The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S.

Department of Justice and prepared the following final report:

Document Title: Addressing Sentencing-Related Changes in

Correctional Health Care: Building a

Practitioner-Researcher Partnership, Final

Project Report

Author(s): Jacques Baillargeon Ph.D.

Document No.: 197354

Date Received: November 14, 2002

Award Number: 2000-CE-VX-001

This report has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice.

To provide better customer service, NCJRS has made this Federallyfunded grant final report available electronically in addition to

traditional paper copies.

Opinions or points of view expressed are those

of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect

the official position or policies of the U.S.

Department of Justice.
PHUPLR TY OF 

National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) 

Box 6000 

Rockville. NID 20849-6000 -' ' 

I I 

Addressing Sentencing-related Changes in Correctional Health Care: 

Building a Practitioner-Researcher Partnership 

Final Project Report 

March 6,2001 

Jacques Baillargeon, Ph.D. 

University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
The purpose of our project, 'Addressing Sentencing-related Changes in 

Correctional Health Care: Building a Practitioner-Researcher , Partnership' was to: 

1) develop a system-wide data repository and health care review process; 2) 

examine disease prevalence and health care delivery patterns in the Texas 

Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) prison system; 3) develop correctional 

health care delivery and policy recommendations based on our findings. The 

following summarizes the major findings and accomplishments of our study. 

Establishment of a System-wide Data Repository 

The TDCJ data repository was constructed by linking clinical, 

demographic, health services, and pharmacologic information from a number of 

TDCJ databases. Establishment of this database was integral to development of 

the subsequent epidemiologic and pharmacoepidemiolgic studies. Prior to 

analyses, all data were validated using descriptive statistical techniques. The first 

series of analyses focused on a cohort of inmates who were incarcerated for any 

duration during 1998. Table 1 shows that the vast majority of inmates were male 

and between 30-49 years old. Blacks constituted 44 percent of the total inmate 

population; whites represented 30 percent; and Hispanics represented 26 percent. 

The distribution of sociodemographic factors was similar in our analyses of two 

subsequent cohorts. 

2 

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Disease Prevalence in the TDC J 

Using International Classification of Disease (ICD- 10) codes, we 

estimated the prevalence of all medical conditions (physical and psychiatric) for 

all inmates who were incarcerated during 1998. Infectious diseases (29.6%) 

constituted the most prevalent major disease category among inmates. This was 

followed by diseases of musculoskeletal systems and connective tissue (15.3%), 

diseases of the circulatroy system (14.0%), mental disorder (lOk%), and diseases 

of the respiratory system (6.3%). Among the specific conditions examined, 

evidence of tuberculosis infection without active pulmonary disease (20.1%) was 

I, 

found to be the most prevalent condition, followed hypertension (9.8%), asthma 

(5.2%), low pain (5.1%), and viral hepatitis (5.0%). We conducted additional 

analyses (see manuscript 1) which included examination of these conditions 

according to race, age, and gender. Moreover, we replicated these analyses for 

calendar years 1999 and 2000, and found similar distributions. 

@ 

Table 3 presents the 15 most prevalent conditions of the 1998 cohort of 

inmates. Of the specific diseases examined, evidence of TB infection (as defined 

by a positive tuberculin skin test) was the most common condition in the TDCJ, 

occuring in 20.1 percent of inmates. Hypertension was ranked second, followed 

by low back pain, viral hepatitis, an affective disorders. Once again, we 

conducted additional analyses that included how these conditions varied 

according to age, race, and gender (manuscript 1, page 13). Analyses of 

subsequent cohorts showed similar distributions of disease. 

0 , 

3 

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Health Care Delivery and Pharmacotherapy Patterns 

Based on our findings of the overall disease profile the TDCJ population, 

the advisory board identified a number of specific conditions upon which to focus 

our analyses of pharmacotherapy and health care delivery patterns. The following 

summarizes some of the major findings of our study. 

HIV/AJDS: Antiretroviral Prescribing Patterns 

To assess antiretroviral prescribing patterns among "-infected inmates, we I 

examined a cohort of 2,360 prison inmates who were incarcerated in the Texas 

Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) system for any duration during 1998 and who 

were diagnosed as HIV-infected. We examined use of three classes of antiretroviral 

medication: nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-nucleoside reverse 

transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTIs), and protease inhibitors (PIS). HAART was defined as 

two NRTIs prescribed with either a PI or a "RTI. 

