotic plant.

C Protect new plants from herbivores. Many methods exist, depending on the herbivore,

including:

* Fencing the planted area.

* Putting wire cages around planted seeds, roots, and shoots.

* Put seedlings in plastic tubes, which also keep in water.

* Put up perching posts to attract birds of prey that feed on animals, such as gophers, which

feed heavily on new plants.

Typical Activities for Establishing a Healthy Wetland Animal Community:

C Plant upland species around the wetland to enhance the habitat diversity and act as a buffer. 

Help with choosing species for wildlife cover and food, erosion control, etc. can be found on

the Plant Materials Program website at “Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov/”, the National Plant

Data Center website at “npdc.usda.gov/npdc/”, and the Center for Plant Conservation website

at “www.mobot.org/CPC/”.

C Create a variety of habitats - different water depths, different vegetation types - to appeal to a

variety of animals. 

C Tailor nesting and foraging habitats to particular native species, especially rare species, based

on information from wildlife specialists and reference wetlands. Typical structures include:

* Nest boxes or nesting platforms,

* Perches,

* Logs and brush,

* Islands,

* Specific food sources. 
86

C Create a variety of gentle slopes of 3:1 to 20:1 (3:1 means three feet of length for every one

foot of rise) similar to those in the reference wetlands.

C Establish connections to other habitats (e.g.,channels connecting to larger water bodies,

forested corridors connecting to wildlife refuges) unless those areas contain invasive species or

other threats.

(Blank page)
87

APPENDIX T-IV: Wetland Parameters and Monitoring Methods

CHARACTERISTIC 

BEING MONITORED

AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE 

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE

 METHOD

GENERAL 

Location use existing map or create map

with property boundaries, scale,

north arrow, county, state, and

landmarks

Wetland Type classify existing (if appropriate)

and intended type(s) (Cowardin

et al., 1979)

classify actual type(s) classify actual type(s)

Drainage area identify USGS hydrologic unit

from state maps or state

watershed unit

map using GIS and appropriate

base maps

Surrounding land use estimate % surrounding land use

and photograph major types w/in

1,000 feet of site (Anderson et

al. 1976)

estimate % surrounding land use

and photograph major types w/in

1,000 feet of site (Anderson et

al. 1976)

estimate % surrounding land use

and photograph major types w/in

1,000 feet of site (Anderson et al.

1976)

Wetland area determine wetland boundary and

use basic survey techniques to

create a map of the site

delineate wetland boundary and

use basic survey techniques to

create a map of the site

Slope measure slope at intervals along a

transect

survey elevations
CHARACTERISTIC 

BEING MONITORED

AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE 

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE

 METHOD

88

microtopography survey elevations every foot or

meter on transects traversing the

wetland

survey elevations every foot or

meter on transects traversing the

wetland

HYDROLOGY

Water depth above ground: use staff gauge,

below ground: use shallow well

or 2-3" slotted PVC pipe

above ground: use staff gauge,

below ground: use shallow well

or 2-3" slotted PVC pipe and

read on site

above ground: use automatic water

level gauge, below ground: use

shallow well or 2-3" slotted PVC

pipe with automatic recorder

Flow patterns direct observation to indicate

major pathways and channels on

map

direct observation to indicate

major pathways and channels on

map

regular direct observation or aerial

photography to indicate major

pathways/channels on map

Flow rates measure inflow or outflow (if

present) with flumes or weirs,

measure interior flow with current

meters

estimate flow based on rates

typical for the area and estimated

wetland size

measure inflow or outflow (if

present) with flumes or weirs,

measure interior flow with current

meters

Indirect observations record observations of highwater marks, drift lines, etc.record observations of highwater marks, drift lines, etc.

