Second Edition Kindergarten through Grade 3

Spring 2003

Proven ideas from research for parents
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Produced by RMC Research Corporation, Portsmouth, New Hampshire

Authors

Bonnie B. Armbruster, Ph.D., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Fran Lehr, M.A., Lehr & Associates, Champaign, Illinois

Jean Osborn, M. Ed., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Second Edition

Spring 2003
This publication was produced under National Institute for Literacy Contract No. 

ED-00CO-0093 with RMC Research Corporation. Sandra Baxter served as the

contracting officer’s technical representative. The views expressed herein do not

necessarily represent the policies of the National Institute for Literacy. No official

endorsement by the National Institute for Literacy of any product, commodity,

service, or enterprise in this publication is intended or should be inferred.

The National Institute for Literacy

Sandra Baxter Lynn Reddy

Interim Executive Director Communications Director

Spring 2003

To order copies of this booklet, contact the National Institute for Literacy at 

EdPubs, PO Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398. Call 800-228-8813 or email

edpubs@inet.ed.gov. This booklet can also be downloaded at The Partnership for

Reading web site, www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading.

The National Institute for Literacy, an independent federal organization, supports

the development of high quality state, regional, and national literacy services so that

all Americans can develop the literacy skills they need to succeed at work, at home,

and in the community.

The Partnership for Reading, a project administered by the National Institute 

for Literacy, is a collaborative effort of the National Institute for Literacy, the 

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the U.S. Department 

of Education, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to make

evidence-based reading research available to educators, parents, policy makers, 

and others with an interest in helping all people learn to read well.

The Partnership for Reading acknowledges editorial support from C. Ralph Adler 

and design support from Diane Draper, both of RMC Research Corporation.
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Contents

Introduction 

The building blocks of reading and writing

Kindergarten

What to do at home

What to look for in kindergarten classrooms

What children should be able to do by the

end of kindergarten

First grade

What to do at home

What to look for in first grade classrooms

What children should be able to do by the

end of first grade

Second and third grades

What to do at home

What to look for in second and third grade

classrooms

What children should be able to do by the

end of second grade

What children should be able to do by the

end of third grade

Some helpful terms to know

Bibliography

Suggested reading for parents and caregivers

Resources for parents and caregivers
* To make this 

booklet easier to read, 

we sometimes refer to a 

child as “he” or “she.” 

However, all of the information about how 

children learn to read 

applies to both boys 

and girls.

The road to becoming a reader begins the day a child is born

and continues through the end of third grade. At that point,

a child must read with ease and understanding to take

advantage of the learning opportunities in fourth grade and

beyond—in school and in life. 

Learning to read and write starts at home, long before

children go to school. Very early, children begin to learn

about the sounds of spoken language when they hear their

family members talking, laughing, and singing, and when

they respond to all of the sounds that fill their world. They

begin to understand written language when they hear adults

read stories to them and see adults reading newspapers,

magazines, and books for themselves. 

Mothers, fathers, grandparents, and caregivers, this

booklet is for you. Your role in setting your child on the road

to becoming a successful reader and writer does not end

when she* begins kindergarten. 

This booklet contains:

● A short summary of what scientific research says about

how children learn to read and write 

● Things you can do with your child at three different

grade levels—kindergarten, first grade, and second and

third grades—to help him become a reader, as well as

what to look for in quality reading instruction at each

grade level

● A list of helpful terms. Throughout the booklet, these

terms appear in bold type. 

● Ideas for books to read and organizations to contact if

you would like more help or information

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Introduction
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Try a few activities from this booklet with your child. You

don’t need special training or expensive materials. Just

include the activities in the things you already do together

every day. Make these activities part of the warm, loving

relationship you are continuing to build with your child.
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The building blocks of 

reading and writing

Talking and listening

From several decades of research, we have learned a lot about

how children learn to read and write. This research tells us

that to become more skilled and confident readers over time,

children need lots of opportunities to: 

● build spoken language by talking and listening

● learn about print and books

● learn about the sounds of spoken language 

(this is called phonological awareness)

● learn about the letters of the alphabet

● be read to and read on their own

● learn and use letter-sound relationships 

(this is called phonics) and be able to recognize 

words when they see them 

● spell and write

● develop their ability to read quickly and naturally 

(this is called fluency)

● learn new words and build their knowledge of what

words mean (this is called vocabulary)

● build their knowledge of the world

● build their ability to understand what they read 

(this is called comprehension)

Remember the old saying “children should be seen and not

heard”? Research tells us that for children to become

readers, they should listen and talk a lot.

By the time children are one year old, they already know 

a lot about spoken language—talking and listening. They

recognize some speech sounds. They know which sounds

make the words that are important to them. They begin to
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imitate those sounds. Children learn all of this by listening 

to family members talk. Even “baby talk,” which exaggerates

the sounds and rhythms of words, makes a contribution to

children’s ability to understand language. Children who do

not hear a lot of talk and who are not encouraged to talk

themselves often have problems learning to read. 

Even though books don’t come with operating instructions,

we use them in certain ways. We hold them right side-up. We

turn the pages one at a time. We read lines of words starting

at the left and moving to the right. Knowing about print and

books and how they are used is called print awareness. 

Print awareness is an important part of knowing how to read

and write. Children who know about print understand that

the words they see in print and the words they speak and

hear are related. They will use and see print a lot, even when

they’re young—on signs and billboards, in alphabet books

and storybooks, and in labels, magazines, and newspapers.

They see family members use print, and they learn that print

is all around them and that it is used for different purposes. 

Some words rhyme. Sentences are made up of separate

words. Words have parts called syllables. The words bag, ball,

and bug all begin with the same sound. When a child begins

to notice and understand these things, he is developing

phonological awareness—the ability to hear and work with

the sounds of spoken language.

Print and books

Sounds in spoken language

The main source of information in this booklet 

is the report of the National Reading Panel,

Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based

Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on

Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.

This report, along with the other reports and

books listed at the back of 

this booklet, offer more research-based

information about how children 

learn to read and write.

The main source of information in this booklet 

is the report of the National Reading Panel,

Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based

Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on

Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.

This report, along with the other reports and

books listed at the back of 

this booklet, offer more research-based

information about how children 

learn to read and write.
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The ABCs

Reading aloud

When a child also begins to understand that spoken words

are made up of separate, small sounds, he is developing

phonemic awareness. These individual sounds in spoken

language are called phonemes. For example, the word big

has three phonemes, /b/, /i/, and /g/.*

Children who have phonemic awareness can take spoken

words apart sound by sound (the name for this is

segmentation) and put together sounds to make words 

(the name for this is blending). Research shows that how

easily children learn to read can depend on how much

phonological and phonemic awareness they have. 