Of all "-infected TDCJ inmates, 48.8 percent were prescribed HAART during 

1998 (table 4). Blacks, males, and older inmates all exhibited slightly elevated 

proportions of patients on HAART, although none of these associations reached 

statistical significance. Inmates with CD4 counts below 500/mm3 exhibited a 

substantially higher percentage receiving HAART (66.8 percent) compared to inmates 

with CD4 counts at or above 500/mm3 (38.0 percent). We found that the proportion of 

inmates receiving HAART increased steadily with each drop in CD4 count category, with 

the exception of a slight decrease in the lowest CD4 count category. Assessment of the 

95 percent confidence intervals indicates that patients with CD4 counts at or above 500 

cells/mm3 and those with missing CD4 information exhibited substantially lower 

proportions of inmates on HAART than any of the other subgroups. 

Of the 48.8 percent prescribed HAART, 43.2 percent received NRTI with PI 

thkhpy, and 1 1.2 percent received NRTI and non-NRTI therapy. 64.2 percent of HIV4 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

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infected inmates were prescribed NRTI only therapy in 1998 (table 4). Inclusion in the 

NRTI only category did not preclude having been prescribed HAART in 1998. Overall, 

31.1 percent of the HIV-infected inmates were prescribed no antiretroviral therapy during 

1998 (table 4). Females, Hispanics and young inmates (18-29 years) all exhibited 

elevated percentages of no antiretroviral therapy. 

Logistic regression models were used to examine the influence of the study 

factors on the dichotomous response variable, HAART prescription during 1998 (table 

5). Of the variables included in the model, only CD4 count was predictive of being 

prescribed HAART. More specifically, relative to the reference category (patients with 

CD4 counts at or above 500/mm3), the other four CD4 categories, patients with CD4 

counts of (0-99, 100-199,200-299,300-499 /mm3) all exhibited a significantly increased 

likelihood of being prescribed HAART. Alternatively, inmates with missing CD4 counts 

had a significant decreased likelihood of receiving HAART. Additional analyses and 

discussion. These analyses also served as the basis for a presentation given at the 

American College of Epidemiology Annual Meeting in Atlanta, Georgia. 

1) 

Management of Active Pulmonarv Tuberculosis (TB) in the prison system: 

The incidence of active pulmonary TB in the prison population during a 

12-month period (March, 1999 through March, 2000) was 27 cases per 100,OOO 

inmates. Diagnosis with TB was defined as either having a positive culture for 

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or having met the CDC clinical surveillance case 

definition for TB including: positive tuberculin skin test, clinical evidence of 

disease, and treatment with at least two antituberculosis drugs. Overall, 59 

percent of the sample were prescribed antitubercular therapy for at least the 

;defined standard duration; 45 percent were prescribed anti-TB therapy for longer e '\~ '. 

5 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

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than the standard duration; ethambutal was included in the initial therapy among 

95 percent of inmates treated with anti-TB therapy; and approximately 33 percent 

were prescribed pyrazinamide for a period of less than 56 days. Approximately 36 

percent of the study sample began anti-tubercular pharmacotherapy prior to 

incarceration, while 7 percent were released from prison prior to completion of 

their therapy. 

Antidemessant Prescribing Pattkrns among inmates with Depressive Disorders 

,. 

To assess anti-depressant prescribing patterns in TDCJ, we focused on a 

cohort of 5,305 TDCJ prison inmates who were incarcerated for any duration 

during 1999 and who were diagnosed with one of three depressive disorders: 

major depression, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder. Because anti-depressant 

medtcation is generally not prescribed for treatment of manic episodes, we 

' 

excluded from analysis all inmates with bipolar disorder who presented with 

manic episodes during the aforementioned period. 

Table 6 shows that 78.2 percent of inmates with depressive disorder were 

prescribed antidepressants in 1998. Of these, 30.9 percent were prescribed SSRIs, and 

47.3 percent were TCAs only. Only 21.8 percent were prescribed no antidepressant 

medication. Across all diagnostic categories: females, whites, and young inmates (1 8-29 

years) were prescribed SSRIs more frequently than their counterparts; males and 

Hispanics exhibited elevated proportions of non-treatment; and blacks were more 

frequently prescribed TCA only therapy than other inmates. 

Our logistic regression models (table 7) predicting anti-depressant medication 

prescribing patterns show that females were more likely than males to be prescribed e 

6 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
SSRIs, but were less likely than males to be prescribed no pharmacotherapy. Relative to 

whites (the referent), both blacks and Hispanics were less likely to be p,laced on SSFUs, 

but were more likely to have been prescribed no anti-depressant treatment. Blacks, 

however, were more likely to be prescribed tricyclic anti-depressants than either whites 

or Hispanics. Prison inmates who were between the ages of 30-49 exhibited a reduced 

number of SSRI prescriptions but an elevated percentage of tricyclic anti-depressant 

prescriptions. Additional analyses of this topic were conducted and are presented in 

manuscript number 5. 

I. 

