ATTORNEY GENERAL’S

REPORT TO CONGRESS

OFFICE OF COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING SERVICES
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

September 2000
TABLE OF CONTENTS

i

Foreword from the Attorney General

Introduction from the Director, COPS Office

Chapter One: Public Safety Partnership and Community

Policing Act of 1994

! Landmark Legislation

! Legislative History of the COPS Office

! The COPS Office and Community Policing

Chapter Two: The Office of Community Oriented Policing

Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

! Grant Making

! Hiring Grants

! Other Initiatives

! Training Law Enforcement and the Community

! Additional Agreements and Partnerships

! Advancing Community Policing

! Schools and Community Policing

! Publications

! Research Partnerships

iii

v

3

11
Chapter Three: Hiring New Officers to do Community

Policing: An Increased Police Presence

! The Path from Hiring to Serving

! An Increase in Officers

Chapter Four: The Move Toward Community Policing: A

New Way of Doing Business

! What Community Policing Means

! A Return to the Roots of Law Enforcement

Chapter Five: Making Our Streets Safer: Reducing Crime

and the Fear of Crime

! A Decrease in Crime

! A Drop in the Fear of Crime

! The Legacy of COPS

Appendix

31

39

51

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)
iii

When President Clinton signed into law the Violent Crime Control and Law

Enforcement Act of 1994, he fulfilled a promise he made when he first took

office – that his Administration would provide local communities the resources

to add 100,000 community policing officers to the nation's streets. Six years later, this

historic legislation has made a difference.

As of this summer, over 105,000 community policing officers had been funded. More

than 30,000 grants have been awarded to over 12,000 law enforcement agencies, covering 87% of the country. Crime has dropped to its lowest level since 1968, as police officers work hand-in-hand with the community forging new partnerships and working

together to solve problems.

By walking a beat and sharing in the life of neighborhoods, thousands of community oriented policing officers funded by the COPS program are redefining the relationship

between law enforcement and the community. As community members get to know the

person behind the badge, and police officers learn the hopes and fears of the residents

they serve, perceptions change. Trust grows. New and creative ways of dealing with longstanding problems are developed. Unique partnerships are developed among groups and

organizations where previously there was skepticism or even hostility. Crime decreases,

the fear of crime decreases, and neighborhoods thrive.

Another of the many benefits of the COPS program, and a critical part of its legacy, has

been its focus on training. COPS' regional network of training institutes across the country has trained officers in areas including building partnerships within the community,

supporting victims of domestic violence, and problem-solving. COPS also has made a

substantial contribution to numerous police integrity initiatives and is continuing to

develop additional resources to strengthen this critical area.

I know that the COPS program has contributed significantly to a safer America. We must

not rest on our success, nor become complacent. We must continue our progress. My

hope is that the important work of the COPS program will go on, as we continue to

change the face of law enforcement for the 21st century.

FOREWORD FROM THE ATTORNEY GENERAL
v

T

he Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) was created in September

of 1994. It is responsible for one of the greatest infusions of resources into local law

enforcement in our nation's history. During this time, COPS has funded the addition

of more than 100,000 community policing officers and has advanced community policing

nationwide. 

It has been a remarkable six years for the COPS Office, for law enforcement, and for our

nation's communities. Not only has there been a record decrease in crime, there has also

been a marked decrease in the fear of crime. Incident-driven policing is gradually giving

way to police departments engaging their communities in problem solving and prevention.

Officers continue to arrest offenders, but they are doing so more strategically and they

increasingly have the support and the cooperation of the community.

COPS has made substantial investments in law enforcement training. We have created a

national network of training institutes that has revolutionized law enforcement training.

Police academies and departments across the country are using these new models of adult

learning, with law enforcement and communities learning together.

COPS has also made a major investment in research. There is now a substantial body of

knowledge which grows each day, covering all aspects of community policing.

The way government agencies function has changed dramatically with the establishment of

the COPS Office. With goals of providing top-notch customer service and establishing partnerships with the law enforcement community, COPS has minimized red tape and streamlined the application process. This has revolutionized the way grants are awarded.

Operating under an accelerated timeline, COPS made a point of targeting new markets –

including small jurisdictions that had never before applied for grants from the Federal government.

We still have much work to do, but this is an appropriate time to recognize how much has

been accomplished. Community policing works. The COPS Office is proud to have been a

primary catalyst in improving the quality of life in our nation's neighborhoods.

Thomas C. Frazier

Director, COPS Office

INTRODUCTION FROM THE DIRECTOR

Thomas C. Frazier,

Director, COPS Office
Public Safety

Partnership and

Community Policing

Act of 1994

CHAPTER 1
Public Safety Partnership and Community Policing Act of 1994
3

andmark Legislation

On September 13, 1994, President Clinton signed into law the most comprehensive piece of Federal crime legislation to date – the Violent Crime Control and Law

Enforcement Act of 1994 (commonly known as the “1994 Crime Act”). A multifaceted approach to controlling and preventing crime, the legislation passed

Congress with strong bipartisan support and the endorsement of every major law

enforcement group in the country.

The single largest component of the act was Title I – the Public Safety Partnership

and Community Policing Act of 1994 – which contained provisions for billions of

dollars in grants to states and local municipalities across the country, through the

Department of Justice, to focus on violent crime. The purpose of the grants was to

increase the hiring and deployment of community policing officers and to advance

community policing nationwide.

To implement the program, the Attorney General created a new program office

within the Department of Justice known as the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services – the COPS Office.

L
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

4

Legislative History of the COPS Office

The 1994 Crime Act provided COPS with $8.8 billion and six years to fund the addition of community oriented policing officers and advance community policing

nationwide. Funding came from the Violent Crime Reduction Trust Fund, which

redirects money saved by the reduction of the Federal work force and invests it in

crime-fighting programs.

Each year, COPS receives appropriations through the annual Commerce-JusticeState (CJS) Appropriations Bill. Between FY95 and FY00, COPS received almost

$7.6 billion to carry out its mission.

On May 12th, 1999, President Clinton announced that the COPS program had funded its 100,000th community policing officer – more than $2 billion under budget

and over a year ahead of schedule. By the summer of 2000, nearly 70,000 of those

officers were already on the street working with communities to fight crime.

The COPS Office and Community Policing

Funding an unprecedented number of community policing officers has meant

more officers patrolling both big cities and small towns across America. In fact, in

the years since the passage of the 1994 Crime Act, the number of police officers

has increased dramatically – up 14 percent, from 1993 to 1997 (according to

Uniform Crime Report statistics). That figure is well above what would have been

expected in the absence of the passage of the 1994 Crime Act (Hayeslip, 1999).

These officers are making a difference in the communities they serve, working side

by side with residents to improve their neighborhoods. Today, 87 percent of the

country is served by departments that employ community policing.

There has also been a major change in crime rates in this country since passage of

the 1994 Crime Act, according to the Uniform Crime Report. Crime has now

decreased for an unprecedented eight straight years and is at its lowest point in

over a generation. In addition, there has been a marked impact on the fear of

crime. An Eisenhower Foundation study (1999) found that the fear of crime had

dropped to 41 percent in 1998, from a high of 47 percent in 1994.

Along with the substantial increase in officers and the advancement of community

policing, the COPS Office has also been a story of innovation. By minimizing red
Public Safety Partnership and Community Policing Act of 1994

5

“In the City of Sacramento,

the COPS program has 

been a highly successful

crime-fighting initiative. 

The funding provided by

Federal grants has allowed

the Sacramento Police

Department to hire and

redeploy over 150 additional

officers.”

Police Chief Arturo Venegas, Jr.

Sacramento, CA

44

46

42

40

38

36

34

Figure 1.1. Average Sworn Officers Per Police Department *

85 38.74

39.22

39.54

39.58

40.62

42.2

41.83

41.77

42.46

42.78

44.96

45.69

46.34

46.25

Projected

8687888990919293949596

9798

160

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Figure 1.2. Average Violent Crimes Per Police Department *

8586878889909192939495969798

109.36

122.75

122.15

127.66

134.72

146.77

149.3

148.27

147.69

141.55

137.82

129.64

122.56

110.0

year

Average Number of Sworn Officers Per Department Average Number of Violent Crimes Per Department

year

* Source: Crime in the United States, 1985 - 98, Uniform Crime Reports.
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

6

tape and placing a premium on customer service, COPS has redefined the grant

making process using an initial one-page application, publishing grant owner manuals, and introducing grant advisors to improve customer responsiveness. In addition to being responsive to the needs of grantees, COPS also works cooperatively

with the Office of the Inspector General and the General Accounting Office on matters including audits, inquiries, referrals, and other oversight functions.

Since COPS began its work, the number of agencies taking a community policing

approach to crime reduction has increased. COPS has also been able to support

policing agencies to improve the quality and effectiveness of collaborative problem

solving. To make these changes, COPS launched a number of unique grant programs, including initiatives such as Problem Solving Partnerships, an Anti-Gang

Initiative, Advancing Community Policing, a Distressed Neighborhoods project, a

Youth Firearms Violence Initiative, and School-Based Partnerships programs. 

COPS has also provided more than 3,000 policing agencies with technology to support community policing. Through the Making Officer Redeployment Effective

(MORE) program, COPS has provided over $1 billion to fund crime fighting technologies, allowing officers to spend more time on the beat and less time at the

police station.

COPS has been at the forefront of one of the most pressing issues facing our country today – violence in our nation's schools. Through its COPS in Schools program,

COPS has funded the addition of over 2,600 officers in our nation's schools. These

school resource officers are partnering with students, teachers, and parents to

become an important part of the fabric of the daily school environment.

