Contacts BIO Intelligence Service 

Mathieu Hestin mathieu.hestin@biois.com 

Véronique Monier veronique.monier@biois.com

TEL + 33 (0) 1 53 90 11 80 

A project under the Framework contract 

ENV.G.4/FRA/2008/0112 

SERVICE CONTRACT ON MANAGEMENT 

OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION 

WASTE – SR1 

Final Report 

February 2011 

European Commission (DG ENV) 

In association with 
Project Team 

 Bio Intelligence Service 

Véronique Monier 

Shailendra Mudgal 

Mathieu Hestin 

Manuel Trarieux 

Sihame Mimid 

Lena Domröse 

 Arcadis 

Mike Van Acoleyen 

 IEEP 

Peter Hjerp 

Suggested citation: 

Véronique Monier, Mathieu Hestin, Manuel Trarieux, Sihame Mimid, Lena Domröse, Mike 

Van Acoleyen, Peter Hjerp and Shailendra Mudgal, 2011, Study on the management of 

construction and demolition waste in the EU. Contract 07.0307/2009/540863/SER/G2, Final 

report for the European Commission (DG Environment). 

Disclaimer 

The views expressed in this report are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not 

necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission. The recommendations 

given by the authors should not be interpreted as political or legal signal that the 

Commission intends to take a given action. 
Table of contents 

1. CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................... 6

2. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 7

3. OVERVIEW OF C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN THE EU ........................ 9

3.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................. 9

3.2. Quantities and nature of C&D waste arising in the EU ....................................................................... 10

3.3. Recovery and recycling of C&D waste in the EU ................................................................................. 19

3.4. Current policies and standards ........................................................................................................... 23

3.5. Towards the 70% target ...................................................................................................................... 28

3.6. Annex: Data tables .............................................................................................................................. 36

4. Material focus: CONCRETE .............................................................................. 37

4.1. Product description and applications ................................................................................................. 38

4.2. Quantitative analysis .......................................................................................................................... 40

4.3. Recovery techniques ........................................................................................................................... 44

4.4. Environmental and economic impacts of concrete waste management ............................................ 46

4.5. Towards the 70% target: Drivers and barriers .................................................................................... 53

5. Material focus: BRICKS, TILES AND CERAMIC ................................................... 55

5.1. Product description and applications ................................................................................................. 56

5.2. Quantitative analysis .......................................................................................................................... 56

5.3. Recovery techniques ........................................................................................................................... 57

5.4. Environmental, economic and social impacts of bricks, tiles and ceramics waste management ....... 59

5.5. Towards the 70% target: drivers and barriers .................................................................................... 64

6. Material focus: ASPHALT ................................................................................ 65

6.1. Product description and applications ................................................................................................. 66

6.2. Quantitative analysis .......................................................................................................................... 67

6.3. Recovery options ................................................................................................................................ 73

6.4. Environmental and economic impacts of asphalt waste management .............................................. 79

6.5. Towards the 70% target: Drivers and barriers .................................................................................... 83

7. Material focus: WOOD ................................................................................... 85

7.1. Product description and applications ................................................................................................. 86

7.2. Quantitative analysis .......................................................................................................................... 86

7.3. Recovery options ................................................................................................................................ 89

7.4. Environmental, economic and social impacts of wood waste management ...................................... 91

7.5. Scenario towards the 70% target: Drivers and barriers ...................................................................... 94

8. Material focus: GYPSUM ................................................................................ 96

8.1. Product description and applications ................................................................................................. 97

8.2. Quantitative analysis .......................................................................................................................... 99

8.3. Recovery techniques ......................................................................................................................... 102
8.4. Environmental and economic impacts of gypsum waste management ............................................ 104

8.5. Towards the 70% target: Drivers and barriers ................................................................................... 107

9. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 111

10. CONTACT LIST .............................................................................................. 117

11. Annex I: OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES ..................................................... 121

11.1. Product description and applications ................................................................................................ 122

11.2. Quantitative analysis ......................................................................................................................... 122

11.3. Recovery techniques ......................................................................................................................... 125

11.4. Environmental and economic impacts ............................................................................................. 127

11.5. Relevance to the 70% target ............................................................................................................. 129

12. APPENDIX I: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES PRESENT IN C&D WASTE .................. 130

12.1. Asbestos ............................................................................................................................................ 130

12.2. Phenols .............................................................................................................................................. 138

12.3. PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)........................................................................................................ 140

12.4. PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) .......................................................................................... 142

12.5. General conclusion and recommendations ....................................................................................... 143

13. APPENDIX II: CASE STUDY GERMANY ............................................................ 144

13.1. Sources of information ...................................................................................................................... 145

13.2. Contacts ............................................................................................................................................. 146

13.3. Context .............................................................................................................................................. 146

13.4. Policy and standards overview .......................................................................................................... 148

13.5. Quantitative data .............................................................................................................................. 152

13.6. Practices in C&D waste management ................................................................................................ 156

13.7. Past and future trends of C&D waste, drivers and barriers ............................................................... 157

14. APPENDIX III: CASE STUDY FLANDERS ........................................................... 160

14.1. Sources of information ...................................................................................................................... 162

14.2. Contacts ............................................................................................................................................. 163

14.3. Context .............................................................................................................................................. 163

14.4. Policy and standards overview .......................................................................................................... 164

14.5. Quantitative data .............................................................................................................................. 168

14.6. Practices in C&D waste management ................................................................................................ 170

14.7. Past and future trends of C&D waste, drivers and barriers ............................................................... 176

15. APPENDIX IV: CASE STUDY SPAIN .................................................................. 181

15.1. Sources of information ...................................................................................................................... 182

15.2. Contacts ............................................................................................................................................. 183

15.3. Context .............................................................................................................................................. 183

15.4. Policy and standards overview .......................................................................................................... 185

15.5. Quantitative data .............................................................................................................................. 191

15.6. Practices in C&D waste management ................................................................................................ 197

15.7. Past and future trends of C&D waste, drivers and barriers ............................................................... 198
16. APPENDIX V: CASE STUDY FINLAND .............................................................. 202

16.1. Sources of information ..................................................................................................................... 203

16.2. Contacts ............................................................................................................................................ 204

16.3. Context ............................................................................................................................................. 204

16.4. Policy and standards overview ......................................................................................................... 204

16.5. Quantitative data .............................................................................................................................. 207

16.6. Practices in C&D management ......................................................................................................... 211

16.7. Past and future trends of C&D waste, drivers and barriers .............................................................. 212

17. APPENDIX VI: CASE STUDY HUNGARY ........................................................... 214

17.1. Sources of information ..................................................................................................................... 214

17.2. Contacts ............................................................................................................................................ 214

17.3. Context ............................................................................................................................................. 215

17.4. Policy and standards overview ......................................................................................................... 215

17.5. Quantitative data .............................................................................................................................. 220

17.6. Practices in C&D waste management ............................................................................................... 222

17.7. Towards 70% re-use, recycling and recovery .................................................................................... 222

18. APPENDIX VII: WORSHOP MINUTES .............................................................. 224

18.1. PREAMBLE ........................................................................................................................................ 224

18.2. .GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT ..................................................................................... 224

18.3. THE CONCRETE FRACTION ................................................................................................................ 227

18.4. THE CERAMIC FRACTION................................................................................................................... 227

18.5. THE ASPHALT FRACTION ................................................................................................................... 228

18.6. THE GYPSUM FRACTION ................................................................................................................... 229

18.7. THE UK EXAMPLE: THE CONSTRUCTION RESOURCES AND WASTE ROADMAP ................................. 230

18.8. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 231

19. APPENDIX VIII : Stakeholders comments on the draft final report .................. 232

 
6 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

1. CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES 

In the context of the Framework Contract on the Sustainable Management of Resources1, 

the European Commission (EC) is supporting studies for the definition of necessary 

knowledge regarding the current use of natural resources. This will be the basis for the 

development of future European policies in the area of sustainable resource management. 

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste has been identified by the EC as a priority stream 

because of the large amounts that are generated and the high potential for re-use and 

recycling embodied in these materials. Indeed, a proper management would lead to an 

effective and efficient use of natural resources and the mitigation of the environmental 

impacts to the planet. 

For this reason, the Waste Framework Directive2 (WFD) requires Member States (MS) to 

take any necessary measures to achieve a minimum target of 70% (by weight) of C&D 

waste by 2020 for preparation for re-use, recycling and other material recovery, including 

backfilling operations using non hazardous C&D waste to substitute other materials. 

The first step towards the implementation of this Directive is the assessment of the current 

situation within the EU-27. Indeed, C&D waste management practices are assumed to vary 

greatly from a MS to another. The European Commission entrusted BIO Intelligence Service 

and its partners, ARCADIS and IEEP (Institute for European Environmental Policy), with the 

present on C&D waste with two major goals. On the one hand, the study is aimed at 

providing precise orders of magnitude regarding the amounts that are generated, already 

re-used or recycled and the potential for improvement. On the other hand, study should 

identify major concerns that arise regarding the management of C&D waste within the EU27 and potential drivers towards the improvement of re-use and recycling rates of this 

specific waste stream. 

As a consequence, this study on C&D waste represents a useful tool for the definition of the 

future steps and trends regarding the management of this waste stream in Europe. 

 

1 www.eu-smr.eu/intro/

2

 Directive 2006/12/EC revised by Directive 2008/98/EC 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 7 

2. METHODOLOGY 

BIO Intelligence Service developed efficient twofold methodology to collect the 

quantitative and qualitative data necessary for the assessment of the current situation 

regarding the management of C&D waste within the EU-27. 

 Focus on the materials 

On the one hand, the focus was made on different fractions that are most likely found in 

the C&D stream. The aim here was to describe for each identified fraction the applications 

that are made in the construction sector (buildings and civil engineering), the amounts of 

waste that are generated, the composition of the waste stream, the treatment options in 

place, the current re-use and recycling rates already achieved, and the emerging 

techniques. Finally, the study for each fraction was completed with an assessment on 

whether the fraction can possibly contribute to the 70% target. Whenever it was possible, a 

breakdown per MS was realised based on available data. 

The criteria for the choice of the fractions to be further studied in details depended either 

on the importance of the fraction in the total C&D waste stream and therefore on the 

potential contribution the material could bring to the 70% target or on the hazards that can 

be associated to it. 

The identified fractions are the following: 

• Asphalt 

• Bricks, tiles and ceramic 

• Concrete 

• Gypsum 

• Ozone depleting substances (ODS) 

• Wood 

• Dangerous substances: asbestos, lead based paints (LBP), phenols, 

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) 

For the analysis of each fraction, a list of contacts was developed. The experts (as they are 

referred to further in this report) for each fraction represent European associations and 

federations or the Industry (in the producers side as well as waste management side). It 

was assumed that they would be able to give the most precise data at the EU-27 level for a 

proper assessment of the situation. 

The process for the collection of the data was the following: 

• The preparation of an interview guide: relevant questions and issues to be 

tackled with the expert. 
8 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• A series of emails were sent to the contacts explaining the context of the study, 

asking for availability for the organisation of an interview, inviting to review the 

interview guide, asking for other relevant contacts. 

• Interviews were then organised. During the interview, the expert was asked to 

give quantitative data as far as possible (production, waste generation, waste 

treatment rates), to express his/her point of view regarding the current 

management of the waste fraction and the drivers and barriers towards the 70% 

target. Finally, the expert was invited to share any document or source that 

could provide reliable and relevant data. In total 30 organisations have been 

contacted, 17 persons answered (more or less concerned by the study) and 12 

interviews were realised. The list of the contacts is given page 117. 

• Data obtained from the interviewed experts were crosschecked with data from 

other sources when available, and a large stakeholder consultation was realised 

on the draft final report, during which different points of view could be 

confronted, providing a more reliable, objective assessment. 

 Focus on 5 Member States 

On the other hand, the accent was laid on five MS to describe the current situation 

regarding the management of C&D waste. The goal was to gather more precise information 

about the management of this waste stream in various national situations that can occur 

within the EU-27 and identify best practices. 

The targeted MS were chosen after consultation with project partners and the Commission 

and were estimated to represent the wide variety of the practices in the construction 

sector and the management of waste. The targeted MS are the following: Finland, Belgium 

(Region of Flanders), Germany, Hungary and Spain. They are presented as case studies. 

For this purpose, a similar methodology as the one used for the study on material fractions 

was adopted and aimed at getting reliable information for the experts of the sector in each 

MS. 

As for the interview per MS, a case study template was defined to ease the collection of 

quantitative and qualitative data. This was sent to the relevant contacts before an interview 

was planned. The list of the contacts is given page 117. 

Thanks to the interviews organised with the experts for the fractions or case studies, we 

had access to reliable sources of information that are summarised in the literature review 

chapter, page 111. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 9 

3. OVERVIEW OF C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT 

SYSTEMS IN THE EU 

3.1. DEFINITIONS

3.1.1. C&D WASTE

The Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC explicitly defines the term ‘waste’ as any 

substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard. 

Construction and demolition waste is further specified in the Waste Framework Directive in 

reference to the European List of Waste (Chapter 17). The ‘definition’ is based on the 

nature of the waste (type of material) as illustrated in the table below. 

Task 1 report concludes that this nature-oriented definition is not sufficient to clearly 

identify a given waste stream as C&D waste. 

The recommended theoretical approach to define C&D waste is to take into account both 

its nature (materials used in buildings) and the activities that originate it (construction and 

demolition activities), regardless of who performs these activities. However, current 

reporting does not allow quantifying C&D waste according to this definition, and the 

available data used as a proxy for the purpose of this report is “all waste generated under 

NACE code F (construction sector)”, as reported by Member States to EUROSTAT. The two 

main problems associated to this definition are: 

• It includes non-C&D waste generated by the construction sector (e.g. packaging 

waste, food waste, etc.), that is not included in the definition of the WFD. 

• It excludes C&D waste generated by other economic sectors (e.g. other 

industries, households, etc.), that is included in the definition of the WFD. 

However, the quantities related to the two aforementioned waste streams are likely to be 

relatively small compared to the total amount of C&D waste generated, and will therefore 

be neglected in the following estimations. 

3.1.2. C&D WASTE RECYCLING

The quantitative target set by the Waste Framework Directive is the following: “by 2020, 

the preparing for reuse, recycling and other material recovery, including backfilling 

operations using waste to substitute other materials, of non-hazardous construction and 

demolition waste excluding naturally occurring material defined in category 17 05 04 in the 

list of waste shall be increased to a minimum of 70 % by weight.” In particular, energy 

recovery is excluded from this scope. It is important to stress that category 17 05 04 

(excavated material) is not included in the calculation of the target. It was therefore 
10 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

excluded (when available data made this exclusion possible) from the following 

estimations. 

3.2. QUANTITIES AND NATURE OF C&D WASTE ARISING IN THE EU 

3.2.1. TOTAL C&D WASTE ARISING

 Available estimates 

Several recent sources provide with estimates of C&D waste arising in Europe. 

Source Total C&D waste arising 

(million tonnes) 

C&D waste per 

capita3

[WBCSD 2009] (2002 data) 510 1.1 

[ETC/RWM 2009](2004 data) 866 1.8 

[EUROSTAT 2010] (2006 data) 970 2.0 

Various estimates by experts in the sector are also available. Umweltbundesamt, in its 2008 

Aggregates Case study, refers to amounts of “more than 200 million tonnes of these wastes 

produced every year, excavated materials not included, according to FIR4” [UBA 2008] (i.e. 

more than 0.5 tonnes per capita). The FEAD estimates this amount to “1.5 to 2 tons per 

capita per year, excluding excavation material” [FEAD 2010]. 

Available estimates are therefore highly variable. These differences are analysed in the 

following sections in order to identify the sources of discrepancies and correct them so as 

to estimate these quantities more accurately. 

 Analysis of geographic variations 

ETC/SCP working paper – Present recycling levels of Municipal Waste and C&D Waste in the 

EU, published in April 2009 [ETC/RWM 2009], gives estimates of per capita generation 

levels in all MS, with the exception of Romania and Slovenia. These figures are based on 

EUROSTAT data, completed by national reporting. The reference year is 2004. 

Table 1 - C&D waste arising per capita and added value of the construction sector [ETC/SRC 2009] 

Country C&D Waste arising 

(tonnes/capita) 

Waste factor (1000 

t / million € added 

value) 

Austria 0.81 0.46 

Belgium 1.06 0.955 

Bulgaria 0.39 4.53 

Cyprus 0.58 0.545 

Czech Republic 1.44 4.037 

Denmark 3.99 0.578 

Estonia 1.12 4.144 

 

3

 Population data from EUROSTAT (accessed April 2010) for the corresponding years 

4

 FIR: Fédération Internationale du Recyclage (European Recycling Industry of C&D waste) 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 11 

Country C&D Waste arising 

(tonnes/capita) 

Waste factor (1000 

t / million € added 

value) 

Finland 3.99 3.239 

France 5.5 5.016 

Germany 2.33 2.406 

Greece 0.37 0.344 

Hungary 0.43 1.629 

Ireland 2.74 1.312 

Italy 0.8 0.778 

Latvia 0.04 0.118 

Lithuania 0.1 0.343 

Luxembourg 5.9 N/A 

Malta 1.95 N/A 

Netherlands 1.47 1.264 

Norway 0.7 0.194 

Poland 0.11 0.41 

Portugal 1.09 1.574 

Romania N/A 0.02 

Slovakia 0.26 1.047 

Slovenia N/A 1.261 

Spain 0.74 0.525 

Sweden 1.14 1.029 

United Kingdom 1.66 1.14 

EU 27 1.74 

NB: Reported quantities that highly differ from the average are highlighted in orange 

These data show important differences between MS: generation per capita ranges from 

0.04 tonnes per capita (Latvia) to 5.9 tonnes per capita (Luxembourg). 

A cross-analysis with an economic indicator (waste generated per € added value in the 

construction sector) also results in important differences (0.02 to 5.02 thousand tonnes of 

C&D waste per million Euros added value in the construction sector). 

Six countries (Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland and Luxembourg) report high 

quantities of C&D waste generation (over 2 tonnes per year per capita). 

Seven countries (Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia) report 

very low levels of C&D waste generation (below 500 kg per year per capita). 

These high geographical variations cannot be assumed to reflect actual arising of C&D 

waste. According to the experts interviewed during the course of this study, the main 

reasons for these discrepancies are the unequal levels of control and reporting of C&D 

waste in MS, as well as differences in definitions and reporting mechanisms. The quality of 

the available data is therefore the main issue in estimating the quantities of C&D waste 

generated. 
12 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Other explanations for geographical variation include economic reasons (the quantities of 

C&D waste generated is highly dependent on the rate of new constructions, and the 

economic growth of the country), architectural habits (the types of materials used in 

construction shows great regional variation, e.g. in some regions brick is the main 

construction material, whereas in others concrete represents the majority; wood is a major 

construction material in northern countries like Finland or Sweden, etc.), cultural issues 

(e.g. demolition is seen as a failure in countries such as France, whereas it is regarded in a 

more positive way in other countries), or technical issues (the quality of the materials used 

in old construction influences the rate of demolition, e.g. more demolition is expected in 

new MS because of the low quality of the concrete used in old constructions). However, an 

accurate analysis of geographical variations would require reliable data, which is not the 

case with the current reporting system. 

The estimations presented below were performed based on the available data by: 

• Excluding excavation waste from the reported quantities in order to 

homogenise the perimeter 

• Filling in data gaps/making assumptions for MS where no data is available 

 Exclusion of excavated material 

Naturally occurring soil and stones, generated during construction activities (mostly in 

public works activities) are not to be included in the calculation of the recycling rates. 

The six countries with high generation per capita generate close to 70% of the total C&D 

waste reported in the EU-27, while hosting only 32% of the population and representing 

42% of the GDP5. 

An analysis of national reports for the above countries shows that the quantities reported 

in the ETC/SRC working document include high amounts of excavated material, which is not 

included in the definition of C&D waste for the purpose of the 70% target set by the WFD. 

The inclusion of excavated material does not seem to be systematic in national reporting. 

As this flow represents up to 80% (e.g. in France) of the total amount of construction, 

demolition and excavation waste, uncertainty about their inclusion in national C&D waste 

statistics is a major source of uncertainty in data on C&D waste. 

In order to get a better estimate of C&D waste in Europe, data for these six countries were 

corrected using national reporting excluding excavation material. Data were also corrected 

for the UK, where the reported quantities include around 45% of excavation material. For 

Finland, no complementary data could be found to correct the total amount, although the 

case study on Finland suggests that excavation materials represent an important part of the 

reported C&D waste. It was therefore assumed, based on the fraction of excavation 

materials reported in other countries, that 75% of the total C&D waste reported in Finland 

is excavation material. 

 

5

 EUROSTAT GDP figures for 2009, last accessed May 2010 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 13 

For these six countries, the following results are obtained: 

Table 2 - Exclusion of excavation waste for countries with high generation per capita 

Country Reported quantities 

(tonnes per capita)6

Quantities (tonnes per 

capita), excluding 

excavation material 

Denmark 3.99 0.837

Finland 3.99 1.008

France 5.50 0.999

Germany 2.33 0.8810

Ireland 2.74 0.6311

Luxembourg 5.90 1.4212

The resulting ranges of quantities of C&D waste arising are the following: 

• C&D waste (excluding excavation material): 0.63 to 1.42 tonnes per capita per 

year 

• C&D waste + excavation waste: 2.3 to 5.9 tonnes per capita per year 

 Incomplete reporting 

Very low levels of generation reported in some Members States probably reflects a lack of 

control by public authorities and therefore a very incomplete reporting of C&D waste 

arising. As a result, these quantities were assumed to be underestimated and the average 

generation rate per capita for other countries was applied13 (0.94 tonne per capita per 

year). 

Countries to which this correction was applied are the following: 

Table 3 - Filling of data gaps for countries with low reporting (“low data” assumption) 

Country Reported quantities 

(tonnes per capita)6

"Low data" 

assumption (tonnes 

per capita) 

Bulgaria 0.39 0.94 

Cyprus 0.58 0.94 

 

6

 ETC/RWM 2009 

7

 Danish Environmental Protection Agency (DEPA), Waste Statistics 2004: 4.50 million tonnes of C&D 

waste 

8

 Assumption of 75% excavation material 

9

 ADEME&FNTP (Public works waste) and ADEME&FFB (Building C&D waste): 82% excavation 

material 

10 See Annex, Case Study Germany: 72.4 million tonnes of C&D waste excl. excavation material 

11 Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Waste Report 2008: 77% excavation 

material 

12 ENECO S.a., Stand und Perspektiven bei der Entsorgung von unbelasteten mineralischen 

Inertabfällen im Grossherzogtum Luxemburg, 2003: 76% excavation material (2002 estimation) 
14 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Country Reported quantities 

(tonnes per capita)6

"Low data" 

assumption (tonnes 

per capita) 

Greece 0.37 0.94 

Hungary 0.43 0.94 

Latvia 0.04 0.94 

Lithuania 0.10 0.94 

Poland 0.11 0.94 

Romania 0.00 0.94 

Slovakia 0.26 0.94 

Slovenia 0.00 0.94 

 New estimation of total C&D waste arising in EU-27 

Building on the most recent consolidated data [ETC/RWM 2009], and applying the 

corrections mentioned above (exclusion of excavated materials when possible and data 

filling when data was assumed to be incomplete), an estimate of 0.94 tonnes per capita of 

C&D waste (excluding excavation material) is made. This would amount to a total of 

approximately 461 million tonnes in 2005. 

Table 4 shows the new estimations per Member States (Table 1, corrected with the new 

estimations presented in Table 2 and Table 3Table 3). 

Table 4 - Generation of C&D waste in EU-27 (ETC/RWM 2009 data, with new assumptions made by 

BIO) 

Country 

Generation 

of C&D 

waste 

(tonnes per 

capita) (a) 

Pop. 2004 

(million 

inhab.) (b) 

Total 

generation 

in million 

tonnes 

(2004) (a*b) 

Pop. 2005 

(million 

inhab.) (c ) 

Total 

generation 

in million 

tonnes 

(2005) (a*c) 

Austria 0,81 8,2 6,6 8,3 6,7

Belgium 1,06 10,4 11,1 10,5 11,1

Bulgaria 0,94 7,8 7,3 7,7 7,3

Cyprus 0,94 0,7 0,7 0,8 0,7

Czech Republic 1,44 10,2 14,7 10,3 14,8

Denmark 0,83 5,4 4,5 5,4 4,5

Estonia 1,12 1,3 1,5 1,3 1,5

Finland 1,00 5,2 5,2 5,3 5,2

France 0,99 62,8 62,1 63,2 62,6

Germany 0,88 82,5 72,4 82,4 72,3

Greece 0,94 11,1 10,4 11,1 10,5

Hungary 0,94 10,1 9,5 10,1 9,5

Ireland 0,63 4,0 2,5 4,1 2,6

Italy 0,80 58,5 46,8 58,8 47,0

Latvia 0,94 2,3 2,2 2,3 2,2
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 15 

Country 

Generation 

of C&D 

waste 

(tonnes per 

capita) (a) 

Pop. 2004 

(million 

inhab.) (b) 

Total 

generation 

in million 

tonnes 

(2004) (a*b) 

Pop. 2005 

(million 

inhab.) (c ) 

Total 

generation 

in million 

tonnes 

(2005) (a*c) 

Lithuania 0,94 3,4 3,2 3,4 3,2

Luxembourg 1,42 0,5 0,7 0,5 0,7

Malta 1,95 0,4 0,8 0,4 0,8

Netherlands 1,47 16,3 24,0 16,3 24,0

Poland 1,00 38,2 38,2 38,2 38,2

Portugal 1,09 10,5 11,5 10,6 11,5

Romania 0,94 21,7 20,4 21,6 20,3

Slovakia 0,94 5,4 5,1 5,4 5,1

Slovenia 0,94 2,0 1,9 2,0 1,9

Spain 0,74 42,3 31,3 43,0 31,8

Sweden 1,14 9,0 10,3 9,0 10,3

United Kingdom 0,91 60,1 54,8 60,4 55,2

 

EU 27 1,09 490,38 459,60 492,41 461,37

This estimate will be used for the purpose of this study, however it must be stressed that 

the uncertainty is extremely high. 

This chapter tries to assess the possible ranges of quantities of C&D waste in Europe. To 

this end, quantities of C&D waste reported for the 6 countries which have reported the 

highest ratios per capita are presented. It is assumed that these countries are likely to have 

the most comprehensive data, and therefore represent the most reliable and 

representative sources. 

The following ranges were extrapolated from the above assumptions. 

Table 5 - Estimated ranges for the average generation of C&D waste in the EU, based on the above 

assumptions 

Low estimate High estimate 

Generation of C&D waste per capita (tonnes, Table 2) 0.63 1.42 

Generation of CD&E waste per capita (tonnes, Table 2) 2.74 5.9 

Total generation of C&D waste (million tonnes) – 2005 309 697 

Total generation of CD&E waste (million tonnes) - 2005 1,346 2,898 

C&D waste quantities are therefore likely to range between a total of 310 and 700 million 

tonnes per year in the EU-27 (0.63 to 1.42 tonnes per capita per year). The systematic 

inclusion of excavation waste would significantly increase these amounts, ranging from a 

total of 1 350 to 2 900 million tonnes of waste per year (2.74 to 5.9 tonnes per capita per 

year). The quality and reliability of the data currently available do not allow for a more 

precise range to be identified. 
16 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Construction waste and demolition waste 

Construction waste on one hand, and demolition waste on the other are for the purpose of 

this study, considered as a whole. Current data does not allow a global distinction of these 

two categories. However, they have quite different characteristics, both in terms of 

quantities, composition and potential for recovery.

Construction waste (originating from new constructions) is usually less mixed, less 

contaminated, and its recovery potential is higher than demolition waste because of these 

characteristics. Its share in the total quantities of C&D waste is generally low (e.g. 16 % in 

Finland). 

On the other hand, demolition (and rehabilitation) waste, which represents the highest 

amounts of C&D waste, tends to be more contaminated and mixed, and therefore is more 

difficult to recover. 

 Conclusions 

Current data on C&D waste does not allow for a good estimate of the total quantities 

generated in Europe. 

A harmonisation of reporting mechanisms and definitions clearly needs to be undertaken, 

and, in particular, excavation material needs to be systematically distinguished from the 

“core” C&D waste. 

Reporting and calculation methods are currently being discussed, and a Technical 

Adaptation Committee (TAC) has met at several occasions in 2009 and 2010 to discuss the 

issues related to the targets set by the Waste Framework Directive (including the target on 

C&D waste). The process will lead to a Commission Decision clarifying the reporting 

obligations of each Member State, with the objective of harmonising data used to estimate 

the total amounts of C&D waste and the recycling rates. 

This should result in more reliable and comparable data among MS. 

3.2.2. CONTRIBUTION OF KEY MATERIAL AND SUBSTANCES TO C&D WASTE

This section aims at estimating the average material composition of C&D waste, based on 

characterisation data available in some MS, and cross checking this data with EU experts 

estimates. 

 Characterisation of C&D waste: available data at the national level 

Some Members States have reported results of material characterisation of the C&D waste 

stream. However, this reporting is not systematic, and is frequently based on surveys 

limited in time and in geographical scope. 

The following table presents the available characterisation data in 9 MS. The composition of 

C&D waste varies significantly between those Members States. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 17 

Table 6 - Material composition of C&D waste for some European countries (UBA, 2008)14

Country Netherlands Flanders Denmark Estonia Finland Czech 

Republic Ireland Spain Germany 

Year 2001 2000 2003 2006 2006 2006 1996 2005 2007 

Concrete 40% 41% 25% 

8% 33% 

33% 

39% 

12% 

70% 

Masonry 25% 43% 6% 35% 54% 

Other mineral 

waste 

2% - 22% 53% - - 51% 9% - 

Total mineral 

waste 

67% 84% 53% 61% 33% 68% 90% 75% 70% 

Asphalt 26% 12% 19% 4% - - 2% 5% 27% 

Wood 2% 2% - - 41% - - 4% - 

Metal 1% 0% - 19% 14% - 2% 3% - 

Gypsum - 0% - - - - - 0% 0% 

Plastics - 0% - - - - - 2% - 

Miscellaneous 7% 2% 28% 16% 12% 32% 6% 12% 3% 

As is the case for the estimation of the total amount of C&D waste generated, the inclusion 

of excavated material represent an important bias. In order to obtain more comparable 

data, the above compositions were corrected in the following table by excluding this 

particular fraction for Denmark, Estonia and Ireland. 

Table 7 - Material composition of C&D waste for some European countries (UBA 2008, after the 

exclusion of excavation material)15

Country Netherlands Flanders Denmark Estonia Finland Czech 

Republic Ireland Spain Germany 

Year 2001 2000 2003 2006 2006 2006 1996 2005 2007 

Concrete 40% 41% 32% 

17% 33% 

33% 

80% 

12% 

70% 

Masonry 25% 43% 8% 35% 54% 

Other mineral 

waste 

2% - 0% 0% - - 0% 9% - 

Total mineral 

waste 

67% 84% 40% 17% 33% 68% 80% 75% 70% 

Asphalt 26% 12% 24% 9% - - 4% 5% 27% 

Wood 2% 2% - - 41% - - 4% - 

Metal 1% 0,20% - 40% 14% - 4% 3% - 

Gypsum - 0,30% - - - - - 0,2% 0,4% 

Plastics - 0,10% - - - - - 2% - 

Miscellaneous 7% 2% 36% 34% 12% 32% 12% 12% 3% 

 

14 Highlighted cells show fractions that were identified as including large amounts of excavation 

waste 

15 Green cells highlight data that were corrected 
18 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

The table below summarises the ranges in composition of C&D waste observed for those 

MS (except Estonia and Finland16), as well as the quantities resulting from this composition 

(based on the estimation performed in 3.2.1. for total C&D waste, i.e. 461 million tonnes). 

Table 8 – Ranges of composition of C&D waste for the aforementioned MS (except Estonia and 

Finland) 

Ranges % - Min % - Max 

Million 

tonnes - 

Min 

Million 

tonnes - 

max 

Concrete and Masonry - total 40,0% 84,0% 184 387

Concrete 12,0% 40,0% 55 184

Masonry 8,0% 54,0% 37 249

Asphalt 4,0% 26,0% 18 120

Other mineral waste 2,0% 9,0% 9 41

Wood 2,0% 4,0% 9 18

Metal 0,2% 4,0% 1 18

Gypsum 0,2% 0,4% 1 2

Plastics 0,1% 2,0% 0 9

Miscellaneous 2,0% 36,0% 9 166

 Material composing C&D waste: EU-27 estimates 

Each material fraction within C&D waste was studied in detail in the course of this project, 

and the results of this analysis are presented in the following chapters. Estimates of the 

amounts of waste generated were requested from the main producers’ federations and 

waste organisations at the European level. These estimates are summarised in the 

following table. 

Table 9 - Experts estimates of waste quantities arising for some of the main materials composing 

C&D waste at the EU level 

Material Range 

 (Million tonnes) Source of estimates 

Concrete 320-380 60-70% of C&D waste according to 

ECP17

Masonry N/A 

Asphalt 47 EAPA18

Wood 10 - 20 [JRC 2009]; [WRAP 2009] 

Gypsum >4 

These are order of magnitudes, as no precise and available data is available at the EU level, 

and there is still a high uncertainty on these results. However, both sources show 

comparable orders of magnitude (confirming, in particular, the preponderance of concrete, 

 

16 Estonia and Finland are excluded because they show very specific composition (with a respectively 

high part of metal and wood) 

17 European Concrete Platform 

18 European Asphalt Producers Association 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 19 

followed by masonry and asphalt), with the exception of gypsum waste, which seems to be 

underestimated by the characterisation method. 

It must be noted that the material composition estimates are based on individual 

characterisations of the C&D waste stream, and cannot be considered as perfectly reliable. 

In practice, C&D waste (and particularly the mineral fraction) is not systematically 

separately collected in many MS, and therefore is managed as mixed C&D waste. For 

instance, the most usual way of processing C&D waste is by crushing the mixed inert 

fraction to produce recycled aggregates. 

3.3. RECOVERY AND RECYCLING OF C&D WASTE IN THE EU 

There is currently no reliable data on recovery and recycling rates of C&D waste in the EU. 

Data on C&D waste treatment suffers from the same gaps and inconsistencies as 

generation data. 

Please note that hereafter, “recycling rates” will be refer to the rates of “preparation for 

reuse, recycling and other form of material recovery

19”, as defined by the Waste 

Framework Directive. 

Let’s first have a look at available data. 

Two recent sources (UBA 2009 & ETC/RWM 2009) provide recycling and recovery rates of 

C&D waste in some MS. Both sources are based on national reporting, through either 

EUROSTAT or individual questionnaires sent to MS. There are important differences 

between these two sources, both on quantities of C&D waste arising and reported recycling 

rates. These differences are again due to several inconsistencies in the perimeter and 

definition of C&D waste. Some figures include excavated material while some others do not 

(for example, Germany generates 73 million tonnes of C&D waste without excavation soil 

[UBA 2008] and 192 million tonnes with excavation soil [ETC/RWM 2009]). Likewise, some 

figures include waste from public works, while some others do not (for example, France 

generated 47.9 million tonnes of C&D waste from buildings, and this figure amounts to 343 

million tonnes when waste from public work – which also includes a large part of 

excavation material – is included ([UBA 2008]). 

 

19 It must be stressed that the definition of recycling itself is not yet homogeneous between MS. 

However, given the lack of information on the actual final destination of the waste, it will be 

assumed that reported “re-use and recycling rates” in each MS matches the definitions of the Waste 

Framework Directive. 
20 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 10 - Comparison of reported recycling rates for C&D waste from two recent sources (UBA 

2008 & ETC/RWM 2009) 

Source UBA 2009 ETC/RWM 2009 

Country Year 

Arising 

(million 

tonnes) 

% re-used 

or recycled Year 

Arising 

(million 

tonnes) 

% re-used 

or recycled 

Austria 2004 6,6 76% 2006 6,7 60% 

Belgium 12,3 86% 2004 11 68% 

Belgium - Brussels 2000 1,2 59% - - - 

Belgium - Flanders 2006 9 92% - - - 

Belgium - Wallonia 1995 2,1 74% - - - 

Bulgaria - - - 2004 3 - 

Cyprus - - - 2004 0,4 1% 

Czech Republic 2006 8,4 30% 2006 11,8 23% 

Denmark 2003 3,8 93% 2004 21,7 94% 

Estonia 2006 2,4 73% 2006 0,7 92% 

Finland 2004 1,6 54% 2004 20,8 26% 

France 2004 47,9 25% 2004 342,6 62% 

Germany 2002 73 91% 2006 192,3 86% 

Greece 1999 2 5% 2004 4,1 - 

Hungary - - - 2006 5,4 16% 

Ireland 2005 2,3 43% 2006 16,6 80% 

Italy 2004 46,5 - 2004 46,3 - 

Latvia - - - 2006 0,1 46% 

Lithuania 2006 0,6 - 2006 0,6 60% 

Luxembourg 2005 7,8 46% 2004 2,7 - 

Malta - - - 2004 0,8 - 

Netherlands 2005 25,8 95% 2005 25,8 98% 

Poland 2000 2,2 75% 2006 16,8 28% 

Portugal 1999 3 5% 2004 11,4 - 

Romania - - - 2005 0,4 - 

Slovak Republic - - - 2004 1,4 - 

Slovenia 2005 1,1 53% - - - 

Spain 2005 35 - 2006 38,5 14% 

Sweden 2006 11 - 2004 10,2 

UK 100,4 82% 2006 114,2 65% 

UK - England 2005 89,6 80% - - - 

UK - Scotland 2003 10,8 96% - - - 

Average for x countries with 

available data 86% 66% 

Total amount of C&D waste on 

which the estimation is based 252,7 820,2 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 21 

In view of these fragmentary data, what could be said at the EU-27 level? 

Overall, it seems very difficult to calculate recycling rates for C&D waste in Europe. 

UBA 2009 reports recycling rates for 16 countries, representing 64% of the total amount of 

C&D waste generation they report. ETC/RWM 2009 reports recycling rates for 17 countries, 

representing 90% of the total amount of C&D waste generation they report. Based on these 

two samples, average recycling rates for countries where recycling data is available is 

respectively 86% and 66%. 

But these two values are very likely to give overestimated indications of the recycling rate 

at the EU level. 

In the 86% calculated for 16 MS from UBA 2008, countries with high recycling rates are 

overrepresented in the sample, and countries such as Italy or Spain, who reportedly 

generated high amounts of C&D waste with relatively low recycling rates, are not 

accounted for. 

In the 66% calculated for 17 MS from ETC/RWM, relatively high recycling rates in Germany 

(86%) and Denmark (94%) are overweighed by the inclusion of high amounts of excavation 

soil. Countries with low recycling rates such as Poland (28%), or countries with no data 

available are also underrepresented, and would make the figure drop significantly. 

The following table shows an attempt at correcting these different biases by: 

• Considering the corrected quantities arising (see 1.1.1.): to avoid the 

overweighting of countries that include excavation waste in their reporting, and 

to correct the probable underestimations of quantities in countries with 

incomplete reporting 

• Using the most recent recycling rates reported in ETC/RWM by default, and UBA 

2009 when missing: although these rates may or may not be including excavated 

material, it is assumed that the overall recycling rates reflect in any case the 

situation in a given country 

• Assuming a worst case scenario for countries where data is missing in both 

studies (i.e. 0% recycling rates): countries with low reporting are assumed to 

also have low control, and therefore low recycling rates, for C&D waste 

Table 11 - Calculation of the average recycling rate of C&D waste (BIOIS, based on own assumption 

and data reported by ETC/RWM 2009 and UBA 2008, or individual estimations) 

Country Arising (million 

tonnes) 

% Re-used or 

recycled 

Austria 6,60 60% 

Belgium 11,02 68% 

Bulgaria 7,80 0% 

Cyprus 0,73 1% 

Czech Republic 14,70 23% 
22 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Country Arising (million 

tonnes) 

% Re-used or 

recycled 

Denmark 5,27 94% 

Estonia 1,51 92% 

Finland 5,21 26% 

France 85,65 45%20

Germany 72,40 86% 

Greece 11,04 5% 

Hungary 10,12 16% 

Ireland 2,54 80% 

Italy 46,31 0% 

Latvia 2,32 46% 

Lithuania 3,45 60% 

Luxembourg 0,67 46% 

Malta 0,8 0% 

Netherlands 23,9 98% 

Poland 38,19 28% 

Portugal 11,42 5% 

Romania 21,71 0% 

Slovak Republic 5,38 0% 

Slovenia 2,00 53% 

Spain 31,34 14% 

Sweden 10,23 0% 

UK 99,10 75%21

EU 27 531,38 46% 

 UBA 2009 

 No data available: worst case scenario assumed 

 

Reminder: data from ETC/RWM 2009 corrected 

to exclude excavated material and fill data gaps 

This average of 46% recycling rate for EU-27 is a broad estimation with a high uncertainty. 

However, it looks rather plausible, and within the range of estimates proposed by experts 

and literature: 3022 to 60%23

. 

At a national level, the current situation is as follows: 

 

20 Corrected with the exclusion of excavated material (source : Laurent Chateau, ADEME) 

21 Corrected with the exclusion of excavated material (source : Survey of Arisings and Use of 

Alternatives to Primary Aggregates in England, 2005) 

22 [UBA, 2008] 

23 European Concrete Platform, 2010 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 23 

• 6 countries report recycling rates that already fulfil the Directive’s target 

(Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Ireland, the UK and the Netherlands)24

• 3 countries report recycling rates between 60% and 70% (Austria, Belgium, and 

Lithuania) 

• 4 countries (France, Latvia, Luxembourg and Slovenia) report recycling rates 

between 40% and 60% 

• 8 countries report recycling rates lower than 40% (Cyprus, Czech Republic, 

Finland, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Portugal and Spain) 

• For 6 countries, no data was available to estimate the recycling rates (Bulgaria, 

Italy, Malta, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden) 

3.4. CURRENT POLICIES AND STANDARDS

Five case studies were performed on European MS: Germany, Finland, Spain, Hungary and 

Belgium (Flanders). 

These case studies particularly focused on policy drivers and regulations influencing the 

management of C&D waste. 

3.4.1. EUROPEAN POLICY DRIVERS

The revised Waste Framework Directive, with its objective to reach 70% of preparation for 

re-use, recycling and other forms of material recovery of C&D waste, is likely to represent 

the main European policy driver towards better recycling of C&D waste in the coming years. 

However, MS are still in the process of integrating the 70% target into their national 

legislation, and it is currently difficult to assess how this will be implemented. 

The actual impact of this target also depends on the current recycling rates achieved by 

different MS. For example, in Flanders, the European policy instruments have only played a 

secondary role, as Flanders was early in adopting more stringent waste legislation (e.g. 

landfill prohibition for unsorted waste, waste collected for recovery, homogeneous waste 

fractions fit for recovery, like C&D waste). As a result, the 70% target was already reached 

in the year 2000. Germany is revising its Act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste 

Management, with a target even higher that the WFD (80% in the draft). On the other 

hand, for countries with currently low recycling rates for C&D waste, reaching the target 

might represent a significant challenge, and therefore will need to adapt their current 

policy framework to achieve it. For example, Spain (with current recycling rates below 15%) 

is currently revising its national plan on C&D waste, developing measures and setting 

intermediary targets. In Finland, European legislation has been taken into account but 

cannot be seen as a major driver behind national strategy towards C&D waste. The current 

target set in Finland (70% by 2016) includes energy recovery; high amounts of waste wood 

 

24 At the regional level, Flanders also largely reached this target with a recycling rate over 90%. 
24 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

in C&D waste (up to 40% when excavated soils are excluded) indeed represent a serious 

obstacle towards reaching the target. 

Directive 99/31/EC on landfill has also represented an important driver towards better 

management of C&D waste. In Spain for example, where most C&D waste is landfilled (and 

approximately half of this amount entering unauthorised landfills), it has contributed to a 

better control of C&D waste, the emergence of a new recycling infrastructure, and a better 

control of unauthorised landfills. 

3.4.2. IDENTIFIED NATIONAL POLICIES AND STANDARDS

Current policies and standards influencing the management of C&D waste can be classified 

into 5 main categories: 

• Waste framework policies: National policies or regulation on waste, usually at 

least transposing concepts, targets, and obligations set in the European WFD 

• Landfill regulations: as stated above, stricter control of landfilling of certain 

types of waste represents a major driver towards better management of C&D 

waste. 

• C&D waste policies: when specific obligations regarding the management of 

C&D waste are not directly included in the waste framework policies, specific 

policy or legal documents may have been developed, specifically addressing the 

issue of C&D waste. 

• Secondary raw material regulation and standards, e.g. standards on the quality 

of secondary materials from C&D waste 

• C&D sites regulations and standards, e.g. requirements for buildings specifically 

addressing C&D waste 

 Waste framework policies 

Waste framework policies and regulations developed in MS set the general framework for 

the management of waste material. They are the main tools for the transposition of the 

Waste Framework Directive. 

Most of the MS studied do not integrate specific provisions (other than general objectives) 

for C&D waste in these waste framework policies, and this waste is most of the time subject 

to specific strategies or legal documents, as presented below. 

 C&D Waste policies and legislation 

Most of the studied countries also have policies and regulation specifically targeting C&D 

Waste. 

Among the five selected countries and regions, Flanders (Belgium) was the first to 

implement its Executing plan C&D waste in 1995. This first plan already set quantitative 

targets for the recycling and material recovery of C&D waste (75% by 2000, which has been 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 25 

exceeded as over 85% of C&D waste were recovered or recycled in 2000). The oldest data 

available (1992) report that 66% of C&D waste was already recycled or reused. 

This plan also set prevention targets for C&D, but these provisions have not been efficient 

as the C&D waste amounts have kept increasing. The new environmentally responsible 

material use and waste management in the construction sector, sectorial executing plan,

aims at achieving this objective, particularly through: 

• Material bound environmental profile of constructions, in order to allow the 

Flemish Government to develop and impose material use prescriptions after 

2009. 

• Promoting selective demolition with standardised specifications 

• A global management system for rubble granulates 

• Promoting further reuse of the stony fractions of C&D waste 

• Promoting recycling of specific waste fractions cellular concrete, gypsum, 

plastics, flat glass, mineral insulation materials and roofing bitumen. 

In Germany, the construction industry itself took the initiative in 1996 through a voluntary 

commitment to cut in half the amounts of C&D waste landfilled (as the reference year was 

1995, this was equivalent to reaching 70% of recycling and recovery of C&D waste). The 

construction industry monitors itself C&S waste and has issued 5 bi-annual reports to the 

authorities, showing over accomplishment of the targets. However; some experts 

interviewed warn that the high amounts of C&D waste landfilled in 1995 (60%) might not 

reflect reality as these quantities might not have been properly documented at the time, 

and recycled quantities might already have been higher. Today, no formal continuation of 

this initiative is planned at the moment, but higher targets for C&D waste should be 

included into national waste regulation as mentioned above. 

Finland has adopted a Government Decision on Construction Waste in 1997, setting an 

indicative target of 50% of recycling and recovery (including energy recovery) of C&D waste 

by 2000. 

Spain has developed its first national plan on C&D waste in 2001 (PNRCD 2001-2006). There 

is already a second PNRCD 2007-2015, which is Annex 6 to the national integrated waste 

management plan (Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos, PNIR). It is currently being revised 

to integrate the new targets set by the WFD. Due to a lack of enforcement and supporting 

regulation, the first plan has not been successful in diverting C&D waste from landfills. The 

Royal Decree 105/2008, regulating the production and management of C&D waste, 

establishes the responsibilities of the waste producers, holders, and managers, without 

setting any quantitative targets. However, this decree requires that construction and 

demolition waste plans have to be established for every construction project; in addition 

information on hazardous wastes has to be included in demolition projects. A deposit will 

have to be paid to the authorities, which will be returned when proof of lawful 
26 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

disposal/recycling of C&D wastes is provided (details hereof are regulated at regional 

level). 

 Landfill legislation 

All MS have transposed the provisions of the Landfill Directive. However, there is still a lack 

of enforcement in some MS, where some non-compliant landfills have not been closed. 

The most drastic measures to prevent landfilling of C&D waste were adopted in Flanders, 

with straightforward landfill bans for recyclable fractions of C&D waste. The efficiency of 

this measure was stresses by most experts interviewed. However, its applicability might 

depend on the local context: in Flanders, low historical landfill rates of C&D waste, high 

density of population and scarcity of landfill space available may have contributed to the 

efficiency of this measure. 

In addition to landfill bans, high landfill taxes (e. g. in the Netherlands) have also proven to 

be a useful instrument to divert C&D waste from landfills. 

In Germany, high recycling rates were achieved although there is no national ban on 

landfilling of C&D waste material. 

In Spain, however, the lack of control of unauthorised landfills and the high differences in 

landfill taxes between regions were identified as one of the main barrier to the recovery of 

C&D waste. 

The very large quantities of C&D waste generated can explain that landfill bans and taxes 

prove remarkably efficient in improving recycling rates. The Flemish experience shows that 

landfill bans and high levies on landfilling are a key towards higher recycling rates of C&D 

waste. These instruments are easy to implement. However, their effectiveness depends on 

appropriate enforcement and control, as well as on the existence of a network of 

alternative treatment plants. 

 Secondary raw material legislation and standards 

The promotion of recycled material from C&D waste was also identified as a key driver 

towards higher recycling rates for C&D waste. Some of the countries studied have used this 

approach, along with the aforementioned policies and regulation, to drive the recovery of 

C&D waste. 

The examples of such regulations and standards listed below do not represent an 

exhaustive list, and only the most relevant were selected. 

In Flanders, the implementation order of the waste framework policy (VLAREA) specifically 

assesses the conditions of use of secondary raw material in construction, particularly on the 

nature of the waste used and the concentrations of heavy metals and aromatic 

hydrocarbons. These requirements are mandatory. Other standards on construction 

products, and particularly secondary raw materials, such as COPRO or QUAREA, are 

generally voluntary but are requested when using secondary raw materials. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 27 

Likewise, in Germany, a draft Ordinance on substitute construction material

(implementation date not known), will determine the conditions for harmless used of 

recovered excavation material and mineral waste. It is complemented by mandatory 

standards on construction material such as the Technical delivery conditions for mineral 

materials in road construction, and multiple DIN25 standards in the construction sector. The 

Federal Union of Recycling Building Material (Bundesvereinigung Recycling-Baustoffe e.V. –

BRB) has also published guidelines aiming at ensuring the quality of recycled material used 

in construction. 

In Finland, the Government Decree on the Recovery of certain wastes in earth construction 

(591/2006) promotes the recycling of waste in some constructions activities such as public 

roads, parking areas, sports grounds, etc., by removing the obligation of obtaining an 

environmental permit for the recovery of concrete waste and fly ashes in these 

applications. 

Technical requirements for the use of C&D mineral waste in the production of aggregates 

are also addressed by the individual CEN Aggregate Product Standards, which set clear 

quality requirements for the different types of applications (e.g. aggregates for concrete, 

aggregates for mortar, aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound materials for use in 

civil engineering work and road construction, etc.), and ensure that the end-products are 

durable and meet their technical specifications. These standards were developed in 2004 

and clearly address “aggregates from natural, recycled and manufactured materials”. 

 C&D sites legislation and standards 

Finally, regulation and standards on environmental performances of buildings and 

construction sites have been identified. In principle, these standards could include criteria 

influencing the management of C&D waste, for example the use of recycled materials in the 

building, specific requirements for waste management on new buildings construction sites, 

or during the dismantling and demolition of the building. However, few building standards 

presenting these types of criteria have been identified. 

 Building standards 

Historically, these types of standards have focused on the energy efficiency of buildings, 

which can explain why C&D waste prevention and recycling has not been a key target for 

the criteria they impose. 

However, some standards or certification schemes have been developed taking into 

account these issues. For example, the German Sustainable Building Certificate, a voluntary 

scheme run by the German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB26) sets different criteria to 

ensure the sustainability of buildings, and in particular two criteria regarding C&D waste: 

• Within the technical quality criteria, “Ease of dismantling and recycling” 

 

25 Deutsches Institut für Normung 

26 http://www.dgnb.de
28 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• Within the process quality criteria, “Construction site/construction process”, 

establishing that the waste produced on-site should be prevented or recycled, 

and, if not recyclable, disposed of in a way that prevents harm to the 

environment. 

Other existing building standards (e.g. HQE – Haute qualité environnementale 

in France, BREAM in the UK) could also encourage these practices. 

 Other policies 

Public authorities, as the owner of public infrastructure, have an important role to play in 

the definition of requirements on C&D waste prevention and management for the buildings 

and infrastructure they purchase or control. European GPP (Green Public Procurement) sets 

a range of recommendations for the procurement of construction works. It addresses the 

design, construction, use and disposal phase of buildings such as public services buildings 

and office buildings. In particular, the core GPP criteria require the contractor to put 

appropriate measures in place to reduce and recover (reuse or recycle) waste that is 

produced during the demolition and construction process. It is required to have a recovery 

rate of at least 60% related to weight percentage segregation27. Criteria were also set for 

specific building materials such as windows, thermal insulation, hard floor-coverings and 

wall panels28

. 

3.5. TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET

3.5.1. TRENDS IN THE EVOLUTION OF C&D WASTE ARISING

As presented above, it is very difficult to assess the present situation in Europe, due to lack 

of homogeneous data and reporting between MS. In this context, without a precise 

quantitative assessment of the current situation, it is not easy to predict trends in the 

future. 

However, it is likely that the quantities of C&D waste arising will keep increasing, at least as 

fast as the economy. The case of Flanders, although achieving high recycling rates, shows 

that there might even be a negative decoupling, meaning that the amounts of C&D waste 

grow faster than the economy. However, the uncertainty of the decoupling studies does 

not permit the definition of a clear trend for the next few years. The priority given to waste 

prevention in European and national policy, as well as more and more voluntary initiatives 

of the industry towards material efficiency, could set the conditions for a decrease in the 

amounts of C&D waste generated according to some experts, but concrete measures are 

only starting to be implemented (e.g. WRAP cases studies on C&D waste prevention29) and 

it seems unlikely that a decrease (independently of the economic situation) will be 

observed before 2015. 

 

27 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/pdf/toolkit/construction_GPP_product_sheet.pdf

28 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/second_set_en.htm

29 http://www.wrap.org.uk/construction/tools_and_guidance/designing_out_waste/case_studies.html
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 29 

Considering these difficulties in addressing the question of the evolution of the amounts of 

C&D waste generation, great care must be taken with the following estimates. 

Two approaches were taken to forecast the quantities of C&D waste, each with its own 

limits: 

Forecast #1: based on the production index of the construction sector (EUROSTAT data 

series from 2005 to 2009, industry estimates from 2009 to 2013, and gross BAU estimates 

for the period 2014-2020) 

Forecast #2: based on assumptions on the new constructions, renovation and demolition 

rates from 2005 to 2020. For this forecast, the following assumptions were made: 

• Stable demolition rate at 0.1% per year over the considered period 

• BAU new construction waste of 1% per year, with a slight decrease in 2008, 2009 

and 2010 due to the economic crisis 

• BAU renovation rate of 1.2% per year, with an increase in the period 2009 to 2011, 

due to stricter energy efficiency targets 

• C&D waste arise from demolition (25%), renovation (60%) and new construction 

(15%) 

The results obtained with these two forecasts are presented in the table below. 

Table 12: Future trends in the generation of C&D waste 

Year Forecast #1 

(million tonnes) 

Forecast #2 

(million tonnes)

2005 461 461 

2006 477 466 

2007 487 470 

2008 469 454 

2009 427 514 

2010 413 531 

2011 413 535 

2012 423 539 

2013 434 491 

2014 445 496 

2015 456 501 

2016 467 506 

2017 479 511 

2018 491 516 

2019 503 521 

2020 516 526 
30 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Both estimates reflect the effect of the economic crisis, with decreases in the amounts 

generated between 2007 and 2008. Whereas forecast #1 shows a continuous decrease until 

2011(due to the economic crisis) and then a progressive increase, forecast #2 suggests that 

amounts of C&D waste generated start increasing again in 2009 (mainly due to more 

important renovation activities linked to stricter environmental criteria for buildings. 

On the long term, these effects cancel out and both forecasts show similar patterns, with a 

total generation of C&D waste in 2020 around 520 million tonnes. 

Reminder: these figures exclude excavated material. If this fraction taken into account, the 

amounts of C&D waste generated are likely to be 4 times higher; the total production would 

therefore amount to approximately 2 100 million tonnes in 2020. 