Compliance with Antidepressant Medication 

We also examined antidepressant medication compliance scores among inmates 

with depressive disorders (table 8). Univariate analysis indicated that antidepressant 

medication compliance scores did not fall into a normal distribution. We decided, 

a therefore, to use a nonparametric one-way analysis of variance procedure, the KruskalWallis test, to assess differences across the independent variables. When the KruskalWallis test was significant at the .05 level, pairwise comparisons were made using the 

Wilcoxon rank-sum test. The overall median compliance score was .79. Inmates treated 

with tricyclic antidepressants had a higher median score than inmates treated with SSRIs 

(p<.05); men had a higher median score than women (pc.05); Hispanics had a lower 

median score than blacks (p<.05); and compliance scores increased with age (pc.05). 

Except for comparison of scores for Hispanics versus blacks, all of these associations 

were also found in each of the depressive disorder subgroups. 

To determine whether these associations persisted when all of the variables under 

study were controlled for, we used a logistic regression model assessing medication 

7 

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compliance scores above 50 percent (table 9). The model showed that for each 

depressive disorder, inmates for whom tricyclic antidepressants were prescribed were 

more likely to have compliance scores above 50 percent than those for whom SSRIs were 

prescribed. However, the higher likelihood,yas statistically significant in only two of the 

dsease categories: bipolar disorder (RR=2.04,95% CI=1.21,3.42) and all depressive 

disorders combined (RR=1.52,95% CI=1.17, 1.97). 

Likewise, men were significantly more likely than women to have compliance 

scores above 50 percent, for all depressive disorders (RR=2.01 ,95% CI=1.51,2.66); 

major depression (RR=2.15,95% CI=1.42,3.26); dysthymia (RR=1.77,95% CI=1.07, 

I. 

2.92); and bipolar disorder (RR=2.04,95% CI=1.21,3.42). Moreover, for each disease 

subgroup, age was positively associated with the likelihood of having a compliance score 

above 50 percent, although this finding was not statistically significant. Only minor 

differences in this outcome were associated with race. 

' 

Anti-psvchotic Medication Prescribing Patterns in Inmates 

To examine anti-psychotic prescribing patterns in the TDCJ, we assessed a 

cohort of 3,750 prison inmates who were: 1) incarcerated for any during 1998; 2) 

diagnosed with either a schizophrenic or nonschizophrenic psychotic disorder; 

and 3) prescribed antipsychotic medication during 1998. Additional analyses and 

discussion of this topic are presented in manuscript number 6. Diagnoses of all 

psychotic disorders were made by physicians or mid-level practitioners at the time 

of each inmate's initial evaluation and/or subsequent medical encounters. We 

examined two broad classes of antipsychotic agents, typical and atypical. Typical 

1- 

8 

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antipsychotics consisted of any of the following: chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, 

m haloperidol, mesoridazine, molindone, perphenazine, thioridazine, thiothixene, 

and trifluoperazine. Atypical antipsychotics consisted of clozapine, olanzapine, 

risperidone, and quetiapine. I 

Table 10 shows that among inmates diagnosed with schizophrenic disorders who 

were treated with antipsychotic agents, 85.4 percent were treated with typical agents 

only, and 14.6 percent were treated with atypical antipsychotic agents. Lkewise, among 

those with non-schizophrenic Gychotic disorders who were treated with antipsychotic 

medication, 89.3 percent were treated with typical agents only, and 10.7 percent were 

prescribed atypical agents. Among both subgroups: females, blacks, and non-violent 

criminals, were prescribed atypical antipsychotic agents less frequently than their 

counterparts. Among the schizophrenic inmates, the youngest age group (18-29) has the 

lowest proportion of inmates prescribed atypical antipsychotic agents. Among nonschizophrenic psychotic inmates, however, the age 30-49 year-old subgroup had the 

lowest proportion of patients prescribed the atypical agents. Finally, among inmates with 

both schizophrenic and non-schizophrenic psychotic disorders, those incarcerated for 

@' 

violent offenses were prescribed atypical antipsychotics slightly more frequently than 

those incarcerated for nonviolent crimes. Examination of the ninety-five percent 

confidence intervals associated with all of the aforementioned estimates indicates that 

only females exhibited a decrease in antipsychotic use that reached statistical 

significance. 

Our logistic regression analysis (table 11) shows that among those diagnosed with 

schizophrenic disorders, only female gender and black race were both positively 

predictive of standard antipsychotic agent prescription. Conversely, both of these factors 

were negatively predictive of the outcome, novel anti-psychotic prescription. Among 

e inhates diagnosed with non-schizophrenic psychotic disorders, black race and female 

9 

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gender were again both positively predictive of typical anti-psychotic prescription; and 

negatively predictive of atypical anti-psychotic prescription. I 

Medication Adherence and Prescribing Patterns among Inmates with Diabetes 

Mellitus 

Our study of antidiabetic agent prescribing practices and adherence among 

diabetic prison inmates indicates that 33 percent of the study sample was 

prescribed insulin only, 38 percent was prescribed oral hypoglycemic agents 

(OHA) only, 13 percent were prescribed both insulin and OHA, and 13 perecnt 

received no medication. The median adherence rate with drug therapy were 61 

percent for insulin only, and 66 percent for OHA only. For combination therapy, 

the medm adherence rate was 56 percent for insulin and 66 percent for OHA. 

e We used a logistic regression to assess prescribing patterns among adult 

diabetic inmates. Compmd to whites, black inmates exhibited exhibited elevated 

odds of insulin only prescriptions, while Hispanics exhibited lower odds. 