COPS also is responsible for the largest investment in law enforcement training in

the last century. Through the Community Policing Consortium and Regional

Community Policing Institutes, COPS has established a national network of training

that has revitalized adult learning in law enforcement. By training citizens and

police to work collaboratively, residents have become an essential aid in identifying, reporting, and preventing crime. 

In addition, COPS has funded a substantial investment in research that is creating

a knowledge base in community policing that will be an important asset for years

to come.
Public Safety Partnership and Community Policing Act of 1994

7

This combination of hiring, training and technical assistance, innovative grant programs, and more advanced technology has enabled policing agencies to try innovative approaches to fighting crime that are proving successful. For example, crime

mapping technology has been used by a number of COPS grantees to pinpoint

crime hotspots. Crime analysis programs have been used to identify repeat crime

victims and their specific characteristics. School-Based Partnership grants have

resulted in unique collaborations among secondary school students, police, teachers, and community members. Officers hired under COPS’ Universal Hiring

Program have won national awards for innovative crime fighting efforts. In

Fontana, California, for example, officers were recognized by receiving the Herman

Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem Solving for a community policing project that reduced the level of homelessness in that city by an estimated 90 percent

[Nov. '98, International POP Conference, San Diego].

These and other COPS programs have led to a number of new and creative

alliances between police and community members. More than 300 formal partnerships between police and domestic violence organizations have been developed

under COPS’ Community Policing to Combat Domestic Violence program. An additional 650 partnerships among police and a wide variety of community groups

were formed under several problem solving grant programs. Additional partnerships among universities, community groups, and policing agencies have been

developed to design and operate Regional Community Policing Institutes.

Although the fight against crime is an ongoing effort, and there is still much work

to be done, the past six years give us great reason to hope. The drop in crime, the

addition of officers, the introduction of innovative crime-fighting strategies, and the

expansion of technology continue to revolutionize law enforcement agencies. Few

could have predicted the effect the 1994 Crime Act would have when it was enacted six years ago; it has surpassed even the grandest expectations.

“There has not been a single law passed, or organization established, that has

helped law enforcement as

much as the COPS program.”

Police Chief Stanley L. Knee

Austin, Texas
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

8

REFERENCES

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1985-1997). Crime in the United States, Uniform

Crime Reports, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Hayeslip, David. (1999). Analytical Support. Unpublished Documentation. Abt

Associates Inc. Cambridge, MA.

Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation. (1999). To Establish Justice, To Insure Domestic

Tranquility: A Thirty Year Update of the National Commission on the Causes and

Prevention of Violence. Washington, D.C.

8
The Office of

Community Oriented

Policing Services

(COPS): An Overview

of COPS Initiatives

CHAPTER 2

The Office of

Community Oriented

Policing Services

(COPS): An Overview

of COPS Initiatives

CHAPTER
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives
Chapter One: The Public Safety Partnerships and Community Policing

11

The Public Safety Partnership and Community Policing Act was unprecedented in breadth and scope. The enormity of the program was the impetus for the

creation of the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. COPS was created

as a new entity within the Department of Justice. The Attorney General delegated

grant making authority to the director of the COPS Office, first appointed in 1994.

By the summer of 2000, COPS had awarded more than 30,000 grants worth more

than $6 billion to nearly 12,000 agencies and funded the addition of over 100,000

community policing officers. The following is a history of how COPS has met its

challenge and continues to do so into the 21st century.

Grant Making

To fulfill its mission, COPS instituted a wide variety of grants. The following chart

summarizes and reviews those initiatives:
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

12

Exhibit 2.1.

COPS Office Hiring Initiatives

a As of July 20, 2000 b Waiver of local match allowed in exceptional circumstances of financial distress.

Initiative

Phase I

COPS AHEAD

COPS FAST

Troops to COPS

Universal Hiring

Program (UHP)

Distressed

Neighborhoods

Pilot Project

Small Community

Grant Program

COPS in Schools

Program

Announcement 

Date

October 1994

November 1994

November 1994

May 1995

January 1999

June 1995

May 1998

April 1998

October 1998

Funding

Awarded

(in millions) a

$186

$282.8

$389.9

$2.3 (1995)

$5.5 (1999)

$3.5 billion

$111.7

$12.8

$294.4

Local Match

25%

25%

25%

None

25%b

none

none

Salary/benefits costs

over

$125,000

for a 3-year

period

Focus

! hiring officers for the

remaining unfunded, but

qualified applicants under

the 1993 Police Hiring

Supplement Initiative

! expedited hiring of new

officers in anticipation of

later COPS Office funding

for jurisdictions with populations over 50,000

! expedited hiring of officers in smaller jurisdictions

! training new veterans

hired under existing COPS

grants (1995)

! related hiring expenses of

veterans hired under UHP

grants (1999)

! hiring of new officers as

part of an overall community policing plan

! hiring of officers in distressed neighborhoods 

! fourth-year funding 

to qualifying small 

jurisdictions

! hiring community policing

officers to work in

schools

Grant

Award

Duration

3 years

3 years

3 years

3 years

1 year

3 years

3 years

1 year

3 years

Population

Served

NA

> 50,000

< 50,000

NA

NA

NA

NA

< 50,000

NA
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

13

Exhibit 2.2.

Other COPS Office Initiatives

a As of July 20, 2000 b Waiver of local match allowed in exceptional circumstances of financial distress.

Initiative

COPS MORE

Youth Firearms

Violence Initiative

Anti-Gang Initiative

Community Policing to

Combat Domestic

Violence

Problem Solving

Partnerships

Regional Community

Policing Institutes

Advancing Community

Policing

School-Based

Partnership Program

Methamphetamine

Initiative

Tribal Resources

Grant Program

Program

Announcement 

Date

1995, 1996,

1998

July 1995

April 1996

September 

1995

August 1998

June 1996

May 1997

May 1997

April 1998

February 1999

July 1998

September 1999

Focus

! acquisition of technology and equipment, payment of

overtime (1995 only), and hiring of civilians to

enable agencies to redeploy existing officers to community policing

! development of innovative community policing efforts

to curb youth violence associated with firearms

! development of community policing strategies to

combat gangs

! prevention efforts involving collaboration between

police agencies and local victim and other social service programs (1996)

! pilot tests of community policing approaches to preventing domestic violence plus training and research

(1998)

! analyzing one of nine crime and disorder problems

and developing innovative, effective, and lasting

methods of prevention

! comprehensive and innovative training and technical

assistance to police agencies

! organizational change to create an atmosphere in

which community policing thrives

! Community Policing Demonstration Centers to test

and disseminate model community policing strategies

! collaboration with schools and community based

organizations to analyze a single crime or disorder

problem

! new community policing strategies to combat production and use of methamphetamine

! comprehensive hiring program, providing funding for

officer positions, training, equipment, and technology

Population

Served

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

Federally

Recognized

Indian Tribes

Funding

Awarded

(in millions)a

$387.6 (1995)

$287.9 (1996)

$470.6 (1998)

$8.6

$11

$46 (1996)

$12.6 (1998)

$37.5

$82.5

$34.5

$18.1

$13

$5.1

$27

Local

Match

25% b

none

none

none

encouraged

none

encouraged

none

encouraged

25%b

Grant

Duration

1 year;

2 option years for

renewal funding for

civilian grants

1 year

1 year

1 year

1 year

1 year, 2 option years

for renewal funding

1 year

1 year

1 year

3 years (hiring)

1 year

(equipment, training)
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

14

Hiring Grants

Less than a month after the enactment of the 1994 Crime Act, the first grants were

awarded under the Phase 1 hiring initiative. Two other expedited hiring initiatives

were critical in COPS' early days: COPS AHEAD (Accelerated Hiring,

Education And Deployment) and COPS FAST (Funding Accelerated for

Small Towns).

In June 1995, COPS replaced COPS AHEAD and COPS FAST with the Universal

Hiring Program (UHP). This became the centerpiece of COPS’ efforts to

increase the number of officers deployed in community policing. Under UHP, COPS

awards three-year grants to law enforcement agencies to hire additional sworn law

enforcement officers. These officers are part of an overall strategy to address crime

and related problems through community policing.

COPS hiring initiatives exceeded all expectations with the announcement by

President Clinton on May 12, 1999 that COPS had funded its 100,000th officer –

ahead of schedule and under budget. By the summer of 2000, nearly 70,000 of

those officers were already on the street, working with communities to fight crime

and improve the quality of life.

At the same time that the number of officers on the street has increased, crime has

decreased – with crime now down for an unprecedented eight straight years, and

having fallen 14 percent in the past six years. While experts debate the reasons for

this drop, law enforcement officials and criminal justice experts across the country routinely cite community policing as a major factor.

In an examination of recent crime statistics, a trend analysis conducted by Abt

Associates Inc.(Hayeslip, 1999) shows that violent crime has decreased at a rate

greater than would have been expected in the absence of the passage of the 1994

Crime Act. In the Northeast and Pacific regions, where decreases in crime were the

most dramatic, COPS grant funding was the largest. At the same time, the subregion with the lowest COPS-funding per department – the West North Central –

had a lower decline in violent crime (Hayeslip, 1999). The regional patterns suggest a clear relationship between funding per department and crime reduction.
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

15

“Make no mistake, without

the COPS program our ability to take proactive steps

toward preventing crime

and improving the quality of

life in Raleigh would be

much more difficult.”