Singing the alphabet song is more than just a fun activity.

Children who go to kindergarten already knowing the shapes

and names of the letters of the alphabet, and how to write

them, have a much easier time learning to read. Knowing the

names and shapes of letters is sometimes called alphabetic

knowledge. 

Reading aloud to children has been called the single most

important activity for building the knowledge required for

success in reading. Reading aloud, with children participating

actively, helps children learn new words, learn more about

the world, learn about written language, and see the

connection between words that are spoken and words that

are written.

* A letter between slash marks, /b/, shows the phoneme, or sound, that the letter represents,

and not the name of the letter. For example, the letter b represents the sound /b/.
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Phonics instruction helps beginning readers see the relationships

between the sounds of spoken language and the letters of

written language. Understanding these relationships gives

children a tool that they can use to recognize familiar words

quickly and to figure out words they haven’t seen before. 

Word-study instruction is the step that follows phonics

instruction. It helps older children learn to apply their phonics

knowledge and knowledge of word parts (such as prefixes,

suffixes, and root words) as they read and write words. Rapid

word recognition means that children spend less time

struggling over words and have more time getting meaning

from what they read, which, of course, is the real purpose for

reading.

Children learn more about how print works when they spell

and write on their own. When they begin to write, children

draw and scribble. Later, they use what they are learning about

sounds and letters when they try to write words. This often 

is called invented, or developmental, spelling. Because

invented spelling encourages children to think about the

sounds in words and how the sounds are related to letters, 

it can help preschool and kindergarten children develop both

as readers and writers. However, after kindergarten, children

need well-organized, systematic lessons in spelling to help

them become good spellers. 

Fluency is the word for being able to read quickly and

accurately. Fluent readers recognize words automatically. They

are able to group words quickly to help them get the meaning

of what they read. When fluent readers read aloud, they read

Phonics and word-study skills

Spelling and writing

Fluency
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Vocabulary and knowledge of the world

smoothly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural,

like speech. Readers who have not yet developed fluency read

slowly, word by word. Sometimes, their oral reading is

choppy and plodding. They may make a lot of mistakes.

Most beginning readers do not read fluently. However, by the

end of first grade, children should be reading their grade

level books fluently. 

Vocabulary is the name for words we must know in order 

to listen, speak, read, and write effectively. Time and again

researchers have found strong connections between the size

of children’s vocabularies, how well they comprehend what

they read, and how well they do in school.

Children who are poor readers often do not have the

vocabulary knowledge they need to get meaning from what

they read. Because reading is difficult for them, they cannot

and do not read very much. As a result, they may not see

new words in print often enough to learn them. Good

readers read more, become better readers, and learn more

words; poor readers read less, become poorer readers, and

learn fewer words.

Children learn vocabulary in two ways: indirectly, by hearing

and seeing words as they listen, talk, and read; and directly by

parents and teachers teaching them the meanings of certain

words.

Vocabulary and knowledge of the world are, of course, very

closely tied together. Children who know something about

the world are much better able to understand what they read

about in school.
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Comprehension

Comprehension means getting meaning from what we read.

It is the heart of reading. Research shows that knowledge of

letter-sound relationships and comprehension go hand-inhand. If children can sound out the words, but don’t

understand what they are reading, they’re

not really reading.

Children can build their

comprehension by

learning to use mental

plans, or strategies, to

get meaning as they

read. These strategies

include using what they

already know to make

sense of what they read,

making predictions,

paying attention to the

way a reading selection is

organized, creating

mental pictures, asking

questions, and

summarizing.
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Talk with your child often...as you eat together, shop for

groceries, walk to school, wait for a bus. As she gets ready

for school, ask about the stories and poems she is reading

and what projects she has in science or art time. Ask about

friends and classmates (encourage her to use their names)

and to describe the games they like to play together. Ask

questions that will encourage her to talk, and not just give

“yes” or “no” answers.

Have your child use his imagination to make up and tell

you stories. Ask questions that will encourage him to expand

the stories.

P ARENT T ALK

“Why didn’t the dog just run away?” 

“Where did the boy live?” 

“What kind of eyes did the monster have?”

Have a conversation about recent family photographs. Ask

your child to describe each picture: who is in it, what’s

happening, and where the picture was taken.

Listen to your child’s questions patiently and answer them

just as patiently. If you don’t know the answer to a question,

work together to find one (look things up in a book or on the

computer, for example). 

Talk about books that you’ve read together. Ask your child

about favorite parts and characters and answer his questions

about events or characters.

What to do at home

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Talk often with your child to build

listening and talking skills
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Pay attention to how much TV your child is watching. Set

aside “no TV” time each day and use that time to talk

together.

Tell stories about your childhood. Make a story out of

something that happened, such as a special birthday or a visit

to a zoo or city. 

As you read with your child, have him point out such

things as front and back covers and the title. Have him

point out the names of authors and illustrators and tell what

those people do. Have him show you where you should start

reading on a page.

Help your child make connections between print and

pictures as you read. Have him find details in the pictures,

then help him find and point to the words that name those

details.

Sing or say nursery rhymes and songs.

Play word games. 

P ARENT T ALK

“How many words can you say that rhyme with fox? With

bill?”

Read a story or poem and ask your child to listen for

words that begin with the same sound. Have her say the

words. Then have her say another word that begins with that

sound.

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Show your child how books and 

print work

Focus your child’s attention on the

sounds of spoken language
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As you read, stop and say a simple word. Have your child

say the sounds in the word, write the letters for the sounds,

and then read what he wrote.

P ARENT T ALK

“’The dog is big.’ Big. Can you say the sounds in big? Now

can you write the letters for the sounds? Good. Now read the

word to me.”

Point out letters and have your child name them.

Make an alphabet book with your child. Have him draw

pictures or cut pictures from magazines or use old photos.

Paste each picture into the book. With your child, write the

first letter of the word that stands for the object or person in

the picture (for example, B for bird, M for milk, and so on).

Point out labels, boxes, newspapers, magazines, and signs

that display words with letter-sound relationships that

your child is learning in kindergarten.

Listen to your child read words and books from school. Be

patient and listen as your child practices. Let your child know

you are proud of what he is learning. 

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Have your child identify and name the

letters of the alphabet

Support what your child is learning in

school about the relationship between

letters and sounds
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When your child is writing, encourage him to spell words

by using what he knows about sounds and letters.