SOIL (sample using soil auger or pit)

Soil depth dig to compacted soil or at least

18 inches, observe changes in soil

color and structure

dig to compacted soil or at least

18 inches, observe changes in

soil color and structure

take soil core to at least 18 inches

deep and have soil expert analyze

the soil horizons and their

composition
CHARACTERISTIC 

BEING MONITORED

AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE 

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE

 METHOD

89

Soil color use Munsell color chart to

determine color of matrix (the

dominant color) and any mottles

or streaks

use Munsell color chart to

determine color of matrix (the

dominant color) and any mottles or

streaks

Soil texture use soil texture triangle to classify

based on feel (Horner and

Raedeke, 1989)

use soil texture triangle to classify

based on feel (Horner and

Raedeke, 1989)

take a soil core to soils lab for

particle size analysis of the different

soil horizons

Organic matter lab analysis for percent organic

matter in top layer; include soil

moisture measurement

lab analysis for percent organic

matter in top layer; include soil

moisture measurement

Sedimentation survey base elevations of

completed project

read changes in sediment depth

from a staff gauge

survey topography or bathymetry

on a yearly basis; or, take

sediment cores on a yearly basis

for analysis by soils experts

VEGETATION

Species diversity identify species, document

planting locations

identify common species and

note number of unidentified

species

identify all species, native and nonnative

Coverage estimate coverage to 10%, map

plant communities

estimate coverage to 10%, map

plant communities

collect plot data along transects,

calculate coverage, map plant

communities
CHARACTERISTIC 

BEING MONITORED

AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE 

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE

 METHOD

90

Survivorship

Height

Structure

Reproduction

count plants and determine % of

plants alive

visually determine % of plants

alive

measure heights of particular

plants on a regular basis

count stems and branching of

particular plants on a regular

basis

of particular plants, determine

the number blooming and setting

seed each year

count plants and determine % of

plants alive

measure heights of randomly

chosen plants for a valid statistical

comparison 

count stems and branching of

randomly chosen plants for a valid

statistical comparison

determine percentage of randomly

chosen plants blooming and setting

seed each year; count new

seedlings in randomly chosen plots
CHARACTERISTIC 

BEING MONITORED

AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE 

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE

 METHOD

91

ANIMALS

Observations record direct and indirect

observations of wildlife, fish, and

invertebrates

record direct and indirect

observations of wildlife, fish, and

invertebrates

Habitat evaluations

Species diversity and

abundance

Species survivorship

Breeding success

Rare species

Use Habitat Evaluation

Procedures (FWS 1980) or

comparable method for selected

species

use trapping or point count

methods as required to determine

diversity and abundance of

indicator species

count bird species and their

abundances on a regular (at least

quarterly) basis; ask local

Audubon chapter for any data 

record any species breeding on

site and number of young

use Habitat Evaluation Procedures

(FWS 1980) or comparable

method for selected species

use trapping, point count or other

quantitative method as required to

determine diversity and abundance

of indicator spp 

mark and recapture study

use point counts, surveys, or other

protocols to determine percent of

population breeding and numbers

of young produced

conduct studies as legally

permitted by the jurisdictional

wildlife or resource agency

WATER QUALITY
CHARACTERISTIC 

BEING MONITORED

AS-BUILT QUALITATIVE 

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE

 METHOD

92

Water samples

(pH, salinity, nutrients, 

pollutants, heavy metals, etc.)

when construction is over,

measure appropriate attributes

based on project targets using

field kits, meters, or lab analysis

on a regular basis, measure

appropriate attributes based on

project targets using field kits

and/or field meters

on a set schedule designed to

show seasonal differences,

measure appropriate attributes

based on project target using field

meters or lab analysis

Sediment levels use field meters or lab analysis observe clarity and/or use a

secchi disk

use field meters or lab analysis
93

APPENDIX T-V DEFINITIONS OF CATEGORIES OF WETLANDSa CONSERVATION

ACTIVITIES

1. Establishment - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics present to

develop a wetland on an uplandb or deepwaterc site that did not previously exist. Establishment results

in a gain in wetland acres.

2. Restoration - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a site with

the goal of returning natural/historic functions to a former or degraded wetland. For the purpose of

tracking net gains in wetland acres, restoration is divided into:

Re-establishment - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of

a site with the goal of returning natural/historic functions to former wetlandd. Re-establishment

results in rebuilding a former wetland and results in a gain in wetland acres.