As far as the composition of C&D waste is concerned, it is likely to be similar in the coming 

years: the mineral fraction (concrete and masonry in particular) represents the large 

majority of C&D waste (up to 85%), and, with the exception of countries where wood is a 

major building material, will represent the main contribution to the 70% target. 

3.5.2. BARRIERS AND DRIVERS TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET

Without any dramatic economic event, it seems that the amounts and composition of C&D 

waste will follow the trends that have been observed to this day. Existing barriers, and 

drivers to overcome them, will therefore still be relevant in the near future. 

 Economic barriers: High availability and low cost of raw materials 

The largest share of C&D waste is usually composed of concrete, masonry, asphalt and 

other mineral waste such as stones, sand, or gravel. The main barrier to recycling of this 

mineral fraction is that virgin material that would be substituted by the recycled fraction 

(such as natural aggregates) are often easily and locally available, and can be produced at 

low costs. As a result, the economic attractiveness of secondary raw materials from mineral 

C&D waste can be low compared to virgin raw materials; recycling of the mineral fraction of 

C&D waste has been mostly successful in high-density area, where virgin raw materials 

extracted from quarries are less available30

. 

The main corresponding policy option to overcome this is making landfilling of waste 

unattractive, by introducing a ban or high levies on landfilling of C&D waste has proven to 

be a driver towards higher recycling rates; it leads to an increase in the supply of secondary 

material from mineral C&D waste, which in turn tends to make them more economically 

attractive (higher availability and lower prices). 

Alternatively, taxes on resource extraction could contribute to increase the price of primary 

raw materials and make recycling more competitive. 

 

30 For instance, the choice of resources used to produce aggregates is directly related to comparative 

processing costs, market price and distance to market. WRAP carried out two detailed assessments 

of this relationship, one for England [WRAP 2006] and the other for Scotland [WRAP 2007]. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 31 

Cross-border effects can also hinder the recycling of C&D waste; in particular, local or 

regional differences in legislation and landfill prices can contribute to the export of C&D 

waste to countries where landfilling is authorised and/or cheaper (e.g. exports of gypsum 

waste from Denmark and the Netherlands to Germany). A harmonisation of landfill 

regulations and prices among Member States would contribute to overcome this problem. 

The example of the deposit system in Spain (companies must pay a deposit to the local 

authority, which is paid back when proof of appropriate treatment of the waste is given) is 

another example of an economic incentive. 

Regarding C&D waste generated in smaller amounts by other economic sector, and in 

particular by households, experiences of take-back centres in countries such as Denmark or 

France (where C&D waste can be brought free of charge by residents) has been reported to 

be efficient. 

 Cultural barriers: Misconception of the quality of recycled products 

Recycled aggregated from the mineral fraction of C&D waste still suffer from misconception 

about their quality by consumers, especially for their use in structural application (e.g. use 

of secondary aggregates in the production of structural concrete). 

The main corresponding drivers to overcome this are: 

• Turning waste into a valuable raw material: this can be achieved through quality 

certification of secondary raw material from C&D waste. 

• Communicating on the benefits of secondary raw material: it has been proven 

that up to 20% of recycled aggregates can be used in structural concrete, 

without changing the quality of the product. In certain applications, such as road 

works, recycled aggregates present better properties than virgin aggregates. 

Knowledge transfer from MS with a long experience in recycling C&D waste can 

be crucial and facilitate a fast adoption of new technologies and procedures in 

MS which are setting up now schemes for recycling of C&D wastes. Partnership 

projects between MS or regions and activities of European industrial federations 

could help bridge this knowledge and experience gap. 

• Development of end-of-waste criteria for materials as foreseen in the Waste 

Framework Directive could also contribute to improve the image of the 

recyclates and reduce uncertainty of the markets. 

• Further research on applications of recycled C&D waste and particularly on longterm behaviour could contribute to reduce uncertainty linked to the use of 

recycled products. 

• Green Public Procurement (GPP): given the significant share of public funded 

construction, GPP can play a major role to promote recyclates and the use of 

recyclable materials. This voluntary instrument can help stimulate a critical mass 

of demand for more sustainable construction materials which otherwise would 
32 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

be difficult to get onto the market. A number of regions and municipalities are 

applying GPP criteria but further use should be encouraged. 

 Technical barriers: ineffective sorting and contamination of the waste flow 

The key to the successful recycling of the mineral fraction of C&D is that the waste collected 

is “clean”, i.e. free of contaminants and other materials. 

The main drivers to overcome this are the following: 

• Encourage the sorting of C&D waste “at source”: efforts should be made to sort 

out the different materials composing C&D waste; clear identification of 

materials and potential contaminants should be performed in order to avoid 

contamination of the inert fraction and ensure high quality of recycled material. 

This will also drive the separation and collection of “smaller”, but valuable 

fractions such as glass, metals, plastics, gypsum, etc., and the appropriate 

management of hazardous materials such as ODS containing foams. 

• Selective demolition / controlled deconstruction: practices of “controlled 

deconstruction”, consisting in the systematic removal of contaminants prior to 

demolition, as well as the sorting of different building materials, should be 

encouraged and generalised. 

3.5.3. IS THE 70% TARGET ACHIEVABLE? 

As 5 MS already achieve recycling rates of 70% or more, some of them very comfortably 

(with recycling rates over 80%), it would seem that this objective is feasible. However, 

countries with very low recycling rates (less than 40%) will certainly face a challenge in 

reaching this target, as it will be necessary to develop the appropriate infrastructure, as 

well as markets for the recycled products. For example, Spain, with a current reported 

recycling rate below 15% will need to put significant efforts into controlling the 

enforcement of existing regulation at the national level; however, some experts are 

optimistic as local case studies in Spain have shown that recycling rates over 90% are 

feasible. 

The mineral fraction of C&D waste should easily find applications as aggregates in road 

construction and in structural concrete for example, as long as the quality of the secondary 

materials is ensured, through early decontamination of the waste and quality certification. 

Focussing on this stony fraction should be, in most cases, sufficient to guarantee a recycling 

rate close to, if not higher than 70%. Moreover, as the recovery of mineral waste requires 

selective demolition and the appropriate sorting of C&D waste, this is likely to drive the 

recycling of the smaller fractions and contribute also to a separation and better 

management of fractions of hazardous C&D waste. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 33 

However, it must be stressed that some countries such as Finland report relatively low 

shares of mineral waste compared to wood waste31. These countries might face more 

difficulties in reaching the target, as energy recovery of wood waste, which is encouraged 

by European and national policies as a renewable source of energy, is not included in the 

70% target set by the Directive, and re-use and recycling options are limited. It might be 

relevant to consider an amendment to the 70 % target in the case of wood waste, with a 

prior assessment of whether energy recovery from wood waste presents equal, or higher, 

environmental benefits than recycling or material recovery. 

Last but not least, achievability of the 70% target will also depend on the capacity of the 

market to absorb recyclates. This can be especially relevant during economic downturns: 

construction activities can decline because of economic or sectorial crisis, rendering 

absorption of recyclates temporarily difficult. 

3.5.4. BEYOND THE CURRENT DIRECTIVE’S TARGETS

The WFD sets a target of 70% of preparation for re-use, recycling, and other forms of 

material recovery of C&D waste, including backfilling. The findings of this study suggest that 

this objective should be achievable for most MS. This therefore raises the question of how 

to go beyond this objective. Four main directions can be considered. 

1- Increasing the target 

First, from a quantitative point of view, the best practices in Europe show that – depending 

on the context – recycling rates over 80% or 90% are feasible. For those countries which are 

already achieving higher re-use, recycling and recovery rates, the WFD does not provide an 

incentive to achieve higher targets. In principle, differentiated targets for these MS could 

be set in the WFD or alternatively, in their national legislation (some MS have already set or 

are setting more ambitious targets in their national legislation). 

2- Setting a hierarchy within the different options permitted to reach the target 

Secondly, the treatment options that can be used to reach the target do not provide equal 

environmental benefits. For instance, the brief environmental assessments performed in 

this study suggest that, at least for the mineral fraction (particularly concrete and masonry), 

environmental benefits of preparation for re-use are significantly higher than those of 

recycling. This is mainly due to the fact that the processing of aggregates from C&D waste is 

similar to the processing of virgin aggregates (similar energy consumption and dust 

emissions during the crushing steps, similar fuel consumption for transportation, etc.). On 

the other hand, the production of building materials like concrete and bricks is energy 

intensive, and the avoidance of this production through preparation for re-use would 

represent high environmental benefits. 

Moreover, some of the experts interviewed warn that the definition of “backfilling” should 

be strictly clarified in order to avoid “hiding” landfilling operations in this definition. 

 

31 See Table 6 
34 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Moreover, backfilling operations should be registered and notified to authorities, as this is 

the case for recycling operations. Specific environmental concerns related to backfilling 

have been raised: for example, there is a need to control hazardous substances in 

backfilling to avoid the leaching of hazardous substances in the environment. The suspicion 

of asbestos contamination of road pavements, built 20 to 25 years ago in the Netherlands, 

illustrates this problem. 

It is difficult to assess how backfilling can contribute to reaching the target, as there is no 

specific reporting on this type of material recovery. Available data and interviews with 

experts suggest that this practice is quite limited in countries like Flanders or Germany, 

which achieve high recycling rates. 

Clearer definitions are therefore required, and it would likely be interesting to address the 

relevance of setting individual targets for preparation for re-use and recycling on one hand 

and other forms of material recovery (including backfilling and other forms of 

“downcycling”) within the overall target of the Directive. This would ensure higher overall 

environmental benefits of reaching the target. 

3- Addressing “small” fractions of C&D waste more specifically 

The 70% target itself does not directly represent an incentive for the appropriate treatment 

of the smaller fractions of C&D waste32, which can be nonetheless valuable as secondary 

material (glass, plastics, metals, etc.) To some extent, fractions that can be easily separated 

and have a high market value (e.g. metals) are already re-used, recycled or recovered. For 

other fractions, single targets or other incentives could be envisaged. 

In addition, some C&D waste fractions represent a significant environmental challenge 

(ODS containing insulating foams, asbestos, and other hazardous substances). In principle, 

separation of the fractions falling which are classified as hazardous wastes and 

implementation of legal provisions regarding management of hazardous waste would allow 

avoiding negative impacts on health and the environment. However, these fractions could 

also be addressed more specifically (e.g. ODS containing foams through ODS regulations) in 

order to ensure that the best environmental options are adopted. In that case, better 

implementation of European legislation on hazardous waste (and particularly the obligation 

to sort out this waste) is required, and would in turn increase the recyclability of the nonhazardous C&D waste, as it would lower the contamination of the recyclable materials. 

Moreover, demolition companies should also take EU legislation regarding health and 

safety aspects at work into account when dealing these hazardous wastes and ensure the 

workers take preventive measures. 

4- Setting quantitative targets for the prevention of C&D waste 

Waste prevention being at the top of the hierarchy, the reduction and re-use of building 

materials should be also addressed more specifically, through the promotion of increased 

 

32 In most cases, it seems that the target can be achieved by recycling the most important fractions 

that are concrete, masonry and asphalt 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 35 

material efficiency, eco-design of buildings (particularly design to reduce the need for 

deconstruction), and re-use of building parts. Given the huge amounts of materials 

concerned, and the potentially high environmental savings, C&D waste prevention should 

be specifically addressed when setting waste prevention targets (to be developed by 2014 

by the Commission). Methodological and practical guidance on designing out waste in 

construction has been developed by WRAP, both for buildings33 and in civil engineering34. 

This guidance is supported by a Net Waste Tool35 for assessing the cost benefits of a range 

of waste reduction and re-use options. Such options include design optimisation (reducing 

the amounts of material needed for the construction), design that allows re-use of 

components or life-time extension for refurbishment, etc. 

5- Avoiding distortions 

Different conditions in neighbouring regions and/or MS can lead to distortions in the 

management of C&D waste and hinder recycling. Some co-ordination of policies (especially 

between regions) would be helpful since low landfill fees in a given region can divert C&D 

waste from recycling schemes in a neighbouring region, even within the same country. In 

addition, the example of gypsum wastes (which are been e. g. applied in Germany for 

rehabilitation of decommissioned potash mines) shows that backfilling operations can 

undermine existing recycling schemes. 

6- Developing End-of-Waste criteria 

The End-of-Waste (EoW) concept in EU legislation was introduced in 2005 by the Thematic 

Strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste, and was later adopted by the European 

Parliament and the Council in the revised Waste Framework Directive in 2008. Setting EoW 

criteria for certain types of C&D waste could contribute to increasing the market for 

secondary raw materials obtained from C&D waste. In this respect, the recent ECHA 

decision stipulating recycled aggregates as “Articles” under REACH36 was welcomed by the 

industry. 

 

33 http://www.wrap.org.uk/construction/tools_and_guidance/designing_out_waste/dow_buildings.html

34 http://www.wrap.org.uk/construction/tools_and_guidance/designing_out_waste/dow_civil_eng.html

35 http://www.wrap.org.uk/construction/tools_and_guidance/net_waste_tool/index.html

36 ECHA, Guidance on waste and recovered substances, may 2010 
36 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

3.6. ANNEX: DATA TABLES

Table 13 - C&D waste generation per capita (raw data from ETC/RWM 2009) 

Waste generation 

(tonnes per capita) 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Waste factor 

(1000t / 

million € 

added value) 

Austria 0,81 0,81 0,46 

Belgium 0,84 0,95 0,81 0,8 1,11 1,06 1,22 1,18 0,955 

Bulgaria 0,39 4,53 

Cyprus 0,58 0,545 

Czech Republic 0,78 0,91 0,85 0,85 1 1,44 1,2 1,15 4,037 

Denmark 3,99 0,578 

Estonia 0,57 0,74 0,64 0,94 0,93 1,12 1,61 0,54 4,144 

Finland 3,99 3,239 

France 5,5 5,016 

Germany 3,15 3,17 3,05 2,92 2,71 2,33 2,24 2,406 

Greece 0,17 0,19 0,41 0,38 0,37 0,37 0,344 

Hungary 0,29 0,49 0,59 0,51 0,43 0,49 0,54 1,629 

Ireland 1,7 2,74 3,6 3,95 1,312 

Italy 0,48 0,54 0,65 0,74 0,8 0,78 0,778 

Latvia 0,06 0,03 0,04 0,07 0,05 0,118 

Lithuania 0,1 0,18 0,343 

Luxembourg 5,9 

Malta 1,95 

Netherlands 1,14 1,49 1,48 1,47 1,467 1,47 1,58 1,264 

Norway 0,24 0,25 0,27 0,28 0,27 0,7 0,32 0,194 

Poland 0,11 0,14 0,44 0,41 

Portugal 1,09 1,574 

Romania 0,02 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,01 0,02 0,02 

Slovakia 0,07 0,26 1,047 

Slovenia 1,261 

Spain 0,59 0,58 0,66 0,74 0,8 0,88 0,525 

Sweden 1,14 1,029 

United Kingdom 1,74 0,74 0,75 1,66 1,9 1,89 1,14 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report – Management of construction and demolition waste 37 

4. Material focus: CONCRETE 

Applications in the 

construction sector Buildings, roads, infrastructure 

Production 

in the EU-27

Total: about 1,350 Mt37 (2008) 

- Ready-mixed concrete: 900 Mt 

- Precast concrete: between 200 and 250 Mt 

Waste generation in 

the EU-27

No specific data available; estimated average: 60-70% of total C&D waste (i.e. about 320-380 

Mt38), with high geographical variations (20-80% according to MS) 

Treatment options Landfill 

Recycling into 

aggregates for road 

construction or 

backfilling 

Recycling into 

aggregates for concrete 

production 

Re-use of precast 

elements (concrete 

blocks) 

Current rates N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Potential rates

Experts foresee 

that 0% landfill 

can be achieved 

Could absorb up to 75%

of waste concrete 

Could absorb up to 135 

Mt of recycled 

aggregates39 (i.e. 40-50%

of waste concrete) 

N/A 

Environmental 

impacts

Land-use, 

transportation 

Low to medium net 

benefits (as only the 

preparation of virgin 

aggregates is avoided) 

Potential energy and 

local pollution savings in 

dense areas (shorter 

transportation) 

Land use and 

biodiversity issues 

related to extraction 

Resource consumption 

Low to medium net 

benefits (as only the 

preparation of virgin 

aggregates is avoided) 

Potential energy and 

local pollution savings in 

dense areas (shorter 

transportation) 

High potential net 

benefits (due to the 

avoidance of cement 

production) 

Barriers to re-use 

and recycling of the 

waste

- High availability and low cost of raw material 

- Uncertainty on the supply of secondary material 

- Misconception of the quality of recycled products compared to new materials 

Existing and 

potential drivers to 

re-use and recycling 

of the waste

- High demand for aggregates in road construction, coupled with a higher quality of 

recycled concrete aggregates compared to virgin aggregates 

- Design for deconstruction to drive to re-use of concrete blocks 

- Sorting at source to increase the quality 

- Landfill taxes or landfill bans to promote alternatives 

- Inclusion of requirements for the use of re-use or recycled materials into building 

standards 

- Quality certification for recycled materials 

 

38 Based on about 540 million tons of C&D generated in EU-27 in 2008 (see chapter 4.1 above) 

39 Up to 20% of coarse aggregates used for the production of structural concrete can be made of 

recycled aggregates. This would represent approximately 10% of the concrete mix. 10% x 1,350 Mt = 

135 Mt 
38 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

4.1. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS

Concrete is a man-made construction material that is widely used around the world for any 

type of building or infrastructure due to its physical and aesthetic properties. 

Concrete is made from coarse aggregates (gravel or crushed stone), fine aggregates (sand), 

water, cement and admixtures. Cement is a hydraulic binder that hardens when water is 

added and represents between 6 and 15% of the concrete mix depending on the 

application while aggregates represent 80% in mass and water 8%. 

Structural concrete takes almost completely the form of reinforced concrete which is a 

composite material consisting of concrete and steel. While concrete provides the material’s 

compressive strength, steel provides its tensile strength in the form of embodied 

reinforcing bars and mesh. 

Steel reinforcement plays a key role in reinforced concrete structures as it ensures ductile 

behaviour in earthquakes for example. Reinforcing bars are usually formed from ridged 

carbon steel, the ridges giving frictional adhesion to the concrete. The amount of steel used 

in reinforced products is relatively small. It varies from 1% in small beams and slabs to 6% 

for some columns, according to purpose and design conditions40. 

The steel used in reinforced concrete utilises 100% recycled scrap steel as feedstock41 and 

at the end of its life, all reinforcing steel can be recovered, recycled and used again in a 

closed-loop system. 

Steel reinforced concrete can be used for any type of structure (bridges, highways, and 

runways) and buildings but it is generally used for applications carrying heavy loads such as 

footings, foundation walls and columns. 

The different applications of concrete are illustrated in the following figure. 

 

40 [Mehta] 

41 http://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/main.asp?page=53
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 39 

Figure 1 – Concrete various applications [WBCSD, 2009] 

As shown previously, buildings and civil engineering infrastructures are the two main 

applications of concrete and are developed in the following sub-sections. A special focus is 

also laid on reinforced concrete as it is a very specific application with precise composition, 

properties and uses. 

4.1.1. BUILDINGS

Concrete is a well established construction material that is widely used across Europe for all 

types of buildings: residential (individual, apartment) and non residential (public, 

commercial, industrial and agricultural). Each of these applications represents 

approximately 30% of the total use of concrete although differences appear between MS42

. 

For example, residential applications are likely to represent a more important share in 

southern European countries (Spain for instance) due to wide residential construction 

campaigns. 

The most common uses of concrete in the building construction sector are: 

• Foundations 

• Floors for ground or upper floor levels 

• Structural frames (e.g. beams, columns, slabs) 

• External and internal walls, including panels, blocks or decorative elements with 

a whole selection of colours and finishes 

 

42 Interview with Alessio Rimoldi, Secretary General, European Concrete Platform 
40 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• Roof tiles 

• Garden paving (concrete slabs or blocks, which are virtually everlasting in that 

type of use). 

Two types of concrete are distinguished: 

“Dense concrete” which is invariably used in the construction of industrial and commercial 

buildings and all infrastructural projects, is strong and durable, resists fire, and has good 

sound insulation, vibration absorption and thermal properties. 

“Lightweight concrete”, in the form of concrete masonry blocks, is used mainly in the 

construction of individual dwelling. Because of their inherent properties, concrete blocks 

used as partition walls typically do not require additional sound or fire protection. 

4.1.2. CIVIL ENGINEERING

Concrete is well suited for civil engineering construction since it is able to resist moisture 

and weather variations, mechanical constraints, and high temperatures. Concrete also 

absorbs sound, reduces temperature swings and provides protection against different types 

of radiation and rising sea levels. 

Its inherent durability and strength make it especially suitable for the construction of dams; 

other concrete applications for infrastructures also include: 

• Roads (especially under tunnels for fire prevention, bridges, increasingly road 

central safety barriers). 

• Power plants, many of which use and store potentially dangerous nuclear fuels, 

are constructed almost entirely of concrete for safety and security reasons. 

• Other common industrial applications such as silos, storage tanks, water 

treatment and run-off catchment systems. 

4.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

4.2.1. PRODUCTION DATA

With a 2006 worldwide consumption estimated between 21 and 31 billion tonnes43, 

concrete is the second most consumed substance in the world after water. 

Concrete is manufactured and delivered to the end-user in two main forms: ready-mixed 

concrete and precast concrete. 

In terms of volume, at EU-27 level, the total ready-mixed concrete production reached 900 

million tonnes44 in 2008 with a generated turnover of 18.7 billion Euros45. An interesting 

 

43 [WBCSD, 2009] 

44 Calculated based on the data presented in the following table, assuming an average density for 

concrete between 2.4 and 2.6 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 41 

fact is that the ready-mixed concrete production and the workforce diminished of 8.5% and 

14.7% respectively between 2006 and 2008 while the turnover increased of 10.2% during 

the same period. 

The production of precast concrete, on the other hand, although smaller in terms of volume 

(it is estimated that the production of precast concrete represents between one fourth and 

one third of the production of ready-mixed concrete), generates a higher turnover46. 

As concrete is generally locally produced, it can be assumed that the produced quantities of 

ready-mixed and precast concrete match the quantities used in buildings and 

infrastructure. 

The following table gives a precise overview of the quantities of ready mixed concrete 

produced between 2006 and 2008 in some MS, as well as the cement consumption for the 

same time period. 

 

45 Italy, Spain, France, Austria and Germany account for more than 70% of the total 2008 turnover. 

46 Interview with Alessio Rimoldi, 
42 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 14 - Quantitative data of the ready mixed concrete industry between 2006 and 2008 

[ERMCO, 2008] 

Concrete 

production 

(million m3) 

Growth 

rate 

2006/20

08 

Population 

(million 

inhabitants) 

Production per 

capita 

Cement 

consumption 

(million tonnes) Growth rate 

2006/2008 

Country 2006 2008 2006 2008 2006 2008 2006 2008 

Austria 11,0 11,5 4,55% 8,27 8,33 1,33 1,38 5,6 5,7 1,79% 

Belgium 12,2 11,8 -3,28% 10,51 10,60 1,16 1,11 6,3 7,1 12,70% 

Bulgaria N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Cyprus N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Czech Republic 8,0 9,6 20,00% 10,20 10,38 0,78 0,92 4,8 5,1 6,25% 

Denmark 2,8 2,7 -3,57% 5,43 5,48 0,52 0,49 1,8 1,9 5,56% 

Estonia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Finland 2,7 2,8 3,70% 5,20 5,48 0,52 0,51 1,9 1,9 0,00% 

France 43,3 44,1 1,85% 63,00 63,75 0,69 0,69 23,9 24,1 0,84% 

Germany 43,4 41,0 -5,53% 82,44 82,22 0,53 0,50 28,6 27,3 -4,55% 

Greece 24,0 22,0 -8,33% 11,13 11,21 2,16 1,96 11,5 10,3 -10,43% 

Hungary N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Ireland 9,2 10,0 8,70% 4,21 4,40 2,19 2,27 4,7 3,4 -27,66% 

Italy 77,5 73,2 -5,55% 58,75 59,62 1,32 1,23 45,9 41,8 -8,93% 

Latvia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Lithuania N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Luxembourg N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Malta N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Netherlands 8,5 10,5 23,53% 16,33 16,41 0,52 0,64 5,6 6,3 12,50% 

Poland 14,2 15,8 11,27% 38,16 38,12 0,37 0,41 14,5 16,8 15,86% 

Portugal 11,0 11,0 0,00% 10,57 10,62 1,04 1,04 7,8 7,2 -7,69% 

Romania N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Slovakia 2,9 3,7 27,59% 5,39 5,40 0,54 0,69 2,3 2,6 13,04% 

Slovenia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Spain 97,8 69,0 -29,45% 43,76 45,28 2,23 1,52 55,9 42 -24,87% 

Sweden 3,0 3,5 16,67% 9,05 9,18 0,33 0,38 2,1 2,5 19,05% 

United Kingdom 25,1 20,5 -18,33% 60,39 61,19 0,42 0,34 13,8 10,2 -26,09% 

Total/average 

EU-27 396,6 362,7 -8,55% 442,79 447,67 0,90 0,81 237,0 216,2 -8,78% 

The concrete production growth rate shows that some countries have known a dramatic 

decrease reaching almost 30% for Spain and 28% for Slovakia between 2006 and 2008, 

whereas the Netherlands have on the contrary known a growth of more than 23% and the 

Czech Republic, 20%. The average evolution scheme was an increase of the concrete 

production until 2008 followed by a decline due to the global economic situation3. The 

production of the concrete industry is closely related to the economic situation and the 

building and infrastructure needs. 

The per capita production figures show that some countries have a concrete production 

largely above the European average of 0.80m3

 per capita: Ireland, Greece and Spain in the 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 43 

first places produce between 1.52 and 2.27m3 per capita. This again reflects the specific 

economic and demographic situation in each individual country. 

Concrete production is a driver for cement consumption. The ready-mixed concrete 

industry alone consumed 216.2 million tonnes of cement in 2008, i.e. about 75% of the EU27 cement production47

. 

4.2.2. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT DATA

Concrete waste can arise from different sources: returned concrete which is fresh (wet) 

from ready-mix trucks, production waste at a pre-cast production facility (which are not 

within the scope of this study) and C&D waste, which is the most significant source. 

Several issues are raised when trying to estimate the quantities of concrete waste produced 

and treated. 

First, available data on concrete waste management and recovery is not always available at 

the national level as the reporting beyond general C&D waste generation in not systematic. 

The comparison is also often meaningless due to the discrepancies between MS regarding 

the definitions and measurement methods, as noted by the World Business Council for 

Sustainable Development (WBCSD)48. For instance, some countries include excavated soil in 

their calculation others account for it separately from other C&D waste. 

Moreover, the concrete C&D fraction is estimated fluctuating between 20 and 80% of the 

total C&D waste arising depending on the European country considered. Differences in 

building traditions, as well as the aforementioned discrepancies in statistical data, can 

explain the width of this range. A European average of 60% to 70% of the concrete fraction 

in C&D waste can however be roughly estimated42. 

Moreover, re-use, recycling and recovery rates are also a source of discrepancies between 

MS. Indeed, the national specific legislation does sometimes encourage such practices (the 

Netherlands and Germany for example) but does not provide incentives in others. 

For the reasons above, it is currently not possible to estimate a specific recycling rate for 

concrete. Data produced in the CSI reports presents recycling rates between from 10% to 

100%, but these data are not specific to concrete and suffer from the non-homogeneous 

definitions and data reporting presented above. 

 

47 Estimated at 283 million tonnes in 2007 

<www.researchandmarkets.com/reportinfo.asp?report_id=651928> 

48 [WBCSD, 2009] 
44 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

4.3. RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

4.3.1. EXISTING OPTIONS 

Although an important fraction of concrete waste is still landfilled within the EU, this 

practice is being increasingly discouraged. The main options for re-use, recycling and other 

material recovery of concrete waste are described below. 

 Re-use 

Concrete can be re-used in various ways in its original form. An example is to leave the 

concrete structure in place while modernising the inside space or façade/curtain wall of the 

building. 

Another option is the re-use of specific concrete elements with little processing: pre 

fabricated elements and concrete blocks are cut in smaller elements and cleaned of mortar. 

This requires the careful and therefore time-consuming dismantling of the building to avoid 

damaging the elements and the transportation to the other construction site. 

 Recycling and other material recovery 

Concrete can be reprocessed into coarse or fine aggregates. 

The first step is to remove all impurities such as insulation and steel reinforcement before 

crushing and grading. As a consequence, an effective sorting out at the construction site or 

at the treatment facility is essential to maximise the recycling potential. Mobile sorters and 

crushers are often installed on construction sites to allow on-site processing. In other 

situations, specific processing sites are established. Sometimes machines incorporate air 

knives to remove lighter materials such as wood, joint sealants and plastics. Magnet and 

mechanical processes are used to extract steel, which is then recycled. 

Once sorted and processed, these aggregates can be used as such in road works, or 

reintroduced into the manufacturing of concrete. These different possible applications are 

described below. 

Coarse aggregates can be used for road base, sub-base and civil engineering applications. 

Finnish research49 has found that recycled concrete specified to an agreed quality and 

composition in the sub-base and base layers can allow the thickness of these layers to be 

reduced due to the good bearing properties of the material. Indeed, for such an application 

the unbound cementitious material present in recycled aggregates has proved superior 

behaviour than virgin aggregates such that the strength is improved providing a very good 

construction base for new pavements. 

Therefore, the use road construction sector represents one of the main applications for 

recycled concrete aggregates and can significantly contribute to reaching the 70% target 

 

49 [Rudus, 2000] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 45 

(the demand of recycled aggregates for road construction could already buffer up to 75% of 

the concrete waste generated). 

Coarse aggregates can also be used as a filling material in quarries (referred to as 

backfilling) which is in practice especially in Eastern Europe whereas in Western Europe 

quarries are rehabilitated into leisure spaces. Crushed concrete can also be used in 

earthwork constructions, to build streets, yards and parking areas, as backfilling for pipe 

excavations, environmental construction, foundations for buildings, etc. 

Fine aggregates can also be obtained from concrete waste and used in place of natural sand 

in mortars. However, the use of recycled concrete fine aggregates could affect directly the 

mortar content and therefore its workability, strength and can cause shrinkage due to high 

water absorption. This could increase the risk of settlement and dry shrinkage cracking. For 

these reasons, recycled fine aggregates are not used in the production of structural 

concrete. Moreover, the contamination of concrete with gypsum may hinder the 

recyclability of the material, as cleaning represents important additional costs, both 

economical and environmental. 

The above applications are often referred to as “down-cycling”50 as opposed to 

reintroducing recycled concrete directly into concrete production, where it can be used as a 

substitute to natural aggregates. Both coarse and fine recycled aggregates can be used in 

concrete production. However, as cement is not recyclable, this option still requires the 

consumption of virgin cement. Technically, the use of recycled aggregated in the 

production of concrete is limited for structural reasons. A study by the National Ready 

Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA) in the US has concluded that up to 10% recycled 

concrete aggregate is suitable as a substitute for virgin aggregates for most concrete 

applications. UK research indicates that up to 20% of total aggregates51 may be replaced by 

good quality crushed concrete. Under these conditions, recycled concrete can be used for 

most common concrete applications. Actual practices vary greatly; for example, countries 

like the UK and the Netherlands already achieve a recycled concrete content of 20%52, 

whereas this application is almost non-existing in other countries such as Spain46

. 

4.3.2. EMERGING TECHNIQUES

Although not commercially feasible at present, some emerging technologies include53: 

• To replace the fossil fuel reliance of the recycling into aggregates process: 

closed-cycle construction using mechanical and thermal energy. The University 

of Delft, together with TNO, is working on a novel closed-cycle construction 

concept whereby concrete waste and masonry debris are separated back into 

 

52 Figures for the UK are subject to uncertainty, and some experts estimate they are in fact lower. 

53 [WBCSD, 2009] 
46 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

coarse and fine aggregates and cement stone using mechanical and thermal 

energy supplied by the combustible fraction of C&D waste. This technique is 

assumed to encourage the recycling into aggregates while moving away from 

fossil fuels reliance and the associated environmental impacts. 

• To improve the efficiency of the crushing process for the recycling into 

aggregates option: electrical decomposition of concrete. To break down 

concrete (or rocks), high shear stress is needed by way of a shock wave. 

Conventional technology uses mechanical force. Alternatively heat (see above) 

or electrical energy can be used. Electrical energy can be used to create pulsed 

power. At the present time, high initial outlay costs are a barrier to use; 

however, niche applications can benefit from this technology where high 

repetition actions are needed. The environmental impacts of using electricity 

also need to be considered. This technique is expected to encourage recycling 

into aggregates through possible costs reductions. 

4.4. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF CONCRETE WASTE

MANAGEMENT

This section describes the environmental and economic impacts of concrete by focusing on 

the impacts of the various treatment options, including the benefits of re-use and recycling 

of concrete C&D waste. 

4.4.1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS

The following table summarised the impacts and benefits of the different end of life options 

for concrete, which are further detailed below. 

Table 15 – Impacts and benefits for each option for the management of concrete 

LANDFILL 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste to the landfill 

No significant release of pollutants to water. 

Use of land space 

- 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 47 

RECYCLING AS AGGREGATES FOR DIRECT RE-USE (E.G. ROAD WORKS) WITH NO FURTHER 

PROCESSING 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from rocks and gravel extracted from quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste concrete 

Processing of waste concrete into aggregates: 

dust production and noise during crushing 

and sieving steps 

Transportation of recycled aggregates 

Extraction of raw materials (rocks and 

gravel for aggregates): land-use for 

quarries, production of dust, use of natural 

resources 

Transportation of raw materials 

Quarrying (land use , biodiversity) 

Use of Resources 

Processing of raw materials into 

aggregates: dust production and noise 

Transportation of aggregates 

o/+ 
48 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

RECYCLING AS AGGREGATES FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE 

Substituted material (the proportion to which virgin aggregates are substituted by recycled aggregates is 

unknown): aggregates from rocks and gravel extracted from quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste concrete 

Processing of waste concrete into aggregates: 

dust production and noise during crushing 

and sieving steps 

Transportation of recycled aggregates 

Production of cement: energy consumption, 

greenhouse gases and pollutants emissions 

Transportation of cement 

Concrete production 

Extraction of raw materials (rocks and gravel 

for aggregates): land-use for quarries, 

production of dust, use of natural resources 

Transportation of raw materials 

Quarrying (land use , biodiversity) 

Use of Resources 

Processing of raw materials into aggregates: 

dust production and noise 

Transportation of aggregates 

Production of cement 

Transportation of cement 

Concrete production 

o/+ 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 49 

RE-USE OF CONCRETE BLOCKS 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): manufactured concrete 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste concrete 

Processing of concrete blocks: energy for 

cleaning and decontamination 

Transportation of concrete to the new 

construction site 

Extraction of raw materials (rocks and gravel 

for aggregates): land-use for quarries, 

production of dust, use of natural resources, 

biodiversity 

Transportation of raw materials 

Processing of raw materials into aggregates: 

dust production and noise 

Production of cement 

Transportation of cement 

Concrete production 

Transportation of concrete 

++ 

 Direct impacts of landfilling 

When landfilling concrete, the release of constituents into groundwater is low. The 

chemical analysis of water samples show dissolved substances at levels much lower than 

the very stringent limits set by the World Health Organisation for drinking water54. Only the 

sulphate ion (S042-) is regularly found at high concentrations, but always much lower than 

the levels found in many popular brands of mineral waters55

. 

The major environmental impact of landfilling comes from the use of space for the storage 

of inert C&D waste. This is particularly relevant in countries where land is scarce and 

disposal costs are expensive. 

 Direct impacts of reprocessing into aggregates 

As presented in the previous section, recycling of concrete involves processing into coarse 

or fine aggregates, through processes that are similar to those used with natural aggregates 

(screening, crushing and transportation). 

The emissions of dust and particles produced during the crushing step of concrete but also 

during the storage phase before re-using, are probably the most important environmental 

impact during the treatment of concrete C&D waste56 and can cause serious health 

problem for workers. The activities that can generate dust are the following: 

 

54 [WHO, 2006] <http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq0506.pdf> 

55 [ECP, 2009] 

56 [VITO, 2006]
50 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• Loading of aggregate onto storage piles (batch or continuous drop operations). 

• Wind erosion of pile surfaces and ground areas around piles. 

• Load-out of aggregate for shipment or for return to the process stream (batch or 

continuous drop operations). 

The emissions from the sorting processes can be controlled by spraying water on the piles 

of crushed concrete to avoid dust dispersion into the air. 

The noise from the machines at the crushing step of aggregates, both virgin and recycled, 

for the production of concrete is one of the major health concerns. Indeed, at some work 

stations it can reach 85dB57 during the production process. 

Efforts have been made to mitigate the effects on workers thanks to quieter machines and 

the use of hearing protection inside concrete plants which is compulsory. 

When concrete is being placed, it is usually compacted by vibration which can damage 

workers’ hands and can be avoided through the re-use of concrete. 

 Net benefits of re-use and recycling 

The benefits of re-use and recycling of concrete depend on the material that recycled 

concrete substitutes. 

Substitution to coarse or fine aggregates 

After recycling into coarse or fine aggregates, waste concrete simply replaces virgin 

aggregates (crushed rocks, gravel, sand) that would otherwise have been extracted from 

quarries and processed. 

Recycling therefore avoids the use of natural resources and land space in quarries. 

Quarrying activities might also generate biodiversity issues, which are avoided through 

recycling. 

On the other hand, avoided impacts related to transportation and processing of virgin 

aggregates are not significantly different from those generated to prepare recycled 

aggregates. In some cases, however, recycled aggregates can be locally available, reducing 

the transportation distances. This would result in positive net benefits, particularly in fuel 

consumption and greenhouse gases emissions58

. 

Overall, the environmental benefits of recycling of concrete into coarse or fine aggregates 

are probably moderate. 

 

57 [ECP, 2009] 85dB is equivalent to the noise created by a dense freeway traffic; as a comparison, a 

pneumatic drill generates between 100 and 110DB and a plane taking off 120dB. 

58 A case study presented in the report of the WBCSD, estimating the outcome of recycling 85% C&D 

waste (mostly concrete) into aggregates for road works, showed a potential reduction of 77% of the 

energy consumption, mainly due to reduced transportation (of waste to landfills and of raw 

materials from quarries to construction sites). 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 51 

Re-use – Substitution to manufactured concrete 

The direct re-use of concrete blocks avoids the production of concrete, and therefore the 

associated impacts of cement production. 

Indeed, most environmental impacts of concrete production originate from the production 

of the cement composing it (at least 80% of the impacts during the production process59). 

The following table illustrates these results for the energy consumption indicator (cement 

production accounts for 82% of the total energy consumption necessary for the production 

of all the concrete components). 

Table 16 – Energy consumption associated with each concrete constituent 60

Other significant impacts of cement production are the release of carbon dioxide during the 

decarbonation of limestone (about 60%61 of the total CO2 emissions generated during the 

cement production62) in the cement kiln at a very high temperature, but also nitrous oxide 

(NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), small quantities of chlorides, fluorides, carbon monoxide, 

heavy metals, organic compounds and dust. 

The typical greenhouse gases emissions for the manufacturing of cement are estimated at 

0.6 tonne of CO2 per tonne of cement thanks to the efforts to increase the efficiency of the 

firing process in the cement kiln8. Moreover, the use of CO2-neutral fuels (30% of the total 

fuel used during the production process) and the use of alternative materials have lead to 

substantial CO2 savings. Experiments carried out in Northern Europe have shown that the 

level can even be lowered to 0.35 tonne of CO2 per tonne of cement by implementing even 

further these measures. 

Taking into consideration the avoided production of cement when reusing concrete, the 

following table illustrates the potential savings at the EU-27 level. 

 

59 [Habert, 2008] The following indicators were studied: energy consumption, global warming 

potential, acidification, eutrophication, ozone depletion, human toxicity among others

60 [Struble, 2004] 

61 [ECP, 2009] 

62 The remaining 40% CO2 emissions are generated through fuel combustion and the use of electrical 

power. 
52 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 17 – Re-use of concrete: CO2 savings through avoidance of cement production 

Greenhouse gases 

emissions: t eq. 

CO2/t cement 

Greenhouse 

gases 

emissions63: t eq. 

CO2/t concrete 

Greenhouse 

emissions at the EU27 level64: in million 

tonnes eq. CO2

Potential savings 

(hyp: 10% re-used 

concrete): in million 

tonnes eq. CO2

Current situation 0.6 0.07 64.8 6.48 

Scenario 1: optimal 

efficiency of cement 

production (based on 

best available 

techniques observed 

in Europe) 

0.35 0.04 37.8 3.78 

The re-use of concrete blocks can therefore have significant environmental benefits, mostly 

through the avoidance of cement production. 

4.4.2. ECONOMIC IMPACTS 

Despite the environmental benefits of recycling concrete, its limited production costs do 

not encourage re-use and recycling. Nevertheless, using recycled concrete can also show 

economical advantages, depending on the local situation. The identified factors include: 

• Proximity and quantity of available natural aggregates 

• Reliability of supply, quality and quantity of C&D waste (availability of materials 

and capacity of recycling facility) 

• Government procurement incentives 

• Standards and regulations requiring different treatment for recycled aggregate 

compared to primary material 

• Taxes and levies on natural aggregates and on landfill 

Recycled concrete aggregates in Europe can sell for 3 to 12 € per tonne with a production 

cost of 2.5 to 10 € per tonne. The higher selling prices are obtained on sites where all C&D 

waste is reclaimed and maximum sorting is achieved, there is strong consumer demand, 

lack of natural alternatives and supportive regulatory regimes. 

The following figure illustrates the geographic variation in the comparable profit margin. In 

Paris there is a lack of natural aggregates making recycled aggregates an attractive 

alternative and the recycling market is driven mainly by civil works companies. In 

Rotterdam, higher production costs for recycled materials compared to virgin materials are 

compensated by high tipping fees. In Brussels the lack of landfill space pushes C&D 

companies to drop market prices to find solutions for their waste, while in Lille the 

 

63 Calculation based on an average 12% cement content in concrete 

64 900 million tonnes as shown in 4.2.1. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 53 

abundance of quarries makes the higher production costs a limiting factor (as raw materials 

have lower costs). 

Figure 2 – Comparison of the market prices for natural and recycled materials in some European 

cities [WBCSD, 2009] 

4.5. TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET: DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

As developed in the above sections, concrete C&D waste shows high potential 

improvement for re-use, recycling and other forms of material recovery. The barriers and 

drivers identified by the experts interviewed are summarised below. 

 Use of recycled concrete aggregates in road works: a high potential in the short and 

mid-term 

Nowadays, concrete is mainly recycled into aggregates for road construction and the 

potential for improvement is still wide but considering that the need for such 

infrastructures will reach its maximum at some point

65 and that the demand for aggregates 

will be sustained mainly through the maintenance and the replacement of roads, research 

has to be encouraged to find alternatives that will allow to achieve the 70% target and 

more in the long term. 

 Sorting at source: separation for an improved material quality 

An effective sorting out of mixed C&D waste is necessary to produce a higher noncontaminated concrete C&D waste fraction, to make easier the further recycling of this 

specific waste stream and improve the overall recycling rates66

. 

 

65 Interview with Alessio Rimoldi, Secretary General, European Concrete Platform 

66 Interview with Alessio Rimoldi, Secretary General, European Concrete Platform 
54 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Landfilling ban: a driver towards the development of alternatives 

The landfilling ban at the European level following the example set by the Netherlands 

would incentivise concrete waste producers into more re-use and recycling67

. 

This goes hand in hand with the funding of research for the development of new options 

and for the improvement of the existing options (in terms of energy consumption, 

efficiency and costs). Moreover, the ban of disposing of concrete waste in landfills is likely 

to ensure a more regular waste supply for recycling industries. 

According to the European Ready Mixed Concrete Organization, the goal of “zero landfill” 

of concrete can be achieved if the structure of a building is carefully planned and designed, 

and if the building undergoes successful renovation and deconstruction. 

 Quality certification for recycled materials: a secure framework for the re-use and 

recycling of concrete waste 

Quality certification of secondary materials (obtained after concrete waste has been 

processed) is expected to act as a proof that these materials can meet high security 

standards and achieve the same properties as virgin materials. Therefore, it is one of the 

solutions to promote the use of recycled aggregates and concrete blocks by contractors and 

manufacturers. CEN standards for aggregates already establish such requirements for 

aggregates used in concrete, mortar, and other applications. 

 Building conception: designing for the end of life 

Acting at the design phase of a building is another way of tackling the issue of C&D waste. 

Indeed, a careful design of the buildings and infrastructures would allow the dismantling 

and maximise the potential for re-use and recycling. Such an approach is also likely to 

lengthen the service life of buildings, decreasing the amount of concrete waste produced 

and therefore improving the current re-use and recycling rates. 

 Green building systems: promoting the use of former concrete waste 

Green building systems (e.g. German Sustainable Building Certificate, HQE – Haute Qualité 

Environnementale in France, BREEAM - BRE Environmental Assessment Method in the UK) 

can encourage the re-use of concrete elements and the use of structural concrete made of 

increasing recycled aggregates by integrating such criteria in their rating charts. This would 

influence public perception regarding the quality of recycled concrete and promote large 

possibilities for its use, by specifically addressing the recycled concrete issue in the system. 

 

67 Ibid. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 55 

5. Material focus: BRICKS, TILES AND CERAMIC 

Applications in the 

construction sector

Brick: masonry construction especially for building and 

Tile: covering of roofs, floors and walls 

 These ceramic products are made of fired clay 

Production 

in the EU-27

6.8 billion Euros sales in 2003 (for 23 European countries) 

No data available on quantities 

Waste generation 

in the EU-27 N/A 

Treatment options Landfill 

Recycling (replaces sand, 

gravel, stones, rocks e.g. to 

fill roads, to produce tennis 

sand, to serve as aggregate in 

concrete)

Re-use 

Current rates N/A N/A N/A 

Potential rates N/A N/A N/A 

Environmental 

impacts

Land-use, transportation 

Few significant net benefits

when crushing is needed (as 

only the preparation of virgin 

aggregates is avoided) or 

some net benefits when 

crushing is not necessary

Potential energy and local 

pollution savings in dense 

areas (shorter 

transportation) 

Higher potential net 

benefits (due to the 

avoidance of bricks, tiles 

and ceramics energy 

intensive production) 

Barriers to re-use 

and recycling of 

the waste

- Reduced costs of bricks, tiles and ceramics produced from raw materials 

Existing and 

potential drivers to 

re-use and 

recycling of the 

waste

- Design for the end-of-life (design for deconstruction to drive to re-use of 

bricks and tiles) 

- Increase the life span of buildings (>100 years) to reduce the amounts of 

waste generated. 

- Landfill taxes or landfill bans to promote alternatives 
56 European Commission DG ENV 

Draft Final Report – Management of construction and demolition waste May 2010

5.1. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS

A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent 

cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be 

amorphous. Because most common ceramics are crystalline, its definition is often restricted 

to inorganic crystalline materials. Ceramics are used in buildings as structural products 

including blocks but also used for external and internal walls, for external wall cladding, as 

pavers, water/sewage pipes, floors and roof tiles. 

Facing bricks and blocks are ceramic materials that are usually laid using mortar or glues. In 

many European MS including France, Germany, the UK, bricks have been used in 

construction for centuries as a part of the architectural heritage. 

A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic with a hard glaze 

finish used for covering roofs, floors and walls. Most ceramic construction products are 

traditionally made from locally available materials such as clay. 

The advantage of clay construction products is to be found in the energy saving during the 

use phase. Indeed, their density leads to lower variation in temperature and moisture, i.e. 

cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 

5.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

5.2.1. PRODUCTION DATA

The European Ceramic Industry is characterised by mostly small and local producers as well 

as some global leaders, such as Wienerberger68 for bricks, roof tiles, blocks and pavers 

(based in Austria) and Monier69 for roofing materials for pitched roofs, roof and chimney 

systems (headquarters in Germany70). 

The main bricks producing countries are Spain and Italy while France has a very strong 

roofing tile industry71

. 

Data regarding the production of tiles, bricks and ceramic in general at the national level for 

EU-27 MS is lacking, the reporting not being systematic. 

The only available data at the European level is an indication of the sales volume for bricks 

and roof tiles in Europe (limited to 23 countries72), which was estimated at 6.8 billion Euros 

sales in 2003 (with a 50,000 workforce). As international trade is assumed to be of limited 

 

68 www.wienerberger.com 

69 www.monier.fr 

70 Interview with expert Christophe Sykes, CERAME-UNIE 

71 www.cerameunie.eu/industry.html 

72 Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, UK, Greece, 

Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Spain, and 4 other 

European countries not members of the European Union 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 57 

importance for the ceramic Industry because it relies on the availability of local materials, 

this sales volume gives a good idea of the consumption volume of these products in Europe. 

5.2.2. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT DATA

Despite the potential long life of ceramic-based products that can easily exceed 100 years, 

clay brick buildings are most of the time demolished well before the end of their useful life, 

exception made of Scandinavian countries where clay brick buildings are usually used 

throughout their life-time. Bricks and tiles being highly durable materials, they can be reused after a building has been demolished. Nevertheless, deconstruction allowing for the 

re-use of this type of materials is not common outside Denmark. 

In 2006 approximately 318,000 tonnes of clay products from the building sector were 

recycled in Denmark. Clay products (bricks & roofing tiles with some mortar) have shown a 

higher increase in recycling rates compared to other building waste such as concrete & 

asphalt. Indeed, in 1996 approximately 93,000 tonnes of clay products was recycled. 

Therefore, an increase of recycling of 240% has taken place for clay products in ten years. 

Recycled clay products are mainly used as a filler material in concrete production73

. 

Nonetheless, the amounts of bricks and tiles waste, the associated recycling and re-use 

rates are not available at the EU-27 level due to the absence of a systematic European 

reporting system. 

Recycling and re-use rates are estimated to vary greatly across the EU depending on the 

construction standards, the life span of buildings and national legislation despite the huge 

recycling potential of bricks, tiles and ceramics. Indeed, the reclaim of bricks and roof tiles 

has been in place traditionally in many countries among which Belgium, France and 

Germany to give an old style to new buildings (The Netherlands and the UK to a smaller 

degree74).. Recycling and re-use practices among other MS are less developed though the 

bricks and tiles waste amounts are assumed to be more important, especially in Southern 

European MS such as Spain, Italy and Greece. This is due to the demolition practices not 

allowing for the recovery of these building elements. 

5.3. RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

5.3.1. EXISTING OPTIONS 

Recycling and re-use are detailed in this section. 

 Recycling 

A high proportion of ceramic C&D waste is well suited to being crushed and recycled as a 

substitute for newly quarried (primary) aggregates in certain lower grade applications such 

 

73 Interview with Christophe Sykes, CERAME-UNIE 

74 Ibid. 
58 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

as engineering fill and road sub-base. This practice has been common (though not 

necessarily widespread) in several MS for many years

75

. 

For instance, in the Netherlands where strong measures are taken for the protection of the 

environment, the recycling of this fraction is well established while it is under development 

in other MS such as Greece76. 

Using bricks, tiles and ceramics waste from demolition sites raises however some issues. 

Indeed, if the technical criteria for the use of granulated ceramic material are few, it needs 

to be absolutely free of contaminating elements such as mineral wool, concrete, heavy 

metals and PAHs77 (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) that may leach and cause ground 

water pollution. This often mixed and contaminated fraction needs therefore to go through 

cleaning, crushing and sieving processes before further recycling. 

The different recycling options promoted by the European Tiles and Bricks Association78 are 

described below: 

• To fill and stabilise minor roads, especially in wet areas such as woods and fields. 

The practice is common in countries that lack adequate stone supplies such as 

Denmark. The material is generally used uncrushed. 

• Crushed clay bricks, roof tiles and other masonry can be used on larger road 

building projects, especially as unbound base material. It is used to build roads 

in countries such as Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland and UK. In 

Germany, the maximum brick content for such use is 30%, due to quality 

requirements for frost attacks and impact resistance. The material replaces 

natural materials, such as sand and gravel, which are normally used in large 

amounts for this purpose. 

• Aggregates for in-situ. Crushed clay bricks and other masonry can also be used 

to level and fill pipe trenches. The fine crushed material will replace natural 

materials such as sand. 

• Crushed clay bricks, tiles and other masonry can also be used as aggregate in 

concrete. The crushed material replaces other raw materials such as sand. This is 

commonly practiced in Austria, Denmark, Switzerland and especially the 

Netherlands79

. 

• Tennis sand produced by crushing red bricks and roof tiles. The fine surface layer 

is laid over courser-grained layers that can comprise crushed clay brick matter. 

The process is most efficient when it occurs at brick or tile factories where there 

is an abundance of scrap material. 

 

75 [Symonds, 1999] 

76 Interview with Christophe Sykes, CERAME-UNIE 

77www.staywithclay.com/downloads/en-StayWithClay-Part5-DemolitionAndRecycling.pdf

78 TBE AISBL, www.tiles-bricks.eu 

79 www.tiles-bricks.eu 

•

•
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 59 

• Crushed bricks and tiles can also be used as plant substrates. The material may 

be mixed with composted organic materials and is especially suited for green 

roofs: the porosity of the material allowing retaining water plants can rely on 

during dry periods. 

 Re-use 

Extracting roof tiles and storing them for re-use is not difficult and bricks that are left 

over from building projects can also be diverted to other uses among which the 

incorporation into new buildings : for example, a new architectural trend in Berlin is to 

reuse facing bricks in new buildings. To do that, building deconstruction is imperatively 

required. However, these materials are often contaminated which raises several issues: 

• Cleaning bricks is time consuming, difficult and dusty work that, if mechanised, 

is apparently rarely successful. 

• Cement rich mortars are difficult to remove. In countries like Greece, where 

mortar from ancient constructions is a full ceramic material, it does not need to 

be removed. 

• Excess mortar dust can inhibit the adhesion between mortar and bricks and lead 

to weaker masonry, depending on the mortar composition. 

• Bricks may vary in quality. It is therefore difficult to assess the strength and loadbearing capacity of masonry made from recycled bricks. European and national 

standards are very strict and it is extremely difficult to be sure that re-used 

bricks used in new structures will be durable. 

• Due to the difficult nature and high labour costs associated with the process, the 

use of re-used bricks may be more expensive than the use of new bricks. 

5.3.2. EMERGING TECHNIQUES

An increasing amount of scientific research is carried out to improve the techniques to 

separate and clean bricks from other mixed C&D waste and especially from contaminants 

but at the present time, no emerging techniques have been identified80. 

5.4. ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF BRICKS, TILES AND 

CERAMICS WASTE MANAGEMENT

5.4.1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS

The following table summarises the impacts and benefits of the recycling and recovery 

options of bricks, tiles and ceramics, which are further described below. 

 

80 Interview with Christophe Sykes, CERAME-UNIE 
60 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 18 – Impacts and benefits for each option for the management of bricks, tiles and ceramics 

waste 

LANDFILL 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste to the landfill 

No release of pollutants to water if the fraction is 

not contaminated (bricks, tiles and ceramics are 

made of clay, a natural material). 

Use of land space 

- 

RECYCLING IN MINOR ROAD WORKS WITH NO FURTHER PROCESSING (E.G. UNCRUSHED) 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from rocks and gravel extracted from quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of bricks, tiles and ceramics waste 

Transportation of recycled material 

Use of recycled aggregates: dust production 

when loading, unloading the trucks and 

spreading the material on the roads 

Extraction of raw materials (rocks and 

gravel for aggregates): land-use for 

quarries, production of dust, use of natural 

resources 

Transportation of raw materials 

Biodiversity impacts 

Use of resources 

Production of aggregates from virgin 

materials: dust production and noise during 

crushing, sieving steps 

Transportation of aggregates 

Use of virgin aggregates: dust production 

+ 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 61 

RECYCLING IN HEAVY ROADS WORKS WITH FURTHER PROCESSING 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from rocks and gravel extracted from quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of bricks, tiles and ceramics waste 

Production of aggregates from bricks, tiles and 

ceramics C&D waste: dust production and noise 

during crushing and sieving steps 

Transportation of recycled material 

Use of recycled aggregates: dust production 

when loading, unloading the trucks and 

spreading the material on the roads 

Extraction of raw materials (rocks and gravel 

for aggregates): land-use for quarries, 

production of dust, use of natural resources 

Transportation of raw materials 

Biodiversity 

Use of resources 

Production of aggregates from virgin 

materials: dust production and noise 

Transportation of aggregates 

Use of virgin aggregates: dust production 

o 

RE-USE OF BRICKS, TILES AND CERAMICS C&D WASTE 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): manufactured bricks and tiles 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of bricks, tiles and ceramics waste 

Processing of bricks, tiles and ceramics waste: 

energy for cleaning and decontamination 

Transportation of bricks, tiles and ceramics to the

new construction site 

Extraction of raw materials (clay material): 

land-use for quarries, use of natural resources 

Biodiversity 

Transportation of raw materials 

Bricks, tiles and ceramic production: important 

initial energy consumption (energy intensive 

industry), associated greenhouse gases 

emissions 

Transportation of bricks, tiles and ceramics to 

the construction site 

++ 
62 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Direct impacts of landfilling 

Landfilling bricks, tiles and ceramics does not raise serious environmental issues especially 

for the release of pollutants into water except when these materials are coming from C&D 

activities and therefore often contaminated with potentially dangerous fractions: insulation 

wool, mortar, concrete81. 