Encourage your child to write notes, e-mails, and letters

to family members and friends. You may have your child

tell you the message for you to write and include with her

original work.

Have your child create his own picture book made with

his own drawings or with pictures that he cuts from

magazines. Help him to label the pictures. Include pictures

that illustrate the new words he is learning.

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Encourage your child to spell and write
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As you read aloud, pause from time to time to ask him

about the meaning of the book. Help him make

connections between his life and what’s happening in the

book. Explain new ideas and words to him. Encourage your

child to ask questions about the book. Ask him to retell the

story, or to tell in his own words what the book was about.

P ARENT T ALK

“What was your favorite part of the story? Why did you like

it?”

“What new things did you learn from this book?”

“Why do you think Sam got lost? Sam said he wanted to

explore the forest. Explore means he wanted to find out what

was in the forest.”

Use and repeat important words such as names of

buildings, parks, zoos, cities, and other places that you

visit.

Help your child develop an interest in the world. Read to

him from your magazines and newspapers, as well as from

informational (nonfiction) children’s books. Help him to

explore ideas and interests by using appropriate web sites.

Help your child build vocabulary,

knowledge of the world, and

comprehension
In effective kindergarten classrooms, you will see literacy instruction

that focuses on...

The teacher... The children... 

“Let’s play restaurant!”

“I like this book. It’s about

snakes!”

“I’ll be the princess, and you be

the prince.”

The teacher... The children...

What to look for in kindergarten

classrooms

Developing talking and listening abilities

Teaching about books and print

shows children appropriate ways

to talk and listen, ask and answer

questions, and give and follow

directions. 

talk with teachers and classmates

about what they have read and

heard. They retell stories that

they have heard read aloud. They

make up and tell their own

stories. They may pretend to be

characters in play centers. 

shows children how books

should be handled, how they are

read from front to back, from the

top to the bottom of a page, and

from left to right on a page. He

talks about the various kinds of

print in the classroom, including

their meaning and purpose. 

enjoy books and reading. They

see lots of print around them

being used in many ways. They

are curious about the print and

eager to learn what it means.

“What does this word say?”

“You’re supposed to write your

name on your folder.”

“See that list over there? I know

those color names!”

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The teacher... The children...

“That’s M!—M is the first letter in

my name.”

“I’m going to find all the e’s on

this page.” 

“This is my favorite ABC book.”

The teacher... The children... 

Teaching about the alphabet

Teaching the sounds of spoken language

helps children learn the names

and shapes of all the letters of

the alphabet and encourages the

children to play with letters and

to write using letters. 

listen to the teacher read them

an alphabet book, then sing the

alphabet song. Some children

play with plastic letters, while

others say the letters as they

write their own names.

provides explicit instruction in

phonological awareness and

phonemic awareness. The

teacher has children put together

sounds (blending) to make

words and break words into

separate sounds (segmentation).

As the children write, he

promotes phonemic awareness

by encouraging them to use

what they know about the

sounds that make up words. 

have fun with the sounds of

words. Early in the year, they tell

which words in a story rhyme;

they may make up their own

nonsense rhymes. A little later in

the year, they listen for the

beginning sounds of the words

in a poem. They also may clap

out the number of syllables in

their names and in words. Late in

the year, they put together and

take apart the separate sounds in

words. They begin to relate

sounds to letters and to write the

letters for the sounds that they

hear. 
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Phoneme blending: teachers say a

word phoneme by phoneme,

then have the children repeat the

sequence of phonemes and combine

the phonemes to say the word. 

Teacher: /s/ /u/ /n/

Children: /s/ /u/ /n/; sun.

Phoneme segmentation: teachers say a word, then have the

children break it into its separate phonemes, saying each one

as they tap out or count it. 

Teacher: slim

Children: /s/ /l/ /i/ /m/.

Teacher: How many sounds are in slim?

Children: Four sounds.

The teacher... The children... 

Teaching phonics

uses explicit instruction to teach

children a set of the most useful

letter-sound relationships. 

read easy books that contain

words with the letter-sound

relationships they are learning.

They are also writing the

relationships they know in words,

sentences, messages, and their

own stories.

Phonemic

awareness:

What blendiing

and

segmentation

look like

Phonemic

awareness:

What blendiing

and

segmentation

look like
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The teacher... The children...

The teacher... The children...

Developing spelling and writing

Building vocabulary and knowledge 

of the world

has children practice their new

writing skills in groups with other

children and at learning centers.

She makes spelling development

a part of writing activities. 

depending on the time of the

year, scribble, draw, label

pictures, and use their growing

knowledge of sounds and letters

to write messages. They are

becoming aware of correct

spellings for some words,

especially their names.

talks with the children about

important new words and ideas

as she reads aloud. She helps

them connect the new words 

to their own knowledge and

experiences. She discusses words

that are most important for

understanding the reading

selection. She emphasizes words

that the children are likely to 

see and use often and teaches

children the meaning of new

words over an extended period

of time. She thinks about the

content of the books that she

reads to the children and

chooses books that build on and

expand children’s knowledge.

learn lots of new words and like

to share their new words with

their families. They see the

teacher’s enthusiasm for words

and enjoy playing with words

and language. They use words

that are important to their

schoolwork, such as the names

for colors, shapes, and numbers.

They explore new ideas and learn

new words.

“This is the picture I drew today.

It’s an octopus. I’ll show you—it

has eight legs!”

“We learned about circles today.

This plate is a circle.”
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The teacher... The children...

“I learned that you can’t see

across the ocean!”

“I have a cat that looks just like

the cat in that story!”

“I want to be the Little Red

Hen!”

Building comprehension

reads aloud to children often and

discusses books before, during,

and after reading. She reads

many different kinds of books,

including “make-believe”

(fiction), “real” (nonfiction), and

poetry. She shows children how

good readers get meaning from

what they read. 

listen to and understand what is

read to them. They answer the

teacher’s questions. They make

connections between what they

already know and what they are

reading about. They talk about

what they learned from nonfiction books they have read, and

they retell or act out important

events in stories. They identify

the characters, settings, and

events in stories.
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The following is a list of some accomplishments that you can

expect of your child by the end of kindergarten. This list is

based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood

education, and child development. Remember, though, that

children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the

same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more

help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the

best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take

the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast

rules. If you have concerns about your child’s reading

development, talk to his teacher. 