Compared to the youngest age group, the two older groups of diabetic inmates 

exhibited significantly lower odds of insulin only prescriptions. Compared to 

whites, Latinos had lower odds of OHA only prescriptions, and compared to the 

youngest age category, the two older groups had elevated odds of OHA only 

prescriptions. No differences were apparent for combined therapy, however, both 

African American and Latinos had lower odds of no medication prescription, in 

comparison to whites. Inmates aged fifty and over had lower odds of no 

,prescription rnedication'than either of the younger age groups. 

10 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

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Health Care Management and Policy Recommendations 

0 The aforementioned findings hold a number of important implications for 

correctional administrators and clinicians. The implications listed below are 

representative but not exhaustive of the those generated by the study. 

Our findings that more than 30 percent of inmates with CD4 counts below 

500 mm3 were not prescribed highly active antiretroviral therapy in 1998 prompts 

a number of questions that should be investigated. First, now that HAART 

,. 

treatment has become more widely used in the general medical community, do the 

current treatment patterns among prison inmates reflect this trend. Our findings 

indicate that there were no variations in prescribing patterns according to race, 

age, or gender indicate that it will not be important to focus on one demographic 

group in particular. However, it will be important to examine the number of HIVinfected inmates who refuse therapy and their reasons for doing so. 

' 

Diabetes 

Our findings that compliance scores with both insulin and oral 

hypoglycemic agents were lowest among inmates in the youngest age group (18- 

29) indicates that it may be important to target these young inmates with 

educational interventions. It is possible that such rates may be driven, in part, by 

lack of knowledge, denial of the seriousness of diabetes, andor fatalistic attitudes 

' on the part of younger inmates. 

@ 

11 

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DeDression 

We found that inmates age 50 and over with a diagnosis of major depression were 

less frequently prescribed pharmacotherap)”than their younger aged counterparts. In 

view of their elevated rates of depression, it will be important to determine what factors 

contribute to the low medication rate in older inmates. 

Psychotic Disorders 

Our findings indicate that blacks were prescribed atypical antipsychotic 

medication less frequently than whtes and Hispanics. In view of previous reports that 

blacks are at increased risk for tardive dyskinesia, a side effect associated with many 

typical antipsychotic agents, it will be important to understand the driving forces behind e’ these presciibing differences. 

e , 

12 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

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Published Manuscripts 

1) Baillargeon J, Black S, Pulvino J, Dunn K. (2000). The Disease Profile of Texas 

Prison Inmates. Annals of Euidemiology, 10: 74-80. 

- Note: The above manuscript was the lead article and featured a guest editorial in 

Annals of Epidemiolo& (considered one of the top journals in the field of 

Epidemiolgy) 

2) Baillargeon J, Borucki M, Zepeda S, Jenson H, Leach C. Antiretroviral 

prescribing patterns in the Texas prison system. Clinical Infectious Disease, 3 1. 

3) Baillargeon J, Borucki M, Williamson J, Dunn K. (1999). Detenninents of HlV0 related survival among Texas prison inmates. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 13: 

355-361. 

4) Baillargeon J, Borucki M, Grady J. (1999). Immunologic predictors of HIVrelated survival among Texas prison inmates. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 14: 

183-1 88. 

5) Baillargeon J, Black S, Contreras S, Grady J, Pulvino J. (2000) Antidepressant 

prescribing patterns for prison inmates with depressive disorders. Journal of 

Affective Disorders (in press) 

6) Baillargeon J, Contreras S, Grady J, Black S, Murray 0. (2000). Compliance with 

antidepressant medication among prison inmates with depressive disorders. 

Psychiatric Services, 51, 1444-1446. e ; 

13 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Manuscripts in Press 

1) Baillargeon J, Contreras S. Antipsychotic prescribing patterns in the Texas Prison 

system. Journal of the American Adademv of Psychiatry and the Law (in press, 

to be published March 2001). 

2) Baillargeon J, Linton A, Black S, Zepeda S, Grady J. Medication prescribing and 

adherence patterns among prison inmates with diabetes mellitus. Journal of 

Correctional Health Cie 

Manuscripts Under Review 

1) Baillargeon J, Kelley M, Lichtenstein M, Jenson H. Prevalence of tuberculosis in 

the Texas prison system (submitted to Clinical Infectious Disease). 