The major environmental impact of landfilling comes from the use of space for the storage 

of inert C&D waste, particularly in countries where land is scarce. 

 Direct impacts of recycling as a road works material 

As presented in the above sections, the recycling of bricks, tiles and ceramics involves 

processing steps (crushing, sieving, transportation) in almost all cases, except for the use 

for minor roads where crushing is not necessary. These processes are therefore similar to 

the processing of natural materials which balances the environmental effects. 

The production of dust and particles during the crushing, sieving, transportation and 

storage steps is avoided , for example by spraying water on the crushed materials, by 

covering the conveyor belts and machineries, by enclosing dust producing processes and 

maintaining cleanliness of the industrial vehicles used for loading and transporting recycled 

bricks, tiles and ceramics82

. 

The noise from the aforementioned processes is a serious concern for the workers health 

and can be mitigated through appropriate personal training and equipment and through 

the use of quieter machines. 

 Net benefits of re-use and recycling 

Substitution to coarse and fine aggregates 

The use of recycled bricks, tiles and ceramics in the form of coarse and fine aggregates in 

the different recycling options developed in the above sections replaces virgin materials 

that would have been extracted and processed, which thus saves the use of raw aggregates 

and land space used for quarries. However, the use of raw materials is not really the issue 

since it is largely available locally in Europe and the extraction of clay for construction 

products represents only 5%83 of the total mineral extraction. Such a material is therefore 

not threatened by intensive exploitation. Finally, the impact of transportation of raw 

materials that is avoided through the use of recycled coarse and fine aggregates is limited 

since clay brick and tile plants are often situated alongside clay deposits or sand quarries, 

minimising the energy spent on transportation. 

 

81 These materials contain chemicals used as additives and that may have serious environmental 

impacts. 

82 www.tiles-bricks.eu 

83 Ibid. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 63 

Re-use – Substitution to bricks, tiles and ceramics produced from virgin materials 

The direct re-use of reclaimed bricks and tiles avoids the manufacturing processes, the 

associated energy consumption and gaseous emissions. Indeed, the Ceramic Industry is 

very energy intensive with an energy share of up to 30% of production costs84

. 

As an example, the specific energy consumption for the brick and roof-tile industry varied in 

2001 between 1.4 and 2.42 GJ per tonne85 which represents between 80 and 138 CO2

equivalents per tonne considering that the most commonly fuel used in this industry is 

natural gas86. This amount of CO2 equivalent is avoided thanks to the re-use of bricks and 

roof-tiles. 

However, it must be noted that the specific energy consumption for the production of 1 m2

brick wall was reduced by 40% from the 1990s to 2007, as the initially required 190 kWh 

were reduced to 115 kWh. 

The re-use of bricks and roof tiles also allows avoiding gaseous emissions to the 

atmosphere that normally occur during the manufacturing process. They are mainly of 

three kinds: 

• Emissions coming from ceramic conversion of the raw material in the kiln. The 

emissions are HCl (hydrochloric acid), HF (hydrofluoric acid), SOx (sulphuric acid) 

and C02. 

• Exhaust gas emissions from combustion processes (from drying and firing 

plants). The emissions are CO (carbon monoxide), CO2, NOx (nitrogen oxides) 

and particles. 

• Emissions of VOC’s (Volatile Organic Compounds) due to the use of organic 

substances (additives). 

5.4.2. ECONOMIC IMPACTS 

The harnessed extraction of clay and the development of new manufacturing techniques 

maintain clay bricks and tiles as competitive building materials that have good quality, long 

life, minimal maintenance requirements and provide energy efficient solution during the 

use phase. The reduced costs of bricks, tiles and ceramics produced from raw materials are 

therefore not encouraging the development of recycling87. The above mentioned number 

of SMEs would also decrease the chances for developments in recycling (heavy financial 

burden to SMEs while relatively small financial gains - if any -) except with the development 

of specific recycling facilities covering larger areas in a MS. 

 

84 www.cerameunie.eu/bricks.html 

85 www.staywithclay.com 

86 The emission factor used for the calculation is equal to 57 kg eq CO2/GJ 

87 www.tiles-bricks.eu 
64 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

5.5. TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET: DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

If the recycling and re-use is well established in countries such as the Netherlands and 

Germany, the effort required in order to increase recycling and re-use rates and help reach 

the 70% target is assumed to be important in other countries. Recycling techniques already 

exist but measures have to be taken to promote their development. Some potential drivers 

and barriers are summarised below. 

 Landfilling ban: a promotion for existing and developing recycling options 

The landfilling ban at the European level following the example set by the Netherlands 

would greatly encourage bricks and tiles waste producers to process their waste stream 

through the existing recycling chains and even fund research for the development of more 

efficient and highly demanding recycling techniques. 

Moreover, the ban of disposing of bricks, tiles and ceramics waste in landfills (or the 

increase of landfill taxes) is likely to ensure a more regular waste supply for recycling 

industries. 

 Building conception: designing for the end of life 

Designing for the deconstruction of buildings would make easier the reclamation of bricks 

and tiles, improve the quality of the waste stream and therefore increase the re-use of 

these elements for new construction projects. 

From another point of view, projects could be designed for longer life span, leading to the 

reduction of the waste stream. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 65 

6. Material focus: ASPHALT 

Applications in the 

construction sector Pavement for road construction and maintenance 

Production 

in the EU-27

Total: almost 300 Mt (2008) 

- 291 Mt of hot mix asphalt 

- 2.8 Mt of cold mix asphalt 

- 2.1 Mt of warm mix asphalt 

Waste generation 

in the EU-27 47 Mt of reclaimed asphalt (2008) 

Treatment options Landfill Recycling in a 

stationary plant In-situ Recycling Material recovery 

Current rates N/A N/A(up to 83% already achieved by some MS, 

e.g. Germany) 

N/A(up to 41% 

achieved by some MS, 

e.g. Hungary) 

Potential rates

Could absorb between 

30 and 80% of 

reclaimed asphalt 

Estimated at almost 

100% N/A 

Environmental 

impacts

Potential 

emissions of 

PAH when 

asphalt is 

contaminated 

with tar, landuse, 

transportation 

Positive potential net 

benefits as the 

preparation of virgin 

aggregates is avoided, 

reducing the carbon 

footprint 

Positive potential net 

benefits (the 

preparation of virgin 

aggregates and the 

transportation of both 

reclaimed and newly 

produced asphalt are 

avoided) 

Positive potential net 

benefits as the 

preparation of virgin 

aggregates is avoided 

Barriers to 

material recovery 

and recycling of 

the waste

- Availability and cost of raw material 

- The actual scientific knowledge for the improvement of the manufacturing 

process 

Existing and 

potential drivers to 

material recovery 

and recycling of 

the waste

- Increase virgin materials costs to create a new demand for reclaimed asphalt 

- Landfilling ban to encourage recycling practices 

- Improve the communication to show the economic benefit that would be 

associated with recycling practices 
May 2010 European Commission DG ENV 

Draft Final Report – Management of construction and demolition waste 66 

6.1. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS

Asphalt is a black viscous and elastic material made of bitumen acting as a binder 

composted of a mixture of aggregates, sand, filler and occasionally a number of additives. 

Three major types of asphalt are distinguished depending on the production temperature: 

hot88, warm89 and cold90 mix asphalt. The other asphalt materials are cutback, mastic and 

natural asphalt but they represent a minority which explains why they are not tackled in 

this chapter. 

To produce asphalt, a large panel of mix types exist depending on the asphalt position in 

the road structure (base91, binder92 or surface course93), on its particular function, on 

climatic conditions and on the nature of raw materials locally available94. 

The primary use of asphalt is in road infrastructure construction and in airports for runways 

and therefore referred as asphalt pavement95. Over 90% of the total road network in 

Europe is made of asphalt. 

The following table summarises the uses that are made of asphalt in road structure. 

Table 19 - Application in surface, binder and base courses in % of total annual production [EAPA, 

2008] 

Country Surface course Binder course Base course 

Austria 15 10 75 

Belgium 47 N/A 53 

Bulgaria N/A N/A N/A 

Cyprus N/A N/A N/A 

Czech Republic 59 19 22 

 

88 Hot mix asphalt (HMA) is a mixture of aggregate and bitumen, sometimes including modifiers, that 

is produced by mixing hot dried aggregate (150°C) with heated binder. Paving and compaction must 

be performed while the asphalt is sufficiently hot. HMA is commonly used for all kind of roads: hightraffic areas, low traffic areas, parking lots, airports, etc. 

89 Warm mix asphalt concrete (WMA) reduces the temperature required for manufacture by adding 

asphalt emulsions, waxes, or zeolites. This process results in less fossil fuel consumption and reduced 

emission of fumes. 

90 Cold mix asphalt is produced by emulsifying the bitumen in water with (essentially) soap prior to 

mixing with the aggregate. While in its emulsified state the asphalt is less viscous and the mixture is 

easy to work and compact. It is commonly used as a patching material and on lesser trafficked 

service roads. 

91 The sub-layer material of an asphalt roadway placed directly on top of the undisturbed soil so as to 

provide a foundation to support the top layer(s) of the pavement. 

92 Coarse aggregate with a bituminous binder between the foundation course and the wearing 

course of the asphalt pavement 

93 The top layer of the asphalt pavement 

94 [EAPA, 2005] 

95 A pavement consisting of a surface course of mineral aggregate coated and cemented together 

with asphalt cement on supporting course. It can be the result of hot, warm or cold mixtures 

depending on the characteristics of the road under construction or renovation (heavy or light traffic). 

Asphalt pavement is commonly composed of 5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, 

and gravel). 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 67 

Country Surface course Binder course Base course 

Denmark 44 5 51 

Estonia 68 29 3 

Finland 87 N/A 13 

France N/A N/A N/A 

Germany 30 19 51 

Greece 40 35 25 

Hungary 56 38 6 

Ireland 40 20 40 

Italy 50 30 20 

Latvia N/A N/A N/A 

Lithuania 32 34 34 

Luxembourg N/A N/A N/A 

Malta N/A N/A N/A 

Netherlands 32 4 60 

Poland 80 10 10 

Portugal 50 28 22 

Romania 30 24 46 

Slovakia N/A N/A N/A 

Slovenia 48 9 43 

Spain 51 24 25 

Sweden 40 20 40 

United Kingdom N/A N/A N/A 

Average EU-27 47.3 21.1 33.6 

The production of asphalt in a given country is highly dependent on the number of new 

roads built? For example, Poland presents a high production of asphalt for surface course, 

likely because major road construction works are undergone because of the preparation of 

the Football European Championship of 2010. 

In average, the most common use of asphalt in road works is for surface course (47% in EU27). Large discrepancies between countries can however be noted: as an example, Finland 

shows the higher use of asphalt for the surface of the pavement with 87% of the total use 

of asphalt, while in Austria only 15% is used for this same application. 

6.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

6.2.1. PRODUCTION DATA

Approximately 291 million tonnes of hot mix asphalt, 2.8 million tonnes of cold mix asphalt 

and 2.1 million tonnes of warm mix asphalt were produced in 200896 in Europe. Since 1973, 

 

96[EAPA, 2008]
68 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

the asphalt production has been decreasing but seems to have reached a more or less 

stable level, because of the volume of the maintenance works related to road construction. 

Production takes place in a fixed or mobile mixing plant with two main processes namely in 

batch plants and in continuous mixing or drum mixers. In Europe there are at the moment 

approximately 4,500 mixing plants. The production rate of these installations may vary 

between 25 and 800 tonnes per hour. 

Raw materials may be transported over long distances. The finished product however is 

normally applied within 30-50 km of the mixing plant. Distances up to 100 km may however 

be observed. 

The following table gives production data for hot mixed asphalt for 2005 and 2008 for most 

MS at the EU-27 level. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 69 

Table 20 – Total production of hot mixed asphalt in 2005 – 2008 in million tonnes [EAPA, 2008] 

Country 2005 2008 Population in 

2008 

Production per 

capita 

(tonnes/capita)

Share to the 

total EU-27 

production in 

2008 (%) 

Growth rate 

2005/2008 

Austria 10.0 9.5 8,318,592 1.1 3.3% -5.0% 

Belgium 5.2 4.9 10,666,866 0.5 1.7% -5.8% 

Bulgaria N/A N/A 7,640,238 N/A N/A N/A 

Cyprus N/A N/A 789,269 N/A N/A N/A 

Czech Republic 5.6 7.3 10,381,130 0.7 2.5% 30.4% 

Denmark 3.2 3.1 5,475,791 0.6 1.1% -3.1% 

Estonia 1.2 1.5 1,340,935 1.1 0.5% 25.0% 

Finland 6.2 6.0 5,300,484 1.1 2.1% -3.2% 

France 40.1 41.8 63,982,881 0.7 14.4% 4.2% 

Germany 57.0 51.0 82,217,837 0.6 17.5% -10.5% 

Greece 7.0 8.1 11,213,785 0.7 2.8% 15.7% 

Hungary 3.8 2.5 10,045,401 0.2 0.9% -34.2% 

Ireland 3.4 2.8 4,401,335 0.6 1.0% -17.6% 

Italy 40.1 31.6 59,619,290 0.5 10.9% -21.2% 

Latvia 0.6 0.6 2,270,894 0.3 0.2% 0.0% 

Lithuania N/A 2.2 3,366,357 0.7 0.8% N/A 

Luxembourg N/A 0.6 483,799 1.2 0.2% N/A 

Malta N/A N/A 410,290 N/A N/A N/A 

Netherlands 8.6 9.3 16,405,399 0.6 3.2% 8.1% 

Poland 15.0 15.0 38,115,641 0.4 5.2% 0.0% 

Portugal 11.1 9.0 10,617,575 0.8 3.1% -18.9% 

Romania 2.8 3.3 21,528,627 0.2 1.1% 17.9% 

Slovakia 1.8 2.2 5,400,998 0.4 0.8% 22.2% 

Slovenia 1.5 2.6 2,010,269 1.3 0.9% 73.3% 

Spain 41.5 42.3 45,283,259 0.9 14.5% 1.9% 

Sweden 7.2 8.7 9,182,927 0.9 3.0% 20.8% 

United Kingdom 27.9 25.0 61,179,256 0.4 8.6% -10.4% 

Total/average 

EU-27 300.8 290.9 497,649,125 0.6 100.0% -3.3% 

France, Germany, Italy and Spain produce 166.7 million tonnes of hot mix asphalt 

accounting for around 60% of the total production at the EU level. When considering the 

production in tonnes per capita, it ranges from 0.2 (Hungary and Romania) to 1.3 (Slovenia), 

the average at the EU-27 level being at 0.6 tonne per capita. 

For some countries, data are not available for the moment (Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Malta). 
70 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

6.2.2. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT DATA

Asphalt waste is generated during the demolition of existing infrastructures, when the 

existing asphalt layer is removed97. Asphalt waste generated through these steps is 

referred as reclaimed asphalt98 and can be 100% recycled depending on the recycling 

technique as shown in 6.3.1. 

The following table summarises the available data on quantities of reclaimed asphalt for 

most countries at the EU-27 level, and the total recycling rates achieved. The percentage of 

reclaimed asphalt available for each recycling technique, i.e. hot, cold and unbound layers, 

refer to the recycling rates currently achieved by the Asphalt Industry99

. 

 

97 According to EAPA experts, no asphalt waste is generated during the construction of new roads as 

surplus material is usually taken back by the producer. 

98 Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is the term given to removed and/or reprocessed pavement 

materials containing asphalt. These materials are generated when asphalt pavements are removed 

for reconstruction, resurfacing, or to obtain access to buried utilities. When properly crushed and 

screened, RAP consists of high-quality, well-graded aggregates coated by bitumen. 

99 Interview with Mr Egbert Beuving, Director of the EAPA 
71 European Commission DG ENV Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 

Table 21 - Recycling and incorporation rates of reclaimed asphalt. Adapted from [EAPA, 20

Country Available reclaimed asphalt (tonnes) 100 Population in 2008101 Available reclaimed asphalt per capita (kg/capita)

% of available 

reclaimed 

asphalt used in 

hot and warm 

recycling 

% of available 

reclaimed asphalt 

used in cold 

recycling 

% of 

reclaim

used i

la

[a] [b] [a]/[b] [c] [d] 

Austria 350,000 8,318,592 42,1 N/A N/A Belgium 1,500,000 10,666,866 140,6 55 0?104 Bulgaria N/A 7,640,238 N/A N/A N/A Cyprus N/A 789,269 N/A N/A N/A Czech Republic 1,500,000 10,381,130 144,5 25 30 Denmark 414,000 5,475,791 75,6 59 0 Estonia N/A 1,340,935 N/A N/A N/A Finland 500,000 5,300,484 94,3 N/A N/A France 6,500,000 63,982,881 101,6 23 <2 Germany 14,000,000 82,217,837 170,3 82 0 Greece 0 11,213,785 0,0 0 0 Hungary 27,560 10,045,401 2,7 26 18 Ireland 80,000 4,401,335 18,2 15 N/A Italy 13,000,000 59,619,290 218,1 N/A N/A Latvia N/A 2,270,894 N/A N/A N/A 

100 [a], [c], [d], [e], [f] were taken from [EAPA, 2008] 101 Source: Eurostat 102 Unbound layers refer to reclaimed asphalt in the base course which are not bound with bitumen contrary to the top layers 103 Refers to the percentage of the new hot and warm mix production that contains reclaimed material 104 Everywhere in this table, “0?” is an assumption made by BIO in the absence of data suggesting that the expected quantity mig

high percentage of at least one other recovery option. 
72 European Commission DG ENV Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Country Available reclaimed asphalt (tonnes) 100 Population in 2008101 Available reclaimed asphalt per capita (kg/capita)

% of available 

reclaimed 

asphalt used in 

hot and warm 

recycling 

% of available 

reclaimed asphalt 

used in cold 

recycling 

% of 

reclaim

used i

la

Lithuania N/A 3,366,357 N/A N/A N/A Luxembourg N/A 483,799 N/A N/A N/A Malta N/A 410,290 N/A N/A N/A Netherlands 3,500,000 16,405,399 213,3 83 0.50 Poland 1,100,000 38,115,641 28,9 4 N/A Portugal N/A 10,617,575 N/A N/A N/A Romania 18,000 21,528,627 0,8 60 10 Slovakia N/A 5,400,998 N/A N/A N/A Slovenia 25,600 2,010,269 12,7 51 49 Spain 1,150,000 45,283,259 25,4 48 18 Sweden 1,000,000 9,182,927 108,9 65 0? United Kingdom 4,000,000 61,179,256 65,4 N/A N/A Total for the 14 MS for which recycling rate is available 

30,815,160 330,911,148 93.1 60.4 

Total for the 18 MS for which reclaimed asphalt data is available 

48,665,160 465,328,770 104.6 

105 Rate indicated by EAPA but seems contradictory with the 4% of available reclaimed asphalt used in hot and warm recycling 
73 European Commission DG ENV 

Draft Final Report – Management of construction and demolition waste February 2011

As for the production of asphalt waste, the quantities of reclaimed asphalt vary greatly 

from a MS to another. Romania generates the least amount with only 18,000 tonnes while 

Germany produces 14 million tonnes of reclaimed asphalt. Germany, France, Great Britain 

and Italy generated 37.5 million tonnes of reclaimed asphalt in 2008 which represents 

almost 80% of the total amount generated throughout the EU (around 47 million tonnes). 

Those figures are more easily comparable when related to the total population. The 

available reclaimed asphalt per capita ranges from 0.8 (Romania) to 218.1 kg per capita 

(Italy), with an average of 104.6 kg per capita for EU-27. 

The reclaimed asphalt incorporation rates (content of reclaimed asphalt in the new asphalt 

produced) at the EU-27 level range from 0 to 66%. The highest reclaimed asphalt contents 

are found in the Netherlands with 66%, then in Germany with 60% and finally Denmark 

with 52%. In average, Western European countries have higher reclaimed asphalt content 

rates in hot and warm asphalt mix (41%106 in average) than Eastern European ones (6%107 in 

average). There is thus clearly some potential to recycle more asphalt. 

When looking at the total recycling rates, taking into account hot and cold recycling and the 

material recovery of reclaimed asphalt as unbound layers, a large variability exist between 

MS when the information is available. Indeed, the recycling rates vary between 0 and 100%, 

with an average of 82.9% for the 14 countries for which recycling rates are available108. 

Countries such as the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, 

Romania, Slovenia and Spain are already achieving recycling rates superior to 70%. On the 

other hand, Greece and Poland show the smallest recycling rates with respectively 0 and 

4%. The lack of information for other MS does not allow for a complete analysis of the 

current situation. 

6.3. RECOVERY OPTIONS

6.3.1. EXISTING OPTIONS

Landfilling and energy recovery not being recognised as interesting options by the Asphalt 

Industry because of the associated costs and the loss of a “secondary raw material”, the 

recovery and recycling of reclaimed asphalt have become more widespread in the last 

decades. If reclaimed asphalt is free of contamination, it can be guaranteed that the total 

amount of this reclaimed asphalt can be recovered or recycled as a construction material. 

Strict guidelines on the nature of the reclaimed material (size distribution, bitumen content, 

filler content, bitumen viscosity or hardness, etc.) are enforced in the asphalt industry to 

guarantee good quality end materials. 

 

106 Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden 

were taken into account. The average was weighted by the amount of reclaimed asphalt available in 

each country. 

107 Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania were considered for this calculation. The average 

was weighted by the amount of reclaimed asphalt available in each country. 

108 The average was weighted by the amount of reclaimed asphalt available in each country. 
74 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

A distinction is made in the following subsection between recycling, where the reclaimed 

asphalt is reprocessed into new mixes, and other forms of material recovery. 

 Recycling 

Recycling means adding the reclaimed asphalt to new asphalt mixes, with the aggregates 

and the old bitumen performing the same function as in their original application. 

Therefore, reclaimed asphalt replaces virgin aggregates and part of the binder. If asphalt is 

known as 100% recyclable material, the recycling rate depends on the applied technique. 

The recycling processes can be divided into two major methods: hot or cold mix recycling 

techniques. These can be further sub-divided into stationary plant or in-situ recycling. 

Stationary plant recycling (or “Offsite recycling”) consists in removing the material from the 

site to a plant located elsewhere which recycles the reclaimed asphalt in order to reintroduce it either on the original project or on other projects. In-situ recycling allows the 

reclaimed material to be incorporated directly back into the new asphalt pavement under 

construction or maintenance. 

The recycling options that are further described in this chapter are available since 1975 and 

are considered at the point of being able to deal with the current amount of recycled 

asphalt. 

Within both the cold and hot recycling process, screening and crushing of the reclaimed 

asphalt could be needed and special storage facilities at the mixing plant may be necessary. 

Modern plants are engineered to facilitate the addition of reclaimed material. 

The maximum amount of recycled material that can be incorporated in the new mix is 

determined by the mixing equipment but also by some parameters related to the old 

asphalt like consistency of material, moisture content, etc. To achieve the highest levels of 

recycling it is necessary to either confirm the lack of variability in the feedstock or to have 

precise data on its range of properties. The requirements for reclaimed asphalt are 

formulated in the European Standard EN 13108-8 “Reclaimed asphalt”. 

The difference between the cold and hot recycling methods only relies on the process to 

heat reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). 

 Hot mix recycling in a stationary plant 

In the case of the “hot method” in a hot mix recycling stationary plant, the reclaimed 

asphalt pavement (RAP) taken from demolished or renovated roads in general is 

transported to the asphalt plant. After being crushed and sieved (if needed), the RAP is 

directly preheated which requires an extra dryer (a dryer being already used to heat the 

virgin aggregates that are then incorporated into the asphalt mix). Incorporation rates for 

the hot method are typically 30-80%, the upper limit being determined by the quality 

requirements of the mix specification in relation to the properties of the old asphalt. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 75 

Figure 3 - Batch mixing plant for the hot RAP method [EAPA, 2005] 

A variation of the hot recycling is feeding the RAP into the same dryer as for virgin 

aggregates (method called recycling ring). The heating of the RAP takes place behind the 

flame, ensuring that it is not overheated. This method allows up to 35% incorporation rate. 

It is possible to use a recycling ring in combination with a rotary drum dryer achieving 

incorporation rates up to 50%. 

Figure 4 - Batch mixing plant: recycling via a recycling ring [EAPA, 2005] 

 Cold method in hot mix recycling in a stationary plant 

As for hot method, reclaimed asphalt is crushed and screened (if needed) so as to produce 

a consistent feedstock. The difference between hot and cold methods in hot mix recycling 

relies on the process to heat RAP: in the first case a specific dryer is needed while in the 

other case reclaimed asphalt is heated through the contact with heated virgin aggregates. 

In both cases, the reclaimed asphalt is used to produce new hot mix asphalt. The 

appropriate amount of new bitumen is then added in the mixing unit according to desired 

end properties. 
76 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Figure 5 - Batch mixing plant for the cold RAP method [EAPA, 2005] 

Cold methods in hot mix recycling achieve incorporation rates between 10 and 40%, 

depending on the RAP moisture content and quality, the type of the plant’s vapour 

extraction system and the technical process limitations regarding maximum permitted 

temperatures. Modifications to the plant are needed if quantities of more than 

approximately 10% of old asphalt are to be added to the mixing process. 

Though tar is not used anymore in road construction, amounts of asphalt containing tar109

can still be reclaimed when renovating old roads. In this case, the waste is considered 

hazardous and the hot recycling is not allowed. In some countries however, it is allowed to 

rely on cold techniques with or without binders. 

 Cold mix recycling technologies in a stationary plant 

The cold mix technology is a recent development that had been used for several years 

already. 

Reclaimed asphalt is returned to off-site plants with the same controlled crushing and 

screening process as for hot mix recycling. The similar requirements of the feedstock for 

hot and cold mix plants make it feasible to operate both processes on the same location. 

Two types of binder, foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion, have been used combined 

with the recycled asphalt. Both methods are able to produce materials with 90% recycled 

asphalt content. 

It is important to notice that the final engineering properties may in some cases be inferior 

to that of hot mix, but in others cases when using end-product specifications it can be at 

least equal. 

 

109 The definition of “asphalt containing tar” can differ from a country to another 

because there are different limits among MS depending on the national legislation. 

The definition in the EURAL waste list classifies reclaimed asphalt containing more 

than 0.1 % coal tar as hazardous waste. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 77 

The smaller number of components and less complex nature of cold mix plants has led to 

their successful adoption when needed in remote locations for short-term reconstruction 

programs. 

 Hot mix in-situ recycling 

In some cases, the location of a given project does not make it feasible to return reclaimed 

material to a plant for recycling. Therefore, in-situ recycling techniques have been 

developed to address this issue. Nevertheless, the use of this technique throughout the EU 

is mostly limited as a maintenance tool of road works. 

This technique involves the same process as for the hot mix recycling in a stationary plant 

while avoiding the transportation step. The existing pavement is partly removed to a 

controlled depth (not to disturb the sub-course), then the RAP is heated and mixed before 

bitumen and/or virgin aggregates could be added. Finally, the reclaimed mixture is laid back 

at its original place, creating a new asphalt surface course. 

Among other advantages there is the reduction in RAP transportation to an off-site 

recycling facility and the rapid re-opening of a new road surface. 

Figure 6 - Asphalt recycling travel plant [EAPA, 2005] 

 Cold mix in-situ recycling 

The cold mix in-situ system is comparable to the hot one except to the way bitumen is 

added. Indeed, bitumen is foamed thanks to an improved milling machine. The existing 

pavement is sprayed in a chamber in which the bitumen is foamed and mixing takes place. 

The recycled pavement is then spread ready for compaction and the application of a new 

running surface. 

Figure 7 - Cold-mix recycling [EAPA, 2005] 
78 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

It should be noted that the cold in-situ recycling is a method of recycling where no newly 

produced asphalt is used. 

The following table summarises data regarding the number of stationary and mobile plants 

available throughout the EU and the number that are able to deal with reclaimed asphalt 

for the hot recycling method. Stationary plants represent the majority with more than 

3,720 (almost 90% of the total 4,142 recycling plants) while only 422 mobile plants exist. 

Considering the facts that not all production sites are able to re-introduce reclaimed 

asphalt in the manufacturing process and that both hot and cold recycling methods can be 

operated in the same plants, these figures show a great potential adaptation of existing 

plants through investments. 

Table 22 - Number of production sites and number fit for hot recycling [EAPA, 2008] 

Country Stationary plants Mobile plants Number fit for hot recycling 

Austria 116 1 40 

Belgium 40 0 23 

Bulgaria N/A N/A N/A 

Cyprus N/A N/A N/A 

Czech Republic 110 3 70 

Denmark 42 2 46 

Estonia 10 15 6 

Finland 64 25 44 

France 434 79 150 

Germany 665 N/A 620 

Greece 240 10 0 

Hungary 68 11 42 

Ireland 58 15 15 

Italy 650 10 280 

Latvia 18 1 N/A 

Lithuania 39 1 21 

Luxembourg 4 0 2 

Malta N/A N/A N/A 

Netherlands 45 0 45 

Poland 280 20 2 

Portugal 15 110 20 

Romania N/A N/A N/A 

Slovakia 41 0 9 

Slovenia 19 2 N/A 

Spain 379 104 29 

Sweden 83 13 65 

United Kingdom 300 N/A N/A 

Total/average EU-27 3,720 422 1,529 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 79 

 Other forms of material recovery 

Material recovery refers to the utilisation of reclaimed asphalt as road base course 

material, with the recovered aggregate and bitumen performing a lesser function than in 

the original application. 

 To this end, reclaimed asphalt has to be crushed and sieved into different fractions for 

more accurate mix designs. 

6.3.2. EMERGING TECHNIQUES

Further research to develop new techniques or to improve the efficiency of the existing 

processes by using for example less energy and reducing the operating costs could 

contribute to increasing recycling rates. 

For instance, some current internationally coordinated research projects are aiming for 

further improvement of the technology cold mixing in-situ recycling110

. 

6.4. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF ASPHALT WASTE 

MANAGEMENT

6.4.1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS

The following table summarises the impacts and benefits of the different end of life options 

for asphalt, which are further detailed below. 

Table 23 – Impacts and benefits for each option for the management of asphalt 

LANDFILL 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste to the landfill 

Potential PAH releases to water (when 

contaminated with tar) 

Use of land space 

- 

 

110 [EAPA, 2005] 
80 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

RECYCLING IN A STATIONARY PLANT TO MAKE NEW ASPHALT

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from sand, stone and gravel extracted from 

quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste asphalt 

Processing of waste asphalt into aggregates: 

particles generation and noise during crushing 

and screening steps 

Production of new asphalt from reclaimed 

asphalt: fuel consumption for heating and 

associated greenhouse gases emissions (the 

energy consumption may be lower for the cold 

mix recycling method as the fuel consumption 

associated with the extra dryer of the hot mix 

recycling method is avoided) 

Transportation of recycled asphalt 

Extraction of raw materials (sand, stone 

and gravel): land-use for quarries, 

production of dust, use of natural 

resources, biodiversity 

Transportation of raw materials 

Processing of raw materials into 

aggregates: dust production and noise 

Production of asphalt from raw materials: 

fuel consumption for heating and bitumen 

production, and associated greenhouse 

gases emissions (the energy consumption 

may be lower for the cold mix method as 

the required temperature is lower that for 

the hot one, avoiding an extra fuel 

consumption) 

Transportation of asphalt made from virgin 

materials 

+ 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 81 

IN-SITU RECYCLING TO MAKE NEW ASPHALT 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from sand, stone and gravel extracted from 

quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Processing of waste asphalt into aggregates: 

particles generation and noise during crushing 

and screening steps 

Production of new asphalt from reclaimed 

asphalt: fuel consumption for heating and 

associated greenhouse gases emissions 

Use of binders for fluxed asphalt in cold recycling

processes 

Extraction of raw materials (sand, stone 

and gravel): land-use for quarries, 

production of dust, use of natural 

resources, biodiversity 

Transportation of raw materials 

Processing of raw materials into 

aggregates: dust production and noise 

Production of asphalt from raw materials: 

fuel consumption for heating and 

associated greenhouse gases emissions 

Transportation of asphalt made from virgin 

materials 

+ 

RECOVERY OF RECLAIMED ASPHALT AS A ROAD BASE COURSE IN THE FORM OF AGGREGATES 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from sand, stone and gravel extracted from 

quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits

Transportation of reclaimed asphalt 

Processing of waste asphalt into aggregates: 

dust production and noise during crushing 

and sieving steps (not relevant when the 

material is resulting from milling operations, 

therefore meeting the size requirements) 

Transportation of recycled aggregates 

Extraction of raw materials (sand, stone 

and gravel): land-use for quarries, 

production of dust, use of natural 

resources, biodiversity 

Transportation of raw materials 

Processing of raw materials (rocks, stone, 

gravel, sand) into aggregates: dust 

production and noise 

Transportation of virgin aggregates 

+ 
82 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Direct impacts of landfilling 

According to the EAPA111, asphalt pavement (new or containing reclaimed asphalt) does not 

leach significantly. Therefore the major environmental impact is the use of land space, as 

for the other studied fractions. 

However, a potential complicating factor may be the presence of contaminants such as 

tar112, whose higher concentrations of PAH's (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and/or 

phenol content and associated effects on human health (carcinogenic) led to the end of its 

use. Although it has been replaced entirely by bitumen for asphalt mixes in Europe, it may 

still be encountered in various proportions in some areas when old pavements are 

removed. In this case, RAP is classified as hazardous waste and must be managed according 

to the European legislation. 

 Direct impacts of recycling 

For both recycling in a stationary or mobile plant, reclaimed asphalt might have to go across 

the crushing and screening steps before being reintroduced into the manufacturing 

process. This is expected to produce particles and may raise health concerns if the 

machinery is not covered. However, these impacts are also related to the processing of raw 

materials. Moreover, when the reclaimed asphalt is obtained from milling operations (by a 

milling machine) the particle size might be the right one and then no additional crushing is 

needed. 

The direct impacts of transportation are highlighted only when RAP is being sent back to 

asphalt manufacturer (i.e. for recycling in stationary plants). Fuel consumption and 

greenhouse gases emissions are comparable to the ones associated with the transportation 

of raw materials. 

 Direct impacts of material recovery 

They are similar to the ones developed in the above subsection: related to transportation of 

both reclaimed asphalt and recycled aggregates and the production of particles and noise. 

These impacts are estimated to be the same as for virgin aggregates. 

 Net benefits of recycling and material recovery 

Recycling of reclaimed asphalt allows saving natural resources that would have been 

extracted in quarries and limiting the transportation when they are located in remote 

places. Bitumen being also re-used, unnecessary bitumen production is also avoided. This 

reduces the fuel and energy consumption related to the extraction step and the production 

of bitumen, which therefore limits the emissions of greenhouse gases. 

Indeed, the carbon footprint for recycled asphalt is lower than for asphalt made of virgin 

materials. The equivalent carbon dioxide indicator is 1.25 kg CO2 equivalents per tonne of 

 

111 Interview with Mr Egbert Beuving, Director of the EAPA 

112 Tar is the result of the distillation of coal, while bitumen is the result of the 

distillation of crude oil. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 83 

asphalt per annum for a 40-year old asphalt pavement made of virgin materials while it is 

0.7 kg CO2 equivalents per tonne of asphalt containing reclaimed asphalt (divided by almost 

1.8). 

The net benefits for in-situ recycling could be assumed higher than for a stationary plant or 

recovery as transportation to the recycling plant and to the construction site are avoided. 

However, this is of limited importance since transportation only represents 6% in the 

carbon footprint balance because both extracted materials and reclaimed asphalt are 

available locally. The benefits would therefore come almost entirely from the extraction 

step that is assumed to be energy intensive and generate greenhouse gases. 

6.4.2. ECONOMIC IMPACTS

The processes for the preparation of reclaimed aggregates (crushing, sieving) being the 

same as virgin materials, the production costs are estimated to be identical. On the other 

hand, the availability of virgin aggregates explains why the supply costs for these materials 

are limited which therefore does not encourage asphalt producers to turn to reclaimed 

asphalt as a substitution. However, landfilling and incineration for energy recovery are not 

considered as viable asphalt management options according to the industry as asphalt is an 

added-value material that is easily recycled thanks to the existing techniques113

. 

6.5. TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET: DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

As shown in the above sections, 8 MS are already achieving recycling rates over 70%, while 

2 others (Belgium and France with respectively 55% and 65% recycling rates) are getting 

closer. Therefore, asphalt waste shows great potential for recycling for MS with low 

recycling rates (Poland and Greece) and those for which data is not available. In addition to 

the environmental benefits developed in the above section, asphalt producers can also find 

in developing recycling options economic benefits due to the avoidance of unnecessary 

landfill and energy recovery costs, as well as saving costs related to virgin aggregates 

purchase. The barriers and drivers identified by the experts interviewed are further 

described below. 

 Investments 

Asphalt recycling plants need to be modified to be able to introduce more reclaimed 

material in the manufacturing process. Moreover, the improvement of the recycling rates 

and the efficiency of the process (reducing the energy consumption would reduce the costs 

of recycled material) goes hand in hand with scientific research. All these actions represent 

substantial investments that may require financial support. 

 

113 Interview with Mr Egbert Beuving, Director of the EAPA 
84 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Increasing cost of virgin materials: a driver towards the systematic use of reclaimed 

asphalt 

Even if the availability of virgin materials is not yet the issue, the increasing cost of virgin 

materials would push asphalt producers to turn to reclaimed asphalt as a secondary raw 

material. This would create a demand and economic opportunities that would drive the 

improvement of recycling rates. 

 Landfilling ban: a driver towards the systematic recycling of reclaimed asphalt 

Though landfilling is not commonly practiced for asphalt waste, a landfilling ban (as already 

enforced in the Netherlands) or high landfill taxes would therefore lead to higher amounts 

to be managed by waste producers and asphalt manufacturers. The expected direct effect 

is the shift towards the obligation of applying the existing recycling techniques that are 

readily available to deal with important amounts of reclaimed asphalt. 

 Increasing the communication to asphalt producers to promote recycling 

Even though asphalt producers are well aware of the economic benefits that can come 

from recycling RAP in certain parts of Europe, a better communication from national 

environmental agencies towards the Asphalt Industry would highlight such benefits in other 

countries. A way of delivering this message would be the organisation of workshops and 

conferences where asphalt producers would measure the benefits in practical and 

economic terms. 

Finally, it should be noted that the name “asphalt waste” does not stimulate the use of 

reclaimed asphalt. The word waste is mostly associated in a negative way. Indeed, using 

waste in the production of new products is often seen as a potential problem. Considering 

reclaimed asphalt as a product, as aggregates, would stimulate its re-use and recycling. 

 Presence of contaminants preventing recycling 

Before the use of asbestos was prohibited, asbestos fibres were used in the production of asphalt. 

This was for example the case in France before 1997, and this raises the issue of recycling asphalt 

that was produced before this date: difficulties linked to the identification of asphalt containing 

asbestos were raised by some experts114

. 

 

114 Laurent Chateau, ADEME, comments on the draft final report 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 85 

7. Material focus: WOOD 

Applications in the 

construction sector Roof structure, building framework, floors, doors, etc. 

Production 

in the EU-27

Total production value: 268.4 billion Euros (2007) 

- Furniture industry accounts for 48% 

- Construction Sector accounts for 20%

Estimated consumption of construction wood in EU-27: 41.5 million tonnes115

Waste generation 

in the EU-27

Total amount of waste generated within the EU-27: 70.5 million tonnes (2004) 

Estimation for C&D wood waste: 10-20 million tonnes generated/year 116in the EU-27 

Treatment options Landfill Recycling into derived 

timber products Energy recovery 

Current rates 35% 31% 34% 

Potential rates N/A N/A N/A 

Environmental 

impacts

Production of methane 

(CH4) land use, 

transportation 

Positive net benefits due to 

the avoidance of logging and 

the release of CO2 to the 

atmosphere (associated to 

fossil fuel consumption and 

the carbon sink) and the 

exploitation of natural 

resources. 

Positive net benefits due to 

the avoidance of CO2, 

particulates, VOCs (volatile 

organic compounds), PAHs 

(polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons) release to the 

atmosphere. 

The produced heat can be 

used in cogeneration 

(produce electricity and 

provide public buildings, 

plants or homes with heat) 

Barriers to re-use 

and recycling of 

the waste

- Competition between energy recovery and material recovery 

- Contamination with hazardous substances 

Existing and 

potential drivers to 

re-use and 

recycling of the 

waste

- Collection schemes for C&D wood waste 

- Efficient sorting of the waste stream 

 

115 Extrapolated from UK data (WRAP, 2009) 

116 Based on various estimates provided by [JRC, 2009]and [WRAP, 2009] 
86 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report – Management of construction and demolition waste February 2011

7.1. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS

More that 50% of the worldwide supply of wood is used as firewood or for the production 

of charcoal (energy use). Only less that 50% is available for industrial use which includes117

: 

• Paper (printing, packaging, cardboard and newspaper) 

• Sawn wood 

• Panels and fibreboards 

• Sawdust 

In the construction sector, wood is used in a wide variety of products: 

• Roof structure 

• Building framework 

• Wooden floor and terrace 

• Wood beams to sustain construction frameworks 

• Kitchens, doors 

7.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

7.2.1. PRODUCTION DATA

In 2007, overall production value in the EU woodworking industries reached 268.4 billion 

Euros. Extra-EU imports and exports are relatively small (respectively 25.6 billion Euros and 

22.6 billion Euros in 2007) [CEI, 2007]. This production value has grown steadily over the 

past few years; as a result the apparent consumption within EU-27 is close to the 

production value of the sector. 

 

117 [JRC, 2009] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 87 

Table 24 – Production of the woodworking industry in the EU in million Euros between 2003 and 

2007 (Source: The Woodworking Industry in the European Union in 2007, CEI Bois & European 

Panel Federation) 

 

2003 2006 2007 Growth rate 

2003/2007 

Growth rate 

2006/2007 

Sawmilling of wood 27.550 34.200 37.522 36,2% 9,7% 

Manufacture of wood-based 

panels 19.085 23.732 25.168 31,9% 6,1% 

Manufacture of other builders' 

carpentry and joinery 

(construction elements) 

41.813 47.500 53.050 26,9% 11,7% 

Manufacture of wooden 

packaging 8.114 9.967 10.995 35,5% 10,3% 

Manufacture of other products 

of wood 12.219 11.386 12.142 -0,6% 6,6% 

Subtotal 108.781 126.785 138.877 27,7% 9,5% 

Manufacture of furniture 106.852 121.091 130.024 21,7% 7,4% 

Total 215.633 247.876 268.901 24,7% 8,5% 

The following diagram illustrates the share of each subsector to the production of the 

woodworking industries in 2007: 

Figure 8 – Relative importance of the subsectors in the production of 2007 [CEI, 2007] 

The share of the furniture industry accounted for 48% of the total woodworking industries 

production value in 2007. Within the other branches of the woodworking industry, the 

construction elements sector is a leading subsector, accounting for 20% of the total. 

No European statistics on the consumption of wood products by the construction sector 

was identified. In the UK alone, WRAP estimated that the construction industry consumes 

approximately 5.1 million tonnes of wood per year. A population based extrapolation 
88 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

allows an estimation of construction wood consumption of about 41.5 million tonnes per 

year in EU-27118. 

7.2.2. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT DATA

The total amount of waste wood generated at the EU-27 level is estimated at 70.5 million 

tonnes in 2004, among which 45.7 million tonnes were recycled directly or in energy 

recovery processes (65% recycling)119

Among this stream, the JRC recognises that current statistical data do not allow for a 

precise allocation of this waste flow to C&D waste. Indeed, wood separately collected from 

C&D waste (category 17 02 01 of EWC) is reported to EUROSTAT along with other wood 

waste, making the allocation impossible due to the aggregated data basis. The JRC 

therefore proposes an estimation of 9,757,000 tonnes of C&D waste wood (14% of the 

total waste wood generated). 

However, these figures are probably underestimated. A market survey performed in 2008 

by WRAP in the UK indicates that the wood waste arising from the C&D sector accounted 

for 2,321,900 tonnes per year, representing over 50% of the total wood waste generated120

. 

A (population-based) extrapolation of these figures to the EU-27 would give an estimated 

18,887,000 tonnes of C&D wood waste. 

Best available data therefore leads to an estimation of C&D wood waste generation ranging 

from 10 to 20 million tonnes per year in the EU-27. 

Even though we are considering C&D waste as one and only stream, the C&D activities 

produce quite different types of waste. Construction generates off cuts from structural 

timbers, timber packaging, scaffolding, and wooden hoardings while demolition produces 

used structural timbers, e.g. floorboards, joists, beams staircases and doors121

. 

The destination of the waste is presented in the following table. 

Table 25 – Treatment of wood waste (incl. C&D wood waste) in the EU-27 in 2004 (Source: JRC 

2009) 

Treatment option % of wood waste generated 

Recycling 31% 

Energy recovery 34% 

Disposal (landfill or incineration 

w/out energy recovery) 35% 

65% of the wood waste generated in Europe was therefore estimated to be recovered (as 

material or energy). 

 

118 EUROSTAT population data was used to perform this extrapolation. 

119 [JRC, 2009] 

120 [WRAP, 2009] 

121 [WRAP, 2005] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 89 

As waste from the wood sorting process is relatively low (5% of the amount entering sorting 

facilities), there is a certain potential of improvement through a more systematic source 

separation and collection of wood waste. Extrapolating from the above figures, if all wood 

waste was correctly sorted, respectively up to 45% and 50% of wood waste would be 

recycled and incinerated with energy recovery. 

The suitability of wood waste for recycling depends on its level of contamination. The 

following categories are usually distinguished: 

• Untreated lumbers 

• Coated lumbers with surface coating not containing organohalogen compounds 

• Coated lumbers with surface coating containing organohalogen compounds 

• Lumbers treated with timber preservative 

Recycling is suitable only for the first two categories; the only option for the other types of 

wood is energy recovery in specialised plants meeting high standards for emission control. 

In 2004, around 15% of the waste wood generated in the EU-27 was classified as hazardous 

waste. 

7.3. RECOVERY OPTIONS

7.3.1. EXISTING OPTIONS

The main existing options for recovery are the following: 

• Energy recovery 

• Recycling in the production of derived timber products 

• Other forms of material recovery: landscaping, animal bedding, equestrian 

surfaces, composting, etc. 

Before the recovery of wood waste, pre-treatment steps are usually required. 

 Pre-treatment 

The pre-treatment applied to bulk C&D wood waste are the following1

: 

• Manual sorting to remove contaminants 

• Single-stage, two-stage or three-stage crushing 

• Segregation of ferrous and non-ferrous materials (by magnets or cyclones) 

• Segregation of minerals like concrete through sieving 

• Segregation of light-weight elements like plastics through single-stage or multistage air sieving 
90 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Energy recovery 

Ways to obtain energy from wood waste can be: 

• In small heating systems 

• In heating systems requiring authorisation 

• In facilities for gasification 

• In facilities for the production of cement and cement clinker 

• In municipal waste incinerators 

Energy recovery is, most of the time, the only option available for wood waste 

contaminated with hazardous substances. Moreover, it is encouraged by European 

(Directive on the production of electricity from renewable energy sources) and national 

policies on renewable energies. 

 Recycling into derived timber products 

In the past few years, the wood recycling has known improvements along with the 

development of companies dedicated to this activity. C&D wood waste can be 

remanufactured into high added-value products such as medium density particle boards or 

fibreboards or even wooden plastic that can contain a high proportion of recycled 

materials. 

This application is by far the main application for recycled wood. Latest UK data (2007) 

show that wood panel manufacturers use 58% of the wood waste in the UK. 

The particle board production in the EU-27 is estimated122 to be around 30 million m3. 1m3

of particle boards necessitating 0.65 tonnes of wood on average, 19.5 million tonnes of 

wood are needed each year to sustain the European production of particle boards. The 

share of post-consumer recycled wood input into this production shows high geographical 

differences (from 20% in France to 80% in Italy), and is estimated to reach 24% on 

average122 (5 million tonnes). This represents 25% to 50% of the C&D waste wood 

generated in Europe. This estimation is in line with the average EU-27 recycling rate of 31% 

proposed by the JRC (see 7.2.2. 

 Other forms of material recovery 

Other forms of recovery of non-contaminated wood waste include: 

• Landscaping, where recycled wood can be used as decorative mulches, surface 

material for pathways, or impact absorbing playground surfaces 

• Equestrian surfaces, for both indoor and outdoor arenas 

• Animal bedding products 

 

122 [EPF, 2010] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 91 

The extent of such applications in the EU is currently unknown. However, WRAP’s study 

shows that the production of animal bedding and equines surfaces is the third most 

important end user industry of recycled wood. 

7.3.2. EMERGING TECHNIQUES

 Colour indicator techniques to detect contamination of wood waste 

The potential contamination of wood waste with hazardous substances is a key factor to 

determine whether this waste is suitable for recycling or other forms or material recovery, 

or has to be incinerated in specialised plants. Research has been done in order to facilitate 

the detection of contaminated wood waste and the effective sorting of the waste stream. 

An example of this is the set of methods published by WRAP on colour indicator techniques 

to detect contamination of wood waste with wood preservatives or copper. 

 Re-use 

Wood from buildings reaching their end of life can be directly re-used when proper 

deconstruction methods have been implemented. This could be encouraged by the 

increasing market demand for large dimensions building pieces. Nevertheless, these 

practices seem very marginal at the moment. 

7.4. ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF WOOD WASTE 

MANAGEMENT

7.4.1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

The following table summarises the impacts and benefits of the recycling and recovery 

options of waste wood, which are further described below. 

Table 26 – Impacts and benefits for each option for the management of wood waste 

LANDFILL 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of wood waste to the landfilling 

site 

Release of methane to the atmosphere (except 

when burnt in flare for its complete combustion, 

therefore replaced by CO2) 

Use of land space 

--
92 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

ENERGY RECOVERY 

Substituted material: fossil fuels or any other source of energy (depending on the country) 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of wood waste to the incineration 

plant 

No release of pollutants the air thanks to 

appropriate air control equipment and dust 

filters 

Energy consumption based on fossil fuels 

resources (energy recovery from wood waste is 

encouraged and considered as a renewable 

energy) as the heat produced can be used to 

heat surrounding buildings or to produce 

electricity. 

Release of CO2, particulates, VOCs (volatile 

organic compounds), PAHs (polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons) compared to other material 

incineration. 

+ 

RECYCLING INTO DERIVED TIMBER PRODUCTS 

Substituted material (in the same proportion): aggregates from rocks and gravel extracted from quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste wood to wood 

manufacturers 

Production of timber products from waste wood: 

energy consumption for the cleaning, cutting, 

crushing steps, noise production 

Exploitation of forests: energy consumption 

for logging and associated greenhouse gases 

emissions (or release considering that trees 

act as carbon sinks) 

Transportation of virgin wood to the 

manufacturing plant (may be substantial 

when considering tropical wood from South 

America or South East Asia) 

Production of timber products from wood: 

energy consumption for the cleaning, cutting, 

crushing steps, noise production 

+ 

 Impacts of landfilling 

As for other organic materials, landfilling of C&D wood waste leads to emissions of 

methane which is a greenhouse gas showing a global warming potential of 72 over 20 

years, while carbon dioxide’s is 1. Moreover, landfill of wood is associated with the 

unnecessary use of land and may lead to the contamination of the water table in the case 

the contaminated fractions has not been properly removed or isolated from the 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 93 

environment. The sources of contamination come from the surface chemicals that are used 

as glue, varnish, coating or wood preservatives to increase the material durability. 

 Impacts of energy recovery 

Both Directive 2001/77/EC on the production of electricity from renewable energy sources 

and the Renewable Energy Directive favour the recycling market of waste wood and in 

particular C&D waste wood. 

 Impacts of recycling into derived timber products 

Compared to incineration, recycling of C&D wood waste allows avoiding the production of 

particulates, carbon monoxide and various volatile organic compounds, i.e. PAHs, from the 

inefficient burning of wood. These hazards should however be limited when incineration 

takes place in a plant compliant with the Waste Incineration Directive. 

To ensure good quality products made from secondary wood, the standard limits for toxic 

elements in recycled wood are the same as for raw materials. The limit values of chemical 

contamination in supplied material have to comply with existing regulations and are 

summarised in the following table. 

Table 27 - Chemical contamination limits for recycled wood use [EPF, 2002] 

Elements/Compounds Limit values (mg/kg recycled) 

Arsenic (As) 25 

Cadmium (Cd) 50 

Chromium (Cr) 25 

Copper (Cu) 40 

Lead (Pb) 90 

Mercury (Hg) 25 

Fluorine (F) 100 

Chlorine (Cl) 1000 

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) 5 

Creosote (Benzo(a)pyrene) 0.5 

For C&D wood waste that show contamination rates below the standards, surface 

treatments have to be realised to scrap the contaminated surface and to be able to use it as 

a secondary material. 

The recovery of C&D wood waste allows saving natural resources even if nowadays wood is 

considered as renewable resource and that forestry is supervised within European 

countries where cut trees are replaced for a sustainable exploitation. Unfortunately, that is 

not always the case for tropical woods that are imported on the European market. 
94 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

7.4.2. ECONOMIC IMPACTS

Due to the competition of utilisation and the limited supplies, the market price for recycled 

wood is going up. The margin of the market price is influenced by the following elements: 

• The regionally available amount of waste wood 

• The intensity of the competition between material and energy recovery 

• Seasonal variations (winter stock etc.) 

In Germany for example, prices for waste wood differ not only depending on the type of 

wood but also between regions. Therefore, average prices only give some orientations. For 

highly contaminated waste wood, the distributor even has to face additional costs for 

proper disposal and/or special treatment (negative values in the following table). 

Table 28 – Average prices range for selected waste wood fractions in Germany [JRC, 2009] 

Waste wood categories 

Average prices in €/tonne between July 

2002 and July 2007 

Non treated waste wood – wood chips 22 to 28 

Pre-treated waste wood – prefolding (0-

300 mm) 

- 4 to +4 

Non-treated waste wood – prefolding (0-

300 mm) 

14 to 18 

Contaminated waste wood – wood chips 

(0-150 mm) 

-20 to +9 

Pre-treated waste wood – wood chips (0-

150 mm) 

5 to 13 

Contaminated waste wood – prefolding 

(0-300 mm) 

-34 to -2 

In general, the prices for sorting, storage and treatment of specific waste wood fractions 

are not an incentive to the development of waste wood recovery. 

7.5. SCENARIO TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET: DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

Recycling could be improved by measures by the MS to promote efficient sorting of C&D 

wood waste to avoid contamination, to make greater amounts of wood waste available for 

the industry and as a consequence achieve better recovery rates from C&D wood waste. 