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Knows the parts of a book and how books are held and

read

● Identifies a book’s title and understands what authors

and illustrators do

● Follows print from left to right and from top to bottom

of a page when stories are read aloud

● Understands the relationship between print and

pictures

● Understands that the message of most books is in the

print and not the pictures

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Recognizes the shapes and names of all the letters in

the alphabet (both uppercase and lowercase letters)

● Writes many uppercase and lowercase letters on his

own 

Books and print

The alphabet

What children should be able to do

by the end of kindergarten
25

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Understands that spoken words are made up of

separate sounds

● Recognizes and makes rhymes

● Identifies words that have the same beginning sound

● Puts together, or blends, spoken sounds into simple

words

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Knows a number of letter-sound relationships

● Understands that the order of letters in a written word

represents the order of sounds in a spoken word

● Recognizes some common words on sight, such as a,

the, I, said, you, is, are

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Listens carefully to books read aloud 

● Asks and answers questions about stories 

● Uses what he already knows to help him understand a

story

● Predicts what will happen in a story based on pictures

or information in the story 

● Retells and/or acts out stories

● Knows the difference between “made-up” (fiction) and

“real” (nonfiction) books and the difference between

stories and poems

Sounds in spoken language

Phonics and word recognition

Reading
26

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Uses phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to spell

and write words

● Begins to spell some words correctly

● Writes his own first and last name and the first names

of some friends, classmates, or family members

● Writes some letters and words as they are said to her

By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .

● Plays with and is curious about words and language

● Uses new words in her own speech

● Knows and uses words that are important to school

work, such as the names for colors, shapes, and

numbers

● Knows and uses words that are important to daily life,

such as street names and addresses and names for

community workers

Spelling and writing

Vocabulary and knowledge of the world

The main source for this list 

of accomplishments is 

Preventing Reading Difficulties

in Young Children. 

For more information about this

book, see Suggested Reading in 

the back of this booklet.

The main source for this list 

of accomplishments is 

Preventing Reading Difficulties

in Young Children. 

For more information about this

book, see Suggested Reading in 

the back of this booklet.
27
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If your child needs help with

developing phonemic awareness or 

identifying and naming letters of the

alphabet, read the suggestions in the

kindergarten section of this booklet.

Remember that these two skills are very

important in helping children learn 

to read and write.

If your child needs help with

developing phonemic awareness or 

identifying and naming letters of the

alphabet, read the suggestions in the

kindergarten section of this booklet.

Remember that these two skills are very

important in helping children learn 

to read and write.

● Talk often with your child to build listening and 

talking skills.

● Read to and with your child—often. Talk to him about

the words and ideas in books.

● Ask your child’s teacher how you can help your child

practice at home what he is learning at school.

Listen to your child read books from school. Be patient as

your child practices. Let him know you are proud of his

reading.

Say the sounds of letters and ask your child to write the

letter or letters that represent the sound.

What to do at home

The top three

Support what your child is learning in

school about relationships between

letters and sounds 

1

2
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Ask your child to point out the letter-sound relationships he

is learning in all of the things you are reading together—

books, calendars, labels, magazines, and newspapers. 

Play word games. On cards, write words that contain the

letter-sound relationships he is learning at school. Take turns

choosing a card and blending the sounds to make the word.

Then use the word in a sentence.

Say a word your child knows and have him repeat the

word. Then help him write the word the way he hears it.

Write a word on paper and cut the letters apart (or use

plastic or foam letters). Mix the letters and have your child

spell a word by putting the letters in order.

As you are reading with your child, point out words that

have similar spellings, such as hop and pop. Ask him to write

similar words, for example, top, mop, and cop.

Encourage your child to write often—for example, letters

and thank-you notes, simple stories, and grocery lists. 

When you read together, stop now and then to talk about

the meaning of the book. Help her make connections

between what’s happening in the book and her own life and

experiences, or to other books you’ve read together. Ask her

questions so that she talks about the information in a nonfiction book, or about the characters or events of a fiction

Encourage your child to spell and write

Help your child build vocabulary, knowledge

of the world, and comprehension

1

1

3

4

2

3

4
book. Encourage your child to ask questions. Ask her to

explain what the book was about, in her own words.

Before you come to the end of a story, ask your child to

predict what might happen next or how the story will

end.

Talk about new words and ideas that your child has read

or heard. Ask her to make up sentences with the new words

or use the words in other situations. Help her to find out

more about new ideas by using appropriate web sites.

Read magazines and newspapers together. Get him

interested in what’s happening in other parts of the world. 

2

3

4

30
31

In effective first grade classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that

focuses on...

The teacher... The children...

The teacher... The children...

What to look for in first grade

classrooms

Developing talking and listening abilities

Teaching about books and print

helps children use language that

is appropriate for different

audiences and purposes. 

use speaking and listening for

many purposes, including

getting and giving information,

giving opinions, and talking with

teachers and classmates. They

talk about what has been read 

to them or what they have read.

They retell stories that they have

heard read aloud. They make up

and tell stories based on their

own experiences. They use the

more formal language expected

at school, such as complete

sentences.

reads aloud to the children often,

sharing many different types of

books and other print materials.

She shows her enthusiasm for

reading and her eagerness for

the children to learn to read. As

she reads, she shows the parts of

print such as the beginnings and

endings of sentences, new

paragraphs, and different

punctuation marks. 

are excited about being read to

and about learning to read. They

recognize the titles of books and

ask the teacher to read their

favorites. They spend part of 

the day looking at books or

pretend reading books of their

choice.
32

The teacher... The children...

The teacher... The children... 

Teaching about the alphabet

Teaching phonemic awareness

provides explicit instruction 

in phonemic awareness. She 

shows the children how to do

phonemic awareness activities

and helps them with feedback.

The activities are short and fun.

(See the next page for examples

of each activity.)

practice a lot with phonemes.

For example, they clap out 

the sounds they hear in words

(segmentation), put sounds

together to make words

(blending), add or drop sounds

from words (phoneme addition

and deletion), and replace

sounds in words (phoneme

substitution). 

makes sure that children can

recognize and name all of the

letters of the alphabet, both

uppercase and lowercase. 

can quickly name the letters 

of the alphabet in order and

recognize all letters. They use

their knowledge of letters when

they write.
Phoneme deletion: Children recognize the word

that remains when you take away a phoneme.

Example

Teacher: What is space without the /s/? 

Children: Space without the /s/ is pace.

Phoneme addition: Children make a new word by adding a phoneme 

to a word.

Example

Teacher: What word do you have if you add /p/ to the beginning of lace? 

Children: Place.

Phoneme substitution: Children substitute one phoneme for another to

make a new word.