2) Black S, Baillargeon J, Dunn K. Disease prevalence in older prison inmates. 

American Journal of Public Health (submitted July 1999). 

Conference Presentations 

1) Baillargeon J, Linton A, Black S, Zepeda S, Grady J. Medication prescribing and 

adherence patterns among prison inmates with diabetes mellitus. Pvsented at the 

Society for Epidemiolgic Research, Annual Conference, Seattle WA, June 2000. 

2) Baillargeon J, Borucki M, Zepeda S, Jenson H, Leach C. Antiretroviral 

prescribing patterns in the Texas prison system. Presented at the American 

e 

College of Epidemiology, Atlanta GA, August 2000. 

'\ 

i. 

14 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

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Seminar Presentations 

1) Baillargeon J, Kelley M, hchtenstein M, Jenson H. Management of Tuberculosis 

in the Texas Prison System. Research Seminar, Department of Pediatrics, 

University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, May 2001. 

I .' 

15 

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Table 1: Sociodemographic Characteristics of the TDC J Indate 

Population 

Variable Overall Males (n=155,949) Females (n=14,268) 

(n= 170,2 15) 

n % n % n % 

Race 

White 50,322 30 45,375 29 4,949 35 

Hispanic 44,202 26 42,200 27 2,002 14 

Black 75,69 1 44 68,374 44 7,3 17 51 

18-29 54,995 32 51,486 33 3,508 25 

3049 102,194 60 92,074 59 . 10,117 71 

50+ 13,027 8 12,384 8 64 4 

Age 

e '. 4 

16 

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0 Table 2: Prevalence of major disease categories in the TDCJ Prison systema 

1 

Disease Overall Mdes ' Females 

(n=170,2 15) (n= 155,947) (n= 14,268) 

Prevalence Prevalence Prevalence 

Infective and Parasitic Disease 29.6 28.9 37.0 

Endocrine, Metabolic, Allergic 3.3 3.2 4.0 

Blood and Blood-forming Organs 0.5 0.5 0.8 

Mental Disorders 10.8 10.0 19.8 

Nervous System and Sense Organs 4.2 , 4.1 5.1 

Circulatory System 14.0 14.2 12.4 

Respiratory System 6.3 6.2 8.0 

Digestive System 5.9 I 5.8 6.9 

Skin and Subcutaenous Tissue 2.4 2.4 2.6 

Musculoskl. System, Connect. Tissue 15.3 15.3 15.2 

Congenital Anomalies 0.4 0.4 0.3 

Neoplasms 0.7 0.7 0.9 

Genitourinary System 0.7 0.6 2.2 

Y 

17 

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a Table 3: 15 Most Prevalent Conditions among Texas Prison Inmates 

All Males Females 

1. Tuberculosis (class 2)b 20.1 20.4 16.2 

2. Hypertension 

3. Asthma 

4. LowBackPain 

5. Viral Hepatitis 

6. Affective Disorders 

7. Arthritis 

8. Fractures 

9. Cirrhosis 

10. Diabetes Mellitus . 

11. Hernia 

12. Schizophrenic Disorders 

13. Epilepsy 

14. Heart Disease 

15. HIVIAIDS 

' 9.8 

5.2 

5.1 

5 .O 

3.9 

3.5 

2.9 

2.8 

2.6 

2.0 

2.0 

1.9 

1.7 

1.6 

9.8 

5.0 

5.3 

4.6 

3.3 

3.3 

3 .O 

2.6 

2.6 

2.1 

1.9 

1.9 

1.5 

1.5 

10.1 

7.4 

2.6 

8.5 

10.2 

4.7 

1.3 

5.2 

2.8 

0.6 

2.7 

2.1 

2.0 

2.4 

(I= prevalence estimates represent the percentage of inmates with a given disease during 

the study period 

b= TB (class 2) was defined as a presentation of 10 mm or more induration from a 

tuberculin skin test or documented history of a positive tuberculin skin test, followed by a 

negative chest x-ray. 

18 

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 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

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Table 4: Proportion of HIV infected inmates prescribed antiretroviral medication, by 

clinical, sociodemographic factors and medication types I 1 

a 

Variable HAART Therapy NRTI only No Anti-retroviral 

Therapy 

All HAART 

I Therapy 

I 

Overall 48.8 (46.8-50.8) 64.2 (62.2-66.1) 31.1 (29.3-33.0) 

Gender I 

Male 49.3 (46.6-5 1.9) 64.7 (62.2-67.3) 30.4 (28.0-32.9) 

Female I 44.7 (36.8-52.7) 59.1 (51.4-66.7) 37.6 (30.2-44.9) 

Race 

White 46.6 (40.7-52.4) 64.1 (58.5-69.7) 30.5 (25.0-35.9) 