Police Chief Mitch W. Brown

Raleigh, North Carolina

Making A Difference

In certain high crime areas in East Baton Rouge, Louisiana, city bus drivers would

not drive through neighborhoods and deliverymen refused to make deliveries. That

has changed, thanks to a COPS UHP grant. The East Baton Rouge Sheriff's Office

now has 20 deputies assigned to community policing. Twelve of those officers saturate low-income, high crime areas and eight officers form two-officer patrols.

Since community policing began, a high arrest rate has dropped to a low arrest

rate and crime has fallen.

The feedback from the local civic association and business community has been

tremendous. They report significant economic gain and point to such things as an

increased occupancy rate in apartment complexes that previously had high vacancies. What was unheard of two years ago – children playing outside in the parks –

is now a daily occurrence. Police have worked closely with the business community and civic leaders to ensure the drop in crime continues, and follow-up meetings are conducted regularly.

Lt. Craig Brouillete stresses that the most important thing that has occurred as a

result of their community policing efforts has been the partnership that has developed among police departments, the community, civic groups, parents, and children. “Our community members – especially our children – now view police as

positive role models,” says Brouillette. “And we know how important these new

partnerships are because a law enforcement agency is only as good as the community it serves.”

To complement the Universal Hiring Program and to target specific problem areas,

COPS initiated two other grant programs:

Distressed Neighborhoods Pilot Project: a program to bring community

policing officers to some of the most troubled neighborhoods in the country.

Making a Difference 

Liberty City in Miami was a twenty-year victim of a drop in business, increasing

poverty, and urban blight. What was once a vibrant community became known for

drugs, gangs, murders, and overall urban decay.
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

16

With their Distressed Neighborhoods grant in hand and after an initial “no tolerance” sweep of the “John Doe Gang” that controlled the local drug trade, the

Problem Solving Team (PST) tackled other enforcement and quality-of-life issues.

At least one Miami police officer on the Liberty City PST is assigned to each quality

of life issue that has been identified by the community. These officers must research

the issue and form the necessary partnerships to address it.

In the past year, through the efforts of the PST, the community and local government partnerships have taken on several difficult issues. One of their more successful efforts involves the arrest of a slumlord, after intense research, coordination, and documentation.

The PST’s success in Liberty City was the catalyst for a series in the Miami Herald

entitled, “Reclaiming Liberty City.” The article reported widespread agreement on

the positive changes that had occurred. For example, Charles Wellons, a former

Miami police patrol officer, said, “Everybody has barbecues going and the kids are

playing in the street. You did not have that before.” Resident Deborah Bland said

people’s relationship with the police has changed: “They hear you and they try to

work with you.” And Miami police sergeant Reginald Kinchen, in charge of the dayto-day operations of the PST, said, “Parents would say to their children, 'Don't run

up to the police.' That was when the residents would idolize drug dealers. They

represented what life was all about. They were like the Bill Gates of the world. But

now, they don't look up to the dealers.”

Small Community Grant Program: to help small communities which otherwise

could not afford to retain their COPS-funded officers for a fourth year.

Making A Difference

In 1997, Texas ordered the city of Kerens (population 1,702) to install a new

wastewater treatment plant. The replacement cost was more than $1.1 million; but

the state would reimburse only $250,000. This unanticipated cost jeopardized

Kerens' ability to pay for the retention costs of the officer they had received under

a COPS FAST grant. Subsequently, the town was awarded a Small Communities

Grant Program award for $9,501, which it used to help pay for the officer. The

retention of one officer, in this three-officer department, allowed the Kerens Police

Department to continue problem solving activities and community meetings to educate citizens on anti-violence programs.
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

17

COPS MORE

COPS MORE (Making Officer Redeployment Effective) was designed to expand the

time available for community policing by freeing officers to spend more time on

the street solving problems, instead of filling out paperwork. The program was

announced in 1995, 1996, and 1998 and provided one-year grants to law enforcement agencies to:

! acquire new technology and equipment

! hire civilians for administrative and support tasks

! pay overtime for existing officers (only in 1995)

COPS MORE has not only allowed officers to work more efficiently but also more

effectively. As a result of the technology funded by COPS MORE, many agencies are

now able to perform certain tasks for the first time – such as analyzing real-time

crime data, analyzing incident reports to anticipate trends in crime, and mapping

crime “hot spots.” As law enforcement agencies become more analytical in solving

problems, the new technologies are helping expand the way law enforcement agencies think about community policing.

Making A Difference

A COPS MORE grant has had a major impact on community policing in Locust,

North Carolina. Before receiving the grant, the most experienced officer on the

force was also, unfortunately, the most experienced with computers. As a result, 85

percent of his time was spent doing all of the department's reports, schedules, and

time sheets, with the help of another officer. 

After receiving its COPS grant, the department hired a clerk to do the paperwork,

leaving the officers free to work in the community. Part of one officer's time has

been spent working in partnership with the county drug task force and drug arrests

and drug activity have since declined. The officer who had been tasked with inventory and other paperwork is now a school resource officer in the elementary

school.

Chief Michael Haigler stresses the role of the officer was not to patrol the halls and

keep order. Rather, the purpose was for children to get to know a police officer on

a more personal level. “We now reach kids before they get to high school and out

of our reach,” says Haigler. “And the attitude of the kids in our community toward

all officers has changed. I often have kids come up and talk to me at the store or
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

18

on the street and I have no idea who they are. But they tell me they know Sergeant

Hall and ask if I work with him.”

In addition to developing a positive perception of law enforcement at an early age,

Chief Haigler also says children now trust police officers and share information

that enables officers to avoid potential problems. In watching these children move

from elementary school to junior high, Haigler says he can already see the difference. 

Other Initiatives

COPS has instituted a number of other initiatives that have promoted community

involvement and addressed specific problems across the country. These include:

! The Youth Firearms Violence Initiative helps reduce the number of violent crimes and gun-related gang and drug offenses associated with young

people.

Making a Difference

The results of the Youth Firearms Violence Initiative have been encouraging.

For example: Inglewood, California, created a new probation position, collaborated with the district attorney, enforced existing laws, and created community programs. The result was a significant drop in the level of gun crime (Dunworth et al,

1998). Salinas, California, after a re-organization of the police department and

the assignment of more than ten percent of the work force to a violence suppression team targeting youth violence, experienced a significant drop in gun crimes

(Dunworth et al, 1998). In Bridgeport, Connecticut, officers conducted proactive

patrol and handgun suppression activities in targeted youth violence “hot spots,”

using motor vehicle stops, road checks, field interrogations, and reverse stings

(Dunworth et al, 1998). In Cleveland, Ohio, officers identified nuisance properties (such as boarded-up crack houses) and occupied them for as much as 24

hours a day, while the properties were being restored (Dunworth et al, 1998).

! The Anti-Gang Initiative targets gang violence by crafting innovative strategies, tracking and evaluating their implementation, and sharing results and

successes with other communities. 
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

19

Making a Difference

Initial evaluation findings of the Anti-Gang Initiative show a reduction in gun and

drug offenses, a decrease in minor felony and misdemeanor gang activity, and

some decrease in gang activity. Just as importantly, levels of fear have decreased

even as awareness of gangs has increased.

In Dallas, police department intervention and suppression strategies have proven

quite effective. Those strategies include saturation patrols in hot spots, truancy

enforcement, gang member warrant service, and street level undercover drug

enforcement. Additionally, the Dallas police department implemented prevention

strategies that included assigning officers to recreation centers in troubled areas to

interact with at-risk youth and provide a safe environment for neighborhood children. An early impact analysis in Dallas is impressive, boasting a 57 percent reduction in gang-related crime.

Boston has also demonstrated extremely positive results since the initiative began

– a 20 percent reduction in school violence, an 85 percent reduction in juvenile

homicides over the previous year, and a 33 percent reduction in reported fear levels.

! Community Policing to Combat Domestic Violence provides a multifaceted approach by funding community policing/domestic violence test

sites, training, and research initiatives.

Making a Difference

Police in Buffalo were struggling with the problem of domestic violence as well as

the failure of victims and witnesses to participate in prosecuting those cases. With

a COPS grant to fight domestic violence, police first created partnerships – with

Hispanics United of Buffalo, Women for Human Rights and Dignity, Haven House,

and the Erie County District Attorney's Domestic Violence Bureau. This collaborative effort reduced the number and severity of domestic violence disputes and protected victims and provided them with support through a combination of law

enforcement and victim advocacy. It also enhanced criminal prosecution and promoted officer safety by ensuring that officers were fully prepared to respond and

deal effectively with domestic and/or family disputes.

In addition, the new partners provided victims with access to neighborhood based

crisis intervention, explained the available options, referred to appropriate services, coordinated follow-up by the prosecutor, and pursued those who failed to show

up to aid in the prosecution of offenders.
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

20

One of the most successful components of this project was stationing a civilian

domestic violence advocate at one of the city's most violent precincts. Because of

the many benefits of having this person located at the station house, other

resources were found to keep this position funded after COPS funds had ended.

This advocate continues to keep the lines of communication open between police

and the community. 

The pilot project funded through the COPS Domestic Violence Grant was expanded city-wide; and even though the grant funding has been exhausted, the program

continues to provide services to the citizens of Buffalo. The function previously performed by Women for Rights and Human Dignity is now being continued by Crisis

Services, Inc.

The results have been impressive. Victims' willingness to prosecute has increased

by more than 150 percent over the last three years. Domestic violence calls within

the city of Buffalo have decreased by five percent and the number of cases prosecuted increased by 10 – 15 percent.