As a result of the European strategy of security and sustainable energy and the Landfill 

Directive, the use of waste wood for either material or energy recycling are expected to play 

a dominant role in wood waste management and stimulate the competition between 

material recycling and energy recovery. However, incentives to use waste wood as a 

renewable energy source might hinder the 70% recycling target, as energy recovery is not 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of construction and demolition waste 95 

included in the target. This issue is amplified in countries where wood represents an 

important fraction of the C&D waste stream (e.g. northern European countries). 
96 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

8. Material focus: GYPSUM 

Applications in the 

construction 

sector

Buildings 

Production 

in the EU-27

Total: about 44 Mt

- Natural gypsum (extracted): about 28,878 Mt (2008) 

- Synthetic gypsum: 15,200 Mt (2005 forecast for EU-25) 

Waste generation 

in the EU-27 A minimum of 4 Mt 

Treatment options Landfill 

Recycling into new plasterboards 

In substitution of natural 

gypsum 

In substitution of 

synthetic gypsum 

Current rates Gypsum demolition waste: 100% 

Gypsum construction waste: N/A 

Gypsum demolition waste: n/a123

Gypsum construction waste: estimation of 3 to 10%

of waste gypsum from plasterboards 

Potential rates N/A 25 to 30% of waste gypsum from plasterboards 

Environmental 

impacts

Production of the toxic gas H2S if 

plasterboards are landfilled in 

inert landfills (EU legislation 

requires specific cells in inert 

landfills to avoid H2S emissions 

but implementation is not always 

correct) 

Land-use, transportation 

Few significant net 

benefits

Potential energy and local 

pollution savings in dense 

areas (shorter 

transportation) 

Resource use 

Avoiding extraction 

activities (land use and 

biodiversity) 

Higher net benefits (a 

higher energy 

consumption is 

associated to the 

manufacturing of 

plasterboards from 

synthetic gypsum due 

to its higher moisture 

content) 

Barriers to re-use 

and recycling of 

the waste

- High availability and low cost of raw material 

- Selective deconstruction techniques are already designed but are not implemented 

because too costly 

- In most countries, landfill taxes are too low to encourage the development of 

recycling 

- Export of gypsum wastes for backfilling (e.g. former salt mines in DE) 

- The manufacturing processes currently do not allow the re-introduction of a higher 

recycled gypsum powder content 

Existing and 

potential drivers 

to re-use and 

recycling of the 

waste

- Sorting at the construction site and at the demolition phase of a building to increase 

the quantity of C&D waste to be recycled. At the demolition phase, deconstruction 

should be encouraged (also financially) instead of demolition 

- Characterisation of gypsum waste: specifications for recycled gypsum 

- Collection systems to collect a higher amount of gypsum waste 

- R&D to adapt the manufacturing processes in order to allow the re-introduction of a 

higher recycled gypsum powder content 

- Higher and harmonised landfill taxes across the EU to push for other alternatives 

- Availability of public amenity sites/public waste recycling centres 

 

123 Current deconstructed buildings contain plaster but not plasterboard (as many 

buildings over 40 years old in Europe contain little plasterboard). Plaster is uneasy to 

recycle due to the fact that it sticks to the bricks. It then goes to mixed C&D waste 

inert landfills. Therefore, current recycling rates are low. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 97 

8.1. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS

There are two types of gypsum: natural gypsum (which is directly extracted) and synthetic 

gypsum. 

Gypsum124 is a rock-like mineral commonly found in the earth’s crust and produced from 

open-cast or underground mines. In Europe, the principal gypsum deposits are located in 

France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia, Spain, the UK and Ukraine125. Gypsum is generally 

screened to remove ‘fines’ (mainly mudstones), then crushed and finely ground. 

Gypsum is used mainly in the manufacture of non load-bearing building elements for 

setting the ceiling on and dividing the interior space. The gypsum industry is therefore 

principally driven by the construction activity and the demand for new and refurbished 

housing. 

Gypsum based applications range from complex high-tech systems to easy to install 

products: 

• Plasterboard: used for partitions and the lining of walls, ceilings, roofs and 

floors. The properties of plasterboard can be modified to meet specific 

requirements, such as fire resistance, humidity resistance, shock resistance, 

etc. More than 1.6 million m2 of European interior surfaces are covered with 

plasterboards every year. 

• Decorative plaster: plaster powder, mixed with water, manually or through the 

use of silo-supplied spray systems, is used to create lining for brick, block walls 

and for ceilings. More than 5 million tons of plaster is used in Europe for 

interior lining. 

• Building plaster: used for walls and ceilings. 

• Plaster blocks: used for partitions and gypsum tiles for ceilings. More than 20 

million m2 of European interior walls are separated using plaster blocks. 

• Gypsum based self levelling screeds: anhydrite or alpha-Hemihydrates are used 

in the production of self-levelling floor screeds. 

• Gypsum fibreboards: used for partitions and the lining of walls, ceilings, roofs 

and floors. Standard gypsum fibreboard offers good performance when it 

comes to shock resistance, sound insulation and humidity resistance. 

 

124 Natural gypsum is formed geologically from the evaporation of seawater. It is composed of 

calcium sulphate (calcium, sulphur, and oxygen) with two molecules of water, CaSO4.2H2O. Gypsum 

is usually white, colourless or gray, but can also be shades of red, brown and yellow. When calcined, 

it is partially dehydrated and becomes a white fine powder called Anhydrite or more commonly 

“plaster of Paris” 

125

www.eurogypsum.org
98 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Gypsum is used in all construction types (residential, non-residential, new or refurbished). 

For instance, the applications of plasterboard split into the three traditional sectors 

approximately as follows: 

• House building: 30% 

• Commercial and industrial building: 30% 

• Repair, Maintenance, Improvement: 40% 

Plasterboard usage and market only gained widespread acceptance in Europe in the 1970s1980s. Even now in Southern Europe more traditional ways of partitioning and finishing 

interior space still prevail. This means that many buildings over 40 years old contain little 

plasterboard. 

One of the main substitutes to natural gypsum is FGD gypsum (Flue Gas Desulphurisation 

Gypsum) which is generated by coal-fired power stations during the process designed to 

clean sulphur from the exhaust gases. 

FGD gypsum is produced in most Western European countries, but output is concentrated 

in Germany where around half of the production is located. The large area of use for FGD 

gypsum is the production of plasterboards, gypsum blocks and floor screeds. 

FGD gypsum basically changed the scene in the European gypsum industry. Indeed, the 

electricity industry became an important supplier of raw material and an essential partner 

in the technological development of the FGD production and establishment of quality 

criteria for FGD gypsum. Financial investment on both sides has been significant to bring 

this product (manufactured within the fence of the power plant stations) to its maturity. 

In the past, plasterboards production facilities were located close to natural gypsum 

deposits and the market for building materials. An increasing number of production 

facilities are now being established across Europe in close proximity of large power plant 

stations. New gypsum markets also opened up as FGD gypsum can be more easily 

transported by barges and trains across Europe than natural gypsum. Belgium and the 

Netherlands, with no natural gypsum deposits, import FGD gypsum by inland waterways 

from coal power plant stations in Germany. According to the electricity industry, the 

production of FGD gypsum is expected to increase in all the European countries. 

However, there are currently EU and national political debates about sustainable energy 

(EU commitment to reduction of CO2 emissions); about secure energy supply (with the need 

to rebalance the energy mix); about the growing need to use renewable energy sources and 

the existence of new efficient technologies of power stations. These elements might 

change the scene for the production of FGD gypsum and also make it difficult to give a long 

term reliable prognosis on the future production of future FGD gypsum. 

As already mentioned above, gypsum-based products and solutions have numerous 

qualities in construction such as: 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 99 

• Gypsum is non-combustible and able to delay a fire’s spread up to 4 hours by 

acting as a fire barrier. 

• Gypsum acts as a sound regulator by providing a physical barrier to sound. 

These solutions are applied for the interiors of homes, offices, schools, shops, 

cinemas, airports, etc. 

• Gypsum acts as a thermal insulator for the inside of buildings when combined 

with insulating materials thanks to its low thermal conductivity. 

• Gypsum equilibrates humidity and heat peaks. 

• Gypsum is impact resistant thanks to its high degree of hardness equivalent to 

a thick wall heavy masonry construction. 

8.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

8.2.1. PRODUCTION DATA 

With a turnover of over 10 billion Euros, the European Gypsum and Anhydrite Industries 

operate 160 quarries and some 200 factories. The European gypsum industry generates 

employment directly to 28,000 people and indirectly to 85,000 people (plasterers and 

plasterboard erecters) through the whole life-cycle of the product: from the extraction of 

mineral gypsum to the manufacture of added-value products used mainly in 

construction126. 

Thirty years ago, the gypsum industry was made up of many SMEs mainly producing 

building plaster and stucco for local markets. The emergence and growth of the 

plasterboard market in the 1980s, therefore requiring high capital investments, equipment 

and R&D, led to the emergence of three main operators who cover 80% of the gypsum 

product market. In Spain, the most important producer of natural gypsum, SMEs are very 

active, with a direct employment of more than 2,300 employees, operating 26 quarries and 

33 plants (powder plant, plaster blocks and ceiling tiles). There are also SMEs active in 

plaster block and plaster powder markets in other European countries. 

The available production quantities of natural gypsum at the national level within the EU-27 

are summarised in the following table. 

 

126

 www.eurogypsum.org
100 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 29 – Production of natural gypsum for 2005 and 2008 in tonnes [BGS, 

2008]127

Country 2005 2008 Production per 

capita in 2008 % share Growth rate 2005/2008

Austria 911,162 1,022,983 0.1228 3.5% 12.3% 

Belgium N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Bulgaria 187,700 234,300 0.0307 0.8% 24.8% 

Cyprus 21,5500 412,000 0.4791 1.4% 91.2% 

Czech Republic 24,000 35,000 0.0034 0.1% 45.8% 

Denmark N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Estonia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Finland N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

France 4,902,498 2,339,380 0.0367 8.1% -52.3% 

Germany 1,644,000 2,112,000 0.0257 7.3% 28.5% 

Greece 865,216 830,000 0.0738 2.9% -4.1% 

Hungary 19,000 15,940 0.0016 0.1% -16.1% 

Ireland 700,000 600,000 0.1364 2.1% -14.3% 

Italy 1,600,000 1,600,000 0.0267 5.5% 0.0% 

Latvia 220,000 230,000 0.1018 0.8% 4.5% 

Lithuania N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Luxembourg N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Malta N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Netherlands N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Poland 1,048,000 1,499,901 0.0393 5.2% 43.1% 

Portugal 389,180 400,000 0.0377 1.4% 2.8% 

Romania 532,867 832,248 0.0387 2.9% 56.2% 

Slovakia 107,500 152,000 0.0281 0.5% 41.4% 

Slovenia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Spain 14,453,053 15,000,000 0.3313 51.9% 3,8% 

Sweden N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

United Kingdom 1,700,000 1,700,000 0.0278 5.9% 0.0% 

Total/average EU-27 29,519,676 28,878,952 0.0583 100.0% -1.7 

World total 145,000,000 N/A N/A 

With a total production of at least 29.5 million tonnes of natural gypsum in 2005 

(considering the lacking data for some MS), the European production represents more than 

20.3% of the world total production (145 million tonnes). The major producers of natural 

gypsum are Spain (52%), France (8.1%), Germany (7.3%), the United Kingdom (6%), Italy 

(5.5%) and Poland (5.2%) with 24 million tonnes produced in 2008 accounting for 84% of 

the EU-27 total production. 

 

127 US Geological Survey (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/), N/A : no reported gypsum production 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 101 

These figures show a slight decrease on the EU-27 scale (-1.7%) with large discrepancies 

between countries. 

Moreover, the fact that gypsum is a globally traded natural resource needs to be 

highlighted. Indeed, the amounts that are exchanged on the market vary greatly depending 

on several factors such as the demand of the construction sector and the actual production 

capacity added to the availability of the material in the natural resources of the MS. 

At last, data about the overall trade situation with gypsum are lacking as large quantities of 

synthetic gypsum compete with natural gypsum. In 2005, 15.2 million tonnes of synthetic 

gypsum where estimated to be produced at the EU level128. 

8.2.2. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT DATA

Gypsum waste statistics are available neither at the European level nor at the national one 

because they are not identified within the amount of C&D waste that is generated. By now, 

in most cases they are mixed to other C&D waste such as inert materials, paper, cardboard 

etc. In this context, recycling rates cannot be calculated and are therefore lacking at the EU27 level129

. 

Three sources of gypsum waste exist: production waste, construction waste and demolition 

waste. 

Even though gypsum is considered to be “fully and eternally recyclable”130 by the gypsum 

industry, only production and construction gypsum waste is currently recycled (without 

further information on the rate). 

The recycling rate for demolition gypsum waste is low in many MS given that selective 

deconstruction is required. Recycling of gypsum products that are collected from 

demolition and renovation projects can be contaminated with other materials, such as 

paint, fastenings, screws, wood and insulation materials among others, which can render 

recycling difficult. This is a result of the prevailing demolition processes that are in place 

nowadays when a building reaches its end of life and the mixing of all fractions which does 

not allow further recycling of gypsum. Indeed, it is not always possible for the gypsum 

plasterboard producers to rely on their recycling facilities that are only suited for 

uncontaminated production and construction waste131

. 

Approximately 10 million tons132 of plasterboard waste was landfilled around the globe in 

2007133 and about 4 million tonnes of gypsum waste are landfilled in Europe annually 

 

128 [Roskill, 2004] 

129 Interview with Christine Marlet, Secretary General, Eurogypsum (European federation of national 

associations of gypsum products manufacturers) 

130 [Eurogypsum, 2007] 

131 [Eurogypsum] 

132 [Lund, 2008] 

133 No figure is available at the EU-27 level. 
102 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

(excluding waste arising at production plants, which amounts to 0.6 to 1.2 million 

tonnes)134. 

8.3. RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

8.3.1. EXISTING OPTIONS

This sub-section will focus only on gypsum construction waste due to the aforementioned 

reasons. Gypsum construction waste consists in pieces of plaster and fibreboards that had 

to be cut off to fit special arrangements in the building, of damaged boards during 

transportation or because of the weather when they are stored outside. Such waste 

represents around 5%135 of plasterboard used on construction sites and is considered to be 

clean (free of paints and nails) and recyclable into the manufacturing process for the 

production of new plasterboards as described below.

 Recycling 

The collected plasterboard stream has to undergo several steps in the recycling process. 

First, paper layers of the plasterboards are removed as much as possible, then gypsum is 

crushed into powder and eventually this powder is sent back to plasterboard 

manufacturers so that they can make new plasterboards from it. 

The gypsum powder is estimated to represent 94% of the total plasterboard waste 

collected136. The remaining 6% refer to paper and cardboard (and the related 

contaminants) composing plasterboards and can be re-used in various ways such as 

composting (as very little gypsum is left on the paper) or heat generation. 

There is always a residual paper fraction that remains in the powder and which hinders the 

improvement of the introduction rates of recycled powder into the processes that are 

currently in place. The associated risks are the damage of the manufacture machinery and 

an effect on the acoustic or thermal quality of the final product. 

According to Eurogypsum, between 5 and 10% of gypsum powder resulting from 

construction plasterboard waste is re-integrated in the closed-loop system. This figure is a 

European average and huge differences exist between MS. Indeed, recycling practices exist 

in Denmark, Germany and other Northern European countries while recycling is limited in 

Greece and Spain or is not applied at all in Eastern Europe countries. In some MS where 

comprehensive gypsum recycling schemes have been established (e.g. Denmark) overall 

recycling rates of 65% can be achieved. 

 

134 [VITO, 2007]

135 [Eurogypsum] 

136 http://www.gypsumrecycling.biz/6688-1_Why+recycle%3F#Header0
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 103 

This discrepancy is due to specific national legislation, to mentality aspects and especially to 

the existence of a market that would encourage the economic activity associated to 

recycling137

. 

8.3.2. EMERGING TECHNIQUES

Only a small quantity of gypsum demolition waste is currently recycled due to challenges 

surrounding contamination with other materials. This is therefore an area of continuing 

research and development to improve the manufacturing process by making possible the 

re-introduction of gypsum with a higher residual paper fraction (therefore a gypsum 

powder with a higher impurity rate) or enhancing the techniques for the removal of paper 

from plasterboards. 

Other options are considered to partially or fully replace virgin gypsum that is usually used 

for cement manufacture and for agriculture138. They are described below. 

 Recycling as a raw material in the manufacture of cement 

A small percentage of gypsum is usually incorporated into cement in order to modify its 

setting characteristics and traditionally the gypsum additive was obtained by mining. 

Gypsum waste could substitute virgin gypsum though WRAP (Waste & Resources Action 

Programme) has identified significant actual and perceived barriers to the incorporation of 

recycled gypsum from plasterboard waste into cement mixtures139

. 

A study was then undertaken for WRAP to determine how the barriers could be overcome 

and how the cement industry could maximise the amount of gypsum waste utilised in its 

products and hence diverted from landfill. 

The study has demonstrated through desk studies and practical trials that recycled gypsum, 

of the quality currently available, can substitute technically for mined gypsum in the 

production of bagged cements, but that it remains to be proven acceptable to the ready 

mix market. 

 Recycling as a soil treatment for agricultural benefit 

Gypsum is traditionally added to agricultural arable soils to improve soil condition. For this 

purpose, gypsum is usually mined or quarried, which depletes natural resources among 

other impacts. A study was undertaken by WRAP to evaluate whether recycled gypsum 

produced from waste plasterboard is effective as a soil treatment in commercial potato 

production140. A parallel study with winter wheat was carried out in early 2008. Both 

studies were undertaken by the research and development department of Velcourt Ltd. 

 

137 Interview with Christine Marlet, Secretary General, Eurogypsum 

138 Other applications include agricultural fertiliser, sub-soil amendment on new residential 

construction site and admixture for concrete. 

139 [WRAP, 2008] 

140 [WRAP, 2007] 
104 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

The main effect on soil condition by adding gypsum are considered to be improved 

structure, leading to improved drainage, water-holding capacity, aid restoration of calcium 

and sulphur deficiencies and improve the efficiency of a plant’s uptake of inorganic 

nitrogen fertiliser. 

Trials were realised and led to the conclusion that applying recycled gypsum to land used 

for potato production was beneficial in its effects on the soil and the quality of the crop. 

The farmer involved in the trial was convinced of the benefits of recycled gypsum and 

intends to continue its use on his fields when required. 

However, farmers have indicated that the complications of applying for an environmental 

permit for the use of gypsum waste deter them from using cheaper, but equally beneficial 

gypsum from waste plasterboard141. 

However, this recovery technique might have important impacts on ground water sulphides 

concentration. 

8.4. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF GYPSUM WASTE 

MANAGEMENT

8.4.1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS

The following table summarises the impacts and benefits of the different end of life options 

for gypsum waste, which are further detailed below.

Table 30 – Impacts and benefits for each option for the management of gypsum 

LANDFILL

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of waste to the landfill 

Production of H2S (bad smell and toxic to human 

health) when mixed with biodegradable waste 

(the European legislation requires specific cells in 

inert landfills to avoid H2S emissions) 

Use of land space 

- - 

 

141 www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/waste/114435.aspx
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 105 

RECYCLING OF PLASTERBOARDS FOR RE-INTRODUCTION OF THE GYPSUM POWDER INTO THE 

MANUFACTURING PROCESS 

Substitute material (in the same proportion): gypsum powder processed from gypsum minerals extracted 

from quarries 

Direct impacts Avoided Impacts 

Net 

benefits 

Transportation of construction plasterboard 

waste from the construction site to waste 

processors 

Processing of plasterboard waste into gypsum 

powder: dust production and noise during 

crushing and sieving steps, additional energy 

consumption for the removal of paper 

Transportation of recycled gypsum to 

plasterboards manufacturers 

Extraction of raw materials (mineral gypsum): 

land-use for quarries, production of dust, use of 

natural resources, energy consumption 

Transportation of raw materials 

Consumption of resources 

Land use and biodiversity issues due to gypsum 

extraction 

Processing of raw materials into powder: dust 

production and noise 

o/+ 

In the previous table, the substitution of natural gypsum by recycling gypsum has been 

analysed. However, recycled gypsum can also replace synthetic gypsum (FGD). In this case, 

the net benefits are assumed to be higher due to a more energy intensive manufacturing 

process to produce gypsum based products from synthetic gypsum compared to natural 

gypsum (because of a higher moisture content of FGD). 

 Direct impacts of landfilling 

The main environmental issue associated with gypsum waste management is the 

production of the dangerous hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas when plasterboard waste is 

disposed of in landfills. H2S gas is a dangerous gas that is lethal in high concentrations and 

releases odours in low concentrations. The plasterboard waste itself is not dangerous, but 

when mixed with organic waste, and exposed to rain in an anaerobic environment, H2S gas 

can be released. For this reason, the EU has decided that plasterboard waste and other 

gypsum-based products can no longer be disposed of in simple inert landfills but in 

controlled cells where no organic waste is accepted. However, this would require gypsum 

waste to be collected separately or sorted afterwards, which is not always the case. 

Therefore, in many cases gypsum waste is landfilled under improper conditions thus posing 

an environmental risk. Moreover, landfills use can also be a problem in some areas (around 

highly populated urban centres) due to use of land space. At last, transportation of waste to 

the landfill implies environmental impacts. 
106 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Direct impact of reprocessing plasterboards waste collected from construction sites 

As developed in section 8.3.1. , the processing of plasterboards waste collected from 

construction sites need energy-relying steps before further re-introduction into the 

manufacturing process. Other related impacts include dust and noise production, as well as 

transportation of construction plasterboard waste from the construction site to waste 

processors, and of recycled gypsum to plasterboards manufacturers. 

 Net benefits of recycling gypsum powder resulting from plasterboard waste collected 

from construction sites 

Net benefits are low to medium as the production of plasterboards from recycled gypsum 

or from virgin material mainly are likely to have similar environmental impacts. The benefits 

are to avoid the use of natural resources, that is to say virgin mineral gypsum extracted 

from quarries, avoiding quarrying activities (thus reducing land use and avoiding potential 

biodiversity losses). Despite gypsum is estimated in good supply presently, there is only a 

limited amount available within the EU, so steps to preserve the natural gypsum resources 

should be encouraged. 

8.4.2. ECONOMIC IMPACTS

Two main economic factors push towards gypsum recycling: raw material price and 

landfilling costs increase. Both are specified below. 

As developed in the above section, gypsum raw material is not threatened by intensive 

extraction yet but the available amount is finite which is calling for saving measures such as 

recycling. The first effect is the increasing price of raw gypsum material as observed in 

some plants where it has gone up with more than 50% the last 3 years142. 

The other economic aspect linked to gypsum waste management is the cost associated with 

landfilling. The following table is an example in the UK of the increasing landfill taxes for 

plasterboards waste over the last few years within some EU countries. 

Table 31 - Estimated increase in the cost (Euros/tonne

143) of disposing of plasterboard waste to 

landfill in the UK [Hollins, 2006] 

Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Landfill Tax 17 21 24 27 31 

Landfill Tipping fee 31 86 91 91 91 

Transport 19 21 22 23 24 

Total 67 127 137 141 146 

Between 2004 and 2008 the total landfilling cost increased by 117% from 67 Euros per 

tonne of gypsum landfilled in 2004 to 146 Euros in 2008. Landfill taxes in other European 

countries are also increasing fast and are expected to reach more than 70 Euro per tonne in 

both the Netherlands and the UK in 2011. 

 

142 [Lund, 2008] 

143 Used conversion rate: 1£ = 1.1401€ (April 2010) 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 107 

The effect of the increasing landfill costs is assumed to be the development of recycling 

practices among gypsum waste producers and gypsum manufacturers. Indeed, in 2007 

approximately 7 million Euros were invested in Europe in containers and recycling 

equipment144. Compared to the 10 billion Euros turnover of the gypsum industry, this 

represent only 0.07% but it is the first step towards a recycling Industry. 

8.5. TOWARDS THE 70% TARGET: DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

As developed in the above sections, gypsum C&D waste recycling faces several barriers and 

the only recycling opportunity accounts for 5 to 10% of gypsum waste from plasterboards. 

Therefore, to achieve the 70% target, signification actions must be undertaken. 

The main barriers are: 

• The high availability and the low costs of raw gypsum material 

• The low availability of gypsum waste due to unadapted C&D processes. Indeed, 

though the techniques exist, they are not implemented because they would 

represent a financial burden to the C&D sectors. 

• The lack of knowledge on recycling or other material recovery options. Indeed, 

manufacturing processes currently in place do not allow the re-introduction of a 

higher recycled gypsum powder content. 

In order to overcome those barriers several options should be considered, the following 

paragraphs describe potential actions. 

 Sorting at source: separation for an improved material quality 

The recyclability of gypsum-based products and especially plasterboards could be enhanced 

thanks to deconstruction which would therefore make the sorting process easier. Indeed, 

gypsum based interior partition elements are easily dismantled and a further effective 

sorting would produce a higher non-contaminated gypsum C&D waste fraction, make easier 

the further recycling of this specific waste stream and improve the overall recycling rates. 

Therefore, the characterisation of gypsum waste, i.e. the identification of gypsum waste 

material from other elements is the key point to increase the amount of potentially 

recycled gypsum. 

 Gypsum waste collection: increasing the potential for recycling 

Actions to ease the gypsum waste collection could also be considered to increase the 

amounts of C&D waste. As an example, the UK has developed collection systems that are 

expected to increase the recycling rates. Examples of collection systems145 are described 

below: 

 

144 [GRI, 2007] < www.ciwm.co.uk/mediastore/FILES/14609.pdf> 

145 [Hollins, 2006] 
108 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• The bulk bag system has been developed by the British gypsum industry so that 

gypsum waste is collected by its producer in a closed-loop system. The costs of 

the collection of plasterboards through this system lays between 49 and 203 

Euros per tonne for medium sized bags (able to collect 0.35 tonne and accept a 

contamination rate up to 30%). The large range of costs depends on the quality 

of the collected plasterboard and the distance to the manufacturing plant. 

• The Skip system is operated through waste contractors and involves the use of 

skips of various sizes. The waste contractor collects the gypsum waste and 

stores it until the amount is sufficient to be sent to the closest plasterboard 

reprocessor. 

 Building conception: designing for the end of life 

Nevertheless, it requires that future buildings will be designed for disassembly, the 

development of tools for the deconstruction of existing buildings and the training of 

deconstruction workers. In almost all scenarios, the cost of deconstruction is higher than 

that of demolition due to the labour intensive nature of deconstruction. Public grants may 

therefore be necessary to trigger the momentum towards the implementation of the EC 

Directive and face these additional costs146. 

Some European countries are already leading the way as described below147: 

• A Dutch scheme, encouraged by stringent recycling legislation, provides for onsite separate storage of gypsum in a special container. The waste, once 

collected and taken off-site, is stored at a central depot until enough gypsum 

has been accumulated for transportation to a recycling facility. 

• A similar programme was set up in Dublin (Ireland) in spring 2005. The system 

has been inspected by the Irish Minister of the Environment with great 

satisfaction. Most customers are from the greater Dublin area, but the 

coverage of the system is expanding. 

• In the UK, plasterboard producers are recycling “clean” building site scrap from 

some house builders. 

 Green building systems: promoting the use of former gypsum waste 

As for concrete waste, green building systems (e.g. HQE – Haute Qualité Environnementale 

in France, BREEAM - BRE Environmental Assessment Method in the UK, German Sustainable 

Building Certificate) can encourage the recycling of plaster elements and the use of 

plasterboards made of increasing recycled gypsum powder by integrating such criteria in 

their rating charts. This would influence public perception regarding the quality of recycled 

plaster elements and promote large possibilities for their use, by specifically addressing the 

 

146 Interview with Christine Marlet, Secretary General, Eurogypsum 

147 [Eurogypsum] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 109 

recycled plaster issue in the system. Recommendations on gypsum products are also 

provided by the Commission in its GPP background report on wall panels. 

In England and Wales, a Quality Protocol has been adopted in January 2010 to raise market 

confidence in recycled gypsum and increase demand for waste plasterboard. It sets out the 

end of waste criteria for the production and use of recycled gypsum from waste 

plasterboard. If these criteria are met, the resulting outputs will normally be regarded as 

having been fully recovered and to have ceased to be waste148. Though producers and 

users are not obliged to comply with the Quality Protocol, it will potentially boost sales by 

an estimated £10 million (11.4 million Euros), and could save industries that generate waste 

plasterboard in excess of £8 million (9.2 million Euros) a year in disposal costs149 while also 

saving 46,800 tonnes of virgin raw material150 by re-introducing gypsum waste into the 

manufacturing process. 

Such measure could be extended to the whole EU to reduce the amount of gypsum waste 

disposed of in landfills and encourage recycling practices. 

 Increasing landfilling costs: a driver towards the development of alternatives 

Nowadays, the operation of landfills is regulated at the EU level by Decision 2003/33/EC151

on Waste Acceptance Criteria, which was adopted to strengthen the waste regulations 

established by Directive 1999/31/EC152. This directive requires the implementation of the

Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC) for high Sulphate content products by July 2005 which 

states that gypsum-based and other high sulphate-bearing materials having more than 10% 

sulphate in any one load153 is considered as waste and is therefore accepted in landfills. 

Moreover, “non-hazardous gypsum-based materials should only be disposed of in landfills 

for non-hazardous waste in cells where no biodegradable waste is accepted154. The limit 

values for Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Dissolved Organic Carbon at pH 7 (DOC7) given in 

section 2.3.2 shall apply to wastes landfilled together with gypsum-based materials155.” As a 

direct effect, the inexpensive storage of gypsum waste in inert landfills is no longer allowed.

In the UK for example, there are only one or two landfills currently in operation able to 

receive high sulphate non hazardous waste such as gypsum and store it in mono-cells, with 

gate fees ranging from £90 to £135 per tonne (between 100 and 155 Euros). According to 

the Waste Management Industry, other mono-cells for plasterboards are unlikely to be set 

up since asbestos is seen as a more lucrative market requiring such facilities156

. 

 

148 [WRAP, 2010] 

149 www.wrap.org.uk/recycling_industry/recycling_industry_2.html

150 www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/waste/114435.aspx

151 [EC, 2002] 

152 [EC, 1999] 

153 Specific sampling and testing methods are described in the Council Directive. 

154 Also called ”mono-cells” which refer to the separate storage of gypsum waste in specific landfill 

cells to avoid any contact with biodegradable waste. 

155 [EC, 2002] 

156 [Hollins, 2006] 
110 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Increasing landfilling costs would encourage the development of new recycling techniques 

as waste producers would only be able to sustain such costs to a certain point. In the same 

way, it will improve the sorting out of gypsum construction waste and produce a higher 

feedstock for existing options. The recycling of gypsum waste would turn into a business 

opportunity as the demand for gypsum products is likely to increase with the population 

and the need for new houses, schools, hospitals, offices and shops. 

However, to optimise the effect of such driver, these costs should be harmonised all across 

the EU. Indeed, in the Netherlands for instance, landfilling in special cells is expensive while 

it is not in Germany, leading therefore to the shipment of waste to the adjacent country. 

 Promoting R&D initiatives to explore new recycling options 

Concerning construction waste, it is estimated that up to 25% of gypsum virgin material can 

be replaced by recycled gypsum powder for the production of plasterboards157. Therefore 

the target set at 30% by the European gypsum industry as the percentage of recycled 

material being re-introduced into the manufacturing process seem to be achievable. 

To achieve the 70% target, promoting R&D on production techniques and investments in 

gypsum facility to increase the amounts of waste gypsum that can be used in the 

production of new gypsum seem essential in order to improve current processes and allow 

the re-introduction of a larger part of recycled gypsum in building elements. 

. 

 

157 [Lund, 2008] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 111 

9. LITERATURE REVIEW

 Sources of information 

• General information 

[ETC/RWM, 2009] 

European Topic Centre on Resource and Waste Management, 2009, EU as a 

Recycling Society - Present Recycling Levels of Municipal Waste and C&D Waste in 

the EU

[EUROSTAT, 2010] EUROSTAT Statistics, accessed between February and April 2010 

[FEAD, 2010] 

Personal Communication with Mr. SCHROEDER René, European Federation of 

Waste Management and Environmental Services 

[FIR, 2010] 

Personal Communication with Mr. CUPERUS Geert, Bureau of International 

Recycling (FIR) 

[FFB, 2010] 

Personal Communication with Mrs. LINE Véronique, Fédération Française du 

Bâtiment (FFB) 

[SNED, 2010] 

Personal Communication with Mr. DUVAL, Syndicat National des Entreprises de 

Démolition (SNED) 

[UEPG, 2010] 

Personal Communication with Mr. O’BRIEN Jim, European Aggregates Association 

(UEPG) 

[UBA 2008] Umweltbundesamt, 2008, Aggregates Case Study - Final Report

[WRAP 2006] 

WRAP, 2006, The sustainable use of resources for the production of aggregates in 

England

[WRAP 2007] 

WRAP, 2007, The sustainable Use of resources for the production of aggregates in 

Scotland

• Bricks, tiles and ceramics 

[Symonds, 1999] 

Symonds, ARGUS, COWI and PRC Bouwcentrum, February 1999, C&D Waste 

Management Practices, And Their Economic Impacts, Report to DGXI, European 

Commission 

• Concrete 

[Mehta] 

P.K. Mehta, P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, 

Concrete and the environment

[WBCSD, 2009] 

WBCSD (Word Business Council for Sustainable Development ), June 2009, The 

Cement Sustainability Initiative, Recycling concrete

[ERMCO, 2008] ERMCO , (European Ready Mixed Concrete), Industry Statistics based on the 
112 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Y2008 production data

[Rudus, 2000] 

L. Rudus, 2000, Use of Reclaimed Concrete in Pavement Structures, Design 

Manual and Construction Specification, p 7 

[WHO, 2006] 

WHO (World Health Organization), 2006, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 

First Addendum to Third Edition, Volume 1, Recommendation 

[ECP, 2009] 

European Concrete Platform ASBL, February 2009, Sustainable benefits of 

Concrete Structures

[VITO, 2006] 

VITO and BIO Intelligence Service, 2006, Data gathering and impact assessment 

for a review and possible widening of the scope of the IPPC Directive in relation to 

waste treatment activities, Fact sheet E3, Sorting of C&D waste

[Habert, 2008] 

G. Habert, N. Roussel, Juin 2008, Comment concevoir un béton ayant un faible 

impact environemental?, Université Paris-Est, Laboratoire Central des Ponts et 

Chaussées 

[Struble, 2004] 

L. Struble, K. Godfrey, 2004, How Sustainable is Concrete? International 

Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology

• Gypsum 

[Eurogypsum, 2007] Eurogypsum, July 2007, Gypsum factsheet on “What is gypsum?”

[BGS, 2008] British Geological Survey, European mineral statistics 2004-08, p.234 

[Roskill, 2004] 

Roskill Information Services, 2004 , “The economics of gypsum & anhydrite – 

ninth edition”

[Eurogypsum] Eurogypsum, Living with Gypsum: From Raw Material to Finished Products 

[Lund, 2008] 

H. Lund-Nielsen, May 2008, Recycling of plasterboard waste – from “nice to 

have” to necessity, Gypsum Recycling International (GRI), Global Gypsum 

Conference in Dubai 

[VITO, 2007] 

VITO and BIO Intelligence Service, 2007, Data gathering and impact assessment 

for a review and possible widening of the scope of the IPPC Directive in relation to 

waste treatment activities, EC ENV 

[WRAP, 2008] 

WRAP, November 2008, Final Report, Trials for the use of recycled gypsum in 

cement manufacture

[WRAP, 2007] 

WRAP, June 2007, Plasterboard technical report, Recycled gypsum as a soil 

treatment in potato production

[GRI, 2007] 

Gypsum Recycling International, May 2007, Solutions for gypsum / plasterboard 

waste, Annual General Meeting and Spring Open Meeting 

[WRAP, 2010] WRAP, January 2010, Quality Protocol, Recycled gypsum from waste 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 113 

plasterboard, End of waste criteria for the production and use of recycled gypsum 

from waste plasterboard

[EC, 2002] 

Council Decision 2003/33/EC of 19 December 2002 establishing criteria and 

procedures for the acceptance of waste at landfills pursuant to Article 16 of and 

Annex II to Directive 1999/31/EC 

[EC, 1999] 

Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste (the 

Landfill Directive) 

[Hollins, 2006] 

O. Hollins, June 2006, Diverting plasterboards waste from landfill in the UK, 

Federation of Plastering and Drywall Contractors

• Asphalt 

[EAPA, 2005] 

EAPA (European Asphalt and Pavement Association), July 2005, Industry 

Statement on the recycling of asphalt mixes and use of waste of asphalt 

pavements

[EAPA, 2008] EAPA, 2008, Asphalt in figures

• Wood 

[JRC, 2009] 

Joint Research Centre, 2009, Study on the selection of waste streams for the End

of Waste assessment, Final Report, p 123 

[CEI, 2007] 

CEI Bois & European Panel Federation, The Woodworking Industry in the 

European Union in 2007

[WRAP, 2009] WRAP, 2009, Wood Waste Market in the UK

[WRAP, 2005] 

WRAP, June 2005, Reference document on the status of wood waste arising and 

management in the UK

[EPF, 2010] 

EPF 2010, Post-consumer recycled wood as a valuable resource for particle board 

production

[EPF, 2002] EPF 2002, Standard for delivery of recycled wood, European Panel Federation

[EC, 1999] Council Directive 99/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste 

• ODS 

[USEPA, 2004] 

USEPA and ADEME, 2004, Determination of comparative HCFC and HFC emission 

profiles for the foam and refrigeration sector until 2015

[ICF, 2010] 

ICF International, Mars 2010, Identifying and Assessing Policy Options for 

Promoting the Recovery and Destruction of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) 

and Certain Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases (F-Gases) Banked In Products and 
114 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Equipment

[EC, 2008] 

Commission Of The European Communities, 2008, Reviewing Regulation (EC) N° 

2037/2000 on substances that deplete the ozone layer, "Better regulation 

building on 20 years of success" Impact Assessment, Accompanying the Proposal 

for a Regulation of the European Parliament and Council on Substances that 

Deplete the Ozone Layer (Recast), [COM(2008) 505 final], [SEC (2008) 2367] 

[EC, 2000] 

Commission Decision of 3 May 2000 replacing Decision 94/3/EC establishing a list 

of wastes pursuant to Article 1(a) of Council Directive 75/442/EEC on waste and 

Council Decision 94/904/EC establishing a list of hazardous waste pursuant to 

Article 1(4) of Council Directive 91/689/EEC on hazardous waste 

[EC, 2009] 

Regulation (EC) No 1005/2009 of The European Parliament And Of The Council of 

16 September 2009 on substances that deplete the ozone layer 

[Vehlow] J. Vehlow, Co- combustion of insulation foams with municipal solid waste 

[Jones, 2010] P. Jones, March 2010, Management Practices of C&D waste in Europe – ODS 

• Asbestos 

[EC, 1999] 

Commission Directive 1999/77/EC of July 26, 1999 adapting to technical progress 

for the sixth time Annex I to Council Directive 76/769/EEC on the approximation 

of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the MS relating to 

restrictions on the marketing and use of certain dangerous substances and 

preparations (asbestos) 

[Brondeau, 2009] 

M.-T. Brondeau & al., 2009, Fiche toxicologique Amiante, Institut Nationale de 

Recherche et de Sécurité 

[Salvatori] L. Salvatori & al., Asbestos: The current situation in Europe

[BGS, 2008] British Geological Survey, 2008, World Mineral Production 2002–2006

[EC, 1967] 

Council Directive 67/548/EEC of 27 June 1967 on the approximation of the laws, 

regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging 

and labelling of dangerous substances 

[EC, 2002] 

COUNCIL DECISION of 19 December 2002 establishing criteria and procedures for 

the acceptance of waste at landfills pursuant to Article 16 of and Annex II to 

Directive 1999/31/EC (2003/33/EC) 

[EC DG, 2006] 

European Commission, Employment - Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG, 

Asbestos - European Campaign 2006

• Dangerous fractions 

[EPA] 

EPA (European Phenolic Association), Phenolic Foam Insulation, The ultimate 

insulation system for the Construction & Building Services Industry
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 115 

[EC, 2006] 

Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting 

maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs 

[EC, 2007] 

Commission Regulation (EC) No 333/2007 of 28 March 2007 laying down the 

methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of lead, 

cadmium, mercury, inorganic tin, 3-MCPD and benzo(a)pyrene in foodstuffs 

[EC, 1989] 

Council Directive 89/677/EEC of 21 December 1989 amending for the eighth time 

Directive 76/769/EEC on the approximation of the laws, regulations and 

administrative provisions of the MS relating to restrictions on the marketing and 

use of certain dangerous substances and preparations 

[EC, 1998] 

Council Directive 98/24/EC of 7 April 1998 on the protection of the health and 

safety of workers from the risks related to chemical agents at work 

[EC, 1996] 

Council Directive 96/59/EC of 16 September 1996 on the disposal of 

polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated terphenyls (PCB/PCT) 

 Websites 

• Bricks, tiles and ceramics 

www.cerameunie.eu/industry.html

www.staywithclay.com

• Concrete 

http://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/main.asp?page=53

www.researchandmarkets.com/reportinfo.asp?report_id=651928

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq0506.pdf

• Gypsum 

www.eurogypsum.org

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/

www.wrap.org.uk

www.gypsumrecycling.biz/6688-1_Why+recycle%3F#Header0

www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/waste/114435.aspx

www.ciwm.co.uk/mediastore/FILES/14609.pdf

www.wrap.org.uk/recycling_industry/recycling_industry_2.html

• Asphalt 

www.eapa.org

• ODS 
116 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

www.puren.com

www.rampf-ecosystems.de

• Asbestos 

www.nps.gov/history/hps/tps/recentpast/asbestosarticle.htm

www.ibasecretariat.org/chron_ban_list.php

www.euro.who.int/document/aiq/6_2_asbestos.pdf

www.freepatentsonline.com/EP0145350.html

• Dangerous fractions 

cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18791329

www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/factshts/pahs.pdf

www.parlament.ch/f/suche/pages/geschaefte.aspx?gesch_id=20083926

www.bag.admin.ch/themen/chemikalien/00228/00512/index.html?lang=fr

www.icis.com/V2/Chemicals/9076136/phenol/uses.html

www.petrochemistry.net/phenol.html
February 2011 

Final Report Tas

10. CONTACT LIST 

Table 32 - Contacts targeted for the study per fraction of C&D waste 

Name Organisation Position Location 

BEUVING Egbert European Asphalt Pavement Association (EAPA) Director Brussels 

CORNTHWAITE Anthony European Asbestos Services Business contact UK 

CUPERUS Geert Fédération Internationale du Recyclage (FIR) Brussels 

i

DE GREEF Nadine European Federation of Waste Management and Environmental Services (FEAD) Secretary General Brussels 

i

DUVAL Syndicat National des entreprises de Démolition (SNED) Paris 

i

ETIENNE Alice European Builders Confederation (EBC) Policy Officer Brussels 

i

JONES Peter Independent Consultant UK 

LINE Véronique Technical Affairs Fédération Française du Bâtiment (FFB) Paris 

i

LOBEL Oliver PU Europe Secretary General Brussels 

MARLET Christine 

Eurogypsum (European federation of 

national associations of gypsum products 

manufacturers)

Secretary General Brussels 
118 European Commission DG ENV Draft Final Report – Management of C&D waste 

Name Organisation Position Location 

MATHIS Pamela ICF International Project Manager San Francisco 

RIMOLDI Alessio European concrete platform Secretary General Brussels 

O’BRIEN Jim European Aggregates Association (UEPG) President Dublin A

SCHROEDER René European Federation of Waste Management and Environmental Services (FEAD) Policy co-ordinator Brussels 

i

SYKES Christophe TBE (Tiles and bricks of Europe) & Cerame- Unie (The European Ceramics Industries) Secretary General Brussels Bri

VERVOORT Ward European Confederation of woodworking industries (CEI-Bois) Senior Environment and Research Advisor Brussels 

THUEN Henriette European Demolition Association (EDA) General Manager Copenhagen 

i
119 European Commission DG ENV Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 

Table 33 - Contacts targeted for the case studies 

MS Name Organisation 

Finland 

Jorma Kaloinen Finnish Environment Institute 

Juha Espo Statistics Finland 

Anna-Leena Perälä Technical Research Centre of Finland 

Flanders 

Koen Smeets OVAM (Public Flemish Waste Agency) He

Janna Vandecruys OVAM (Public Flemish Waste Agency) Exp

Germany 

W. Sodermanns-Peschel Deutscher Abbruchverband e.V.

E

Michael Heide 

Bundesgütegemeinschaft 

Recycling-Baustoffe e.V. 

(& European Quality Association 

 for Recycling EQAR) 

Gerhard Pahl Bundesvereinigung 

Recycling-Baustoffe e.V. (BRB) 

Berthold Schäfer 

Deutscher Beton- und Betontechnik-Verein 

E.V. 

depart

Hungary Katalin Fekete 

Ministry of Environment and Water, 

Department of Waste Management, Waste 

Treatment Unit 
120 European Commission DG ENV Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

MS Name Organisation 

Tibor Laszlo 

Ministry of Environment and Water, 

Department of Waste Management, Waste 

Treatment Unit 

Istvan Varkonyi 

Baurec Construction Waste Treatment 

Coordination Non Profit Ltd. 

Judit Ratz HuMuSz (Hulladék Munkaszövetség), Waste 

Reduction Alliance 

Spain 

Carlos Martinez Bertrand VIAS Y CONSTRUCCIONES, S.A 

C

M

Jose Blanco AEDED – Spanish Association Demolition 

Pablo Gonzalez GERD – Spanish association of C&D waste 

managers. 

Wa
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 121 

11. Annex I: OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES 

Applications in the 

construction sector Blowing agent for plastic insulating material in buildings 

Production 

in the EU-27

Ban on CFC and HCFC (phase out respectively in 1994 and 2004). 

However, important banks in pre-2004 buildings: 536,000 to 683,000 tonnes in 2010 

(50% to 80% of the total ODS bank in EU-27) 

Waste generation 

in the EU-27

Rough estimations of 130,000 to 250,000 tonnes of waste insulating material containing 

11,500 tonnes of ODS. 

Treatment options Landfill Incineration Removal of ODS and recycling 

or re-use of other materials 

Current rates

N/A 

High differences 

between MS. 

N/A 

Ibid. 

Up to 95 % in municipal 

incinerators in Germany, the 

Netherlands, Austria and 

Denmark158. Low rates in 

most MS. 

Low 

Potential rates N/A N/A N/A 

Environmental 

impacts

Emission of greenhouse gases. Appropriate removal of ODS could save up to 15,406,000 

t. CO2eq emissions per year (2010). 

This outweighs any benefits that could be obtained through recycling of foam plastics 

(potential avoided emissions amounting to 1 million t. CO2eq) 

Release of substances depleting the ozone layer 

Barriers to re-use 

and recycling of 

the waste

- Costs of ODS removal from insulating foams (approximately 83 € per kg of ODS 

for collection, recovery and destruction, or 8 € per kg of foam) 

- Possibly limited technical feasibility, depending on the specific type of product 

- Low quantities within the C&D waste flow 

Existing and 

potential drivers to 

re-use and 

recycling of the 

waste

- High environmental impacts associated to the release of ODS in the atmosphere

- Most of the EU-27 ODS bank is in insulation foams 

- 70% target triggering better management of C&D waste in general, involving 

better characterisation and sorting of demolition waste 

- Development of alternative recycling techniques 

 

158 According to Oliver Loebel, Secretary General, PU Europe 
122 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

11.1. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS

Ozone depleting substances (ODS) are synthetic chemicals, including in particular CFCs 

(chlorofluorocarbons), HCFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) and halons. The production of CFCs 

began in the 1930s for refrigeration applications. Since then, they have been extensively 

utilised in air conditioning, as propellants in aerosols, and as blowing agents in plastic 

insulating foam manufacture. They were phased out in the early 80’s and replaced by HCFC 

for most applications. As regards insulation material, CFCs and HCFCs were mostly used in 

polyurethane foam (for sandwich panels, boardstock or spray foam) and in extruded 

polystyrene (XPS) foam159. These materials find many applications in the construction sector, 

for the thermal insulation of roofs, indoor or outdoor walls, foundations, etc. 

In 2004, HCFCs have been banned and replaced by HFCs, which have in turn being replaced 

when possible by other blowing agents, among which mainly pentane and hydrocarbon 

mixes. Nowadays, over 90% of PU foam is blown with pentane, and less than 10% with HFC. 

However, HFC is still used in spray foam (pentane cannot be used for this application for 

safety reasons), and some small producers still use HFCs as they cannot afford the 

investment in pentane-using equipment. 

11.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

11.2.1. CURRENT AND FORECASTED ODS BANKS

The use of CFCs and HCFCs in insulation foams and other applications is banned; however, 

large quantities are banked in products and equipment, and particularly in insulating 

materials used in buildings constructed before the phase-out of these substances 

(respectively 1994 and 2004 for CFCs and HCFCs). 

A study prepared by ICF International for the European Commission160 proposes estimations 

and projections of the ODS bank in EU-27. The applications of ODS in buildings insulation 

foams covered by this study are: 

• PU sandwich panels (continuous) 

• PU sandwich panels (discontinuous) 

• PU and PIR boardstock 

• PU spray foam 

• XPS foam boards 

Estimated ODS and HFC banks in EU-27 in 2010 are presented in the table below. Differences 

between the bottom-up161 and top-down162 approach are mostly due to a reallocation of 

 

159 [USEPA, 2004] 

160 [ICF, 2010] 

161 The Bottom up approach projects HFC growth assuming an increasing push to climate-friendly 

alternatives [ICF, 2010]. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 123 

some of the above foam applications to sectors other than construction, based on 

confidential data. However, both approaches give similar results when taking into account all 

sectors where insulating foams are used. 

Table 34: Estimated ODS and HFCs building insulation foam banks in EU-27 in 2010 [ICF, 2010] 

Blowing agents Bottom-up estimation Top-down estimation 

CFC 456,829 tonnes 370,083 tonnes 

HCFC 226,570 tonnes 165,464 tonnes 

HFC 84,112 tonnes 55,092 tonnes 

The bottom-up estimates proposed by ICF will be used as the reference data for the purpose 

of this report. 

The ODS banks in building insulation foams are therefore estimated between 536,000 tonnes 

and 683,000 tonnes in 2010, which represents between 50% and 80% of the total ODS banks 

in EU-27. 

11.2.2. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT DATA

The amounts of ODS contained in insulating foams reaching their end-of life is projected to 

be around 5,300 tonnes in 2010, and 4,300 tonnes in 2020163

. 

These estimations consider an average life-time of 50 years for these products. This 

assumption is subject to discussion, as most of ODS containing insulating foams is in nonresidential buildings, that usually have shorter lifespan164. Indeed, research by the Building 

Research Establishment [BRE] in the UK and similar European studies suggest that over 80% 

of the bank of ODS building foams is in industrial and commercial buildings and this type of 

building is likely to have a shorter life span165. The above quantities might therefore be 

underestimated. 

Not the entire blowing agent content remains in the insulating foam over time. Depending on 

the type of product, the losses account for to 5% to 15% during year 1, and then 0.25% to 

1.5% per year. The average amounts of ODS remaining in foams at the end-of-life are 

presented in the following table. 

 

162 The Top down model projects future HFC growth based on historical trends [ICF, 2010]. 

163 Calculation BIOIS, based on quantities technically recoverable estimated by ICF 2010. 

164 Interview with Peter Jones, 2010 

165 Ibid. 
124 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 35: Blowing agent remaining in different types of construction foams at their 

EOL [ICF, 2010] 

Application Blowing agent 

remaining at EOL 

PU Rigid: Sandwich Panels - Continuous 71% 

PU Rigid: Sandwich Panels - 

Discontinuous 67% 

PU & PIR Rigid: Boardstocks 57% 

PU Rigid: Spray foam 31% 

XPS Foam Boards 13% 

There is some uncertainty linked to these values. There are some concerns that the 

percentage of blowing agent remaining at end of life in sprayed foam could be 

underestimated, though test results are not available for a comparison. 

Based on the losses factors described above, and on the estimate that the amounts of ODS in 

building foams reaching their EOL will be 5,300 tonnes in 2010, it can be estimated that the 

amounts of ODS reaching their end of life in 2010 correspond to an original amount of 13,800 

tonnes of ODS (at the time the time the foams were produced). With amounts of blowing 

agents per weight of foam estimated at 12% for CFCs and 10% for HCFCs166, this corresponds 

to a total amount of ODS-containing waste of approximately 113,800 tonnes. This amount is 

a rough estimate, and is likely to be an underestimation, as this does not take into account 

the metal or other elements, apart from foam, present in insulation material. An upper 

estimate can be obtained by considering 5% blowing agent per weight for both CFCs and 

HCFCs; with this hypothesis, the amount of waste insulating material containing ODS reaches 

almost 220,000 tonnes. Several elements would be necessary to model such a waste flow 

with more precision: the types of products that used CFC or HCFC, the loss rate during the life 

time and the life span of the products among others. Such a study has not been done to any 

degree of accuracy, the figures are therefore uncertain. 

According to Regulation 1005/2009, ODS in construction foams “shall, if technically and 

economically feasible, be recovered for destruction, recycling or reclamation, or shall be 

destroyed without prior recovery”. 

Regulation 1005/2009 allows two options for the destruction of foams (classified as dilute 

sources in Annex VII): rotary kiln incineration or municipal solid waste incineration. If ODS are 

present in concentrations above 0.1%167, the waste is classified as hazardous and treatment 

options are restricted to facilities that have a permit to accept this category of hazardous 

waste. As a consequence, they have to respect stricter environmental standards. Moreover, 

the Waste Incineration Directive sets specific requirements for facilities treating hazardous 

waste with a content of more than 1 % of halogenated substances (Art. 6.1). 

 

166 The foam Industry estimates that the blowing agent content varies between 5 and 15% depending 

on the application. 

167 [EC, 2000] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 125 

There is currently no data on treatment of ODS containing insulating foams, but experts 

indicate that actual recovery of foams is not generally practiced, with the exception of some 

reported cases in Germany[ICF, 2010]. As a result, it might be landfilled (i.e. not complying 

with legislation) or incinerated in a municipal waste incinerator (which is compliant if the 

facility has the required permit and complies with the provisions of the Waste Incineration 

Directive, see above). Although the respective shares of landfilling and incineration with or 

without energy recovery are unknown, the current recycling rate (after removal of blowing 

agents) can be assumed to be very low. 

11.3. RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

11.3.1. EXISTING OPTIONS 

Foam is not typically separated from other materials and recovered at end of life. In some 

countries, the lack of enforcement and control procedures results in few or no actual 

separation and controlled treatment of this waste. In countries and regions where a ban on 

landfilling of recoverable or mixed C&D waste has been enacted (e.g. Germany, Flanders, the 

Netherlands or Austria), ODS-containing insulation foams are typically incinerated in 

municipal solid waste (MSW) or hazardous waste incinerator. As a result, landfilling and 

incineration in municipal waste treatment plants are still the main destinations for ODS 

containing insulation material. It is important to note that landfilling is not an option 

permitted by regulation 1005/2009. 

Classifying ODS containing substances as hazardous or prohibiting landfill or such materials 

has not efficiently triggered the recovery of ODS from foam prior to the recycling of other 

material, as thermal destruction often remains the most cost-effective technique. If not 

properly managed, separation of ODS entrapped in the foam matrix before destroying them 

may result in their release to the atmosphere and require more energy (greater combustion 

temperature) than when directly incinerated with mixed MSW. 

Indeed, the co-combustion of building insulation foams with MSW168 would ensure the safe 

destruction of CFCs by using the embodied energy of the plastic material, while avoiding 

crushing to reduce the density of the material prior to its disposal in landfills and the 

associated release of ODS to the atmosphere. Experiments carried out showed the efficiency 

of the co-combustion on the destruction of CFCs: more than 99.9% at 900°C for CFC-12 while 

CFC-11 is destroyed at low temperature. Moreover, no significant increase in dioxins and 

furans’ levels are detected when foams containing flame retardants are incinerated. Finally, 

acid gas removal is operated through scrubbers reaching concentration far below the 

German Emission Directive169. However, incineration with MSW might raise other issues, and 

the comparison between these two options is not yet feasible, and would require a complete 

comparative life-cycle analysis. 

 

168 [Vehlow] 

169 Directive 17 BimSchV: HCl < 10 mg/m3

, HF < 1.0 mg/m3
126 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

As demonstrated by ICF 2010, the percentage of ODS technically recovered at the EOL of 

insulation products varies greatly depending on the type of product. 

Table 36: ODS potentially recovered at the end of life of insulating foams [ICF, 2010] 

Application ODS potentially 

recovered 

PU Rigid: Sandwich Panels - 

Continuous 64% 

PU Rigid: Sandwich Panels - 

Discontinuous 63% 

PU & PIR Rigid: Boardstocks 32% 

PU Rigid: Spray foam 6% 

XPS Foam Boards 8% 

The low levels of potentially recovered ODS from XPS foam boards and PU spray foam can 

make the recovery of ODS from these products less of a priority. However, there is a high 

recovery potential from sandwich panels, and to a lesser extent from boardstocks which 

therefore represent the best opportunity for ODS recovery, in terms of technical feasibility. 

11.3.2. EMERGING TECHNIQUES

The demolition industry is facing the challenge of developing methodologies that can safely 

and effectively disassemble insulating panels and separate ODS foam insulation. 

An alternative option to incineration is the recovery of ODS from foams (for destruction), 

prior to the recycling or recovery of the other materials composing the panels. The provisions 

of EC Regulation 1005/2009, stating that such recovery is an option “if technically and 

economically” feasible, has led to a discussion on whether this was actually an option from a 

technical and economical point of view. 