Hispanic 46.6 (36.7-56.4) 62.3 (52.9-7 1.7) 34.3 (25.3-43.4) 

Black 49.9 (46.4-53.4) 64.4 (61.0-67.8) 30.9 (27.7-34.2) 

Age @ears) 

18-29 44.4 (36.7-52.1) 56.2 (48.8-63.6) 38.1 (31.0-45.2) 

30-49 49.3 (46.1-52.5) 65.4 (62.3-68.5) 30.2 (27.2-33.1) 0 50+ 52.3 (40.1-64.4) 65.9 (54.3-77.6) 28.0 (16.8-39.2) 

CD4 Count 

>/=500 38.0 (30.2-45.7) 57.9 (50.7-65.3) 

< 500 66.8 (64.0-69.4) 83.3 (81.1-85.3) 

300-499 56.7 (49.3-64.2) 79.1 (72.2-91.5) 

200-299 69.2 (58.9-79.4) 81.8 (72.2-91.5) 

100-199 78.8 (67.9-89.8) 88.3 (78.0-98.5) 

0-99 73.8 (63.1-84.5) 88.8 (78.8-98.9) 

Missing 25.8 (19.7-31.9) 36.5 (30.8-42.2) 

a= 95 percent confidence intervals are presented in parentheses 

38.2 (31.2-45.2) 

11.9 (10.2-13.9) 

16.1 (09.4-22.8) 

12.3 (03.0-21.5) 

06.8 (00.3-16.6) 

07.7 (00.1-17.3) 

58.4 (52.9-63.9) 

e '. 

19 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
0 Table 5: Estimated odds ratios from logistic regression prediTting 

antiretroviral medication prescribing patterns’ 

Treatment All HAART NRTI only No 

Therapy Antiretroviral 

Therapy 

Gender’ 

Raceb 

Female 0.95 (0.71-1.27) 0.89 (0.66-1.21) 1.22 (0.89-1.66) 

Hispan. 0.97 (0.68-1.38) 0.89 (0.61-1,.28) 1.28 (0.91-1.45) 

Black 1.09 (0.88-1.34) 0.91 (0.73-1.14) 1.15 (0.91-1.46) 

Age (years) , 

30-49 1.06 (0.82-1.37) 1.38 (1.06-1.80) 0.76 (0.58-1.00) 

50 + 1.08 (0.70-1.70) 1.31 (0.82-2.10) 0.73 (0.44-1.20) 

CD4 countd 

300-499 2.14 (1.65-2.78) 2.73 (2.04-3.64) 0.3 1 (0.23-0.43) 

200-299 3.66 (2.63-5.09) 3.23 (2.23-4.70) 0.23 (0.15-0.35) 

100- 199 6.06 (4.16-8.83) 5.30 (3.37-8.32) 0.12 (0.07-0.21) 

0-99 4.56 (3.21-6.47) 5.64 (3.60-8.85) II 0.14 (0.08-0.23) 

Missing 0.57 (0.44-0.73) 0.41 (0.32-0.52) 2.30 (1.81-2.94) 

-95 percent confidence interval does not include 1.00 

age group 18-29, Reference category= 500+ 

a Reference category= males: Reference category= whites, C Reference category= 

i. 

20 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Table 6: Anti-depressant prescribing patterns by 

sociodernographic factors 

All Depressive Disorders 

Treatment SSRI TCA Only None 

Overall 30.9 47.3 21.8 

Gender 

Male 29.9 47.6 22.5 

Female 35.6 46.0 18.3 

White , ' *36.0 43.4 20.6 

,' Hisp. 27.1 45.1 27.7 

Black 24.3 54.0 21.7 

Race 

Age 18-29 . 35.2 43.1 21.7 

30-49 28.8 49.5 21.7 

50 + 33.0 43.1 23.9 

I 

95 percent confidence interval indicates that estimate is 

significantly elevated compared to comparison groups of the same 

variable. 

21 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
,. 

Table 7: Estimated odds ratios from logistic regressipn 

predicting anti-depressant medication prescribing 

patternsa 

All Depressive 

Disorders 

Treatment SSRI TCA Only None 

Gendef I 

Female * 1.40 0.88 *0.78 

Raceb 

Hispan. *0.66 1.08 * 1.48 

Black *OS6 * 1.53 1.09 

AgeC 

30-49 *0.73 *1.30 1.02 

50 + 0.83 1.06 1.16 

*95 percent confidence interval does not include 1.00 

Reference category= males: Referemce category= wfii tes 

Reference category= age group 18-29 

a 

C 

22 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Table 8: Median medication compliance estimates for inmates with depressive 

disorders, by anti-depressant medication class and sociodemographic factors 

e 

Variable All Depressive Major Depression Bipolar Disorder 

Disorders (n=l,385) (n467) 

(n=2,554) 