! Problem Solving Partnerships offer law enforcement agencies and their

community partners the opportunity to identify and analyze a single persistent community problem and develop an effective, creative, and lasting solution through proactive, problem-oriented policing.

Making a Difference

In Juneau, Alaska, police and the community identified a need to better track

repeat domestic violence offenders and their victims. As a result, the Juneau

Domestic Violence Task Force recommended the creation of a database to assist

police in developing probable cause for arrests and notifying appropriate agencies

of potential clients. The database recording system quickly displays all domestic

violence related activity and also tracks offenders to improve follow-up on court

orders. As a result, the number of batterers ordered to counseling increased 52

percent over the previous six months and the number who actually went to counseling increased 127 percent. In addition, the partners were able to train more

than 70 community members, 45 shelter advocates, and several police, victim, and

legal advocates.

In Champlin, Minnesota, police used their problem solving grant to join with the

University of Mankato to examine an increasing number of civil disturbances and

a decreasing quality of life in areas of the city with multi-family housing. Police dis-
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

21

covered those areas generated twice as many calls for service as other areas of the

city. Further analysis revealed that although overall crime rates for the city were

going down, rates within the multi-family home areas were increasing.

The Champlin Police Department responded by forming a special unit within the

department called the Livable Housing Unit. These officers were reassigned to

work directly with dwelling owners, managers, and tenants. They also worked with

the city's planning commission to develop the Crime Free Multi–Housing

Certification Program. Because of the new tools, building managers and owners

were able to weed out problem tenants, reduce calls for service, and increase

occupancy levels. Since the formation of the Livable Housing Unit, the department

has measured a 33 percent drop in disturbance calls, a 44 percent decrease in

theft calls, and a 38 percent decrease in overall calls for service.

Police in Ontario, California, began to see an increase in commercial burglaries

in the early 1990's. An analysis of incident reports and an interview with a confidential informant found that businesses were not properly protecting themselves

after hours. Armed with that information, police organized a business academy to

properly educate businesses on topics ranging from business-law enforcement

relations to workplace violence to building safety and security. The academy

opened communication lines between businesses and the police, as well as

between businesses. At the same time, police organized a business watch modeled

after their neighborhood watch organization. Since then, commercial burglaries in

Ontario have decreased 50 percent.

! The Methamphetamine Initiative allows cities to develop community

policing strategies to combat the production, distribution, and use of

methamphetamine. This program provides community policing grants to law

enforcement agencies in jurisdictions with large numbers of methamphetamine lab seizures by the Drug Enforcement Agency, deaths frequently attributed to methamphetamine abuse, and extensive arrests for drug dealing and

possession.

! The Tribal Resources Grant Program provides comprehensive funding

to tribal communities, many of which have limited resources and high rates

of crime and violence. It aims to enhance law enforcement infrastructures

and community policing efforts. This program provides grants to tribes to

hire, train, and equip police officers.
“The enthusiasm within the

department and from citizens has become contagious. We all now know that

by working together we can

do something about crime

and improve the quality of

life in our community.”

Police Chief Bobby D. Moody

Marietta, Georgia

Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

22

Training Law Enforcement and the Community

Training law enforcement officers to respond and adapt to the numerous changes

that community policing imposes on their agencies is a difficult task. Not only does

community policing change the way officers approach crime and disorder problems, but it also forces officers to think more comprehensively and analytically

about routine calls for service. To facilitate this, COPS has awarded grants for various projects and partnerships, including the Community Policing Consortium,

Regional Community Policing Institutes, technical assistance conferences, advancing community government, working groups, inter-agency agreements, and other

training initiatives. 

As of July 2000, over 112,000 law enforcement personnel and community members had taken COPS-sponsored training in community policing.

Community Policing Consortium

The Community Policing Consortium provides training in the basics of community

policing, as well as a growing number of more specialized courses. It is comprised

of five professional police organizations: the Police Executive Research Forum

(PERF), the National Sheriffs' Association (NSA), the International Association of

Chiefs of Police (IACP), the Police Foundation, and the National Organization of

Black Law Enforcement Executives (NOBLE). The Consortium’s primary mission is

to deliver community policing training and technical assistance to COPS grantees

designated to receive training to strengthen their implementation of community

policing. The Consortium strives to engage the community to solve problems and

to build trust between the community and law enforcement. The Consortium also

reaches more than 200,000 law enforcement officers and community members

through three publications produced by the Consortium: Community Policing

Exchange, Community Links, and Sheriff's Times.

Making a Difference

According to an independent evaluation of the Consortium (Laszlo, Akimoto and

Garner, 1998), the Consortium's training had significant influence on the implementation of community policing throughout the country. Grantees also reported

that they were successful in implementing community policing strategies as a result

of the training they received through the Consortium. The report also found that

the Consortium's publications are widely used and shared by law enforcement

agencies across the United States.
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

23

Regional Community Policing Institutes

Realizing that many police agencies do not have the resources to provide non-traditional training, in May 1997 COPS announced grants to establish a network of

training institutes, known as Regional Community Policing Institutes (RCPI’s).

There are currently 28 RCPI's across the country. These Institutes represent partnerships between law enforcement, education, and the community and are

designed to provide comprehensive and innovative community policing education,

training, and technical assistance to law enforcement officers and citizens throughout a designated region. They offer training in areas including problem solving,

community partnerships, organizational change management, strategic implementation, ethics and integrity, rural community policing, and technology for community policing. Over 90 percent of the Regional Community Policing Institutes have

waiting lists.

Making A Difference

! New Jersey’s RCPI community partner, the National Conference of

Christians and Jews, has developed two cultural diversity courses for law

enforcement agencies and community groups. The courses have been added

to the basic police academy certification requirements. A unique feature of

this training is its impact on participants without mentioning the words

"diversity," racism," or "prejudice." Through group activity and discussion,

participants are led through a process of awareness and different perspectives that require they draw their own conclusions on important human relations issues. 

! California RCPI at Los Angeles is developing a multilingual community

policing video for community members. The 15-minute video will initially be

produced in nine languages. It will be presented by police officers at community meetings both to educate and motivate citizens to become involved in

problem solving within their communities.

! Kentucky RCPI has developed a new in-service training entitled “Making

Communities Safer” in partnership with the state’s Department of Criminal

Justice Services. This course includes topics such as child abuse, domestic

violence, crime prevention through environmental design, and risk management.

COPS has also sponsored technical assistance conferences for grantees throughout

the country to provide program-specific guidance and educational opportunities,
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

24

as well as a forum to network and share promising practices. Those conferences

have focused on: domestic violence, problem solving, school-based partnerships,

distressed communities, methamphetamine issues, training for School Resource

Officers, and police integrity.

Other training projects funded by the COPS Office include: the Community

Policing/Domestic Violence Training Initiative; the Community Conflict Resolution

and Mediation Project; the Indian Country Crime Initiative Circle Project; COPS in

Schools training; and a four-level initiative designed specifically for COPS MORE

grantees.

Additional Agreements and Partnerships

To facilitate police collaboration of efforts with mayors, city managers, public officials, and the courts, COPS provides community policing technical assistance

through strategic cooperative agreements. COPS has agreements with the

International City/County Management Association, the National Association of

Drug Courts, and the U.S. Conference of Mayors. COPS also participated in interagency agreements with the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC), the

Violence Against Women Office (VAWO), and the Executive Office of Weed and

Seed.

Advancing Community Policing

The current structure and management of law enforcement organizations presents

one of the greatest challenges to effective community policing. In light of this barrier, COPS was concerned about the ability of law enforcement departments to sustain and enhance successful community policing approaches to fighting crime. As

a result, the COPS Office developed two initiatives as part of a new Advancing

Community Policing program. Agencies could apply for either an Organizational

Change grant or to serve as a Demonstration Center:

Organizational Change grants are designed to help police agencies change their

existing internal structure to accommodate and sustain community policing practices.

Community Policing Demonstration Centers showcase those agencies that

have taken the lead in implementing community policing throughout their departments, becoming active community policing laboratories and testing and retesting

the components of community policing.
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

25

Making a Difference

Through these grant programs, agencies have been given the opportunity to:

! re-examine some of their basic features in an effort to eliminate waste,

enhance service delivery, encourage worker creativity, and develop more

responsive organizations;

! enhance internal and external communication, improve inter and intraagency cooperation, and remove organizational and managerial barriers. In

addition, agencies can clearly delineate their future community policing

goals and objectives – their “next steps” – and develop a strategy for incorporating those goals into a multi-year community policing plan.

Schools and Community Policing

School-Based Partnerships Program

This grant program provides policing agencies with grants to collaborate with

schools and community-based organizations to analyze persistent school-related

crime problems.

Making a Difference

The benefits of school-based partnerships include an increased ability of police

agencies, schools, and community groups to work together to develop innovative

approaches to maintaining a nonviolent school environment and reducing crime.

These partnerships can also result in an improved quality of life for students, teachers, and parents; a decreased fear of crime; and an increased body of knowledge

for communities, criminal justice researchers, and practitioners on creative

approaches to address school-related crime problems.

COPS in Schools

One of COPS’ most popular programs, COPS in Schools funds the hiring of community policing officers (school resource officers) to work in schools to address

crime and violence. The program was designed to provide an incentive for law

enforcement agencies to build working relationships with schools and apply community policing strategies.
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

26

To help prepare officers for this new role, COPS has developed a unique teambased training for both officers and school administrators that can serve as the

standard for training school resource officers across the country.