 Removal of ODS blowing agents from sandwich panels at refrigerator recycling facilities 

Sandwich panels can be manually removed from buildings and treated in facilities that 

handle refrigeration equipment. One current limitation of this treatment option is the size of 

the panels that can be processed and therefore the size of the existing machinery. Indeed, it 

often exceeds the typical sizes for household appliances. The cutting process introduces risks 

of releasing some of the blowing agent; therefore this step has to be conducted carefully. 

Installations capable of handling such waste do exist, for example recycling plants that have 

installed a band saw to cut panels operating in low pressure conditions. This allows the 

recovery of ODS releases during the cutting process. Plants handling large appliances such as 

commercial refrigerators and freezers might also be suited for most sandwich panels. 

Otherwise, existing plants should be modified to be able to treat panels and ODS foam 

insulation. 

This application requires to take precautionary measures as the ODS contents of refrigerators 

are much lower than insulation panels used in the construction sector. Modifications to the 

process may therefore be necessary. Moreover, it may be difficult to ensure a continuous 

flow of waste insulation panels to the refrigerator recycling plant. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 127 

 On site “vacuum” technologies 

According to the US National Demolition Association170, a potential technology to recover 

ODS from insulation materials are “vacuum” technologies, typically used to recover asbestos 

from buildings. However, this would require a significant investment in research and 

development to adapt the process and the recovered material would need to be incinerated. 

 Recycling or re-use of material composing insulation panels 

Although it is not current practice, the recycling of PS and metals after recovery and 

destruction of ODS blowing agents is a feasible option. 

 The recycling of PU foam is less feasible as PU cannot be melted or reprocessed. However, 

other options such as the use of shredded foam171 in replacement material for wood, or 

chemical recycling (thermal glycolysis of PU172) represent promising technological 

developments. 

 Closed loop recycling 

A company, Kingspan Insulated Panels, has developed a process which will potentially allow 

for a totally closed loop for their products once they have reached the end of their useful life. 

The company says this means that all insulated panel waste from Kingspan’s manufacturing 

process will be completely recycled. However, the aim is for the company to be able to 

recycle panels from deconstructed buildings in the future, allowing a truly ‘closed loop’ 

scenario where all material is recovered and recycled at end of life. The company has a 

similar process for boardstock173. 

11.4. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS

11.4.1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

The major environmental issue related to the end-of-life of ODS-containing insulation 

material is the potential release of these substances into the atmosphere, as they 

significantly contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer and to global warming. 

As mentioned above, building insulating foams may contain 50 to 80% (some sources 

estimate this share up to 90%) of the total ODS bank in Europe. Therefore, systematic 

destruction of ODS contained in foams(with or without prior recovery) at their end of life 

represents high environmental benefits, both in terms of ozone layer depletion and 

greenhouse gases emissions, but with also potential significant costs [ICF 2010]. 

 

170 Personal communication with Mike Taylor on behalf of the National Demolition Association, 

reported in ICF 2010 

171 www.puren.com 

172 www.rampf-ecosystems.de 

173 Interview with Peter Jones, 2010 
128 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

This issue remains with non-ODS substances that are still widely used as blowing agents such 

as pentane and HFC to a lower degree, which are also greenhouse gases as well as a VOC 

(Volatile Organic Compound) for pentane. 

The comparison of environmental costs and benefits related to the two options allowed in 

Regulation 1005/2009 (recovery or destruction without recovery) was not performed in the 

context of this study, and would require a complete life-cycle analysis, taking into account 

the current recovery and/or destruction rates in existing facilities, transportation distances to 

recovery/destruction facilities, treatment of bottom ashes in MSWI, potential environmental 

benefits of recycling other materials contained in foams, etc. 

The potential environmental savings, in terms of GHG emissions, associated with the full 

destruction (and thus the avoidance of release into the atmosphere) of the fraction of ODS 

and HFC present in insulating foams at the end of their life, is presented in the following 

table. 

Table 37: Emission savings potential (in ktonnes CO2 eq.) through the destruction (with or without 

prior recovery) of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs in building insulating foam [ICF, 2010] 

Application CFC HCFC HFC 

PU Rigid: Sandwich 

Panels - Continuous 3 992 827 135 

PU Rigid: Sandwich 

Panels - Discontinuous 1 937 207 180 

PU & PIR Rigid: 

Boardstocks 4 541 350 10 

PU Rigid: Spray foam 489 54 124 

XPS Foam Boards 2 710 299 26 

Total 13 669 1 737 475 

The total destruction of ODS contained in insulation foams at the end of their life in 2010 

would represent a total of 15,406,000 tonnes CO2 eq. This amount reaches 15,881,000 t. eq. 

CO2 when HFC is accounted for. 

IPCC and TEAP predict that total direct emissions of emitted from banks could erase all of the 

reductions in global warming gas emissions achieved under the Kyoto Protocol. Therefore, 

the treatment of ODS banks are considered of major importance by the United Nations and 

the EU. 

As a comparison, the emissions associated to the production of PU rigid foam are 4.3 t. 

CO2eq. per tonne of PU. With the high estimate of 250,000 tonnes of waste foam per year, 

this would be equivalent to a potential of 1,075,000 t. eq. CO2 avoided impacts through 

recycling or re-use. 

11.4.2. ECONOMIC IMPACTS 

As previously stated, according to EC regulation 1005/2009, the recovery of ODS from 

insulation foam prior to appropriate treatment of other materials is mandatory “if technically 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 129 

and economically feasible”. The question of treatment costs of ODS contained in insulation 

foam has therefore been raised and evaluation of these costs are available and presented in 

the following table. 

Tableau 38: Average costs for EOL treatment of ODS contained in sandwich panels 

Activity Costs per kg of 

ODS174

Segregation/collection 55 € 

Transport 5 € 

Recovery processing 20 € 

Destruction 3 € 

Total 83 € 

The cost of destruction of ODS with prior recovery from sandwich panels (possibly the most 

feasible type of construction foam to recover) is estimated at €83/kg of ODS, around 8€ per 

kg of foam with the assumption that the ODS content is 10%. Costs without prior recovery of 

the blowing agent are likely to be significantly lower (at least by 20€ per kg of ODS). Costs for 

recovery of ODS from boardstocks, spray foam or XPS foam are likely to be much higher, as 

this material is not easily identified and sorted out during demolition. However, given the 

limited field experience to date at recovering construction foam, it is difficult to assess the 

economic feasibility with certainty. 

11.5. RELEVANCE TO THE 70% TARGET

As shown previously, ODS containing foam represent a relatively small fractions of C&D 

waste (less than 0.05%). Although few specific data is available on this fraction in the studied 

MS, this is confirmed by data from Germany, where all insulation materials are estimated to 

represent 0.1% of the total weight C&D waste entering waste management facilities. 

Technical and economical analysis shows that the recycling of plastics and metals from 

insulation materials is likely to be very costly, because of the necessity to remove and destroy 

ODS prior to any further treatment. In many cases, incineration is the most cost-effective 

treatment. However, this analysis is based on very limited experience of insulation foam 

recycling, as this practice is currently almost non-existent. 

Given the relatively small amount of ODS when compared with other CDW streams, the reuse, recycling and recovery target established in the Waste Framework Directive is not the 

main driver for a secure disposal of ODS. However, the 70% target could indirectly influence 

ODS recovery and foam recycling, as it can act as a trigger to incentivise selective demolition 

or deconstruction, better reporting and characterisation of the C&D waste flow, which are 

keys to the appropriate sorting of C&D waste fractions 

 

174 [ICF, 2010], based on TEAP 2009 
130 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

12. APPENDIX I: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES PRESENT 

IN C&D WASTE 

In this appendix, five main hazardous substances were identified as possible contaminants of 

C&D waste fractions and hinder their recovery: asbestos, lead based paints, phenols, 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). These 

substances are presented in appendix contrary to the other fractions that can be found in the 

C&D waste stream because of the general lack of information. Indeed, even if organisations 

have been initially identified and contacted, they turned out to be either not concerned by 

the issue or did not answer. 

12.1. ASBESTOS

12.1.1. DEFINITION

Asbestos refer to six fibrous minerals that are part of two major mineral groups: 

• Chrysotile, known as white asbestos, is part of the serpentine mineral group. It 

represents approximately 90% of worldwide asbestos usage (even 95% in the 

USA). 

• Amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite and actinolite, known as brown or 

blue asbestos, are part of the amphibole mineral group. Amosite is the second 

most likely type of asbestos to be found in buildings. 

These minerals have extraordinary tensile strength, conduct heat poorly and are relatively 

resistant to chemical attack. Natural sources are important, because asbestos minerals are 

widely spread throughout the earth’s crust and are not restricted to the few mineable 

deposits. 

12.1.2. APPLICATIONS

At the beginning of the 20th century, the process for combining asbestos fibres with cement 

to produce asbestos-cement was invented. Asbestos-cement is a material which had 

excellent technical properties and could be used for a wide range of applications which took 

advantage of its durability, fire resistance, and ease in processing, forming, installing, and 

overall economic benefits. These special chemical and physical properties, which make it 

virtually indestructible, accounted for its popularity in the building industry. 

Asbestos was widely used in Europe between the 1940s and 1980s in thermal insulation, fire 

protection and a whole array of building materials such as: siding shingles, flat sheets, roofing 

shingles, and corrugated sheets175

. These asbestos-cement products lent themselves to rapid 

 

175 www.nps.gov/history/hps/tps/recentpast/asbestosarticle.htm
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 131 

construction techniques and, therefore, were particularly useful for lightweight housing and 

industrial buildings. The following table summarises the very large array of products that are 

made of asbestos in the construction sector. 

Table 39 – Asbestos containing building materials 

Acoustical plaster 

Adhesives 

Asphalt floor tile 

Base Flashing 

Blown-in insulation 

Boiler Insulation 

Breaching insulation 

Caulking/putties 

Ceiling Tiles and Lay-in 

Panels 

Cement pipes 

Cement siding 

Cement wallboard 

Chalkboards 

Construction Mastics/ 

Adhesives 

Decorative Plaster 

Ductwork 

Electric wiring insulation 

Electric panel partitions 

Elevator brake shoes 

Elevator equipment 

Panels 

Fire blankets 

Fire curtains 

Fire doors 

Fireproofing materials 

Flexible fabric connections 

Flooring backing 

Heating and electrical ducts 

High temperature gaskets 

HVAC duct insulation 

Joint compounds 

Laboratory gloves 

Laboratory hoods 

Table tops 

Packing materials 

Pipe insulation 

Roofing felt 

Roofing shingles 

Spackling compounds 

Spray-applied 

Insulation 

Taping compounds (thermal) 

Textured paints/ coatings 

Thermal paper 

Products 

Vinyl floor tile 

Vinyl sheet flooring 

Cooling towers 

Vinyl wall coverings 

Wallboard 

12.1.3. LEGAL ASPECTS

Since January 1st 2005, the use of asbestos is banned within the entire EU176. 

Asbestos is restricted in the EU through specific legislation and the new chemical policy for 

the European Union, known as REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of 

Chemicals). The following table summarises the ban years at the national level for the EU-27. 

Most MS (16 in total) have acted before the decision was taken at the European level to ban 

chrysolite177 with the effective deadline set for January 1st, 2005. The use of asbestos has 

been banned ever since for the construction of new projects. 

 

176 Substitute materials include: fibreglass insulation (the most common insulation material, which 

may have a similar toxicity as asbestos), stone and glass wool, polybenzimidazole fibre (often used by

fire departments and space agencies). Asbestos-cement is replaced by organic fibres reinforced 

concrete. 

177 It was already illegal to place on the market and use all types of asbestos fibres other than 

chrysotile, including 14 categories of chrysotile-containing products within the EU. 
132 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 40 – Chronology of national asbestos bans 

(Source: International Ban Asbestos Secretariat178) 

Country Asbestos ban year Comments 

Austria 1990 on chrysolite 

Belgium 1998 on chrysolite 

Bulgaria January 1st 2005 on imports, production and use of all asbestos fibres 

Cyprus January 1st 2005 on chrysolite under EU deadline179, other forms of 

asbestos having been banned previously 

Czech Republic January 1st 2005 Ibid. 

Denmark 1985 all forms of asbestos 

Estonia January 1st 2005 on chrysolite under EU deadline, other forms of 

asbestos having been banned previously 

Finland 1992 on chrysolite with exceptions 

France January 1st 1997 on all types of asbestos 

Germany 1993 on chrysolite with minor exceptions 

Greece January 1st 2005 on chrysolite under EU deadline, other forms of 

asbestos having been banned previously 

Hungary January 1st 2005 Ibid. 

Ireland 2000 on chrysolite with exceptions 

Italy 1992 on chrysolite with some exceptions until 1994 

Latvia 2001 on asbestos with exemption for asbestos products 

already installed that must be labelled 

Lithuania January 1st 2005 on chrysolite under EU deadline, other forms of 

asbestos having been banned previously 

Luxembourg 2002 on chrysolite, crocidolite and amosite having been 

banned under earlier EU directives 

Malta January 1st 2005 on chrysolite under EU deadline, other forms of 

asbestos having been banned previously 

Netherlands 1991 the first of a series of bans (with exceptions) on various 

uses of chrysotile 

Poland 1997 on asbestos 

Portugal January 1st 2005 on chrysolite under EU deadline, other forms of 

asbestos having been banned previously 

Romania January 1st 2005 Ibid. 

Slovakia January 1st 2005 Ibid. 

Slovenia 1996 on asbestos-cement products 

Spain 2002 on chrysolite, crocidolite and amosite having been 

banned under earlier EU directives 

Sweden 1986 the first of a series of bans (with exceptions) on various 

uses of chrysotile 

United Kingdom 1999 on chrysolite with minor exceptions 

 

178 www.ibasecretariat.org/chron_ban_list.php

179 Commission Directive 1999/77/EC [EC, 1999]sets the deadline for the prohibition of chrysotile use, 

with one minor derogation, as January 1, 2005 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 133 

As a consequence of the ban, there is no more production and consumption in Europe today. 

The decrease of the European consumption was progressive. In 1983, the asbestos 

consumption in Europe was of 4 million tonnes180, mainly chrysolite (only 5% of the total 

asbestos production was in the form of amphibole asbestos181). In 1999, following the bans in 

many MS anticipating the European decision, the same consumption decreased to 60,000 

tonnes, which represented 3.2% of the total worldwide consumption (1.849 million 

tonnes)182 (Greece itself was producing 83% of this amount with 50,000 tonnes). This 

consumption reached 13,000 in 2003, 4,000 tonnes in 2004 and 0 in 2005. All industrial use 

of asbestos have ceased ever since within the EU. 

In many industrialised countries most asbestos was used in the building sector. In most 

Western European countries, the building sector represented between 70 to 90% of the total 

usage of asbestos. 

Though asbestos is banned at the European level, it is still used in other parts of the world 

such as developing countries. In 2006, 2.3 million tons of asbestos were mined worldwide, in 

11 or 12 countries. Russia was the largest producer with about 40.2% world share followed 

by China (19.9%), Kazakhstan (13.0%), Canada (10.3%), and Brazil (9.9%)183

. 

12.1.4. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT OPTIONS

No statistics about demolition asbestos waste (quantities and destinations) are available at 

the EU-27 level. 

Asbestos waste from construction activities is not generated anymore as asbestos has been 

banned since January 2005. However, asbestos has been widely used in the past for the 

construction of all kinds of buildings which are gradually reaching their end of life. As a 

consequence, modification, repair, maintenance and demolition activities are generating 

asbestos waste that raises major concerns and have to be handled and managed according to 

stringent specifications. 

Asbestos is classified as hazardous waste. According to the List of Waste, a waste is classified 

as hazardous if one or more substances classified184 as very toxic at a total concentration 

superior or equal to 0.1 % is present. Asbestos containing waste is therefore classified as 

hazardous if it contains more than 0.1% asbestos. 

Demolition asbestos waste is mainly disposed of in landfills or treated through thermal 

destruction. 

 

180 www.euro.who.int/document/aiq/6_2_asbestos.pdf

181 [Brondeau, 2009] <www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/IntranetObject-accesParReference/FT 

145/$File/ft145.pdf> 

182 [Salvatori]<www.actuaries.org/ASTIN/Colloquia/Berlin/Salvatori_Santoni_Michaels.pdf> 

183 [BGS, 2008] 

184 Referring to [EC, 1967] 
134 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Though asbestos is classified as hazardous waste, it may be landfilled in non-hazardous 

landfills as stated in Council Decision 2003/33/EC185. The recent implementation of section 2 

on establishing criteria and procedures for the acceptance of waste at landfills has permitted 

(from 16th July 2005) the landfilling of construction materials containing asbestos and other 

suitable asbestos waste in landfills for non-hazardous waste. The following requirements 

must be fulfilled by those landfills: 

• the waste contains no other hazardous substances than bound asbestos, 

including fibres bound by a binding agent or packed in plastic, 

• the landfill accepts only construction material containing asbestos and other 

suitable asbestos waste. These wastes may also be landfilled in a separate cell of 

a landfill for non-hazardous waste, if the cell is sufficiently self-contained, 

• in order to avoid dispersion of fibres, the zone of deposit is covered daily and 

before each compacting operation with appropriate material and, if the waste is 

not packed, it is regularly sprinkled, 

• a final top cover is put on the landfill/cell in order to avoid the dispersion of 

fibres, 

• no works are carried out on the landfill/cell that could lead to a release of fibres 

(e.g. drilling of holes), 

• after closure a plan is kept of the location of the landfill/cell indicating that 

asbestos wastes have been deposited, 

• appropriate measures are taken to limit the possible uses of the land after 

closure of the landfill in order to avoid human contact with the waste. 

No limits are specified regarding the amount of this waste type that can be disposed of. No 

information of the actual implementation of these requirements could be gathered for this 

report. 

Recycling through thermal destruction (also referred as vitrification of asbestos waste186) 

seems to be the only recycling technique currently available and is described below. Asbestos 

can be recycled by transforming it into harmless silicate glass. A process of thermal 

decomposition at 1000–1250 °C produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at 

temperatures above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass (asbestos is supplied to the furnace and 

withdrawing molten glass is withdrawn). The furnace is advantageously operated at a 

pressure less than atmospheric pressure. No quantitative data on the importance of recycling 

was identified. 

Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to 

transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous 

single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks. 

 

185 [EC, 2002] 

186 www.freepatentsonline.com/EP0145350.html
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 135 

12.1.5. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES

The main concerns linked to asbestos contaminated C&D waste treatment are linked to 

human health. 

 In general 

Asbestos started to be recognised as a cause of occupational disease in the 1920s, but it was 

only in 1960 that a Welsh researcher studying mesothelioma187 cases among workers of an 

asbestos mine in South Africa, finally proved the direct link between asbestos and 

mesothelioma, now known to be a “signature disease” of asbestos (i.e., it is presumed to 

occur only after exposure to asbestos). 

All six forms of asbestos are classified as class 1 carcinogens, namely substances that can lead 

to cancer. Inhaling asbestos fibres can result in asbestosis188, which is scarring of the lung 

tissue, lung cancer and mesothelioma, which is cancer of both the membrane sacs housing 

the lungs and the membrane lining of the abdominal cavity. With lung cancer, 95 % of 

patients are incurable, and no treatment is available for mesothelioma. 

According to the association of asbestos exposure and malignant mesothelioma, 

approximately 80% of mesothelioma patients have a long history of asbestos exposure. 

Health risks were shown to be greater during mining and production processes, but minimal 

during installation and use of asbestos-cement products. The following table estimates the 

risk of developing lung cancer linked to asbestos related activities. 

Figure 9 - Increase in the relative risk of lung cancer depending on the type of activity 

(Source: www.euro.who.int/document/aiq/6_2_asbestos.pdf) 

The risk of exposure depends on both the concentration of fibres in a product and how 

‘firmly bound’ the material is. The bound being released when breaking the asbestos based 

products during the demolition process. 

 

187 Rare form of cancer that develops from the protective lining that covers many of the body's 

internal organs, the mesothelium. It is usually caused by exposure to asbestos 

188 Slowly developing form of lung cancer by the inhalation of asbestos dust and/or long exposure 
136 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), around 100,000 people189

worldwide still die from exposure to asbestos every year and projections estimate to up to 

250,000 asbestos-related deaths in Europe in the next 25 to 30 years190

. 

The EU has passed several pieces of legislation focusing on the issue of exposure when 

working with asbestos: 

• Directive 83/477/EEC on the protection of workers from the risks related to 

exposure to asbestos at work, passed in September 1983, stated that the ‘limit 

values pertaining to in-air concentrates are. For chrysotile: 0.60 fibres per cm3

 for 

an eight-hour reference period; for all other forms of asbestos: 0.30 fibres per 

cm3

 for an eight-hour reference period’. 

• In 1991, Directive 91/382/EEC amended the earlier directive to make the limit 

values more stringent. 

• In 2003, Directive 2003/18/EC prohibited the extraction of asbestos as well as its 

manufacture and processing from April 2003. 

 In particular in the demolition sector 

A high risk of exposure is present for workers in the demolition sector in the course of 

demolition, maintenance, renovation work and waste disposal191. 

Indoor asbestos dust originates from insulation material sprayed on steelwork or ceilings, 

asbestos plasters and low-weight insulation plates. In the case of asbestos-cement, the 

release of fibres to the environment is limited since the fibres are essentially “locked” in the 

cement matrix. 

For demolition workers, it is important to follow recommended safety precautions by 

wearing approved facemasks and breathing instruments that filter out the asbestos fibres, by 

being certain that all areas of the body are covered and that extra care is taken to minimise 

contact with the outside of the clothes when working with asbestos. 

Identification of asbestos containing constructions is crucial in order to avoid spreading 

asbestos into recycled products. Asbestos can be present in some asphalt materials, at least 

in asphalt products before its ban. This makes recycling of this asphalt impossible, with the 

additional difficulty that asbestos-containing asphalt cannot be easily identified. LBP (lead 

based paints) 

12.1.6. DEFINITION

LBP contain lead, a heavy metal, which is used as pigment. Lead (II) chromate (PbCrO4, 

"chrome yellow") and lead (II) carbonate (PbCO3, "white lead") are both utilised but the last 

one being the most common. 

 

189 [EC DG, 2006] 

190 [Salvatori] 

191 [EC DG, 2006] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 137 

12.1.7. APPLICATIONS 

Lead was added to paint as pigment but also added to speed drying, increase durability, 

retain a fresh appearance and resist moisture that causes corrosion. 

For the vast majority of uses, lead pigments have been replaced with titanium dioxide (which 

is also used in food colourings as well as in sunscreen). 

12.1.8. LEGAL ASPECTS

The use of LBPs in residential applications was officially banned under EU Council Directive 

89/677/EEC192 amending Council Directive 76/769/EEC193

. 

Council Directive 98/24/EC194 on the protection of the health and safety of workers from the 

risks related to chemical agents at work sets binding occupational exposure limits for lead 

and its ionic compounds in blood. Prior to this, lead-based paints were banned years before 

by national legislation in some MS. 

12.1.9. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT OPTIONS

As LBPs were commonly applied on walls, C&D waste contaminated with lead based paints is 

mostly mixed with the inert fraction during the demolition process. 

The treatment of LBP waste is associated to the management options for inert waste such as 

concrete. This waste stream is disposed of in lined landfills to prevent the potential release of 

pollutants to the environment. 

Prior to demolition, existing techniques to remove LBP include thermal, chemical or 

mechanical scouring. 

12.1.10. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES

Lead causes nervous system damage, stunted growth, and delayed development. It can cause 

kidney damage and affects every organ system of the body. It also is dangerous to adults and 

can cause reproductive problems for both men and women and even be lethal. 

Lead contamination has been spread throughout the world by industrial emissions, gasoline 

and paints. This means that everybody on earth already has some level of lead contamination 

from environmental exposure. 

Construction workers exposed to lead and their families are at risk of lead poisoning. The 

long-term effects of lead exposure are irreversible and are much more damaging to children 

than to adults. 

 

192 [EC, 1989] 

193 This Directive prohibits the use of lead carbonates and lead sulphates in paints except for the 

restoration of works of art and historic buildings.

194 [EC, 1998] 
138 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Lead dust or fumes are created when lead-based paint is dry scraped, dry-sanded, or heated 

during renovation or maintenance. Dust also forms when painted surfaces bump or rub 

together through normal use. Lead chips and dust can get on surfaces and objects that 

people touch. Settled dust can re-enter the air when people vacuum, sweep, or walk through 

it. 

Some MS have drafted guidelines explaining the measures to be taken in order to protect 

health of construction workers dealing with lead contaminated materials195. Potentially 

contaminated buildings can be identified based on the construction date or using XRF 

technology. The uses of appropriate decontamination techniques, as well as wearing 

protective equipment, are crucial in order to avoid risks. 

12.2. PHENOLS

12.2.1. DEFINITION

Phenol is both a natural and man-made chemical in the form of a white crystalline solid 

which dissolves to form a corrosive solution. 

The main chemical derivatives of phenol are bisphenol-A (BPA) (used to make polycarbonate 

PC) and epoxy resins (phenolic resins, caprolactam, alkylphenols, aniline and adipic acid). 

12.2.2. APPLICATIONS 

The largest market for phenol is BPA which accounts for around 45% of demand196. The BPA 

market has been driven by the strong growth in polycarbonate resins, accounting for twothirds of BPA demand. 

BPA’s other main application is epoxy resins which are used in high performance coatings, 

electrical-electronic laminates, adhesives, flooring and paving applications, and composites. 

In the long term the growth is expected to be 3% per year at the global scale. 

The second largest outlet for phenol, accounting for 28% of demand, is phenolic resins which 

are largely used as durable binders and adhesives in structural wood panels and as binders in 

mineral wool insulation in the construction industry. A long term global growth of 3%/year is 

expected despite the economic decline in the construction sector. 

Phenol is also used in foam insulation for its fire and thermal performance, its resistance to 

moisture, its strength while being light197. It is used for a large range a building applications 

such as roofing, cavity board, external wall board, plasterboard dry lining, systems, wall 

insulation, floor insulation and as a sarking board, therefore having a growing market share. 

 

195 http://www.oppbtp.fr/content/download/13475/87842 

196 www.icis.com/V2/Chemicals/9076136/phenol/uses.html

197 [EPA] < www.epfa.org.uk/Pdfs/eng.pdf > 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 139 

12.2.3. LEGAL ASPECTS

Regulation (EC) 1488/94 sets out the risk assessment on substances of the European Priority 

lists among which phenol by assessing in priority the risks posed by the priority chemical to 

man. 

The European producers of phenol have launched a consortium to register phenol and 

derivative substances under the REACH Regulation by December 2010198. Substances covered 

targeted are phenol, acetone, cumene, alpha-methyl styrene, acetophenone, di-isopropyl 

benzene, CHP and 'high-boiler'. 

12.2.4. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT OPTIONS

Major releases of phenol are from industrial processes using or manufacturing phenol, as a 

component in certain industrial wastes, for example, coal tar products, and from the use of 

phenol-containing preparations. 

Treated wood and insulation panels containing phenol can be treated by removing the 

contaminated surface area and then recycled by reintroducing them in the manufacturing 

process as developed in the dedicated chapter for each fraction. Other phenol contaminated 

C&D waste is disposed of in landfills. 

Phenol is found occasionally in landfill leachate which may affect the groundwater quality 

through percolation. If e.g. phenolic foam is landfilled there will be some un-reacted phenols 

and acid that can be leached. Incineration of phenolic foam can also form toxic smoke. 

12.2.5. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES

Phenol occurs naturally at low concentrations in the environment. Phenol is rapidly broken 

down in air (half is destroyed in under a day) and soil (usually completely destroyed in 2-5 

days), but it can persist in water for longer than 9 days. Elevated concentrations of phenol 

may be found in air or water after releases from industry or the use of phenolic products. 

Water contaminated by landfill leachate may contain high concentrations of phenol. Typical 

concentrations for waters is below 100 parts per billion (ppb), but less than 1 ppb may be 

found in unpolluted surface and ground waters. 

Phenol is toxic to aquatic animals and in general fish appear to be the most sensitive. 

Contamination of water by phenol could therefore harm aquatic organisms and ecosystems. 

Phenol does not appear to bio accumulate, i.e. there is little if any evidence that its 

concentration increases up the food chain. As a VOC it can be involved in reactions with 

other air pollutants that form ground-level ozone, which can cause damage to crops and 

materials as well as having potential effects on human health. 

Phenol may cause genetic damage. Excessive exposure may affect the brain, digestive 

system, eye, heart, kidney, liver, lung, peripheral nerve, skin and the unborn child. The 

 

198 www.petrochemistry.net/phenol.html
140 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact with phenol may cause severe injury or death. It is 

combustible and produces irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases when burning. 

12.3. PCB (POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS) 

12.3.1. DEFINITION

PCBs are a group of synthetic organic chemicals known as chlorinated hydrocarbons which 

include any chemical substance of the biphenyl molecule that has been chlorinated to 

varying degrees. 

PCBs show extraordinary chemical stability and heat resistance. 

12.3.2. APPLICATIONS 

PCBs were commercially produced world-wide on a large scale between the 1930s and 1980s 

(the end of the production of PCBs in industrialised Western countries). It is estimated that 

approximately 1.5 million tonnes of PCBs have been produced worldwide199. It is difficult to 

provide consistent quantitative data as uncertainties prevail regarding the imported 

amounts, the quantities still contained in equipments, buildings and other appliances. 

Applications of PCBs are classified into two categories: 

• Closed uses: dielectric fluids in electrical equipment such as transducers, 

capacitors (big industrial capacitors, but also small capacitors in household 

electrical appliances), heat transfer, hydraulic systems and power supply blocks 

of fluorescent lamps. 

• Open uses: sealant industrial oils, plasticiser in paints and cements, stabilising 

adhesives, plastics, flame retardants and de-dusting agent. 

Among all these applications, the major concerns for the construction sector are sealants 

used in a large variety of concrete buildings between 1955 and 1975: schools, gymnasium, 

swimming pools, hospitals, public and individual dwelling buildings, shopping malls and other 

business and industrial buildings200

. 

Another important issue is related to PBCs as retardant in building foam. Brominated flame 

retardants (BFRs) are a group of chemicals which are added to many plastic products for the 

purpose of fire prevention. There are also additive flame retardants such as tris[1,3-dichloro2-propyl] phosphate [TDCPP] and triphenyl phosphate [TPP], which are not chemically 

bonded to the products they are intended to protect. 

 

199 www.parlament.ch/f/suche/pages/geschaefte.aspx?gesch_id=20083926

200 www.bag.admin.ch/themen/chemikalien/00228/00512/index.html?lang=fr
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 141 

12.3.3. LEGAL ASPECTS

In the 1970s, several countries limited the use of PCBs. In 1985, the use and marketing of 

PCBs in the European Community were very heavily restricted. 

Directive 96/59/EC201 requires the environmentally sound disposal of equipment containing 

PCBs before the 31st of December 2010 (with the exception of transducers with liquids 

containing between 50 and 500 parts per million of PCBs in mass). MS have to make an 

inventory of equipments containing PCBs and to adopt a disposal and decontamination plan 

for inventoried and non inventoried equipments. 

The Commission has adopted a Community Strategy on Dioxins, Furans and PCBs to reduce 

their release to the environment and their introduction in the food chains. 

12.3.4. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT OPTIONS

No sound and systematic data is available regarding the amounts of PCBs that are 

decontaminated and disposed of within the EU. 

Disposal of waste products containing PCBs include:

• Decontamination i.e. decolouration, which is the treatment for the chemical 

decomposition of chlorine molecules 

• C&D waste contaminated with PCBs can also be incinerated (with special flue gas 

treatment) 

• Storage 

The owners of equipment containing PCB have to treat them accordingly to the MS legal 

obligations. 

12.3.5. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES

Incorrect disposal of equipment containing PCBs can result in continued release to the 

environment due to leakage and spills (for instance from landfill), therefore adding to the 

existing levels which are the consequence of past releases. Also incineration could create 

toxic flue gases. 

Once released, PCBs can be transported over long distances through the atmosphere, persist 

in the environment and is able to concentrate through the food chain as they are liposoluble 

(accumulation in the fat) and resistant chemicals. PCBs have been detected in all 

environmental media (indoor and outdoor, surface and ground water, soil and food). 

PCBs are classified as probable human carcinogens and produce a wide spectrum of adverse 

effects in animals and humans, including reproductive toxicity, teratogenicity and 

immunotoxicity. PCBs are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Reproductive and 

developmental problems have been observed in fish at low PCB concentrations. 

 

201 [EC, 1996] 
142 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

12.4. PAH (POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS) 

12.4.1. DEFINITION

PAHs are a group of organic chemicals comprising two or more fused benzene rings. They are 

ubiquitous environmental contaminants formed mainly by the incomplete combustion of 

carbon-containing fuels such as wood, coal, diesel, and oil. Only anthracene and naphthalene 

are intentionally produced. 

12.4.2. APPLICATIONS 

In the construction sector PAHs are included in wide array of products: 

• concrete additives 

• celluloid (plastic) 

• solvents 

• wood preservatives 

• lacquers 

• specialist paints 

• coal tar epoxy paints 

• coal tar polyurethane sealers 

• damp-proofing materials 

• waterproof membranes 

For instance202, in waste coming from insulation boards or sandwich panels for roof 

construction, PAHs can be found in bitumen, tar and asphalt that have been used as a 

waterproof layer in the production of those products. PAHs can also be found in chimneys or 

other smoke evacuation conducts, and contaminate the building materials. 

12.4.3. LEGAL ASPECTS

Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006203 sets the maximum levels at EU level for PAH and in

particular for benzo(a)pyrene. 

Regulation (EC) No 333/2007204 gives provisions for sampling and analysis methods for the 

official control of benzo(a)pyrene levels. 

 

202 Interview with expert Peter Jones, Independent consultant 

203 [EC, 2006] 

204 [EC, 2007] 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 143 

12.4.4. WASTE GENERATION AND TREATMENT OPTIONS

Such waste are generally mixed with other products during the demolition step and 

landfilled. 

PAH contaminated C&D waste are disposed of in hazardous waste landfills. Leachate from 

landfills may contain PAH and are treated to avoid contamination. 

C&D waste contaminated with PAH can also be incinerated (with special flue gas treatment). 

12.4.5. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES

PAH are strongly adsorbed on the particulate matters of soils, sludge or sediments because 

of their strong hydrophobicity which makes them less bioavailable, thus limiting their 

bioremediation205

. 

PAHs are known to be carcinogenic206, mutagenic207, and teratogenic208. Humans can be 

affected by breathing fumes from a hazardous landfill where PAH are disposed of, by eating 

contaminated food, or through skin contact209. 

12.5. GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The amounts and nature of dangerous substances contaminating C&D waste are not well 

known at the present time, and an estimation of the total quantities and the related 

potential hazards is not possible. It is however clear that action is needed, as these 

substances might not only represent a threat to the environment and human health, but 

also, as a contaminant of C&D waste, hinder its recyclability. The 70% target itself might itself 

trigger better identification of these contaminants, as clean material is needed for most 

application of recycled C&D waste. Separation of waste streams at source could thus 

indirectly contribute to a better management of hazardous substances. These effects could 

be improved by addressing individually some of these contaminants and by improving 

controls by the authorities. 

 

205 cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18791329

206 Quality of an agent that is likely to cause cancer

207 Quality of an agent that can induce or increase the frequency of mutation in an organism 

208 Quality of an agent able to disturb the growth and development of an embryo or foetus 

209 www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/factshts/pahs.pdf
144 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

13. APPENDIX II: CASE STUDY GERMANY 

Amounts of C&D 

waste

72.4 million tonnes of mineral waste in 2004 (883 kg per capita) 

Source: based on the monitoring reports of the construction industry (ARGE KWTB) that are 

derived from the general federal statistics and are said to be a reliable source.

Waste factors

m3 of C&D Waste per m2 of dwelling/usable space 1,17 m3/m2 

Gross density of C&D waste 2,0 t/m 

Material 

composition of the 

C&D waste stream

Building demolition waste including concrete, bricks, tiles or mixtures 

thereof 69.8% 

Road way rubble 27.2% 

Construction site waste (including wood, glass, plastics, metals, 

insulation materials, mixtures of materials) 2.6% 

Gypsum based waste 0.4% 

Total 100% 

Source: based on the monitoring reports of the construction industry (ARGE KWTB) 

End of life options Recycling Other forms of material recovery (including backfilling – 

reported as “reuse” in German statistics) Disposal 

Rates 68.5% 22.9% Landfill: 8.6%

Source: based on the monitoring reports of the construction industry (ARGE KWTB) 

Past trends

Act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management and Ensuring 

Environmentally Compatible Waste Disposal (1994) was crucial for the beginning of 

harmonised waste reporting and collection of data. Since then recycling and re-use 

rates have been high. 

Analysis of the 

current state

High recycling and re-use rates. Low landfill rates. However, monitoring of re-use of 

C&D waste on landfills difficult. Material that is reported as being re-used could also 

be landfilled. 

Towards the 70% 

target

The 70 % target is even exceeded by 10 % by the German draft for a new Act for 

Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management. 

Main challenges towards reaching the target: 

• Regulations (strict limits for concentration of certain substances in 

groundwater>limiting reusability of materials) 

• Lack of market demand for recycling material and low prizes 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 145 

13.1. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 

• Reports and articles

Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreislaufwirtschaftsträger Bau (ARGE KWTB), 2007. 

5. Monitoring-Bericht Bauabfälle 

Bernd Kirschbaum, 2008. Protokoll des Fachgesprächs, 

Geringfügigkeitsschwellenwert Vanadium“ 

BRB, 2006. Richtlinien Recycling-Baustoffe 

Dr. Rolf Bracke, 1999. Arbeitshilfe zur Entwicklung von Rückbaukonzepten im 

Zuge des Flächenrecyclings 

BayLfU, 2003. Kontaminierte Bausubstanz Erkundung, Bewertung, Entsorgung 

TuTech Innovation, 2006. C&D Waste Management in Germany 

Senatsverwaltung für Gesundheit, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz, 2009. 

Abfallwirtschaftskonzept für Siedlungs- und Bauabfälle sowie Klärschlämme 

Planungszeitraum bis 2020. 

Statistisches Bundesamt, 2007. Abfallentsorgung 

Statistisches Bundesamt, 2005. Abfallentsorgung 

• Websites 

Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreislaufwirtschaftsträger Bau, www.arge-kwtb.de/

Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety 

(BMU), www.bmu.de/english/waste_management/aktuell/3865.php and 

www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/pdf/krwg_eckpunkte_bf.pdf

Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. (FNR), www.bioenergie.de/gesetzeslage/altholzverordnung.html

Umweltbundesamt, www.umweltbundesamt.de/abfallwirtschafte/abfallstatistik/index.htm

Umweltkolleg, www.umweltkolleg.de/indexateien/umweltkollegErsatzbaustoffV.htm 
146 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

13.2. CONTACTS

Table 41 – Identified contacts for the case study on Germany 

Full name Name of organisation Type of organisation Function 

W. Sodermanns-Peschel Deutscher Abbruchverband e.V. 

Federation for demolition 

waste 

Head of 

Environment and 

Technology 

Michael Heide 

Bundesgütegemeinschaft 

Recycling-Baustoffe e.V. 

(& European Quality Association 

 for Recycling EQAR) 

Federation for recycling 

of 

building material 

Managing Director 

Gerhard Pahl Bundesvereinigung 

Recycling-Baustoffe e.V. (BRB) 

Federal Union of 

Recycling Building 

Materials 

Director of the 

department 

Berthold Schäfer Deutscher Beton- und BetontechnikVerein E.V. 

German Concrete Union Director of the 

department for 

environment engineering 

13.3. CONTEXT

The territory of Germany covers 357,021 km2 and houses a population of around 82 million 

people. It consists of 16 states (Bundesländer). 

Figure 10 – Germany and the Länders (Source: http://www.th-o.de/bundeslaender/) 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 147 

 Construction Sector 

Product stewardship is the basis of waste management policy in Germany. Thus, producers 

and distributors must design their products in such a way as to reduce waste occurrence and 

allow environmentally sound recovery and disposal (cf. BMU). In order to collect all waste 

separately and to reintroduce it into the economic cycle the Closed Substance Cycle and 

Waste Management Act was enforced in the mid-90s. 

As the end of 2007, 250,000 people in Germany worked in waste management, the annual 

turnover of that sector exceeding 50 billion Euros (cf. BMU). 

There is a clear shift in waste volumes with regard to disposal and recovery. The recovery 

rate of C&D Waste is very high and makes up for a huge share in the total volume of waste 

which is recovered (BMU). This is partly due to Germany’s high material, energy and labour, 

and waste disposal costs but also to its regulations, that focus on the complete material 

cycle, working towards a closed loop substance cycle in C&D, known as “Kreislaufwirtschaft” 

(cf. TuTech Innovation). Furthermore, everybody involved in designing and constructing 

buildings is obliged to consider the entire life cycle of materials. 

In Germany, the primary responsibility for ensuring the proper treatment of C&D waste is in 

the hands of local authorities. Meanwhile, the Länder are responsible for the implementation 

and enforcement of regulations meant to achieve C&D waste goals set by higher levels of 

government, particularly the Federal government of Germany and the EU. 

Germany’s Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety in 

cooperation with the Federal Environmental Agency, is responsible for legislation on C&D 

waste at the national level. This includes the provision of technical instructions regarding the 

disposal of waste, the setting of targets and goals and transposition of EU Directives. In case 

of conflicts, all federal level legislation overrules regional and local legislation (cf. TuTech 

Innovation). 

The states or “Länder” are responsible for the implementation and specifications of federal 

legislation at their level. They are also in charge of the enforcement of regulations on C&D 

waste and of supervising the proper operation of waste treatment and disposal facilities. 

At the local level, the municipalities take care of administration and issue demolition and 

construction permits. Those sometimes include detailed deconstruction plans and recycling 

specifications of the building’s materials. While household waste and its collection, recycling 

and the provision of the disposal infrastructure falls under the local authorities’ 

responsibility, commercial waste such as C&D waste is solely the responsibility of the waste’s 

owners. The local authority ensures this task is performed according to federal and state 

legislation and is responsible for initiating prosecution against offenders (cf. TuTech 

Innovation). 
148 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

13.4. POLICY AND STANDARDS OVERVIEW

13.4.1. KEY EUROPEAN POLICY DRIVERS 

For Germany, the Directive 2008/98/EC can be considered a driver on national waste policies. 

The European directive triggered the draft for a new Act for Promoting Closed Substance 

Cycle Waste Management, which is still under discussion. This draft transposes the European 

Directive on Waste into German law and harmonises the definitions of waste terminology 

between the EU and Germany. It can be considered an overhaul of a similar law from 1994. 

The European target set by Directive 2008/98/EC of recycling at least 70% of C&D waste 

generated for 2020, is even exceeded by 10% in the draft. 

13.4.2. KEY NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICY DRIVERS 

In a voluntary commitment of 1996, the German construction industry, Arbeitsgemeinschaft 

Kreislaufwirtschaftsträger Bau (ARGE KWTB) promised the Federal Environment Ministry that 

it would cut in half the amount of landfilled yet recyclable construction waste by the year 

2005. The reference year was 1995, when the recyclable construction waste that was 

landfilled accounted for 60 % of the total mineral waste (excluding excavation material). That 

means that only 40 % of the total amount (51 million tonnes) was re-used or recycled in 

1995. 

In the following ten years, ARGE KWTB produced 5 biannual monitoring reports in which the 

development of mineral C&D Waste was documented. The last report was published in 2007 

and is based on figures from 2004. It also provides a summary of the whole project. 

The report stated an over-accomplishment of the objectives. In other words: to comply with 

the commitment, it would have been sufficient to reduce the landfilled recyclable material to 

30 % of the total 78.6 million tonnes mineral waste and recycle 70 %. However, the average 

recycling rate was slightly higher than 70 % and it was complemented by another 18.6 % reuse rate for the material. Thus, on average only 11.3 % (i.e. 8.9 million tonnes) of mineral 

waste were landfilled during the project phase. 

As such, the recovery ratios promised in the voluntary commitment can be considered to 

have been met. 

This seems to be a remarkable accomplishment in the sector. It still needs to be underlined 

that the landfilled material could also potentially be recycled and that this achievements 

excludes excavation material (139.4 million tonnes per year on average) and any other nonmineral construction material such as glass, metal etc. Moreover, the evolution that took 

place has to be put in perspective with the lack of high quality data until 1995 (cf. Schäfer). In 

fact, a serious collection of data according to a coding system started only after 1995 when 

the Act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management and Ensuring 

Environmentally Compatible Waste Disposal had been enforced. Before that, a proper 

compilation of data was not possible. The relatively high amount of landfilled material might 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 149 

not have reflected reality. It might have been the case that even before 1995 much more 

material was re-used or recycled, but that this was not properly documented (cf. Schäfer). 

A formal continuation of this initiative is not planned at the moment. 

13.4.3. LEGAL DOCUMENTS

Table 42 – Legal documents dealing with waste management 

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

 Kreislaufwirtschaftsund Abfallgesetz (Act for 

Promoting Closed Substance 

Cycle Waste Management and 

Ensuring Environmentally 

Compatible Waste Disposal) 

1994 

 The law set principles for the development of waste 

management towards a closed loop economy 

(Kreislaufwirtschaft). It established a new hierarchy for 

waste treatment where the avoidance of waste is better 

than the recycling of waste, but recycling is more preferable 

to the disposal of waste. The disposal of waste is only 

permitted when recycling is much more expensive or 

impossible and the waste is unavoidable. Environmentally 

compatible disposal of waste shall be assured. Besides, this 

Act also established the responsibility of the producers for 

the waste arising from their products. 

Untergesetzliches Regelwerk 

zum Kreislaufwirtschafts- und 

Abfallgesetz 

(Legislative Provisions that 

Implement the Closed Substance 

Cycle and Waste Management 

Act) 

1996 

This provision complete the above mentioned law from 

1994 and includes 

1) Ordinance on the European Waste Catalogue 

2) Ordinance on the Furnishing of Proof 

3) Ordinance on Transport Licences 

4) Ordinance on Specialised Waste Management Companies 

Gewerbeabfallverordnung - 

Verordnung über die Entsorgung 

von gewerblichen 

Siedlungsabfällen 

und von bestimmten Bau- und 

Abbruchabfällen 

(Commercial Wastes Ordinance - 

CWO) 

2003 

Regulates the separation of certain waste types from 

commercial enterprises that is suitable for recycling and the 

construction waste sector. 

Verordnung zur Vereinfachung 

des Deponierechts (Ordinance 

Simplifying Landfill Law ) 

2009 

The Ordinance aimed at simplifying existing legislation and 

transposing of the corresponding European requirements 

into national law, by respecting the principle to landfill only 

biologically in-active waste. The Ordinance regulates the 

construction, operation, closure and aftercare of landfill 

sites. Thus, only specific kinds of (non-hazardous) types of 

waste can be land filled. In the Ordinance the responsibility 

of the waste producer was strengthened significantly, 

compared to older requirements. The operator of the landfill 

site therefore assumes the role of controlling the declaration 

made by the waste producer. The Ordinance also roughly 

prescribes ways of required sealing and closure techniques 

aiming at preventing harmful emissions into the 

environment, particularly ground water. 
150 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

Entwurf der Verordnung über 

den Einbau von mineralischen 

Ersatzbaustoffen in technischen 

Bauwerken - 

Ersatzbaustoffverordnung (Draft 

Ordinance on substitute 

construction materials) 

second draft 2010 

(implementation 

date not yet 

determined) 

 This Ordinance will determine the harmless re-use of 

excavation material, mineral waste and recycling material. 

Entwurf des KreislaufwirtschaftsGesetzes (Draft for a new Act for 

Promoting Closed Substance 

Cycle Waste Management) 

 draft 2010 

(implementation 

date not yet 

determined) 

 The general idea of the new legislation is to: 

1) keep the established structures and elements of the Act 

of 1994 

2) transpose the European Directive on Waste into German 

law and harmonise the definitions of waste terminology 

between the EU and Germany 

3) to improve resource efficiency of the Closed Substance 

Cycle Waste Management 

The last point is of vital importance and under discussion 

between politicians and stakeholders. In order to improve 

resource efficiency, it is intended to increase recycling rates. 

Until 2020 the re-use quota (excluding energetic re-use) 

should be 80 % (instead of 70 % required by the EU). Policy 

makers argue that the highly developed structures of waste 

disposal in Germany allow for this ambitious goal 

(cf. http://www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemein

/application/pdf/krwg_eckpunkte_bf.pdf) 

The industry, however, is concerned because for them high 

recycling quotas stand in contradiction to environmentally 

strict rules for recycling; exclusion of certain substances in 

recyclable material, for instance (cf. interview Sodermanns). 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 151 

13.4.4. STANDARDS

Table 43 – Standards in place in the construction sector 

Standard Legally binding Requirements Source 

Das deutsche Gütesiegel 

nachhaltiges Bauen 

(German Sustainable 

Building Certificate) 

Voluntary 

It rates the ecological and economic 

sustainability but also the sociocultural and process quality of a 

building design. Criterion 42 has 

particular relevance for C&D Waste. It 

focuses on prevention, dismantling 

and recycling of (waste) materials in 

buildings. The certificate also considers 

including criteria for the building site 

(such as reduction of noise and dust in 

criterion 48). 

Deutsche Gesellschaft für 

Nachhaltiges Bauen e.V 

German Sustainable Building 

Council: 

http://www.dgnb.de 

/fileadmin/downloads/DGNB_

Handbuch_44S_20090423_on

line_DE.pdf 

Technische Lieferbedingungen für 

Mineralstoffe im 

Straßenbau 

(Gesteinskörnungen und 

Werksteine im 

Straßenbau) - TL Min–StB 

2000 (Technical delivery 

conditions for mineral 

materials in road 

construction) 

Mandatory 

The “Technischen Lieferbedingungen 

für Mineralstoffe im Straßenbau“ (TL 

Min–StB) contains construction related 

requirements for natural and artificial 

aggregates and stones used for the 

constructions of roads. They also 

contain information for water quality 

management and control. 

 

FGSV-Verlag: 

http://www.strassenbaudigita

l.de 

/inhalt/beispiele/docs/2413/2

413.html 

BRB-Richtlinien (Recycling 

Building Materials 

guidelines) 

Voluntary 

The guidelines aim at assuring the 

quality of the recycling material so that 

it can fulfil the required functions. 

They also document the technical 

applications of these products while 

considering environmental and 

constructional rules. 

Bundesvereinigung 

Recycling-Baustoffe e.V. -BRB

(Office Federal Union of 

Recycling Building 

Materials):http://www.recycli

ngbaustoffe.de/pdf/BRBRichtl

inien-neu.pdf 

Multiple DIN standards 

in the construction sector Mandatory 

Establishing prestandards and/or 

standards for construction materials 

and components including standards 

for methods of test, planning and 

design (e. g. Eurocodes for structural 

engineering). 

Building and Civil Engineering

 Standards Committee - 

NABau (a division of the DIN 

Deutsches Institut für 

Normung e. V.): 

http://www.nabau.din.de/cm

d?workflowname=committee

DinSpecSearch&level=tplspec&committeeid=54738847

&search_grem_akt=54738847

&search_level=d|i&searchDis

play=-tabelle&languageid=en 
152 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

13.5. QUANTITATIVE DATA

13.5.1. TOTAL C&D WASTE ARISING AND CHARACTERISATION

Table 44 - C&D waste input for waste management plants – 2005 & 2007(Source: Statistisches 

Bundesamt) 

C&D waste fractions (in 1000 t) 2005 2007 

Total C&D Waste arising 38,940 42,656 

Total non-hazardous C&D waste 31,634 36,746 

Bricks, tiles and ceramics 4,705 4,380 

Concrete 607 619 

Other mineral waste (stone, sand, gravel 

and other aggregates) 3,012 2735 

Bituminous mixtures, without coal tar 351 316 

Wood 2,514 2,798 

Plastics 64 64 

Metal 4,367 6,179 

Glass 101 203 

Gypsum 103 218 

Excavation material 15,755 19,169 

Insulation materials 56 66 

others N/A N/A 

Total hazardous C&D waste 6,638 5,909 

Contaminated excavation material 4,539 3,664 

Mixtures of, or separate fractions of 

concrete, bricks, tiles and ceramics 

containing dangerous substances 

1,003 919 

Glass, plastic and wood containing or 

contaminated with dangerous substances 537 578 

Coal tar and tarred products 143 176 

cables containing oil, coal tar and other 

dangerous substances 2 4 

metal waste contaminated with dangerous 

substances 2 4 

Gypsum-based construction materials 

contaminated with dangerous substances 413 566 

Hg containing waste N/A N/A 

Other N/A N/A 

In Germany, gathering of data on waste is managed in a decentralised way, by the Länder. 

The processing and publication of data is then done in cooperation between the federal and 

the states statistical offices. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 153 

Regularly, operators of waste management plants are asked about the origin, the nature and 

the disposition of the waste treated. The yearly input of the C&D Waste into these plants for 

2005 and 2007 is displayed in the table above. 

The table displays only one fraction of the annual C&D waste. It excludes material used for 

landfill construction, material that is used in mining, and it also excludes material going to 

asphalt production plants, for instance. 

The relatively high amounts of wood and metal in the table might seem surprising. One 

explanation for this phenomenon is that the operators of waste management plants do 

sometimes not strictly adhere to coding the treated waste according to the origin, but only 

look at the material itself. As a result, the statistics for wood and metals can include waste 

coming from other industrial sectors, as well. 

The aforementioned construction industry group, ARGE KWTB, is issuing regular monitoring 

reports in which very reliable statistics on the generation and the recycling of construction 

waste can be found. In this report ARGE KWTB make reference to non-hazardous C&D Waste 

splitting it up into the following categories: 

Table 45 – Waste categories included in the C&D waste stream 

Waste category Codes included 

Debris (building demolition waste 

including concrete, bricks, tiles or 

mixtures thereof) 

17 01 01 

17 01 03 

17 01 02 

17 01 07 

Road way rubble 17 03 02 

Excavation* 

17 05 04

17 05 06 

17 05 08 

Construction site waste 

17 02 01

17 02 02 

17 02 03 

17 04 

17 06 04 

17 09 04 

Gypsum based waste 17 08 02 

*Excavation material is included in the table for the definition of waste, but excluded 

from the pie charts below.

For Germany, no uniformly used definition on C&D waste could be found. 

However, one possible definition for C&D waste is based on the establishment of the 5 waste 

categories mentioned. It includes mostly mineral waste – the main component of C&D waste 

(cf. Bracke). 
154 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Figure 11 - Origin of total C&D waste in Germany for 2004, excluding excavation material (Source: 

Monitoring-Bericht Bauabfälle) 

Mineral Waste 2006 (without excavation) 

82,7 mill. tonnes (100 %)

Roadway rubble

14,3 mill. tonnes 

Debris = 17,3%

57,1 mill.tonnes

69,0%

Construction site 

waste

10,9 mill. tonnes 

13,2%

Gypsum based

waste

0.40 mill. Tonnes, 

0,5%

Source: Federal Statistical Office, Bonn

Figure 11 shows the repartition of mineral C&D Waste by origin and it becomes clear that 

debris and roadway rubble represent the major part of this waste. How they are recovered 

(recycled, re-used) can be seen below. 

13.5.2. RECYCLING AND RECOVERY OF C&D WASTE

Figure 12 - Recovery of total C&D waste in Germany for 2006, excluding excavation material (Source: 

Monitoring-Bericht Bauabfälle) 

Recovery of Mineral Waste (without excavation)

82,7 mill. Tonnes (100%)

Recycling 

55,9 mill. 

tonnes (67,6%)

Reuse 

22,2 mill. 

Tonnes (26,8%)

Landfill

4,6 mill. 

Tonnes (5,6%)

Source: BRB, Duisburg

As it can be observed in the above figure, more than 90% of the mineral waste are recovered, 

i.e. either re-used or recycled, whereby recycling means that the mineral waste undergoes a 

treatment in special plants (sorting, washing, crushing etc.) so that it can be re-used 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 155 

afterwards. Figure 4 and 5 show which amounts and percentage of the biggest components 

of the mineral waste, i.e. debris and roadway rubble, are re-used for mining, for landfills and 

by public authorities. It also shows the amount landfilled and recycled. Public authorities 

often use debris for the construction of infrastructure such as roads, for the construction of 

landfills and for landscaping. The re-use of material in landfills refers to building operations 

done on landfills, for example: construction of roads and trails or dams. Backfilled material is 

accounted for in the category “re-used” in the framework of restoration measures. 