Example

Teacher: The word is rag. Change /g/ to /n/. What’s the new word?

Children: Ran.

explicitly teaches the children

letter-sound relationships in a

clear and useful sequence. The

teacher also teaches children

“irregular” words they will see

and read often, but that do not

follow the letter-sound

relationships they are learning.

These are often called sight

words—words such as said, is,

was, are. 

learn to blend sounds to read

words—first one-syllable words

and, later, words with more than

one syllable. They read easy books

that include the letter-sound

relationships they are learning as

well as sight words that they have

been taught. They recognize and

figure out the meaning of

compound words (words made of

two words put together, such as

background). They practice writing

the letter-sound relationships in

words, sentences, messages, and

their own stories. 

Teaching phonics and word recognition

The teacher... The children...

Phonemic

awareness

activities that

you may see in

first grade

classrooms

Phonemic

awareness

activities that

you may see in

first grade

classrooms

33
34

Although there are several different approaches to 

teaching phonics, here are some activities that you are 

likely to see in first grade classrooms.

● Children sort out objects and pictures by the beginning sounds

they have studied such as: /b/, /c/, and /t/. They put the

objects in baskets labeled with the beginning letter. “I have a

turtle. It goes in the T basket.” “This cup goes in the C basket.”

● The teacher teaches the –ing spelling pattern and sounds,

pointing out –ing words in books. The children look for

examples of –ing words in books in the classroom library. “I

found singing!” “This book has wing!” They copy the words on

index cards and add them to the word wall under the heading

“–ing words.”

● The teacher helps children use plastic letters to spell out words

containing sounds they have studied. She starts with two letter

words and moves on to longer words. “Find two letters and

make the word in. Now add one letter to make the word pin.

Now add a letter to make the word spin. Using those same

letters, change the word to pins.”

● The teacher reads a poem written on chart paper to the class,

pointing to each word as he reads. When he’s done, he invites

children to circle the words beginning with the /p/ sound,

saying the word as they circle it. 

Phonics

instruction

Phonics

instruction
35

The teacher... The children...

The teacher... The children...

provides opportunities for

children to practice writing skills

independently in both whole

group and learning center

settings. She makes spelling a

part of writing activities. She

helps children begin to think

through their writing efforts—

planning, writing drafts, and

revising. 

use writing more and more as a

way to communicate ideas. They

begin to organize their writing

by planning, writing a draft copy,

and editing it. They continue to

use some invented spelling, but

are learning the correct spellings

of most of the words that they

write.

talks with the children about

important new vocabulary words

and helps them relate the new

words to their own knowledge

and experience. He makes a

point of using new words in

classroom discussions. He urges

the children to use these words

when they talk and write. 

talk about the meanings of

words and use new words when

they talk and write. They begin

to recognize words that are alike

(synonyms) and words that are

opposite (antonyms). They also

begin to recognize the roles of

different words in sentences—

words that name (nouns) and

words that show action (verbs).

They understand that the

language they use in school is

more formal than the language

they use at home and with

friends. 

Developing spelling and writing

Building vocabulary and knowledge 

of the world
36

The teacher... The children...

Building comprehension

reads aloud to children often and

discusses books with them

before, during, and after reading.

The teacher listens to children

read aloud, corrects their errors,

and asks them questions about

what they are reading. He shows

children how to use mental

plans, or strategies, to get

meaning from what they read. 

read aloud with accuracy and

show that they understand what

they’re reading. They read books

(fiction, nonfiction, and poetry)

that are appropriate for the time

in the school year. They make

connections between what they

already know and what they are

reading. They pay attention to

their reading and recognize

when something doesn’t make

sense. They summarize and

discuss what they read with

classmates and their teacher.

They choose to read on their

own and enjoy reading.
37

The following is a list of some accomplishments you can

expect of your child by the end of first grade. This list is

based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood

education, and child development. Remember, though, that

children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the

same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more

help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the

best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take

the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast

rules. If you have concerns or questions about your child’s

reading development, talk to 

his teacher.

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Knows the difference between letters and words

● Knows that there are spaces between words in print

● Knows that print represents spoken language and

contains meaning 

● Knows some of the parts of print, such as the

beginnings and endings of sentences, where paragraphs

begin and end, and different punctuation marks

● Begins to understand why people read—to learn and

enjoy

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Can recognize and name all of the letters of the

alphabet

Books and print

The alphabet

What children should be able to do

by the end of first grade
38

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Can count the number of syllables in a word 

● Can put together and break apart the sounds of most

one-syllable words 

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Can show how spoken words are represented by

written letters that are arranged in a specific order

● Can read one-syllable words using what he knows

about phonics 

● Uses phonics to sound out words he doesn’t know 

● Can recognize some irregularly spelled words, such as

have, said, you, and are

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Reads aloud first grade books and understands what

they mean 

● Can tell when he is having problems understanding

what he is reading 

● Reads and understands simple written instructions 

● Predicts what will happen next in a story 

● Discusses what she already knows about topics of

books she is reading 

● Can ask questions (how, why, what if?) about books

she is reading 

● Can describe, in his own words, what he has learned

from a book he is reading 

● Can give a reason for why he is reading a book (to be

entertained, to follow directions, to learn about a nonfiction topic, for example)

Sounds in spoken language

Phonics and word recognition

Reading
39

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Uses invented (or developmental) spelling to try to

spell words on his own 

● Understands that there is a correct way to spell words 

● Uses simple punctuation marks and capital letters 

● Writes for different purposes—stories, explanations,

letters, lists

● Writes things for others to read (by thinking of ideas,

writing draft copies, and revising drafts)

By the end of first grade, a child . . .

● Uses language with more control (such as speaking in

complete sentences)

● Understands that the language used in school is more

formal than the language used at home and with

friends

● Talks about the meaning of words and uses new words

when he speaks and writes

● Begins to see that some words mean the same thing

(synonyms) and some words have opposite meanings

(antonyms) 

● Begins to recognize that words play different roles in

sentences (for example, some words—nouns—name

things and some words—verbs—show action) 

Spelling and writing

Vocabulary

The main source for the list of 

accomplishments is Preventing Reading 

Difficulties in Young Children. For more

information about this book, see Suggested

Reading in the back of this booklet.

The main source for the list of 

accomplishments is Preventing Reading 

Difficulties in Young Children. For more

information about this book, see Suggested

Reading in the back of this booklet.
40
41
42

● Talk often with your child to build listening and

speaking skills.

● Read to and with your child often. Talk to her about

the words and ideas in books. Encourage your child to

read on her own. 