Publications

As part of its mission to advance community policing, the COPS Office is producing a wide variety of publications that are instructive in the implementation of community policing. In addition, over 500 materials have been produced by Regional

Community Policing Institutes, including curricula, videos, CD-Roms, and monographs. A complete list of COPS publications can be found in the Appendix.

Research Partnerships

Over the past five years, the COPS Office has awarded $47 million to its DOJ partner, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), for research and development of more

efficient policing service models that are responsive to the needs of the public.

Although numerous projects are still underway, some early research findings

promise to have an important impact on day-to-day policing activities (NIJ 2000):

! An evaluation of the Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS) program

found that, on average, citizens in neighborhoods in which community

policing was implemented had improved perceptions of police than citizens

in other communities. Residents in neighborhoods with community policing

were more optimistic about future policing trends and were more satisfied

with police responsiveness to neighborhood problems.

! In Aurora and Joliet, Illinois, researchers found that improvements in the

quality of community policing were associated with increases both in the

community's feelings that they could and should take a role in improving

safety and security in their neighborhoods, and in perceptions of the quality

of life in their communities.

! In Tempe, Arizona, researchers found that the adoption of community policing was followed by a decrease in citizens' fear of crime and an increase in

satisfaction with police services.

! In a partnership between Northeastern University and the Boston Police

Department, police were guided through a strategic planning process that

resulted in the creation of 16 neighborhood teams to identify salient issues

in their areas and develop and implement problem solving strategies.

Benefits of the partnership included increased visibility of police, greater
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

27

involvement by community members in controlling crime and disorder, and

improved relations between police and the community.

! Levels of cooperation between police and citizens were strongly predictive of

increases in residents' perceived safety: as police-citizen cooperation

increased, residents considered their neighborhoods safer.

! Departmental accountability systems, such as early warning programs,

appear to reduce substantially the incidence of police use of force and citizen complaints.

Many other promising ongoing research projects are underway.

References

Community Policing Consortium Website. About the Consortium. 

http://www.communitypolicing.org/about1.html 

Dunworth, Terence, Jack Greene, Tim Rich, Sarah Cutchins, Jennifer Frank, Athena

Garrett, Kristen Jacoby, and Ryan Kling. (1998). National Evaluation of the Youth

Firearms Violence Initiative, Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates, Inc.

Hayeslip, David. (1999). Analytical Support. Unpublished Documentation. Abt

Associates Inc. Cambridge, MA.

Kelling, George, Mona R. Hochberg, Sarah Lee Kaminska, Ann Marie Rocheleau,

Dennis P. Rosenbaum, Jeffrey A. Roth, and Wesley G. Skogan. (June 1998). Bureau

of Justice Assistance Comprehensive Communities Program: A Preliminary Report,

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

Laszlo, Anna T., Miki C. Akimoto, and Joel Garner. (June 30, 1998). Community

Policing Consortium Training and Technical Assistance Services: Assessing the

Present, Planning for the Future. Vienna, Virginia: Circle Solutions.

"Making A Difference" reports were compiled through personal interviews with

COPS grantees and with COPS grant advisors, and through a review of grantee

Progress Reports.

National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Summary of Community

Policing Portfolio Highlights. 2000.
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

28

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. (April 1999). Advancing

Community Policing: COPS Facts. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.

Robinson, Andrea. “Reclaiming Liberty City: Fighting Crime And Despair, A Band of

Activists is Helping to Take Back the Neighborhood.” Miami Herald. December 12,

1999.
CHAPTER

Hiring New

Officers to do

Community

Policing: An

Increased Police

Presence

CHAPTER 3
Hiring New Officers to do Community Policing: An Increased Police Presence
The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): An Overview of COPS Initiatives

31

One of the primary goals of the Public Safety Partnership and

Community Policing Act of 1994 was to increase the number of sworn officers “onthe-beat” nationwide. The vast majority (85 percent) of the funding for grants

awarded by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services was to be targeted

toward the hiring of sworn police officers or for technology, support services, and

overtime to allow for the redeployment of existing officers back to the street.

This goal came from a pledge made by President Clinton on January 25, 1994, to

put 100,000 new police officers on the streets of America. While this pledge was

not specifically included in the final version of the Public Safety Partnership and

Community Policing Act passed by Congress in August of that year, it nonetheless

was translated into an operational goal for the COPS Office.

The Path from Hiring to Serving

On May 12, 1999, President Clinton announced that COPS had reached its goal of

funding 100,000 community policing officers, under budget and ahead of schedule. By the summer of 2000, nearly 70,000 of those officers were on the street,

working with members of the community to make America's neighborhoods 
Source: COPS Office CMS query July 20, 2000 (excludes PHS)

Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

32

Exhibit Table 3.1.

Total Funding by Agency Type

Agency Type

Municipal

Sheriff

State

County Police

Consortium

Public University

Tribal

Other

Private University

Schools

Start Up

Transit

Public Housing

Park

Constable

Multi-jurisdictional

Marshall

Total Funding

$4,554,097,232

$940,389,630

$250,574,843

$241,456,868

$143,984,104

$126,408,391

$101,059,452

$96,358,435

$38,767,597

$31,504,053

$19,430,916

$15,971,758

$12,528,744

$11,425,048

$1,752,313

$1,678,553

$1,259,235

Percentage

69.1

14.3

3.8

3.7

2.2

1.9

1.5

1.5

.6

.5

.3

.2

.2

.2

less than .1

less than .1

less than .1

safer places to live and work. While the majority of officers serve police and

sheriff's departments, others serve a variety of other agencies (see Table 3.1).

COPS officers serve in both rural and urban regions across the country, from the

biggest cities to the smallest towns (see Table 3.2).

Due to a number of factors, the time period between a jurisdiction receiving a

grant and seeing an officer on the street can vary. The process of recruiting, hiring,
Source: COPS Office CMS query July 20, 2000 (excludes PHS)

33

Hiring New Officers to do Community Policing: An Increased Police Presence

and training a new officer is one of the most critical responsibilities a department

undertakes. COPS has always maintained the process must not be rushed so that

the quality of officers hired is not compromised.

Exhibit Table 3.2.

Funding by Population

Once a grant is announced, the amount of time required for an officer to reach the

street can range from four to 42 months, depending on local circumstances and

whether agencies act sequentially or concurrently in hiring and training. The current experience of COPS grantees shows that it takes an average of 20 months for

an officer to reach the street. The steps from awarding a grant to seeing that officer on the street are as follows:

1) Grant award approval and acceptance by local officials: (1-8 months)

This period can vary, depending on the size of agency, its experience with Federal

grants, and on local priorities and budget issues, which can delay official grant

acceptance. Although the majority of grantees return signed awards within the

standard 110-day time frame, a few others may require periods of up to eight

months.

Population

Under 5,000

5,000-9,999

10,000-14,999

15,000-19,999

20,000-24,999

25,000-49,999

50,000-99,999

100,000-249,999

250,000-499,999

500,000-999,000

1 million and over

Funding

$681,816,865

$427,692,847

$292,103,518

$232,088,979

$196,455,300

$729,804,629

$572,862,884

$724,745,305

$697,143,335

$548,646,053

$1,485,287,457

Percentage

10.3

6.5

4.4

3.5

3.0

11.1

8.7

11.0

10.6

8.3

22.5
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

34

2) Recruiting and Hiring: (1-18 months)

Officer hiring procedures must typically occur in accordance with local civil service structure and regulations. For example, some agencies are required to advertise for a specific time period prior to hiring. Other agencies must hire in compliance with union regulations or collective bargaining arrangements.

3) Academy training: (0-10 months)

The training period varies depending on the state. Some states require candidates

to put themselves through training prior to consideration for hiring. Other states

conduct training once a candidate is identified. Some large agencies conduct their

own training, while many small agencies send officers to regional facilities.

Departments may need to wait months before training slots are available for officers newly funded by COPS grants.

4) Field training: (2-6 months)

Most officers are required to go through on-the-job field training (a local requirement) after successfully completing their academy training. The training process

can be prolonged, if there is a need for additional training.

An Increase in Officers

Analytical support provided by Abt Associates (Hayeslip, 1999) indicates there are

now more officers on the street than could otherwise have been expected in the

absence of the 1994 Crime Act (Hayeslip, 1999). For example, statistics from the

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) for the ten years prior to passage of the 1994

Crime Act show the average number of officers per department rose gradually,

from 38.74 in 1985 to 42.78 in 1994. (UCR numbers are gathered from police

departments that voluntarily submit data to the FBI on crime reported to them on

a yearly basis; the FBI then publishes summary information on Index Crimes and

Crime Rates.)

Had this trend continued, the average number of sworn officers would have continued to rise to slightly over 44 per department by 1997. In fact, however,

(according to UCR data) the number of officers per department rose to almost 45

in 1995, almost 46 in 1996 and to 46.34 by 1997. In short, the actual change in
35

sworn officers was greater than what would have been anticipated, given trends

over the past ten years (Hayeslip, 1999). In addition, since most hiring grants were

awarded in 1998 and 1999, the average increase in officers is expected to be even

greater in the years to come.

From 1990 through 1993 and prior to the passage of the 1994 Crime Act, the total

number of full-time officers reported to the UCR rose from 523,629 to 553,773 –

an increase of 5.83 percent. The 708 agencies reporting consistently to the Law

Enforcement Management and Statistics (LEMAS)reported an increase in sworn

ranks from 330,120 to 342,794 – an increase of 3.84 percent for the same period. (LEMAS is designed to collect extensive information about police departments,

and since 1987 the Bureau of Justice Statistics has surveyed law enforcement agencies regarding their organizational management and administration.)