Figure 13 - Re-use and Disposal of Debris in Germany for 2004 (Source: Monitoring-Bericht 

Bauabfälle) 

Reuse and Disposal of Debris* 2006

57,1 mill. tonnes (100%)

Landfill

3,4 mill. tonnes 

(5,9%)

Recycling

41,9 mill. tonnes 

(73,4%)

Reuse

11,8 mill. tonnes 

(20,7%)

Source: Federal Statistical Office, Bonn; BRB, Duisburg; Fachserie 19, Reihe 1, Seiten 42; 50; 140; 145; 146

* European Waste Catalogue Nr. : 170101; 170102; 170103; 170107
156 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Figure 14 - Re-use and Disposal of Roadway Rubble in Germany for 2004 (Source: Monitoring-Bericht 

Bauabfälle) 

Reuse and Disposal of Roadway Rubble* 2006

14,3 mill. tonnes (100%)

Landfill

0,4 mill. tonnes 

(2,8%)

Recycling

13,5 mill. tonnes 

(94,4%)

Reuse

0,4 mill. tonnes 

(2,8%)

Source: BRB, Duisburg; Federal Statistical Office, Bonn

* European Waste Cataloque Nr. 170302

The detailed repartition between re-use and disposal of construction site waste and gypsum 

based waste are not shown here since they only represent very small fractions of the total 

mineral waste. 

13.6. PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

13.6.1. CURRENT PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

One of the most frequently used waste management practices in Germany, is the so called 

“controlled deconstruction” (kontrollierter Rückbau), sometimes also referred to as 

systematic, selective or recyclable demolition. No financial incentives for deconstruction 

were identified. 

This treatment requires the removal of contaminated material before demolition. The goal is 

the re-use of a high percentage of the material. Therefore windows, doors, heating systems 

etc. are taken out of the building and can sometimes be re-used as such. Furthermore, the 

building materials are correctly sorted by material (bricks, concrete, wood etc.) on site. 

Before controlled demolition is carried out, a detailed planning including a concept for 

controlled demolition and disposal or recovery has to be performed. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 157 

Figure 15 - Controlled deconstruction (Source: Kontrollierter Rückbau / BayLfU 2003) 

This practice that replaced the traditional wrecking ball is very common in Germany and 

other German speaking countries, such as Austria, Switzerland or in parts of northern Italy. 

Those countries and particularly Germany have very high quotas in this technique (although 

no quantitative data is available). 

13.7. PAST AND FUTURE TRENDS OF C&D WASTE, DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

13.7.1. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION

No quantitative statement on the future waste generation and composition for Germany as a 

whole can be made at this point. 

However, a report from the Senate of Berlin allows for a summary of the past and a tentative 

outlook on the future and states that the capital generally reflects the country as a whole. 

A strong trend in the past was the decrease of material that ended up in landfills. Since 1996, 

the percentage of Berlin’s C&D waste that was re-used in some way has continually grown 

and maintains a 98% level since 2000. 

The total generation of C&D waste was and is dependent of the economic activity in the 

construction sector. The percentage of landfilled waste will depend on the market demand 

for recycling material and the development of techniques for (better) waste separation and 

waste treatment. (It will also depend on specific regulations, which are described in 1.7.2.) 

The report forecasts that in 2020 the C&D waste occurring in Berlin will be around 5 million 

tonnes, i.e. approximately 1.5.tonnes per capita. Potential for development for the capital is 

seen in the way material is re-used, for example, using material in buildings rather than for 

land restoration or backfilling. 
158 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

13.7.2. BARRIERS TO THE 70% GOAL

With over 90% of preparation for reuse, recycling and other forms of material recovery, 

Germany is one of the countries that have already achieved the targets set by the WFD. 

 Contradictory Regulations 

According to the draft for the new Act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste 

Management (cf. section 1.4.3.) recycling rates of C&D Waste will increase in the future. 

From the current 70 % approximately, they will have to go up to 80 %, if the requirements of 

the law should be fulfilled. 

However, there are some concerns that the new “Grundwasserverordnung” (Ordinance on 

ground water) and the draft for the “Ersatzstoffverordnung” (Ordinance of substitute 

construction material) stand in contradiction to these ambitious recycling goals (cf. Heide and 

Sodermanns). 

The Ordinance on ground water transposes the corresponding EC Directive into Germany 

law, but requests stricter limits for certain substances in Germany than requested by EU 

legislation. The Ordinance on substitute construction material builds upon the Ordinance on 

ground water and has very severe limits, as well. Certain material that could currently be 

recycled would be excluded from recycling if those ordinances were enforced. One example 

is bricks or brick chippings that often contain vanadium. Vanadium can have harmful toxic 

effects if occurring in an increased concentration, for example in ground water. It is however 

questionable that vanadium from recycling material would find its way into the ground water 

because depending on the soil type much of it could be absorbed. Furthermore, vanadium is 

a ubiquitous substance and therefore present in nature anyway. There are also debates 

about the concentration that needs to be reached for vanadium to become harmful (cf. 

Kirschbaum). 

For the recycling industry, a threshold value of this substance would cause substantial 

problems. As explained above, vanadium occurs in bricks and brick breakings. If those 

products were downgraded from category I recycling material to category II recycling 

material because of their vanadium content, this would affect the market demand for 

recycled brick products negatively. Furthermore, if bricks or parts of bricks cannot be used in 

recycled material anymore, serious problems concerning the storage of the huge amounts of 

bricks from the C&D sector would occur (cf. Heide).

 Market demand and prizes 

Another barrier for the increase of recycling rates is the general market demand – even for 

category I recycling material. Often, public authorities, who are the main costumer of 

construction material, do not specifically ask for recycling material in their call for tenders. 

This can be due to negative experiences with non-certified low-quality material (cf. Heide). 

At the same time, prices for not-recycled material do not yet reflect the environmental 

disadvantages (use of resources) that occur during their production. Therefore they are often 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 159 

less expensive than recycled material which have to undergo complex processes to become 

qualitatively valuable. 

13.7.3. CONCLUSION

Germany presents one of the highest recycling rates for C&D waste in Europe, and has 

already achieved the target set by the WFD directive. As a result, the 70% target itself does 

not drive towards higher recycling rates, and national targets set by the draft for the new Act 

for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management already exceed 70%. 

However, important amounts of C&D waste are backfilled in mines in Germany (including 

imports from other EU countries, such as Denmark and the Netherlands), which shows the 

importance of a clearer definition of this option, and raises the question of whether a 

hierarchy between management options within the target is possible. In the case of 

Germany, the quality of recycling applications (and their respective environmental impacts) 

represents the main challenge. 

There are some concerns that the 70 % target, which is even exceeded by 10 % by the 

German draft for a new Act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management, could 

be endangered because current environmental requirements (under the Ordinance of 

substitute construction material, for example) could lead to the downgrading of half of all 

recycled material and to a restriction of its use to specific construction projects only. 

Until now 90 % of the recycling material is classed category I which corresponds to 

unrestricted use (cf. Kirschbaum). If downgraded to restricted use, market demand would 

drop remarkably and the production of recycling material would not be profitable anymore. 

A balanced solution between appropriate environmental protection and recycling targets will 

need to be found in the future. Public authorities play an important role in the system since 

they have the power to decide which material to buy. 
160 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

14. APPENDIX III: CASE STUDY FLANDERS 

Amounts of C&D 

waste

From 9.6 million tonnes in 2005 (1.583 kg per inhabitant) to 8.5 million tonnes in 2007 

(1.385 kg per inhabitant). C&D waste peaked in 2006 with 1.772 kg per inhabitant. It is 

expected that C&D waste generation may continue to grow at a moderate step, together 

with the growth of the total waste generation in Flanders. 

Source: OVAM, 2009, overzicht bedrijfsafval 2004-2007.xls, on www.ovam.be, future 

projections are uncertain. 

Waste factors

Waste factors are not applicable, as the Flemish statistics on C&D waste are not based 

upon estimates or modelling, but on direct reporting by the waste generating 

companies, and for secondary waste by the waste collecting and treating companies. 

Material 

composition of the 

C&D waste stream

Fraction 2000 Recent estimates 

Concrete rubble 41% 

Masonry rubble 40% +/- 80% 

Ceramic (tiles) 3% 

Asphalt 12% +/- 15% 

Wood 1,8% 

+/- 5% 

Gypsum 0,3% 

Metal 0,2% 

Plastics 0,1% 

Bituminous materials 0,1% 

Other (not specified) 1,6% 

Source: the figures for the year 2000 are based on reporting on the results of the sector 

plan C&D waste 1995. The recent estimates for aggregate fractions are published on 

www.ovam.be 

End of life options Preparation for re-use, recycling and 

material recovery Disposal 

Rates 89,2% (all but final disposal) Landfill: 10,8% 

Incineration (energy recovery) is negligible 

Source: Recycling rate calculated based on C&D waste generation and treatment figures 

2007, assuming a conservative average of 10 % residue from recycling operations. 

Historical waste 

management

Flemish waste policy started with the Flemish waste Decree of 1981, which includes C&D 

waste as a special waste requiring specific follow up and policy measures. These were 

covered from the start of the environmental planning. 

Waste treatment data from 1992: 

recycling: 48% 

pre-treatment (crushing, sorting etc.. usually leading to recycling):18% 

landfill: 33% 

incineration negligible 

Analysis of the 

current state

The current state of high recycling rates in the Flemish region results from the growing 

environmental awareness and various policy actions. Final disposal -landfill- of C&D 

waste has been made unattractive (landfill levies and scarcity, i.e. fewer limited permits 

for landfills) or impossible (landfill ban for recyclable fractions). Waste can easily be 

applied as secondary raw material. Existing quality standards (e.g. Copro) ascertain the 

quality of the material creating a competitive position and market for this secondary raw 

material (scarce primary raw materials). 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 161 

Towards the 70% 

target

In Flanders the 70% re-use has been reached before the year 2000. 

Key drivers: 

- Implementation of some (then) innovative policy instruments and a specific C&D waste 

action plan 

- Making final disposal (landfill) unattractive 

- Turning waste into valuable raw material. The latter can only happen with proven 

quality, as far as concerns both environmental and construction technical properties. 

- Key objectives for further improvement: 

- Sorting at source, broadening the scope to the smaller (non-stony) fractions 

- Selective demolition of (larger) buildings 

- Closed material loops for smaller fractions, e.g. gypsum, cellular concrete, roofing 

bitumen and rock wool. 
162 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

14.1. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 

• Reports and articles 

OVAM, December 2008, Bedrijfsafvalstoffen. Cijfers en trends voor productie, 

verwerking 

OVAM, February 2008, Bedrijfsafvalstoffen. Cijfers en trends voor productie, 

verwerking, invoer en uitvoer. 

OVAM, March 2005, Bedrijfsafvalstoffen. Cijfers en trends voor productie, 

verwerking, invoer en uitvoer – including decoupling indicators 

OVAM, 2009, overzicht bedrijfsafval 2004-2007.xls, op www.ovam.be 

OVAM, 2009, Inventarisatie huishoudelijke afvalstoffen 2008 

OVAM, 2009, Bedrijfsafvalstoffen productiejaar 2007 (uitgave juli 2009) 

OVAM, 2007, Milieuverantwoord materiaalgebruik en afvalbeheer in de bouw, 

Sectoraal Uitvoeringsplan 

OVAM, 2003, Positionering van het Vlaams beleid inzake bouw- en sloopafval 

t.o.v. de omringende afvalmarkten 

OVAM, 2003, Bedrijfsafvalstoffen. Cijfers en trends voor productie, verwerking, 

invoer en uitvoer – including figures down to 1992.

OVAM, 1995, uitvoeringsplan bouw- en sloopafval 

OVAM, 2008, Presentation Nico Vanaken, workshop ODE, Mogelijkheden van 

houtstromen en wettelijke klassering 

OVAM, 2009, Voortgangsrapport Uitvoeringsplan Houtafval 2008 

MIRA, 2007, Milieurapport Vlaanderen, achtergronddocument thema beheer 

afvalstoffen 

VITO, BBT Kenniscentrum 2001. Voorbehandeling, sorteren van bouw- en 

sloopafval 

VITO (in Milieudirect): Hernieuwbare warmte uit biomassa in Vlaanderen? 

• Websites 

Public Flemish waste agency, www.ovam.be

Webservice consolidated Flemish environmental legislation 

navigator.emis.vito.be 

VAL-I-PAC site for collection of packaging foil at construction wharfs 

http://www.cleansitesystem.be/_htmnl/how.htm
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 163 

14.2. CONTACTS

Tableau 46 - Identified contacts for the case study on Flanders 

Full name Name of organisation Function 

Koen Smeets OVAM (Public Flemish Waste agency) Head of department waste 

statistics ADC 

Janna Vandecruys OVAM (Public Flemish Waste agency) Expert department waste 

statistics ADC 

14.3. CONTEXT

14.3.1. INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT

Belgium is a largely federalised country, where a majority of competences have been 

attributed to its different autonomous regions; the Flemish and Walloon region and the 

Brussels capital Region. 

The northern part of Belgium is the Region of Flanders, the southern part is the Region of 

Wallonia, and the city of Brussels has a specific statute as Capital Region. Belgium knows a, in 

a European context rather exceptional, far reaching division of competences on 

environmental issues. All three regions are fully competent on environment and therefore 

also on waste. They can and do create their own legislation, which is not coordinated or 

harmonised. Every region can follow its own policy options when applying European 

Directives. Some large differences in approach exist on environmental permits and on 

internal waste transport. One of the few residual competences for the Belgian level is transit 

of waste. For some environmental issues the three regions search for cooperation and 

harmonisation on a voluntary basis. 

All regions are of course largely implementing the same European Directives and therefore 

often but not always use comparable strategies. In any case they serve the same goals that 

are defined at a European level. Flanders was chosen as a case study to illustrate how high 

recycling rates for C&D waste can be achieved. 

14.3.2. FLEMISH WASTE LEGISLATION

Main instruments in the Flemish legislative framework are: 

• The Flemish waste decree and its implementation order VLAREA 

• The Flemish decree on the environmental permit and its implementation orders 

VLAREM I and VLAREM II 

• Specific legal instruments on e.g. polluted soil, animal waste, packaging waste 

(interregional cooperation protocol), toxic waste objective liability, ... and directly 

applicable European Regulations on e.g. trans-border movement of waste, ... 
164 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

14.3.3. FLEMISH WASTE ADMINISTRATION

The main competent authorities on waste are: 

• OVAM, the public Flemish waste agency, for all waste topics except permits for 

installations 

• LNE, department on environment, nature and energy, for permits for 

installations and inspection 

• VLM, the Flemish land agency, for manure 

• VREG, the Flemish Regulation Entity for the Electricity and Gas market, for green 

certificates for renewable energy from waste 

• The provinces (Flemish Brabant, Antwerp, Eastern Flanders, Western Flanders, 

Limburg) for first line environmental permits. 

• The 308 municipalities for local issues (e.g. collection and treatment of 

household waste) and first line environmental permits for small installations. 

14.4. POLICY AND STANDARDS OVERVIEW

14.4.1. KEY EUROPEAN POLICY DRIVERS 

For the Flemish region, the European policy instruments and the European directives have 

only played a secondary role as a policy driver for the development of the specific Flemish 

regional policy instruments for C&D waste. 

• The policy instrument on secondary raw material has been introduced in the 

Flemish legal framework from 1997 onwards, while the end-of-life policy is newly 

introduced in the European legal frame in the new Waste framework directive of 

19 November 2008. 

• The landfill prohibition for waste materials separately collected for recovery and 

for waste materials coming into consideration for recovery for reasons including 

their nature, quantity and homogeneity was introduced in 01.07.2000. The 70% 

recycling target of C&D waste is introduced at a later data. The recycling target of 

70% has in practice been reached even before the year 2000. 

• The general concept of the waste treatment hierarchy (Lansinks Ladder), as first 

introduced in European policy documents and later fully deployed in the Waste 

Framework Directive, has inspired Flemish legislation and has been included in 

the Waste Decree since 29-04-1994. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 165 

14.4.2. KEY NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICY DRIVERS 

 Executing plan C&D waste of 1995 

This first policy plan for C&D waste introduced policy targets for the period 1995-2000. The 

major aspects were: 

• Recovery of 75% of all C&D waste generated in 2000. This target has been 

reached as in 2000 85% of all C&D waste was recovered or recycled. 

• Prevent the generation of C&D waste for a medium long period with 25%. This 

target has not been reached as the generation of C&D waste keeps increasing. 

• Sort in 2000 at least 85% of all generated C&D waste in recyclable waste, 

recycling residue and hazardous waste. This target has been reached. 

• Treat in 2000 at least 85% of all generated C&D waste to allow recovery or 

recycling, generating 10% or less recycling residue. 

• Generate sufficient market demand for the recycled C&D waste. 

 Environmentally responsible material use and waste management in the construction 

sector, sector executing plan. 

Although the previous plan was very successful in diverting C&D waste from landfill and in 

reaching a high level of recycling of C&D waste, it did not succeed in preventing the 

generation the waste or in influencing its composition. The new plan focused on: 

• Material specific environmental profile of construction materials, in order to 

allow the Flemish Government to develop and impose material use prescriptions. 

• Promoting selective demolition with standardised specifications 

• A global management system for rubble granulates (no additional information on 

this management system was provided) 

• Promote further re-use of the stony fractions of C&D waste (no concrete 

initiative was identified) 

• Promote recycling of specific waste fractions cellular concrete, gypsum, plastics, 

flat glass, mineral insulation materials and roofing bitumen. 
166 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

14.4.3. LEGAL DOCUMENTS

Tableau 47 - Legal documents dealing with waste management 

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

Decree concerning the 

Prevention and Management of 

Waste-materials 

2 July 1981 

Basic legislation of waste prevention and waste 

management, establishing the frame for a.o. 

• The legal destinations of household and 

industrial waste 

• The end-of-waste provisions for secondary raw 

materials 

• The provisions on the transportation of waste 

• The provisions on separate collection of wastes 

• The provisions on environmental levies. 

Order of the Flemish 

Government for the 

establishment of the Flemish 

regulations relating to waste 

prevention and management 

(VLAREA) 

5 December 2003 Regulation implementing the Flemish waste 

Decree. 

Decree of the Flemish Council 

concerning Environmental 

Licences 

28 June 1985 

Basic legislation on permitting procedures and 

exploitation conditions of installations considered as 

a nuisance to man and the environment 

VLAREM I 

Order of the Flemish 

Government concerning 

Environmental Licences 

6 February 1991 

Regulation implementing permitting procedures and 

classification of installations considered as a nuisance 

to man and the environment 

 VLAREM II 

Order of the Flemish 

Government concerning General 

and Sectorial provisions relating 

to Environmental Safety 

1 June 1995 

Regulation implementing exploitation conditions of 

installations considered as a nuisance to man and the 

environment 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 167 

14.4.4. STANDARDS

Tableau 48 - Standards in place in the construction sector 

Standard Legally binding Requirements Source 

Use conditions for a 

secondary raw materials 

used as a construction 

material 

Mandatory 

• Specific use conditions for the 

use of a secondary raw material 

as construction material 

• Limited list of nature of waste, 

source, and specific use 

conditions 

• Concentration limits for 8 heavy 

metals, 5 monocyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons, 10 polycyclic 

aromatic hydrocarbons, 6 other 

parameters for organic 

substances 

• Supplementary leachate 

conditions for non formed210

construction materials 

• Emission limits of heavy metals 

for soils 

• VLAREA art 4.2.2.1 to 4.2.2.4 

• VLAREA annex 4.1 part 2 

• VLAREA annex 4.2.2A 

• VLAREA annex 4.2.2B 

• VLAREA annex 4.2.2C 

 

COPRO standards 

Voluntary 

Mandatory if 

requested for use 

as secondary raw 

material 

The main objective of COPRO is to 

organize, coordinate, harmonize and 

encourage quality in the construction 

sector. Concretely, this objective can 

be realized by means of controls of 

quality on construction products as on 

their integration on sites. 

According to the Belgian decree on 

general building conditions the task to 

control quality is delegated to the 

impartial organism COPRO. 

COPRO documents, on 

http://www.copro.eu/3_30_0.aspx

 

 QUAREA standards 

Voluntary 

Mandatory if 

requested for use 

as secondary raw 

material 

Quarea offers an alternative control 

system to COPRO to be applied in 

judging the quality of secondary raw 

materials 

CERTIPRO certification system 

managed by VITO, on www.vito.be

Ministerial Decision (MB) 2 

December 2005 declaring the 

Quarea control system equivalent 

to the COPRO system. 

 

210 Where pollutants are not strongly bound in a matrix 
168 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

14.5. QUANTITATIVE DATA

14.5.1. TOTAL C&D WASTE ARISING AND CHARACTERISATION

Table 49 - Waste amounts arising for 2006 and 2007 (Source: OVAM 2009, overzicht bedrijfsafval 

2004-2007.xls, www.ovam.be)

C&D waste fractions 2005 (tonnes) 2007 (tonnes) 

Total C&D Waste arising211 9,622,258 8,536,636 

Total non-hazardous C&D 

waste 

9,159,227 8,494,505 

Primary C&D waste 8,265,836 7,211,957 

Secondary C&D waste 1,356,422 1,324,679 

Municipal C&D waste 475,299 (2006) 502,205 

Wood212 1,268,524 1,523,403 

Plastics213 348,769 388,195 

Metal214 1,902,894 3,855,782 

Glass215 156,509 160,934 

Gypsum216 439,342 285,429 

Excavation material217 2,359,648 2,550,702 

Total hazardous C&D waste 463,031 42,132 

Asbestos containing 

waste218 31,719 68,690 

• C&D waste is defined as the group of following EWL codes: 101310, 101311, 

101314, 170101, 170102, 170106, 170107, 170302, 170507, 170508, 170603, 

170604, 170901, 170902, 170903, 170904 

• Soil is defined as: 170503, 170504, 191301, 191302, 200202 

• Secondary C&D waste is waste defined as C&D waste, but originating from waste 

treatment operations, in accordance with the definition of the OECD/EUROSTAT 

joint questionnaire: Waste from secondary sources, i.e. waste generated in a 

process that is known as a waste treatment operation. It includes residual 

 

211 Excl C&D waste from municipal or household origin 

212 All wood waste except packaging waste. This fraction is larger than wood waste 

from C&D sector. No detailed information is available on the wood of other fractions in 

C&D waste, but separate fractions from the C&D sector are usually reported as wood, 

plastics... waste. No detailed data on wood from C&SD sector is available in the public 

domain. 

213 All waste reported as plastic waste, see also footnote 212 

214 All waste reported as metal waste, see also footnote 212 

215 All glass waste except packaging waste, see also footnote 212 

216 Reported gypsum partially is C&D waste, but the major sources are phosphoric acid 

preparation and flue gas desulphuration. 

217 Soil reported as waste 

218 Includes C&D waste but also other asbestos containing equipment or waste streams 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 169 

materials originating from recovery and disposal operations, such as incineration 

and composting residues. OVAM uses waste generated by following NACEBELcodes as a proxy for secondary waste: 37.000, 37.200, 51.570, 90.002, 90.003, 

90.004, 90.005. In 2007 11% of the secondary waste is C&D waste. This is waste 

that has gone through a further step of sorting, as simply crushed waste is 

included in the primary waste (see second question part 2). The waste treatment 

sector remains one of the largest sources on industrial C&D waste. The 

construction sector is responsible for 37% of all primary industrial waste. 

Secondary C&D waste is mainly broken inert waste for use as secondary raw 

material. Other sorted out fractions are usually reported under their specific 

material name. 

14.5.2. RECYCLING AND RECOVERY OF C&D WASTE

Table 50 - Waste production and amounts that are treated through the different options 

C&D waste 

fractions 

Preparatory 

activities 

(tonnes) 

Preparation 

for re-use 

(tonnes)

Recycling 

(tonnes)

Other material 

recovery 

(tonnes)

Backfilling 

(tonnes)

Energy 

recovery 

(tonnes)

Disposal 

(tonnes)

Total C&D Waste 

arising 6,251,170 2,177,864 1,152,727 - 0 990 39,507 

Wood 507,903 23,980 447,161 - 0 289,137 342 

Plastics 160,525 2,975 119,825 - 0 12,844 52,600 

Metal 959,641 691 933,325 - 0 174 9,064 

Glass 77,964 4 76,890 - 0 155 1,496 

Gypsum 14,160 0 1,265 - 0 0 423,917 

Excavation material 2,092,764 229,878 16,821 - 0 616 18,627 

Asbestos containing 

waste219 7,925 0 2 - 0 3 23,789 

In addition to the waste treatment activities as included in the waste treatment hierarchy 

and the waste Framework Directive, a category with ‘preparatory activities’ is included. This 

contains all activities transforming a waste in another waste, with different properties and 

possibly no longer a C&D waste, e.g. sorting, physicochemical pre-treatment activities. Waste 

being pre-treated will end up in one or more of the other mentioned waste treatment 

categories, but possibly not under the denominator C&D waste, but as plastics, wood, RDF 

and often mixed up with waste with the same nature but a different origin (packaging, mixed 

industrial waste, municipal waste fractions, etc.) For this reason the total of pre-treated C&D 

waste can be larger than the total of finally treated C&D waste. The same phenomenon 

occurs with different waste streams, like household waste or mixed waste. EUROSTAT has 

conducted pilot studies in line with annex II section 8 point 3 of the Waste Statistics 

Regulation 2150/2002/EC. OVAM anticipated on the results and the implementation of the 

results of these pilot studies and has introduced since 2002 a comprehensive waste statistics 

 

219 Includes C&D waste but also other asbestos containing equipment or waste streams 
170 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

approach taking consideration of the issue of pre-treatment and consequent change in 

nature and composition of waste streams during their treatment chain. 

The category preparation for re-use includes all waste reported as re-uses and used as a 

secondary raw material. All incineration is energy recovery, all disposal activities is landfilling. 

Recycling includes composting. 

14.6. PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

In the Flemish region, legislative requirements and (planned) targets concerning C&D waste 

management have been approached in the consecutive (sectorial) executing plans. The main 

objectives of these plans have already been listed in section 14.4.2. on national and regional 

policy drivers. 

The 1995 C&D waste executing plan proved successful in reaching a high level of recycling. 

The new sectorial executing plan of 2007 on environmentally responsible material use and 

waste management in the construction sector determines the policy for the period 2007-

2010 and principally aims to address the opportunities identified in the evaluation of the first 

plan: 

• Quantitative and qualitative prevention (e.g. composition) of C&D waste 

• High end re-use of C&D waste 

Section 14.6.1. further clarifies current practices and operations in the Flemish 

region while paragraph 14.6.2. provides a brief overview of the opportunities 

and the possible evolution in C&D waste management practices in Flanders. 

14.6.1. CURRENT PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

Over 90 % of the C&D waste in Flanders consists of stony material. The non-stony or residual 

fraction is often referred to as mixed C&D waste or container waste. This waste contains e.g. 

glass, wood, metals, plastics, etc. 

C&D waste is minimally sorted (at source) in a hazardous and a non-hazardous component. 

Non-hazardous waste is usually further sorted in stony waste, glass, metals and a residual 

mixed fraction. 

 Stone fraction 

The dominant stony fraction in the C&D waste stream can be subdivided in an inert fraction 

(concrete and masonry rubble, ceramics, natural stone, etc) and a smaller fraction of asphalt 

rubble. Asphalt is not classified as inert waste as it contains hydrocarbons. 

The inert fraction and asphalt rubble (not contaminated with other wastes) goes to 

permitted crushers. Over 75% of the inert fraction is actually granulated. The remainder can 

be used e.g in hydraulic works, on condition that the non-granulated rubble has a COPRO or 

QUAREA-certificate. The waste arriving at crushers generally originates from large demolition 

works or road construction and the composition is rather homogeneous, especially 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 171 

compared to waste destined for sorting installations. Crushing installations can range from 

simple crushers with sieve to fully equipped installations with pre- and post-sorting devices, 

magnets. 

Contaminated stony waste must go through a physical-chemical treatment process before it 

can be further recycled. Acceptance criteria in landfills for inert waste create incentives for 

re-use when economically and technically feasible. The new sectorial executing plan of 2007 

on environmentally responsible material use and waste management in the construction 

sector has set up the objective to landfill maximum 5 % of C&D waste. 

Use of inert granulates 

These granulates can only be used as construction material. Use as a construction material 

requires functional application e.g. as a foundation or base (layer) in new works. The use of 

these granulates as soil is not permitted. All inert stony fractions and granulates of asphalt 

must be certified by COPRO or QUAREA and be classified as secondary raw materials. 

To obtain these certifications, certain conditions for the material and the treatment process 

must be met. This quality guarantee must build up confidence in the secondary materials and 

create incentives for re-use: 

• The origin of granulates is known: permitted crushers, treatment and sorting 

installations, usually certified by COPRO or QUAREA.

• The rubble can contain only up to 1% (mass and volume) non-stony and nonhazardous other materials like gypsum, rubber, plastics, isolation, roofing, ... 

• The rubble can contain only up to 1% (mass and volume) organic wastes (wood, 

plants, ...) 

• The rubble is not contaminated with free asbestos fibres or dust (with a target 

value of <1000 mg/kg dry material) 

• The rubble is at least yearly inspected by a laboratory certified by OVAM on 

possible pollutants (heavy metals, PAH, mineral oil, ...) 

 Granulates are generally re-used as foundation for (road) construction. Concrete granulates 

can also be re-used in new lean mixed concrete. 

Use of asphalt granulates 

Like inert granulates, asphalt rubble granulates can only be re-used as construction material. 

Asphalt granulates are tested on the presence of tar by a simple spray test. The use of the 

different types, tar-containing or not, is defined in VLAREA. The use of tar-containing 

granulates is limited to cold applications in a foundation of asphalt granulate cement in larger 

works > 1500 m3 (with made up inventory). Warm treatment has to be avoided. 

Sieve sand and sand from crushing 

Sieve sand is a by-product from the sorting and crushing of (stony) C&D waste. Distinction is 

made between sieve sand (before crushing) and sand from crushing. 
172 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Sieve sand can be used as construction material (COPRO or QUAREA certificate) and as soil 

(use certificate as a secondary raw material issued by OVAM). The use as soil is rare as the 

supply of soil in the Flemish region surpasses demand. Sand from crushers is only permitted 

to be used as construction material. The grain size of this type of sand is larger with higher 

technical quality. VLAREA aims at a high quality re-use of the material. 

Sieve sand can also be further differentiated whether it originates from crushers or sorting 

installations. Sand from sorting installation is usually more polluted as their input flux (mixed 

fractions) is highly heterogeneous. When analysing samples from container and sorting 

companies, following issues were raised: 

Masonry rubble, by far the largest input fraction for these installations, is usually more 

contaminated than concrete rubble.

• The quality of the resulting granulates is merely influenced by the type and 

equipment of the sorting installation. The quality of the recycled material is 

mainly depending on the input material.

• Sand and granulates from sorting installations contain more heavy metals (e.g. 

zinc and lead from paints, gutters, piping, etc). They also have higher 

concentrations of mineral oil.

• 60 % of the controlled samples have a too high percentage of paper, plastics and 

wood. 75% of the samples show traces of asbestos (cement). 

• Sulphate concentrations are higher than for crushers, due to the presence of 

gypsum and cellular concrete. This presence limits the technical capacity of the 

recycled material, e.g. the ability for re-use in (recycled) concrete.

In the Flemish region, there are currently no sorting installations with operational further 

cleaning or separation of these impurities. 

 Mixed fraction 

The mixed fraction (less than 10 %) of C&D waste is destined to permitted sorting 

installation. The majority of the mixed waste going to sorting installations is masonry / 

brickwork rubble from small works and households (e.g. through the municipal waste 

collection points). The composition of fluxes arriving at sorting installations is therefore 

highly heterogeneous. 

Sorting processes in the different companies in the Flemish region follow a similar pattern. 

Storage of the input waste requires dry conditions to increase the sorting performance of the 

installation. Large pieces of waste (wood, large bricks) are pre-sorted before the waste is fed 

to the installation. The installation first sieves the finest sand particles. In a next step, the 

ferrous metals are removed by means of a magnet. Wind-sifting further separates the 

lightest fractions of the waste (paper, foils, polystyrene...). The remainder of the waste 

stream is manually sorted on one or several belt conveyors (particle size). In this final step, 

wood, plastics, gypsum and non-ferrous metals are further separated. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 173 

Sorting installations target to obtain “uncontaminated” new fractions of stony inert material, 

plastics, metals, wood, etc. that are further treated in specified recycling facilities. No specific 

information was obtained regarding the management of possible hazardous contaminants 

present in C&D waste. 

 Wood 

Re-use and recycling depends on the type of wood. Wood waste classification counts three 

classes: type A (large pieces of untreated wood, e.g. pallets, plates, raw wood), B (doors, (old) 

furniture), and C (heavily treated wood). 

Type A can possibly be recycled to plywood sheets. Type B mixed wood from doors, furniture 

and fibreboard will be recycled to split-wood or chipboards. Heavily treated wood is 

considered hazardous waste and must be separated at the source. Due to the high caloric 

value, wood waste serves as biomass for energy recovery. In 2002, nearly 80% of heat 

production from biomass came from wood waste. Around 30% of the Flemish green energy 

originates from wood waste. Wood waste is also frequently exported to trans-border 

treatment installations. 

Today, major drawbacks for wood recycling and valorisation are: 

• The supply of wood waste is highly variable, e.g. due to fluctuations in the 

economic climate. Today’s supply is not sufficient for all installed and permitted 

facilities (recycling and energy recovery)

• Wood waste as biomass potentially conflicts with recycling and composting 

objectives. Furthermore, it also makes it more difficult to comply with the NECdirective. 

14.6.2. EMERGING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

One of the key aspects in the Flemish policy on C&D waste, next to prevention, is the high 

end re-use / valorisation of recycled waste. Possible bottlenecks in the re-use of wastes are 

mainly assigned to problems with: 

• the purity or homogeneity of input wastes; the quality of recycled materials

• the installation and management of collection system

• the technical and economical feasibility of the recycling process 

Possible ways of overcoming these barriers are under discussion in the Flemish region. 

 Sorting at source 

The most effective manner to obtain clean waste fractions is sorting at source. 

The Flemish region has integrated specifications for selective demolition in the building 

permit for works of a certain size (see paragraph 0). This obligation will increase the practise 

of sorting at the source, but also allow a better monitoring of the waste streams in order to 

avoid illegal disposal and improve the possibilities for environmentally friendly recycling. 
174 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

 Quality of secondary raw material 

The use of recycled material in new applications is beneficial for the environment as the need 

for primary resources is lowered. On the other hand, the secondary raw material must 

possess the required technical properties and must be fit for its intended use. Waste as 

secondary raw material must be able to compete with primary raw materials in order to 

create sufficient demand. 

The global management system and COPRO or QUAREA-certification for granulates has 

already been established for a long time and obtained good results: the use of secondary 

(recycled and certified / approved) instead of primary raw material yearly amounts to over 

11 million tonnes. 

OVAM is currently investigating the possibility to consider purified glass cullet as a product 

fulfilling end-of-waste criteria. A similar management system and minimum requirements 

could contribute to high end valorisation of glass waste. 

 Recycling technology 

The problem of pollution in sieve sand, mainly in sorting installations is mentioned above. In 

the Netherlands, cleaning or washing of these polluted sands is already operational. The 

current standard equipment of wind-sifters, magnets and sieves must be expanded with e.g. 

washing drums, flotation basins and spiral separators. These techniques are operational in 

Flanders for soil recycling in specialised companies. 

Roofing bitumen is currently incinerated or landfilled. According to VLAREA, the waste could 

be re-used in new roofing or as a construction product (roofing bitumen free of tar). 

Recycling in Flanders is however very limited as the quality of the input waste is highly 

variable. A project is now running on the use of granulated roofing bitumen together with 

asphalt rubble granulates to produce new asphalt. Additional research for the technical and 

economical feasibility for re-use is needed. 

 Closed loop material 

A principal objective of the Flemish executing plan of 2007 on environmentally responsible 

material use and waste management in the construction sector is the high end valorisation of 

recycled waste. This was described previously for the largest fraction (granulates) but is 

equally valid for the smaller fractions (gypsum, metal, glass...). Focus on these fractions can 

increase the quality of the stony waste fraction and create opportunities for recycling. 

Some specific actions have been set up to install the cradle-to-cradle principle for some of 

these smaller fractions. Key aspects to be approached in these systems are centralized 

collection systems and the recycling and treatment potential (with the producer). The 

usefulness of producer responsibility is also evaluated. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 175 

 Gypsum 

The use of gypsum products in the construction sector is on the rise. Recycling of gypsum 

waste has only very recently been operational in Flanders (since 2009), with one operational 

recycling facility in the port of Antwerp. 

The recycling process treats gypsum waste to a clean gypsum powder that can be re-used in 

the production of new gypsum board. Gypsum from C&D waste can be recycled in this 

installation as long as the contamination with other materials is limited. The gypsum sector is 

now investigating opportunities and the economic feasibility to cooperate with a Danish 

enterprise that already operates a process to purify all kinds of gypsum fractions. 

Collection of the gypsum waste is mainly executed through waste sorting companies and the 

municipal collection points. 

The collection and recycling of gypsum is a key example of global chain management in order 

to close the material loop for gypsum. At the end of 2009, all enterprises actively involved 

have signed a cooperation agreement with the Flemish ministry of the environment and 

OVAM, the Flemish waste Agency: 

• Producers design their products more environmentally friendly and easy 

recyclable. They also commit to use recycled gypsum (powder) in new gypsum 

board. 

• Dismantling and demolition companies commit to sort at source while collection 

and sorting companies increase their efforts to separate the gypsum from C&D 

waste.

• Recycling companies provide sufficient treatment capacity

• OVAM takes up the coordination of the agreement 

In 2010, the Flemish region targets to recycle 25.000 tonnes gypsum waste or 40 % of the 

total gypsum waste. By 2015, 80% of all gypsum waste should be recycled and re-used as 

input material in new gypsum boards. 

 Cellular concrete and roofing bitumen 

Currently the Flemish region is investigating similar cooperation initiatives as for gypsum. 

For cellular concrete 100 % recycling is feasible provided that the collected waste is 

uncontaminated. One recycling option is milling the cellular concrete to powder that can 

replace sand in the production of new cellular concrete products. At the moment, around 8% 

of recycled material is used in the production of new concrete blocks. It is technically feasible 

to increase that fraction to about 20%. 

A collection system has been set up and tested at regional scale. Uncontaminated cellular 

concrete waste is collected through the network of construction product dealers in 

numbered big bags. The bags are numbered to trace the source of the waste, as the 

treatment costs for contaminated cellular concrete waste will be invoiced to the “polluter”. 
176 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

In the future it is planned to integrate contaminated waste from C&D as fractions of 

plasterwork or glue are not expected to cause problems for the recycling process nor the 

quality of the recycled product. 

 Rock wool 

Rockwool is equally collected through a system of payable bags or containers (large 

quantities). The collection system is not free but competitive with traditional ways to dispose 

of the waste. In the latter case, the rock wool waste is likely to end up in landfills. 

Cutting residues and used rock wool qualify for recycling, if the waste is dry, chemically clean 

and free of other wastes (packaging material, plaster, etc). The recycled material is 

transformed to new products through heat treatment in furnaces. This process can be 

repeated without loss of quality of the end-products. 

14.7. PAST AND FUTURE TRENDS OF C&D WASTE, DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

14.7.1. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION

 Generation 

In 2007 28% of all Flemish non-household waste is C&D waste, and a supplementary 10% is 

soil. C&D waste is the largest waste fraction, soil is the second largest fraction, and mineral 

waste220 (often comparable with C&D waste) is the fourth largest fraction (6%). 

In 2007 11% of the secondary waste is C&D waste. This is waste that has gone through a 

further step of sorting, as simply crushed waste is included in the primary waste (see second 

question part 2). The waste treatment sector remains one of the largest sources on industrial 

C&D waste. 

The construction sector is responsible for 37% of all primary industrial waste. 

Major sectors generating C&D waste are, based on data for 2006: 

• construction sector 79% of 8130 ktonnes = 6,422.7 ktonnes 

• waste treatment industry; 25% of 12.863 ktonnes = 3,215.8 ktonnes 

• shipment of goods on land; 67% of 328 ktonnes = 219.8 ktonnes 221

• agriculture; 39% of 297 ktonnes = 115.8 ktonnes 

 

220 Mineral waste is defined as: 010101, 010102, 010304, 010305, 010306, 010307, 

010308, 010309, 010407, 010408, 010409, 010410, 010411, 010412, 010413, 010504, 

010506, 010507, 010508, 020401, 020402, 030309, 080202, 080203, 100125, 100321, 

100322, 100905, 100906, 100907, 100908, 100911, 100912, 101005, 101006, 101007, 

101008, 101011, 101012, 101103, 101109, 101110, 101113, 101114, 101201, 101208, 

101211, 101212, 101301, 101304, 101306, 161101, 161102, 161103, 161104, 161105, 

161106, 170103, 190802, 190901, 191209 

221 A large fraction of secondary C&D waste is reported by container companies, which 

are often registered as transport companies. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 177 

Total generated in 2006222 is 10,839 ktonnes spread over 37 of the 61 economic sectors 

defined by OVAM. 

Figure 16 – Evolution of C&D waste amounts between 1995 and 2007 

generation of construction and demolition waste

0

2.000.000

4.000.000

6.000.000

8.000.000

10.000.000

12.000.000

tonnes

C&D 1.504.110 6.952.630 6.220.741 9.622.258 11.247.816 8.536.636

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

The fraction C&D waste has strongly risen since 1995, due to better collection and 

separation/treatment infrastructure. No further growth can be expected from ameliorated 

collection, as the maximum seems to be reached. The fraction of C&D waste will remain at 

28% of the total non municipal waste generated in Flanders. Together with the expected 

growth of the total waste generation in Flanders, C&D waste generation may continue to 

grow at a moderate step. 

In 2005 OVAM published a decoupling indicator223 for C&D waste. A negative value shows 

negative decoupling, meaning that waste grows even faster than the economy. A negative 

decoupling of C&D waste has been observed for the period 1995 to 1999. Ever since, 

although negative decoupling tends to decrease, it cannot be expected that positive 

decoupling, where waste with statistical surety grows less fast than the economy, can be 

expected in the near future. This supports the above mentioned assumption that the 

generation of C&D waste will continue to rise. 

 Composition 

The collection coverage for C&D waste will hardly grow in the coming years because a large 

coverage has already been reached. However, the quality of the collected waste still can 

improve due to source separated collection or through ameliorated sorting techniques. The 

new sectorial plan for waste in the construction sector foresees selective demolition 

techniques ensuring higher quality and more homogeneous C&D waste. 

VLAREA has been amended with article 5.2.2.1 § 4 stating: 

 

222 Although 2007 is the year for which the most recent data are available, the level of 

detail requested for, this paragraph is only available for the year 2006. 

223 Waste generated by the construction sector (NACE 45.1 and 45.2) compared with 

GVA of the construction sector: 1995-1999, 2006-2000, 1997-2001 and 1998-2002 
178 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

“The holder of an urban planning licence will have an architect or an expert appointed by the 

principal write up a waste materials demolition inventory when demolishing or dismantling 

industrial buildings and buildings of which all or part had a function other than residential 

and a construction volume in excess of 1000 m3

, and when allocating demolition or 

dismantling work. The holder of the urban planning licence is responsible for choosing an 

architect or expert who has sufficient knowledge of the waste materials that will be released 

during selective demolition or dismantling and who is able to estimate the quantities of these 

waste materials. 

The waste materials demolition inventory will identify the site and the waste materials 

expected to be produced. It will give the name of each waste material, as well as the relevant 

code found in Appendix 1.2.1.B, the expected quantity in cubic metres, in tonnes, the place in 

the building at which the waste material is found, and its form. A template of the waste 

materials demolition inventory relating to the demolition and dismantling work will be made 

available to OVAM. 

Before demolition or dismantling work is assigned, the completed waste materials 

demolition inventory will be handed to the executor of the demolition and dismantling work 

and the safety officer. 

The architect, or the expert appointed by the principal, will monitor the waste shipments, 

adjust them where necessary, and keep a copy of the transport documents. Copies of the 

transport documents and acceptance slips relating to waste materials removed will be 

handed to the holder of the urban planning licence before completion of the demolition or 

dismantling works. 

The holder of the urban planning licence will file the transport documents and acceptance 

slips for a period of five years”. 

This demolition register will become an instrument that enhances selective demolition and 

the generation of more homogeneous and high quality C&D waste fractions. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 179 

14.7.2. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Figure 17 – C&D waste management options and rates achieved between 2005 and 

2007

treatment of C&D waste

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

landfill

incineration

recycling

reuse

other pretreatment

sorting

landfill 0,41 0,40 0,59

incineration 0,01 0,01 0,01

recycling 11,98 0,10 1,56

reuse 22,63 40,32 23,44

other pretreatment 51,62 48,39 64,20

sorting 13,35 10,77 10,21

2005 2006 2007

The Flemish figures on treatment of C&D waste display a clear view: 

• C&D waste is either re-used or recycled. 

• By far the largest fraction has to go through a prior pre-treatment activity before 

it can be recycled or re-used. 

• Sorting before recycling is slowly diminishing due to better sorting at source not 

requesting sorting further on in the treatment chain. 

• Other pre-treatment phases like crushing, conditioning, washing, cleaning remain 

indispensible for a high quality further treatment or recycling. It becomes 

increasingly important throughout the years, which proves that the treatment 

chain with successive pre-treatment steps becomes longer before a waste 

reaches its final recycling step. 

• Pre-treatment leads to recycling, but often under the denominator of wood, 

plastics, glass, metals....or other waste streams more defined than C&D waste. 

• Pre-treatment also leads to use as a secondary material, which is not always 

included in the reported statistics. For both reasons the percentage for sorting 

and pre-treatment can be higher than the sum of the final treatment options 

(recycling, re-use, energy recovery or landfill) of C&D waste. 

• Re-use includes the application of the Flemish end-of-waste criteria for the 

application of a secondary raw material. 
180 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• Landfill and incineration, as well as direct recycling, are rather marginal 

treatment options for C&D waste. 

Main drivers for the evolution away from final treatment haven been and still 

are: 

• The easy application of the waste as a secondary raw material 

• The ascertained certified quality and the competitive position of this secondary 

raw material compared to increasingly more scarce primary raw materials. 

• The high costs for landfilling, based on the high landfill levies and the created 

scarcity of landfill capacity for inert waste. 

14.7.3. TOWARDS 70% RE-USE, RECYCLING AND RECOVERY

In Flanders the 70% re-use has been reached before the year 2000 based on the successful 

implementation of a rather straightforward action plan and some (then) innovative policy 

instruments. The Flemish case learns that some keys towards a high level of recycling and reuse at European level can be found in: 

• Straightforward landfill bans for recyclable fractions of C&D waste 

• High levies on landfilling C&D waste, generating an economic driver for 

alternative treatment options 

• Application of end-of-waste criteria to facilitate the use of the material as a 

secondary raw material, but taking into account its environmental and its 

construction technical properties. 

• Actively limiting the treatment capacity for disposal of C&D waste 

The Flemish experience also learns that these measures are not sufficient to generate a 

decoupling of the C&D waste generation from the economic growth, and that other 

measures are needed for a successful quantitative and qualitative prevention. It still has to 

be proved that the measures included in its second C&D executing plan are as successful as 

the primary plan. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 181 

15. APPENDIX IV: CASE STUDY SPAIN 

Amounts of C&D 

waste

35 Mt in 2005(810 kg per capita), 

Projected 40 Mt (850 kg per capita) in 2010. 

Source: based on regional reporting; according to Spanish experts, unreliable because of 

the lack of standardised methodology 

Waste factors

Works on new buildings 120.0 kg/m2 built 

Rehabilitation works 338.7 kg/ m2 rehabilitated 

Demolition works 1,129,0 kg/ m2 demolished 

Partial demolition works 903.2 kg/ m2 demolished 

Material 

composition of the 

C&D waste stream

Ceramics 54% 

Concrete 12% 

Mineral waste (stone) 5% 

Mineral waste 

(sand, gravel and other aggregates) 4% 

Wood 4% 

Glass 0.5% 

Plastics 1.5% 

Metal 2.5% 

Asphalt 5% 

Gypsum 0.2% 

Paper 0.3% 

Others (Garbage) 7% 

Others (Non specified) 4% 

Source: based on a waste characterisation campaign performed in Madrid in 2005: no national 

data available. 

End of life options Recycling Disposal 

Rates 7.5% Controlled landfill: 

Uncontrolled landfill: 

Source: based on a limited survey on waste treatment plants; partial, unreliable data. 

Analysis of the 

current state

Lack of enforcement of existing policies (uncontrolled landfills), low prices of landfill 

disposal and high local variations of landfill taxes, low capacity and geographical 

coverage of C&D waste treatment plants have hindered recycling. 

Towards the 70% 

target

National C&D waste management plan being revised, setting intermediate targets 

towards the WFD 70% target. 

Recycling: 10% by 2012, 20% by 2015 

Other forms of material recovery: 25% by 2012, 40% by 2015 

Main challenges towards reaching the target: 

• Better enforcement of existing regulation (stricter control of unauthorised 

landfills) 

• Harmonisation of landfill taxes between regions 

• Development of recycling market (e.g. promotion of recycled aggregates 

through the introduction of standards on recycled materials for use in 

construction) 
182 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• Harmonisation of reporting mechanisms and methodologies among regions 

15.1. SOURCES OF INFORMATION

• Reports and articles 

M. del Río et al. 2010. La regulation Juridica de los residuos de construcción 

demolición (C&D waste) en España. Caso Comunidad de Madrid, 

Carlos Martinez Bertrand. Gestión de residuos de construcción y demolición 

(RCDS): importancia de la recogida para optimizar su posterior valorización 

Toni Floriach Puig. La Problemática de la Gestión de los Residuos de 

Construcción: Una aproximación al estado actual de la cuestión. 

Ministerio de Fomento, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Centro de Estudios y 

experimentación de obras públicas, 2009. Ficha Técnica de Residuos de 

Construcción y Demolición. 

Ministerio de la Presidencia España, 2008. Decreto Real 105 2008. 

Andrés Macho, 2009. Ppt document: Aplicación del RD 105/2008 y nuevo PNIR. 

Adolfo García Alonso, 2009. Ppt document: El proyecto de demolición 

Gobierno de España, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, 2008. Plan Nacional 

Integrado de Residuos (PNIR). 

ITeC- Instituto de Tecnología de la Construcción de Catalunya, 2000. Proyecto 

Life. Situación actual y perspectivas de futuro de los residuos de la 

construcción. 

Consejería del Medio Ambiente y Ordenación del Territorio, Comunidad de 

Madrid, 2006 – 2016. Estrategia de residuos de la Comunidad de Madrid 2006 

– 2016. 

• Websites 

Magazine on line “Waste Ideal”, waste.ideal.es/inertes.htm

Ministerio del Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es

Instituto de Tecnología de la Construcción de Catalunya, www.itec.es

AEDT - Asociación Española de Demolición Técnica Cote y Perforación, 

www.aedt.es

Asociación Española De Empresas de Demolición, www.aeded.org

Instituto nacional de Estadística, www.ine.es

ISR - Instituto para la sostenibilidad de los recursos, www.isrcer.org

GERD - Gremio de Entidades del Reciclaje de Derribos, www.gerd.es
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 183 

15.2. CONTACTS

Table 51 - Identified contacts for the case study on Spain 

Full name Name of organisation Type of organisation Function 

Carlos Martinez 

Bertrand VIAS Y CONSTRUCCIONES, S.A Construction Company

Chief of Quality, Environmental 

Management and Technological 

Innovation 

Jose Blanco AEDED – Spanish Association 

Demolition Association Secretarial 

Pablo Gonzalez GERD – Spanish association of 

C&D waste managers. Association Waste and Environment Manager

15.3. CONTEXT

The Territory of Spain has an area of 504,645 km2 and houses a population of 46,745,807 

inhabitants. The Territory is divided into 17 Autonomous Communities (CCAA) and 2 

autonomous cities, each of which has executive competency and legislative autonomy, as 

well as the capacity for self-administration by its own representatives. 

Figure 18 - Map of Regions in Spain (Source: 

www.aspariegos.com/comunidades_autonomas.html) 
184 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

The construction sector has a remarkable social and economic relevance in Spain, which has 

been growing in the beginning of the century. The construction activity has reached 

remarkably levels of production, until the emergence of the economic crisis, which has led to 

a phase of depression. 

However, this recent trend towards a building boom has generated significant growth in the 

volume of waste. 

According to the PNIR (Integrated National Plan of Waste) 2008-2015, it has not been 

possible to define the exact amount of C&D waste produced in Spain. However, the plan 

estimates that C&D waste production in 2005 reached around 35 million tonnes. This figure 

does not include the landfilling surplus of land and clean rock, which although usually 

exploited in the same work sites, in many occasions does not find a secondary use and is 

therefore destined for disposal in landfills. 

It is important to keep in mind that this number is based on several sources (Autonomous 

communities, Ministry of Environment indicators...) usually considered not reliable because 

of the difficulty of data collection and consolidation. 

It is estimated that the production of C&D waste in Spain has grown over the period from 

2001 to 2006 at an average rate of 8.7% per year224. This trend was reversed in 2007, with 

negative waste growth rates after 2008 as a result of the reduction in the construction 

activity, which is particularly pronounced in residential construction. 

Besides the intense production of C&D waste there is also a high percentage (about 62.5%) of 

C&D waste that has been subject to uncontrolled discharge without previous treatment. 12 

million tonnes (about 30%) of C&D waste is sent to authorised landfills directly, with only 3 

million tonnes per year treated as recycled aggregate (7.5%)225

. 

All these factors, coupled with the low prices of C&D waste admission in landfills, have 

hampered the sustainable and profitable operation of C&D waste treatment plants, which 

have been experiencing difficulties in their operations, especially since the amount of C&D 

waste generated began to decrease significantly. 

This is why the administration has been supporting the implementation of new infrastructure 

dedicated to the treatment of such waste, as well as controlled landfills. 

Indeed, motivated in part by expectations that caused the adoption of new policies, there is 

now a wide range of C&D waste treatment plants, although their distribution is not 

homogeneous on the Spanish territory or within each region, with, in particular, a lack of 

infrastructure in those areas with a greater dispersion of population. These stationary plants 

are often lacking treatment capacity and sometimes have problems with the disposal of 

recycled products (recycled aggregates and other materials). In contrast, other regions 

experience an excess of treatment capacity. 

 

224 PNIR (Integrated National Plan of Wastes 2008 – 2015), Annex 6 II PNRCD. 

225 Teresa Martínez Flores, CARRIGUES Medio Ambiente.
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 185 

Regarding landfill capacity, there is a general lack of adequate facilities that meet the 

requirements of current legislation (RD 1481/2001). 

To solve this situation, the Autonomous Communities (CCAA) in Spain have developed 

proactive C&D waste policies, including the application of landfill taxes. The result of these 

policies from the point of view of environmental performance has been unparalleled. One 

can highlight the case of certain regions as Catalonia, which has achieved a good control of 

the C&D waste flow and experienced the virtual disappearance of uncontrolled discharges 

into its territory, as a result of the implementation of C&D waste policies since 1994. 

15.4. POLICY AND STANDARDS OVERVIEW

15.4.1. KEY EUROPEAN POLICY DRIVERS 

In Spain, two factors have been the precursors to the development of national policies 

regarding the management of C&D waste (C&D waste). 

First, the extraordinary increase in waste generation from the construction sector and 

secondly, European policies such as Directive 99/31/EC on landfill, the old waste framework 

Directive 2006/12/EC and the revised waste framework Directive 2008/98/EC. The 

combination of these two factors has generated a better control of C&D waste, the 

emergence of a new recycling infrastructure and a better control of unauthorised landfills. 

However, prior to the adoption of Directive 2006/12/EC, Spain had already become aware of 

the importance of C&D waste management and had developed the National Plan for C&D 

Waste (PNRCD) 2001 -2006, which set out the objectives and mechanisms for C&D waste 

management. This Plan was updated and incorporated into the Integrated National Waste 

Plan (PNIR) 2008-2015. There is currently a second draft version of the C&D waste Plan (II 

PNRCD). 

Likewise, the target set by Directive 2008/98/EC of recycling at least 70% of C&D waste 

generated by 2020, has induced Spain, like other MS, to set targets for recycling C&D 

waste. Thus, the PNRCD sets qualitative and quantitative targets for C&D waste recycling for 

2015 (see 15.4.2. ). 