Rehabilitation - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a

site with the goal of repairing natural/historic functions of degraded wetlande. Rehabilitation

results in a gain in wetland function but does not result in a gain in wetland acres.

3. Enhancement - the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a wetland

(undisturbed or degraded) site to heighten, intensify, or improve specific function(s) or to change the

growth stage or composition of the vegetation present. Enhancement is undertaken for a purpose such

as water quality improvement, flood water retention or wildlife habitat. Enhancement results in a

change in wetland function(s), and can lead to a decline in other wetland functions, but does not result in

a gain in wetland acres. This term includes activities commonly associated with the terms enhancement,

management, manipulation, directed alteration. 

4. Protection/Maintenance - the removal of a threat to, or preventing decline of, wetland conditions

by an action in or near a wetland. Includes purchase of land or easements, repairing water control

structures or fences, or structural protection such as repairing a barrier island. This term also includes

activities commonly associated with the term preservation. Protection/Maintenance does not result in a

gain of wetland acres or function.

CURRENT CONDITION OF LAND, PRIOR TO WETLAND CONSERVATION

ACTIVITY

a. Wetlands (non-agricultural lands): The COE (Federal Register 1982) and the EPA (Federal

Register 1980) jointly define wetlands as: Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or
94

ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do

support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands

generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.

Wetlands (agricultural lands): 1985 Food Security Act. Wetland is defined as land that; 1. has a

predominance of hydric soils and 2. is inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a

frequency and duration sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances does support, a

prevalence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. “Normal

circumstances” refers to the soil and hydrologic conditions that are normally present, without regard to

whether the vegetation has been removed. All three wetland criteria, hydric soils, hydrophytic

vegetation, and wetland hydrology, normally must be met for an area to be identified as wetland.

Wetlands (non-jurisdictional wetlands): Conservation activities conducted on all wetlands that meet

the national standard for classifying wetlands (“Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of

the United States”), will be reported even if they are not considered to be regulatory wetlands. The

regulatory jurisdictional nature of a wetland is not relevant to its status for these accounting activities. 

b. Uplands: Uplands are neither deepwater habitats nor wetlands. They are seldom or never

inundated, or if frequently inundated, they have saturated soils for only brief periods during the growing

season, and, if vegetated, they normally support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life

only in aerobic soil conditions.

c. Deepwater Habitat: Deepwater habitats are permanently flooded lands lying below the deepwater

boundary of wetlands. The boundary between wetland and deepwater habitat in tidal areas is the

elevation of the extreme low water of spring tides. The boundary between wetlands and the deepwater

habitats of lakes and rivers lies at a depth of 2 meters (6.6 feet) below low water. If emergents, shrubs,

or trees grow beyond this depth at any time, their deepwater edge is the boundary.

d. Former Wetland: An area that once was a wetland but it has been modified to the point it no longer

has the hydrologic characteristics of a wetland. The area is considered to be upland. Formerly

vegetated shallow coastal open water areas are also considered to be “former wetlands” because when

they were converted from wetland marshes to open water areas, this conversion was considered to be

a loss of wetland acreage both by the Fish and Wildlife Service’s wetlands Status and Trends and

Natural Resources Conservation Service’s National Resources Inventory. Former wetlands include by

definition Prior Converted Croplands (PC) and, by determination, other areas that no longer meet the

jurisdictional criteria for wetlands.

Prior converted wetland (PC): Wetlands that before December 23, 1985, were drained,

dredged, filled, leveled, or otherwise manipulated for the purpose of, or to have the effect of,

making the production of an agricultural commodity possible. (National Food Security Act

Manual)
95

e. Degraded Wetland: A wetland with one or more functions reduced, impaired, or damaged due to

human activity. When determining whether or not a wetland is degraded, consider: physical alteration,

including the conversion of a wetland from one system (e.g., estuarine or marine) to a different system;

chemical contamination; and biological alteration, including the significant presence of non-indigenous

invasive species.