From 1993 to 1997, however, the increase was dramatic – up to 14.07 percent,

according to the UCR, and 11.6 percent according to LEMAS.

These analyses demonstrate that the number of sworn officers per department rose

substantially after passage of the 1994 Crime Act, compared to similar previous

time periods – well above what might have been expected in the absence of the

passage of the 1994 Crime Act (Hayeslip, 1999).

REFERENCES

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1990, 1993, 1997). Law Enforcement Management

and Administrative Statistics, U.S. Government Printing Office; Washington, D.C.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1985-1997). Crime in the United States. Uniform

Crime Reports, U.S. Government Printing Office; Washington, D.C.

Hayeslip, David. (1999). Analytical Support. Unpublished Documentation. Abt

Associates Inc. Cambridge, MA.

Hiring New Officers to do Community Policing: An Increased Police Presence
CHAPTER

The Move Toward

Community Policing:

A New Way of

Doing Business

4
The Move Toward Community Policing: A New Way of Doing Business
39

hat Community Policing Means

Part of the mandate for the COPS Office under the 1994 Crime Act, in addition to

increasing police presence in communities, was to advance community policing

nationwide. That is exactly what has happened – with over 87 percent of the country now served by departments that practice community policing.

Grounded in a fundamental commitment to crime prevention and law enforcement, community policing means law enforcement working hand-in-hand with the

community to identify problems and develop solutions. It means collaborative

problem solving between officers and community members to reduce crime and

disorder. Critical to developing such partnerships are organizational changes in

policing organizations that enable, support, and advance the practice of collaborative problem solving.

Community policing is actually a return to traditional methods of policing. Sir

Robert Peel, the father of modern policing, said in the 19th century that “the police

are the public and the public are the police.” That is as true today in the 21st century as it was then. Community policing is a return to the roots of law enforcement.

W
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

40

Community policing is proactive, solution-based, and community driven.

Community policing occurs when a law enforcement agency and law-abiding citizens work together to do four things:

! arrest offenders;

! prevent crime;

! solve ongoing problems; and

! improve the overall quality of life.

Arrest Offenders

Putting more officers on the beat is the foundation of the COPS program. Enforcing

the law is the duty and commitment of every law enforcement agency. This responsibility can best be accomplished with active community support.

Prevent Crime

Crime prevention has two major components. The first is the traditional prevention

areas of proactive community policing programs, such as target hardening and

personal safety awareness. Second, health experts say our children make important life decisions at a young age. Giving children the tools they need to make good

life decisions is good crime prevention. Poor decisions and involvement in criminal activity are costly choices – costly to children and costly for taxpayers to arrest,

prosecute, and incarcerate offenders. COPS has championed early involvement in

schools by police. Through the COPS in School program, police departments make

a positive and lasting impact on young community members and ensure a safe environment for all kids.

Solve Ongoing Problems

Police must act as problem solvers and peacemakers in their communities. Police

and citizens must work together to develop long-term solutions to crime and to

enhance trust between police and the communities they serve. Problems can best

be eliminated when the community and government coordinate and cooperate. By

developing programs that promote police as problem solvers and peace makers,

community policing supports the principle that police can effectively reduce crime,

even as they treat all citizens with respect and dignity. Problem-solving and acting
41

The Move Toward Community Policing: A New Way of Doing Business

as a leader in intergovernmental cooperation are critical elements of the COPS

strategy. The Regional Community Policing Institutes (RCPI’s) and the Community

Policing Consortium make sure that COPS grantees have access to the latest

advances in policing strategy and training.

Improve the Overall Quality of Life

Police strategies are evolving, as today’s police officers improve the quality of life in neighborhoods. Community policing officers work to stabilize

neighborhoods and mobilize and motivate citizen participation in programs such

as block watch and neighborhood clean-ups.

Another critical element of community policing is hiring the right officers. A police

department's most valuable asset is its officers, and departments must hire in the

spirit of service, not the spirit of adventure. How an officer handles problems in a

neighborhood will dictate citizens' perceptions and support of that department.

Barriers between police and communities will diminish as officers are hired in the

spirit of service and trained in problem solving and partnerships with others outside of the agency.

Community policing embraces a number of core elements:

! this philosophy must be adopted throughout the organization;

! decision-making and accountability are de-centralized;

! there is geographic accountability;

! existing laws are enforced;

! policing is proactive and oriented toward crime prevention;

! a problem solving approach is emphasized;

! there is true partnership with the community as well as with other 

agencies; and

! volunteers are an integral part of the effort.

At its best, community oriented policing stimulates creative, neighborhood-based

problem solving and broadens the mindset of law enforcement professionals. In

community policing, officers and citizens depend on each other as our neighborhoods continue to be made safer, block by block.

The natural extension of community policing is the concept of community government. Law enforcement must link communities and government so citizens can

reap the benefit of an infrastructure in place to help them. Police departments must
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

42

work with government agencies, neighborhood associations, the business community, and faith-based organizations to improve the quality of life in our communities.

A Return to the Roots of Law Enforcement

After decades in which the police function was narrowed to crime fighting and the

patrol car became a symbol of police work, a move to community policing began

in the late 1970s. During that time and in response to citizen and political dissatisfaction, police researchers and practitioners began a shift in organizational

strategies and patrol techniques that relied more on community and institutional

involvement. The restructuring of the police relationship with neighborhoods and

institutions has grown into the current philosophy of community policing (Kelling

and Moore, 1989).

By the 1980s, in response to a rising tide of crime and dissatisfaction with current

police models, many police departments began to affirm the importance of police

and citizens working together to control crime and maintain order. Support for

community policing began to grow steadily and the move towards community

policing began to accelerate significantly in the early 1990s. However, a 1993 survey sponsored by the National Institute of Justice of more than 2,000 law enforcement agencies nationwide found that only 19 percent had implemented some

aspects of a community policing philosophy, prior to the existence of the COPS

Office (NIJ, 1994).

Making A Difference

A COPS Office survey of COPS grantees found that from 1994 to 1997, 66 percent

of grantee agencies increased their community policing activities (Hayeslip, 1999).

On average, each department increased its community policing activities by over

26 percent. Overall, the survey found that COPS grantees significantly increased

their community policing activities after receiving COPS funds. The greatest

increases in participation by departments were in the areas of problem-oriented

policing (a 76 percent increase), training citizens in problem solving (128 percent), landlord training programs (83 percent), and establishing citizen police

academies (67 percent).
43

The Move Toward Community Policing: A New Way of Doing Business

These dramatic increases are indicative of the fact that the primary principles of

community policing – partnerships, problem solving, and collaboration with the

community – are being utilized, as law enforcement agencies across the country

continue to use COPS grants to change the way they do business. 

Studies have also found that, when implemented, community policing makes a difference. A study in Indianapolis in 1996, sponsored jointly by the COPS Office and

the National Institute of Justice, reported “one striking research finding was that as

cooperation between police and citizens in solving neighborhood problems

increased, the residents felt more secure in their neighborhoods.” (NIJ, June

1998.)

Another study found that “among agencies that had implemented community policing for at least one year, 99 percent reported improved cooperation between citizens and police, 80 percent reported reduced citizens' fear of crime, and 62 percent reported fewer crimes against persons.” (NIJ Research Preview).

The far-reaching impact of the COPS program has not gone unnoticed by those

most familiar with it:

Police Chief Robert K. Olson

Minneapolis, Minnesota

“Having been a police officer since LBJ and the chief of three departments, I have

never seen more positive advancement in the professionalism of law enforcement

than with the inception of the COPS Office.”

Professor C. Ronald Huff, Ph.D.

President-Elect, American Society of Criminology

“The COPS Office in the U.S. Department of Justice has been a major catalyst in the

effort to transform law enforcement agencies from being reactive to being proactive partners in problem-oriented community policing. COPS has also been very

supportive of rigorous evaluative research. The benefits of community-oriented

policing extend far beyond simple arrest rates and crime trends. They include a

greater emphasis on building trust between the community and law enforcement
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

44

and on preventing crime. In our health care system, we have learned the importance of prevention, but in criminal justice we have concentrated far too long on

being reactive and focusing our resources at the end of the continuum. We now

realize that through efforts such as those made by COPS, we can be much more

effective by preventing crimes through community/ law enforcement problem solving partnerships. I applaud the efforts of COPS and hope that COPS will continue

to provide leadership in this important transformation of organizational cultures in

U.S. law enforcement agencies.”

Superintendent Edward F. Davis

Lowell, Massachusetts

“COPS funding enabled us to experiment with the latest problem-solving methods

that led to increases in safety and public confidence. Prior to the infusion of money

from the COPS program, the LPD was seriously underfunded and understaffed,

severely hampering our ability to respond to citizens and to maintain safety and

order. Our business community was so concerned they explored the costs of hiring private security. Real estate prices for commercial and residential property

across the city had bottomed out. The COPS funds contributed to the addition of

nearly 100 officers in five years. These officers are better equipped and trained

with the help of COPS funding. The officers and citizens working together have realized a 60 percent drop in crime over six years and revitalized the downtown area,

spurring business, tourism, culture, and sports venues. None of these changes

could have been considered had the city not become a safer place. These reforms

were made possible with funding from the COPS Office.” 

Quint Thurman, Ph.D.