15.4.2. KEY NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICY DRIVERS 

 PNIR - Integrated National Waste Plan 2008-2015 

This Plan sets out the objectives of reduction, re-use, recycling, other forms of recovery, and 

disposal, as well as outlines the means to achieve these objectives, including the financing 

system and the revision procedure. 

It also provides the possibility for local authorities to develop their own plans for urban waste 

management in accordance with the relevant legislation and the plans of each of the 

Autonomous Communities. 
186 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

This plan has been developed to improve the management of all types of waste generated in 

Spain, to encourage the different authorities and officers involved in achieving ambitious 

environmental goals, and to comply with the laws cited below. The plan is divided into 

categories of waste, including C&D waste. 

 National Plan of C&D waste - PNRCD (Plan Nacional de Residuos de Construcción y 

Demolición 2008 – 2015) 

The objective of the Second National Plan on C&D Waste is to establish objectives of 

prevention, re-use, recycling, other forms of recovery and disposal of C&D waste in Spain, 

and outline measures to achieve these objectives, including the financing system and the 

revision procedure. 

The Second PNRCD benefited from the development and implementation experience of the 

first PNRCD 2001-2006. The new plan is based on the major plans of the Autonomous 

Communities and local authorities on C&D waste, and the results of the "Study on the 

generation and management of C&D waste in Spain" (Ministry of Environment, 2006). 

Among the qualitative targets are: the reduction of waste at the source, the correct 

management of all hazardous waste and the closure of landfills which do not meet the 

requirements of current legislation (RD 1481). 

Regarding the quantitative targets, there are slight differences between the first (I PNRCD) 

and the second draft version of the C&D Waste National Plan; the second one (II PNRCD) sets 

more realistic goals with regard to C&D waste recycling: 

Table 52 - Quantitative objectives for 2015 (Source: I PNRCD National Plan of C&D Waste) 

I PNRCD 2006 – 2015 (Current) 2010 2012 2015

Separation and environmentally correct management of Hazardous C&D 

Waste (HW) (%) 100 100 100 

C&D waste: Recycling (%) 15 25 35 

C&D waste: Other methods of C&D waste recovery including Backfilling 

(%) 10 15 20 

Disposal – Landfill (%) 75 60 45 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 187 

Table 53 - Quantitative objectives for 2015 (Source: II PNRCD National Plan of C&D Waste) 

II PNRCD 2008 – 2015 (Draft) 2010 2012 2015

Separation and environmentally correct management of Hazardous C&D 

Waste (HW) (%) 80 95 100 

C&D waste; Recycling (%) - 10 20 

C&D waste: Other methods of C&D waste recovery including backfilling 

(%) - 25 40 

C&D Packaging Waste Recovery (%) - 40 70 

 Environmental Sustainability Report (ISA) 

This report presents the background on waste planning which was analysed and taken into 

account in the development of the PNIR (Integrated National Waste Plan). 

 Catalogue of recycled waste used in construction 

The aim of this paper is to contribute to public awareness of waste that can be used in 

construction. It describes the volume of C&D waste generated their physical and chemical 

characteristics as well as includes case studies on the usage of recycled waste used in 

construction. 

 Project: Spanish Guide on Recycled Aggregates from C&D Waste, "GEAR" 

This ongoing project's objective is to develop standardised guidelines for recycled aggregates 

from C&D waste, and their use in public and private works. The guide includes, beyond 

regulatory requirements, a set of specific technical requirements for the main applications of 

recycled aggregates, particularly in roads, with the intention of ensuring the environmental 

safety and quality of recycled aggregates employed in these applications. 

 Project: Life 98/351 

This Project aims to promote separate collection, usage of recovery techniques, and achieve 

a minimisation of waste generated in C&D sector. 
188 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

15.4.3. LEGAL DOCUMENTS

Table 54 - Legal national documents dealing with waste management 

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

Law 10/98 April 21, 1998 General scheme on waste. 

Royal-Decree 

952/1997. June 20, 1997 General scheme on hazardous waste. 

Royal-Decree 

1481/2001 

December 27, 

2001 Regulates the disposal of waste by landfilling. 

Law 34/2007 November 15th

, 

2007 

Law regarding air quality and protection of the atmosphere. 

The First Disposition: Empowers the Government to regulate the 

terms and conditions related to the obligation of the owner of C&D 

waste to separate them by type of material. 

Royal-Decree 

105/2008 February 1st, 2008 

Decree regulating the production and management of C&D waste 

(C&D waste): 

- Does not set any quantitative targets for prevention, recycling or 

disposal of C&D waste 

- Applies the principles of producer responsibility, waste prevention 

and shared responsibility between all actors involved in the 

production chain and the process of management of C&D waste. 

- The Decree establishes three types of actors that have different 

obligations according to their responsibility in C&D waste 

generation and management: the C&D waste producer, being the 

owner of the property where the construction or demolition 

activity will take place (who makes the decision of performing a 

construction or demolition activity), the C&D waste holder, being 

the performer of the construction or demolition activity and who 

has the physical control of the C&D waste; and the C&D waste 

manager, who is responsible for the final waste treatment or 

disposal. The obligations for each of the actors involved in the 

production and management of the C&D waste are: 

- For the C&D waste producer: To develop a waste 

management study prior to the construction or demolition 

activity, containing an estimation of the amount of C&D 

waste that will be generated on site, a set of prevention 

measures and an expected final destination for the C&D 

waste. If there are any previsions of hazardous waste they 

should be accounted for (through an inventory), sorted and 

finally disposed of with an authorized body. 

- For the C&D waste holder: To present a waste management 

plan that complies with the findings in the study and other 

obligations such as the sorting and proper disposal or delivery 

of C&D waste to a waste manager. 

- For the C&D waste manager: To keep a record of the amount 

of waste handled in weight (tonnes) and volume (m3), the 

type of waste according to the list of categories published in 

the “Orden MAM/304/2002”, the C&D waste producer and 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 189 

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

holder information, the type of treatment and the 

destination of products or residues resulting from the 

treatment. This record must be kept for 5 years but there is 

no obligation to report it unless required by the public 

administration. In the case of HW, if the waste manager does 

not have authorisation to treat it, a handling treatment 

should be in place to ensure that all HW will be properly 

stored and delivered to an authorised body. 

Order 

MAM/304/2002 February 8th , 2002 Contains the definitions of recovery and disposal operations of waste and the European Waste List. 
190 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 55 - Legal regional documents dealing with waste management (Source: Beatriz Hernandez 

Cembellin, 2008. Los residuos de la construcción) 

Region Legislation Legal requirements 

Andalucía 

Decree 218/1999) 

(Approved by the 

Decree 218/1999.) 

There is no specific legislation. C&D waste is governed by: Territorial 

Management Plan (Municipal Waste) of Andalucía (1999-2008). 

There are a number of Provincial Management Plans: Cordoba, 

Seville, Malaga, Granada. 

Aragón Decree 262/2006. 

Approves the national Regulations on the production, storage and 

management of C&D waste in the Autonomous Community of 

Aragon. 

Islas Baleares 

Decree 10/2000. Dictates the mandatory selective collection and disposal of C&D 

waste. 

Order of the 

Ministry of 

Environment, 

2000. 

Transitional measures for authorising C&D waste recovery and 

disposal plants. 

Cataluña 

Decree 201/1994. 

(Modified by 

Decree 161/2001). 

Regulation on debris and other construction waste. 

Decree 21/2006, Regulates the adoption of environmental criteria and eco-efficiency 

for buildings. 

Law 16/2003. Regards the financing of waste treatment infrastructure and fees on 

waste landfilling. 

Islas Canarias Decree 161/2001 Integrated Waste Plan of Canarias (2000-2006). 

Cantabria Decree 22/2007 Waste Plan Cantabria 2006-2010 

Castilla y La 

Mancha Decree 189/2005. C&D Waste Management Plan of de Castilla y La Mancha (2006-2015). 

Castilla y Leon Decree 74/2002. Regional Waste Strategy of Castilla y Leon 2000-2010. 

Extremadura Order, 2001. Master Plan for Integrated Waste Management from C.A 

Extremadura. Ministry of Agriculture and Environment. 

Galicia Decree 174/2005 Regulates the legal regime of production and waste management and 

the General Register of producers and waste managers of Galicia. 

Madrid 

Law 5/2003 Chapter V: Special rules applying to C&D waste. 

Law 6/2003 Landfill tax. 

Order 2690/2006, 

of July 28. 

Administration of the C&D waste in the Community of Madrid. 

Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning. 

Murcia Decree 48/2003 

Urban Waste and Non Hazardous waste Plan of Murcia (2001-2006), 

in Title II of the Law 9 / 2005, has introduced a tax for the disposal of 

hazardous waste or inert waste in landfills. 

Comunidad 

Valenciana Decree 200/2004 Regulate the suitable use of inert waste for restoration works, backfilling, or construction purposes. 

País Vasco Decree 423/1994 Decree on inert waste. 

La Rioja BOR no 153, of 

December 9, 2000 Waste Plan de La Rioja 2007-2015. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 191 

15.4.4. STANDARDS

Table 56 - Standards in place in the construction sector 

Standard Legally binding Requirements Source 

Declaration ApTO 

(Apitud Técnica a la 

Obra) - Itec 

 Voluntary 

 Practical and essential requirements: 

- UNE-EN-ISO 9001 Quality management system. 

- ISO14001 Environmental system. 

- OHSAS 18001. 

This certification of technical and operational capacity 

of a given company includes a revision of its 

environmental management system. There is no 

explicit reference to C&D Waste, but the revision 

includes compliance with legislation. It can be assumed 

that if the company is granted the ApTO, all the 

requirements by law from environmental legislation 

are fulfilled, including compliance with targets for C&D 

waste. 

www.itec.es

15.5. QUANTITATIVE DATA

15.5.1. TOTAL C&D WASTE ARISING AND CHARACTERISATION

Spanish law qualifies as C&D Waste any substance or object generated in a C&D activity, 

which meets the definition of waste set out in the Law 10/1998 of 21 April. Therefore, the 

concept of C&D includes activities involving the construction, repair, alteration or demolition 

of a property, such as a building, road, port, airport, rail, channel, dam, or recreational sports 

facility, or another similar facility. 

The following types of waste are excluded from the National Management Plan of C&D 

Waste (II PNRCD): 

• Land and stones not contaminated by hazardous substances 

• Any waste generated during construction and / or demolition regulated by 

specific legislation, when not mixed with other C&D waste. This applies, for 

example to industrial used oil waste, hazardous waste in general, packaging 

waste, used tires, batteries, electrical and electronic waste. 

• Waste covered by Directive 2006/21/EC of the European Parliament and Council 

of 15 March on the management of waste from extractive industries. In the case 

of land and stones not contaminated by hazardous substances generated by onsite excavation activities, the reason for exclusion is that these materials can and 

should be re-used in the same or in other working sites, or in a renovation or 

backfilling activity, to thereby avoid the potential negative environmental impact 

of such waste through proper work planning. Hazardous waste is also excluded, 

because it is subject to a specific regulation. 
192 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

The types of waste subject to PNRCD II are codified in the European Waste List, approved by 

Order MAM/304/2002 (BOE No. 43 of 19.02.2002), basically in Chapter 17 (Waste from 

C&D). This chapter is divided into the following categories. 

Table 57 - C&D Waste categories 

Code Waste category 

17 01 Concrete, bricks, tiles and ceramics 

17 02 Wood, glass and plastic 

17 03 Bituminous mixtures, coal tar and tarred products 

17 04 Metals (including alloys) 

17 05 Soil (including excavated soil from contaminated sites), stones 

and dredging spoil 

17 06 Insulation materials and building materials containing 

asbestos 

17 08 Building materials from gypsum 

17 09 Other C&D waste 

As indicated in the Integrated National Waste Plan, given the lack of reliable statistics, it is 

not possible to determine the exact amount of the annual production of C&D waste in Spain. 

Below are the statistics compiled by the PNIR 2008-2015. 

Table 58 - Annual non hazardous C&D waste Generation in Spain – 2005 Year (Source: II PNRCD 2008 

– 2015) 

Region Million 

population 

Amount of 

waste generated 

in the year 2005 

(tonnes) 

Estimation of the 

amount of waste 

generated in the year 

2010 (tonnes)* 

Andalucia 7,849,799 5,676,631 6,401,873 

Aragon 1,269,027 1,243,264 1,402,733 

Asturias 1,076,635 507,449 569,313 

Baleares 983,131 624,919 702,828 

Canarias 1,968,280 987,077 1,112,694 

Cantabria 562,309 523,735 588,602 

Castilla-La Mancha 1,894,667 3,152,178 3,556,632 

Castilla y Leon 2,510,849 1,151,025 1,295,727 

Cataluña 6,995,206 6,696,756 7,538,472 

Ceuta 75,276 10,885 12,301 

Comunidad Valenciana 4,692,449 4,695,185 5,294,541 

Extremadura 1,083,879 575,564 648,403 

Galicia 2,762,198 2,141,376 2,409,733 

La Rioja 301,084 418,787 472,511 

Madrid 5,964,143 3,439,181 3,879,799 

Melilla 65,488 26,017 29,400 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 193 

Region Million 

population 

Amount of 

waste generated 

in the year 2005 

(tonnes) 

Estimation of the 

amount of waste 

generated in the year 

2010 (tonnes)* 

Murcia 1,335,792 1,465,630 1,623,020 

Navarra 593,472 321,721 334,727 

Pais Vasco 2,124,846 1,187,941 1,340,832 

Total non-hazardous C&D waste 44,108,530 

34,845,320 39,272,885

Total hazardous C&D waste 20,667 N/A 

* Amount estimated from the waste generated in the year 2005; this number is 

predicted to increase by 1.62% from the volume of waste generated in 2005. 

The average production of C&D waste per inhabitant and per year, according to 2005 data, 

can be estimated at 790 kg, with a maximum of 1664 kg/ inhabitant/year in Castilla-La 

Mancha and a minimum of 145 kg/ inhabitant/year in the city of Ceuta. In Castilla-La 

Mancha, La Rioja, Murcia and Valencia C&D waste quantities produced for 2005 were over 

1000 kg/ inhabitant/year. 

It has been noted that this information is not reliable, first of all, because not all C&D waste is 

captured and secondly because there is not a standardised methodology in place for 

calculating and predicting quantities of C&D waste generated. Several methodologies (IteC or 

SIDMONS) are applied, using different indicators, which generate unreliable information226

. 

Due to the lack of information and the low reliability of the information collected from the 

different regions, the data presented in the previous table is based on assumptions made in 

the II PNRCD 2008 – 2015 (National Plan of C&D waste) document and is derived from the 

following data: 

• Rates of C&D waste generation per m2, used by The Institute of Construction 

Technology of Catalonia and the Technical Colleges of Architects for the 

management of works and edification projects. 

• Statistics from the Public Works Ministry on Certificates of works in Construction, 

specifying the following parameters: area to build, area to rehabilitate, area to 

demolish. 

According to this information, the following indicators were established in order to calculate 

C&D waste generated by each type of construction requiring a construction license: 

 

226 Carlos Martínez Bertrand, VIAS&CONSTRUCCIONES. 
194 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 59 - Indicators for the calculation of C&D waste generated (Source: II PNRCD 2008 – 20015) 

Construction Type Amount of C&D waste generated 

per m

2

Works on new buildings 120.0 kg/m2 built 

Rehabilitation works 338.7 kg/ m2 rehabilitated 

Demolition works 1,129.0 kg/ m2 demolished 

Partial demolition works 903.2 kg/ m2 demolished 

It was assumed in these calculations that the amount of C&D waste generated by 

construction projects not requiring a construction permit was about 5% of the C&D waste 

generated by works requiring a construction license. For civil works this ratio is 

approximately 28%227

. 

Given the lack of precise information about the composition of C&D waste in Spain, the 

figures below present the average composition of the C&D waste in the Community of 

Madrid, the only data currently available. 

Figure 19 – The average composition of C&D waste in Madrid Community (Source: Integrated 

Management Plan of C&D waste of the Community of Madrid (2002 – 2011)) 

54%

12%

5%

4%

4%

0,5%

1,5%

2,5%

5%

0,2%

0,3%

7% 4%

 

227 II PNRCD (National of C&D waste) 2008 – 2015. 

 Ceramics (54%) 

 Concrete (12%) 

 Mineral waste (stone) (5%) 

 

Mineral waste 

(sand, gravel and other 

aggregates) (4%) 

 Wood (4%) 

 Glass (0.5%) 

 Plastics (1.5%) 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 195 

15.5.2. RECYCLING AND RECOVERY OF C&D WASTE

Similar to the limited existence of quantitative data about C&D waste generation in Spain, it 

also was not possible to find quantitative data on the amount of C&D waste re-used, 

recycled, used in backfilling or landfilled in Spain. According to estimations furnished by 

respondents for this study, it appears that only 7.2% of C&D waste is currently recycled and 

that around 60% of C&D waste is landfilled. 

Below are listed the data available in the PNIR 2008-2015. It should be noted that these data 

have not been collected systematically but compiled through a survey of certain treatment 

plants, therefore explaining the lack of information for several regions. 

Table 60 - C&D waste treatment in Spain in 2005 (Source: Second National Plan of C&D waste (II 

PNRCD)) 

Treatment of Non- hazardous waste in C&D sector 

Region Recycling (tonnes) Disposal (tonnes) 

Andalucía 83.070 N/A 

Aragon 15.383 N/A 

Asturias N/A 250.439 

Baleares N/A N/A 

Canarias N/A N/A 

Cantabria 7.579 104.533 

Castilla-La Mancha N/A N/A 

Castilla Y Leon 194.120 N/A 

Cataluña 465.124 7.248.881 

Ceuta N/A 19.762 

Comunidad Valenciana 353.874 N/A 

Extremadura 3.750 868.730 

Galicia 12.285 N/A 

La Rioja 2.390 52.233 

Madrid 436.616 N/A 

Melilla N/A N/A 

Murcia N/A N/A 

Navarra N/A N/A 

Pais Vasco 195.645 N/A 

Total Non-Hazardous C&D Waste 1.769.836 8.544.578 

 Metal (2.5%) 

 Asphalt (5%) 

 Gypsum (0.2%) 

 Paper (0.3%) 

 Others (Garbage) (7%) 

 Others (Non specified) (4%) 
196 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Table 61 - Treatment of Hazardous waste in the C&D sector (Source: Integrated National Plan of 

Waste (PNIR 2008 – 2015), Annex 2 – II National Plan of Hazardous Waste) 

Treatment of Hazardous waste in C&D sector 

Total Non-hazardous 

C&D waste (tonnes) 

RI 

blending R3* R4* D5 - Landfill 

D9 -Physical-chemical 

treatment* 

D10- Incineration without 

energy recovery 

20.667 562 561 3 18.479 503 560 

* Definitions according to the Order MAM/304/2002 of February 8, in which 

are published the waste recovery and disposal operations and the European list of 

waste: 

• R1: Principal use as a fuel or other means to generate energy. 

• R3: Recycling or recovery of organic substances not used as solvents (including 

composting operations and other transformations biological). 

• R4: Recycling or recovery of metals and metal compounds.

• Physical-chemical treatment: Sanitary waste sterilization. 

The calculations used to determine the amount of C&D waste recycled, recovered or 

landfilled, are based on the following indicators: 

 % of C&D waste recycled 

• Tonnes of C&D waste subject to recycling operations: data measured at C&D 

waste treatment plants and recycling facilities for materials originating from C&D 

waste. Only the weight of materials actually recycled are counted, meaning that 

those products leaving the treatment plant are not included in this calculation 

• Tonnes of C&D waste generated: data estimated from surveys performed with 

builders and through an analysis of other sources (building plans, estimations 

based on sector activity indicators or other indicators). 

 % of C&D waste object of recovery operation, including backfilling 

• Tonnes of C&D waste which are subject to recovery operations other than 

recycling but including backfilling: data measured where the recovery operation 

% of C&D waste recycled = Tonnes of C&D waste subject to recycling operations / 

Tonnes of C&D waste generated (annual calculation)

% of C&D subject to recovery operation, including backfilling = Tonnes of C&D waste 

subject to a recovery operation other than recycling but including Backfilling / Tonnes 

of C&D waste generated (annual calculation) 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 197 

of the pre-treated final waste occurs, excluding recycling but including backfilling 

operations. 

• Tonnes of C&D waste generated (annual calculation): data estimated from 

surveys of builders and other sources (building plans, estimates based on the 

sector activity indicators or other indicators). 

 % Tons of C&D waste landfilled (Authorised landfilling) 

This indicator can be obtained from the two previous indicators or alternatively 

as a means of verification; it can also be calculated by dividing the tonnes of 

incoming C&D waste to landfill by the total tonnes of C&D waste generated. 

15.6. PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

15.6.1. CURRENT PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

 Re-use 

Among the treatment alternatives for waste generated at construction sites, the most 

desirable option is the re-use of products obtained in new constructions. 

There are two re-use options: 

• Direct re-use in the same working site. 

• Re-use in another working site. 

The direct re-use in the same working site involves two phases 

• Pre-selection of removed material. 

• Cleaning of the material. 

Once selected and cleaned, the construction residue material is in ideal condition to be reused. With this approach, the form or the properties of the original products are not altered. 

Re-use in other working site 

In this secondary option, the situation is very similar to the above solution (with the 

difference that it is necessary to transport materials to the other working site). However, the 

situation is very different from an economic point of view, since in this case, the decision on 

the new destination of the materials to be re-used is linked to the existence of markets for 

waste products. 

% Tonnes of C&D waste landfilled (Authorized landfilling) = 100 – (% C&D waste 

recycled) – (%C&D waste subject to recovery operations, including backfilling) (annual 

calculation) 
198 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

While situations vary greatly by location, these secondary markets, are generally scarce. The 

most common markets are for steel, wood and some specific products such as shingles. 

 Recycling 

This option is the conversion of waste into a new raw material that can be used in the 

manufacture of new products for use in new constructions. 

The recycling activity in Spain, as cited above, is marginal. One factor that has discouraged 

the recycling of C&D waste has been the low cost of disposal and the lack of control of illegal 

disposal; however, the current legislation seeks precisely to prohibit uncontrolled landfilling. 

The fraction of waste that is currently subject to special attention as a material to be recycled 

is called “debris” in the National Plan of C&D Waste; these materials represent approximately 

75-80% of the C&D waste. 

Treatment process 

The C&D waste input to the treatment plant is usually mixed, and must be manually screened 

even before being passed through a sieve and a magnetic separator. These steps are 

followed by manual separation to eliminate plastics, wood, paper and other non-metallic 

residue. 

The C&D waste mixture is then subjected to a crushing and magnetic separation before being 

passed through an air separator which removes the light fraction (small pieces of paper or 

plastics, which slip through the first round of separation). 

Some recycling centres also have wood processing and composting plants. 

Besides the use of centralised recycling plants, is very common to use mobile plants for the 

production of secondary aggregates from demolition aggregates. These plants typically 

complete the process of crushing and screening. 

15.7. PAST AND FUTURE TRENDS OF C&D WASTE, DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

15.7.1. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION

In the beginning of the century and until 2007-2008, the construction sector has reached 

very high activity levels, making it a key sector for the growth of the Spanish economy. This 

situation resulted in an unusual increase in waste generation. Although a decrease in the 

amounts of C&D waste has been observed during the economic crisis, it can be anticipated 

that, once the crisis has been surmounted, C&D waste generation will again rise. 

However, C&D waste generation is highly variable and more complex to quantify than other 

types of waste. One of the reasons is the important amount of C&D waste that is disposed of 

in uncontrolled landfills, therefore, making it difficult to obtain reliable statistics. Because of 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 199 

this lack of precise information for Spain, the forecasts made by the Community of Madrid 

can provide an indication of the future trend: 

Note: these data are estimations and therefore must be used with caution228. 

Figure 20 - Forecast of Waste generation for the community of Madrid. Source: Waste strategy of 

the community of Madrid 2006 – 2016 

0,8

0,85

0,9

0,95

1

1,05

1,1

1,15

1,2

4000000

4500000

5000000

5500000

6000000

6500000

7000000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Tons / Inhabitants.yer

Tons / Year

Forecast of C&D waste generation In the Comunity of Madrid.

Population C&D generation Generation rate

These statistics have been calculated from official estimates of population trends completed 

by the Statistics Institute of the Community of Madrid, using the assumptions of an initial 

rate of 1 tonne per capita per year, and a subsequent moderate decrease. The forecasted 

decline in the rate of generation is 0.5% per year during the period of 2005-2016; this 

decrease in the rate of waste generation is assumed in the light of the forecasted decrease in 

aggregate consumption and the slowdown of the construction sector. 

Regarding the composition of C&D waste, an increase in the amount of hazardous waste is 

expected, since progress in scientific research has uncovered toxic and carcinogenic 

properties of materials that were not previously considered as hazardous229. 

15.7.2. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

The increased generation of C&D waste, the low price for the disposal of C&D waste 

compared to the price of waste treatment and the lack of adequate infrastructure for the 

treatment of C&D waste have so far discouraged the recycling of C&D waste in Spain. 

However, the current status of the construction sector could easily absorb the C&D waste 

currently produced and it is hoped that recycling and re-use operations will increase due to 

pressure from the administration, the changed attitude of the sector and the closure of 

unauthorised landfills. 

 

228 Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning of the Community of Madrid, Waste 

Strategy for the Madrid from 2006 to 2016 

229 Jose Blanco, AEDED Association. 
200 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Some of the major difficulties impeding the proper management of C&D waste are: 

• Lack of awareness and involvement of different stakeholders in the sector. 

• Lack of enforcement of existing legislation: ineffective control and prosecution of 

abusive practices (illegal landfilling, no source separation of materials, etc.). 

• Difficulties in the recovery process due to the heterogeneity of the waste. 

• Competition with extractive activities; natural aggregates are easily accessible at 

low costs. 

• Current costs of transport and landfilling are too low compared to the cost of 

treatment operations. Since landfills are under municipal jurisdiction, landfill 

taxes can vary greatly: from 1 Euro per tonne (Pamplona) to 25.20 Euros per 

tonne (Madrid)230. Moreover, if we compare the prices of natural aggregate 

with recycled aggregates, the former may vary between 10 and 20 Euros per 

tonne, while prices of recycled aggregates are generally lower. 

15.7.3. TOWARDS 70% RE-USE, RECYCLING AND RECOVERY

There are some doubts whether the current measures will allow reaching the 70% objective 

stipulated by the Directive. Despite some projects in Spain where up to 95% of C&D waste231 

have been recycled, significant differences persist between the regions and significant efforts 

to deploy recycling infrastructure and to control the enforcement of existing regulations will 

be required in the future232

. 

Nevertheless, there is a general consensus on some key points to improve, such as law 

transposition at the regional and municipal level, better policy enforcement, and the 

promotion of C&D recycled markets. 

To overcome the difficulties faced by the C&D waste recycling sector, it is important to take 

measures in both the construction and recycling sectors and at the political level (National 

and European level): 

• To promote the development of specific technical regulations for the use of 

recycled products in construction, in order to overcome the barrier to entry for 

such products in the construction sector. 

• To promote and intensify the training of staff involved in waste management at 

all levels. 

• To promote strategies for buying and selling of C&D waste (markets), thereby 

increasing C&D waste demand. 

 

230Ministry of Development, Ministry of Environment, Centre for Studies and 

Experimentation of Public Works, 2009, Technical document on C&D waste 

231 Jose Blanco, AEDED Association. 

232 Pablo Gonzalez, GERD Association. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 201 

• To promote the demand of products from C&D waste recycling, especially 

recycled aggregates. This will be achieved through the development of technical 

and environmental regulations specifying the characteristics of the C&D waste 

recycled materials which could be used in construction. 

• Eradication of illegal landfills of C&D waste and the regulation of landfilling taxes. 

• Transposition of the national regulation to all Autonomous Communities. 

• Harmonisation of calculation methods to determine the fraction of C&D waste 

generated which is recycled. 

The achievement of the objectives established in Spanish policies should be accompanied by 

a joint effort between government actors, builders and waste operators. 
202 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

16. APPENDIX V: CASE STUDY FINLAND 

Amounts of C&D 

waste

Approximately 23 million tonnes (including excavation waste) to which must be added 

410,000 tonnes of hazardous waste (Statistics of the Technical Research Centre of 

Finland, 2006) 

1.6 Mt from house building sites (2007): renovation (57%), demolition (27%), and new 

building sites (16%) 

Waste factors

New construction 1 to 17 kg/r-m3

Small renovation 5 to 15 kg/r- m3

Middle Size renovations 50 kg/r- m3

Full-size renovation 200 kg/r- m3

Hazardous waste 2 g/ kg/r- m3

Material 

composition of the 

C&D waste stream

Wood 40% 

Mineral 31% 

Metal 14% 

 Others 15% 

 

And of life options 

and rates

Construction waste 

 - Material recovery 

- Energy recovery 

- Landfilling 

33% 

27% 

40%

Recovery from demolition waste 50% 

 

Analysis of the 

current state

Low material recovery rate; high energy recovery due to the important share of wood 

waste. 

Towards the 70% 

target

The National Waste Plan for 2016 sets a 70% target for recycling, re-use and recovery of 

C&D waste, including energy recovery. 

Aim for 2016: replace 5% of all gravel and crushed stone used in earthworks (3 to 4 Mt) 

by C&D waste. 

By 2016, new construction will probably be replaced by renovation activities. 

Main challenges towards reaching the target: 

- the calculation of the statistics on re-use and recovery of C&D waste is not currently 

reliable, the update of building coefficient not being frequent enough 

- the number of wooden buildings in Finland and the difficulty of recovery and re-use of 

construction wood waste 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 203 

16.1. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 

SYKE (2009), Towards a Recycling Society, the National Waste Plan for 2016, 

14/2009, www.miljo.fi/download.asp?contentid=102639&lan=en

Kauppila, Hannu (2007). Purku- ja raivausmateriaalien käsittely ja uusiokäytön 

luvanvaraisuus tienrakentamisessa (permitting requirements for recycling C&D 

waste in road constructions). Vaasa 2007. Tiehallinto, Vaasan tiepiiri. 

Tiehallinnon sisäisiä julkaisuja 51/2007. 66 s. + liitt. 6 s. ISSN 1459-1561, TIEH 

4000594-v: 

alk.tiehallinto.fi/julkaisut/pdf2/4000594-vpurku_jaraivausmat_kasitt_uusio.pdf

Finnish Waste Act (1390/1993): www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/1993/19931390

Environmental Protection Decree (169/2000): 

www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/2000/20000169

Act on Construction Waste (295/1997): 

www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/1997/19970295

Kiertokapula (2009), Rakentamisen Jatteet (building waste). May 2009: 

www.kiertokapula.fi/attachments/kk_rakentamisen_jatteet_nettiin.pdf

Imatran kaupunki (2008), Jateopas Rakentajille (Waste Guide for Constructors), 

May 2008: 

194.251.35.222/LiiteTiedostoNayta.asb?DokumenttiID=14707&TauluNimi=Tied

oteKappale&NakymaID

SYKE (2006), Jätevirrat ja jäteintensiteetin muutos Suomen taloudessa 1997–

2003, (Waste flows and the change in waste intensity in the Finnish economy in 

1997–2003), 44/2006: 

www.ymparisto.fi/download.asp?contentid=60176&lan=FI

Pohjois-Savon Ymparistokeskus (2009), Ita-Suomen Jatesuunnitelma, nykytilan 

kuvaus, (Waste Plan of East Finland, Description of the current situation) July 

2009: 

www.ymparisto.fi/download.asp?contentid=105821&lan=FI

C&D waste website of the Finnish Environment Institute: 

www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?node=8478&lan=fi

Amounts of building waste from the website of the Finnish Environment 

Institute: www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=171851&lan=fi
204 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Confederation of Finnish Construction Industries: 

www.rakennusteollisuus.fi/en/

Waste management Company Ekorosk: www.ekorosk.fi/en/default.html

16.2. CONTACTS

Table 62 - Identified contacts for the case study on Finland 

Full name Name of organisation Type of organisation Function 

 Jorma Kaloinen Finnish Environment Institute 

 

 National Authority Expert on C&D waste 

 Juha Espo Statistics Finland National Authority Waste statistics 

Anna-Leena 

Perälä 

Technical Research Centre of 

Finland National Authority 

Senior Research Scientist, 

MScTech Built Assets and 

Business Intelligence 

VTT Expert Services 

16.3. CONTEXT

The great distances between building sites and treatment facilities explain the low 

profitability in recovering C&D waste in Finland. This is the case especially in Northern 

Finland, where the treatment facilities are rare, as they also tend to benefit from the wastes 

from the house manufacturing industries. Another feature, typical to Nordic countries, is the 

high proportion of wooden houses and the difficulties in recovering wooden materials. 

16.4. POLICY AND STANDARDS OVERVIEW

16.4.1. KEY EUROPEAN POLICY DRIVERS 

The EU waste legislation has been transposed and influences the national waste legislation 

accordingly but it cannot be seen as a major driver behind the approach taken towards C&D 

waste. 

16.4.2. KEY NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICY DRIVERS 

Considering non-legal approaches, the most important driver is the National Waste Plan for 

2016233, as it sets actions and targets for reducing C&D waste. The target set for 2016 is that 

at least 70% of all construction waste will be recovered as material or energy. Therefore, this 

includes energy recovery which does not necessarily mean that Finland will meet the 2020 

target in advance. By 2016, construction practices will probably shift from new construction 

 

233 Ministry of the Environment (2009), Towards a Recycling Society, The National 

Waste Plan for 2016, The Finnish Environment 14/2009 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 205 

to renovation, which would also mean that most of the construction waste would be 

generated in connection to renovation. The aim set for 2016 is that approximately 5% (i.e., 3 

to 4 million tonnes) of gravel and crushed stone used in earthworks will be replaced by waste 

generated by industry and mineral extraction. 

The two main drivers for recycling and re-use are legal acts: the Environmental Tax Act and 

the Government Decision on Construction Waste. According to Jorma Kaloinen234, they both 

work in synergy and had a profound impact in moving C&D waste away from landfills. They 

will be described in the next section with more details. 

16.4.3. LEGAL DOCUMENTS

Table 63 - Legal documents dealing with waste management 

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

Waste Act 

(1072/1993), as 

amended 

1993 Main instrument for the transposition of WFD. 

Government 

Decision on 

Construction Waste 

(294/1997) 

1997 

The purpose of this Decision is to reduce the quantity 

and harmfulness of construction waste and increase 

its recovery. The indicative target to be aimed at is 

that an average of at least 50% of all construction

waste, except for soil, rock, and dredging waste, to be 

recovered by 2000. 

This Decision applies to construction planning and to 

waste deriving from it. 

This Decision does not apply to construction sites 

where the quantity of resulting waste other than soil, 

rock and dredging waste is not more than 5 tonnes, 

or where the quantity of soil, rock and dredging 

waste deriving from it is not more than 800 tonnes.

Environmental 

Protection Act 

83/2000 

2000 

States the types of C&D waste and the conditions for 

which an environmental permit is not required for 

the treatment. 

Government Decree 

on the Recovery of 

certain wastes in 

earth construction 

(591/2006) 

2006 

The objective of this Decree is to promote the 

recovery of waste by determining the preconditions 

as the result of which, if met, no environmental 

permit in accordance with the Environmental 

Protection Act (86/2000) will be needed for use in 

earth construction from waste referred to in this 

Decree. 

 

234 C&D expert from the Ministry of the Environment 
206 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

Environmental Tax 

Act (495/1996) 1996 

Sets a tax on waste taken to landfills. From 

01/01/2005 this tax reaches €30 per tonne of waste.

The Finnish Waste Act from 1993 is the main waste legislation with its latest amendment in 

June 2007. It has evolved as the main instrument for the transposition of the Waste 

Framework Directive. There are a number of other decrees that specify aspects of the Waste 

Act, such as the Government Decision on Construction Waste (294/1997) and the 

Government Decree on the Recovery of certain waste in earth construction (591/2006). 

Even if recycling or re-use does not require an environmental permit, it does require a 

declaration, using forms available on the website of environmental authorities, which are 

then submitted to the regional environment centre. The intention of the database is to 

ensure that activities such as backfilling would not be hidden as recycling or re-use. 

16.4.4. STANDARDS

Table 64 - Standards in place for the waste management and buildings 

Standard Legally binding Requirements Source 

Government Decree on the 

Recovery of certain waste 

in earth construction 

(591/2006) 

Lists several standard 

Mandatory 

Sets several standards for the 

analysis and testing of waste, 

determining when an 

environmental permit is or is not 

required. 

Government Decree on the 

Recovery of certain waste in 

earth construction (591/2006) 

Promise, environmental 

classification system 

Voluntary 

The environmental classification 

system for buildings is a tool 

based on environmental criteria 

jointly agreed by the authorities 

and the operators of the sector. 

It is used to assess the 

environmental qualities of 

buildings. 

Ministry of the Environment 

(2009), Towards a Recycling 

Society, The National Waste Plan 

for 2016, The Finnish 

Environment, 14/2009. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 207 

16.5. QUANTITATIVE DATA

16.5.1. TOTAL C&D WASTE ARISING AND CHARACTERISATION

Table 65 - Waste arising in 2005 and 2006 

C&D waste fractions 2005 (ktonnes) 2006 (ktonnes) 

Total C&D Waste arising 21,870.4 23,145.7

Bricks, tiles and ceramics N/A N/A 

Concrete N/A N/A 

Other mineral waste 

(stone, sand, gravel and 

other aggregates) 

20,700.2 21,866.6 

Asphalt N/A N/A 

Wood 631.0 737.4 

Plastics N/A 0.0 

Metal 212,8 251.8 

Glass 35.0 37.8 

Gypsum N/A N/A 

Excavation material N/A N/A 

Other (please precise) 

miscellaneous 290.2 251.9 

Electric waste 0.1 0.0 

Other (please 

precise)sludge N/A 0.1 

“Vegetation” waste 1.0 0.0 

Total hazardous C&D 

waste 

343.6 409.1 (not specified) 

Chemicals 0.1 0.1 

Asbestos containing waste N/A N/A

PCB containing waste N/A N/A

ODS containing waste N/A N/A

Phenol containing waste N/A N/A

Lead containing waste N/A N/A

PAH containing waste N/A N/A

Contaminated excavation 

material 

N/A N/A

In 2005, 343.6 ktonnes of hazardous waste were generated in addition to 21,870.4 ktonnes 

of C&D waste. In 2006, this amounts reached respectively 409.1 and 23,145.7 ktonnes. 

Data gathered in the previous table was adapted from Statistics Finland, where the amounts 

of waste have been summarised for all types (including cars etc.). The previous table only 

includes relevant fractions that can be encountered in the C&D stream (among which 

“vegetation” waste). 
208 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Excavated soil accounts for the largest part of C&D waste reported in Finland. When no use 

is found due to its composition, location, or the stumps and other building waste it contains, 

it is regarded as waste soil. Most construction waste is made of this fraction, i.e. soil mass of 

mineral origin. 

House C&D sites generated 1.6 million tonnes waste in 2007. Wood waste represented 40%, 

mineral waste 31% and metal waste 14% of the total construction waste. 

Renovation building accounts for the largest proportion, i.e. 57% or 1.0 million tonnes, and 

demolitions sites for 27% of the total amount of waste. The remaining 16% came from new 

building sites. 

Anna-Leena Perala from the Technical Research Centre of Finland was allowed by Statistics 

Finland to submit to us the unpublished report235 on the most recent expert analysis on the 

building waste statistics based on year 2004 but prepared in 2006. Most of the below 

findings are based on this. 

 The amount of building waste is classified into three categories: new construction, 

renovation (residential and other) and demolished buildings. Figure 21 shows the proportion 

of waste arising from demolition (gray), renovation (divided into residential (orange) and 

other (red)) and new construction (green). 

Note that the analysis and calculations by Technical Research Centre of Finland do not 

include excavated soil. 

The estimates of building waste are developed in different ways for demolition, renovation 

and new construction. These estimates have been developed for the following materials: 

stone, wood, metal and other wastes. 

 

235 Perala, A, Rinatnen, R. Nuuttila, H. and Maensivu, S.(2006), Vuoden 2004 rakennusjatetilastoa 

tukeva VTT;n asiantuntijatyo, VTT, Luottamuksellinen 

Figure 21 - Building waste per type of category 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 209 

 New Constructions 

Waste arising from new constructions are categorised based on house types. The analysis 

looked at 197 building sites. Waste leaving the building site was estimated as kg per building 

cubic metre. It was also possible to estimate the waste to be recovered from the sorted 

stream leaving the building sites. However, some building sites pointed out that mixed waste 

could be later recovered in waste treatment facilities. 

About 70 % of the waste was composed of mixed fractions: wood waste representing 25%, 

stone waste 10 %, metals 1 % and other wastes 7 %. The amount of hazardous waste 

represents approximately 0.002 kg per building cubic metre. 

 Renovation 

In the estimation of renovation waste, estimates from 2000 were used. The amount of waste 

was defined based on waste from demolished and from new building materials. Hence the 

changes in renovation waste amounts were only based on the increased numbers of 

renovations. 

Renovation waste was made up of 80% of mixed waste, 16% of wood based waste, 1% metal 

and the rest of waste classified as “other”. The amount of hazardous substances represented 

around 1 %. 

 Demolition 

In 2004, 4,000 sites representing a total surface of 590 000 m2

 were demolished. These were 

categorised based on the structure material (concrete, brick, steel, wood and others) of the 

demolished buildings: about 48 % are stone based, 20 % wood based, 10 % bricks, 2 % metal 

and other materials about 10 %. The amount of waste from demolished buildings was 10 % 

higher in 2004 than in 2000. 

16.5.2. RECYCLING AND RECOVERY OF C&D WASTE

The system to estimate re-use and recovery rates for C&D waste in Finland is based on a 

specific categorisation of buildings’ types (detached, apartment blocks etc.) and if they are 

newly built or buildings to be renovated. These estimates are based on coefficients 

developed through analysis and surveys by the Technical Research Centre. The coefficients

have been created based on actual cases (field data). As this system is difficult to put in place, 

coefficients are only updated every 3 to 4 years. The most recent study was conducted in 

2004, based on the categorisation of new constructions, renovations and demolitions, as 

described earlier. The recovery rates for these are described below. 

 New Construction 

The recovery rate of residential building sites was 34 % (in mass) but a huge variation exists 

from a construction site to another. 

Of the wastes from new construction sites 26 % were wood based, 63 % stone waste, 9 % 

metal waste and 2 % other wastes. The recovery rate of building waste arising from all new 
210 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

constructions was approximately 44%, while it was only 30% in 2000. The most significant 

aspect of this increase is the better recovery of stone waste. However, according to AnnaLeena Perälä (Technical Research Centre of Finland) this is not based on any new 

technologies but on an increase of the number of waste treatment facilities. 

 Renovation 

The recovered material from renovations was mostly concrete. As no building site 

assessment was done, it is not possible to illustrate with any field data the amounts that are 

recovered. 

 Demolitions 

It is estimated that the recovery of waste from demolished buildings has increased from 25 % 

to 50 %. 

Coefficients were developed based on the most recent analysis of the Technical Centre of 

Finland while the recovery rates were estimated by the Statistics Finland. The changes in the 

recovery rates for wood (puu), stone (kivi), metal (metalli), glass (lasi), other (muu), 

hazardous (ongelma) and combined (yhteensa), are shown in the following figure236. 

Figure 22 - Recovery rates for specific building waste materials 

Excavated soil 

accounts for almost 95 % of the construction waste. In 2005, about 38 % of all construction 

waste was recovered. Of the waste generated during housing construction (about 1.7 million 

tonnes, excluding excavated soil) about 33 % was recovered as a material. At the same time, 

about 27 % was used through energy recovery, while the remaining 40 % ended up at 

landfills. The accumulation of waste (including construction waste), its recovery and 

 

236 Perala, A, Rinatnen, R. Nuuttila, H. and Maensivu, S.(2006), Vuoden 2004 

rakennusjatetilastoa tukeva VTT;n asiantuntijatyo, VTT, Luottamuksellinen 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 211 

treatment in Finland is shown in the following figureErreur ! Source du renvoi 

introuvable.237. 

Figure 23 - Accumulation of waste, its recovery and treatment in Finland 2005 

16.6. PRACTICES IN C&D MANAGEMENT

16.6.1. CURRENT PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

In general the distances between treatment facilities and building wastes are one of the main 

issues in determining the level to which building waste is sorted. Consequently it is not 

financially viable to sort building wastes in Northern Finland as all the main treatment 

facilities are in Southern Finland. 

Below are some examples of treatment options for building waste. 

• Concrete: Concrete structures are normally used as such or after their shape 

being re-adapted. Concrete can also be crushed for other uses, such as in road 

construction238. The use of crushed concrete for new concrete is limited because 

small particles need to be sieved away and this is technically difficult to 

achieve239. 

 

237 Ministry of the Environment (2009), Towards a Recycling Society, The National 

Waste Plan for 2016, The Finnish Environment 14/2009 

238Kiertokapula {2009}, Raknetamisen jatteet, 2009. 

239 Juntunen, A {2007}, Rakennusjatteiden lajittelu ja sen kehitystoimenpiteet rkl 

Halonen OY:ssa, Kajaanin Ammattikokrakoulu, Spring 2007
212 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

• Bricks: Undamaged bricks are re-used and damaged ones are crushed for 

recycling. 

• Plasterboard: Clean plasterboard is used as a raw material for the production of 

new plasterboards. Contaminated plasterboards are sent to landfills240. Many 

treatment facilities do not accept any nails or any contaminant. Therefore, 

plasterboard manufacturers tend to use plasterboard waste from the production 

line rather than from building sites241. 

• Wood: Large amounts of wood waste are generated during the demolition 

process of old buildings. Treated woods cannot be classified as hazardous waste. 

The most common way of recycling wood waste is composting or burning. 

According to Jorma Kaloinen, the recovery and re-use of construction wood waste is 

extremely difficult, as it is easily contaminated with other material. Indeed, this is one of the 

main barriers to achieving the 70% target. However, the treatment of wood has increased as 

a consequence of landfill taxes. This has increased the viability of longer transportation 

distances for wood fuel, which were not financially profitable in the past. Of course one can 

argue that the reduction in this type of waste from landfills, from a life cycle analysis point of 

view, will increase the negative environmental impact as a consequence of longer transport 

routes. 

16.6.2. EMERGING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Eko-Expert KH Oy has developed a method to re-use insulation materials with the help of a 

high power suction machine. Then they can be crushed and used again as part of other 

insulation materials after a treatment that removes all contaminants. 

In the future, the delivering and renewal of environmental permits for industries will be 

more efficient, paying attention to the recycling of large waste flows ending up traditionally 

in landfills. If necessary, examination obligations will also be imposed. When permits are 

renewed, the interpretations concerning the classification of secondary industrial flows as 

by-products or waste will be harmonised242. 

16.7. PAST AND FUTURE TRENDS OF C&D WASTE, DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

16.7.1. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION

Based on the statistics from 2005 to 2006 the amounts of C&D waste were increasing. 

However, according to Jorma Kaloinen there has been, during the last years, as a

 

240 Kiertokapula {2009}, Raknetamisen jatteet, 2009. 

241 Juntunen, A {2007}, Rakennusjatteiden lajittelu ja sen kehitystoimenpiteet rkl 

Halonen OY:ssa, Kajaanin Ammattikokrakoulu, Spring 2007 

242 Ministry of the Environment (2009), Towards a Recycling Society, The National 

Waste Plan for 2016, The Finnish Environment, 14/2009. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 213 

consequence of the recession, a move from new constructions to renovation activities. This 

resulted in considerably reduced amounts of C&D waste, especially when bearing in mind the 

way re-use and recovery rates of C&D waste are calculated. 

Both Jorma Kaloinen and Juha Espo pointed out that several studies are now carried out to 

develop measures on how to decrease the amount of construction waste and how to 

increase recycling and re-use of this waste stream.

16.7.2. TRENDS IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

The Waste Act is to be reviewed in 2010 and it aims to review the definition of waste and 

product. This is especially important, as it has been in some cases easier to use virgin 

materials instead of secondary materials which might require the application of an 

environmental permit and be time-consuming. 

In addition, the Waste Management Plan for 2016 suggests that municipalities should 

undertake the supervision of building demolition more efficiently so that the amount of 

recyclable waste ending up at landfills could be reduced. 

16.7.3. TOWARDS 70% RE-USE, RECYCLING AND RECOVERY

The aim is that in 2016, at least 70 % of all construction waste will be recovered as material 

or energy. By 2016, the focus of construction will probably shift from new construction to 

renovation, which would also mean that most of the construction waste would be generated 

in connection with renovation. However, based on the available evidence it is difficult to see 

anything that would support these aspirations, especially as the statistics on re-use and 

recovery of C&D waste are difficult to calculate and the changes are slowly identified due to 

the way coefficients are estimated. 

According to Jorma Kaloinen there will be a greater shift towards proactive material 

efficiency as the main driver for reducing C&D waste. 
214 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

17. APPENDIX VI: CASE STUDY HUNGARY 

17.1. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 

• Reports and articles 

 Fiknerné Sulcz Ágnes, 2nd February 2010. Akad még teendő az építési-bontási 

hulladékok hasznosítása területé Available at: 

http://www.muszakiforum.hu/cikk/71391/akad-meg-teendo-az-epitesibontasi-hulladekok-hasznositasa-teruleten...?area=160

Standard-Team Kft., www.standard-team.com/cikkek/inert.php 

• Websites 

Ministry of Environment and Water Management, Waste Information System 

(HIR), http://okir.kvvm.hu/hir/

Baurec Construction Waste Treatment Coordination Non Profit Ltd. 

http://baurec.hu/site/

17.2. CONTACTS

Table 66 – Identified contacts for the case study on Hungary 

Full name Name of organisation Type of organisation 

Katalin Fekete 

Ministry of Environment and Water/ 

Department of Waste Management/ 

Waste Treatment Unit 

Ministry 

Tibor Laszlo 

Ministry of Environment and Water/ 

Department of Waste Management/ 

Waste Treatment Unit 

Ministry 

Istvan Varkonyi Baurec Construction Waste Treatment 

Coordination Non Profit Ltd. Non Profit Ltd. 

Judit Ratz 

HuMuSz (Hulladék 

Munkaszövetség) Waste Reduction 

Alliance 

Association of 

Environmental NGOs 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 215 

17.3. CONTEXT

The territory of Hungary covers 93,000 km2 with a population of approximately 10 million 

people. One fifth of the population is concentrated around the capital of Hungary, Budapest, 

in the central region of the territory. 

Figure 24 - Map of Hungary in the European Union 

More than 240 million tons of solid waste is produced per year in Hungary. 33% of the solid 

waste is produced in rural areas and 67% in urban areas. 

The domestic construction industry is still primarily using primary raw materials, rather than 

prioritising secondary materials. In order to boost the utilisation of waste the willingness of 

investors and constructors towards the use of these materials has to be enhanced in addition 

to updating relevant legislation. 

17.4. POLICY AND STANDARDS OVERVIEW

Hungary faces the challenge of transposing the new EU waste framework directive 

(2008/98/EC) into national law. The relevant legislation shall be put in place before 

December 12th 2010. To that end, Hungary has started to prepare amendments to legislation. 

In order to achieve the 70% reuse, recycling and recovery rate, the regulation 

45/2004. (VII.26.) BM243-KvVM244, currently in force, is being fundamentally changed under 

the authority of the Waste Management Act. By the end of 2010, the ministerial regulation 

will be raised to the level of a governmental order. 

 

243 BM: Belügyminisztérium (Ministry of the Interior, now Ministry of Local 

Government) 

244 KvVM: Kôrnyezetvédelmi és Vízügyi Minisztérium (Ministry of Environment and 

Water) 
216 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

17.4.1. KEY NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICY DRIVERS 

According to the National Waste Management Plan the Regional Environmental 

Inspectorates have prepared the Regional Waste Management Plans for the 7 statistical 

planning regions. The deadline was 270 days after the National Plan came into force. 

The Regional Plans were published by ministerial order of the Minister of the Environment 

and Water. 

The certification system and the guide documents for C&D wastes are under construction 

and will be put in place by the end of 2010 together with the regulation relevant to C&D 

waste management. 

The following priority areas have been identified where action is necessary to achieve the 

recovery rate. 

• Creation of new regulation, 

• Development of a system of economic incentives, 

• Creation of a guide describing possible uses of C&D waste 

• Adoption of dual rating system 

• Adoption of the procedure of selective dismantling 

• Assessment and optimization of the spatial distribution of available inert waste 

landfills, taking into account the major sites where C&D waste is generated and 

possibilities of salvage, 

• Development and regular update of an accurate information system on data 

concerning C&D waste 

Wide ranging professional discussions have been going on with the participation of 

processing sector, and certification institutes to ensure the achievement of the recovery rate 

with realistic applicability of the new regulation in practice. 

The development of the new version of the Waste Management Act backing up the 

regulation on C&D waste management is also under way, and will be finalized by the end of 

2010. 

The first step towards the production of good quality secondary raw materials is selective 

demolition which allows for on-site separation of materials as opposed to the previously 

generally practiced demolition techniques which resulted in mixed debris. 

As a prerequisite to selective demolition, a standardized regulatory framework, based on the 

specificities of the Hungarian construction and waste sector, should be set up in order to 

allow the classification and thus the presence of the secondary raw materials on the market. 

The preference towards material separation, re-use and recovery, as well as the detailed 

regulation of usage are to be incorporated in construction related legislation. In addition, the 

construction, road construction standards, technical guidelines, testing and certification 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 217 

methodologies, are being reviewed. Further, a uniform system is to be set up to regulate the 

conditions of use of secondary raw materials. 

Along with the modification of the current regulation 45/2004-es BM KvVM on the scope of 

C&D wastes some further related legislations will also be updated as well by the end of 2010. 

The 20/2006. (IV. 5) KvVM regulation regarding "certain rules and conditions of landfilling 

and landfills" will as well be updated with the incorporation of restrictions of disposal on 

landfills. 

17.4.2. LEGAL DOCUMENTS

Tableau 67 - Legal documents dealing with waste management 

Legislation Year of 

implementation Legal requirements 

BM-KvVM decree 45/2004. (VII. 

26.) 2004 

The purpose of the decree is the detailed regulation 

of C&D waste management: 

• Registration of wastes as for source and 

treatment, 

• Mandating waste quantity planning as part 

of the official construction permission 

procedure 

• Mandating the reporting of generated 

construction waste quantity 

Certain requirements of the regulation are often not 

respected in practice, and the way of some waste 

remains undetectable. 

Waste Management Act 2000/ 

XLIII. 2000 

National Waste Management 

Plan 2003-2008 2002 Targeted 50 % recovery rate by 2008 for C&D Wastes. 

National Waste Management 

Plan 2010 Basic rules on C&D waste management. 

Government decree 290/2007. 

(X. 31.) 2007 On documentation of construction activity, content of the building and the construction diary. 

17.4.3. STANDARDS

Tableau 68 - Standards in place in the construction sector (Source: KvVM) 

Standard Requirements 

MSZ EN 196-1:1996 Cement testing methods. Determination of strength 

MSZ EN 196-3:1996 Cement testing methods. Determination of the setting time and the 

constancy of volume. 

MSZ EN 197-1:2000 Cement. Composition of cements of general use. 

MSZ EN 206-1:2002 Concrete. Part I: criteria, performance, and preparation and conformity 

MSZ EN 771-3:2003 Specification for masonry Part III: Aggregate concrete masonry units 

(Dense and light-weight aggregates) 
218 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Standard Requirements 

MSZ EN 772-1:2000 Methods of test for masonry units Part I: definition of strength 

MSZ EN 932-1:1998 General properties of aggregates. Part I: Sampling methods 

MSZ EN 933-1:1998 Geometric properties of aggregates. Part I: Determination of particle 

distribution. Sieve test. 

MSZ EN 933-4:2000 Geometric properties of aggregates. Part IV: definition of granule 

shape. Granule shape factor. 

MSZ EN 933-6:2003 Geometric properties of aggregates. Part VI: Determination of surface 

characteristics. The stone sets, discharge coefficient 

MSZ EN 934-2:2002 Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout. Part II: Concrete. Definitions, 

requirements, conformity, marking and labelling 

MSZ EN 934-6:2002 Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout. Part IV: Sampling, conformity 

control and compliance reviews 

MSZ EN 998-1:2003 Specification for mortar. Part I: Rendering and plastering mortar 

MSZ EN 998-2:2003 Specification for mortar. Part II:. Masonry 

MSZ EN 1097-3:2001 Examination of aggregates for mechanical and physical properties. Part III: 

determination of density and gap volume 

MSZ EN 1097-5:2001 Examination of mechanical and physical properties of aggregates. Part IV: 

Determination of water content 

MSZ EN 1097-6:2001 Examination of mechanical and physical properties of aggregates. Part VI: 

Determination of density and water absorption. 