Overall 0.79 (0.63-0.89) 0.79 (0.63-0.89) 0.79 (0.59-0.90) 

Treatment 

SSRI *0.75 (0.56-0.87) *0.75 (0.58-0.8'9) *0.71 (0.45-0.85) 

TCA 0.80 (0.65-0.89) 0.80 (0.66-0.86) 0.8 1 (0.64-0.90) 

I Gender 

Male *0.80 (0.64-0.90) *0.80 (0.64-0.90) *0.81 (0.62-0.90) 

Female 0.74 (0.53-0.84) 0.74 (0.56-0.85) 0.73 (0.44-0.84) 

Race 

White 0.79 (0.62-0.89) 0.79 (0.63-0.89) 0.79 (0.61-0.89) 

Hispanic "0.77 (0.60-0.88) 0.76 (0.59-0.89) 0.80 (0.58-0.87) 

Black 0.79 (0.65-0.89) 0.80 (0.66-0.89) 0.79 (0.55-0.91) 

Age 18-29 b*c 0.74 (0.54-0.86) bsc 0.74 (0.56-0.87) 0.71 (0.43-0.85) 

30-49 0.80 (0.65-0.89) 0.80 (0.66-0.89) 0.81 (0.63-0.90) 

e 

50+ 0.86 (0.74-0.93) 0.86 (0.74-0.93) 0.90 (0.79-0.96) 

*Pairwise comparisons, based on the Wilcoxon rank sum test, are significant at d=.05. 

a=Hispanics vs. blacks, b= 18-29 vs. 30-49, c= 18-29 vs. 50+, d= 30-49 vs. 50+ 

23 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Table 9: Estimated odds ratios from logistic regression predicting medication 

compliance scores below 50 percent 

a 

All Depressive Major Depression Bipolar Disorder 

Disorders 

Pharmacotherapy 

SSRI *1.52 (1.17-1.97) 1.26 (0.86-1.83) *2.04 (1.21-3.42) 

Gender 

Female *2.01 (1.51-2.66) *2.15 (1.42-3.26) *2.23 (1.30-3.82) 

Race 

Black *0.73 (0.57-0.94) 0.76 (0.54-1.07) 1.35 (0.75-2.42) 

, Hispanic 1.05 (0.75-1.48) 1.16 (0.74-1.83) 0.84 (0.30-2.36) 

Age 

30-49 *OS0 (0.39-0.63) *0.49 (0.35-0.68) *0.43 (0.26-0.73) 

50 + *0.24 (0.13-0.44) *0.22 (0.10-0.50) 0.26 (0.05-1.19) 

* 95 percent confidence interval does not include one. 

aReference category= TCA, Reference category= males, Reference category= 

whites, Reference category= age group 18-29 0 

24 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Table 10: Proportion of TDCJ inmates prescribed anti-psychotic agents in 1998, by medical 

condition, medication type and sociodemographic factors I 

Schizophrenic Disorders (n=2,258) Non-Schizophrenic Psychotic 

Disorders (n=2,058) 

Treatment Typical Only Atypical Typical Only Atypical 

Overall 85.4 (83.8-86.8) 14.6 (13.2-16.1) 89.3 (87.8-90.5) 10.7 (9.4-12.1) 

Gender 

Male 84.7 (82.8-86.6) 15.3 (13.4-17.2) 88.4 (84.7-90.2) 11.6 (09.8-13.3) 

Female 95.1 (88.4-101.8) 04.9 (01.9-1 1.6) 98.3 (92.5-103.9) 01.7 (00.0-07.4) 

Race 

White 81.5 (77.0-86.0) 18.5 (14.0-23.0) 84.8 (81.3-88.3) 15.2 (1 1.6-18.6) 

Hispanic 82.4 (76.9-87.9) 17.6 (12.1-23.1) 86.9 (82.2-91.7) 13.1 (08.3-17.8) 

Black 87.4 (84.8-90.0) 12.6 (10.0-15.2) 92.3 (89.8-94.9) 07.7 (05.1-10.2) 

Age 18-29 87.0 (81.6-92.3) 13.0 (07.7-18.4) 88.0 (83.9-92.1) 11.9 (07.8-16.1) 

30-49 85.2 (82.8-87.6) 14.8 (12.4-17.2) 89.7 (87.4-91.9) 10.3 (08.1-12.6) 

so+ 84.8 (77.4-92.2) 15.2 (07.8-22.6) ~ 88.9 (81.4-96.4) 11.1 (03.7-18.6) 

e Offense 

Violent 84.6 (82.0-87.2) 15.4 (12.8-18.0) 88.5 (86.1-90.8) 11.5 (09.1-13.9) 

Non 86.2 (83.7-88.8) 13.8 (1 1.2-16.3) 90.0 (87.7-92.4) 10.0 (07.6-12.3) 

e 

25 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Table 11: Estimated odds ratios from logistic regression predicting anti-depressant 

medication prescribing patterns' 