● Ask your child’s teacher how you can help your child

practice at home what she is learning at school.

Listen to your child read books that he has brought home

from school. Be patient as your child practices reading. Let

him know that you are proud of his reading.

If your child is not a very fluent reader (that is, she reads

slowly and makes lots of mistakes), ask her to reread a

paragraph or page a few times. 

Encourage your child to write often—for example, letters

and thank-you notes to relatives and friends, simple

stories, e-mails, and items for the grocery list. 

Help your child learn the correct spellings of words.

1

2

1

2

What to do at home

The top three

Use reading opportunities to help your

child develop fluency

Find opportunities for your child to spell

and write
Talk about new words that your child has read or heard.

Ask her to make up sentences with the new words or use the

words in other situations.

Help your child use the dictionary or thesaurus to check

on the meanings of new words she reads or hears.

Help your child become aware of prefixes, suffixes, and

root words. Point them out in books you are reading

together or in print materials around the house. Ask her to

think of other words related to the words you are discussing.

P ARENT T ALK

“Can you think of any other words that have the word move

in them?” (Some possible answers are moveable, movement,

moving, and moved.)

“Here’s the word disappear. What other words do you know

that start with dis-?” (Some possible answers are disappoint,

disagree, and disbelieve.)

Show your child how to use context—the sentences,

words, and pictures around an unfamiliar word—to figure

out the word’s meaning.

P ARENT T ALK

Read a line from a book, such as this line from Eric Carle’s

Pancakes, Pancakes! “Take a sickle and cut as much wheat as

the donkey can carry.” Then ask a question, such as “Look at

the picture of Jack cutting the wheat. What is he using?

That’s right, it’s a sickle. A sickle is a tool for cutting wheat

and other kinds of grain.”

Find opportunities to help your child

develop vocabulary, knowledge of the

world, and comprehension 

1

2

3

4

43
44

As you read a book with your child, stop now and then 

to talk to her about the meaning of the book. Help her

relate the experiences or events in the book to experiences 

or events in her life or to other books you have read together.

Ask her questions that encourage her to talk about the

information in a nonfiction book, or about the characters 

or events of a fiction book. Encourage your child to ask

questions. Ask her to tell in her own words what the book

was about.

5
45

In effective second and third grade classrooms, you will see literacy

instruction that focuses on... 

The teacher... The children...

The teacher... The children...

What to look for in second and

third grade classrooms

Promoting reading accuracy

Building fluency

helps children continue to use

their knowledge of phonics to

sound out and pronounce new

words. The teacher helps

children recognize simple,

common spelling patterns in

words. She also helps children

learn the spellings and meanings

of word parts such as prefixes,

suffixes, and root words. 

become more able to read 

words accurately by using their

knowledge of phonics. They use

the other words in a sentence

(the context) to figure out the

pronunciations and meanings of

new words. 

reads aloud to children,

modeling fluent reading. She

makes sure that children are

working on developing fluency

and monitors their progress. By

listening to children read aloud,

or by sometimes timing

children’s reading rates, the

teacher ensures that children are

becoming fluent readers.

are becoming more fluent

readers by reading, reading,

reading. They are improving their

oral reading fluency by rereading

selections aloud. 
46

In second and third grade classrooms, effective

instruction will include some of the following

activities for building fluency.

● Teachers listen to individual children read aloud and provide

assistance and encouragement as they repeatedly read until they

are fluent. 

● Teachers read aloud and children read along as a group. The

children repeat the reading until they are fluent.

● In a listening center, children read along in their books as they

listen to a fluent reader read a book on an audiotape. The children

read with the tape until they can read the book without support.

● Pairs of children read paragraphs from a book to each other,

taking turns and assisting each other until they can read the

paragraphs fluently.

● Teachers time children as they read aloud paragraphs or pages of

a selection. They also note children’s reading errors. 

The teacher... The children...

Teaching spelling and writing

teaches some common spelling

patterns. He encourages children

to write in many different forms,

such as letters, stories, poetry,

reviews, directions, and reports.

He helps children prepare for and

plan their writing. He teaches

them how to revise, edit, and

refine what they have written

and helps them write using a

computer. 

write often, and for different

audiences and purposes. They

correctly spell previously studied

words. When they spell new

words, they represent all of the

sounds in the words. In their

writing, the children use

figurative language, dialogue,

and vivid descriptions. They read

their writing to others and

discuss one another’s writing,

offering helpful suggestions. 

Fluency

instruction

Fluency

instruction
47

The teacher... The children...

Developing vocabulary and knowledge 

of the world

is excited about words and

shows students that they have a

personal interest in learning new

and intriguing words. He tries to

develop children’s awareness of

and interest in words, their

meanings, and their power. As

the teacher reads aloud to

children, he discusses some of

the important new words in the

book. He relates new words to

words the children already know

and to their experiences. The

teacher encourages children to

read a lot, both in school and

outside of school. He encourages

them to explore topics that

interest them and to use a variety

of sources of information,

including the Internet.

are interested in learning new

words and are eager to share

new vocabulary at school and at

home. They are learning how to

figure out the meanings of

unknown words by using word

parts such as prefixes, suffixes,

and root words. They are able to

use different parts of speech

correctly, including nouns, verbs,

adjectives, and adverbs. They

read a lot on their own, and

explore topics independently,

often using computers.
48

In second and third grade classrooms, effective 

instruction will include both specific word instruction and

instruction in word learning strategies.

Specific word instruction

● Teachers teach specific words from selections the students are

about to read. These words are important for the students to

know in order to understand what they will read.

● Teachers use the new words over an extended period of time. 

● The children see, hear, and work with the words in many ways

and in various contexts. 

Word learning strategies

● Teachers show children how to use the dictionary and thesaurus

to learn about the meanings of words. Teachers show how some

words have more than one definition, and they teach children

how to find the right definition for their particular situation.

● Teachers teach children how to use word parts (prefixes, suffixes,

and root words) to determine the meaning of unknown words.

● Teachers provide instruction in how to use the meanings of

known words in a reading selection (context) to figure out the

meaning of unknown words.

Vocabulary

instruction

Vocabulary

instruction
49

The teacher... The children... 

Increasing comprehension

guides children’s understanding

of what they are reading by

discussing selections with them

before, during, and after reading.

The teacher shows children how

to use simple strategies to get

meaning from what they read.

read many different kinds of

books, both with the teacher’s

guidance and on their own. They

offer answers to “how,” “why,”

and “what-if” questions, and

read to find the answers to their

own questions. They compare

and contrast characters and

events across stories. They

explain and describe new

information in their own words.