Professor and Criminal Justice Program Director, Wichita State University

“A strong case can be made that the Office of Community Oriented Policing

Services (COPS) is largely, if not nearly entirely, responsible for creating the

momentum for a dramatic and positive shift in the direction of public safety in this

country. It has been through their tireless commitment and investment of resources

that the community policing movement has been sustained and institutionalized in

large and small agencies across the U.S. It is my opinion that the COPS Office has
45

The Move Toward Community Policing: A New Way of Doing Business

been the primary catalyst for effective distribution of crucial government services

and continues to provide key support that public safety organizations need to train

and equip personnel for the next millennium.”

Commissioner Paul Evans

Boston Police Department

"With COPS funding, our agency developed the 95-96 Strategic Planning and

Community Mobilization Project, a citywide endeavor that brought more than 400

stakeholders together to craft individualized crime prevention plans for each of

Boston's 11 neighborhoods. Each of the 11 teams met for more than a year to analyze local problems and create a tailored, community-based response. The project

was important as a foundation for Boston's Neighborhood Policing approach.

COPS funding was also instrumental in the initial implementation of Operation

Ceasefire, Boston's successful youth firearms use reduction program. While

research and development phases of this approach were funded by other sources,

COPS was the first funding agency to commit substantial implementation funding

for police and partners. This approach to youth gang violence reduction was enormously successful, reducing Boston's youth homicide rate by more than 75 percent over the course of the funding."

Professor Alida V. Merlo, Ph.D.

Department of Criminology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania,

President of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences

“The COPS Program demonstrates a national commitment to involve the community and the police in efforts to identify and solve potential problems. COPS is a

proactive response. One of the program's most outstanding accomplishments is in

the area of research. We are able to recognize the strategies that are the most successful and to create programs that implement them across the United States.”
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

46

Police Chief Mitch W. Brown

Raleigh, North Carolina

“The people of Raleigh and the safety of our communities have benefited greatly

from the COPS program. We have received grants to add 66 officers to the beat.

These additional officers are making a very real difference in our communities.

They are the ones seen around town every day – attending neighborhood meetings,

dropping in on local businesses, or visiting with our youth at school. Make no mistake, without the COPS program our ability to take proactive steps toward preventing crime and improving the quality of life in Raleigh would be difficult.”

Police Commissioner William Fleet

Rome, New York

“The Federal grants under the COPS Office have made a difference in our community. We were at a crossroads just a few years back. Our major employer, Griffiss

Air Force Base, had been realigned - causing us to lose 30 percent of our economy. Our area was being occupied more and more by people with the intent to set

up drug markets. Not having the available financial resources made it extremely

difficult to properly address this. New community policing initiatives such as our

bicycle patrol and bringing back foot patrols forged new partnerships with our citizens. Our crime rate is going down and the peace and tranquillity that were so

long a trademark in our community are back. This has been the most effective

grant I have seen in my 32 years in the public service field.”
The Move Toward Community Policing: A New Way of Doing Business

REFERENCES

Hayeslip, David. (1999). Analytical Support. Unpublished Documentation. Abt

Associates Inc. Cambridge, MA.

Kelling, George and Mark H. Moore. (1989). The Evolving Strategy of Policing. U.S.

Department of Justice. Washington, D.C.

National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. NIJ Research Preview.

November 1995.

National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Community Policing

Strategies. 1994.

National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ Research Preview. June

1998. “Community Policing in Action: Lessons from an Observational Study.”

Summy of a Presentation by Mastrofski, Stephen, Roger B. Parks, and Robert E.

Worden.

47
CHAPTER

Making Our Streets

Safer: Reducing

Crime and the Fear

of Crime

CHAPTER 5
Making Our Streets Safer: Reducing Crime and the Fear of Crime
51

Decrease in Crime

With the advent of community policing, the question of what impact, if any, police

have on crime has undergone a radical shift. In the past, many students of police

behavior believed police had little or no impact on crime (Benson et al., 1994;

Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). Now, however, researchers have found that community policing may indeed reduce crime.

In one recent study (Braga et al. 1999) problem-oriented policing was found to

significantly reduce violent crime – without simply moving crime to the next neighborhood (a problem that occurred in the past). Researchers have also found problem-oriented policing to be effective in controlling property crimes and disorderly activity, such as burglaries (Eck and Spelman, 1987), street corner drug selling

(Hope, 1994) and prostitution (Matthews, 1990). Yet another study (Marvell and

Moody, 1996) showed that an increased police presence at the state level reduced

homicide, robbery, and burglary. The study also found that crime fell at the local

level, as well. In addition, a report on crime prevention commissioned by the

National Institute of Justice (Sherman, 1997) concluded that adding more police

officers to city police forces is a promising strategy for preventing crime.

A
“The COPS program has

had a profound influence on

our industry in terms of

informing the discussion,

rewarding and encouraging

innovation – just changing

the conversation about

policing from a crackdown

and war metaphor to a collaboration, partnership, and

Problem Solving metaphor.”

Police Chief Ed Flynn,

Arlington, Virginia

Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

52

A look at trends in crime and victimization prior to the creation of the COPS Office,

compared to the years since COPS came into being, indicates that the additional

officers on the street have helped reduce crime.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Figure 5.1. Average Murders Per Police Department *

85

86

87

88899091

92

9394

9596

97

98

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Figure 5.2. Average Robberies Per Police Department *

8586878889909192939495969798

1.56

1.70

1.65

1.69

1.76

1.89

1.93

1.820

1.88

1.78

1.66

1.51

1.37

1.20

40.97

44.74

42.61

44.25

47.33

51.55

53.71

51.60

50.6

47.16

44.48

41.12

37.33

32.00

Average Number of Murders Per Department

year

year

Average Number of Robberies Per Department

* Source: Crime in the United States, 1985 - 98, Uniform Crime Reports.
53

“Our crime rate is going

down and the peace and

tranquillity so long a trademark in our community are

back. This has been the

most effective grant that I

have seen in my 32 years in

the public service field.”

Police Commissioner 

William Fleet

Rome, New York

Making Our Streets Safer: Reducing Crime and the Fear of Crime

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Figure 5.3. Average Larcenies Per Police Department *

85

86

878889

90

91

9293

9495

9697

98

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Figure 5.4. Average Motor Vehicle Thefts Per Police Department *

85

86

8788899091

929394

95

969798

570.03 90.77

100.90

106.07

116.79

128.07

131.92

129.77

123.60

119.86

117.29

112.81

107.04

101.48

89.50

598.19

617.33

628.08

644.33

640.73

635.86

607.37

599.72

600.41

612.76

606.89

579.17

531.00

Average Number of Larcenies Per Department Average Number of Motor Vehicle Thefts Per Department

year

year

* Source: Crime in The United States, 1985 - 98, Uniform Crime Reports.
“Durham is definitely reaping the benefits of community policing strategies. The

concept of collaboration

with the community, coupled with traditional law

enforcement, is the reason

for a declining crime rate

here.”

Police Chief Teresa Chambers,

Durham, North Carolina

Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

54

An examination of Uniform Crime Reports, for example, found a substantial

decline in index crimes and violent crimes beginning in 1994 – beyond what would

be expected based upon previous trends. Trend models applied to the ten years

before the creation of the COPS Office showed that the drop in the number of

crimes per department after 1994 was statistically significant for violent crime,

murder, robbery, and aggravated assault. This drop in crime was more than what

would have been expected in the absence of the passage of the 1994 Crime Act and

the creation of the COPS Office (Hayeslip, 1999).

Other statistics provide similar results. The National Crime Victimization Survey

(NCVS) found violent victimization rates relatively stable from 1985 to 1990, then

rising from 1990 to 1994. Violent victimization rates declined sharply from 1995

to 1998. This decline was greater than what would have been expected, given the

previous ten-year trends, and the decrease was statistically significant for violent

victimization, robbery, assault, and motor vehicle theft.

In addition to fighting overall crime, COPS funds have frequently been used to target “high-crime” areas, as well as surrounding areas to help prevent the displacing of crime. The COPS Distressed Neighborhoods project has also specifically targeted funds to neighborhood “hot spots.” COPS believes it is important to identify

high crime areas through crime data analysis, crime mapping, and other technologies. The COPS MORE program and other innovative programs contributed to

those efforts by funding:

! records management and CAD systems that help capture and identify 

problem locations;

! technology for crime mapping and crime analysis;

! patrol car laptops that give officers access to real-time information on hot 

spots;

! crime analysis personnel; and

! other resources (such as training and technical assistance) for identifying, 

analyzing, and responding to problems and assessing outcomes.

A Drop in the Fear of Crime

In addition to having a real impact on crime, community policing impacts the fear

of crime. This fear impacts how people live – where they live – where they shop –

and how they conduct their daily lives. Community policing can lessen this fear by

addressing quality-of-life issues, encouraging interaction between the police and
Making Our Streets Safer: Reducing Crime and the Fear of Crime

55

the community, and building upon that interaction to increase public trust in law

enforcement (NIJ 1998).

Moreover, indications are that the increase in officers has also had a significant

impact on people's perceptions – particularly regarding the fear of crime. This is

an important factor, since fear of crime is an indicator of quality of life, as well as

an important factor in community policing (NIJ 1998).

A study by the Eisenhower Foundation (1999) found the fear of crime steadily

increased from 1967, when it reached a high of 47 percent. By 1998, four years

after the creation of the COPS program, that figure had dropped to 41 percent.