Schizophrenic Disorders Non-Schizophrenic Psychotic 

Treatment Typical Only A typical Typical Only Atypcial 

Disorders 

Gender ' 

Female 3.33 (1.62-6.86) 0.30 (0.15-0.62) 6.74 (2.13-21.34) 0.15 (0.05-0.47) 

Race 

Hispanic 1.07 (0.74-1.55) 0.93 (0.64-1.35) 1.21 (0.82-1.79) 0.83 (0.56-1.22) 

Black 1.52 (1.15-2.02) 0.66 (0.50-0.87) 2.04 (1.49-2.80) 0.49 (0.36-0.67) 

Age 

30-49 0.83 (0.59-1.17) 1.20 (0.85-1.69) 1.09 (0.77-1.52) 0.92 (0.66-1.29) 

so+ 0.85 (0.51-1.43) 1.17 (0.70-1.97) 1.09 (0.59-2.01) 0.92 (0.50-1.70) 

Offensed 

Violent 0.91 (0.72-1.15) 1.10 (0.87-1.40) 0.91 (0.69-1.22) 1.09 (0.82-1.45) 

I 

95 percent confidence interval does not include 1 .OO 0. Reference category= males, Reference category= whites: Reference category= age group 18-29, 

Reference category= Non-violent 

26 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
Table 12: Median medication adherence estimates among diabetic inmates 

according to sociodemographic factors* 

0 

Insulin Adherence Oral Hypoglycemic Adherence 

I Insulin Insulin and Oral Insulin and 

Only d* e Oral Hypogly. H pogly. Only Oral Hypogly. 

e, J e,d 

Overall .61 (.40- .76) .56 (.29-.76) .66 (.41-.83) -66 (.41-.85) 

Gender 

Male 

Female 

,. 

Race 

White 

Black 

Hispanic 

Age 

18-29 

30-49 

50 + 

.60 (.39-.76) 

.65 (S2-.74) 

. I. 

.59 (.39- 74) 

.62 (.40-.76) 

.61 (.40-.77) 

.51 (.33--69) 

.60 (.38-.75) 

.64 (.46-.78) 

.55 (.26-.76) 

.68 (.55-.76) 

.52 (.31-.70) 

.60 (.32-.77) 

.53 (.3 1-.70) 

.21 (.08-.52) 

.30 (.07-.62) 

.22 (.05-.61) 

.66 (.40-.83) 

.62 (.39-32) 

.64 (.40-.83) 

.68 (.45-.83) 

.64 (.34-.83) 

.39 (.24-.66) 

.66 (.43-.84) 

.67 (.42-.83) 

.65 (.38-.84) 

.71 (S1-.86) 

.57 (.36-.79) 

.69 (SO-.86) 

.67 (.33-.83) 

.39 (.33-.92) 

.66 (.41-.83) 

.64 (.43-.83) 

*Pairwise comparisons, based on the Wilcoxon rank sum test, are significant at </=.05 

a=gender, b=Hispanics vs. blacks, c=18-29 vs. 30-49 d=18-29 vs. 50+, e-30-49 vs. 50+ 

27 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 
@ Table 13: Logistic regression predicting anti-diabetic medication prescribing patterns* 

Insulin Only Oral Hyp. only Oral HypJ No medication 

Insulin 

Gender 

Male (ref.) 

Female 

Race 

White (ref.) 

Black 

Hispanic 

Age I 

18-29 (ref.) 

50 + 

30-49 

l.oo( -- ) l.oo( -- ) l.oo( -- ) l.00( -- ) 

1.17 (0.91-1.50) 0.95 (0.74-1.22) 0.87 (0.60-1.26) 0.94 (0.68-1.30) 

l.oo( -- ) l.oo( -- ) l.oo( -- ) l.OO( -- ) 

71.19 (1.01-1.42) 1.03 (0.87-1.22) 1.17 (0.92-1.49) t0.63 (0.52-0,78) 

t0.70 (0.58-0.86) , 72.02 (1.68-2.42) 0.96 (0.73-1 -26) t0.50 (0.40-0.64) 

1.00 ( -- ) 1.00 ( -- ) l.oo( -- ) l.oo( -- ) 

t0.60 (0.45-0.80) t1.70 (1.23-2.35) 0.95 (0.63-1.45) 1.10 (0.77-1.58) 

t0.64 (0.48-0.87) t2.28 (1.64-3.17) 71.06 (0.69-1.62) t0.49 (0.33-0.73) 

-95 percent confidence intervals presented in parentheses 

7 Confidence interval does not include one 

~.“p.ic.~ct-r j-y OF 

National Criminal Justice Reference Senrice (NCJRS) 

Box 6000 

Rockville, MD 20849-6000 

28 

 and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

 been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not