MSZ EN 1338:2003 Concrete paving blocks. Requirements and test methods 

MSZ EN 1339:2003 Concrete paving flags. Requirements and test methods 

MSZ EN 1340:2003 Concrete berms requirements and test methods 

MSZ EN 1367-1:2000 Test methods of stone sets' resistance and thermal properties. Part I: 

Determination of frost resistance. 

MSZ EN 1367-2:1999 Test methods of stone sets' resistance and thermal properties. Part II: 

Magnesium sulphate process 

MSZ EN 1744-1:2001 Chemical properties of stone clusters. Part I: Chemical analysis 

MSZ EN 1992-1-1:2005 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part I-I: General rules and rules 

for buildings 

MSZ 4719:1982 Concretes 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 219 

Standard Requirements 

MSZ EN 45014:2000 General criteria for manufacturers certificate of conformity 

MSZ 4737-1:2002 Special cements. Part I: sulphate resistant cement 

MSZ 4755-1:1990 Concrete pavement slab. Quality control 

MSZ 4755-2:1990 Concrete pavement slab. Standard slabs. 

MSZ 11405-1:1992 Leier-building elements. General specifications 

MSZ 11405-4:1992 Leier-building elements. Examination of cellar masonry Items, granule 

distribution calculation. 

MSZ EN 12350-1:2000 Examination of the fresh concrete. Part I:Sampling 

MSZ EN 12350-2:2000 Examination of the fresh concrete. Part II: Examination of collapsing 

MSZ EN 12350-4:2000 Examination of the fresh concrete. Part IV: Compaction factor (read 

compression rate) 

MSZ EN 12350-5:2000 Examination of the fresh concrete. Part V: Flow table test 

MSZ EN 12350-6:2000 Examination of the fresh concrete. Part VI: II: Density 

MSZ EN 12350-7:2000 Examination of the fresh concrete. Part VII: Air content. Pressing methods. 

MSZ EN 12390-1:2001 Examination of hardened concrete. Part I: shape, size and other 

requirements of the specimens 

MSZ EN 12390-2:2001 Examination of hardened concrete. Part II: Strength test specimens 

preparation and storage 

MSZ EN 12390-3:2002 Examination of hardened concrete. Part III: of the specimens compressive 

strength 

MSZ EN 12390-4:2002 Examination of hardened concrete. Part IV: II: Compressive 

strength. Standards for test 

MSZ EN 12390-7:2001 Examination of hardened concrete. 7th Part II: A well-established bulk 

density of concrete 

MSZ EN 12620:2003 Aggregates (additives) for concrete 

MSZ EN 13043:2003 Aggregates (additives), roads, airports and mixtures and other trafficked 

areas Surface 

MSZ EN 13055-1:2003 Lightweight aggregates. Part I: Easy aggregates (additives) for concrete, 

mortar and grout 

MSZ EN 13139:2003 Aggregates (additives) mortar 

MSZ EN 13369:2004 Precast concrete products of general rules 

MSZ ENV 13670-

1:2000 1st design of concrete structures Part. General specifications 

MSZ 18288-2:1984 Granule structure building stone and impurity examination. Granule 

structure sedimentation analysis 

MSZ 18288-3:1978 Granule structure building stone and impurity examination. Granule 

structure Examination 
220 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Standard Requirements 

MSZ 18288-4:1984 Granule structure building stone and impurity examination. The chemical 

analysis of contamination 

MSZ 18288-5:1981 Granule structure building stone and impurity examination. Granule 

structure characteristics calculation 

MSZ 18293:1979 Sand, sandy gravel and gravel 

MSZ CR 13902:2000 Methods of test for fresh concrete water / cement factor in the 

determination. CEN Report 

17.5. QUANTITATIVE DATA

Every year about ten million tons of C&D waste is produced in Hungary. It includes seven 

million tons of earth, which - when pollution free - can be used without any problem, while 

the quantity of other C&D wastes is approximately three million tonnes. Although mandated 

by legislation, these quantities are only estimations as the precise quantity of C&D wastes 

generated within Hungary cannot be calculated with the current practice of market actors 

who often do not comply with these obligations. 

17.5.1. TOTAL C&D WASTE ARISING AND CHARACTERISATION

Table 69 – Waste amounts arising for 2005 and 2008245

C&D waste fractions 2005 (tonnes) 2008 (tonnes) 

Total C&D Waste arising 4,987,084 6,788,241 

Total non-hazardous C&D waste 4,129,992 6,569,932 

Bricks, tiles and ceramics 570,777 1,025,627 

Concrete 514,902 751,842 

Other mineral waste (stone, sand, gravel and other 

aggregates) 1,274,261 1,216,290 

Bituminous mixtures, without coal tar 229,783 131,513 

Wood 13,679 4,009 

Plastics 1,796 4,974 

Metal 865,117 418,135 

Glass 1,609 4,450 

Gypsum 1,080 3,574 

Excavation material 654,261 3,005,396 

Insulation materials 2,728 4,121 

 

245Waste Information System (HIR – Hulladék Informàciòs Rendszer) 

http://okir.kvvm.hu/hir/ 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 221 

C&D waste fractions 2005 (tonnes) 2008 (tonnes) 

Total hazardous C&D waste 857,091 218,309 

Asbestos containing waste 3,455 2,153 

PCB containing waste 9 1 

ODS containing waste N/A N/A 

Phenol containing waste N/A N/A 

Lead containing waste 122 155 

PAH containing waste N/A N/A 

Contaminated excavation material 817,923 103,868 

Mixtures of, or separate fractions of concrete, bricks, 

tiles and ceramics containing 

dangerous substances 

1,025 17,902 

Glass, plastic and wood containing or contaminated 

with dangerous substances 1,326 2,649 

Coal tar and tarred products 1,270 308 

Cables containing oil, coal tar and other dangerous

substances 14 59 

Metal waste contaminated with dangerous 

substances 7,618 3,525 

Gypsum-based construction materials contaminated 

with dangerous substances N/A 5 

Hg containing waste 8,678 71,523 

17.5.2. RECYCLING AND RECOVERY OF C&D WASTE

Table 70 - Waste production and amounts that are treated through the different options (Source: 

Ministry of Environment and Water) 

C&D waste fractions % 

Recycling & 

other material 

recovery 

Energy 

recovery by 

incineration

Disposal Overall 

recovered 

Total C&D Waste arising N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Total non-hazardous C&D 

waste 

44,17% 2 156 186 284 2 725 220 2901939 

Concrete, bricks, tiles and 

ceramics 36,79% N/A N/A N/A 377328 

Bituminous mixtures, 

without coal tar 3,54% N/A N/A N/A 4656 

Wood, glass and plastic 0,65% N/A N/A N/A 87 

Metal 19,40% N/A N/A N/A 81118 

Gypsum 0,01% N/A N/A N/A 0,36 

Insulation materials 0,01% N/A N/A N/A 0,41 

Other 16,94% N/A N/A N/A N/A 
222 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

17.6. PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

17.6.1. CURRENT PRACTICES IN C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

As a general observation we can state that the majority of generated C&D waste ends up in 

landfills or in many cases illegally dumped although there are more and more possibilities to 

their use. Some of the major characteristics of Hungarian C&D waste management practices 

are listed below. 

• A part of the construction firms are not aware of the construction-demolition 

waste obligations. 

• The investor's acceptance to use demolition waste is relatively low 

• Construction permission procedures are not stringent enough, and authorities 

rarely have the capacity to check for the way of C&D waste, thus the relevant 

sanctions are rarely taken 

• Selective demolition is not frequently practiced, thus the currently practiced 

demolition methods result in mixed debris 

• The processing costs are higher than the dumping charges and in lack of 

appropriate incentives and controls will remain so. (Fiknerné, 2010) 

• Secondary raw materials are kept in an unattractive position on the market as 

mining is taxed at a significantly lower level in Hungary as in other European 

countries. (2% in Hungary vs >10% in Europe in average) (Varkonyi) 

17.6.2. EMERGING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

No emerging treatment and management techniques have been identified through the 

interviews. 

17.7. TOWARDS 70% RE-USE, RECYCLING AND RECOVERY

It is estimated that the construction-demolition waste recovery rate is currently only around 

30-35% (in addition to the quantity of excavated soil), thus, by 2020 the current rate should 

be at least doubled. The main needs in the field of C&D waste management where actions 

can serve the achievement of the 70% recovery rate by 2020 are listed below: 

• Legislation has to be created to encourage the re-use and recovery of separated 

materials, to regulate treatment modalities and to set up a harmonised system of 

classification of secondary materials 

• Construction, road construction standards, technical guidelines, testing and 

rating methodologies have to be reviewed, and a uniform system has to be set 

up to regulate the conditions of use of secondary materials. These will have to be 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 223 

continuously developed in the future as new building practices and new types of 

building materials keep appearing which will require more complex techniques 

than current building materials. 

• An efficient awareness raising campaign has to be launched for the construction 

sector (Varkonyi) 

• Precise definitions have to be accepted for the “end of waste aspect” (Fiknerné, 

2010) 

Considering the relatively low current recycling rates, the high amounts of C&D waste 

illegally disposed of (and therefore not accounted for in the statistics reported), and the 

recent policy development specifically targeting C&D waste, Hungary is representative of MS 

for which the targets set by the WFD represents an important driver. However, one of the 

main challenges is still the better enforcement of existing legislation, particularly through 

diverting C&D waste from illegal landfill. Combined implementation and enforcement of 

landfill regulations and C&D waste targeted actions listed above will lead, at first, to better 

reporting and monitoring, and is likely to drive significant increases in recycling rates. 
224 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

18. APPENDIX VII: WORSHOP MINUTES 

18.1. PREAMBLE 

These minutes describe the discussion arising from the workshop presentations given by BIO 

IS, the experts interviewed for the purpose of the material study (concrete, ceramics, asphalt 

and gypsum) and other stakeholders. 

All the speakers’ presentations are available online: http://www.eusmr.eu/cdw/meetings.php

Gunther Wolff welcomed participants to the workshop in his opening remarks and gave 

some background information on the Waste Framework Directive (WFD) and especially the 

70% target for re-use, recycling and other material recovery of construction and demolition 

waste by 2020. 

C&D waste had not been specifically regulated until recently, though it represents an 

important waste stream. The EU aims at becoming a recycling society, therefore prevention, 

reuse and recycling have the priority, whereas incineration and landfilling are the last options 

to consider for waste management. Currently, huge differences exist between Member 

States (MS) regarding the recycling and re-use rates, going from 10 to 90% where data is 

available. 

The study carried out by BIO IS for the DG ENV aims at describing the current situation, and 

identifying and promoting best practices regarding the management of C&D waste. 

18.2. .GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT 

18.2.1. BIO IS PRESENTATION

Mathieu Hestin of BIO Intelligence Service launched the day’s proceedings with an 

introduction to the project and a description of the day’s agenda as shown in the following 

table. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 225 

Table 25 – C&D waste workshop, June 21st, 2010, Brussels 

Time Topic Speaker / Moderator

13:30 – 14:00 Registration

14:00 – 14:15 Opening and welcome remarks Gunther Wolff, European Commission, 

DG ENV

14:15 – 14:45 Findings of the study on Construction 

and Demolition Waste 

Mathieu Hestin, BIO Intelligence Service

14:45 – 16:30 Construction materials and recycling 

options 

• Concrete 

• Masonry 

• Asphalt 

• Gypsum 

Mathieu Hestin, BIO Intelligence Service

Alessio Rimoldi, European Precast 

Concrete Manufacturers

Christophe Sykes, Tiles and Bricks Europe

Christine Marlet, Eurogypsum

Egbert Beuving, European Asphalt 

Pavement Association

16:30 – 16:45 Coffee Break

16:45 – 17:15 Construction Waste and Resources 

Roadmap

Gillian Hobbs, BRE

17:15 – 17:30 Concluding remarks Gunther Wolff, European Commission, 

DG ENV

17:30 End of the workshop

The objectives of the study on C&D waste were first to define the framework for the 

calculation of the re-use and recycling target and secondly to describe the current situation 

within the EU and identifying potential drivers and barriers for the further improvement of 

the rates. 

Mathieu Hestin described the C&D waste generation and recycling rates estimations made by 

BIO IS based on available data. He outlined the high uncertainty of the data and the 

important geographic variations due to different practices and differences in the definitions 

and reporting. He further described the two main policy drivers at the EU level (the WFD and 

the Directive on landfill), some national policies and standards identified at the national level. 

Mathieu Hestin furthermore developed on the barriers and drivers for the improvement of 

the re-use and recycling rates and the content of the final report (material focuses and 

country case studies). 

Eventually, he delineated the next steps of the project: the finalisation of the report thanks 

to the stakeholders’ comments that are to be sent by mid-August. 
226 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

18.2.2. STAKEHOLDERS’ DISCUSSION

 Christophe Sykes, TBE aisbl 

Mr Sykes outlined the issue of excavated soil: is it considered as a potential resource or as a 

waste? Mr Hestin explained that excavated soil had not been included within the scope of 

this study, as it was excluded from the recycling target. 

Mr Sykes further underlined the lack of analysis of the chemical composition of the waste 

stream. Indeed, if the largest volume is made of the inert fraction, the remaining part is 

considered as toxic and the environmental impacts are not clearly tackled in the report. 

Mr Wolff answered that the Directive requires the sorting out of the C&D waste stream; 

hazardous waste is not included in the 70 % target, however, it has to be separated at source 

and treated specifically and under proper management options. 

 Peter Jones 

Mr Jones outlined the high uncertainty of certain figures on ODS presented in the report, 

which requires a clear warning and analysis. He stressed that if insulation panels do not 

represent an important stream in weight, they do in volume as they are light weight 

materials. 

 UEPG 

The European Aggregates Association insisted on the fact that standards on the quality of 

secondary raw aggregates already exist. Therefore, some of the recommendations defined in 

the report do not bring anything new. This should be further described in the report. 

 FIR 

The Fédération Internationale du Recyclage asked for a clear definition of backfilling since the 

difference with landfilling seems very small in some cases. For example, in Sweden, a limited 

fraction of waste is landfilled. 

The FIR confirmed the existence of standards for aggregates. 

Mathieu Hestin confirmed the need for clarification of certain definitions, especially on 

backfilling operations. 

Mr Wolff added that the EC has been working on the definitions for the calculation of the 

targets since the TAC meeting that took place on April 3rd, 2010 and that a Commission 

Decision was being prepared. 

 The European Aluminium Association 

The association outlined the fact that the final report does not tackle the aluminium fraction 

at all. 

Mr Wolff underlined the fact that most of the metal construction and demolition waste is 

already recycled. Therefore, the EC is not worried by metals that can be found in the C&D 

waste stream. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 227 

18.3. THE CONCRETE FRACTION 

18.3.1. BIBM PRESENTATION

Alessio Rimoldi, Secretary General of the European Federation of Precast Concrete, described 

the use that are made of concrete in the construction sector and the properties that make it 

the most consumed material worldwide with 25 billion tonnes and 2.5 billion tonnes at the 

EU level. It is estimated that between 40 to 60% of the C&D waste arising at the European 

level is made of concrete. Mr Rimoldi outlined the difficulties to have reliable data as the 

risks related to concrete are low because of its inert properties; close monitoring and 

reporting is therefore not always encouraged. The objective set by the Industry is zero 

landfilling, through the promotion of prevention of waste on the one hand and re-use and 

recycling on the other hand, in accordance with the Waste hierarchy. When considering the 

re-use and recycling definitions in place in the concrete sector, it appears that recycling is not 

feasible as concrete cannot be recycled back into its original constituents. However, material 

recovery is an option, crushed concrete being used as aggregates for road sub-base or as a 

secondary raw material. As the availability of raw materials is not an issue and that the 

environmental impacts of crushing concrete and of extracting raw materials are almost the 

same, the potential drivers towards recycling depend strongly on the local market conditions. 

Finally, Mr Rimoldi insisted on the fact that the Industry is calling for long term strategies to 

develop re-use and recovery of concrete and is ready to bear the investments that will be 

needed. 

18.3.2. STAKEHOLDERS’ DISCUSSION

Mathieu Hestin added to Mr Rimoldi presentation that the re-use of concrete blocks 

prevents the production and use of cement, which represents the main environmental 

impacts of this material, particularly in terms of greenhouse gases emissions. 

18.4. THE CERAMIC FRACTION 

18.4.1. TBE AISBL PRESENTATION

Christophe Sykes, Secretary General of the Tiles and Bricks of Europe Association, described 

the Industry profile that has been greatly impacted by the economic crisis and the 

characteristics of the product that make it an extremely durable material. Numerous options 

exist for the re-use and recovery of bricks and tiles, among which the use as filling and 

stabilising material and re-use in the products original form. The Netherlands and Denmark 

achieve high recycling rates of this fraction with more than 95% but still are calling for more 

attractive recycling options. Finally, for the minimisation of the waste stream and the 

improvement of recycling practices, TBE promotes longer life-span building, economical 

attractiveness of secondary raw material and technical value of secondary aggregates. 
228 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

18.4.2. STAKEHOLDERS’ DISCUSSION

The representative of the Netherlands Ministry of the Environment mentioned a study on the 

environmental benefits of adding waste ceramics powder into virgin clay that proved this 

option to be very beneficial: the energy consumption and emissions of the process are lower 

than the production of virgin clay, and the quality of the brick is higher. 

It was stressed that the composition of the mortar was essential to allow the reuse of bricks; 

in Georgia, for example, mortar is made of material originating from seashells and allows an 

easy removal and reuse of bricks. Mr Sykes answered that the choice of materials, including 

mortar, was mostly driven by aesthetical and architectural considerations, which have to be 

taken into account. 

18.5. THE ASPHALT FRACTION 

18.5.1. EAPA PRESENTATION 

Egbert Beuving, Director of the European Asphalt Pavement Association, described the 

missions of the EAPA among which calling for an effective and sustainable use of asphalt and 

the promotion of higher levels of asphalt recycling. Mr Beuving drew the emphasis on the 

recycling options which consist in adding reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) to new asphalt 

mixes by presenting the different methods (cold or warm RAP method) and the respective 

incorporation rates achieved. These options can be put in place in a central plant or directly 

in situ. 

The presentation consisted of different pictures showing asphalt plants, how reclaimed 

asphalt is removed from the road and the machinery that are used for this purpose. Mr 

Beuving states that reclaimed asphalt can obtain the non waste status when it meets the 

specific European quality criteria, according to the European Standard EN 13108-8. At the 

European level, almost 52 million tons of reclaimed asphalt is available and 86% is estimated 

to be re-used and recycled. 

Mr Beuving mentioned the issue related to old pavement containing tar that can only be 

recycled through the cold RAP method. Finally, the asphalt Industry strongly supports the reuse of RAP at the highest possible level and encourages considering it as a product and not a 

waste. Indeed, asphalt is 100% recyclable material and recycling should be encouraged by 

the product (road) owner. 

18.5.2. STAKEHOLDERS’ DISCUSSION 

The representative of the Netherlands Ministry of Environment asked Mr Beuving whether 

bitumen was expected to become scarce and the near future, and what consequences this 

scarcity would have on prices. Mr Beuving answered that he had no specific information on 

the evolution of prices, but that scarcity was not to be expected in the near future. Research 

on artificial binders (e.g. bio binders) is currently undergone. A second question was raised 

on the use of rubber or plastic modified asphalt and the possible barrier it can represent for 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 229 

the future recycling of reclaimed asphalt. Mr Beuving answered that plastic modified asphalt 

had been used for a long time and that it can be recycled in any process described during the 

presentation. 

 Christophe Sykes, TBE aisbl 

Mr Sykes outlined the fact that the banning and the taxing of some waste management 

options such as landfilling without the parallel development of alternatives is not a solution, 

and can represent a risk that waste streams are diverted to illegal treatment operations. 

 Swedish EPA 

Nanna Spett from the Swedish EPA asked whether high levels of tar in asphalt could prevent 

its recycling, and what the acceptable levels were. Mr Beuving answered that tar levels were 

usually low enough to allow recycling, but that the acceptable levels depended on the 

country. 

 Gunther Wolff, EC, DG ENV 

Mr Wolff asked for the reasons explaining such high recycling rates: is it because it is 

economically beneficial or the reduction of the environmental impacts? According to Mr 

Beuving, it depends on several factors among which the local availability of raw materials. 

 Peter Jones 

Mr Jones mentioned that a thin layer of bitumen is used for roofs; Mr Beuving confirmed that 

this bitumen could also be recycled into asphalt pavement. 

18.6. THE GYPSUM FRACTION 

18.6.1. EUROGYPSUM PRESENTATION

Christine Marlet, Secretary General of the European Federation of national associations of 

gypsum products, described the gypsum industry in Europe. 

The focus of this presentation is laid on plasterboards since they are the only products that 

can be taken back to the plant at the construction stage (cut-off, damages plasterboards, 

etc.). Gypsum from plasterboard is considered to be 100% recyclable into new plasterboard 

in a closed loop system as the properties remain unchanged when integrating recycled 

gypsum. 

Since decision 2003/33/EC establishing criteria and procedures for the acceptance of waste 

at landfills, gypsum is classified as a non-inert waste, leading to increasing landfill costs and 

the development of recycling options, also encouraged by the promotion of resource 

efficiency. Mrs Marlet insisted on the need to have access to gypsum products that can be 

found in demolition waste. For this purpose, works must be dismantled instead of being 

demolished in order to avoid any contamination (wood, steel, plastic, etc.). Finally, Mrs 
230 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Marlet outlined the part that the actors of the gypsum industry can play in the development 

of the C&D gypsum waste recycling. 

18.6.2. STAKEHOLDERS’ DISCUSSION

The representative of the Netherlands Ministry of the Environment mentioned that the 

management of gypsum waste in his country suffered from exports to Germany, where no 

landfill taxes are applied. 

The discussion then moved towards producer responsibility for gypsum waste. Christine 

Marlet indicated that this was an industry-wide (and not a company specific) issue, as the 

products are very similar. While recognising the responsibility of the gypsum industry, she 

stressed that the responsibility was shared along the supply chain, and that C&D site 

managers for instance had a high responsibility; high recycling rates will not be achieved if 

building are not correctly dismantled. 

Mr Sykes also mentioned the responsibility of the distributors (in the case of B2C business), 

and that consumers needed the possibility to take back construction and demolition waste 

materials to public sorting facilities; this is well developed in France and in the Netherlands 

for example, and should be extended. 

18.7. THE UK EXAMPLE: THE CONSTRUCTION RESOURCES AND WASTE

ROADMAP 

18.7.1. BRE PRESENTATION

Mrs Gillian Hobbs, from the Building Research Establishment, described the concept of C&D 

resource efficiency. It is related to building efficiency (BREEAM rating system, etc.), to low 

impact elements and products and to resource efficient products (recycled and hazardous 

content, recyclability, etc.). England promotes the best environmental options for the 

management of C&D waste and especially the reduction, the re-use and the recycling of this 

waste stream. The target set for 2012 by the Waste Strategy (2007) and the Sustainable 

Construction Strategy (2008) requires halving the amount of construction, demolition and 

excavated waste sent to landfill (compared to the 2008 baseline). 

The construction resources and waste roadmap was launched in 2008 and promotes waste 

reduction through a voluntary commitment of the Industry and a strategy defined in 

common with the Government. 

 The Industry committed to develop resource efficiency plans (packaging, flooring and 

joinery), product roadmaps (plasterboard, windows) and site waste management planning. 

In parallel, the Government is increasing landfill tax and packaging recovery targets. 

Moreover, the Government could establish landfill restriction and protocols for quality 

control and for the end of the waste status, as well as financially support businesses. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 231 

The priority areas being identified by the Industry are the landfill bans on recyclable and 

biodegradable waste and the design for deconstruction and recycling. 

Finally, Mrs Hobbs presented the main recommendations of the roadmap. 

18.8. CONCLUSION 

Mr Wolff concluded the day by outlining the fact that this workshop was part of the first 

study carried out on this subject since 1999 and come up with new conclusions and very 

interesting findings thanks to the examples set by the federations. Several limiting factors 

affecting recycling have been identified such as the cross-border movement of waste and the 

possible “diversion” of backfilling operations. 

MS that are lagging behind in this area can take advantage of the examples set by countries 

with a long recycling tradition and high recycling and recovery rates. 

In the case of the front runners, several legal measures have contributed to recycling, e.g. an 

increase of landfill taxes or landfill bans. Mr Wolff also stressed that a number of “soft” 

measures, such as R&D, knowledge dissemination, network development, involving actors 

along the value chain, voluntary schemes at the national level, etc. could also contribute to a 

more sustainable use of resources. Moreover, the development of recycling is closely linked 

to the development of standards and certification at the EU and national level. Trust in the 

recycling products is needed for the increase of recycling practices. 

Taking into account the importance of the State in the construction sector, the promotion of 

the use of recycled products through Green Public Procurement by public administrations 

can be an additional and promising measure. 
232 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

19. APPENDIX VIII: Stakeholders comments on the 

draft final report 

Following the workshop held in Brussels, feedback and comments on the draft final report 

were asked to stakeholders. 

Many constructive comments were received and the information provided or the 

corrections proposed were integrated in the final report. The table below presents the 

comments sent by the following stakeholders246: 

• Christian WADEY, DEFRA 

• Eva MARAQUE, AFIPEB 

• Laurent CHATEAU, ADEME 

• Edmar MEUWISSEN; EUMEPS 

• Geert CUPERUS, FIR 

• Common comments from EPRA, UEPG & ECP 

• Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

• Peter Jones, Independent consultant 

• Dieter ROSEN, Bundesverband der Deutschen Ziegelindustrie 

Stakeholder Comment 

General comments 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

This report addresses the importance of having consistent and reliable data on C&D waste and identifies potential 

drivers for improving re-use and recovery of the waste stream in the context of the WFD 70% target. 

Both these objectives are sound but miss what should be the primary objective of reducing the original arisings of 

C&D waste. The highest cost to the construction industry is the creation of waste, reducing the creation of waste is 

the most cost effective and sustainable option and is not addressed sufficiently within this report. 

 Reducing the amount of C&D waste generated also immediately reduces the quantity of waste required to achieve 

the 70% target of waste re-used or recovered. 

 WRAP have extensive guidance on designing out waste in construction, both for Buildings and in Civil Engineering. 

This guidance is supported by a Net Waste Tool for assessing the cost benefits of a range of waste reduction and 

re-use options. 

 The use of Site Waste Management Plans is also an essential part of the measurement and management of C&D 

waste. 

Response: These elements were taken into account when finalising the report 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

On generation data: Why wasn’t the European Waste catalogue used as a more reliable way of gathering 

evidence? 

Response: EUROSTAT data was the main source used in this report; when available, it was completed with national 

data 

 

246 Responses are given to those comments which necessitated revision(s) of the 

information in the report 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 233 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

On generation data: The figures used for C&D waste arising in the UK include excavation waste and this has n

been taken into account in this analysis leading to inaccurate assumptions on the UK performance against th

70% target. 

Response: Figures for the UK were corrected in the final report with national data 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

The data in the report is massively unreliable. For example the practice of adding 1m tonne per capita per ye

underreporting countries (under the sub-title ‘Incomplete Data’) is questionable. There is also the proposed 

exclusion of excavation data from the six countries with the highest per capita generate, to the tune of 75%. 

Response: for MS where data was clearly lacking, the EU average generation was applied. The hypothesis of 

excavated material was replaced in the final report with national estimates when available 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

The part of excavated material in French C&D waste is higher than 75%. National data provide a better estim

Response : this information was added to the final report

E. Maraque, AFIPEB 

In page 14, in the “New estimation of total C&D waste arising in EU-27”, we feel that a table presenting the m

recent and corrected data for each Member State would be necessary (tables 2 and 3 together) in order to 

counterbalance the false impression given in the table 1 which is the only table listing all Members States in 

3.1. 

Response: Tables were revised in the final report. 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

Detailed figures in a WRAP report for C&D arising and recovery in England for 2008[5] show recovery signific

ahead of the 70% target. (report produced by Capita Symonds.) 

The Bio report focuses on concrete, masonry, asphalt, metal, wood, gypsum, plastics and ‘miscellaneous’. D

analyses on concrete, asphalt, masonry, wood and gypsum are provided later in the report sections 4 to 8.

This focus on single waste streams misses the major issue of mixed C&D waste going to both treatment cent

and landfills. Figures for England in 2008 highlights this problem: 

When considered as percentages the scale of mixed wastes arising and then moving to landfill shows that th

mixed waste stream merits special consideration and its management is more significant for meeting the 70% 

target than the single streams in sections 4 to 8. 

Response: UK data were replaced in the final report with the national estimated provided 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

Recycling rates in France are estimated to be lower than presented in the draft final report. Based on availab

national data, it is approximately 45% 

Response : data for France was updated in the final report

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

On Secondary materials regulation and standards : Four member states, Germany, Flanders, Spain and Finlan

used as examples in this section but no reference is made to the European Aggregates Standards which appl

member states and enable the use of a masonry, concrete and asphalt as resources for the production of

aggregates. They have applied to all MS since 2004 

Response : This information was added to the final report

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

The choice of resources used to produce aggregates is directly related to comparative processing costs, mark

price and distance to market. WRAP carried out two detailed assessments of this relationship, one for Englan

the other for Scotland. 

Response : This information was added to the final report

Geert Cuperus, FIR 

1. FIR welcomes the study of Bio Intelligent Service and its partners on the Management of C&DW. It provide

lot of information concerning the current situation in Europe. Specifically we endorse the conclusions in the 

that confirm the fact that 70% recycling of C&DW is feasible. We think that this is a major outcome 

of the study that cannot be highlighted enough. 

2. We like to add that 70% recycling is very well feasible also in countries with currently low rates of recycling

Experience has shown that if political willingness is there, recycling may well develop in just a few years. 

3. The report clearly points out that the main mechanisms for recycling are landfill taxes and landfill bans. 

Experience has shown that even small increases in landfill taxes create opportunities for recycling. 

4. Regarding point 2 and 3, it is a pity that the report does not go into too much detail on the economics of 

recycling. This would have shown that recycling of C&DW is very well feasible when landfill taxes go up just a 

Euro/ton. Paragraph 4.4.2 makes a comparison with primary aggregates. It is even more relevant to compare 

costs of recycling with the costs of other waste management options. The costs of waste management optio

determine where the waste goes. We think the report will benefit from a clear analysis of the price mechani

that actually manage the waste. 

5. The most usual way of processing C&DW is by crushing a mixed inert fraction. This results in Mixed Recycl

Aggregates. Unfortunately, due to the approach per material, this main way of working is not reflected in the 

report. Other methods like crushing for tennis sand etc. are not to be considered as usual approaches. We th

the report will benefit from a clear description how management of C&DW in practice actually works. Item 4 

above relates to this: if the waste management chain of C&DW is clearly described, the costs per step visuali

controlling mechanisms. 

Response: it was not the purpose of this report to go into details in the economics and price mechanisms; how
234 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

such considerations are taken into account in the analysis, e.g. in the concrete section 

Geert Cuperus, FIR 

6. In several chapters reference is made to “recycling as a filling material”. We need to stress that this is wrong way 

of presenting the situation. Recycled aggregates are not used as filling material. They are construction products in 

accordance with European standards from CEN/TC154, CEN/TC227 etc. “Filling” refers to a practice where it does 

not matter what kind of material is used and where no requirements apply. This is the case when for instance 

C&DW as such is used. We call upon the authors to change texts wherever a relation is made between “recycling” 

and “filling”. 

Response: recycling is understood in a broader sense in this report. However, it is clearly stated that backfilling is 

not recycling, but a form of material recovery

Geert Cuperus, FIR 

7. We welcome the fact that the issue of “backfilling” as a threat to recycling is mentioned in the report (paragraph 

3.4.4). It is also clearly stated that the contribution of backfilling to the target is hard to assess. Here, we think the 

authors should also explain why this is so. It is important to understand that waste management can only exist 

when reliable data are in place. Recycling companies have the obligation of registering all incoming waste and 

make notification to the authorities. Backfilling operations duck out of the control systems. FIR has therefore 

suggested that any party performing backfilling operations should have the obligation to register and make 

notification. Experience in Flanders, Germany and the Netherlands has shown that management of C&DW is not 

that much of a problem. It is possible to develop a structure where almost full control of the C&DW waste stream 

is achieved. Further works of the Commission should focus on the best practices available in those (and other) 

Member States. 

8. Further to 7, we can imagine that you pay specific attention (specific chapter?!) to the impacts that backfilling 

might have. With respect to that, we can refer to the situation in the Netherlands some 20-25 years ago, when 

C&DW was still used as such in road construction. As there were no requirements in place, C&DW was used as 

such. As a consequence of this, all Dutch roads built before 1990 are suspected to contain asbestos in the 

foundations. If these roads are de-constructed, it is likely that asbestos containing material is found. The 

environmental impacts are evident. The economic costs for remediation will be huge. If C&DW is going to be used 

in backfilling operations throughout Europe, the chances of the diffuse spreading of contaminants will be 

considerable. If there will be no requirements put on backfilling, this “waste management operation” will be in 

conflict with article 1 of the Waste Framework Directive, which requests prevention and reduction of the adverse 

impacts of waste management. 

Response: Given the unclear definition of backfilling, it was difficult to assess the extent of this practice in most MS, 

and the related impacts. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

1. The report, at more than 200 pages, is too long and as a consequence will not be fully read and understood by 

stakeholders. The key points could be summarised in 20-30 pages. 

Response: The first section presenting general data included the overarching analysis of the information gathered 

in the report. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

2. It is very important to give clear definitions of the terminology used very early in the report to ensure that the 

reader can relate, without confusion, to other studies, reports and statistics produced by the Member States. The 

current draft admits to inconsistent data, which unfortunately reduces the value of the report itself.

Response: Some definitions were clarified, and data gaps filled, in the final version of the report 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

3. For the purposes of this report the term “recycled” is used in the widest sense and includes all recycling and reuse options for C & D waste – both in-situ and in recycling plant situations. Construction waste includes materials 

surplus to site requirements, plus surplus or rejects materials arising for example in ready mixed concrete or 

precast unit production. Demolition materials include all materials arising from the deconstruction of all 

structures. In the case of roads this includes both the foundation layers and the asphalt layers (including the 

surface planning). Getting good data on the total quantities of all such categories of recycled materials is most 

important for this study to be valid. 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 235 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

4. It is important that practicable End-of-Waste Criteria are established as soon as possible. The recent ECHA 

decision stipulating recycled aggregates as “Articles” under REACH was crucial in avoiding a completely 

unnecessary registration process, which would have seriously damaged the industry. 

Response: this driver was added to the final report

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

5. The report should also refer to the individual CEN Aggregate Product Standards that give particular and pr

definitions for “recycled” material in relation to the stated end use, for example as unbound materials for ro

bases, or as aggregates for concrete or aggregates for asphalt. These standards set clear quality requirement

these applications to ensure that those end-products are durable and meet their technical specifications. 

Compliance with technical quality standards is crucial to responsible recycling. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

6. It must be clearly stated that excavated material should not be included in the reported statistics so as to 

a common basis for all measurements. Such inclusion may be incorrectly inflating some statistics. 

Response : this is clearly stated in the final report 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

7. It must be made clear that the target of 70% recycled materials relates to the percentage of the C & D was

that is actually available to be recycled. For example, in the UK, which is currently achieving the 70% target, 

recycling level represents only about 25% of the total aggregate demand. This is also true for Belgium and th

Netherlands, which also achieve the 70% target, but again represents only about 20% of their national aggre

demands. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

8. It is also very important to better establish the total current European available C&DW. The report puts th

estimate at 535m tonnes. In 2008, UEPG data shows that 216m tonnes were recycled. This corresponds to ju

40% of total available C&DW, but in turn equates to only 6% of the total European aggregates demand of 3.5 

billion tonnes for that year. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

9. EPRA supports higher European recycling rates, though because these rates are so varied between Memb

States, the challenges need to be addressed at national level to determine what kind of political and regulato

measures would best work in each. Such national initiatives need to address the physical infrastructure need

recycling, as well as encouragement in the use of recycled materials, in parallel insisting that these meet the 

required technical standards. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

10. Some financial incentives may also be needed, though any taxation in the absence of other measures of 

aggregate production or landfilling may only have the adverse effects of inducing illegal production or illegal 

dumping. The economics of recycling depend on several factors that are required to make recycled aggregat

competitive with natural aggregates. For instance, the WBCSD/CSI Report on Recycling Concrete, and in part

the diagram on page 18, illustrates the economical factors needed to encourage high recycling rates. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

11. It should also be realised that there are technical limits as to what proportion of recycled materials may b

incorporated into new products. For example, recycled aggregates may be used to form up to 100% of road 

foundation layers, in fact the most common application of recycled aggregates. All asphalt is recyclable into 

asphalt, but must comply with the relevant technical requirements of the new use. Therefore the amount of 

reclaimed asphalt that can be used in very specific asphalt mixtures is limited. In ready mixed concrete, up to 

recycled material is possible, but the practical limit in incorporating recycled coarse aggregates is unlikely to 

exceed 10%, as any further increase requires more cement to ensure sufficient strength, thus offsetting the 

environmental and cost advantages. In high-strength concrete applications the use of recycled aggregates is 

appropriate due to the difficulty in meeting the high technical specifications. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

12. The ultimate aim must arguably be to achieve the most efficient and sustainable use of resources. Accord

the waste reduction hierarchy, the first and highest priority is optimal design, reducing the amount of mater

needed in the structure, and in cleverly designing buildings so that their use can be later changed without 

demolition, or with only part-demolition. 

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

13. Current design practice is to enhance the lifespan of structures by means of refurbishment rather than 

demolition. This trend will lead to a progressive reduction in the available C & D material and consequently t

ability to recycle will be reduced. For example, structural frames that can be re-clad and/or have new intern

layouts to suit a change of use. It must also be recognised that more durable materials (such as concrete) ha

potentially very long lifetimes (greater than 100 years), and therefore rank high on overall sustainability. An 

rise in C&DW arising may occur though due to demolition of 60-ties and 70-ties dwellings in Member States.
236 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

UEPG - ECP - EPRA 

14. Finally, of course, waste generation should be minimised at the production, construction and demolition 

stages. Such minimisation is in the direct economic interest of producers and contractors. Likewise, optimal sorting 

of waste streams during the demolition process will lead to the highest rates of recycling and best quality of 

recycled materials, also in the best commercial interests of the responsible contractors involved. 

Concrete 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

This is a very long section on a waste that is already fully recycled in a large number of member states and does 

not present a recovery problem of any significance. 

There are many case studies on the use of recycled aggregates produced with concrete at 

http://aggregain.wrap.org.uk/applications/aggregain/casestudysearch/index.rm 

Geert Cuperus, FIR 

11. Page 33. Mixed Recycled Aggregates can also be used for concrete production. 

12. Page 40 and on: there are applications of Recycled Aggregates in concrete of 50% 

and even of up to 100%. Fines can also be used in concrete (page 41). In the 

Netherlands 100% coarse and fines is used in concrete applications. 

Page 3, impacts: use of Recycled Aggregates makes that thinner layers of asphalt 

are necessary. 

14. Page 45, impacts: according to measurements storage of Recycled Aggregates does 

not result in dust problems, even at high wind velocities. 

15. Page 50, 4th bullet: clients need to acknowledge the good properties of Recycled 

Aggregates. They must be regarded as product and not as waste. 

Response: This information was added to the final report 

Bricks, tiles and ceramics 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

The report recommends quality certification for aggregates produced from recycled concrete. Whilst promoting 

quality recycled aggregates is good practice there should be some caution here because aggregates processed 

from concrete, brick and asphalt and produced in compliance with the harmonised European Standards for

aggregates already have established procedures for factory production control in line with the Construction 

Products Directive. For aggregates for unbound applications there is no requirement for a third party certification 

scheme to demonstrate compliance to the standards and the imposition of a third party scheme on recycled 

aggregates by individual member states would be contrary to the CPD. 

Good practice in aggregate production and the demonstration of compliance to specifications and standards is 

essential for adding value to products and providing confidence to purchasers. In the UK this is encouraged 

through compliance with the ‘Quality Protocol for the production of aggregates from inert waste.’ There have 

been over 30,000 copies of the Quality Protocol downloaded from WRAP’s web site between Nov 2004 and Dec 

2009. 

Response: This information was taken into consideration when finalizing the report

Dieter Rosen, 

Bundesverband der 

Deutschen Ziegelindustrie 

The sentence „However it is not suitable for heavy roads due to the risk of deformation” should be modified 

Reason. The main part of demolished brick in Germany is used as aggregate in road construction. Under German 

regulations, there is no limitation to the application of crushed clay bricks, roofing tiles or other because of the 

congestion of the road. Because of the quality requirements for frost attack, and impact resistance there is a 

limitation of 30 Mass-% as the maximum brick content in the recycled building material. The remaining material is 

concrete or asphalt. 

Response : The report was modified accordingly 

Dieter Rosen, 

Bundesverband der 

Deutschen Ziegelindustrie 

A new architectural trend for high-end buildings for example in Berlin is to rebuild used facing bricks. 

Reason: Facing bricks from demolished buildings are now used for example by David Chipperfield Architects for 

new administrative buildings or museums. 

Response: This information was added to the report 

Dieter Rosen, 

Bundesverband der 

Deutschen Ziegelindustrie 

About designing buildings to use less material: No one uses more bricks, blocks or roof-tiles than needed. Due to 

the national regulations the brick wall must have special properties for example for strength or insulation against 

heat or cold temperatures. The products have been improved a lot to fulfil all these requirements and more so to 

be produced with as little energy as possible. In our opinion there is no room for using less bricks or roof-tiles, if 

the current regulations exist. 

Response: the corresponding sentence was rephrased; however, we maintain optimal use of material as a potential 

driver for waste prevention

Geert Cuperus, FIR 

16. Page 55, 1st bullet. Masonry derived aggregates are actually not so much used in building projects. A relation is 

made to heavy traffic situations. It is important to note that Mixed recycled Aggregates are used in the 

construction of airports. 

Asphalt 
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 237 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

The asphalt section should mention two additional issues: 

1. Asbestos can be present in some asphalt materials, at least in asphalt produces before its ban. This makes 

recycling of this asphalt impossible, with the additional difficulty that asbestos-containing asphalt cannot be 

identified 

2. Cold recycling techniques requires the use of certain chemicals, which environmental impacts are not wel

known. 

Response : this information was added to the final report 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

Section contains good information from EAPA and again shows high recovery of recycled asphalt across mem

states with limited opportunities for growth. 

 Case studies are available from WRAP for the use of recycled aggregates containing recycled asphalt. 

Geert Cuperus, FIR 

17. Page 62 and on: Tar containing asphalt is treated thermally to produce clean aggregates. These can be us

several new applications, for instance back in asphalt. 

Wood 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

Energy recovery is possible in municipal waste incinerators, especially for contaminated wood, which can on

burnt in an authorised facility. 

Response: this recovery option was added to the final report 

Gypsum 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

Decision 2003/33/CE bans the landfilling of gypsum waste in inert waste landfills, to avoid the production of 

Arising of gypsum waste is theoretically important, but hard to collect, due to their production in high densit

areas. 

Laurent Château, ADEME 5 to 10% of recycling for gypsum construction waste seems overestimated. 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

Recycling of gypsum waste a soil treatment should not be promoted as a recovery option. Releases of sulpha

groundwater and would have important negative impacts 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

Another driver for higher recycling of gypsum is that producers revise their admission criteria for gypsum wa

production plants. 

ODS 

Christian Wadey, DEFRA 

ODS section-All of the information from this section seems to be centred on the advice of one UK contractor

United Kingdom also seems to come in for quite strident criticism, when in comparison to many (perhaps the 

majority) of member states we are no worse than they are. 

Peter Jones 

1. High cost of ODS treatment 

On page 111 the cost is quoted as almost €1,000 per kg of foam. In my view this is dramatically high and bei

highlighted on the first page of the chapter acts as a clear call to dismiss treatment options under grounds of 

To support my argument I will look at actual costs of treatment of sandwich panels in the UK. 

Panels are currently treated via refrigerator recycling plants run by Europe wide companies such as Sims, EM

Viridor. The companies quote between €5 and €10 per m2 of panel, depending on location, quantity and wha

customer is willing to pay. This cost includes cutting panel, shredding in plant, recovery and separate destruc

of ODS, transport and landfill cost of inert polyurethane waste and recovery and sales of scrap steel. Claddin

contractors will currently fix new sandwich panels to walls and roofs for €4 to €8 per m2. This cost includes a

labour and access equipment. Therefore I think it is not unreasonable to estimate that disassembly and rem

panels would be €10 per m2. A refrigerator plant should not be more than 150km from a demolition site. In 

of transport costs sandwich panels can be shipped [road and sea] from Finland to the UK for €3 per m2. 

Therefore an average cost would be about €20 per m2 to cover all costs. This is in line with the UK National 

Federation of Demolition Contractors [NFDC] estimates and also research by the BRE. 

The density of polyurethane foam used in sandwich panels is 40kg/m3 so a 1m2 of 100mm thick panel would 

contain 4kg of foam. Based on the above figures this gives a total treatment cost of ODS foam as €5 per kg. A

figure you quote is larger by a factor of 200 you can appreciate my view that the figure is dramatically high.

Response: Costs were indeed overestimated in the draft report, this has been corrected in the final report 
238 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Peter Jones 

2. Barriers to reuse and recycling 

On page 111 you say “medium or low feasibility”. I think this is unjustifiably negative, especially as the report 

states that there is large degree of uncertainty. I suggest it should be rephrased as “high, medium or low 

feasibility”. 

Response: these conclusions were provided by the ICF study on ODS, and were updated with the final version of the 

report 

Peter Jones 

3. EOL costs for ODS contained in sandwich panels 

I am not clear as to what this table refers – is it just the ODS recovered from foam or the foam with ODS. 

The costs are clearly labelled as “Cost per kg of ODS”. In that case: 

• Transport cost of €5 per kg is amazingly high. Either distance is measured in 10,000kms or costs are on level of 

transport of highly radioactive material. 

• What is recovery processing? 

• What is segregation/processing? 

• Destruction of ODS at €3/kg is reasonable and in line with TEAP estimates. 

However if one accepts the €83 per kg total the logical conclusions are: 

- If this figure is in reference to the foam and ODS it contains 1m2 of panel containing 4kg of foam would cost €332 

per m2 for treatment. This seems unlikely – see point 1 above. 

- If this figure is in reference to the ODS extracted from the foam one would need to process between 20kg 

[assume 5% ODS blowing agent] and 10kg [assume 10% blowing agent. This would equate to between 5 and 2.5 m2 

of typical panel. In this case you estimate cost of treatment as €33 and €16 per m2 - both figures seem 

economically feasible. 

Peter Jones 

4. Quantities in waste 

You quote a figure of 0.1% or 0.05% that on its own I think could be misleading, particularly as you accept there 

are few robust data sets on C&D waste. Including concrete and mineral waste [80%] in the total makes ODS 

insulation appear a minor issue. Quoting weight and not volume also downplays ODS insulation. For example you 

quote 250,000 tonnes – that in volume would be 12.5 million m3 - equivalent to a reasonable mountain! 

Response: To ensure comparability of results between waste fraction, the quantities of waste are always presented 

in weight 

Peter Jones 

5. Description of waste 

From page 115 it is reasonable to infer that ODS containing waste is not being identified in consignment notes i.e. 

complying with legislation. As the Commission must be aware of this it is reasonable to ask: 

- What are the reasons for the Commission to allow continuing non-compliance? 

- What actions are being taken to ensure compliance? 

Peter Jones 

6. Co -combustion with MSW 

Page 116. Incineration of steel faced sandwich panels is impractical as it would result in major problems with 

bottom ash and ash extraction 

Peter Jones 

7. Recycling 

On page 118 you quote me as saying PS foam recycling is anticipated to be very expensive compared to the value 

of recycled material. That is not what I said and I was not referring to the cost of recycled PU raw material. This will 

depend on developing technologies and market demand. My reference was to the likelihood that the embodied 

energy in recycled PU raw material could be considerably higher than that in ‘virgin’ raw material. Hence, it could 

be argued that recycled PU raw material is less sustainable. 

Response: this was corrected in the final report 

Peter Jones 

8. Main driver 

On page 121 you quote PU Europe as saying the WFD is not considered as the main driver and it looks to

regulation by the ODS regulation. I find it difficult to accept that one sector of the industry can pick and choose 

which regulations to follow. The WFD is directly concerned with landfill and hazardous waste and is seen by 

contractors, waste industry and enforcement authorities as the major driver. ODS regulation is indirectly 

concerned with landfill, contains the technical and commercial feasibility get out phrases and has failed to control 

the release of ODS from foam insulation and allowed the plastics lobby to avoid addressing their responsibility for 

the ODS legacy from the products they manufactured. It is no surprise that PU Europe supports the continuing and 

ineffectual ODS regulations in contrast to the WFD. 

I think it is unacceptable that the report appears to give support, or at the very least condones this

environmentally damaging position that is taken for obvious commercial benefit. I suggest that the actual position 

and legal responsibilities are made clear and PU Europe choosing which legislation to follow is not an option. 

Response: this section was revised in the final report
February 2011 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste 239 

Peter Jones 

9. Current rates 

When it comes to current rates you quote 0%. I think this is not true and as such too negative and pessimisti

towards improving the rate of recovery. Material is being recycled and ODS recovered and destroyed – there 

raft of anecdotal evidence to demonstrate this. Rates vary through the EU and in different construction secto

For example contractors involved in cold stores are very aware of ODS and panels recovered from demolitio

this sector are recycled. For example the International Association of Cold Store Contractors [IACSC] has had 

code of practice on this since 2005. The rate may be low but it is certainly not 0%. 

 Peter Jones 

10. Ways to reduce % of ODS going to landfill 

-Enforcement of current regulations. In particular correct descriptions on waste consignment notes. This wo

also support empirical research into waste flows 

-Guidance to enforcement authorities. 

-Guidance to construction and waste industry. 

-Education programme to clients, contractors, designers 

-Encourage use of building material with high percentage of recycled content 

-Encourage government and private sector to include requirements for recycling and recovery in contract 

conditions. 

-Fund research into demolition methods, recycling materials, ODS recovery methods. 

-Fund and publicise best practice examples of reducing demolition waste 

-Fund and co-ordinate work by EU demolition contractor organisations to develop new methods of working t

will be to commercial advantage of the sector. Demolition contractors to see themselves as material recover

treatment and recycling experts. 

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

PU Europe had expected that the report would provide a quantitative and qualitative analysis of 

different end-of-life options in terms of their environmental impact (ODS destruction rate), technical

feasibility and cost implications. At present, the report seems to suggest that ODS destruction with 

prior recovery should be worked towards although this is neither the best environmental nor 

economic solution. 

• The report contains a number of inaccuracies regarding HCFC and HFC use and compliance with 

existing legislation, which we would ask to be corrected. 

• Given the significant uncertainty regarding the numbers used, it would be better to work with 

ranges instead of worst case figures. 

Response: available ranges are presented in the final report 

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

Table (section “Environmental impacts”) 

You should provide a CO2eq savings range instead of a number (18,473,000 t.CO2eq) by explaining the 

different estimations according to the “top-down” and “bottom-up” methods and include the real ODS 

average recovery rate from the foam at the end of the product life (58% for fridges). 

Response: available ranges are presented in the final report

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

Section 9.1 Product description and applications 

The second paragraph needs substantial corrections. HFC use in PU foam is today a niche application mainly 

spray foam and discontinuous sandwich panel production. Over 90% of PU foam is blown with pentane and 

than 10% with HFC. Hence, the phrasing “more and more replaced” is not correct. Wherever possible, HFCs 

been replaced by pentane. HCFCs have been banned since 2004 and are not used today. The second phrase 

refer to HFCs and not HCFCs. The last phrase refers to the question why certain producers still use HFCs. We 

explained that, for reasons relating to the safety at work, spray foam cannot use pentane. Furthermore, som

small producers (discontinuous sandwich panel production) still use HFCs as they cannot afford the investme

pentane-using equipment. 

Response: this section was revised in the final report 

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

Section 9.2.1 Current and forecast ODS banks 

PU Europe fully understands the difficulties of the consultant to accurately quantify ODS banks. The number

proposed are therefore not contested. However, as the difference between 40% and 90% is so significant, PU 

Europe suggests that the consultant work with a range or an upper and a lower estimate. 

Response: available ranges are presented in the final report
240 European Commission DG ENV 

Final Report Task 2 – Management of C&D waste February 2011

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

PU Europe disagrees with the statement in paragraph 2 that, for construction foams, the obligation to remove ODS 

depends exclusively on its technical and economic feasibility. Article 22.4 of Regulation 1005/2009 states that 

“Controlled substances contained in products and equipment other than those mentioned in paragraph 1 shall, if 

technically and economically feasible, be recovered for destruction, recycling or reclamation, or shall be destroyed 

without prior recovery, applying the technologies referred to in paragraph 2.” 

It is true that hazardous waste facilities have to respect strict environmental standards. It is however incorrect to 

say that countries which allow the incineration of ODS containing foam in municipal solid waste incinerators 

(MSWI) do not comply with legislation. 

Regulation 1005/2009 (art. 22.2) refers to annex VII of that Regulation (approved destruction technologies). For 

dilute sources (such as foam), the annex offers two options: municipal solid waste incineration or rotary kiln 

incineration. This is also fully in line with the UNEP TEAP reports of 2005 and 2009. 

Furthermore, the Waste Incineration Directive (art. 6.1) stipulates the following: “Incineration plants shall be 

designed, equipped, built and operated in such a way that the gas resulting from the process is raised, after the 

last injection of combustion air, in a controlled and homogeneous fashion and even under the most unfavourable 

conditions, to a temperature of 850°C, as measured near 

the inner wall or at another representative point of the combustion chamber as authorised by the competent 

authority, for two seconds. If hazardous wastes with a content of more than 1% of halogenated organic 

substances, expressed as chlorine, are incinerated, the temperature has to be raised to 1.100 °C for at least two 

seconds.” 

As a worst case scenario, it could be assumed that 3% of the waste fed in the incinerator is ODS containing PU 

foam. If we estimate the content of ODS in the foam at 6%, the total share of ODS in the waste would amount to 

0.18 %. This is well below the 1% limit. For rotary kiln incineration, the share would be as low as 0.01-0.03 %. 

In practice, the share of ODS (the concentration of halogens) will be lower as ODS containing foam is never 

delivered in pure form to an MSWI. Depending on the application in the building, the combination with other 

materials, the way the building was demolished / deconstructed, the storage with other materials and transport 

and supply conditions, there will always be other materials attached to the PU foam, or the foam will be mixed 

with other materials. 

Response: this section was revised in the final report 

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

Section 9.3.2 Emerging techniques 

As outlined above, Regulation 1005/2009 does not require recovery if this is “technically and economically” 

feasible. Rather it offers two options recovery or destruction without prior recovery. 

Oliver Loebel, PU Europe 

Section 9.4.1 Environmental impacts 

Whilst it is true that ODS emissions must be minimised at the end of the product life, PU Europe disagrees with the 

conclusions of this section. Destruction with prior recovery does not offer the environmentally best solution. The 

Deutsche Umwelthilfe estimates the ODS recovery rate for household appliance at only 58%. This means that 

almost half of the ODS is released in the atmosphere in the recovery process. On the other hand, incinerating ODS 

foam in modern MSWI leads to a 99.9% destruction of the ODS. 

Comparing these two options is of fundamental importance when the report wants to draw sound conclusions. 

A complete analysis should also provide a holistic view on all environmental impacts. For example, the small 

number of ODS recovery facilities would entail higher environmental impacts due to longer transport distances. 

MSWI are available at relatively short distances in most (but clearly not all) Member States. 

As regards table 34, it should be specified whether the numbers given assume a 100% recovery rate, although this 

is not achieved in practice (see example above). If this was the case, the figures would be unrealistic. In any case, 

they should be compared with the emission savings potential for other end-of-life options, such as incineration in 

MSWI. 

Response: this section was revised in the final report

Hazardous Substances 

Edmar Meuwissen, 

EUMEPS 

Could you let me know what the criteria were for including those five hazardous substances? 

Response: these substances were identified as potential contaminants of the C&D waste stream. 

Laurent Château, ADEME 

Lead based paints were banned in France in 1949. Some guidelines on the management of this type of waste 

suggest that several options are available: 

http://www.oppbtp.fr/content/download/13475/87842

Laurent Château, ADEME PAHs can also be found in chimneys or other smoke evacuation conducts, and contaminate the building materials.