They also interpret information

from diagrams, charts, and

graphs. 
Quality instruction includes teaching children strategies 

that they can use to get meaning from the materials they 

read. These comprehension strategies include being aware of how well they

comprehend a selection, using graphic organizers, answering questions,

asking questions, recognizing the way stories are organized, and summarizing. 

To teach comprehension strategies, teachers first demonstrate the strategy, 

tell why it is important, and how, when, and where to use it. Then the

children practice the strategy until they are able to use it on their own. 

Here are some examples of strategy instruction:

● To help children understand and remember what they read, a teacher

presents a diagram called a “story map” that shows the structure, or

organization, of simple stories. (See the story map example on the

next page.) She and the children talk about the story they have just

read—its setting (where it takes place), the characters, the problems the

characters face, the different events in the story, the resolutions of the

characters’ problems, and the theme or moral of the story. As they talk,

the teacher fills in the story map. After several lessons with their teacher,

the children are able to complete story maps on their own. 

● To help children better understand and remember what they have read, a

teacher teaches them how to ask themselves “main idea” questions about

what they are reading. The class has just finished reading a selection

about redwood trees in an informational book. The teacher gives the

children several examples of main idea questions and contrasts them with

detail questions. He points out that the main idea questions often start

with “why” or “how.” Then, under his guidance, the children practice

asking main idea questions about several more selections in the book. 

Reading

comprehension

instruction

Reading

comprehension

instruction

(continued)

50
51

A Story Map for “The Three Little Pigs” 

Setting A make-believe time and place 

Characters Mother pig, three little pigs, big bad wolf 

Problem or Goal The three little pigs are ready to move out of their mother’s

house and live on their own. 

Event 1 The first little pig builds a house of straw. The big bad wolf

blows the house down. 

Event 2 The second little pig builds a house of sticks. The big bad

wolf blows the house down. 

Event 3 The third little pig builds a house of bricks. The big bad wolf

cannot blow the house down. 

Event 4 The big bad wolf runs away or is killed (depending on version). 

Solution The three little pigs live happily ever after in the safe brick

house. 

Theme or Moral Hard work pays off in the end. 

● To help children understand, learn from, and remember the information 

in their social studies textbook, a teacher helps them learn how to write a

summary. She demonstrates how to write a summary of one of the sections

in the chapter they are reading. She shows them how to make use of the

section headings and the topic sentences of each paragraph. She then

shows the children how to eliminate details. Under her direction, the

children work together to write summaries of several sections of a chapter

in their social studies textbook. In subsequent lessons the children write

summaries of the chapters in their science book. The teacher provides

feedback so that children include the important parts of the chapters in

their summaries.

Reading comprehension instruction—continued
52

In second and third grades, children improve their wordrecognition and word-study skills and develop fluency—their

ability to read quickly and accurately. These years also are the

time to extend comprehension and vocabulary knowledge

and to refine writing and spelling skills. 

It is critical that children are up to “reading speed” by the

end of third grade. Children who fail to make good progress

in reading by the time they enter fourth grade are likely to

have trouble in the upper grades and to drop out of school

before graduating. 

The following are lists of some accomplishments that you can

expect of your child by the end of second and third grades.

These lists are based on research in the fields of reading, early

childhood education, and child development. Remember,

though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same

pace and in the same way. Your child may be more advanced

or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of

course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You

should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as

hard-and-fast rules. If you have concerns or questions about

your child’s reading development, talk to his teacher. 
53

By the end of second grade, a child...

● Can read a large number of regularly spelled one- and

two-syllable words

● Figures out how to read a large number of words with

more than two syllables

● Uses knowledge of phonics to sound out unfamiliar

words 

● Accurately reads many sight words 

By the end of second grade, a child ...

● Reads and understands a variety of second grade level

fiction and nonfiction books

● Knows how to read for specific purposes and to seek

answers to specific questions

● Answers “how,” “why,” and “what-if” questions

● Interprets information from diagrams, charts, and

graphs

● Recalls information, main ideas, and details after reading

● Compares and connects information read in different

books and articles

● Takes part in creative responses to stories, such as

dramatizations of stories and oral presentations

By the end of second grade, a child ...

● Pays attention to how words are spelled

● Correctly spells words he has studied 

● Spells a word the way it sounds if she doesn’t know how

to spell it

● Writes for many different purposes

Phonics and word recognition

Reading

Spelling and writing

What children should be able to do

by the end of the second grade
54

● Writes different types of compositions (for example,

stories, reports, and letters)

● Makes good judgments about what to include in her

writing

● Takes part in writing conferences and then revises and

edits what he has written

● Pays attention to the mechanics of writing (for

example, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation) in

the final versions of compositions

By the end of second grade, a child ...

● Wants to learn new words and share those words at

school and home

● Uses clues from the context to figure out what words

mean

● Uses knowledge of word parts such as prefixes, suffixes,

and root words to figure out word meanings

● Increases vocabulary through the use of synonyms and

antonyms

● Can use different parts of speech correctly, including

nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

● Learns more new words through independent reading

● Explores and investigates topics of interest on her own

Vocabulary
55

By the end of third grade, a child...

● Uses phonics knowledge and word parts (prefixes,

roots, suffixes) to figure out how to pronounce words

she doesn’t recognize

By the end of third grade, a child . . .

● Reads with fluency

● Reads a variety of third grade level texts (for example,

story books, informational books, magazine articles,

computer screens) with fluency and comprehension

● Reads longer stories and chapter books independently

● Summarizes major points from both fiction and nonfiction books 

● Identifies and then discusses specific words or phrases

that interfere with comprehension

● Discusses the themes or messages of stories

● Asks “how,” “why,” and “what-if” questions

● Distinguishes cause from effect, fact from opinion, and

main ideas from supporting details 

● Uses information gathered and his own reasoning to

evaluate the explanations and opinions he reads about 

● Understands and reads graphics and charts

● Uses context clues to get meaning from what she reads

By the end of third grade, a child...

● Correctly spells previously studied words

● Independently reviews her own written work for errors

in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation

Reading

Spelling and writing

Phonics and word recognition

What children should be able to do

by the end of the third grade
56

● Begins to use literary words and sentences in his

writing, such as figurative language

● Combines information in compositions from a variety

of sources, including books, articles, and computer

information

● With assistance from teachers and classmates, edits and

revises her compositions to make them easier to read

and understand

● Discusses her own writing with other children and

responds helpfully to the writing of other children

By the end of third grade, a child...