A study by the COPS Office and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (1998) sheds more

light on that drop. The survey examined victimization, community policing, and

fear of crime at the local level. The findings were encouraging:

! less than half the residents (age 16 and older) in each of the cities were

fearful of crime in their neighborhood, and fewer than one in ten characterized themselves as “very fearful”;

! sixty percent of those surveyed said that police had worked at least somewhat with residents of the neighborhood to prevent crime and enhance 

safety; and

! at least 78 percent of the residents in each of the cities surveyed were satisfied with the police in their neighborhood.

The Legacy of COPS

The COPS Office continues to provide critical resources, training, and technical

assistance to help local law enforcement implement innovative and effective community policing strategies. Since the creation of COPS, community policing has

become law enforcement's principal weapon in the fight against crime. One simple truth explains that success: community policing works.

Community policing continues to redefine the relationship between law enforcement and the community. Police and the community now work together to identify and find solutions to public safety concerns. Officers participate in neighborhood meetings, work in schools, and develop invaluable relationships with community leaders, business owners, and citizens. At the same time, community mem-
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

56

bers realize the vital role they play in fighting crime and improving the quality of

life in their neighborhoods.

The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services is a unique agency – dedicated to the addition of community policing officers to the nation's streets, to providing the technology to make those officers more effective, and to the advancement

of community policing. Since the creation of the COPS Office in 1994, the continuing drop in crime has made headlines across the country. In almost all of those

news reports, among the many reasons given for the drop, community policing is

consistently cited as a major factor:

! From the Associated Press, (10/19/99), reporting that for the seventh year

in a row, crimes of nearly every sort have continued to plunge: “Experts

cited the growing practice of community policing – which sends patrol officers into communities to build bonds with residents – as one especially

powerful crime-fighting tool.”

! From the Green Bay Press-Gazette (10/5/99)– “Crime in the city dropped

by nearly 24 percent between 1993 and 1997, because of its community oriented policing program, according to a study by the University-Wisconsin

Parkside.” Green Bay has received almost $1.3 million from seven COPS

grants.

! From the Fresno, California Police Department: “The CARE Fresno

Program was established in compliance with COPS Phase I grant. Since

1995, assaults with firearms have dropped from 453 to 221 (54 percent)

resulting in homicides dropping from 24 to 13 (54 percent). These reductions in crime are partly a result of the COPS Phase I officers and of the

recent addition of 80 more officers under UHP.” Fresno has received over

$3.4 million from seven COPS grants.

! From the Antelope Valley Press in California (10/19/99), where 1998 year

end crime figures showed over a 17 percent drop in the town of Lancaster

and over a 14 percent drop in the town of Palmdale – where mayors of both

towns credited community policing for the improvements. “I think the real

key to success has been engagement with the community, with the community watches and the business watches,” Palmdale Mayor Jim Ledford said.

“That's a really powerful partnership.” Palmdale and Lancaster have

received a total of $462,000 from three COPS grants.
Making Our Streets Safer: Reducing Crime and the Fear of Crime

57

! From the Clearwater, Florida Police Department: “On September 5, 1997,

Clearwater was notified by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement that

the city had seen an 11.4 percent decrease in crime in the first half of 1997.

The Clearwater Police Department attributes much of the decrease to the

success of community policing, particularly in the area of crime prevention.” Clearwater has received over $2.7 million from seven COPS grants.

! From the Albuquerque Journal in New Mexico (10/18/99), where crime

dropped 13 percent during the first nine months of 1999, compared to

1998: “Police Chief Jerry Galvin said there were many contributing factors,

including a decent economy, citizen support for police officers, more officers on the street, and community policing.” Albuquerque has received over

$9.2 million from nine COPS grants.

! From the North Hampton Daily Hampshire Gazette in Massachusetts

(10/20/99), where in 1998 violent crime dropped by 11 percent – one of

the biggest decreases ever. In accounting for the drop, officials “cited programs such as community policing, which encourages officers to have more

contact with the public.” North Hampton has received $1.2 million from

nine COPS grants.

! And from MSNBC (10/18/99), which reported that Birmingham, Alabama,

beat the national numbers, with crime dropping seven percent in 1998 over

the previous year. Police Chief Mike Coppage says community policing

deserves a big part of the credit. “If you go into a neighborhood with a broken window or a problem that's not fixed, neighbors become complacent

and don't care. So here we address not only crime, but quality of life

issues.” Birmingham has received over $5.8 million from nine COPS grants.

The COPS Office remains committed to advancing and institutionalizing community policing across the country. The legacy of the COPS program will be felt for years

to come, as communities across the country benefit from the officers hired through

COPS grants, as law enforcement agencies do business differently as a result of

community policing, and as officers and community members trained in the basics

of community policing forge new and better relationships and work together to

fight crime.

For more information on COPS, visit the COPS web site at www.usdoj.gov/cops.
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

58

REFERENCES

Benson, B., Iljoong, K., and Rasmussen, D. (1994). "Estimating Deterrence Effects:

A Public Choice Perspective on the Economics of Crime Literature." Southern

Economic Journal, 61:160-168.

Braga, A., Weisburd, D., Waring, E., Green, L., Spelman, W., and Gajewski, F.

(1999). "Problem-Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Places: A Randomized

Controlled Experiment." Criminology. 37: 541-580.

Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. (Press

Release, June 3, 1999). "Surveys in 12 Cities Show Widespread Community

Support for Police: New Process Collects Data on Victimization, Citizen Perceptions

of Police and Crime." [Full report: Criminal Victimization and Perceptions of

Community Safety in 12 Cities, 1998].

Bureau of Justice Statistics, Criminal Victimization in the United States (1985-

1997). U.S. Department of Justice.

Eck, J. and Spelman, W. (1987). Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in

Newport News. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1985-1997). Crime in the United States, Uniform

Crime Reports, U.S. Government Printing Office; Washington, D.C.

Gottfredson, M. and Hirschi, T. (1990). A General Theory of Crime, Stanford:

Stanford University Press.

Hayeslip, David. (1999). Analytical Support. Unpublished Documentation. Abt

Associates Inc. Cambridge, MA.

Hope, T. (1994). "Problem-Oriented Policing and Drug Market Locations: Three

Case Studies." Crime Prevention Studies. 2: 5-32.
Marvell, T. and Moody, C. (1996). Specification Problems, Police Levels, and Crime

Rates, Criminology 34(4): 609-646.

Matthews, R. (1990). Developing More Effective Strategies for Curbing

Prostitution. Security Journal 1: 182-187.

Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation. (1999). To Establish Justice, To Insure Domestic

Tranquility: A Thirty Year Update of the National Commission on the Causes and

Prevention of Violence. Washington, D.C.

National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ Research in Brief.

1998. Community Policing in Action: Lessons Learned from an Observational

Study. Mastrofski, Stephen, Roger B. Parks and Robert W. Worden.

Sherman, L. (1997). "Policing for Crime Prevention," in Sherman, L., et. al.,

Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising, Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Justice.

Making Our Streets Safer: Reducing Crime and the Fear of Crime

59
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

63

Appendix

Publications

As part of its mission to advance community policing, the COPS Office is producing a wide variety of publications that are instructive in the implementation of community policing. They include:

! Problem Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and Disorder Through

Problem Solving Partnerships has been circulated to more than 30,000

police practitioners and others interested in innovative approaches to crime

prevention. It has received national and international praise.

! Tackling Crime and Other Public Safety Problems: Case Studies in

Problem Solving. These case studies illustrate how communities have

addressed persistent crime and disorder problems using creative problem

solving techniques.

! Community Policing, Community Justice and Restorative Justice:

Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced Approach to Public

Safety; and Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing

Community Policing. This two-part publication (a monograph and implementation guide) examines the relationship among community policing,

community justice, and restorative justice.

! Information Systems Technology Enhancement Project (ISTEP) examines

the role of information technology in advancing community policing.

! Address Based Geocoding, Final Report. Under a cooperative agreement

with COPS and the Police Foundation, this document is designed to assist

crime analysts and others with address-based geocoding.

! A series of guides for police and other crime prevention practitioners that

present up-to-date information about particular problems, known responses, guidelines and tools for analyzing and assessing problems at the local

level. 

! A monograph on the status of problem solving in policing agencies and a

guidebook to high quality problem analysis.

Additional Agreements and Partnerships

To facilitate the collaboration of police efforts with those of mayors, city managers,

public officials and/or the courts, COPS provides community policing technical

assistance through strategic cooperative agreements, including those with: the
Attorney Generalís Report to Congress

64

International City/County Management Association; the National Association of

Drug Courts; and the U.S. Conference of Mayors. COPS also participates in interagency agreements with the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC),

Violence Against Women Office (VAWO); and the Executive Office of Weed and

Seed.

Other training projects funded by COPS include the Community Policing/Domestic

Violence Training Initiative, Community Conflict Resolution and Mediation Project,

and the Indian Country Crime Initiative Circle Project.

Additional Collaborations and Evaluations

The COPS Office administered some additional initiatives not included in its specific agency appropriations. Those are:

! The Police Corps. The Police Corps is designed to increase the number of officers with advanced education and training assigned to community patrol. The COPS Office administered the program until 1999,

when it shifted to the Office of Justice Programs within the Department

of Justice.

! Troops to COPS. Troops to COPS encourages the hiring of recently

separated military veterans to serve as law enforcement officers. The

goal of the program is to transition eligible members of the armed

forces into community policing. The Department of Defense provided

the funds for the initiative, which the COPS Office administers. 
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

e12990066

For More Information

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the 

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at

1.800.421.6770.

Visit the COPS internet web site: www.usdoj.gov/cops