● Wants to learn and share new words at school and at

home

● Uses clues from context to figure out word meanings

● Uses her knowledge of word parts such as prefixes,

suffixes, and root words to figure out word meanings

● Increases his vocabulary through the use of synonyms

and antonyms

● Is able to use different parts of speech correctly,

including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

● Develops her vocabulary and knowledge through

independent reading

● Explores and investigates topics of interest on his own

● Uses a variety of sources to find information, including

computers

Vocabulary

The main source for this list of

accomplishments is Preventing Reading

Difficulties in Young Children. For more

information about this book, see Suggested

Reading in the back of this booklet.

The main source for this list of

accomplishments is Preventing Reading

Difficulties in Young Children. For more

information about this book, see Suggested

Reading in the back of this booklet.
57
Some helpful terms to know

Teachers and day care providers might use these terms when talking to you about

how your child is learning to read. Some of them are used in this booklet. 

alphabetic knowledge Knowing the names and shapes of the letters of the

alphabet.

alphabetic principle The understanding that written letters represent

sounds. For example, the word big has three sounds and three letters.

big books Oversized books that allow for the sharing of print and

illustrations with a group of children.

blending Putting together individual sounds to make spoken words.

comprehension The ability to understand and gain meaning from what

has been read.

decodable books Books that are made up of words that contain only the

letter-sound relationships that the children are learning, along with a few

words that are taught as sight words. 

decode The ability to recognize and read words by translating the letters

into speech sounds to determine the word’s pronunciation and meaning.

developmental spelling The use of letter-sound relationship information to

attempt to write words.

emergent literacy The view that literacy learning begins at birth and is

encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful reading and

writing activities.

environmental print Print that is a part of everyday life, such as signs,

billboards, labels, and business logos.

experimental writing Efforts by young children to experiment with writing

by creating pretend and real letters and by organizing scribbles and marks

on paper. 58
59

explicit instruction Direct, structured, systematic teaching of a task. 

fluency The ability to read text accurately and quickly and with expression

and comprehension.

graphic organizers Diagrams that visually represent the organization and

relationships of ideas in a text.

invented spelling See developmental spelling.

irregular words Frequently used words that don’t follow the letter-sound

relationship rules that children are learning.

leveled books Books that have been assigned a particular level (usually a

number or letter, such as Level 1 or Level B) intended to indicate how

difficult the book is for children to read.

literacy Includes all the activities involved in speaking, listening, reading,

writing, and appreciating both spoken and written language. 

phonemes The smallest parts of spoken language that combine to form

words. For example, the word hit is made up of three phonemes (/h/ /i/

/t/) and differs by one phoneme from the words pit, hip, and hot.

phonemic awareness The ability to hear and identify the individual sounds

in spoken words.

phonics The relationship between the sounds of spoken words and the

individual letters or groups of letters that represent those sounds in written

words.

phonological awareness The understanding that spoken language is made

up of individual and separate sounds. Phonological awareness activities can

involve work with rhymes, words, sentences, syllables, and phonemes. 

predictable books Books that have repeated words or sentences, rhymes,

or other patterns.
60

prefix A word part such as re-, un-, or pre- that is added to the beginning

of a root word to form a new word with a new meaning.

pretend reading Children’s attempts to “read” a book before they have

learned to read. Usually children pretend read a familiar book that they

have practically memorized.

print awareness Knowing about print and books and how they are used.

root word A word or word part to which a prefix or suffix is added.

segmentation Taking spoken words apart sound by sound. 

sight words Words that a reader recognizes without having to sound them

out. Some sight words are “irregular,” or have letter-sound relationships

that are uncommon. Some examples of sight words are you, are, have, and

said.

suffix A word part such as –ness, -able, or –er that is added to the end of a

root word to form a new word with a new meaning.

syllable A word part that contains a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel

sound (e-vent, news-pa-per, pret-ty).

vocabulary The words we must know in order to communicate effectively.

Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in

listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print.

word walls Word-study and vocabulary words that are posted on the

classroom wall so all children can easily see them. Usually, word walls are

arranged alphabetically, with words starting with a certain letter listed

under that letter for easy location.

word recognition The ability to identify printed words and to translate

them into their corresponding sounds quickly and accurately so as to figure

out their meanings.
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Bibliography

Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming

a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, IL:

Center for the Study of Reading; Washington, DC: National Institute of

Education. 

Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young

Children Learning at Home and School. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes

Publishing Co.

Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2000). The Scientist in the Crib. New

York: Harper Perennial.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based

Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications

for Reading Instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and

Human Development.

Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties

in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

Suggested reading for parents and caregivers

Here are some books that can provide you with more information about early reading

and writing.

Apel, K., & Masterson, J. (2001). Beyond Baby Talk: From Sounds to Sentences, a

Parent’s Guide to Language Development. Roseville, CA: Prima Publishing.

Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put Reading First: The Research

Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read: Kindergarten Through Grade 3.

Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy (available online at

www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading)

Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. E. (Eds.). (1999). Starting Out Right: A Guide to

Promoting Children’s Reading Success. Washington, DC: National Academy

Press.
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Hall, S. L., & Moats, L. C. (1998). Straight Talk about Reading: How Parents Can

Make a Difference during the Early Years. Chicago: NTC Publishing Group.

Neuman, S. B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to Read and Write:

Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children. Washington, DC:

National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. L. (1999). Right from Birth: Building Your Child’s

Foundation for Life. New York: Goddard Press.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency

Affairs. (2002). Helping Your Child Become a Reader. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency

Affairs. (2002). Helping Your Preschool Child. Washington, DC.

Resources for parents and caregivers

The following government groups can provide you with useful information about

learning to read.

The Partnership for Reading

www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading

Even Start Family Literacy Program

www.ed.gov/offices/OESE /CEP

ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education

www.ericeece.org

National Parent Information Network (NPIN)

www.npin.org

ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication 

www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec

National Institute for Literacy (NIFL)

www.nifl.gov

No Child Left Behind for Parents

www.nochildleftbehind.gov/parents/index.html

Partnership for Family Involvement in Education

www.pfie.ed.gov/ 
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If you have young children between the ages of birth and

age 4, look for the booklet 

A Child Becomes a Reader: Birth through Preschool.

www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading

To order copies of this booklet, contact the National Institute for Literacy at 

EdPubs, PO Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398. Call 800-228-8813 or email

edpubs@inet.ed.gov. This booklet can also be downloaded at The Partnership for

Reading web site, www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading.
Second Edition

Spring 2003